G N D 1 T I (I N A N P V R S P l-] (: T S OF IRELAND. CONDITION AND PROSPECTS IRELAND THE ]:VILS ARISING FRO.M THE PRESENT DISTRLBUITUN OF LANDED PROrERTY : SUGGESTIONS FOR A REMEDY P.Y JONATHAN mi. DURLIN : HODGES AND SMITH, GRAFTON STREET. 1S4.S. ,F5 %H- l(k " Sometliiiiir must be done to restrain tlie enormous accunnilr.tion of yiropi i-ty in f-ingie lianils, to facilitate its ac(|uisition, and si.-cure its possession to tlie mass of tlic conimuiiity. Men must disiinguish clcarl)- between small tenaneics and sm;ill i>roT)crties ; the fonnt^r. as in Irelund, are but a source of ser\ility, -rtTelcliedness, and erimc; the latter, as in Xorway, and in even- other country -where they have ever existed, have been a source no less siu-c of indeiiendenco, comfort, and ra-tue." AmoU's M!sceUa>tC'Oiis iro;-/,s, page 501. " Xo one seems to deny the benefit of the di%ision, and above all of the divisiiiility, of property witlunreason.iWe limits; and to such an extent as the force of circmnstances — he rise and decay of foi-tmns — the mutual relations of the money and land maikets may egitimatcly require.'' Owirtcrhj lievkir, Xo. CJA'II. Art. VII. on Dinshvi of Projx-rl;/ hi rrfmcc. i'i;iNTi:i> iiY v.nB!; ant ni.M'MA:;, gteat drvnswick STiii.!:T. TKErACE. Til the early part of last year, the author pub- lished a suitill pauijililet entitled, '' 01)servatious nil the Evils resultiuo; to Ireland from the inse- cuj-ity of title and the existiua" LaAVS of fJeal Pro- perty. Avith some Su_2"gestions toAvards a l^ernedy;' The A'arious infLU-niiition Avliicli has >inee eonie heforc him. as one of the secretaries to tlie (/enti-al Relief Association of the Society <>f Friends, has n-rently streij^tliened tlie couA-irtiuu pivAiously entertained, tliat ihe cireunistam-es under Avliir]) the hmded ])r<>perty of Ireland has l>een placed, liaA'e, more than any other cause, contributed to tlie pOAcrty of tlie peuide, and haA^e greatly in- creased the effects of the recent calamity. In tlie ho|)e of renderiiig a more extended A'icAV of tliis subject interesting to the public, lie lias attempted to slieAv A\]iy tlie (iiilure of the potato cru]» has been so seA'eiely felt in Ireland, and to point out Avliat liaAX' a])])eared to him tlie best VI means of placing the country in a position of independence. In tlie last chapter, some portions of the pam- phlet above alluded to are rejiuljlished : and the same arguments are frequently repeated tli rough- out the ^York, with a view of sliewing the evils of lai'ge encumbered estates, and the necessity of sue] I alterations in the ha\'s, as may give secui-ity and simplicity of title ; may facilititte and cheapen the means of ti'ansfer ; may free the Innd from the various restrictions -which interfere with its ii!ipr(jvement ; and njay prrmit its sale to those Avho possess tlie capital indispensalde for that pur- ])0se. He trusts that the details lie has given of the iX'cent calamitv, of the mrans adopted fur its temporary alleviation, and of the pi-esent position of the country, may ])]'ove interesting to many of those who have evinced their sympatliy lla- the suile'rings of the Iri>h [)easantry, by the greatness of their lilx'rality. Jhihlin, 20fh of First Month, IS 48. C N T E X T S CIIAl^TEU I. Natural features of Ireland ..... 1 Its aJvantiiges imperfectl,v ilevclipcd . . . . ■ ^ L^noraiice uf the Eimlit'li rfspi't'tinu- Irdaml ... 4 Contrast of the Xuniiaii coniiiK-.-t of England vh\i the imperft'Ct suhjuLration of Ireland ....■• 4 English law uniilhu'd to tlie limit? of the Tale ... <> Cfinfisc-ation of Miinster . . . • • • . J,_ Sutiluniiit of Ul^tL-r ...... y CromwL'irs trrants to his soldiers ..... fc> I )ill'L'r(.nce of ereed added to previous causes of discord . f> Suh.rigin of the peojde .... 2j Irishmen succeed in Amerie'a : wliy not at liome? . . • 2u Large remittances from America ..... 27 Time alone can change the character of a nation . . .28 xm CONTENTS. Page Security of property essential to civilization . . . 28 England has enjoyed this advantage more than any other nation 29 Constant warfare in Ireland from the time of Henry II. to that of Cromwell ....... 29 Penal Laws unfavourahle to industr}" .... 30 Note on efiects of Penal Laws ..... 30 Eostrictions on trade ...... 31 Note on commercial restrictions ..... 32 Free trade granted and Penal Laws relaxed in 17'^'2 . . 32 Influence of oppressive legislation still felt . . . .33 Struggles of the Roman Catholics to obtain the removal of remain- ing disabilities ....... 34 Emancipation Act passed in 1829 ..... 'Jo Effects of agitation unfavourable to industry . . . -'35 Ireland lias improved in spite of all depressing circumstances . o(^ Agricultural class improved, tjiough still inucli inferior to that of England ........ oG Labouring class not improved . . . . . SJ Extract from report of Land Conmii>sioners on this subject . oJ_ Condition of Irish peasantry the opprobrium of the empire . oS Must be raised to tlie ptisition of English labourers, or they will bring down tlie English to their ov.n level ... .'39 Note — Extracts from proceedings of Glasgow Parochial Board . -)9 Irish emigration to England cannot be prevented under i>rcfent circumstances ....... 40 Note— Extract from Lord .'-Stanley's sptech to this eflbct . . 41 CIIAPTEi; HI. Small number of propriL-tors in tie in Ireland ... 42 Tinants in possession vi-ry tumu'rous .... 42 These features peculiarly slrikii'.g in I'onnaught . . -l-"* Greater part of Ireland cunhscated since the reign of Henry VII!. 43 Confiscated lands in jlunster granted by Elizabitli in large tracts 4i Hence resulted absenteeism and sub-letting .... 43, Note on suliordinate interests ..... ^_^\ Grants by James I. in Ulster luuch smaller than tliose of Eliza- beth in Munstcr . . . . . . .44 Cromwell's grants smaller than either .... 14 Property naturally accumulates ..... 44 Extract from Peport of Land Commissioners respecting landed proprietors ....... A5 CONTENTS. IX Pwic ■ Injurious c-U'eets of settkiiieiits ami iiuuml)r:.iic'u5 . . .4(1 Midillemen coiidcmiifd witliout sufiicieiit i:onsiiler:ition . 4(^ Unsuitable agents often em])loyed in the management of estates . 47 I\Ianagement under the ("ourts cxti'emeh' ohjeetional)le . 47 Under tliese circunistanees, land h;is remained idmostnnimnrovcd 47 "Wise provisions for the settlement of Ulster . . . ' 48 Indnstri'jus elmraeter of llif peasanti-y of Ulster . . 4i> Custom of tenant-right ...... 4'J Extraet from Ecport of Land Commissioners respeeting tenant- right 4ji. Urohalile origin (if this custom ..... .jO Ten.int-ri^lit comiiiired to i-opyhoM t( nuro in ]-hul;uid . -j! T,arge sums of money iuveste 1 on tliis security . . . .jI Any Serious attempt to lavak this custom wouM he daic^erous to the puhHc peace ....... .Vi Agrarian onti-a^es ....... o'l Nnte — I'xtract from Icpoi't of I/iiid Co!iuid-s;oiit_r,~- roinctiuL; agrarian outrages ..... ^yl Extent nf these outrages ...... .>> ivxeiting causes . . . . . . . .jj Tn>ecurity of po.-^ession deprrsj^s iiiilu.-try .... .V) I'reveuts iDiiirownieiit ...... jd Sul"'iivi>i(.n of f;',rms ....... .j(j y.iA': on -ulidivision ...... .07 C'oHMili'lalinn of fu-ni? ; cjcetment e .... ti.j Alarm tlierel)}' created . ..... . H.j Total failure of the croji of 1N4G . . . . dd Ivstimnte of the loss thus sullered iiv Ireland . , .17 X CONTENTS. Page Note — Extract from Lord Lansdowne's speech . . . 67 Calamity greatly increased by the previous total dependence of tlie poor ou the potato crop ..... G8 Fearful results of this calamity tliroughuut the whole country C8 Note in illustration of these eflects ..... 70 Distress very much mitigated in the Eastern counties of Ireland by their superior resources ..... 7-3 All classes affected by the calamity ..... 73 Landed proprietors and others interested in land brought into great difficulty ....... 74 CnAPTER V. Means of relief adopted by Government .... 7*^ Iiiip(irtation of Indian corn ..... 7(> Public -works ........ 77 Injurious results of this mode of relief .... 78 Much good nevertheless effected ..... 7!> Local .subscriptions for relief of distress .... 79 Lai'ge suliscripti'ins in England ..... 80 Generuus donations from various countries, especially the United States 80 Gross amount of subscriptions ..... 81 Exertions of resident proprietors ..... 82 Dilliculties of their position ...... 82 Exertions of clergy ....... S3 Exertions of ladies ....... 83 Valuable influence of some of the resident gentry . . 84 Note on distribution of relief ...... 84 Distress increases, notwithstanding these exertions . . 8(3 IMachinLry fur rehef of distress insullicimt .... 88 Note on the cxttnt of non-residence .... 89 Absence of dealers in food in tlie "Western counties . 00 Difficulty of ascertaining the circumstances of ajiplicants . 93 Temporary Ilulief Act ....... 94 Objected to at first ....... 05 Extent and cost of this mode of relief . . . .96 Abuses in its administration in some districts . . . 97 Note in illustration ....... 99 Good management in the greater part of Ireland . . 100 Note evincing the an.xiety in some districts for economical ma- naLTcment . . . . . . .100 CONTEXTS. XI Page Valuable results of tliis mode uf relief . . . . 101 Three unions in Ulster supported their poor witliout government assistance ........ 103 Xote respecting Castletown Ikcliff Association, and the arrange- ments adopted in Werburgh's parish, Dublin . . . 103 Statement of extent and cost of distribution in each province . 105 CHAPTER YI. State of the country on termination of the Temporary Relief Act lOG rientiful harvest . . . . . . . KlJ Difficulties lessened, but not ended ..... 108 jMuch suffering .still exists ...... 108 Prevalence of disease . ...... id!) Pe\"er nmre fatal anidng the upper than anmng tlie Itnver classes 100 Great want of eleithing ...... 110 Domestic manufactures in Connaught, i^c. . . . Ill Partial demand for laltourers liy railways and drainage operations 1 \1 Circumstances whieli linn't tlie ordinary demand f(jr labourers 113 Great numbers of unemployed labtiurers . . . .113 Fearful prospects, and great extent of distress . . . 114 Condition of Western coast of Ireland . . . I bj Description of tlie country and its iuhaliitants . . . 1 hi Energy of the pvuple prostrated by their suH'erings . . 117 Their ureat anxiety f"erity . . . . . l-SJ Various plans have been projiosed for the improvement of Ireland 139 rducation ........ 139 Great deticiency cf education in many parts of Ireland . . 1-10 The elements of education valnuble, but in-ulUeient without moral and industrial draining ..... 141 Agricultural sehools . . . . . . .141 Industrial in.^truction in utlier firanches . . . . 141 Defective education of children in work-houses . . .142 Teaching them to read and write insnfricient . . . N2 If not educated for good, the}" will be educated for evil . . 143 Injportance of kee])ing them constantly employed . . 143 Note in illustration of these remarks .... 143 Education of the upper and middle classes in Ireland inferior to that of the corresponding ranks in Great Ihitain . . 144 ClIAPTEi; IX. Introduction of English capital has lieen ri^lied on by many as a means of improvement . . . . . .140 Capital cannot be forced . . . . . . 147 IVIuch capital belonging to Irishmen invested abroad . . 147 CONTENTS. Xl]l p. vie Large importation of the public funds from England to Ireland proves tlie difficulty of making a profitable investment, rather than any ivant of capital . . . . . 14"^ If profitable occupation oifcred, accompanied by security, capital ■would flow into the ruuntry . . . . .!-!•-* Absenteeism of the landed proprietors often comjilained of . 1-1 1^ Evils of non-residence peculiarly felt during the past ye;ir . I -IS How to secure the residence reside . . ! !!* If land could he frculy soM, they wduld iiruliably dispose of their e>t;itrs to oihers. who could uivc thiir personal .-iltention to in/aiaLn' thciu . . . . . . . ) i) l^Lcay of manufactures in Ireland ..... I.">0 The growth of the factory system a main cause . . i.j! Few persons ofproperty in the Soutli of Ireland have hen wijliug to undertake a hudiu -< inve.lvi!i;.i so much lalnmr, and re'juir- iu'.; the invc-tnicnt of so much capital . . . 1.51 IliLili price of coals of nnn.a- importance .... 1./2 Manufacture of llax more ,dowly ada]ited itself to the factory system than that of cather wool or cotton . . . 1-j2 Nmnber of persons employed iii (lax mills .... I.V3 Combinations of worknun have had more elfect in Ireland than in England ....... !■>> DitlereiH'c between waues of skille.l an.l unskilled labour . \A Limiting tlie number of apprentii-e< a principal means of main- taininir the rate of waives . . , . . '-'J Ileference to the shipwrights of Dulilin .... !•";"> Question of ap]irenticeslii]» considi red . . . 1'J An increase of mantdactiire^ -vvoulil be very valuable to Ireland l.Vj The removal of restrictions, if such exist, is all that can be looked for from the Government ...... 1-7 Want of a sutlicient home-demand has an injurious iulluence 1.j7 The linen r.ianufacture and the cultivation of flax of the greatest importance ........ 1.j8 Soil and climate favourable to the L;rowtli of llax . . l-'-S Elax may be made more valuaMc to Ireland tha!i cotton is to England 1.5'> Great extent of iuiports of (l.ax. llax-seed. a)id oil-cakc . 1-J'J Increased cultivation of liax and exports of liutn would compen- sate for the present delicient exjiort \^'i agricultural product^ . !-"j!^' XIV CONTENTS. Page Fisheries not suflBciently attended to in Ireland . . 160 Experimental curing-stations establislied by Government . . 161 Want of a better liome-market in the West of Ireland 161 Deficiency of harbours for fishermen on the Western coast . 161 CIIAPTEK X. Great extent uf emigration ... . 163 Emigrants mostly consist of the young and enterprising who possess some capital . . . . . . .164 Less advantageous to Ireland than to the emigrants themselves 164 jMoney sent back Iiy emigrants to enable their friends to fullow them . . . . . . . 16.5 Note on emigration ....... 165 Emigration to Great Britain ..... 16G Ni;mber of Irisli residing in Great Britain in 1841 . . 166 Tliis emigration must continue, until the difi'erencc between the condition of the working classes in the two countries cease to exist ... .... 167 Landlords sometimes assist their tenants to emigrate . . 167 Emigration must be on a very large scale, in order to relieve the labour market . . . . . . . 167 Difficulties of carrying such emigration into eflect . . 168 Estimate of the expense necessary .... 168 Would not the same sum, if expended on improvomunts in Ire- land, alford tlie means of employing those wlio nught 1)0 assisted to emigrate? . . . . . . . .160 Government assistance wo\dd interfere with private emigration 170 Cultivation of Avaste lands has been proposed . . . 170 Important res\ilts to be expected from this . . .17" Can it be best ell'eeied by government interference, or by pri- vate enterprise ? . . . . . . . 17u ZVIucli waste land has been reclaimed bj' cottiers, by means of the cultivation of potatoes ..... 171 Doubtful whetlier this plan be practicable with any oilier crop 171 Keclamation of waste lands on a large scale hy government con- sidered . . . . . . . . 171 Private enterprise suincient if sale of land Were free . . 172 Note— Extract from speech of Sir Bobert Peel in illustration 172 Importance of improving the lands already under culture . 173 ]\I-Cullocli's opinion on this subject . . . . .174 Subdivision of land into small farms has been objected to . 174 COXTENTS. XV Page Consolidation has been proposLiI as a rcniL'dy . . .174 Unless great caution be used in any attempt to eonsoliilatc, great sufiering must be produced . . . . . ] 75 Prejudice against small farms in many respects unfounded . J7.j Small and large farms intermixed are best . . . \~,(\ Land more subdivided in Ulster than in :Munstcr . . 170 Necessity of capital for farming purposes but little understood in Ireland . . . . . . . . ]~(\ Compulsory extension of Ulster system of tenant-right to the rest of Ireland has been i^roposed . . . . .177 Advantages resulting from tlic custom of tenant-right in Ulster 178 A enstom can only Vie established by time . . . 178 If extended by L^-neli-law, the resnlts Mould be ruinous . . I7i^ Detinition of tenant-right . . . . . . 179 Tenants have an equitable claim to tlie value of the improvements made by themselves . . . . . . .17'.! DillieuUies of giving them a legal riizlit to compensation . 18(1 Extract from " Digest of Evidence on the (Occupation of Land in Ireland."' as to the necessity of security for tlie tenant's iiu- lirovenients ........ IS2 How can this security be given ? ..... IS:? Abortive legislation on this >ubji.et ..... 184 Customs uf tenancy in Englany/ A government based on jiopular institutions fails to secure order imless it have the sujijiort of tlie people .... 100 The great mass of the Irish people have no resjiect for the laws relating to the tenure of land ..... l.''f> The number of those desirous of supporting the lavs can be be.-t increased by tiie free sale of landed property- . . . \'J\ \/ XVI CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XI. Poor laws . . . . . . . . I f »2 Great ilcficiency of eniploynK'iit for labourt-rs in Connaught . 1!'3 Statement of the ver\- small proportion enipUn-eJ in tlie Union of ^'ilfi)rJ, County of Donegal . . . . . 194 Great number of lielples? poor, widows, orphans, oic. . . P>4 (an the poor-law be worked tlirougliout Ireland ? . . I'Jj Now ii the unemployed population of the \Vest to be supported? I!*ii IJeferenee to Statistieal Tables of the Annual Value of Property liable to be rated for Poor-rate in England and Ireland . . l!»7 Great dilVLTLnce between the two countries, as respeets their capa- bility of supporting the poor . . . . . I!t7 Nevertheless, the greater part of Ireland well able to support its pour . ....... p!S ^\•ry doubtful wlntlier the unions along the Western coast can ilo so ... .... 1!»9 ?>rode of Avorking the Poor-law Act ..... 109 rdiSeulties in collecting the rates ..... i'dO Innnediate lessors liable for the poor-rate on holdings valued at £4 and under . . . . . . . . -Jul If arrears hv re-assessed and stringently enforced, some districts will be pauperized . ..... •202 Will the poor-law confiscate the estates of embarrassed proprietors ? 2( i3 Irish poor-law nearly similar to that of England in this respect . lit '4 The law might be altered so as itfect a confiscation; but would this be good policy ? . . . . . . . 2l)4 Wiiile assistance should be afinrded to some places, pa.yment of rates should be enforceil from all solvent parties . . 20 J .Some electoral divisions even in the West able to sujtport their poor 2U.J <.)ther electoral divisions unable to do so . . . 20(> Union-rating a very questionable remedy .... 20G Itefcrence to statistical tables on this subject . . . 2o7 Great extent of some unions and electoral divisions . . 20S No board of guardians can manage them efficiently . . 2t)9 Our feelings instinctively prompt us to relieve the distress nroiuul us 209 Christian morality takes the same directiou . . . 209 English system of poor-laws based ou this idea . . . 210 luformation of a local counnittee essential for good management of out-door relief . . . . 211 CONTEXTS. xvii Page Important tliat the a1>lo-bodie(l glioukl be suiiporteii by labuur . 211 Resolutions of Limerick Grand Jui'v . . . :211 It appears advisable that the districts for taxation sliould be smaller '2 1 2 Townlands liave been suggested, but are unsuitable, being the opposite extreme . . . . . . . 21-2 Eeferenee to a ease of peculiar hardship . . . . 'll'-i I'oor-law Commissioners have power to vary tlie size of unions and electoral divisions . . . . . . .214 Electoral division committees suggested . . . . 21 j An objection answered . . . . . .210 Inequality of taxation the most important objection to localizing the assessment . . . . . . . 217 This subject considered ....... 217 Clearances of estates will go on under any system, and can only be met by a law of settlement ..... 218 Settlement clause in Poor-law Act of last session . . . 219 Qne-tion of settlement considered ..... 220 Power of removal considered — jiresent law ufien inllicts great hardships on Irish poor in I'nLiland .... 221 Union rating would not enalile the jiroptrty nf Ireland to support its poverty ....... 22o Several electoral districts in the A\'est tnu-t receive assistance — but from what liuartcr ? . . ... 223 The present is an imperial calamity .... 224 A national rate considered ... . . If one part of the em])ire sufl'er beyond its local means, it is entitled to assistance from the Treasury In this s]iirit the government have aetcl .... 22j The Eastern counties of Ireland eamiet be pri>i)crly called on to assist those in the We>t ... . . "220 Supposed ease of Ma.nchester in the event ol' a faihu'e of the cotton crop . . ..... 227 Suggestion made by Professor Hancock . 227 The collection of rates nmst be insisted on .... 229 I'eonomical administration of the i'linds wouM facilitate the collection ........ 2.iU ]")iffieulty of elUcient managt-ment tr.nler jiresint arrangements 2'JO Some assistance necessary; continualion of the aiipointineiit of inspecting oflictrs iiro]]f)sc>d . . . . 2.''!1 A i.oor-law unanlian should be di.-iiualifieil. it his rates remain unpaid ..... . . 2-''>2 •sj.-t ■jj xvili CONTENTS. Pa'je Proposal of assessing the landlord for liis portion of the rate con- sidered ........ -3'i Poor-law, unless well administered, may do nuieh harm . . 233 Por efficient management, a middle class required . . -34 Security of property and freedom in the sale and transfer of land the best means of raising up a middle class . . 234 ClIAPTEPv XII. Peeent legislation has given incixnsed facilities for conducting mercantile aliairs ....... 23j The jiublic are prepared for further jirogress in the same direction 23G Tlie principles of free-trade shcmM be extended to laud . . 230 This will best meet the various difficulties of Ireland . . 237 Some of tlie difficulties existing in tlie South and West stated . 23'J Same features exist in other parts, though in a lesser degree . -oD "Want (if scrurity as resjiects title to, and possession of land, the main difficulty ....... 24U This is felt by botli the proprietor and the tenant . . 240 A large proportion of the land is entailed . . . .241 The landlord has little interest in improving an entailed estate, even tliough able to do so . . . . . 241 Difficult position of an emViarrassed proprietor . . . 2-}l Tlie country sull'ers in cousequtnee .... ■J42 Injurious mode of jUMviding for younger eliiWren . . . "243 Note on this subject ... . . 243 If tlie lieir assist his fatlicr in charging the estate for this purpose, a debt is connnenced wliich frequently results in ruining the family ......... 244 And acts upon the tenantry in a way which endangers the peace of the country ....... 24.5 Permanency of property in land a great social advantage . . 24.5 I.egishiliitn cannot contravene tlie laws of Providence, whicli render prosperity dependent on priideuce . . 240 Etlects of entails in interfering witli the exercise of parental authority ........ l'JO There are limits to the power of rni owner over his land • . 247 It has been already limited by law , . . •J48 Inability to grant leases injurious (o towns . . 24S Case of Birkenhead cited, to show tlie beneticiai elVects of a free sale of laud ........ J4'J COXTENTS. xix Poor rates, fcc. fall wliolly on the landlord, the mortgagee not being called on to pav any portion . . 250 IIo\v is cniplo\-nient to be provided for the able-bodied ? . . -200 Government nuist Piipjily the caiiital necessary, or the land niu-t lie solil to tliose who liave tlie means of employinLf the people '2.51 "With freedom of sale and transfer, and secnrity and simplicity of title, this object will be effected .... 2.-)l Tins would be a i^reat eliange ...... l'.V2 "We cannot remain as we are ... . 253 A crisis is at hand . , . . . 254 The future prospects of the country depend on the mode in which this crisis is met . . .... 254 Bill of last session for tlie sale of encumbered estates . . 254 Causes stated for its withdrawal ..... 255 Ellects if it hauch tenures into iierpetuities . . 259 System of interineiliate interests or middlemen, an evil which needs a remedy . . . . 2(;(1 Some of the injnriou-; results of tliis system stated . . 2(il The head laiidhird can distrain for the rent of the wlwle from any part of the pmjierty . . ... 2(.>2 Larue proportion of land leased in perpetuity . . . 2o2 J^emedy proposed — to enable the holder of such a lease to pur- chase the fee ........ 2i''2 Present scale of stamji duties diseoui-aucs the sale of land in small jiortions ........ 2i;:) Estates rarely sold in detached lots ..... 203 Dillit'ulty of proving title ...... 2G4 Statute of limitations should be fartlier extended to land . . 204 IMan of national registry jtroposed .... 20.5 Note respecting tlie value of the < inlnanee i\Ia}>s for tins purpose 20.5 Such a syst':'m of registration woidd render tranrfers much less costly ........ 2(i() No class of yeomanry in Ireland ..... 2;i7 Importance of increa-ing the number of those who hold land in tee . 2il7 " ricference to the exiierience <'f other countries . . . 2*>S •272 XX COXTEXTS Large entailed estates in Spain . ... 2f!8 Miserable condition of Sardinia .... 2(59 Comfortable eircunistances of the people of Norway . . 27U Careful cultivation of Northern Italy . Industry of tlie peasant-proprietors of Savoy . Switzerland a country of small proprietors . . . 273 Improving spirit of tbe people of Switzerland . . 274 Zuricli a manufacturing canton ...... 274 Prosperity and morality of its working cla.'scs . . . 27-) Frngalitj- and cautious foresight of tlse Dutcli . . . 27'i Soil of rianders naturally barren sand . . 277 Astonishingly improved by high cultivation . . . 27S Farms usually small .... 27S The small farms in IJelgium compared witli tliose in Ireland . 27S Belgian superiority results from security . . . 279 Instance of the extraordinary industry of squatters on a mountain common in Irchind ...... 2S9 Note on this subjt-ct ....... 2^2 Opinion of Arthur Young as to tlie eilcct of property in laud upon industry ........ 2S2 Trussian edict of isll 284 A great and most sweeping change . . . 2S4 Has given a wonderful stimulus to improvement . . 28.5 Prussia li;is ma le more progress since 1S15 tlian diiriuLT 1 he j ire- ceding Inmdred years ...... 285 Example < if Prussia is peculiarh- in point . . ^ 285 Effects of property in land in promoting feelings of loyalty . 28G Indepen lent character of yeomanry ('V small landed proprietors 28G Erencli law of compulsory subdivision considered . . . 287 It is a law of entail in favour of all the children . . 2^7 As much opposed to freedom as our legi-!ation . . . 2b7 Freedom the granil and simple principle advocated hv t];e writer 288 "With freedom of sale, estates of all sizes will exist . . 288 All ranks will be found among the landed proprietors . . 288 Individual interests will best determine the amount of subdivision 289 Beneficial ellects of intermingling small and large farms . . 289 -i^'asantry of France stated by Inglis to be the happiest in Europe 2'.'U Honesty of the French 290 Attributed to the general diifusion of property . . 290 Facility of purchasing land in small portions enhances its price . 291 CONTENJ-.S. Xxi Pa(jc Condition of England lias Ix'lii adiluccd as an olijection to these nrgiimeiits . . . 2!)1 Entails exist in Enirland, and vet England has prospered . . "JDl Tlicir efleets have been neutralised by other eireunistanees , t-lU Land in England h.as ahvays been niueh more divided than in Irelaml ... 201 IMany small properties — copyhohl estates . -I'M XunilKT of landed proprietors now eoiisiderably reduced, yet still much greater than in Ireland ..... •2n2 A much larger proportion of land in England is Tinentailed . ■2:J2 Have the comforts of the mass of the people increased, Avitli the increase of wealth in England ? . . . . . ■2'J3 There is much reason to doubt this . . . i'j.j The power of entail is gradually producing those enormous pro- perties Mhich the Thcllu-nn act was intended to prevent . 'i^o The position of Emrland itself may become one of danger . S');! Entails'not essential to the existence of an aristocracy . . '1[)'3 IMany uni'ntai'ed estates in England have been retained in the same families tor generations ..... 201 Entails often prniluce encumbrances which slowly but surely bring about the sale of the pro]terty . . . . 2"4 If there were no entails, landowners ^vuuld naturall}- trust to tcomuiiy Ibr the maintenance of their pii-ition . . . 2','4 Disreputable conduct of landed •|ir(iprietor>, in cuntracting debts which llity cannnt jmy. brinvrs their rank into contempt . 2!G Eecapitiilation of some of the wants of Ireland . . I'lO Suggestions oU'ered as an outline for consideration . . 2'.l(> Conclusion .... ... 2I)Im1 APPENltlX. Introductory remarks . . ... 2f*7 Appendix A. — Explanation nf classification use! in tallies Bto G 2t'8 Appendix r>. — Stritistics for Eeinster, Ulster, ]\Iunster, and Con- naught, and for the Counties of "Wexford, I^oAvn, Kerry, ami ]\Iayo. in connection with Land, roi'ulation, Poor Kates, &c. (For Civic Pistricts) ...... 300 Ai'PKNPix (_'. — Statistics for Leinster, Elster. ^funster, and Con- naught, and for the ("ouiilies of Wexford, Down, Kerry, and Mayo, in. cunnectinn with Land, ropulation. I'oor Kales, Ovc. (For Kura! Districts) . . . . • -01 CONTENTS. Prine Appendix D. — Statistics for Leinster, Ulster, Munstor, and Con- naught, and for the Counties of Wexford, Down, Kerry, and Mayo, in connection with Land, Population, Poor Rates, &c. (Total of Pvural and T/ivic Districts) .... 002 Appendix E. — Statistics for Leinster, Ulster, iMunster, and Con- naught, and for the Counties of "Wexford, Down, Kerry, and IMayo, in CDnncctinn with House x\.ccommodation. Business Pursuits, Education, &o. (For Civic Districts) . . .'104 Appendix F.— Statistics for Leinster, Ulster, Munstcr, and Con- nauiiht. and for tlie Counties of Wexford, Down, Kerry, and IMayo. in c>ic. (For Civic and llural District-) . riOG Ai'i'ENDix 11. — TaMc sliowing the cinnjiarative ordur of the anioiuit of property invested in Live Stock in eacli County in Trelauil in proportion to its extent .... .'I(i7 Ai'PENDix T. — Average A'alue of Stock ujion eacli class of Farms iu Ireland ...... 30S AiMT.Nuix K Tnlile showing the extent of each class of House Accommodation occupied liy the peiiple in the several counties in Ireland ........ ;:^(ll) jVi'pendix L. — Tahle showing the proportions to the population, I'rnm live years n'.d and \ipwards, of the numher of Ignorant, together with some other interesting compai'isons . . olO AppiiNDix ?*I Talile showing the prohahle qviautity of Unim- jiroved I'asture and Bog Lands in the several counties of Ire- land, >.^c. ........ 31 1 Appendix N. — Comparative statement of the Occupation of iNlales, aged twenty years and iqnvards. enumerated in Great Britain, in the 3-ears 1831 and 1S41 .... 313 Appendix O.— Comparison of some of the Agricultural and some of the -"Manufacturing Counties of England, with the total of Englaml and Wales, as respects Occupation, Education, Early IMarriagcs, anil Mortality of Infants .... 314 Appendix P. — Statistics of the several Counties in Ireland, as respects the Area, Population, Value of Stock, and Valuation fur I'oor Pate .... ... 31,j CONTEXTS. xxiii Appendix Q— Statistics of tlie several Counties in England and "Wales, as respects the Area, Population, Annual Value of I'ro- perty. Poor Eate, &c. . . . . . 31U Appendix P. — Statement of the Poor Law Unions in each County in Ireland. Avith the nunil>er of Electoral Divisions, the Population, the Area, and the Aiumal Value for the assessment of tlie Pate ....... '^24 Api'ENDix S— Statement of the Poor Law L'nions and Parishes in each County in England and Wales, with the Area in statute acres, and the Population ...... ;i2u Appendix T Historical Account of the Tenure of Land in Ireland . . .... ;V2;t Appendix U.— Description of the Tenure by Lives renewable for ever ........ 832 Api'endix "W. — Pemarks on the ^Manngement of Land, in respect to the building of Farm IK>use?, i.V.c. by the Landlord in I^ng- land, ami by the Tenant in Ireland .... o;!4 Appendix X. — la-marks respecting Consolidation of Farms and Ejectment of Tenantry .... ;l3d Api'ENDix Y — Pemarks respecting the Management of Estates by the Court of Chancery ..... 008 Appendix Z — Pemarks respecting the sale of Landed Proiierty, and the advantages which would rcsidt from its being more frequently sold in small lols ...... :]40 ,Vppi:ndix a a — Kemarks respecting the Con-acre System, and the general condition of the Labouring Classes in Ireland . r,41 Appendi.x BP. — Extracted from ^rCulloch's Geographical Dic- tionary, in reference to the Distribution of Property in Fee in the several comities of Ireland ..... :'A-i Appendix CC — Extracted from ^TCullocli's Geographical Dic- tionary, in reference to the Distribution of I'roperty in Fee in the several Counties of England and "Wales . . ;Uo Appendix DD. — Comparative Statement of the Exports by steam vessels, of Horned Cattle, Pigs, and Eggs, from the ports of Dublui, Cork, and Waterford, in the ili^t ten months of the vears 1;--10 and 1847 . , . , . 34 CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF IRELAND. CHAPTER I. Natural features of Ireland — Its advantages imperfectly developed — Character and circumstances of the people — Ignorance of the English respecting Ireland — The Conquest of England by the Normans con- trasted with the imperfect subjugation of Ireland — Confiscation of Munster— Settlement of Ulster — Difference of creed added to other causes of discord — Subsequent contests assume a sectarian character — No serious effort made to convert the Irish to the reformed faith — Degrading effects of the penal laws — These laws not strictly enforced — Their relaxation at various periods — Forty-shilling freeholders — Peculiarities in the industrial and social character of Ulster and Leinster as compared with Connaught and Munster. The natural features of Ireland are peculiar. An extensive limestone plain occupies the central dis- tricts, while the mountains lie in various groups near the sea. The generally tame character of the eastern shores, affording few good ports, contrasts strongly with the bold rocky headlands, stretching far into the Atlantic, and the numerous islands B which stud the western coast, whose deep and land- locked bays form many safe and commodious har- bours. The wild mountain scenery of the western counties is diversified by many lakes, which dis- charge their waters by short and rapid rivers, offering great facilities of water power ; while the drainage of the inland counties is chiefly effected by the Shannon. This great river swells out into several extensive lakes, and finally empties itself into the Atlantic by a broad and deep estuary. A considerable portion of this limestone district is occupied by deep wet bogs, which are yet suffi- ciently elevated for drainage ; but by far the greater part is covered with a light but very fertile soil, producing good crops of com, and affording excel- lent pasturage. The sides and bases of the moun- tains, though partly covered with bogs, support large numbers of cattle and sheep, for which the natural mountain pastures, favoured by the mild- ness of the climate, afford grazing throughout nearly the whole year. To these advantages it is a serious drawback, that its western sea-coast con- sists so largely of wild rock and barren mountains, which greatly interrupt the communication of the interior with the sea. Peculiar as are the natural features of the country, the character and circumstances of its inhabitants are yet more extraordinary and di- 3 versified. It possesses a fertile soil, and a climate of almost unequalled mildness. Its rivers and the ocean aronnd it teem with fisli. jMany of these rivers are navi_Lraljle for miles inland, "svhile others offer water-power in immediate proximity to the sea. But tliis fertile soil is ill-cultivated ; these fisheries ai-e neglected ; the navigable rivers bear few vessels on their bosom ; and tlie rapid current, wliicli niiglit liave l)een made available for various purposes of profita]>le industry, runs neglected to tlie (»cean. The inha1)itants, taken individually, are active and intelligent, Icrtilc in resources, full (jf liope, kind in their neigh- lx)urs, affectionate and faitlifnl in tiie domestic relations of life ; }'et they make sIoav progress in civilization. The time is wasted in party dissen- sions, which, well em]>loved, miu'lit have mlvanced the pros])eritv of all. The jhdi in manv cases niglect !ind oppress tlu' ])oor, wlio retitrn tlieir oppression by servility and hatred; and too ol'ten by deeds of cold-blooded violence, wliich are of such fretpient occurrence, that they ai-e scarcely regarded, tmtil some outi'age of pectdiar atrocity lixes the [)ublic attention for a time. It is a land of strong contrasts. The splendid mansion looks down on wretched hovels, wliere a single room, perliaps witliont window or ejiimiiev. lodges the numerous fniiily of tlie peasant. Tlie luxury of V, ■) the rich contrasts painfully ■\vith the hopeless and squalid pauperism of the poor. It has been remarked as one of the anomalies of this extraordinary country, that while its intelli- irent inhabitants differ Avidely among themselves as to the causes of its dilficulties and degradation, and the means of cure, they are unanimous in ascribi]]ii to the people of England the grossest ignorance as to their social character and position. There is certainly too much reason for this opinion ; it is evident to (ixc'vy Irislnnan who mixes in Eng- lish society. AYhence, th.en, arises the difficult}^ of compreliending us ? Perhaps the answer may be found in the great variety of character and social cii"cumstances, as affected l)y locality, by race, and by religion ; the differences resulting from wliich are not suliiciently appreciated by strangers, who seem to regai'd all Ireland as presenting siiuilar features. Erom the great difference of feeling pi'o- duced by these divisions, it also results, that Irish- men view every subject connected with their country through an atmospliere of ])rejudice. Tlie energetic character and industrious habits of the people wess. tlie same lust nf power, the same cruelty and disregard of tlic rights oi' otliei'S, wliich the uiifurtuuate Saxons had already experi- enced. I'ut the circiunstances attending their invasion of Ireland, were wvy dillerent from those oi^ their C( i]ique>t of England. Iji the one case, a few military adventurers of minor- impoi'tance souglit for individual aggrandizement ; in tlie other, a. whole peO])le followed the standard of their sovereign, to take [iosse.-^ion ()f a kingdom of Avhich they consi- dered him the rightful heir. The Engli^ll monarch claimed only the feudal lordship of Ireland ; but the Norman duke had been cj-ovrned as the acknow- ledged successor of a long established line of kings. Here lay tlie essential diiierence. Had tlie early Norman kings sticceeded in the attempt to esta- blish their sovereiu-ntv in France ; had tliev dictated 6 laws to tlit'ir island conquest Ironi liouen, or Boiir- deaux, or Paris, England would have been placed in somewhat similar circumstances, and the late of Ireland might now be hers. Some intention of subjugating the "whole island appears to have existed at iirst, as is shown by the settlement of the Fitzgeralds, the De Courcys, the families of Eoclie, Barry, and others in 31unster, and of the De Burn-hs in Connauirht. But these distant settlers, so far separated from the seat of govern- ment, intermarried with the native Irish, adopted their language and manners, assumed the joower and state of Irish chieftains, and became, in the language of the old chroniclers, •' ipsis liibernis Hiberniores." Even the powerlul barons of Lein- ster, the Fitzgeralds earls of Kildare, the Butlers earls of Ormonde, and others, while professing alle- giance to the king of England, exercised inde- pendent authority in their own territories. They made war upon each other, or against the native Irish, at their own pleasure. The king's writ had no course Avithin their jurisdiction. The Irish princes who had offered homage, an.d made nomi- nal submission to Henry, resumed their former independence as soon as he left Ireland ; and tluis, before the terminatiun of a century, the English rule and law were confined to the limits of the Pale, comprising the four comities of Dublin, Louth, Meatli, and Kildare, and to the mari- time cities of Cork, AYaterford, and a few others of It'ss note. The supremacy of legal right may be said to have commenced in En2:land with the rei^n of Henry VII. Since then, England has never been disturbed l:)y the presence of a foreign enemy, and even the fcAV short insurrections which took place at cliiferent times, or the more serious conllict between Cliarles I. and the Parliament, scarcely interrupted the autliority of Lim'. or disturlted the rights of property. The English poor-law dates from the 4r»rd year of Elizabeth ; and even prior to that (late, the manufacturing and commercial industry of England had been largely developed, and the protection afforded bv some of her ]»redecessors to refugees from the continent, liad ]:iid the foiuidation of several most important manufactures. At this period, Ireland was u ]>rey to the liorrors of civil warfare. The in>urreetion (jf the Earl of Desmond, the powerfid head of the southern branch of the Geraldines, led to tlie conliscation of Alunster. His extensive territories Avere granted ]»y Elizabeth to English adventurers, in large estates or seignio- ries, Sir AValter Ealeigli receiving upwards of 20,000 acres. Sir AValter sold Ijis Irisli i>roperty to l>oyle earl <)f (^^rk. Avho built and ibrtified liandon aud other towns, wliicli lie peopled with Engli;?h 8 settlers; but the greater part of the grantees only endeavoured to extort the most they could out of the orii2:inal mhabitants, without trouhlinn; them- selves for the permanent improvement of the country. The Hight of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrcon- nel, chiefs of the great northern clans of O'Xeil and ODonnel, early in the following reign, and the insurrection and death of Sir Cahir O'Dogherty, were followed liy tlic conliscation of six counties in Ulster. This led to a settlement of a diiferent character. The u'rants were in lots of 1000, 1500, and 2000 aci-es, and the grantee? undertook to settle or " plant" a certain nund.)er of English or Scotch Protestant tenants on each gi-ant Tins undertaking was not fully performed, yet the elfect has been such as to confer on the greatei part of tliat province a character quite distinct from the rest of Ireland. The sanguinary warfare in tlio reign of Charles I. and the unrelenting and cruel policy of Cromwell, made anotlier and most important cliange in tlie condition of tlie country. j\Inny of the Irish were driven l)eyond the Shannon, or compelk'd to take refuge in tlie mountain fastnesses of Ulster and Munstor, and their lands were bestowed on Crom- well's soldiers, thus addinu" another bodv of Euir- lish settlers, and, it may be said, completing the conquest of the island. Thus deprived of their native cliieftains, driven for refuge into pathless hogs and mountains, their cities and fertile plains in the power of the stranger, their country sul)jected to English law and Eng- lisli rulers, it ] night have been expected that the Irish peo})le would liave yielded at length to a stern necessity, and (piietly submitting to their fate, have sought the advantages ^vhich an amalgamation with their conquerors nuist necessarily piMduce. Ihit another fatal ingredient had been atlded to the many causes uf di^cord ])reviou.le; and they felt little anxiety al)Out increasing the inimbrr of their congregation, so long as their tithes Avere duly paid.* The penal laws did not much all'ect the * All the rt'ligious services of tlie Protestant church were originally in Engli?li. An Act of the Irish Parliament, passcl in 1 JoJ, the -JStli Henry VIII. re(Hiire'l all patrons of livings to nominate none but those 12 lowest class, and seem to have been intended, by depriving the rich of their proj^erty, and preventing education, to reduce the whole mass of Irish Roman Catholics to a state of serfdom, in which who coiilJ speak Enirlisli, ami only permitted tliem to "present an "Imnest al>le man albeit lie cannot speak English," after otiering it by public proclamation for four successive weeks, " to an j- fit person who " can speak English." Afterwards, when it was found impossible, in many places, to procure those Avho could speak tlie English language, the derg}' were permitted, by an Act passed in \3ijO, the 2nd Elizabeth, to use the Common Prayer in Latin. Leland, ill reference to tlie attempt made in the reign of Elizabetli to eafiirce cont'urmity to tlie dnctriiies of tiie rLformation, tlieu lately iu_ troduced. says : " The clergy who refused to conform abraidMuod the "cures: im refi_)rmed ministers could be found to supply their ]ilaces; " the churches fell to ruin : the people were left without any religious " worship or instruction. Even in places of most civility, the statutes " lately made were evaded or lULdeeted with iinpuiiity." — Si-e vul. ii. p. L'2C). And when descrilniig the foundation uf Trinity College, he says: " Erom tlie first beginning of the Keforuuition, the dilliculties in finding " pastors, the negligence of governors in alfairs of religion, and the oii- " position given to every attempt to provide for the instruction of the " people, and the real establishment of the reformed faith and worship, " gradual!}- reduced the church of Ireland to a >tate of destitution,"' &c. lie also quotes a letter from Sir Henry Sydney to Queen Elizabeth, from which the following extract is taken: >• If I should write unto your " Majestic, what spoile hath been, and is, of the archbishopricks, " whereof there are four, and of bishoprieks, whereof there are above "thirty, partly bj- the prelates tliemselves, partly by the potentates " their noisome neighbours, I should make too long a libel of this my "letter; but your iMajestie may Itelieve it, that ujion the face of the " earth, Avhere Christ is professed, there is not a church in so miserable " a case ; the misery of which consistcth in these three particulars: — " the ruin of the very temples themselves ; the want of good ministers " to serve in them, when they shall be re-edified ; competent living for " the ministers, being well chosen," &c. — See a"o1. ii. iiage319. Again, 1. eland accounts for laws against non-conforiiii«t< being much 13 tliey should no lonp^er be dangerous, and yet miglit be more useful to their oppressors as labourers, or as tenants from whom exorbitant rents miglit be obtained. rolaxcd diiriiiL; Elizalietli's rLJ.Liii, tlms : " Jink-cd it would have been a " useless ami wautini, as wull as an inipulKic exercise of power, to liaA'e se- " verely enforced tlie penalties of this law, as the christian methods of " reformation were sacrificed to tlie sclicme of di^cnurauini:: tliat " languaire. in wiiich alone t!ie body of tlie people could liave nceivcd "instruction: as there were few cluirclies to roorl to, few teadicrs " to exliort and in>ti'uct, fewer still ^^llo ctudd be un U-rstood, and "almost all, at least tbr the trreater ]iart of tliis reign, of ;eanda!ous " inetlicieucy." — See vol. ii. ]v.\'^v ."IS-J. Ijurnet, in the life of Btdell, bishop of Kihnore and Ardauh, in the reitjn of Charles I. and one of the brii;htest ornaments o\' the n-f >rnied clnn-ch in Ireland, says: "He found his dioi/ese laidL-r so m;niy di>orders, " that there was sc;irce ;i snuml ]iart remaiuiuLj. 'flic revenue wasted " by e\ee>:-ive dihipithitiou^, and all sacn.d thiuLis had breii exposed to " sale in so sordid a m;inner, that it was lirown to a proverb." He then quotes a letter of I>edell to Archbishop l.aud. de?cribincr the state of the diocese, of whieh the folhiwiuu' is an extract : " The c;ithedral church " of Ai'da-h. ouc of llu' must antitnt in Iri'laml. :n)d s:iid to be built by " Saint I'atritdv, to^-ether wiih the bi>liiip's hou^e there, di.iwn to the " i^round ; the clmreh here (at Kihnore) built, but witlmut bell or " stee[>le, font or cludice. The jiarish churches ;d! in a maimer ruimd, " and unroofed, and nnri.p;iired. The iieople, saviuLi; a few British " planters lure and there, fwhieli are not a tenth jiart of the remnant) " obstinate recusants. 'J'here are seven .ir eiuht ministers in eacli " diocese of pood sulliciency ; and (which is no small cause of tlie " continuance of the peojile in Topery still.) Eno'lish, which have not " the ti.muue of the people, nor can ptrforni any divine ollicc, or " converse with them, and which hold many of tliem two or three, four " or more vicarages a ]iiece ; even the clerkships themselves are in like "manner conferred upon the Ij)glisli; and sometimes two, three, or " more upon one man, and ordinaril}- bought and sold or let to iarui." In describing the character of Bi>hop Bedell, in reference to his " care for the native Iri^h, Burmt says: "He obser\ed with nmrh " regret that the English had all along neulected the Trisli, as a nation 14 Could any course have been adopteel, Ijetter calcu- lated to degrade a nation ? Can we expect to iind among a people thus treated, that self-respect, that sturdy independence Avhicli Englishmen have "nut only conquered but undisciplinable; and that the ckriiy had " scarce considered them as apart of their cliarge, but had left them '' -wholly into the hands of their own priests, \rithout taking any other " care of them, but the making them jiay their tithes." " Tlie bisliop " prevailed on several priests to cliange, and he was so well satisfied " with the trutli nf their conversion, that he provided some of them to " ecclesiastical bcnetices, ■which -was thought a strange tiling, and was " censured by many, as contrary to the interest of the Englisli nation." Hurnet informs us tliat Bisliop Bedell was so zealous in his anxious desires for the conversion of the native Irish, that " lie set himself to " learn the Irish language ;"' " had cummon prayer read in Irisli every " Sunday in his cathedral ;" set up seliools, and even imdertook tlie translation of the Old Testament into tlie Irisii tongue, (the New Testa- ment had been already translated,) for which jiurposc be engaged tlie services of one of liis converts, " believed to be tlie elegantest writer of " the Irish languiige tlien alive, thinking tlie use of the Scriptures to be the " only way to let the knowledge of religion in among the Irish." lie was very assiduous in tliis work, and liaving in a few years finished tlie translation, he resolved to set about the lu'inting of it. But his zeal for tlie instruction of the pcoiile, and the spread of Protestantism, was not jiartieijiated in by the governiiuut, or by otliers of tlie clergy. IMiirli jialousy was sliowii towards his proceedings, and he till under unjust persecution, in wliieh even Usher, at that time I'rimate of Araiagli, joined to some extent. He did not live to complete his design, Init liis translation was eventually printed by the lion. Kobcrt Boyle. Tlic conduct of the English government, in this respect, is tlie more extraordinary, because a policy directly the reverse was pursued in Wales, and with complete success. Tlie liturgy of the Church of Eng- land Avas translated into Welcli, and the service is still perlormed in tliat language by native clergymen. The letters of Dr. Boulter, Areliliisi-.op of Armagli, written between the years 172-t and 1738, alTord ample evidence that the church was looked upon, by himself at least, chiefly as an important means of maintaining tlic luiglish inliuence in Ireland. His great anxiety apjiears 15 claimed as their peculiar characteristic ? Is it won- derful if mendacity, the natural resource of the oppressed, l)e their jirevalent vice ? Or rather, is it not matter of >ur[)rise that any virtue should re- main to a peo[ile, tlius systematically exposed to such a })rocess of degradation ? Treated hy their oppressors as aliens of a different race and nation, insulted under the name of " the ctjunnon enemy," to have been that the hislinpi' sees wliieli fell vacant. sliouW be tilled by EiiL;li.-h!iKii. In one nf liis letters tn tlie ])nke of Newcastle, ilated February IS l7-''r lie conii.lains tiiat •' ^-e are but nine Endish bijlmps " on the bench out of two and twenty ;' and at the same time shows his fears of the carelessness with which such appointments were often made, by addiim'. "I hope Uiilmdy will be sent liitlier fnmi tlie bench in " En.u'land, for lieinp: restless nr good for nothin;^ there, or \rlio is nut '• likely to a,i:ree \y'n\\ me, since this a\ ill certainly wt aken the Engli>h " interest here." Ilis anxiety on the latter head appears to be nearly as stronj; as that felt for the ai>pointment of Enc;lisli bishops. lie atrain .-tates his fer.rsina Utter to Sir llobert Walpulc. dated .January 1-J, 1734, in whirh, after pressiuu:^ for ''at bast an <.cpiality mi tin- bi'iu-li."" be aibl-;, '• but 1 would a.t the same tune beg that we may not liave one sent over, " -who may be a burden or a disgrace to us." ^^'hat he cimsidereil " a burden" may lie estimated from the circumstance, tliat he .=aw no objection in strongly recunnnending for promotion Dr. Aiiliadie. who held '• tlie ileaiiery of Killaloc with four siitecures," and who "would '• liave had tlie deanery of Saint Patrick's, but h.aving no knowledge of " English, it was thought improper to iiLice him in the greatest prefcr- " ment in the city," (Publin). So he got Killaloe instead, in -which, as almost all the inhabitants mu-t have spoken only Irish, of course lie answered quite as Avell as an Englishman would have done. Dr. Eoulter, however, appears to liave exerted himself also to extend the more legitimate inJlucnce of the chtirch over mIucIi he presided, endeavouring to carry several bills through parliament for dividing unions and pari>lies when too large, and for buiMing additional churches, -where tliere was a I'rotestant iiopulation and no place lor worship, and for j-iroviding glebes and liuildins: glebe-houses. 16 and yet retaining a perfect recollection of their former position, and of their recent defeat, is it wonderful that they opposed deceit to oppression ; that they returned open scorn with ill-dissembled hatred ; that they remained a distinct people, re- garding vdth equal hostility the people of England and the religion tliey professed, and designating l)0th an Englishman and a Protestant by the name of '' Sassenach" as a term of opprobrium ? l)Ut it may l)e said that the penal laws were never strictly enforced. This is no doubt true. The minds of men revolted at their severity, and refused to carry out in time of peace, the oppres- sive enactments which the Irish Parliament had passed in the heated feelings engendered by war. Some of the most o[)pressive soon fell into disuse, or tlie evasion of tliem was winked at. Tlie li(_)man Catholic nobility and gentry retahicd their estates ; in many instances transferring their title-deeds to Protestants, who held them in trust ; and to the honour of these be it said, there is no i*ecord that the trust was ever broken. Still the political disabilities remained in full force, and nltliough the worst of the penal laws may not have been insisted on, they I'emained in abeyance, and were held in ferrorcm over the heads of the Roman Catholics, being liable at any time to Ix'. enforced with j-igour, and tliere- fore producing the constant effect of insecurity, and depressing the industry of the country.* The first partial rehixation of these impolitic laAvs took place in 1782, and they were still fnrther relaxed in 1793, in which year Roman Catholics were placed on a par Avith Protestants as regards the elective francliise, tliongh not allowed to he- come memhei's of either liouse of rurliament. A lease for lives of a house or land, in which tlie lessee liad an interest wortli forty shiUings a year, called " a forty-shilling fi'cehohl.'" entitled the holder to a vote. lliis low iVancliise induced the landed proprietors to divide their estates into many small holdings, for the pnrpose of incix-asing tlieir influence at elections. A numerous ten- antry, liaviiig the right to vote, and practically ol)liged to exercise that right at tlie dictation of their landlords, Avas highly prized. Tliis had a most iiijurious effect in many parts of Ireland, cut- ting up the land into those small farms Avhicli are ]i(iw justly com])lained of. and producing a great increase of populaticm, Avithout a cxrresponding increase of the means of supjiort. When the eman- cipation a('t Avas passed in 182!), the forty-shilling freeholders Avei'e disfranchised, and 1)eino: no longer * Sec Appenilix T. for remarks niaile by the Commissiuners of Inquiry' into tltc state of the Law and Traetice in respect to the Occupation of Land in Ireland, on tlie subjects discussed in the ]ast fev pages. C 18 of use to their landlords, every means has sinee been employed to get rid of them. The industrial and social character of Ulster and Leinster differs greatly from tliat of the other two provinces. Omitting Donegal, the most western county of Ulster, which in many respects resembles Connaught, we find the general character of Ulster and Leinster, as respects civilization and industry, A'ery similar to that of England and Scothuid, The English Innguagc is almost universal, Avith the ex- ception of the mountain districts of l)oAvn, Tyrone, and Londonderry. There is a large amount of manufacturing industry, especially in Leister. The ground is fairly tilled. There arc many resident gentry and tliriving shopkeepers. The laltourers work for daily Avages, and purchase their food in the market, and their clothinir from the euuntrv &hopkee})er. Liut the circumstances of the greater part of ]\Iun^>ter and Comianght, especially the more western counties, are A\idely diiferent. The L'ish language is spoken by most of the peasantry, and in many of the more remote or wilder dis- ti'iets, English is but little understood. Almost the wliole pcjiulation is dependant on agriculture. The soil is less carefully tilled, and there is much land lying waste which is capal)le of cultivation. The resident gentrv ai'c few and widelv scattered ; their estates are of great extent, and nsaiiy of tlie pro- 1!) i:>rietors are non-resident. The labourers, in many parts, are not paid in wages, but give a certain number of days' labour annuall}', in payment for their cabin and a plot of potato ground. A con- siderable domestic manufacture exists, of flannel, frieze, linen, and stockings, Avhich are sold in the fairs and markets, and form the chief part of tlie clothing of the people. They are evidently a dif- ferent people, far behind the eastern counties in civilization and industrial advancement. Some statistical details wliich are given in the Appendix B, to G. will illustrate this position.* In tliese tal)les, the four provinces are compared with each other, as respects the qnantit}' of waste and of arable land, the dt-nsity of population, the nund)er and size of farms, the value of stock, the valuation ibr pooi'-rate. the C)ecupation and means of siip[)ort o cnntains copious extracts from the very valuable report last men- tioned, to \vjiieli the reader's attention is requested. They illustrate many of the views taken in this essay. c 2 2U many respects the most improved portions of Leinster and Ulster, and also for the counties of Kerry and Mayo, which are certainly the most backward of Mmister and Oonnauoht. The result sIioavs differences in the btate of society greater than could Avell be imagined, in a country subjected for so long a time to the same authoritj^, and governed ly the same laws. It would be very satisfactory to compare the condition of Ireland with that of England and Scotland iji these respects ; but tlic census was not conducted in exactly tlie same manner in Great Britain as in 1 reland, so that it is not practical;)le fully to compare them. For some statistical information i-ospecting ( Jreat lU-i- tain, see Appendix N and 0. On examining these tables, we lind that ( 'on- naught has thcLirgest ])roportion of Ava.>te land, and Le-inster nnich the smallest ; that the population of Munster and ( 'onnauglit is more tliinly scattered over the wliole area tlian that of tlie other pi'(»vinces, btitmuch more dense tlian that of Leinstei", though less so than that of Ulster, when compared with the amount of ai'able land.* The comparison has the same result, if calculated on tlie supposition that the waste or uncultivated lands arc made so far available * The pojjiilation of tlic wliule of Ireland is onh' 39 persons per IdO statute acres ; wliile that of Eni^land and Wales is 43. 21 to human existence in the feeding of cattle, that seven acres of waste may be estimated as equivalent to one acre of arable. AVc are struck with the large pro- portion of small farms in Connauglit ; nearly two- thirds of the whole number of farms being under five acres in extent. AVhen we look to the value of live stock,* ^vhether averaged on the area of valuable land or on the population, no very impor- tant difference is observal)le. But in comparing the annual value of fixed property as assessed for the })Oor-rate,f tlie difference is very gi'cat ; (A)n- naught having only £103 annual value for every 100 inhabitants, wJiilst Munstcr, Ulster, and Lcin- stcr liavc £157, £13!), and £234 respectively. The ])rop()rtion of violent deaths on which in([uests were held dui-ing the ten years ending June, 1811, ni)pear to have been: Ulster, J2 ; Uoiinaught. 21 ; Leinster, 32 ; and :Mun^ter, -H). But tlie most striking discrepiuicy exists in the occupation and means of su[>p!irt, tlie house acc(>mmodation, and the extent of education. ]\lun.ster and Connau^lit * WJiin tnkiiiir the census in 1841, llie ininilxr of cattle, horses, >hcep, pigs, ami poultry was also takuii, and iJic value hviwj; c^tiniaieil at an avt_ra;re rale, ^institutes the "value of stoek.'' ^tate^l in the llejiorts (if liio Coniniissioners. t 'Die annual value assessed to the poor-rate averaged over the whole of Ireland is £lGi for 100 inhabitants,, while in England and Wales it amounts to £303. In Cornwall, the poorest Knglish ennnly, it is .t'^ti?; and in (ilaniorgan, the poorest county in Wale-, it is £-2\7 ; Vrnt in ]\Iayo it aiii'vUnUs only to £7'>. 22 have 70 and 78 out of every 1(30 families en- gaged in agriculture, while Leinster has only 59, and Ulster GO ; and the two former provinces have 51 and 53 per cent, of the inhahitants occupying the very lowest class of house accommodation, while the numhers in Leinster and Ulster are only 35 and 33 per cent, respectively. The dilFerence as re- spects education is ecpially great ; ()4 per cent, of the male inhabitants of C'cnnaught, over live years of age, being unable either to read or write, and the number in tlie other tlu'ce pi-ovinces Ijcing 52 per cent, for ]\Iunster, 35 per cent, for Ulster, and 38 per cent, for Leinster. There appears to be a very close connexion Ix'tween the amount of educa- tion and tlie quality of house accommodation. The greater imniber of early marriages in tlie western province is a Ibature worthy ()f particular notice, as is also the shorter average duration of liuman life. On the latter sultject, the commissioners for taking the census make the following remarks : — " The remarkable diiference in tlie duration of life, " in favor of Leinster and Ulster over Connaught " and ]\Iunstcr, is too striking to be overlooked. The " latter are the most exclusively agricultural, and " from the analogy of Great Britain should on that " account seem likely to jiresent the longest, rather " tlian the shortest, average duration of existence. '' "\Ye fear, however, that the very low state, as to 23 " food and accommodation, of the rural population " of these provinces, would be found, by a more " searching inquiry and comparison, to place them, •' in a sanatary point of view, more nearl)^ equal " Avith the crowded inhabitants of the western parts " of England and Scotland, rather than the healthy " rustics of the English and Scotch ao-ricultural " counties."'* * Piir. Ktp. 1843, vol. .\xiv. [i, ,".). CHAPTER II. Want of industry in Ireland — Ascribed by some to the race, by others to the religion of the iK-ople — Futility of these assumptions — Irishmen succeed in America — Why not at home ? — Large remittances from America — Security of property essential to industry — ^Long enjoyed by England — Contrast presented by the history of Ireland — Degrading elfects of penal laws — Discouragement of tlie woulleu manufai'tures — licpcal of these impolitic laws — Their eflects still felt — Political agita- tion xmfaToural)le to industr}' — General improvement during the past sixty years — Condition of the labouring class not improved — Their privations — Their emigration to l^ngland — Their condition must be raised — Tliis is an imperial question. The people of Ireland have been aceused of idle- ness and improvidence. These vices are attrihnted l>y many to the prevalent creed ; and their su]»ine- ness and want of industry arc laid at the door of their religion. Otliers speak of them as the inherent characteristics of tlie Celtic race. By the first, they are looked npon as almost incurable, wliile the religions belief of the people is un- changed. If the opinion of the latter be correct, the case must be considered hopeless, as it is evident no cliange of race can take place. The carefully irriii-ated and fertile plains of Lombardv : the liiuli cultivation of the vale of tlie Arno, densely peopled 25 with industrious, contented, and thriving inhabi- tants ; and the skill and industry which maintain the agriculture of Flanders among the lirst in Eu- rope — an example worthy of imitation hy Protestant England — may well prove that their religion offers no insuperable barrier; and that if the inhabitants of sctme ol' the Roman Catholic states of Europe are less industrious than tlieir Protestant neighbours, we must look to sometlung else tlian their creed for a sufficient explanation of the cause. Elie inferiority of the Celtic race is a gratuitous assumption, not easy of proof; but even if tliis be admitted, those wlio on that account c(»nsider tlie Irish as unim- j)r()vaf)le, forget the great admixture of races Avhich has taken pkice in tliis country. 31ost of tlie mari- time cities were JJanish colonies. A large proportion of tlie Norman or earlvP]ngli>]i settlers intcj-married with tlie original inhabitants, and their descendants having remained Poman Catliolics. are now consi- dered as mere Irish. Tiiere is novr no apparent distinction between a Fitzirerald, a Purke, a Grace, or a Lacy, and the })nrcst Milesian family. Tt is sufficient, as respects tliese cliarges, to say that they are useless taunts ; tliat it is impractica- ble, uiKJer present circumstances, to change either the jieople themselves or their religion ; that being in the country, tlaw nuist l.)e taken ibr [)etter Ibr worse; and that fair means, the removal of 26 impolitic restrictions, and the extended influence of education arc more likely to improve tliem, than the rough usage which has been already ti'ied, or the injurious language which is now too often used. But the subject is worthy of closer examination. AYe see that Irishmen succeed in ximerica. Why do they not thrive at home ? Tn America they are cer- tainly on a level Avitli all their neigldiours ; they have a fair field and no favour; and there they are indus- trious, and reap the fruits of their industry, in the acquisition of property and the respect of tlieir fellow-citizens. Here the labourer earns a bare subsistence, by precarious employment at low wages, with but little hope of improvement, and consequently but little stimulus to exertion. A\'hen he crosses the Atlantic, the improved cliances of sue cess arouse his energy, he assumes a new character, he feels the necessity of exertion, and proves him- self equal t<-) liis new position. It has been asserted tliat even in America the Irish are to l)e known Ity tlieir idleness, their want of cleanlhiess, and their improvident habits. It is true, there are many wlio never rise out of the faults of early life ; but tliat these are exceptional cases, that the great majority are industrious and saving, is proved b}^ the amount of remittances in sums, small in themselves, but large in the aggre- gate, made l)y Irish emigrants to their friends and 27 relatives at home. A correspondent of tlie -^mter's has informed him, that, having made inquiry from the various banking-houses in that city and in Phil- adelphia and Baltimore, he found that the remit- tances l»y small orders from £l to £10, made Ly Irish emigrants to their I'riends in Ireland, in the year 184(1 amounted in all to 1,000,(300 dollars, or £200,000 sterling. These remittances, coming from "working men and women depending upon their daily labour for support, prove at the same time their indn^trv, their economv, and that luve of kindred wliirh absence and distance cannot (.-fface.* ]\Iany of these remittances are sent to enable a relative t<:) fL>llow in the same path, to a landAvhere industry has free seo])e and a sure reward. The husband sends home the means which may enable liis wife and children to I'oUow him ; the child sends for his parent, (.»r the brother f-)r his sister ; and in tlfis manner many Avliole families have gone, one after the other, to seek a ncAV home in the West. Tlie writer is far from denying the influence of national cliaracter, and tlie hereditary transmission * In a lutter iLitLvl July 12, tlie same currespniiJcnt says: "liisliop Hughes sent me a imtL- tiie other day, which he had just reecived from Washington, uuidosing tiTe dollars, lK-in.r the first earnings of a poor emigrant only tvo weeks in the eoiuitry. which he wanted to be sent liome to liis sullcring friends !"' 28 of peculiar qualities in tlie various families of man ; and it must be admitted tliat we do not possess the same patient and persevering industr}^, winch so eminently distinguishes the people of England. Neither is he disposed to dcnj^ the iniluence of religion on the temporal well-being of mankind ; but, on the contrary, to assert its paramount impor- tance; and that, so far as Christian ]_)riiiei[)le prevails and inihiences tlie heart, by -whatever name we may be called, it brings out those virtues whicli consti- tute a good citizen, and promote the welfare of society. Time alone can change the cliaracter of a nation, and develope those habits of contiimous exertion, which distinguish an energetic and industrious peo- ple. The savage will exert liimself violently for a time, when im])elled by lumger or l)y strong pas- sions; but liis exertion ceases wirli the exciting cause, and he sinks again into listless inactivity. CiviHzation, by multiplying the want.-? of man, sup- l)lies a motive for industry. A permanent govern- ing authority, which can give security to the acqui- sition and possession of property, maintain the supremacy of law, and protect all chisses in tlie enjoyment of their rights, is esseiitial to its full development, lias not England enjoyed these ad- vantages more tlian any otlier h^uropean nation ? Perhaps tlie civilization introduced by the Konians 29 into Britain was never wholly lost. Certainly Eng- land had made considerable progress l3elbre the Xorman invasion. The whole conntry was divided into counties, hunchvds, and tithings, which pos- sessed local jni'isdiction and administrative po^vers. Tlie division into [)arishes also dates from the Saxon period, and ajipears to have received Ivat little alteration snljseqnently. ]\Iost of the toAnis and villau'es wliich yuay cover the face of the conntrv, a[)pear to have existed then, and hear their original Saxon names. The oppression of the Norman inva- ders, and the contest between the houses of York and Lancaster, involving tlie country in civil Avar, retarded its im[>r<)Vement for a time ; but since the tei'ini nation of these wars on the accession of Henry YIl. to tlie throne, witli but little exception, iiiternal [leace h:is l)e'en [ireservcd, the laws have been uplield. and tlie rights (»f property main- tained. To these fivoi'ing circum^tallce> we may well attribute those halnts of patient industry, which have made Emxland the Avonder and the eUA'y of suiTounding nations. How dilferent are the circumstances Ijv Avhich the industrial character of the Irish peo})le has 1)een formed. A })rey to eivil dissension, even prior to the invasion by England ; fj'0]ii that }H-riod harassed by constant Avarlare ; oppressed tliough ]iot conrpiered ; refused the Ijcnefits and protection 30 of English law, yet punished as rebels for disobe- dience to English authority ; the whole clan hold accountable for the conduct of its chieftain, and the property of all contiscatcd, if he ventured to assert his independence ; such was the condition of Ireland from the time of ITenr)- II. until its more complete conquest by Cromwell. Under such cir- cumstances, improvement was impossible. The peace aiid quietude wliich succeeded the unsuccessful attenq)t to support James II. on the throne of England, miglit liavo been favorable to industry, had they been wisely taken advantage of, but the degrading effect of tlie penal laws,* wliich • Of tluse ptiial laws Burke uliserves, tliat " tliey m'ctc as well fittcil " for the oppression, inipoverishment, and degradation of a jieople, and " the debasement in them of human nativre itself, as ever jirocoeded " from the perverted ingenuity of man." Arthur Young, in his " Tour in Ireland," speaks of tlie efTeets of these penal laws on industry, in tlie follnwing terms: "The only " considerable nianufactxire in Ireland whieh carries in all its parts the " n]>pearanee of industry, is the linen, and it ought neA"er to be forgotten " that this is solely confined to the Protestant parts of the kingdom; -' yet we may sec from the example of Franco and other countries, that " there is nothing in the Eoman Catholic religion itself that is inconi- " patible with manufacturing industry. The poor Catiiolies in the South " of Ireland spin wool A'er}- generally, but the purchasers of their labour " and the whole woulkn trade are in the hands of the Quakers of " Clonmel, Carrick, Bandon, &q.. The fact is, the professors of that " religion arc under such discouragenKuts, tliat they cannnt engage in " any trade which requires both industr}" and capital. If they succeed " and make a fortune, what arc they to do with it? They can neither " buy land, nor take a mortgage, imr even line down tlie rent of a lease. " Where is there a people in the world to be foiuid industrious under " siu'h circumstances? But it seems to be the meaning, wish, and intent 31 were evidently intended to enslave the Roman Catholics, by preventing tliem from acquiring pro- perty, was a serious 1)ar to improvemL^it. To this was added the connnercial jealousy of the Enodish people, under the ijilluencc of the theory of ])rotec- tion, now so generally ('X})loded. From this jea- lousy resulted the restrictions on the intercourse of Ireland Avitli foreign nations, a systematic discou- " of tlic- ili-covery laws, that iiuiie of tlK-m .-lioiild ever lie ricli. It is " till.' ]irinci]il(.' of that systiin that -wealthy suhji'cts would he iiuisanees, " ami therL-fore every means is taken to inluce and kiep them to a state " of jioverty. If this is not the intention of the laws, they are the " most aliuniinable lnap of m If-contradietions that eVLf were issued to " the world. They are framed in sueh .n mauiur, that no < "atholic " shall have' tlie indueenient tn lircnnie rich. Hut if, in s]iite of these " laws, he shotdd aceidentally gain wealth, that the whole kiuixiloni " should not atford him a possihliity of investinu' it. Take the laws " and their exeeution into one view, and this state of tlie (•a>e is so true, " that they aetually do not seem to be so much levelled at tlie rt'liiiion, " as at the prnjierty that is found in it. J]y tin' L-n\-, a iiriL>t is to he " tran>iiortid and lianced for readiii'^x mass, Imt the mass is very readily " lett to tliem ^vitli imjnnnty. Let the same ]iriest, however, make a " fortune Ly his mass, and from that moment he is the ohjeet of perse- " eutioii. The doniiiU'erins' aristocraey of iive hundred thousand Pro- " testants feel the t^weets of havin;_j two luillitais of slaves ; the}' liave " not the least ohjeetinn to the tenets of that relii:ion, whieh keejis them '• hy the laws of the land in suhjeetion ; hut property and slavery are " loo incompatible to live toyetlier. Hence the special care taken that " no such tiling should arise .among tluin." — Part II. p. '■^■>. " Tlie system ]uii-sued in Ireland has had no other tendency Imt that " of driving out of the- kinudoni all tlu' personal wealth of the (.'athulics, " and prohibiting their industry within it. The fai'e of the country, " every object, in short, which presents to the eye of a traveller, tell " him how etieetually this has been done. I urge it not as an argument ; ' the whole kingiloni speaks it as a fact." — Part 11. ji. 'M. 32 ragement of the woollen manufacture, and much other interference injurious to the trade of the country.* Ireland was treated as a colony to be governed for the lieneht of lier powerful neighbour, not for her own. In tlie years 1778 to 1782, contemporaneously with the relaxation of the i)enal laws, acts were passed liy tlio EiioUsh parliament, releasing the trade of Ireland from these injurious restrictions. The export of AvuuUcn manufactures was per- mitted, ;nid a free trade grantcil with the colo- nial possessions of England. Ihit this was ]iot effected without much and violent opposition on the j)art of the English manufacturers ; the petitions * " I sIkiII,'' saiil Kiii'^ William III. to the Endisli Comiiions, on the "2iul (if July, KiltSj "iloall that lies in me to diseom-nt^e the woolli-n " mamifaetures of Irelaml." Tlie expnrtatiuii oi" wool ami woolkfl nianul'aeturts iVom Irtlaiul Avas prohibited hy laws of the English parliament on pain of contiseatiun. impri- sonment, and transportation. An act of iho Ent;lish parliament, passed in 1(390, the 10 and 11 Wni. III. eap. x., aft^-r referring to '• wool and tlie " woollen mannfaetnres of elotli, serge, haize, kerseys, and othur stnlls " made and mixed with wool." as "tlie greatest and most profitable eoni- " modities of the kingdom, on whieh the value of lands and the trade of " the nation do chiefly depend," proceeds to state that great qiiantities "of " the like manufactures have of late been made and are daily increasing " in tlie kingdom of Ireland, and in the English plantations of America, ' ' and arc exported from thence to foreign markets heretofore supplied from " England, which will inevitably sink the value of land, and tend to the " ruin of the trade and the woollen manufacture of this realm," and thereupon strictly prohibits the export in future both of wool and of woollen goods to an}' part of the Avorld except to England, from either Ireland or the plantations. 33 against the plan were numerous ; the house occupied more than two months in considering it, and in the end the ministry were forced to modify it by a variety of restrictive chiuses.* Trade being so far freed, and tlie penal laws re- laxed, it might naturally be expected that Ireland, thus loosed from the shackles Avhich had hitherto impeded lier progress, would rapidly improve. Dut the influence of long continued oppression did not pass away witli the removal of the many i^estric- tions under wliich tlie country hrid lal)Oured. The penal laws, discouraging the industry of tlie l^oinnn Catholics, and throwing dithculties in their way, as respects the purchase or i]n|>]'ovemeiit of landed • Pitt, in propusiiiLr these nieiisure?, saiJ, " the liou.-e wouLl recolleet " tliat, fruiii the Kevohitiou to a period "withiu the nieuiory of even* man " who lieanl him. imlecJ imtil these \cTy few years, tlie 1-hialish system " had heen iliat of ihharrin.ii Irehuul fnnii the LiijnynKnt ami u^e of her " own resourecs ; to make that kioLiilom eompletely suhservient to tlie " interests and oimlenee of this eoiuitry. williout sutRrinL,'' lier to sliare " in tlie hounties of nature, in the industry of her eitizens, or making " them eontrihute to tlie general interests and strength of the empire. '• This system of eruel and ahoraiuahle restraints had liowever heeu " exploded. It was at once harsh and unjust, and it was as impolitic as " it was oppressive ; for however necessary it might he to the partial " hcnelit of districts in Oreat Britain, it promoted not the real prospe- " rity and strength of the empire. That which had heen tlie system " counteracted the kindness of I'rovidcnce, and suspended tlie iu'liistry " and enterprise of man. Ireland was put under such restraint, that " she was shut out from every species of commerce. .She was restrained " from sending the produce of iier own soil to foreign markets, and all " correspondence with the colonies of Britain was prohihited to her, so " that she could not derive their commodities but through the medium " of Britain," ijcc. D 34 projDerty, had induced those who acquired money to hoard it in conceahnent, instead of using it for the improvement of their property ; and had in great measure prevented the formation of a middle class. The reckless management of many of the large estates, and the impoverished condition of their owners, liad a most injurious effect. The agitated state of the countr)' previous to the Union, the shfji't but l»loody contest in 1798, the means taken to quell the insurrection, in arraying one por- tion of the peo|)le against the other, increased the embittered feelings already existing, added to the difficultv, and delayed the period of improvement. By the cnnctment of 1703, the lower classes of Eoman Catholics obtained tdl the political power which their jiosition in life enabled them to exer- cise, Avhile the rich and educated were refused those posts of honor or emolument to which they might naturally aspire. The fruits of this injudicious policy Avere soon apparent. The upper classes were dissatisfied. They petitioned parliament for com- plete emancipation from all the disabilities affect- ing them. Tor many years their representations were disregarded ; at length the attitude they assumed, the completeness of tlieir organization, their nund^ers, and the power of the forty-sliilling freeholders, whom a stronger motive had freed from political sidDserviency to their landlords, im- peratively enforced their claims ; and in 18*29, the act for emancipation received the royal assent. The snccessfnl resnlt of the means used in sup- port nf the Roman Catholic claims, tau^'ht the people to rely o]i intimidation for the attainment of political ol)jects. The agitation produced in the minds of men by the various political asso- ciations, Avlictlicr for tlie advocacy of those chums, or for a repeal of tiie Union, lias had a serious eifcct in depressing industry: hy hidding out tothepeo[»le uiid(,'fined ])rospects of important ndvnutages, to he ol)t;iined from [)olitical changes, Avliich have tended to witlidraw tlicm from a rehance on their own exertions, as the only sure means of improving their condition. The Avritor is well aware tliat the spirit whicli dictated ilie penal laws no longer exi.>ts ; tliat thiy liave l)een rL'])eah-d with the lieai'ty con- ciiri'riu'c nf (he great majoi-ity of tlie ju-ople of England : and tliat for manv years past the go- vernment and the r>ritish people have evinced great anxiety for the complete identihcation of the intei'ests of Ireland with those of England and Scothuid. The suliject is here referred to, mei'ely to show the effect of these laws on the indnstiy of the country. The laws have been changed, but their (h'pi'essing inlluence has not yet ceased to exist. In sj)ite of all depressing circumstances, Ireland D 2 36 has improved during the past sixty years. Statis- tical proof could be readily obtained. The city of Dublin may have lost something by the removal of the Irish nobility and gentry, consequent on the union Avith England ; l)ut even Dublin has improv- ed ; wliile the progress of many of the small coun- try towns lias l)een great and rapid. The wealth of the country has increased. This is proved l"»y the large amount of the puldic funds transferred from England to Ireland. The comforts of the upper and niiddh' classes have increased. The internal trade of tlie country has increased greatly, and many small towns have well-stocked shops and comfortal)ie sliopkeepers, where a few years since it would have been difficult to purchase the com- monest necessaries of life. The state of society is better. The people are more industrious and more provident. But, in all these respects, we are still nuicli behind our ]-ieher neighbours, Avhose wealth and civilization date from a period so much earlier. The agricultural class is certainly much inferior to that of England in wealth, management of their farms, and manner of living ; yet in many districts the farmers arc in nuich better circumstances than they were ; the system of culti^Tition is improved, and a considerably greater value of stock is to be found on the fariiis. 'Jhe lowest class of all, 37 the mere labourer, is the only one whose advance- ment is not evident ; there is even cause to fear that his condition is worse noAV than it was sixty years ago. Certaiidy the numlier of the distressed has greatly increased. The report of the commis- sioners on the occupation of land in Ireland, contains the following remarks on this subject : " Another general remark whicli our tour " tlirough tlie country, and an extenr?ive intercourse " with tlie farming chisscs eiialtle th t'> make, is, '• tliat in almost ever}' part of Iivlaiid uiicipiivocal "svmptoms of improvement, in !>pite of many "embarrassing and conntei'acting cii-cumr^tauces, " continually present themselves to the view ; and "that there exists a very general and increasing " spirit and desire f )r promotion of sucli improve- ^'ment. from Avliich the most ])cnelicial results " may fairly be expected. '•Indeed, speaking of the country generally, ''with some exce[ttions M'liich are unfortunately '' too notorious, we believe that at no former period "did so active a spirit of impr()vement prevail ; nor " could well-directed measures for tlie attainment " of that objet.'t have been ]»roposed with a better " pi'os[)ect of success than at the present moment. " We regret, however, to Ik- oldiged to add, that " in most j)arts of Ireland there seems to be by no " means a corresponding advance in the condition 38 " and comforts of the labouring classes. A reference " to the evidence of most of the -svitnesses will show, " that the agricultural labourer of Ireland con- " tinues to suffer the greatest privations and hard- " ships ; that he continues to depend upon casual " and precarious employment for subsistence ; " that he is still badly housed, Ijadly fed, badly " clothed, and badly paid for his labour. Our " personal experience and observation, during our " inquiry, have afforded us a melancholy contir- " mation of these statements ; and Ave cnnnot " forbear expressing our strong sense of the patient '^ endurance, which the labouring classes have " generally exliibited, under sufferings greater, we " believe, than the people of any other coimtry in " Europe have to sustain/'* No one will deny the correctness of this state- ment. It is not overcharged ; it might well have been stated in stronger language. The condition of our peasantry is tlie opproljrium of the empire. Tlie causes of their degradation and the means of remedy is the great rpiestion, on tlie solution of which depends tlie well-being of tlie whole kingdom ; for it may safely 1)e asserted, that our peasantry must be elevated to the position of the EngUsh labourer in civilization, in industry, and in ' Par. Rep, 184-J, vol. xix. p. 12. 30 physical comforts, or they will bring down the peasantry of England to their OAvn level. Steam- boats and railroads have done more to amalgamate the two countries, than political enactments could ever have eliected. This facility of intercourse blends together the various elements of society ; transfers the labour of Connaught to Liverpool or London in a few liours, and at a small cost ; enables even tlie professional l)eggar, who can no longer obtain a pottito from the poor cottier of ]\Iayo, mnv reduced to destitution greater tlian his own, to remove his business to a richer people, exposing them to the contagion of his physical disease and his moral degradation. (Quarantine regulations are useless. The attempt to enforce them has 01 dy served to aggravate the diihculty. The pr)wcr of removal or sending back to Ireland Avill pi'ove e(pially indlieient. Those sent back at the parisli expense Avill have no ])ercrptil)le effect on thr whole number ; a small sum Avill enable them to return again.* Labour will nioA'e to that coun- * Tliis statement mny be ilhistratoel bj' tlie following extract from llie proceedings of tlie Glasgow Paroeliial Fioan.!, taken from a local paper, and copied into Sanmlirs' News Letter, ord Sept., 1847- " Return cf Irish Arrinils bij the Steonurs. — .Air. M'illock. tlie " interim inspector, made tlie folloM'ing return of the number of deck " passengers landed in Glasgow from Ireland during tlie week ending " lOtli Augnst, 1SJ7 : — ]>y steamers, .j. l^U. by railway, 74) ; total, " .J.S7.J — increase over the previous week, o,-J09. Of tliat number 170 40 try where a better demand exists, as surely as water finds its level ; and no means exist to pre- vent our peasantiy flocking to England, and form- ing an Irish quarter in all tlie English towns and cities, as they have already done in Liverpool, Manchester, and London, unless they be enabled to obtain employment at home ; unless their condition be so raised, that they may have no inducement to " v.tre (luite unable to work from (lid age. From the lOlh to the ITtli " Aiigik^t, tlie arrivals were by steam IxiatG.OSj, by railway 1,410; total " 7,49j; increase on the previous week 1,()20. Of that number ]o4 were "aged people unfit for labour. The total number landed from Ireland " from .June l.Jth to August 17th, 1847, has been 26,335. " Mr. ^rehire asked if Dr. Thompson could state Aviiat proportion of " the patient-j in tlie new fever hospital were Irish? " Dr. Thompson said that out of 1,150 patients, 750 were Irish, 380 " Scotch, 1. J English, and 5 foreigners. " J\Ir. ^VrClurc wished to know if any answer had been returned by the " government to tlie memorial praying them to put a stop to this im- " mense inniiigration ? " Mr. Kutherglen said the memorial had not yet been presented, as " they were awaiting tlie conclusion of an investigation of the comluct " (if some of the steam-boat proprietors, who had attempted to evade, " and he believed had evaded, in many instances, the quaranline laws. " The chairman expressed his disapprobation very strongly of the " manner in Mhich the steam-boat proprietors had acted. The chairman " read a letter which had been transmitted to him by the Lord Provost, " from the authorities of Belfast, complaining that Irish jjaupers were " sent to LJelfast from Glasgow whose settlement was in the counties of " ]\Ieath, Tipperary, or Dublin, and who ought therefore to have " been seut to other ports. He could not sec with what grace *' such a complaint came from a town from whence, for every 100 paupers " sent back, 1000 were sent to Glasgow. '' Mr. Willock said the paupers were always sent to the port nearest " to the place of settlement." 41 leave their native land for another. Tliis is an Irish (|uestionj but it is also an Imperial question, a great and pressing difficulty, whicli is well worth}- of the closest attention on the p;irt of the people of England. Even the complete politicjd separation of the two countries would not meet the difficulty. It could not prevent intercourse between countries in such close proximity. Xothing can meet it, un- less the peasantry of Ireland be placed in a posi- tion, in whicli tliey can raise themselves to that degree of comfort, whicli will induce them to re- main at home.* * F.xtrac't from Ldrd Stnnley's speech on the Poor "Relief (Ireland) Bill, (Time?, lltli May, 1847) : " Do not dream that hy yonr leiris'lation, legislate as you Avill, you can " iirevint that, wliieh I know is acting' strongly on the puhlic mind now, " and wjiieli is kindling a Hame in this country against Ireland, and every- " tiling Irish : do not hojn' that you can prevent the inllnxof a large hody " of laliounrs from among the poorest classes of Ireland into this country. " (Ueai-.) So long as your rate of wages here is higher tliau the rate in " Inland, so long Mill that intlnx take place. (Hear.) The more you " keep down tlie rate of Mages in Ireland, the more you will add to this " evil : tlu' more you encourage pauperism, and the more you discourage "the occu])iers of land from giving employment to the laliourers, for the "purpose of keeping them off the poor rate; the more you reduce, in " short, the amount of lahour in Ireland, the niuiv you Mill have of that "inllux of paniierism Mhich is tln-eatjning to ovcrwhthn tliis comitrv." CHAPTER 111. Small numhcr of proprietors of land in fee— Tenants in possession very numerous — Large grants of land in Munst«r — Long leases — Many subordinate interests — Smaller grants in Ulster — Cromwell's grants- Property aceumulates— Estates rarely sold in parts— !Mort gages. &e. —Unsuitable agents— Land but little improved — Settlement of Ulster — Tenant-right compared with copyhold tenure in England — Cannot be safely interfered with where established— Agrarian outrages — Their objects Insecurity of possession — Its depressing etlect upon industry Subdivision of land — Consolidation — Consequent suUerings of ejected tenantry — Difficulty of obtaining another farm— Wretched condition of labourers living by con-acre— Difficulties attending this state of things. From tlie Report of the Coininissioners for the Census in 1841, we iind tlie wliole number of farms in Irelaiul, exeeeding one nere in extent, to be 61)1,202, of whieli nearly one-half, or 310,43(3, are imder live acres. If we add the number of hold- ings imder one acre, (^vhich the census does not state) it M'ill make the holdings under live acres much more than half The proprietors in fee are probal)ly fewer than in an equal area in any part of AYestern Europe, — Spain only excepted ; whilst the tenants in possession of land are more numerous.* ' The number of proprietors in fee has been estimated at about 8000. 43 These remarks apply more strongly to Con- naught than to any other of the provinces. The estates in Connaught are peculiarly hirge. Several proprietors have more than 100,000 acres. The proportion of small farms is greater there than in the rest of Ireland, being 100,254 from one to live acres, while tlie whole number of tiirms is only 155,84-2.* By far the greater part of Ireland has been con- fiscated since the reign of Henry A^III. The grantees of coniiscnted lands in I\lunster received from Elizabetli large tracts uf 4,000 to 20,000 acres ui' good land, l)esides mountain and bog. The result has in many cases been, that the o^Miers preferred living in England, and let their lands on long leases, or for a ]K'rpetuit}', to otliei's, who in their tnrn let the lands in smaller ])or- tions, at a prolit rent ; thus liecoiiiing inh-rior Lmdlnrds, or middlemen. It fre^jUently liap[)ens tliat two, three, or four of tlie.-e intervene 1)etween the head landlord and the actual [)ossessor of tlie soil, each «jf tlie-m holding bv a loiiir lease, and deriving a proiit rent, 'iliis mn]ri]>lication ol'snbor- dinate interests is a great bar to improvement. f * St.'e AppuUilix D. f Tlie fi)llo\viiif; is the suliftunce uf m statement made Ity an ap- plicant to tlie Keliei' Comuiittee uf the Society ol' Friemls, resjiect- iii.^ a lowulaiul in the county uf Ko?conmioii, for whirli lie a?keii 44 When James I. undertook the plantation of Ulster, the evils of Elizabeth's large grants had become evident. Ilis grants were therefore generally limited to 1 ,000 or 2,000 acres of good land, with a fair proportion of mountain and l^og, and some provision was made to secure the residence of the grantee. The grants made bj' Cromwell were still smaller, being in many cases about 100 acres ; and tlie grantees being generally resident, consti- tuted a small proprietary, whose influence has been most beneficial in the districts wlici'c they settled. Properfy naturally accumulates. The personal estate being generally divided on the death of the owner, counteracts this tendency ; 1)Ut when a landed [)roprietor buys up a small neiglibouring arffistanet' : " U contains about six hunilrcJ acres ; is owned in " fee liy an English nobleman, but leased in perpetuity to a ijen- " tleman living in another j)art of Ireland, for the sum of £oO. " He has again leased it in perpetuity at a profit rent of £200 per " annum. The tliird landlord has divided it, the applicant holding from " him nearly one third, for which he pays a rent of £150 x'^r annum." The ap]>lieant, retaining a portion in his own hands, appears to liavc subdivided the remainder of his holding among sixteen families, Avho are tlie actual tenants in possession, ami cultivate the soil, lie state? that the two first mentioned landlords " care nothing about the tenants :"' con- sidering no doubt that they have no interest in tlie good or bad manage- ment of the property, as they have ample seeiu'ity for their rent, and can never hope for any increase ; and that the Mhole care and expense devolve on himself. This is not an uncommon case. The same condition of things, vari- ously modified, is to be met with in all parts of the country. 45 estate, he frequentl}' entails it, and both descend to his heir as one pro[)erty. Even when estates are brought into the market for sale, they are rarely sold in parts. Thus the nundier of landed proprietors constantly lessens. The commissioners for encpiiry into the occu- pation of Lujd in Ireland allude to tlie landed proprietary thus : — " The number of proprie- " tors of land in Ireland is small, -when com- " ])ared with its extent, and tlie amount of its " agriculturnl popidation. Tliis circum.-tance. while " prol:)ablv it is one of the causes, which have led " to the Avant of tliat personal attention to tlie "■' condition of tlje tennntrv. wliich is at once the " duty and interest of huidl(.)rds, renders also the '' impediments in the Avny of impnjvenient, arising " from the nature of the proprietor's tenure, a mat- " ter of more urgent public importance in Irrlaiid " than elsewhere. ^' It fre(piently Imppens tliat large estates in tliat " country are held in strict limitation ; and the " pecum'ary circumstances of tlie landed proprie- " tors generally, ari>ing in some cases out of " family charges, and resulting in others from " improvidence or carelessness, possibly of former " proprietoi's, disable niany, even of the best dis- " posed landlords, from im]>rovijig their jiroperty, " or encouraging im|)r<,)\'ement among their tenan- 46 " try, ill the manner which would conduce at once " to tlieir own interest and the j)ublic advantage. " jMany of the c^-ils incident to the occupation of " land in Ireland may Ije attributed to this cause."* In this portion of their report, the commissioners have mentioned two of the grand difficulties in the way of improvement : tliat the ]»roprietors are bound up 1)y strict settlement, and that they are embarrassed by mortgages and family charges. An<.)ther and a very important <»ne has Imm already alluded to, namely, the leases and sulvleases in per- petuity, or for a very long period, which al)scntee owners of land deemed it their interest to grant, for the purpose of devolving tlie cares and duties of landloi'd on some one wlio might be better able to perform them, and thus securing to themselves a more certain thougli it may be a smaller rental. Pu])]ic ()])ii)i<)ii attrilaites a great part »:if tlie evils of Ireland to these middlemen, probably with- out sufficient consideration. Xo doubt many of them are hard and griping landlords ; l)ut thc-re are otliers, whose property is extremely well ma- naged, and it should be recollected that in many districts they form almost the oidy resident gentry, and almost the onlv semblance of a middle class. * Ivcport of CninmissioiK-rs fur Enquiry into tlie Occupution of Lar.'l in Ireland. — ]'nr. Kep. 18-15, vol. xix. pnp:c 12. 47 A far greater amount of injury is sustained under circumstances whicli are by no means uncommon, when the chief qualification of an agent is either the power to advance money to his emphjyer, or the firmness to enforce payment of rent from a pauperised or unwiUing tenantry. AVhen an agent of this description is nonresident, tlie al;)sentee landh^rd is deprived of the means of k]iovN-ing tlie character of his tenants, whilst the tenants liave n(.)t the advantage of that social supervision, and advice in agricultuivd mattei's, Avliidi miglit l)e some compensation for the al)Senc(' of a conscien- tious landlord ; and arc too often left to the extor- tion and tyranny nf undrr-agents, baililfs, I'cc. ]\rany of our most intelligeiit ja-oprictors have seen this evil, and liave endeavoured to correct it by the appointment of agents who have a jvi-oper sense of the important duties required in the manage- ment of an estate. The management by a receiver under tin* Court of Chancery, has been even worse than tliat to which allusion has just been made; but some im- provement a|)pcars to have recently taken jdace in this respect.* Thus l)Ound up ly settlements, mortgaged, encumbered with heavy annuities and family * Sl'Q Apix-mlix v. 48 charges, burdened ^vith leases in perpetuity, and frequently held by a questionable title, many estates managed by unsuitable airents, or I'eceivers under the courts, is it extraordinary that tlie land of Ireland has remained almost unimproved ? The owners in fee, in many cases, have no interest in its improvement. It would not increase their rental. They merely derive from the land an annuity, as if thev were morto'a2:ees. Or if the estate l^e en- tailed, the life possessor lias little anxiety to im- prove it, at the ex|')ense of his younii'cr children, for the lu'nefit of his heir. Uncertainty of title is yet more discouraging, f )r who will spend money in improving a |)ropertv of which the ownership is in doulit ? One of the "articles" issued by James 1. for \\\Q plantation of Ulster, was as follows : " Tlie " said undertakers sliall not demise aiiy part of " their lands at will onh^, but shall make certain " estates for years, for life, in tail, or in fee sim])le,"" Anotlier article bound " every undertakei*, Avitliin " two 3-ears after the date of his letters patent, to " plant or place a competent number of Englisli " or Scottish tenants upon his p:>rtion."' The undertakers were also bound to l)uild a castle or other fortified residence, and other houses for tlieir tenants, and to reside on tlieir estate in person or by authorised de}>uty, for the first five years at 49 least. Such were some of the wise provisions of tliat plantation or colonizing with Scotch or Enirhsli, which, whatever may have been its humanity or justice towards the original owners, has certainly resulted in producing in Ulster an industrious and enterprising po])ulation, whic-h will bear a foir com- parison with the best parts of England. There is a spirit of industry and independence among the peasantry, and an energy in the manufacturing and commercial chisses, su])erior to :un' other part of Ireland. Tlie farmers, small and large, are moi'e thrifty and more desirous to improve tlieir flirms, than elsewhere. Education is more widely difiiised, and tlie amount of social comfort is greater than in most other })arts of Ireland. The provision against absenteeism may n<_>t fully liave attained the intended object, Itut it lias certainly secured a consideral)le nundjer of resident [»ropi'ietors. There is one most striking ])eculiarity, which prevails in many of the counties of Ulster — the custom of tenant-right, — respectirjg which the fol- lowing extract is quoted from the report of the commissioners for inquiry into the occu2')ation of land :— '• Under the influence of this custom, the tenant '' claims, and generall}' exercises, a right to dispose '' of his holding for a valuable consideration, al- '' tliough he may himself be a tenant-at-Avill, and E 50 " although he may have expended nothing in per- " manent improvements. We found that in various '• parts of that pr(3\'ince, sums equal to ten, twelve, " or Hfteen years" purchase upon the rent, are " commonly given for the tenant-right ; and this " not only when the rent is considered low, but " Avhen it is I'uily equal to tlie value. " Anomah)US as this custom is, if considered witli " reference to -all ordinary notions uf prnperty, it " must he admitted, that the district in which it '' prevails has tliriven and improved, in comparison " with othei- parts of tlie country.'"* Tliis custom has prohahly i-esidted from tliat article of the terms of setth-ment, by wliicli tlie undertakers were restrained J'roin deuii.^ing their lands to tenants-at-will, joined to tlie iiKk'}»endent character of a tenautry, avIio kncAV and Ave]*e determined to maintain thfir rights. The hrst tenants, it is natural to s\ip]iose. Avere ]»romiscd leases in accordance with the terms of the planta- tion. They must have incurred the whole or great part of the expense of the buildings and other necessary improvements, and they naturally claimed the riirht to liold undisturl)ed ])Osses.e pnid, and tliat tlie new tenant slioidd be approved of ])y him. This custoin appears somewliat analogous to the copyliold tenure in En^dnnd, of which Black- stone says, that it •' was in its original and luun- " datioii nothing better than a mere estate at will."" " Vet that Avill is rpialilied, restrained, and limited. " to he exerted according to th(; custom (jf the '' mtnior. Tiiis cu:?tom being sullered to grovr up by " the lord, is hjoki (l niion as the evidence and intt-'r- " pretej' oi his will : liis will is no longer arbitraiy '' and prci-arious, luit lixed and ascertained by th.e •' cu-tom to l)e tile same, and no otlior, that has '• time out of mind been exercised and dechired by ns ancesturs." " A copyhold tt'iianr is therefore "■ now i'ull as properlv a tenant by lln' custom, as " a tcnant-ai-will, ilie custom having arisen from a " series of uniform wills." AYliL'thc-i- a conrt of law Avoidd adjudge to the tenant avIktc this cu>toui of tenant-right prevails, the same legal estate eiijoyed by a copyhohlei' in England, is rpiestionable. Probaldy the case may iiever be disputed at law. Large sums of money have 1)een invested in permanent Ijuildings and other A'aluable impi'ovements, without any other security. The landlords, if from no higher j>i'inciph\ are com[)elled to recognize it l>y the fear E \i u 52 of outrage. It can scarcely be touched with impu- uity. Any serious attempt, where the custom has generally prevailed, would create a Tipperary in Down or Armagh ; and to quote the words of John Hancock, aaent to Lord Luro'an, as iriven in evi- dence l:)efore the commissioners, " if systematic " efforts were made amongst the proprietors of " Ulster to invade tenant-right, I do not believe " there is force at the disposal of the Ilorseguards " sufficient to keep the peace of the province."' It ma}^ safely l)c asserted that a successful attempt, which should deprive the tenantry of their ])resent security of possession, would quickly check im- provement, and reduce the people of Ulster to a. level with the rest of Ireland, as regards industry and respect for the la^7S. The custom of tenant-right naturally connects itself with agrarian outrages,* a puriion of wliieh * Extract from Reports of Commis?iouers of IiKjuiry into Occupntion of Lanil in Ireland (Ecports, 1S45. vol. xix. p. 4-2) : — " III Tipporary for a long time past, ami in some oilier counties more " recently, there has prevailcil a system of lawless viulenee, -which has " Icil in numerous instances to the perpetration of cold-blooded murders, " These are generally acts (jf revenge for some supposed injury infliet- " ed upon tlie party Avho commits or instigates the commission of the " outrage. " But the notions entertained of injuiy in such cases, are regulated " I13' a standard fixed b}- the will of the most lawless and unprincipled " memliers of the community. '* If a tenant is removed, even afttr repeated warnings, from land " which he has neglected or misused, he is looked upon, in the districts 53 are in fact the endeavour of the small farmers, by illegal combination, to extend the tenant-right throughout Ireland. The perpetrators of these out- rages are generally the sons of small farmers or the farm servants. They have not succeeded in in- ducing tlie landlords in the three southern pro- dances to recojinize the riirlit : but thev have been able, in many districts, to compel a payn^ent on the part of tlie incoming tenant, under the name of purcliasing tlie good-wilL Tho amount paid is by no means so large as in those parts of Ulster where it is sanctioned Ijy long usage. It may rather be considered as a payment for the sake of (piiet ]h)S- session, the amount of Avliich depends very nuich on the turbulence of the district, and the despera- tion of the former tenant. Outrages of this cha- racter appear to be nearly one-sixth of the "whole nundicr specially reported to the constabulary " tmrliicli wcarf ]io\\ti t'( rrini.% a?:m iiijurid man. ami tlie iU'e'ri.'(.' tun ulUn '' goes out for vencreanee upon the laiullord or tlie agent, and upon the " man who sueecc^ls to tlie form ; and at time.?, a large numerieal pro- " iiortion of the neighhourhood look Avitli indillereiice iijioii the nui-t " atroeious acts of violeuee, and hy screening the eriiniiial, ahet and " encourage the crime. Murders are perpetrated at uonu-day on a pulj- " lie highway, and whilst the assassin coolly retires, the people look un, " nnil evince no horror at the bloody deed. " The wliolc nature of Cliristian men ai)]icars, in such cases, to Le " changed, and the one alisorhing feeling as to tiie ]H)?sessien of laiul, " slilles all other:?, and extiiigui^lies the plainest jiriuci])les of huma- ■' iiitv." 54 office in the year 1844, but to constitute nearly one-third in the counties of 'Jlpj^L-rary, Leitrini, Koscomnion, and the King's County. These outrages occasionally, though rarely, arise from sectarian prejudice ; or they are perpetrated with a view of reoTilatinn; wa^es or rents, or of com- pelling the letting of land by con-acre, or of regulat- ing its price ; but in almost all cases thev are more or less connected Avith au anxiety to retain posses- sion (;>f land, Avhii/li. in places Avhere it is ex- tremely dillicult to ol)tain em])l(n'nient during a large part of the year, offers the only certain means of subsistence. To lose the possession of land, to ])(' refused ground on con-acre, is to be deprived of all means uf support.* It is often a question of life and death to the unfortunate peasant. The perpe- trators of tliese outrages are screeiied from justice, by tlie active sympatliy of the labouring classes ;!]id small limners, vdio consider them as >upport- ing tlie cause of the poor against the rich. ^Mnr- ders are conunittcd in the open day, before hun- dreds of spectators, and no oiler of revrard can procure information. If the ])arty be arrested, it is diihcult to oljtain a conviction. Witnesses refuse to give evidence. Juries are often unable to agree, eveii where the evidence appears conclusive of the * See Ajipcivlix A A. 55 guilt of the accused. The perpetrators of a large proportion of agrarian outrages escape detection. It is evident that the insecurit)^ of possession, for Avhicli a remedy is sought in these outrages, has a most depressing eliect upon the industry of the agricultural population. '' The greater ] )or- tion of the occupiers of land in Ireland hold as tenants from year to year.""* h\ as is the i)ractice in England, the farms were let, with suitalile liouses and i'arm laiildino-s, with irood uates and fences, and tluit the tenant had merely to keep the [)lace in order, he miglit perhaps dis[)ense with all seeu- rity, except for the gathering in of his crop. l>ut having to erect all buildings, to make fences and gateSj'f to do every tiling in slioi't "wliicli may he necessajy to render the gronnd avaihdjle as a I'ariii, nnd still linhle to he turned out :it six months' notice, without nny ('omiienMition for his impro\e- ments, it is not to he exi)eeted tliat h(i AviJl expend mncli of liis lahour or ca)>itai, where it is uncei-t:ii]i hoAV long lie niay l»o [)erniir!ed to enjoy the i'ruits of liis exertions. The Irisii tenant acts in llieso fiivumstanees just as aii I'Jigrblmian would do if in liis place ; he spends on his ilii'm ;is little hoth of capital and labour as lie ciui. Tlie buildings arc lina i'\' I.;iinl, I'ait I. p:iuc ■2:',4. X tk': A\i\K:n'\ix V\'. 56 temporary, a mud caljin thatched, perhaps a cow- house of the same materials. They cost him but little, and will not be of much value to his succes- sor. The fences are inexpensive ; the gates are make-shifts; perhaps the cart, or a turf-creel turned upside down, is run into a _ij;ap in the ditch. He never thinks of drainino^. The Ion a; winters are passed in idleness. If successfnl. lie conceals his success. He pretends poverty, lest liis landlord should be tempted to raise the rent. His capital is not expended on the improvement of the farm, but he tries to lay by sometliing, perhaps hidden in a hole in tlie thatch, to enable him. if dispossessed, to get another. It is true that there are many pro- prietors of land, wlio would not take advantage of sucli improvements on the ])art of a tenant, in order to raise his rent ; but a very few instances to the contrary are sufficient to shake confidence and pa ral y se exert ion . It lias been already stated that more than lialf the farms in Ireland are under five acres. \'ariou3 causes have combined to produce this. The desire to create ^'oters, in order to increase the parliamen- tary interest of tlie landlord, had considerable effi.'Ct, so long as a lease for lives, giving tlic k'ssee an interest of forty shillings per annum, conferred tlie franchise. Higher rents conld also Ite ol)tained for these small farms, than large farmers were willing 57 to pay ; and therefore many tenants with long leases sublet tlicir holdings in small portions, tlms obtain- ing a considerable profit rent. Another, and per- haps the principal cause Avas this, that the posses- sion of land having heretofore offered the only cer- tain means of subsistence, the iiither looked upon his farm as a provision for his family, and sulxli- vidcd it among liis sons at his death; thus often dividing it into portions so small, that the wliule produce would have been insulhcient for the sup- port of a family, even if there were no rent to be paid.* * " Tlic parent iiosscssed of a farm, looks upon it as a means of provi- '• (lingc for his lamily al'ter his Jieiasc. ami consequeiitly rarely imluces " thcni to ailopt any other than agricultural pursuits, or makes any other " provision for them than the miserahle segment of a farm -wjiieh he can " carve for each out of liis lioUUng, itself perliaps below the smallest size " which can give pnifitahlc occupation to a family. Ivicli mui, as he is •' married, is installed on his portion of the ground, and in some cases, " even the sons-in-law receive as the dowries of their hrides some share of " the farm. In vain does the landlord or agent threaten the tenant ; in " vain is the erection of new houses prohibited, or the snpjily of turf *' limited. The tenant relics on the synipathy of his class to prevent " ejectment, and on his own ingenuity to defeat the nther impediments •' to his favurite mode of providing for his family. " Thepecidiar system adopted in most parts of Ireland in subdividing " land, adds nuieh to the evils necessarily accompanying the exi^tence of '• holdings so minute as those wliieh tlie practice of subdivision tends to *' create. " Instead of each sub-tenant, or assignee of a portion of the farm, re- "■ eeiving his holding in one compact lot, he obtains a part of cachparticu- " lar (juality of land, so that his tenement consists of a number of scattered '■ patches, each too small to i)e separately fenced, and exposed to the con- " stant depredations of his neiglibuur's cattle, tlms aflurding a fruitful 58 The only remedy for this great and iiicreasiiin; evil was " coiisolidati<->n ;" to re-unite several of these minute holdino-s into one of reasona]:)le size. To effect this, it was necessary to eject many of tlie liolders of those subdivided farms : or, in other Words, to " clear the estate."* This h.as been a ^vork (jf great difficulty, and a fertile source of outrage. The tenants have availed themselves of every means to retain ]»ossession, and liave fre(jucnt- Iv succeeded 1)V illeo'al conil)ination and threats of violence. Sometimes ejectments liave been effected on a large scale. The inhabitants ctf wliole villages have been turned adrift at once, without a home to in despair of finding it: ;ind that a field nf half an aere Avas lield '• )iy tAventy-two different persons. " Jt frcpiently happens that when l.'uid has been suhlet or sulidivided, " liut one tenant is recognised by the landlord, although tliere are several " aetuid oecnjiiers. In this ease, each portion of land being responsible " f(ir the rent of nil, the industrious lennitt may lie lareed to pny the " .irvears really due by his idle partners." — Digest of I'vidence on Oceu- piitii'n ei' r,nn'l. Part I. page 411'. * See .\ppendix X. for the remarks of the Cunnnissiuners on Oceii- paiio;; i.f Land rc^pcclinij consolidation. r>9 support, or have assisted tliem to emigrate to America. Otliers, thinking it better to })ay for quiet possession tlian to incur the risk of outrage, have induced them to quit l>y the payment of a small sum of money. lUit unless some furtlier eai-e Ijc given, to place them in a way of oljtaining cnq)luynient for tlicir supjiort, the money is soon expended, and tlie unfortunate people become ])ei'- fcetlv destitute* Even in cases where the tenant, being dispos- ' The lollowiny is l"i\iin tlic VLport of a charitable reliet" eonin)ittce, ai'ter invesliuatiiiLT Ihe eiiTUiii?taneis uf some ol" these ejeeteil paupers : " I'he eonimittee fiirtlier learned tliat some laiuled proprietors in the '• neiuhbourhooi], tiiRliiiu' that the small cottiers .and si|vuitters on their •■ prnpirties were iiu-apalilc nf ruUi\atinii- their laud, and hviii-.; alstt dc- '• >ir!Klter. 'J'Ik' nunienius demeli>hcd " houses which met the eye m tlie neighbourhooif but too plainly indicate ■' that measures of a sweeping character were reported to. I'nless •' sinnething in the nature of a l;iw of '-i.tilemcnt be -jnedily adopted, " this wholesale eviction of tenantrv will lie certain to increase." (JO sessed of liis farm, receives the full value in money, lie often iinds it impossible to obtain another, and after some ineffectual attempts, his capital is ex- pended, and he sinks into hopeless povert3\ A case wliieli has come under the writer's personal observation will illustrate this. The party alluded to held a farm of twenty acres in the county of AVicklow, nnder a lease for twenty-one years and one life, which expired seven- teen years since. For two jQavs he lioped to obtain a renewal, and rcpoatedl}' tendered his rent, Avliir-li was alwavs refused ; but. at the ex[)irati')n ol'tliis period, he was serve*! Avitli an ejectment, and forced, verv unwillingly, to quit, and the farm Avas added to the holding of another tenant. Tlie agent arrano'ed tliat the new tenant sh(juhl uive the late occupier £50 for (piiet possession, to wliich the laud- lord added £oO more, and f >rgave him the tA\'o years' rent. The landlord even offered to pay the passage of himself and his family to America. l)Ut he preferred remaining, still hoping to obtain ano- ther farm, and being then possessed of a capital of £300. Three years were spent in ineffectual efforts to obtain a farm ; meanwhile he lived on his ca])ital, until it gradually dwindled away, and left him, as he now is, a common day laljourer. lie is a sober, industrious, intelligent old man, and has brought up his ehildren respectably. 01 The houses in which these poor people have li\'ed are generally destroyed, to prevent others taking possession of them. The unliappy outcasts tliemselves, taking refuge in the nearest town, hide their distress in some cellar or low-priced room ; or they build a turf cabin on the outskirts of a bog, and h-)ok for casual emphjyment, and take '^ a bit of ground in con-acre'' to pLmt with potatoes ; or they scpiat on some mountain common, ur on some rocky place near tlie sea, tempted ))y tlie facility of ob- tainimr sea-weed for maiuirino- the potato ^-round. T'he more enterprising proceed at once, l)elore tlieir means are exhausted, to England, wIhtu tluy gencrall}' contrive to make out a living l»y labo- rious emph>yment. For a sni.'dl farmer in Ireland to sink to tlie con- (htiou of a labourer, is so great a fall, that he will mak(j ovcry eilbrt to avoid it. The fanner almost invarialtly has a tolerable house and a. good roof over him, and a sulliciency of potatoes at least. Tlie labourers cabin is too well known to need nnich description ; a single room, with nuul lloor, often without window or chimney, and with a roof so ill thatched that heavy rain penetrates it. The supply of hibour is much Ijcyond the demand ; there is therefore great deiiciency of em])loy]nent, and the "wages are miserably low. In the eastern [lart of Ii'c- land, and near the lam-e cities, these wau'cs are gene- r>2 rally paid in money ; hnt in the western counties, the labourer or cottier gives a certain number of days' laljour annually, in payment f(jr the rent oi" the cabin in which he lives, and of a small plot oi' ground in which he grows potatoes for tlie suy.'port of his famil)^ His pig and poultry must pro- vide clothiiig, and every thing consumed ))y the family Avhich liis potato-garden does not produce. Low as is the condition of the cottier or labourer, wliose la1)0ur merely pays the rent of his caliin and p<)tato-gar(k'n, tliere is vet a lower class ; those who, liaving no certain employment, are obliged to pay a money rent for their wi'ctched cabin, and for the land which they take iri con-acre,* and Avhose subsistence dej)ends on tlie success of tlieir cru]). If it Jail, tliev have no resource ; their bed or whatever they have is ]tr'.»bably distrained for the rent; nntliing iviiuiins. 'flu're is so little employ- ment to be ]ian, Imt i^ merely a liliert}- to occupy the gronnil Sec Appendix AA. t Digest of Eviilencc, part I. page 47.'». (i3 Ireland, are mostly of this class; and tlu'ir earnings during tills season of em2jloymeiit pay tlie rent of tla'ir cabin and con-acre, and assist in clotliing tlieni. Thuir numbers liave l:)ei,'n annnally increasing l.-y improvident marri;iges ; and tlie very small demand for labour ap|)i'ars to render their condition hrjpe- less. There are no means (»f ascertaining exactly the number ol" persons Vv'ho Avere dependant on eon- acre ])ot;itoes for their su'p})(>rt ; liut it niu>t have formed a large portio]i of the ])0])ulati'>n ol" all \hv Avcstern counties, and v\'as not inronsideraiJc even in tlie eastern counries of I.einster aiid I'lster. Perhaps it may be e^timared at '2.0! ;-0.( ;(!(). Tlie cilitor of the 1 >igest <»i" the l-'.Aidciice on tiie Uccu])ation of Land, thus remarks respecting tlie la1)ouring population : — " The means «rf subsistence '' of the various classes of labourers in Ireland " have haig lieen an enigma, even to tliose invest i- "■ gators wlio liavc given the greatest degree of " .attention to the subject. There is one fact, how- " ever, that all reachly admit ; namely, that the " continued existence from year to year of this " large portion of the ])opulation. mainlv de])en(led " on the p<:)tato, vhicli is no longer available to " tliem ; and consequeiitlv. a distinct provi>ion '' mu^^t now lie made iVir their future su|)port, Avith- ■' out reference to tl)i'mer habits or practices. '' There are l)ut two alternatives bv Avhich this 64 " object can be accomplished. 1st. Gratuitous re- " lief to tlie flimilies of able-bodied labourers, " which, if extensively adopted, must produce ruin " to all classes in Ireland, and great loss to the " nation at large. 2nd. X broad principle of " permanent improvement of the lands, which are " capaljle of affording an:iple employment for some " years to all the labouring classes.''* * Tart I. page 47G. CHAPTER ly. First nppoarancc of disease in the Potato in 1845 — Alarm tlien cxeitoJ — Destruction of tlie crop in 18-10 — Estimate of tlie loss — I'easantry reduced to destitution — Distress of the manufacturing and civic population — Subsequent famine and disease— All classes affected hy tliis c;daniitv. In the autumn uted tlie injury to the potato crop. The summer of 1846, on the contrary, Awas un- usually warm. The wheat appeared particularly fine. The appearance of the potatoes was most favorable, when suddenly they seemed blasted, as if by lightning. The leaves withered, the stalks became 1)arc and black, the whole plant was dead, while the tu])ers were in many places scarcely formed, and in no part of the country wore the late 67 potatoes fully grown. The crop was destroyed. The food of a whole people was cut off. It noAv appears extraordinary that the alarm was not more immedi- ate and more general. The calamity had proved less serious the pre\nous year than had been anticipated at first, therefore many hoped that the present accounts were exaggerated. Even those who saw that the crop was lost, could not believe that the consequences would be so serious. Perhaps none were able fully to anticipate the aA\'ful reality. We are now able to appreciate tlie loss ; avc have estimated its value in money ; we have experienced its remote elfects, in deranging the commercial and monetary arrangements of tlie kingdom ; and looking back on it, we see tliat tlie consequences were inevitable. Ireland had lost in tlie potatoes and in oats to tlic value of at least £1G,000,000.* 'Extract fmni tlie .Maniuis of Lansiluwnf's spcccli, (Time?, IGth of January, 1 n47 ) : " Uo wcniM eoiiiinenco liis statenu'iit — aiiil tlioy uoiiM he anioiitr the " very lew tiuTires with whicli lie woiiM tmuMe tliem — witli an aeemuit " whieh v.-a» as aceiirate as the best oaleuhitinn ouu!'.! make it, of tlio loss " in money value that had been oecasioncil by the late failure of the crops '•in Irelaml. Taking a valuation of -U 10 per acre for potatoes, and '• X3 10s. for oats. t!ie delieieney on the jiotato crop alone amounted to " £ll,3o0,0lX), while on the cmp of oats it amounted to 4:4,(i(J0,000, " or to a total value of £1(1,(100,000. for the whole of a country " which, if it could not be said to be the}toorest, was certainly not one of " the richest in the world. In weiij^^lit, the loss was- between 9,000.OO(t and " lO.WO.OOO tons of potatryes. The whole loss had been erpiivalent to ■' the absolute d^stru.-tion nf l.jOO.ttOO arabk' acres." F -2 68 It would cost a much larger sum to supply the deficiency of food resulting from this loss. The difficulty was greatly increased by the peculiar circumstances of the crop which had failed. It constituted the food of the great mass of the popu- lation. It was essentially the property of the poor. Cidtivatcd by their own hands, in their o'^tii gar- dens, it was their capital, their stock in trade, their store of food, for themselves, their pigs, their poultr}', and in many cases for their sheep and cattle. When it was gone, they had no otlier re- source. They had believed themselves comforta1)le, and felt secure of having enough of food ; and now, by a sudden and unexpected dispensation of Providence, they were at once reduced to pfjverty. For a few weeks the poor cottiers and lal;)Ourers managed to eke out a sub5.isti'nce, l)y the sale of tliL'ir pig and other dispo.sible property, or 1)}' paAvning tlieir clothes ; but pig, fowl, furniture, and clothing were soon gone ; their very dogs were drowned. Before the end of the year they were utterly destitute. Many of the small farmers were scarcely better off than the cottiers ; others had stacks of oats whicli they lived on Avhile tlic}^ lasted. Many in the western parts had some cattle or slieep. The larger farmers in tlie wlieat districts were more fortunate. The wlieat brought a high price, often sullicient to com[)ensate tliem for the (3<) loss of their potatoes. The calamity fell with pe- culiar se\'erity on the farm servants. The farmers having no j^otatocs to feed them, and their ser- vices being less required in Avinter, they were very generally discharged, and in many cases had no h(.)mc to go to, or were refused admission by their relations. Tliese were among tlie first victims of starvation.* The tailors, shoemakers, and other artisans who Avorked for the poor were the next suiferers ; they could get no employment. The public works, which were intended for the abe- bodied, bein£!' ill mana2;ed, ali'orded no relief to many of the ver}- poorest. Tlie workhouse ac- commodati(jn was utterly inadeijuate to the greatly increased number (.)f the aged and infirm desti- tute. Even those wlio got em])hjyment could not earn enough to sn]>port a. family. The j)riee of food rose enormoush'. Tui'iiips were sohl at Is. to Is. (Id. i)er cwt. 1)V the few irentrv or larQ'e fir- mers wlio liad them, and -who in many places doled them out in lialf cwts. lest they should be too quickly consumed. The first frightful tales of suf- ferina" wliich Ijurst on us from the AAild and ill-culti- * " We parsed a small burying-place at tlie time of an intLTmcnt. It " Aras a ytumg man -who had Ijclii a farm fiTvant, and having been dis- " charged could find no one to taki- him in. lie had l)een i>ronuscd " admission to tlie Avorkhouse, but died the previous day of absolute '•want of food. No iuciuest." — Letter from Balliua, iiGlh of 12lh mo. ISIG. vated districts of the west, were quickly echoed from the richer and more fertile counties of Lein- ster. The distress extended itself anions; the in- dustrious manufacturing population of Ulster, and the artizans and work-people of the towns and cities. Want and miseiy spread throughout the land.* * Tlie lollowinf,' i^tatoment of ilistrcss iu :i manufacturing di^trit•t of tlic county of Armagh, province of Ulster, is extracted from a letter ad- dressed by a ckTg}^nau of the Churcli of Eiigland to tlie IJelief Coumiit- tee of the Society of FriuiJs. It is dated J\h. -Jurd, lS-)7 : •' The population of this parish has been hitherto c'iieily snpported liy " weaving, carried on in their own houses. The weaver at j resent can " only earn, by weaving a web of sixty yards, two sliillings and six- " pence to four shillings and sixpence, which employs him nearly a whole " week in preparation, while at present prices s\icli wages will nut siip- " port the mere weaver without a family. Even with such wages, 1 can " state it as a fact liaving come under my own innnediate observation, " tliat weavers are sitting up three nights per week in order by any " means to procure food for their families. There is scarcely a family '• in the parish in ^^llich there is not some one w more niemViers of tlie " family sitting up nightly. I have sein them iu returning to my own " liome, (from visiting the sick) at two a. m. working as busily as in " the day time. In several cases 1 have relieved imlividiuils in their own " houses, wlio from exhaustion had been compelled to lie down, and " could no longer continue to work on the loom. This has been, and is " now, the only means of employment. Tlierc are no private or iiublic " works carrying on, or about to be carried on in the district, and even " this mode of scanty and insufficient employment is now rapidly ceas- " ing. " The distress has been greatly augmented of late by the turnip crop, " on which numbers were subsisting, having become exhausted. It has " also greatly increased from the fact, that the poor having now almos " entirely sold or pawned all their clothes, even in many cases sold tlieir " Bibles, the}- have no further resomces from whence to draw. • I have mvself witnessed tlie living lying «n straw, by the side of the 71 Disease resulting from insufficient and unwhole- some food rapidly followed. The poor-houses could not contain half the applicants who anxiously sought admission, often ^^dth no other object than to obtain a coffin to be l;)uried in. In place of the parade of a large funeral, the dead were buried hastily, frerjuently witliout a coffin, and attended " unburk'il (ku'l. wIid had died tlirto dny? lic-l'uro. Many cases from " actual starvation liavo occurrL-d amongst the alile-bodied, ■without ' ' reckoning the aged iind intirm, avIio have been ent oti'hv the eileets of star- " vution, or tlie mnnv many unnundiered chil(h\n who have died from the " same cause. 1 have been called to sec a girl of four years old, a few " weeks ago a strong licaltliy girl, wlui then was sci emaciated as to be " unalile eitJicr to stand or move a liml). I liave visited liouses where " tliere was no article whatever of food or clotliimr ; nothing but straw " to lie down upon, not even a stool to sit upon, and some of^whose " inmates, I tear at tlie moment i write. niu.«t liave perished. One " of tlie poor-houses of the district, J.urgan. is >lnit for\'gress or ingress ; " seventy-five died in one day. In ^\.rniaL:li poor-liouse, forty-five die " weekly. Before Lurgan poor-house was closed, it emitted pestilence " into our parish, already full of dysenter\^ and fever. Last year, to " iiave been buried wltlioul a hearse would have been a lasting stigma "to a family; now liearses are almost laid aside; even the Iloman " Catholic jiriest ceases, (I liave it from his own li2)S) to attend funerals "in his grave- yard. His congregation, lie lias told me, lias been re- " duced to almost nothing; wliile the congregation of tlie church of " which I am clergyman has been reduced to forty from lifty or sixty " persons. I saw with my own eyes on Sunday, Eebruary 7th, the " Frcsbyteriau meeting-house emptying of its contents— a congregation " of four. " We are, in short, rapidly approaching, and if unassisteil must arrive " at the worst of the pictures that have Ijeen presented to the public " from the county of Cork." The following is extracted from a letter of the Inspecting-officcr of a Union in Connaught, dated April "JTth, 1847 : " This is certainly a Union oi' paupers, for there are very few who " will not re7th of April. 1847: *' The state of the small farmer is becoming pitiable. Yesterday, a " respectable religious-minded man, a Presbyterian, whose family " during illness I frequently visited, who holds aliout four and a half " acres of ground, came to me and said, ' I have never in my life asked " any tiling ; I have had a pride above it, but what can I do ? I have a " wife and sis childi-en, and there, sir," said he, showing me a shilling, '• ' is all that is left of my cow, the last valuable tiling I had. I have " pawned and sold every thing else before, and I come to ask to be " allowed to spend this last sliilling on the meal you are selling at half- " price;' and my conviction is, that before the month of 3Iay is over, " there Avill scarcely be one small farmer, who will not be driven to look " for charitable relief.'' IS produced, at :i time of perfect peace, among the peasantry of the richest, the most civilized, and the most powerful kingdom in the "worhl. It must not be considered that this description is equally applicable to all parts of Ireland. The Ljss of property and want of emplo3'nient were every- where felt; but tljc superior resources of the eastern counties very nnich mitigated the distress, and the more frightful scenes of suiferiiig, resulting in deiith, or loosening the ties of natural ailx'Ction, were confined to a few localities in tlie west. The ellects of this calamity have been felt throughout all the ramifications of society ; no class, no rank has l)een exempt from loss. The poor could not aiibi'd t(j purchase clothing, (>r to expend anv money except Ibr food. The small shopkeepers therefore lo,>«t their trade. The bu>i- ness of the wholesale dealer and the jiierchant Avas diminislied. The various branches of manufac- ture felt tlic Avant of demand : many of their work- people were dischargetU Carpenters, masons, and other artisans in want of employment, servants discharged from families desirous to economise, added to the general distress. The only flourishing trade Avas in articles of food. IWit the diflicrdties and reverses resulting from this heavy loss have not been confmed to the [)0or and the trading connaunity ; they 74 have extended to the highest rank of society. Persons of limited incomes derived from land have been and are greatly eml^arrassed. Rents may have been pretty well collected from the richer wheat •j-rowinof districts, hut tlie owners of tlie poorer soils, which produced oats and potatoes, carmot have received much. Many are unable (unless they possess <)thcr means) to pay the various cliarges to which tliey are liable. Those whose property consisted of profit rents have been seriously affected, and many of them are reduced from afduence to absolute poverty. Unable to collect their rents, they cannot pay the head-rent, and Avill be evicted for its non- payment. These diliiculties are only now bcgin- nino' to make themselves felt. The future seems dark and uncertain. AVliat can avail the landed [»roprietor, whose estate is mortgaged lor three- fourths of its value ? How can he pay the interest and other cliarges, and bear the present heavy taxation for support of the poor and for repayment of the government advances ? There are many who have Ijeen considered rich, and who have lived in ailiuence, who will find themselves deprived of all property, Avhose ancestral estates must pass iiwixy from them for ever. At least it now ap- pears impossible to preserve them. The longer the 75 evil day of settlement is deferred, the greater will be the loss. An immediate arrangement, which might free them from the lialiility to heavy charges on tlic whole estate, seems the only way to preserve any portion. CHAPTER V Cleans of alleviating the distress — Introduction of Indian corn — Public work? — Disadvantages of this sj'stem — Compensating circumstances — Extensive local subscriptions for relief of distress— Unprecedented amount of contributions from England and foreign countries— Private donations — Exertions of the resident Irish gentry — Difficulties of their position — Exertions of Protestant and Roman Catlmlic clergy — Noble exertions of the wives and dauuhters of the gentry — Small number of educated residents — Consequent diliieulty in the administration of relief — Temporary Pelief Act — Dillicnlties in tlie way of its opera- tion — Gross abuses in its administration in soidc districts — Contrasted with good management in otliers — rni)Lfieial results — ]»isenntinuance of this mode of relief — .Vuiount of cxiieiidilure. TliL- iiU'Us-ui'c'S taken by tlio Goveniineut in the Avinter of IS' 15. AVcro not calculated to ])i-oYidc for so extensive a calamity as that Avliicli was experi- enced in the folloAvinir vear ; it therefore seems nnnecessary to allude to tliein, further tlian to notice the extraordinary foresight, which, by im- porting Indian corn from America, introduced a new kind of food, so well suited to fill the void lel't l)y the loss of the potato crop. Ijcfore the parliamentary session of ISIG had ended, the Government were iiwai-e of the diliieulty, though they did not anticipate the extreme severity i i of its pressure. The plan of public works pro- posed by tbera received the sanction of Parliament. It is scarcely necessar37- to remark on this mode of relief, which now seems universally condemned ; though no one has pointed out a substitute which would not have been liable to many objections. Perhaps it Avas not, under any circumstances, the plan l)est calculated to meet tlie dilliculty ; but if the destitution had lieen less severe, it might liave answered. As it Avas, it faik'd chiefly through the same dilliculty wliieh impedes every mode of relief, whetlier public or private, namely, tlie want of macliinery to ^vovk it. Ft was impossible suddenly t»-) pi'ocnre an elliciciit stall' of officers for an luidcr- taking of such enormous inagnitude — tlie employ- ment of a whole ])eople. The overseers were neces- sarily selerti'd ill liaste ; many of tliem Avere corrupt, and encouraged tin- misconduct uf tlie labourers. In many cases, the relief committees, unal)le to prevent maladministration, A'ielded to the torrent of corruption,* and individual members only sought to 1)enefit their own dependants. The people every where flocked to the public works, labourers, cottiers, artisans, iishermen, fanners, * A rcsju'ctable ckrcyinnii boiny aj-kdl liow he cnnie to kiul himself to ?ucli doing?, ivplied, " At lirst I strove ag;iinst it as nuicli as I coukl, " biit I coukl ctk'Ct nothing ; and then I thought I ^vas not doing justice " to my o^vn people not to take rare of them." men, women, children, — all, whether destitute or not, sought for a share of the public money. In such a crowd it was almost impossible to discrimi- nate properly. They congregated in masses on the roads, idling under the name uf work, the really destitute often unheeded and unrelieved, because they had no friend to recommend them. All ordinary emplopnents were neglected ; there was no fishing, no gathering of sea- weed, no collecting of manure. 1'he men wlio had emplopnent feared to lose it, hy absenting themselves for any other object ; those unemployed passed their time in seeking to obtain it. The whole industry of the country appeared to Ije engaged in road-makuig. It becrime absolutely necessary to put an end to it, or the ordinary business of the country — the cul- tivation of tlie land, would liave been neglected. The cliects of sucli a system are now evi- dent. Works undertaken on the spur of tlie moment, not because they were needful, but merely to employ the people, were in many cases ill-chosen, and the execution equally defective. The labourers, desirous to protract their employ- ment, were only anxious to give as little lal)our as possible, in wliich their overlookers in many cases lienrtily agreed. The favouritism, the intimidation, tlie wholesale joljbing wliich was practised in many places, were shockingly demoralizing. Still we 79 must not too liastily condemn this mode of relief, as if it had effected no good. The difficulties of our position were great beyond all precedent. The employment given secured the peace of the com- munity, and protected society from that greatest of dangers, a starving mob of able-bodied men. in many places the roads made will eventually be very useful, in opening extensive districts and faci- litating connnunication. A very large amount of money was poured into the country, Avhich, though it may not in all cases have reached tlie ])oorest, yet aiforded the means of subsistence to many who Avould otherwise have starved ; and even in eases of abuse, it probably ke[it from d*>titutiun many small farmers and others, who Avithout this assist- ance would have become absolute paupers. The problem was : in a time of great drai'th, to support '2,()()(),(KI0 or 3,U(J0,(1()0 of drstitute ]iersons ; and this was in gi'cat measure eifccted, though at an enormous cost to the empire. But it was not expected tliat these public Avorks Avould support all tlie destitute. The local relief committees Avere to raise subscriptions, Avhich the Government otfered to double ; and in some cases of peculiar poverty, even a larger proportion Avas given. This appeal Avas in A'cry many cases re- sponded to Avith marked lil)ei'ality. The Trisli gentry had alreadA' coiitriljuted lilieralh' in the 80 spring of 184C, before the blight of that year appeared ; they now subscribed again, many as largely as their means warranted. The intelligence that Ireland's most important crop was lost, and her people starving, went through every country, and every where excited one universal feeling of pity. Tlic subscriptions in England were on the largest scale, worthy of the occasion, and consistent with that liberality wliich Ireland has so often experienced. Money was siTit from France, (>e]*mtuiy. Italy, and other parts of western Europe, whose inhabitants were themselves suffering from the same cause. C)iir fellow-subjects in the AW'st and in tlie farthest East heard of our distress, and joined in the effort to relieve us. The citizens of tlie United States e^'inced tlieir feelino- for our sufferinirs, by su])- scriptions on a seale such as never lK'iV)re AVei-e sent by one nation f )r tlie relief of anothei', Avorthy of a great and benevolent people, and calculated to cement the ties which should ever unite two nations of kindred institutions and similar origin.* Dif- * Tlic first aiitlicutic accounts of the actual eviilcnce of famine in Ireland, uvakeneil a deep feeling of connniseration tlu-onghout the States, and a movement surprizing in its extent, and in the magnitude of its results, fortinvith commenced. IMeetings were convened in n)any of the principal cities, and committees were formed, who laboured -with indefatigable zeal to collect and forward supplies in money and food. Large sums of money were speedily remitted; and cargo after cargo of 81 ference of creed, and clime, and colour were disre- garded. The Sultan of Turkey sent liis aid ; the people of India offered their assistance ; the en- franchised Negroes of the AYest Indies, and the red men of the fir West of America added their mites ; and even cnslaA'cd Xegroes in the United States contributed from their povert}', for the relief of those wliose condition was, in this respect, one of greater distress than their own. Never Ix'fore liad any civilized people exi)crienced such suifei'ing, never luid there existed >ur]\ a feel- iiig of imiver> d ^ymputhy, aecompanied by exer- tions for tlieir relief on so gigantic a S(;ale. The aggregate ve)huitary collections of tlie seve- ral loeid eonunittees, in the years 181() and 1817, exceeded £o()0,<)00.* 1'he sul)Scri]itioiis eoiilided to tile lU'itisli Association :i]id the |)]'ii]ei]i;d een- tral relief eommittees in Tjiiidon and l)u1)rni, alto- gether amounted to about £8uO.()()0.-j- pr(ivi.--iitn# loUiiwi'il in quiek sueressiLHi. Tlie?c ,!;enor<:)Us clTorts -were giwatly aiik'd :uicl cncouriiged liy the liberality of the British Cioveru- iiicnt. in tniilertaking to pay the freight of all donations of food I'roni AniL-rira. "■ The precise amount of the lueal suh^criptions nlHcially npuirted, ajipears to have heen i'KUJiSO ISs. Id. in ]S-J(^ and i;iO.'i,J(iiJ -Js. od. in IS 17. The latter sum may contain some grants from charitable associa- tions, and sojne siiliscriptions not strictly local, but it is believed that these do not cunstitute any large portion of the amount. ■\ It is not practicable to give the exact amount received by the various central relief connnittees. The whole sum probalily exceeds £S(i(i,(lOO. It is evident that the valuation of the footl consigned to their care is to some extent arl>itrary. G 82 But large as arc these sums, their amount wouhl be greatl}^ uicreased, if we could enumerate the many thousand small contributions sent from all parts, which private charity has liecn, and is yet, constantly bestowing ; nor is it })i)S.>iblc to estimate tlie value of the exertime laiidcd [»roi)rietors, l>)tli resident and ]iun-i'rsident, have not oidv been wanting in cjlbrts to mitigate the pivvah-nt distress. ]tut have even angi-avated it, by a seilisli ;;nd iiiiibeling line <»f conduct to\v:irds tlicir jjiisei'alde tenantry; Init there are very man\- also, avIio have done their (hitv nobly in tlie (hiricult pu>iTii>i! in which they have lieen i)la('ed. They saw and felt fur the miseiy around tliom, and '^nYO their time, and largely of their substance fur its relief. No one avIkj has nett witnessed it, can conceive the dillicul- ties of tlieir situation. Few, and widely seiKirated amidst such a mass of sidii'ring ; cramped by the nun-payment of rents ; without any personal assist- ance, and in great part without pecuniary contri- butions from the numerous non-resident pro]>rietoj's, manv of whose estates luruished mucli lieyund -^n average pro[)ortion of pauperism ; weighed down 83 l)y the constant ^iglit of niiscm' "wliicli tliey could not relieve ; oppressed by an anxious sense of the responsibility of their position, and l»y the weight of public ])usiness ; alarjncd ibr tlie future, and fn'ipientl}" reminded of the dangerous nature of their ckities, Ijy seeuig their ncigidjours one after another struck down l)y tlie fever cveiy Avhere ]trevalent, and wliicli has proved peculiarly fatal to the higher cla-s.'S — if i:> indeed wonderful how so many (»f the residiMit gentry iia\e ]»een snp- ]>orted tlirough (riJlieiihies so ui)|taralle]ed, which ]uig]it well luiAc ap[!al]ed tlie stoute>t heart. The exertions of niai!\- of tlie eh'rgy of tlie f^stabli^hed ('hureli are v,"ell known, and ajipreci- ated :is they deServe to be ; the efiieieucv of their 'afiDiii'S was. ill mariv e tlie ctu'dial, and skilful eo-opcniiioji nf their ax i\'es and daugh- ters. Idle peeiiliar iM;>ition of the ioaiiaii Catholie eh'i'gv in tiiis re>j)ect, iviidcivd thcin los able to lake an ellective pai't in administering ivlief : but nian\" of the.-e al>o, as A\'ell as c»f the ministers of <»ther reliii-ious b('di<'s, Jiave not been -w-anting in ihe di.-charge of the great and ])eiilous duties Avliieh (hvolvcd on them. Vei'v man}' ladies have been devoted and unre- mitting in their endeavours to assist the distressed poor around them. Tljev liave established schools, at Avliieli poor children ai'C taught some useiid -2 84 branch uf industry, and receive a daily Ijreakfast, often the only meal tliey have to live on. They have especially attended to the wants of the sick, have given them medicine, and supplied them witli food and with nourishing drinks, more conducive to their recovery than medicines, and in so doing have exposed themselves to the constant danger of con- ta^'ion. The value of these exertions is incal- culable. AVlicrever there is a residi'ut projtrietor of ])v\\o- volencc and intelligence, the country all ;i round feels tlie l)enehcial influence, ll' i1h' numlirr of resident gentr^' had Ix-en as large as in England, the calamity which has so alllicted us under our present circumstances, would have been felt in a very infei'ior degree. IMany examples of enei-getic and praiseworthy conduct might l)e adduced ; ;i few are given in the notes, suHicient to illu>tr;tte tlie nature of these exertions, and of some of the dilh- culties under which very many of the Irish gentry have eJideavoured to do their duty.* T'hese in- ' The mmiber of persons Avho, previous to the temporary reh"cf' act coming: into opuration, receiveil their daily food from sonic individual distributors, will ajipear incredilile to many, and miist have taxed the physical and mental energies of tlie distributors to the utmost. Much informatifni lias lieen transmitted to tlie Relief Committee of tlie Society of Friends illustrating this. ]\Iany persons, both lay and clerical, must have devoted their whole time to the work, to enable thein to do so much. In several instances, the number fed with cooked food has amounted to 85 stances of self-devotion should be considered as a set-off against the neglect and oppression, which have often been brought more prominently into view, and wliicli liave thrown so much ol)loquy on tlie cliaracter of Irish landlords. fruiii JOO to 10(10 persons daily, ami mie clergyman resident in the County of Mayo writi-s, under date May IV. !i. wlien solieitins a further fxrant : •' Two tlmusand live hundred individuals are ivnr daily supplii'd " with food at my soup-kitchen. Should you think proper to give me " further assistance, in-ay do so without delay."' In one very destitute district in tlie County of y^ayo, tlie indelatii^ralile exirtious of a lady jiad oi'iranized a "Ladies' .Vs-oi-iation," to which she acted a- secrcttiry. 'i'his association consisted of ei^^lit nu-nibcrs I'esiding sevi-ral miles ainirt. yet thus encouraijing each other in their charitable labours, liy such comnmnication and co-operation as the}' ■were enabled by this arrangement to keep ny. All had large boilers except one ; they distributed cooked food daily, and had a weekly gratuitous distribution of rice and meal, Iiesides sales at a reduced rate; they employed 13j spinners and weavers. Tlieir monthly expenditure exceeiled ,£700, and supported upwards cif l.'iOO families, and also several hundred occasional applicants : and all this labour was undertaken in addition to their house- hold duties as mistresses of families. ]Many persons occupying a lower station in life have also devoted themselves to the work of mercy. A letter from a friend of the author, written from the barony of Erri^, County of ^ifayo, says: " Yesterday '• I visiteil tlie sovip-kitchen kept up by . cliief boatman of tlie " water-guard at . He attend= to it without fee or reward. He " told me ye-'terday that it had occujjicil him from four in the morning. " Ue seems a remarkalily amiable man ; he lias four motherless children " v« ry well brought up, and all on a very .-mall salary. He lives in " a -mall but very neat cabin." Another letter from the same individual, alluiling to the exertions of two possessors of land in moderate circumstances, in another part of Erris, says: •' This morning I sjieut two hours lufore breakfast in " going round among 's tenantry, and was in the wretched huts of " perhaps 25 or 30. "Many of them before tlie t'amine were comfortable, " as they esteem comt'ort. 'i'iiey lunl cows and sheep, and plenty of 8(j It was natural to expect, when subscriptions were raised on so large a scale, that tlie distress should rpiiclvly hv I'l'lieved ; and tlie p:eneroiis donors in England were surprised and pained to " potatoes. Now the}' are in extreiiie niistTy. I have seen his soup- " kitchen in operation, and the activity and zeal of liis very larg'O " family in labouring for the relief of the poor in his Aicinity ; and I am " confident he is an excellent and n30?t nstful person. lie is exactly of " the sort that is w;niting ; and witli tlie exception of , and Lieu- " tenant of tlie coast guard, (about two miles from tliis, j tlare arc " lu) persons whatever to look after the poor Avithiu a circuit of upwards '■ of C>() miles, in a district filled witii a swarming and wretched popnla- " tioji. What I wonder at, since 1 liave seen witli my nwn eyes, is that " he should have done so much, and tliat his i'amily are so clieerfulh' " devoted to the same work of mercy, a\ itliout the slightest pecuniary " recompciue." .\gain he says : " Vrom strict enquiry and dose ob- " servation, I am satisfied that the lives of hundreds have been saved '• by tlie eliorts uf tliese three men tmd their f;r.iiibes. I would for the " sake of my persiuial ease greatly prefer being a donor to being ;i •' distributor of relief. It is a great deal easier to put one's hand into " a long purse, tlian to hibour from ' m'jrn till dew\' eve,' filling out " stirabout to crowds of half-clad hungr}- v.-rctclies, sinking with weak- " ness and fever. 1 saw tliou-ands to-d.r.y of the most miserable people " 1 liave ever seen. I have witnessed more misery to-day tlian I ever '• did before." ^Nlany of the more wealthy landlords have supported the destitute poor on their estates from their own imaided resources, and have theret^jro come less within tlie spliere of the author's observation, (df the fimily of a landed proprietor of this chus, the government inspecting -olileer of a union in the County of Galway thus writes -. '• Tiiis excellent young person has been most active in dispensing " charity, and has established a most admirable soup-kitcheu at " wliere it has conferred great benefit on the destitute poor of that "neighbourhood: it is maintained partly by her fatlitr, and ]virtly by '' '"■ttbscriptious from her relations in England. Her motlier, loo, has " e.-tablislied a soup-kitchen in her demesne, through the agency of " which she daily spreads a vast amount of relief. There is no family " in this countv A\hieh has dill'used more benelit to the very destitute 87 find, that on the contrary it ccmtiniied unabated, or rather increased in intensity. Many tliought tliat it only needed to convert the subscriptions into luod, pour it into the distressed places, and all " people iu tlie vicinity of tlian the one I now write of. Cap- " tain lias bien, 1 helieve. a .-ulll-rer, lihe many otliers of " his class, by tlic non-payment of his rents; notwithstamling which " he emjiluys 80 lahonrers daily, and has done so since the connnenccnieut " of the present calamity ; and lie iias not snil'ered a single person on the " estate to be placed on lists of any kind for relief. T do think " sncli laudable exertions should receive the favourable notice of all " societies dispensiiiL;' rjiarities, to wjium lie or any of liis family niay '^ aj.iHal."" Anoiliir ]'n>]»i ictor (if land in tlir t'liiuity of (.alway. to v.lwm llie lielicf Connnittee of Friends have made sevcrad ura.nts, a.nd of the value of whofc e-\ert)^.lls tlivy have had 'jood reason io entertain the hi;^liest opinini). wrlles thus, under date of Ai>ril IT'-h. l'"--J7: '• In iiinse4iieni-e of the disiiii.- -al of a lai-'je inunber la destitute " persons from the pidiiic works this v.e'.'l;. 1 have had a ,e,reat ailditional "amount of trouble thrown u]Hin me. ( 'ar S(_iup-kite!ien had to be " reinforced as to the 'iuality of tlie matirial ser\ed, inasnnich as iho " majority of the reeijiieiits \\\ vc llnviwn npon it for M;]iiiort :',iuio-t •• entti-ely. Its expen>e> coii.-eiuently increased, and i can lioj.l lait no '■ hope of dimini^liing' the cor:t, until the new relief plan is l.iroiiL:]it int.) " operation ; wliieli l l"e;ir may not lie the ca.se fur sonu' little lime, owin,::; " to the immense labour thrown on the parish pi-iest and myself, the •' oidy residents capalile of ATorkinu' it nut. f)ur con.-mnjition lias liem as • I'ollows : 7''^-t ponn Is of rice ; "J.jD i)Ounds of beef ; 4'.'{) jiounds vi ' Indian meal; 7- pound- of treacle; tliii. v.itii servants' wat^'cs and •' fuel, &c. brings our expenditure up to £\0 (is. •' I liave issued to sick persons '231 pounds of rice, 1!- ]iounds of ■• biscuit, and 42 pou'vls of meal, the wladc of the ;.bove expenditure ' lieina' ;,'iven ^ratuitou.-iy. It has I iru-t dope c:ood, and saved many 'lives; thouph T rei^ret to adil the mortality is terrible, feVer and ' dysentery, especially the latter, carryiiu;- oli'va>t sunnbers. I snpj'lied ' cofiins for nine paupers in the week, and many more W( re interred. • I regret to sa.y that i liaCi to aiipoiiit a clerk to superinteiid the kitchen ; • my liealt!) and proj.erty could no lonner bcra- a eontinemeiit ef six or 88 would be right again. But the real difficulty lay in the structure of society throughout a great part of Ireland. A laro:e proportion of the pro- prietors were non-resident,* and therefore no per- " seven hours daily in it, but I still am always prtstnt at the distribution " morning and eveuiuu, and superintend it. " I reserve the soup-kitchen fund for the sick, the widows, or- " phans, and aged, and hope to aid them eiHciently through its means. " I tliink it onl}- just to myself to say, that but one individual family " on my own estate has received a single fertliing of support from " it since it was opened. This is a family of eight persons, lying sick al- " together of feve-r, and now convak-sri'nt. 1 have received fn mi your " agent your gcnertjus grant to us ; Hk' l)iscuit are a limely and valuabk' " aid in arresting the dysentery ; they are liie must valuable gift that " can be bestowed in tlie present circumstances of the people. " Things look badly, but relying on that Supreme Power that has " heretofore supported my wife and myself, in the midst of this unex- " anipled calamity, we strnugle to sustain the liopu and spirit <^f our " people, and restore their almost overwhelmed mental and physical " energies ; and in that liope J lake leave of you, and am, ^*ie." In another letter, dated ::J4th of April, the same gentleman says: " I liopc to have a decent breadth of tillaue ])ut in. 1 am quite aware " that on my exertions depends the ab.-olutc e\i-tenee of our people, " and as long as I liave health left, they shall not be spared." One of tlie last letters from the same party, when giving a concluding account of his distribution, says: " You will let me know what your " views are as to the future ; I will be frank with you. Tlie heavy losses *' sustained by me leave me unable to go further in the relief measures. " A considerable portion of the rents jiwyable at .May, 1840, are due to " lue, and 1 protest to you, that since the 1st of January last 1 have only " received a sura of £52. 12s. out of my whole income and heavy arrears : " imdcr these circumstances, I am reduced to poverty. I see no shame " in confessing it. Only the estate owes no money, and that we have a " valnalti'e>s d.id not exi>t, it couhl not be created with suHieient rapidity, and therefore the people siiifereetween the aijsolutely destitute, and tliose wlio pi'ctended to he " liands of a trustee who cannot give any relief. Tlie remainder of tlie " parish is suhdivided amongst many small landlords, who are all absen- " tees, and none of whom contribute anything; all complaining that " they Ikivc lost their rents. Extent about 12 sipuire miles. I'opuhition " about 0,000." Qrr.KN's County — " We have not one resident huiLllord in the dis- " trict: ajiplications have been niade to each non-rc-ident. and up to the '■ present time we have received b-it L-JI. Kxtent, tijitucn tlniusand " acres. ro])ulation upwards of lO.uoO." County of Koscommon " All the landed proprietors are non- " resident, excepting the chairman of the committee. Tlie rents of " three of the largest townlands of the pa.risli have been received for the '■ la;^t thirty years ]>y a receiver unlvr the cicu't of cliancery ; during '■which lime there l)eing no landlord to interest himself about them, " the land has lieen divided and subdivided, into very sm;dl holdings, " ami an innnense poi»ulation has sprung uy, wlio I'.rc reduced to the " deepest want by the fiilure of their usual food. Kxtent, eiie thousand " three humh-ed acres, l^'juilation .i),8lO."' County of ]Mavo — " Tlicre are fifteen abienteo landlords: their " agents do not live in the parish, ar.d seldom come ne.u" it : no u ni- " resident landlord has sent any subscription, 'i'lic resident land! n- Is " in some cases are giving assistance to thu-e around then;, but no gene- " ral subscription has been entered into. I, as vicar of the parish, " called a meeting, but no one attend.ed, as they >aid there w;!s iio one " to represent , who is the principal landlord anil an absentee. •' Extent, fourteen miles by twelve miles. Population alpnnt lii.OiiO.'' County of Galway.- — " The landed proprietirs are all abscutees, " nor have they contributed a penny toward.s relieving tiieir tenants " since the distress commenced. AVe liavc neither gentry nor a second " person in the character e)f a large fanner within the pari-h. ropuhi- " tion 4000." Ditto. — " The tlistriet witii whicli I am ]irincipally connected con- " t;iin~ a population of nciir 4000 M.nls of wjioiu a full third, are in 91 so. The agricultural population, whether farmers or labourers, hail heretofore supyjlied their wants from their own lR»l(lings : now it 1)eeame neees- sarv to import forxl. and to create a trade Avhere nun;' had ])n'viously existed. The silent streams of " actual (lostitutioii, another tliir'l in deep ilistre??, and not above a " sixth ahle to su|i]inrt themsi-lve*. In tliis district I am ahnost tlie only " re-ident prc^prietnr ; and tlmu:^]! tlie absentee properties are crowded •• witJi panjiers, alHictel by liver ami ]iro.~trated by famine, tlieir eon- " tributions are small a.iid t])eir personal assistance nonglit. Tliere is " besides nuich ]>rop-rty m the liands of receivers mider tlie courts, " where tlie u-nal iuibiluence cannot lie t;ivcn, wluTe contribution is out ■' iif tlie qncstii:in, and wliere Ihc utmost mi-i^ry eonsiijuently jirevails. '• We ]::i\v v.uw en tlie ^V(lr],ir. Ihe .-ii-k, the aired, tlie inlirm con-titnte a. va.st number: ■' an,i tbniiL:li annjii-j-t thi-e evrry ihim; we can do is done to tlie " utmost of o\ir :ibiiity, r.inrh ivniains undone."' CcfNTV (U' ( 'i.Ar.i:.— -" 1 \::\w to -ay -in an-wer to tlie remark made " in your letter, that in the ili^lribnliou of ;i js'.d.lic f'lml it is desiradile " in all case-, a- far a> po->iMe, that it !k' dom: throii_Ii a nmilar orLian- •- i/alion of iht- bciievoknt and )n;i.'o,:iriit inhabi'iant- ot' the di.-trict '■ claimiivj; reliel' I that. ah'>. in llie d,i-i:i:'t ii.r whiiii my d;ii'.L:htiT is ex- •• erting lier>e'r, there is not oi;e i^ r-ou :;! ovi.' the ra.iik of a ])ca-ant " i-esidiim : th.:;t the i^reater part i- inha.liited by wry i^ lor people, and •■ that it all belongs to aliseiitees. who have not contribnted a siiihiiii;' '■ ibr I'eliil'. or ti> person- over who^e \iroperiies receivers of Ihe courts " are appointed.'" C'lUNTV or r.oNe.ror.n. — •• This ilistrict labours ruider ]a cnliar dds- " advantai^es, and i- one of the poorest localities in Irehuid. Tlie por- '^ liei-ty belonLi'- entirely to ab-eutec proprietors, and l;as but one '' resident uvnlleinaa within a e;reuniferen;'e of eiyht mib-s. It i- also " de]n-ived of the residence of either the I'rotestant cleruyman or his "curate. I'or this re;iSou, the vice-lieulenant was oblige. 1 to call on ■• the re-ident m.':,i-trate to act as chairman, wf.o lives twelve miles •• from many part- of ilie di>;rict. It i< occupied bv -mall tiiiants, •■ hol(hng from i'oin- to ten acre-, and very few upAv;ird-. Tlie land is ■• bad and ill cultivated ; and the inhabitant^, never looking- forwanl to 92 commerce, which feed the 2,000,000 inhabitants of London with nnerrins: reuularitv, liave urown with the growth of the city ; but scatter the same nnml)er of persons over a wide extent of eonntrv, covered with mountain and bog, and " anvtliiny- better tlian jiotatoes, and liaving lost tliem, are totally " destitute." County of Galway. — " This district has been one of the most " severely visited in Ireland; last year the potato crop almost miiver- " sally failed, so that this is the second year of scarcity. It is painful " to sec tlie alteration in the people's appearani-e, and too much credit " caniiKt be i^iven them for their patience umler tbi* visitation of the '■ Almii^hty. No outraires liave occurred in tlie district, and the viola- " tions of property have been trifling. The position of a country " gentleman left single-handed, as I am, to deal with such a calamity, *' and doomed daily to hear tales of ■woe wliieli he cannot alleviate, is " truly miserable. I pray, liovever, that I may be sustained throiigh it, " and am tndy tliaukfid to the Almighty for the many kind aids he has " jirovided for us." County of noscoMMON. — -"Our electoral division is so destitute at " present, that there is no jioor law guanlian. We have never received " any government grant, au'l all the societies rei^ise us aid excL'pt •* vours, from our not having a connnittee ; there i^ no gxntleman in " the neighbourhood to form one." CofNTY OF Donegal — "This parish contains upwards of 10.U(\) '' inhabitants, of wjiom about 8,u00 are Koman Catholics, 10.50 Church " of Endand. and .jdi) Presbyterians: of the fourteen landlords to " whom the ground belongs, there are but two resident, of whom one " holds a small property, and the other is much encumbered ; the conse- " quence is much neglect and wretchedness among the people, especially " the cottiers, who are generally regarded by the Landlords as a great " injury to their properties, and are therefore discomitenanced in every " possible manner. C)f these cottier or pauper families there may be " about GOO or TOO, comprising about oOOO individuals." CoiNTY OF .Mayo — Extract of a letter from the chairman of a lioard of guardians, dated iSth of Dec. 184G: — "In this nidiappy union there is " scarcely one resident proprietor, scarcely a merchant, nor any of the " ailluent classes who could assist to relieve hmnan mi>erv in anv decree. 03 without sufficient roads, and hoAV are tliey to l)e supplied ? To become acquainted with the circumstances of each applicant, so as to prevent imposition, was a ureat dithcidty. Where all were wretclied. it was hard to select the most destitute. It required an ellicient machinery, wliicli existed in 1)ut few places, ^fan}' gave up at «:>nce, and attemjited nu selection ; others selected tlieir own immediate dependants, and seeing they could not as.-ir?t all. endeavoured to ]. 'reserve t]io.>e in whom tluw had the most interest, ^vitliing could have overcome tliis diilieultv, hut a lai-ge nu.uiber of I'esidents of education and pi'o[)crty, well ac- quainted with their several localities. The want of such a resident bod^^ of an intelligent middle class, nnist greatly impede the exeeution oi" the ]M.)or-la\vs, ami of e^•ery nieasure for relief of dis- tress in lrehu]d. " In almost all the pavi^lK:^. tlic Calhiilic i!i.ri;ynian i? the only vuv to " irive cim-^olatioii.' rroin the saiiR', datLvl 1st ol' May, lS-17 : — '' 'I'lie .-tale ul" the luiiuii as " a whole is alanninsr. There are no resilient gentry, 'i'liere are four " inenihers of the linanee eomniiUee. The chairman resides about 18 '• miles from the place of meeting", another member about -'lO. another " about ],), anil the other about 7. The government in^iiecting- " officer. Captain , ilms all any man can do to expedite the law. but " there are no elements existing in the various electoral divisions, for " I'tfective local committees to carry out the provisions of the lU Vict. " ch. 7. A highly •wrou'.rht organization is in ]iart necessary. The cler- " gynicn are almost all constantly employed ; farmers too; then there " are no persons to assist others in turn."' 94 The evils of the system of puVilic Avorks rendered a cessation of this mode of relief impera- tive, and the temporar}^ relief act, 10 Yict. cap. 7, was adopted by the legishiture early in last session. Jjy this act, Avhidi expired oji the 30tli of SL'[)tend)e]", all the destitute, of whatever class, wei'e to receive daily rations, withont any Ldjonr bcina' rerpiired in retnrn. The machinery adopted C(iii,-.ist('d uf a relief connnit tee i'ur eadi electoral di- vision, :i finance committee for each nnion. a li'overn- mriit in^pC(•tin;f-olKceJ" for eai-ii nnion. and a hoard of connrd>sioru;rs 'u\ iJnh'lin. Tlie fnnds were to ]>e sn[iplied iVom the Treasnrw hy Lkhis adviinced (»n the secnritv of rates, and by grants in aid of nites, and in a.id of local suh->cri[.'tiointcd b}' tlu' Lord Lieutenant, and included \]\r hn:vA magistrates and [)o-»r lavr gnai-dian< ; tiic lliree liighc-t rate- payers, as liciiig T]io,>e \\'\\o had th.- greatest interest in econ.smieal maiiagement ; and tiie ministers of religion living in the district, as those avIk* onglit to be best ;u-([uainted Avith tlie ^vants of the jioor. These committees prepared lists of the destitute in each electoral division. Avhicli. when approved bv tlie hnance committee, were transmitted to the relief connnissiouers in Dublin ; and being cer- tiiied by them, the requisite amount of monev AA^as ti-ansmitted fr».)m the Treasurv to tlie liiiance 1)0 committee ; and t.lius tlio eleetoml divisio]i com- iiiittee was erial)lea to [nuvhase the food re(|uired lor tlie snj>port of the (lestitute witliin their limits. This new mode of relief was l»y jio means popular at iirst. It ^vas much more trouhlesume to the manaaing eonnnittees than the public works, and the daily hitions were much ohjeeted to by those Avlio liad lieen in the receipt of money wages. The commisvioners insisted that tlie i-ations slioidd Ik' cooked, vrherever practicable ; Avliidi ci'eated great di^satisfa.etion with almost all parties. To iced such numbers of al»h'-b(:;dieut the judicious arrangements and steady determination of the commissitjuers at length suc- ceeded in carrying the act into etFective operation throughout almost all those districts in "which it was required. The public works were discontinued graduall}' ; and the change from one mode of relief to tile other was etfeeted witli so much prudence and caution, tliat no serious difficulty Avas expe- rienced. 1 lie orders of the ci tmmissioners were ably carried out by the inspecting-officers, who a])]»ear to liave been in general peculiarly well qualilied tor the duties allotted to them : aud also bv the linance committees, whieh AVere composed of from tAvo to four gentlemen of each union, whose energy and intelligence fitted them for tin- important post assigned them. AVhen at its highe>t amount, the number of persons receiA-ing daily ratiojis exceeded 3.000.000. and the aA'erage co>t of eacli ration Avas al)out tAvo-pence. The Avhole expense of this system of relief appears to haA'c been alK)Ut £1,(376,268.* * This sum is taken from the 7th Eeport of the Relief Commissioners, ami iucludes £lJ9,0.5o, IGs., granted fur temporary fever liosj-itals, hut it does not include the local subscriptions raised under tlie act, whieh hoM-cver. were not larae in amount. 97 Tlie reports of tlie commissioners liave stated, tliat ill those districts -where the rehef committees worked together witli zeal and m good faith, the administration was excellent, checking fraud and imposture, while it relieved the re-ally distressed. lint in some districts this Avas unhappily not tlie case. Al)uses existed, varying from apathy and neglect to connivance at frauds and misa])pro- priation of the funds. Gross impositions were daily ])racticed by tlie poor ; the dead or absent were pei'SDuatcd ; diildrcn wciv lent for a lew davs, in order to gi\\! the appi^arance of large fami- lies, and llnis entitle the borrowers to a greater numlter of rati<;>ns. Almost the whole population in ma]iA' ])la(:-ij.s alleged povertv, and looked for relief: and then, conceiving tiie recci[it of cooked food a degradation, ihiy endeavoured to eoniju'l the issue of raw meal. f)ne universd s[)irit <»f niendicancv pervaded the pc(i|)]e. to wliieli in seve- ral places the conunittees olfered no opp(tsition. Yielding to intimidation.* or seeking for pr)pula- Tlic i\']inrt (if tlif PicliL-f CniiiiiiissiuiK-r? nlluik'tt tn Several iii- «t.Tnccs of iutimi'lation. The i'liIluwiiiLr is piveii on X]\c aulliority of a gontlcnian of lanJcJ proiKrty. a? sliowini,- the manner in wliieh a liunian Callidlie elernymr.n was alni>ei1 for refnsinu' tlie nnreasonahle denianils of some of the more pnwu-ful nf his i>ai-ishiuner- : " 1 know of the most slioeking in.-tanee of this, where sliamek'ss " wortliles? farmers eaiue in hoiU^.s, anil eompelleil the priest liy tlireats " to uive tliem tlie meal inten.Ie.l for the pixn-. In thi< viiy parish, a JI 98 rity, they were Aviliing to place the whole popula- tion indiscrinihiately on the lists, to be supported liy public charity. In some cases they even sought for a shari- of it themselves. It is stated in the reports of the commissioners, that gentk-men of sta- tion and pr()j)ertv Avere not ashamed to sanction the distribution of rations lo their servants and lalxjurcrs, or to their ()wn tenants ; the same per- sons, while willing to give to tliose who did not need it, freijuently disregarded the sulferings of the starving poor. This jtainfid sul)ject may he concluded in the words of a gi-nth-maii, who had full o})[)ortunitv of knowing the a.buses practis- ed in one of the W(^rst ]»arts of the country: '' Had I not been an eye-witness, 1 could scarcely " scene (iccnrrcil truly ?candalou<. The Uritisli Association .c;ave our •' parisli priot tliree Idus of meal. ( )u ii> arrival, the riotous eomluct " of the pojiulation wns such, I had to go out, ami tlie jiriest bejrjxcd " of me to take in the meal ami store it for liim. 1 rlid so. On tiie " third day after, he took it to the parish chapel, where a scene o'jcurred ■' th;;t hallles description ; and in the end this donation was totally mi«- " ajiplied, as the destitute got nothing, and those well off every tiling. " I can prove that persons retailing meal, whose houses at the mom.ent " contained many hundred pounds weight of it, received large quantities. " The priest, jioor man, came to me afterwards, and said 'that for the " universe he would not diblriluite another pound of meal." It ap- " pears that when he attempted to do what was right, a regular sceue of " intimidation endued; he was threatened witli even personal violence, " and the instant demolition of the chapel itself; and he was absolutely " obliged to give away the food to those who diil not require it. Now "this is only one instance; but one under my own eye, where an " honest man was made the victim of this sjucies nf intimidation." ')!) '' have conceived it possible, tliat the awi'ul visita- '' tion witli whieh Thi> country is afflicted, sliould " have produced sucli an utter disrea'ard of inte- " 'j:r]ty in the administration of its relief"' Such >li;inieless disiioiiesty is a melancholy proof (jf the low standard of niornls existing in some parts of Ireland. Tlie ^^ross instances of actual iVaud aiid mi.-a])j)]i('ati(»n of funds, on the part uf niendiei's of eunnnittces. were proljably confined to a very few jdaces ; l)ut there were many, in wliich tlie connnittees neglected the (hitv of seeking out tlu- really poor and destitute, or were willing to ivtui'ii tlie whole or even sometimes more than tlie wliole [topulation as standing in need of refu't. Such reckless conduct can only ))e accounted i'or ly the sujipo^ition, that the\' uevei' antieijuited being oliliged to I'epay tlie money advanced, or that ^-ome mendjers of com- mittees were rated to so small an amount, that thev had littk' personal intere>t in economical manage- ment ; and undei' th.ese circumstances Avere desii'ous to procure foi' tlieir own iriends as large a >]iare as ]:»os.-il»le of tlie " g(.)vernment ukjuc}'.'' l').ith these causes existed to some extent. Suis- se* (Ucut events have sliown. that in many plaees tliey fidly expecteident propiietoi's. tlie management iVequently II -2 100 fell into the hands of parties, who considered that their interests would be best served by a lavish expenditure. But it must not be supposed tliat these abuses were every where prevalent. The commissioners state that in the greater part of Ireland the counnittees exerted tliemselves zealous- ly. The destitute poor Avere relieved, and due ])rc- cautions taken to avoid lieinn' imposed upon by those who were not in want. The distributi(jn of food in a cooked state, whetlier Indian meal \>ov- ridge, or rice and Indian mi-al mixed, wliile it was liked l:)y the really destitute, and was much more wliolesome for them tlian the same (piantity of un- dressed meal, proved an exrelk'iit test of ]>ovei'ty ; and in some irjstances "' reduced tlic number of applicants wonderfully."* There were even some districts, in Avhich the anxiety to economise was so great, as in sume (h-gree to im])ede the (hie administrati*)]! of the law, the I'ate-payers endea- vouring to prevent the issuing of rations to small holders of land, and to other parties to whom it was intended by the act of parliament to alford relief, f * See Tliird licport of Tlelief Commis.-ioncr?. J From anmiifr inanj' statements to tlic same effect niaile to tlie lielief Committee of the Society- of Friends, the following are selected, which mav serve to show the degree of economy witli which some committees administered the law, and also that the feeling of honest indej)eniknce is not everv where broken down : 101 The efficient working to which the commission- ers succeeded in bringinfr the act, in .so short a space «jf time, and mider so many diliicnlties, was only accomplished hy tlic most anxious and perse- CouNTY OF Cavax, 2ord ul'Juue. IS47: " AnutlKr cla wiiatever of subji-tLiice : they liave sold tlK-ir pi^s •• ami L-vt-ry artiele tliey ei.nilil jiart Avitli, ami sjKUt tiie money in food. •• ( iiir rtlu'i' coiiunitli-e \>ill u.il aif Ji'tl any aiil tf> t!i'i-'j peoplr. as tlie •' jii\'i.-nt tax imjiDS^'d on the ratr-iiayer:^, wliich is seven sliillinjs in tiie " }Mpinid. \eouW hi' inure tlian douMud if they did, so consideralile is the ■' number nt' .-niall fa^n]^.■r^ in the distriet. C'oi'NTV or (".\\\N. IHh of .Inn". ls^47: " ^Ve liave still in tlie \k\- " ri-hes of and ahoiit IdUU persons Mippurted iiy vulun- " tary reliLt', wlio will .-tarve if it be withheld, and who are fir one •' reason or other exeluded from the relief li-ts. These are daily sup- " poi-ted with eooked food from four boilers under my eare. and a most •' trying and anxious and dreadful eare it is, to liave this nuiltitude •• depending; on nu- v'under rmvid.enre) for tlu'ir daily bread. ]My llri- •• vate nKan^ are all but exhausted, and I kn(.iw not what to do about •• this. d'ho>e on the reUef li.M- are .-afe. Jhit the re>t, wiiat will they doV" ('oiNTV or LoMioNOKur.v, "Jiid of. Inly. ISI7: "There is. Imw- '• ever, a ela>< wlio have lu'eii hitlarto i-efu-ed relief on the ^'rounds uf '• their having' sonu' jiropta'ty, that present to me. who live among •• them, a mo-t all'eetinLr speelaele. The~e are poor landholders, oe- " cnpying perhajis two or tlu'ee aeres. witli large families in tlie most •' deploralile >tate of distress, and yet on the verue of .-tavvation, " clinging to their luildings as their last remnant of hope in tliis world. " At this moment there is standinu- at my window a ]ioor, and 1 will ^ay, •• a wortliy man, (for I have lemg known him, a iloman Cathelie, who •■ lias a small farm of about live aere-. and a family of ten to snp- •• jHirt from it. whieh he has hitherto done rcspeelably) representing to ■• me, in that (piiet subdued tone whieh shows tlie struggle between the •' ery of his poor ehildren and the >hame of being a begirar, his ^ituatiou •• and lii- di-tres-. liefore he would be:!, he had parted with his eow, ••h,ad sold lli^ la-t >]ieep, his la-t lamb, his bed-eloihes— there now ■' remain liarely two days' food of the most wretehed description to ^up- •• port his little ones. This man is nio.-t industrious. In the midst of 1()2 vering exertions. It evinced the zeal and Imniaiie consideration of men wlio felt that the lives of millions were at stake. The rc-sult has l>een (jf the utmost value to the countiy. The famine was effectually stayed. The people in most places reco- vei'ed their fjrmer streni;tli and appearance. Fever and dysentery, the consequence of ])revious suffer- ing, still cenitinued to prevail in many pa.rts ; but the mortalitv was u'reatly h,'ssened. These iiood re- suits were eifected at much less co^t than that of the puMie works, wliieh left so many of the very destitute totally uiu'elieved. The time approached at which the act wouhl expire. The cominir harvest, afforcl- iiiii: employment and reducinLT the i)rice of food, I'eiidered the cessation of relief safer than might liave been antici|)ated. (Jrders were tlierefore given to lesseJi the iiundjers receiving rations graihiiillv, relaiiiing for the lust the Avidow and orphan, rnid those disabled bv iiiiirmity or sick- ness ; and iinally, orders were given to close all relief under this act, in some of the be^t circum- staiired unions, on the loth August ; and in tlie rest, according to their a])ilitv, on the "29th of August or the 12th of September. There Avere three unions, Antririi, Belfast, and '• tliL'~e trials, he has put into tlie grouml an aiix' ami a I^all' ol" oats. Iiall' an '• aci-e of potatoes, anJ three roods of turnips. ' < lii ;ir,' >aitl lie, ' nju>t " I sell nij- life and the life of niycliihlreu next year, tn keep them alive •• now V "" 103 Xewtowiiard^, which made no a])})Hciitloii for assist- ance, their h)cal i-esources eiiablinir thein to sup- poi't their own [soo]-. In the union of Larne, :;j>|trK-ation was made on account i)f one electoral (h\'i.>ion ordy. 'Ihese unions lie contiguous to each otljei', beini:' in tlie counties uf Antrim -and I)own. In Li-('nei"al, the nianau'ement of measuixs for relief s ;;]»|n:'ars to have 1>een nmch 1 letter in Ulster than any of tlie uther pi'uvinces, ceiTainly Letter tliaii in Munster or (\)nnauLilit. There is a middh' class in the iiivati'r jtart of Ldstci". and tliry liave heen thus ejiahlcd fo co-dpcrate cliici- ently, whrtlici' i'nv the di^trihulion ol' [ti'ivate cliai'ity. or i'or the adnnnistrariiin of the lepd j'cliidV'^ In r'.'iniauuht it wa> olteii iin})ractical>le * Ahlioimli iidiiL' vif llie unions in Lcinstcr or ivriinster wi-iv alile to sui>]inil tliL' \ino\- witliin tluir liniil?, ilurin;^- t'lis piTioil of sv'Vc-rt- jiro- >urc% witlitiut as^i^tan(■e luiikr tlio Tcnqinraiy Avt. yet in many plai'cs tlie law was vi-ry \\\ll ailniinislcixil. 'J'lic nuaMiri-s takiii 1'y jirixali.- eninniittcos, j)n.'vinus to tlu' pa,».-in'-;' nl' that act, wrrv alsu niarkr'l in m'- Axral (.Mscs liy tlie actiw aiiM liciuvulrnt fo-oiifratinn nl" a nii'ldle class. 'J'lic arrani^cincnls adiijitcil liy the relief I'onnuittee I'm- the parish of (.'a-tletowii, in the Quei.n'^ Ciauit\'. fln■ni^ll an iiitere-tins- eviiUnce cf this. Siihscriptions were collected hy tlieiii tu the anionnt cf £17*1 Ids. i'y].. the laru'est contrihulimi being £-20 fnun a. non-resi.lent \ was ajipointed, some bein'^ ]uirticnlarly named for the <'are uf each tuwnland, many uf the cdmmittee being small farmers, holders uf ten tu fifteen acres. Tliey state that, a.fler much cunsideratiun, tliey decided to alfurd relief to the di>lre.-.-ed, by a '.veililv allowance ot' moiie\'. and tlav .Liive some vcrv cu-eiit na?on> lur 104 to obtain any co-operation. Those who washed to assist in relieving the destitute were generally oblif'^ed to labour sin^rle-liauded. haviiiix no one near them. This has been and is a great difficulty, tliL-ir decision. The monty was distributed on each townland Ly the nieinbers of the committee, specially appointed to attend to it, to wliom all tlie recipients of relief were personally known. They kept a tabular statement, sliovrint,^ the weekly allowances on each townlaml. and the number of families and individuals relieved. The averi-.ge di.-lribuliiui was £17 1-s. per week, for tlie four weeks ending the iiind of January. And tlie average number relieved each week was 200 families, consisting of 021 persons, so that the weekly allowance was about four jieiice half- penny for each individual. The OArlions of this eiiicient and intelli- gent committee appear to have been very successful. The following statement of the arrangements adopted in Werburgh's parish, Ilu'ilin, show that a similar mode of arrangement is equally applicalile to a town or city : •• The parish was divided into districts containing certain streets and "lanes; two visitors were appointed for each district; wlio went to " every room, cellar, &c., and closely examined into the condition and " circumstances of every individual or family. Their reports to a ge- " neral connnittee were entered in a liook, in wliieh was united down the " street, number, what part of house, name, number in family, occupa- " tion, circumstances, and which had also ruled colunuis for the weekly " assistance granted to each. Tlie name of each Avas read out in open " crmnnittee, and the amount of relief (for a week) decided on — that '' relief lieing in the shape of an i_)re rt'inoved by such legal changes, as may enable those who do not choose to reside, to dispose of tlieir ]>roi>erty to otliers more "willing or moi'c able to perform its duties. The ibllowing statement of the numbers receiv- i]ig I'atioiis. and the total expenditui'e under the act, in L'ach ■ lir,;,(osf iiiimLrrof T..tnl ]v.,„,lation. vaunt,..,!. r.-uku.s jriven out. E^iH.ndiltiiv I'l-tir ... •2..!SG.o7-J ... n,;?-Jit. Io3 ... -•Mr.,.jl7 ... X170,."tcr ... 2,:i!i(i. IDl ... -■;.777.H« ... 1,(11:1.82.; ... (;71..J.ji (iiiiiiau-ht ... 1,-llS.S.j'l ... 1. IG.j,:>i;,(;ui .fi.(;7(;,2(:s " iKirty had ohtaiiioil cmplo^yiuent, or reninvcd out of tlic parish) be dis- •• cDiitiniKil. 'I'lii; ?y.steni \\'orki.d iiinst >atifl'afti.irily." * Thr tulal cNiii-ii'litiire uixl'.r the aet ajipears, liy the SLventh Keport (if the Kiliif (/iiinnu>ert was niaile \\\\ In £l,G7t'>,2(JS lis. 7'!., which sum iln.y state may hu altered ill a liilliuL;- di-.^ree liy the paynicDt ul' .-ume small outstaiulin.-;' eheeks hcfore lliLir aeeonuts arc- liually elfjscd. 'I'lie statement iii^cii almve is as elese an L'Stimate of the luimher nf rations uiveii out. aud the expen- diture in each si'parate province, as the writer is enabkd to make, from the inl'orniatiou as yet furnished by tlie relief commissioners. It is ju-oliabiy sullicienliy e.\aet fur practical purposes. CHAPTER VI. state of the country on expiration of tcmporan' relief act — Plentiful liarve?t — Uiffieulties of the country lesseneil but not ended — I'reva- kiici.' of (lijcase— Want of clothing- — Domestic manufactures— Sources of vnipliiyment — Totally insufficient lV>r the nuni'icr o\' lafiourers — l]\teut of d>.stitulion — Condition of the wi-^tern ciia-t of Ii'eland — Great wretchedness of the iieojile — .V'^gravated liy the present calaniity — L'onse(]uent .ijiatliy — Inevitably resulting from tlieir hopeless eoii- ilitiou — Anxiety for employment — Great diminution in llie numl'(.r of marriages —I'revalence of t'rime and preterice of poverty. Tlic fir.>t your of diificiilry li;is rcriiiiiiatcd. Oii(> tliird of tile ]ic(j|)l(' ]i;id be'i'ii reduced to destitution by tile lu.-s of tile pottito ei'o}>, iiiid tile pjirtial fiilure of tin- o;it liarvot. Of tlic-c uiaiiv liave died ; ni:m^' of those who eould rtiise the requisite finuls have eiiii,u;rated t<.» Aiiierieti : tjtheis liave removed to Eiiulaiid ; llie I'e.st have heeii kei)t alive by eiri|doynient on public woi'ks, bv jii'ivate loeal eliaiity, by local su1)scri|)tions, by contribu- tion s from all [»artsof the woi'ld, and lintillv, by the most extensive system of L;'r;duitous di>trii)Utioii of food of whieli history tiUbrds anv I'eeord. 'fhis distribution has now ceased. Ihe I'elief com- missioners hiivc gradutdly reduced, and iinally 10^ discontinued tlic i-'^suijiu' of food, witliout any extrc'ine sufferinii' bciiiii; felt, except in some remote and destitute districts. TlK'y liave been enalded to elFcct tliis, in urcat nieasniv l)y the abundant harvest with v/hicli a uieiviful Providence h[is blessed us. The li'Jeat dryness of tlie sunnn<'i' no douljt injured thr turnips and other ifreeu crops, and prevcJiteil the usual irrowtli of aftcr-urass in the meadow and pa>tni'e lands. Still, in almost every important partieidar. the c]r)|)s have iii'owu with iiTeat luxuriance, and the pi'otluce has been plentiful. Tile whrat ci-np has been unprecedent- ed! v la r^ic The l)ivadth of land sown was Lin-atci' llian u>nal. The yield has l)een iiood, and it has l)een >aved in excellent conditioii. The ju-oducc of the oat crop has firen more unecp'.al, beini:' in some plaeis unconnnoiiU" lariie, while in otlu/r parts the I'eport is unJavouralile. Althoniih ihe bliuht r(_'-a[i pea red oii the potatoes in some districts, it A\as onlv })artial. and tlie cr<-ip has licen jirobably a full averaue oti the exttjnt of Lifuind [daiited. Se- rious fears were entertained that a lai^o'e jiortion of the land would 1;;' lel't uncropped. and no doidit there ai'e many placo in the wild and mouiitaiii districts of tlie interior, and of the vrestern counties, which foi'inerly vrere planted wirh pi.ttatoes, but A^l!ich Were this Acar hit nnrilled. IVut llie whole amut although our diliieulties ai'e greatly le»eiied, they ai'e l»v no means at au end. The measures taken uudei- the temporai'X' re- lief aet averted starvation, hut ail'urded little ivlief to the sick, fur whoiii the I'atioiis di>tributed Avere frequently misuitalile fe)od. This mode ef relief being tern:iinati'd, the de.-^titute liave no resource but private ehai'ity, until the new ipoor law can be l.)i'()Ught into e'l'eetive operatioi]. In some places this may take a long time. The i'oi'Uier system was snpported ]^\' money ad- vanced from the Trea>ury. There are no longer anv advanees, and all relief is therefore dependant on the eollection of nites. The collection is now in progress, and it is understood that the result is cncottraging ; yet there are many districts, in which it seems very unlikely that stiilicient can be collected to su}i[)ort the destitute. T»ut this mo>t important subject demands a more partieular investigation, which is reserved tbi- a future occa- sion. j\IeanAvhile, it is ])ainfully evident tliat nnich 10!) sufferinir exists. Fever and dysentery are every- where pre\'aleiit, and the means of relief by medieal care are very insnlHcient. It is true that grants Avei'e made under the authority of the I'elief com- missioners, for tile sU|)])ort oi" fever hospitals in many places, and these "Were doubtless of nnich value. Ihit the extent of .-■ickness Avas so great, that hospital acconniiodation coidd not be provided ibr all : and in sonie of the Avor>t pai'ts, where disease was most prevalejit. the ha>ty establishment of a tempoi'arv hospital, Avhieh mu>t have been very inade(piare ro the wants of the district, miuht even liave increased the sulfci'iiiu' it was in- tended to rdicA'c ; ina>nuich a> manv would pi'obubh' be bronLi'lit to it, who could not obtain admi>>i(tn, and would be li'lV exposed to the wcnthrr, in the ditrlu's lu'iir the Ihopital, ^v;litin^■ luitil ilu'V could u(/t in. Yet norwitli^taiidijiLL' the want of hos[)ital accommodation ;nid medical care, the jiioi'talit\' aiiKJiiu' llie p(joi' from I'cver has not been lai'iie, in proportion to tlie ni'e.it numliei' of cases. AmojiM- the hiuhci- cla>>cs. tlie case has l)een dilfeivnt ; there have been man\' deaths. Those who Avere ]nost acti\'el\' cnii'aii'eti foi' ths' I'elicf ot" di-stress have been mo-t exposed to the danger (jf contauion. ^thiny have died of i'evcr cauLi'ht while in tlic dischara'e of their duty, and their coiuitrv has been dej»rived of their services ]in in this (lay of (.listress, when they appeared to be more than ever necessary.^- The want of elothing is cverywliere "'reatly felt. On this snl)jeet tlie most affectinix statements liave been made. VDien Ave eonsiclei- the eirenmstanees, notlnnii; else eonld be ex|)eeted. Last year tlie poor peo[)le parted Avith all tlun' eonld spare ; tlicy sold or |unvned tlieni. in order to obtain fjod, I'etain- inir the smallest possible rpiantity, often (piiti- 'u\- snliieient for proteetio]] fnjin tlie eold, or even ibr deeenev. Their sranty carnin^'s were al)soi-l)cd in obtainiiiL:' Ibod fur theniselvcs and their families ; therefore they eonld ]»nivhase nothinix to replace tlie old el()thes, which u'rati"on:i- tendency to in- crease disease, lioili from insnifieicnt proteetion ' The following extract of a letter from the iiicilical atteiiilant of the Swinefonl di-penpary, shows tlie fearfi'.l amount of sickness there exist- in-j: : " I candidly confess that I know not how to act umkr the " circumstances in whi(;h I aui placed, as the medical attendant of tlie "dispensary, ^\"hicli is the only institution to wliich lor miles around " me the poor can have recourse. 1 am overwhelmed hy tiie numbers " hourly and minutely applying fi;r relief "With the exception of the " resident clerg3"men, there is not a single person in the entire district "from v.liom we can expect any assistance, and their means are now " fast diminisliing. Death is also thinninij their nniiil>ers, and one of " the most amiable and best of men, the Kev. Mr. Tyndal, nctor of the " neigliliouring parish of Kilmacteigue, a few days ago fell a victim to his " exertions on behalf of the poor." Ill against tlie iiicleinejicy of the weatlici", and from the extreme difficulty of personal cIcaidiiK'SS, when the same clotlies are necessarily Avorii riiulit and day. 11 oAv^ tu su])|)ly tliis want is a question uf !2:reat difficulty ; hut certainly, unless they can ob- tain some assistance before winter sets in, a laroe proportion (;f tlic popidation will be exposed to severe and Lireatly increased suirei'ini:'. Tile peasantry <.»f ('onnauiiht usually make their own clorhing, c«>nsi.stin_ii' of linen, knitted stocking's, -.1 coarse but \'(^vy serviceal)h' llajniel iitr vromen's chtthes, and a Li'ood frieze ii)r nirn.''- These articles Wfi'c I'cii'ularlv "jjfercil Ibr sale in all tlie niai'kets a]it!ll maintained a pi'ecai'ious existenee ill competition with fhe chea[ier hnt le>> duralile fabi'ics of Ivngland. The lieece (,>f his own sheep, s[ani and woA'cn in his i)\vn hou>e, at seasons A\]iich otherwise Avould have l)een iUK'm]tlo\('(l. eiiahled the cottier aiid peasant firmer to ]!]'ovi-;]e comf ii't- able clothing for his ihmih'. which it was luirdlv possil)le i\)r him to o;,tain in aiiv oilier miw. Such * Tills ilomo--tir iiiamif:icl\u\' i> nnt cniiliiieii to Cmmaiiulil ; it exists alio ill siiuie jiarts (if Arunstur. in tliu cuinity ul' 1 »MmL;a!. ami in the wcstL-rii cuti'.stiL's v\' LL'iii?t(-r ; Imt it is more prevalent in ('i>nnaii.u'lii than in an\- ntliLf iiruvin.'c- of Intaml. 11-2 a manufacture must, no doubt, cv(?ntuall3' yield before the spread of that civilization, which, in the di^dsion of labour, restricts each individual to one occupation, and thus increases his capability and liis skill ; l)Ut it wouhl l)e cause of nuich regret, if the present circumstances should destroy this ancient liome manufacture, licfore the natural peri(»d of its decay. There is some danger that the looms and spinning wheels, which have been lu'okun n|> or sold, may nijt Iw re])laced ; in wliicli case, the industry of our ( "(jiniaught peasantry ^viU be even lower than it has hitherto been. A large proportion of the ablc-l)odied labourers must have ol)t;iined employment at harvest Avovh, eitlier ill Ireland or in l^lnghind ; yet probalily the demand for labourers on this account was less than usnab in consequence of tlie remarkably fine weatlier. ?>hiiiy have also liceii engaged in tlie various woi-ks of drainage and other improvements, carried on undei- the snperiiitr'udence <;)f the Hoard (if Works; the numl)ei' probably amounts to 12,000. rile several railways in process of con- struction liave given much em|)loyment. occupving perhaps as many as 70.000 labourers, almost all of whom are natives of Ireland. Counting iive persons to evei'}' family, these sources of em[»l(.)ymcnt would support a pi'r>porti«:>n of llO^OOi) persons. (,)n the other litind, many of tlie iai'mers. unable to jiav 113 iiioiiey waji'es, and the usual mode of paying for laltour by land in con-acre having been impractica- l)le this year, liave been forced to do all their work without LMUploying any la1)0ur beyond that of their own family. The gentry, finding their means diminished, have in many cases contracted their expenditure, manage with fewer servants, and em- ])loy fewer labourers. The same cause Jias produced a general stagnati<:)n in ahnost every 1»ranch of trade and manufacture. Tliere are but few houses l)eing l)uilt, and theivfore the various tradesmen connected Avith l)uihling are i]i w;int of emplu}'- nient. The demand for clotlies is also less thrin urjual, notwitlistaiiding tlie great want of them wliich is everywliere felt. Tlie mmiber of un- employed artizans coiitiuues to ])e veiy large, though mail}' uf tliem have removed to England, especially from the cities. The distress among this class of persons is very seAere. and more keenly lelt than by the agricultural population, l)ecause they ])0ssess stronger ll-elings of independence, from all these causes, it re.-ults that there are mmibei's of strong, active kdjourers, willing to Avurk, Itut unable to iiiid any one to emj^loy them ; and if to these l)e added the multitude of sick, inlirm, aged, AvidoAvs, and (Orphans, the nundier of persons unal)le to exist Avithout alms or relief from the poor-i'ates becomes truly iippalling. I 114 It would be easy to multiply proofs of a state uf tilings which threatens the most fearful conse- quences, and whicli, unless averted by judicious measures, must reproduce, in some localities, the frightful scenes of miseiy and deatli from which the country has just emerged. xV letter dated 7th Sept., from the inspecting-officer of a union in C<;)nriaught, says : " I would now desire to " acquaint you with the ]):tinful prospect whicli " appears to await this union, Avitli which I haye " now l)een connected some months. On Sunday '• next, the 12th inst. is tlie termiuatiun of my " duty, so far as concei'ns the relief under the tem- '' porary reHcf act ; and I must confess tliat I " sliriidv from the contcuqtlation of the state of " sulFering, to Avhich the yery poor will be subject "" after that period, unless some measures be under- " taken to alleyiate it. The union will then be on " its o\yn resources, namely, a r;ite struck in May " for £3,500, of which £ 1,700 is owed to per- " sons who supplied tlie house during the win- " ter, and who ouglit to be paid innnediatL-ly. Xo " rate or a yery triHing one has been collected, and " eyen were the whole amount got in, there would " not be more than enough for a fortnight or three " weeks. Tlie number receiying relief in this " union, the last fortnight or three weeks, is 13,000, " whicli includes only those disabled by iniirmit^' 115 " or sickness, and helpless Avddows. I think at least " 10,000 must be permanently relieved." Another gentleman holding the same official station says : " It is almost impossible to discern in this union " "where distress does not exist: in some places it is " beyond belief, and no one can be surprised to hear '■'■ of plunder and robberies not only by night, but " in the open day. AVhat is to Ije expected in a " country, -where there is neither food of any de- '' scription avaihiljh', nor employment 'r It is impossible for those who have not visit- ed the A\'uster]i coast of IreLmd tu Ibrm an ade- quate idua of that country, or of the condition of its inhabitants. The land is occupied for tlie greater })art by A'ast and dreary Ijogs, and ^^•et or rocky mountains. It is generally quite destitute of trees Ibr many mik'S iidaiid. There are proba- bly tliousinds ol' women and cliiltbvn <.n the west- ern coast ^vllo liave never seen a ,>hrub more than fonr feet liigii. The cultivated poi'tions lie in small patches, generally on the borders of rivers. From the moisture of the climate and tlie depth of the bogs, many of which consist of tlie decayed remains of ancient forests, the task of draining and rcclaini- iiig them for purposes of tillage, must be one of iireat diilicultv, involving an amount of (jutlav utterly 1 leyond the reaeh of most of the pi'esent oc- cu[)iLrs or pi'oprietoi'S. lllxcept tbr the ^uppl}' of I 2 llf) fuel, the only purpose these wastes have hitherto served has been the feeding of sheep and black cat- tle, the ninnljer of which has been greatly dimin- ished by the recent calamitous visitation. The \dllages in which the greater portion of the people reside, are scattered at wide intervals on the sides of the liills or near the sea coast. They consist of collections of hovels of the most primitive con- struction, grouped Vvdthout regularity, tbrmed of clay, or loose stones with green sods stufted into the interstices, a hole in the roof supplying the place of a chimney ; the thatcli is ul'ten broken, admitting the light and air in many places.* The interior accommodations are not su])erior to those wliicli ai'c found jji the liut of the Esquimaux. The s|)ace in front of the cabin is generally occu- pied by a licnp of wet manure, which frequently covei's the entrance uf the hut itsell", j-endering cleanliness and decency impossil)le. The people are ignoi'ant, dii'ty, and at present wretchedly clad. In districts of great extent, the tj'aveller must t]"a- verse many weary miles beibre he comes to tlie * The villai^cs uf Keel, Kecni, and I»ugort, in tlie island of Acliill, pre- ?ent an appearance not unlike the pictures of a group of Hottentot kraals. A majority of the huts of which they consist have roumled roofs, some- what like a heehive. 'I'he thatch does not project beyond the massy walls of sods and loose stones, and the entrance is sometimes not more than four feet liigh. It is jirobahle tliat these very curious structures dilier but slightlv from tlie huts of the aboriainal inhaliitants of Ireland. 117 residence of the Protestant clergyman, the parish priest, or the coast-guard officer. It is evident that the incentives to industry, cleanliness, improved habits and modes of agriculture, and the acquisition of knoAvledge, must be extremely few, from the deficiency of encouragement and good example. Tt would l3e imreasonable to expect much from a, people thus circumstanced, wei'c the potato ever so abundant. Tt is not surprising tliat under tlie pre- sent vi.-.itation, any energy tliey formerly evhiced shoukl Ijc wholly prostrated. Tlieir former mode of support lias failed tliem. 'Jliey have no I'uod, and can get no em])loyment.* Their S])int is tlierefore ])rolven. All hope, and witli it all energy, is gone. 'I'iii-*y beg for work or food, and if luisuccessiul, tliey lie down and die. Even in some districts Avliere tluy arq not (piite s<.) apatliL'tic, Their hopL'> are fix:i;'d on the rr>um]>tit)n of the public works ; and tliev look for assistance to the goverinneut, to tlii'ir landloi'ds, or to the di.>tribution of gratuitous relief IIow can it be otherwise ? To labour in their little plots of ground appears useless, for they have nothinii" to sow ; and even if seed Ave re u'iven * Wlu'ii it is Piiiil lliat " tlie pcdplc liave no fodl." tlic Awiter wishes it Id W' undLi-ftonil t])at tliiy li.ivc none I'f tlic food oniinarily ivlicd upon for iiiunan subsistence. In tlieir present sore extremity, tliey con- stantly resort to the use of sea-weed, shell-fish, turnip-tops, nettles, and oIIkt weed,-, ami sometimes to substances vet more revollinu' tlian these. 118 them, tliey have iiothhig to live on until the crop be ripe. It is prol^able that many of tliem have been served with " notices to quit," and are in daily expectation of being e^dcted. Under such circum- stances, what is to be expected but the apathy of despaii' ? In some of tlie remoter districts, Ijroken do^Mi hy suffering, tliey submit with quiet resig- nation, saying. " It is the will of God." In other places, where tlieir spirit is less broken, they endea- vour by clamour and threats of ^dolence to compel relief AVherever employment is olll^red, even with very insufficient wages, they accept it eagerly.* ]\hiny successful attempts have recently l)cen made Ijy benevolent associations and individu;Js, to est{d)lish various Itranclies of domestic manufacture among the poor. Tliis has l;)ecn done with a view * Some of tlie prnL-tical instructors sent out nnder Lord Clarendon's letter, by the Royal Aprienltural Improvement Society, have made very gi-atit'ying reports of the anxiety of tlie small farmers in some places to obtain information ; statin!^ that they listened very attentively, and seemed very thankful fur the advice gi'ven. They appear, by a report dated Wcstport, County of IMayo, Kov. 28, to be digging and manur- ing according to these instructions ; and the same report states that many of the poor people "arc Avithout shoes, digging a hard stony '• soil by task work, at the rate of seven sliillings per Irish acre ; a price " so inuneasurably under what it ought to he done for,'' that the writer would not have believed it, but that lie "had it from the employer " him-elf, not tlie employed. The price formerly was ten sliillings "■ the Irish acre; but now, from tlie state and number of the destitute, " it is reduced to seven shillings. These poor people, even In* tlie " greatest exertion, will not be able to earn four-pence a day at this rate, " and that bv ta.ik work." ]19 to encourage industrious habits, and to maintain feelings of self-respect among them. In the coun- ties of Antrim, Donegal, Leitrim, jMa^'o, Tipperary, and others, large quantities of linens and of knitted articles, of the coarser and stronger descriptions, have been manufactured in a creditable manner, and at a very low rate of wages. And m;iny arti- cles of worsted and cotton knittiniy of the more elegant kinds, suited for ladies' wear, have been made hy tlie females in their poor cabins, in a style whicli w<.iuld not disgrace the most ])ractised hands. Ample })rool' is thus alforded, that the dis])Ositi«)n to work is not wanting, and that em- ployment and a market for the. fruits of their labour are alone recpiired. Tlie recklessness Avitli which the poor Irish, more especially in the west, contracted marriage, lias been Impicntly remarked. That they did not do so, Anthout some ])ros])ert of being able to obtain the means of sub.'-istence for tliemselves and their iamilies, is shown by the fact, tliat since the recent calamity marriages are extremely rare in the more distressed portions of the country. It has l)een always remarked, that great national calamities liave been accompanied by an increase of crime among tlie people. ]Men reduced to despair become reckless : they consider prudence and exer- tion useless, l)ecause they see them fretpiently un- 120 successful. In the universal disorder ^vliicli prevails, the value of character is lessened, and many of the conventional restraints on immorality are lost. These results have, to some extent, taken place in Ireland. The increased munher of nmrders, and of other acts of violence, affords the most painful proof of the despair and demoralization of the people. Theft also has increased, and many of the people seem to think tliat they cease to ])e responsible, iVom the moment that they have liecome destitute Tliat theft sliould be on the increase can scarcdv l)e considered ex- traordinary. Men are not likt-ly to starve witli food "within tlieir reach ; and it is to be feared, that in some districts, a larn-e portion of the people have been of late mainly supported l)y stealing pota- toes and turnips out of the fields. That they should do so is a. fearful proof of the amount of tlie present distress ; formerh", [)i)tatocs were safe from pillage : the winter store was pitted in the open lield, and no one touched it. This year it has been necessary to watch tliem constantly, or tliey Avould ha^'c Ijcen pulled up, even Ijefore the}- were ripe. AVliat will l)e tiie result Avhen, tlie crops being- all housed, there may be notliing left in the lields to he stolen ? Although distress of tlie most biting character is un(|Ucstionably prevalent tliroughout almost all 121 the westurii comities, it is equally certain, that many of those wlio pretend poverty possess the means of supportino; themselves, if they would avow it ; and that others are able to do sometliing at least toA\'ards their own support. The foHow- inji statement is taken from the letter of a irentle- man in the county of Donegal, whose means of information and eapabiUt}- of judging render his testimony pe<'uliarly valualile. It is d;itcd oth June, 181-7, l)ut is equally applicable to the pre- sent lime : "'' Tlie people are unquestionably suil-ering as " sevci'e jirivations as it is possiltle to conceive, but •' unibrtunately nothing can lie more dilhcult tlian " to ascertain ])recisely their circumstances and re- '' sources. That tlicy liavc rcsoui'ces of wliich no " stranger can form an idea, is equally unquestion- " able. We have liad Tin- ^troiigrst proof of this " lately ; lirst in tlie general assertion of every " one, that they had not tlie means of crup})ing " their land, followed, as it has 1)een, by a greater ■• breadtli of coi-n Ix'ing soavu than was ever re- " membered ; and secondlv. l)y the sale of i]w " cargoes of two ditfereut A'cssels, stranded iiear " , at which numbers of the peo[)le, appa- " rently the ])00]"est, were purchasers to a con^ide- " rable extent. The extreme dilhcultv of distinuuishinu- those 122 who possess some means from the absolutely desti- tute, and of relieving the latter without destroying every spark of energy and independent feeling, are among the peculiar difficulties of the present time, and greatly complicate the question of lioth public and private relief. CHAPTER YII. rrospects of the future diseourairing — Luss innrmotis vlicn compared ^ritll the resources of the euuutry — ^[upro]iiirtion Letween sTipply of lahour and demand — Injurious results — Supply of lahour increased hy tlie iiresent calamity — Ordinary sources of cmplovinent diminislK-d — Ilxtraordinary sources of em- l>loyment now existing — Fearful amount of uneni]tloyed labourers — How are these and their families to he supported during the winter ? — Jlow arc thry to olitaiii the jHrnianent means of suhsistence :" — Ca])ital mu]i_a"cd to import food at a _2:reatl}' cnlianced |)rice. and tlie pro- ductive industry of the country has Ix'eii in great measure paralysed. Tlie loss can hardly Ix^ esti- mated Trith any tolerable exactness, but it has certainly been enormous, when c Tliey liave found their expenditure iiicreased, and their inc<->me diminished. On the landed proprie- tors a heavy Ijlow has fallen. Already much im- poverislied, it seems prol)a1)le tliat they will feel it still more severely hereafter. Potatoes Avere not merel}' the food of the people of Ireland, 1)ut in many places tliey supplied the place of capital and of a circidating medium. The}' were the ca[»ital wliicli cnaljled the [(nor cottier to exert his industrv, and ihv coin in wlncli his labour Avas paid. Stored u]) for winter food, they enal)led the small farmer or the cottier to feed cattle and pigs, to rear poultry, to trade, in sliort, as if he liad possessed so much c;i])ital. A\ ith them the firmer ](aid the wages of his labourers, whether iarm-servants or cottiers. The loss of potatoes depriving the poor man of liis capital, paralysed his industry. He could no longer feed })igs or poultry, or even cultivate liis firm. 125 because he had nothing- to live on in the mean time. The same cause, in iminy instances, obli,sxed the farmer to dismiss his servants, and deprived him of the assistance of lal:>onrers, Avhoin he could no loiiL^'ei- emphjy, liavino; no money to pay their wages, and the ohl arrangement of potato- oTound in lieu of waires having' become value- less. To sup[ily this want, and enable the usual operations of the coimtrv to be carried on, re- Cjuired the introduction (jf a consideralde amount of capital ; to pay the wages of labour in money I'equired a large addition to the curi't-ncy. The ])ublic works last 'S'ear in some measure elfected these objects. The ad^"anees from the Treasury were ecpiivalent to the introduction i,»f ('a[)ital for the time. The large sums circulated through the counti'v. ]>\" the jKiMneiit of wages, ailded to the cur- rene\' so mueh. as to .--urprise many who had been accustomed to the former re^trieted scale of mnney transactions, i^y these advances, the trade of the country was sustained, and the inniiediate [iressure of the loss g]-eatly lessened. In this res])ect they have l)een of most es>ential service ; they have tended to spread tlie bui'den over a longer period of time. But 1)ein[r onlv a loan, it becomes necessai-y to repay them, and tliis dilfieulty seems likely Xo weigh on us heavily foi' several years. The immediate eileet ('f the loss of fjod Avas 126 a diminution of exports, which had hitherto con- sisted ahnost wholly of agricultural produce. The export of corn almost ceased, and we became large importers from America and elsewhere. The exrtort of r)io;s, eo-o's, and fowl Avas ii^reatlv dimin- ished. Ai)pendix DD shows the exports of pigs, eggs, and horned cattle, shipped by steamers from the ports of Dublin, Cork, and AYaterford, during the first ten months of this 3'eiir, compared M'ith the coiTesponding months of last year. It will be seen how greatly the ex])ort of pigs and eggs has fallen ulf, wliile that of liorned cattle is considerably greater than it was last vear. It is highly satisflictory to observe, that the export of i>ia'S has decidedly increased durinu' the lix^t two months, and that the export of eggs in the same period is nearer to the quantity ex|)ortcd in the coi'responding period of last \'ear, tlian it was at any earlier time. The price of potatoes this year is so high, as to place them out of the reacli of the poor, wlio must depend on grain for their food. We cainiot therefore expect, tliat the export of wheat or oats ^v\\\ Ix' as large as formerly, M'hile there is every reason to antici[)ate considcral»h,' imports of Indian corn. It may safely be asserted, that until the potato grows plentifully again, or until tlie cultivation of the ground is greatly improved, there is no probability of our exports of grain much exceedino; the imports. The reduced price of food Avill certainly facilitate the feeding of poultry and the rearing of pigs, Ijut we cannot expect that eitlier of these will be as numerous as befoi'e, for a long time to come. As j'espects cattle and .^heep, tlie case is different ; and Ave may hope that their nundjers will increase. Linens and linen-yarn are the only manufactured articles, the value of which constitute important items in our exports. But all these added together will surely be very insuhicieiJt to [»ay fui- clothing and import- ed luxuries, to tlie extent to whieli we have here- tof_)]'e consumed them. Tlie Avliole popuIati()n will have less to live on. Tlie ca[iiral of tlie country is lessened, and witli it tlie means of prulilable em- ployment. The loss of the potato has converted a large portion of the i)opulation, who foriiiei'ly sup- ported themselves, into idle depeiulents on the pvdilic l)Ounty. All classes nuist feel the dilHcultv, and bear their portion of tlie sullering. It will be long before the countr}^ ivgains tlie i>o.->ition it has lost. The disproportion existing in most parts of Ire- land, between tlie number ol' labourers and the demand for lab<.>U]', is the great evil wdiich causes, or at least greatly increases, most of the other evils affecting the country. From it result tlie poverty 128 and ignorance ot the labourers themselves, and the want of skill, and inability for continued exer- tion, Avhich in many cases make their low-priced laljour really more expensive than the well-paid laljour of other countries. How^ can men work hard, when tlieir wa^res are insufficient to feed them properly ? Can we expect to find skill and indus- try and energy in an unfortunate man, who gets nothing but potatoes to eat, whose lodging is a wretched cabin without window or chimney, tlie roof letting in the rain, and the furniture often only an iron pot and some damp straw to lie on ? From this disproportion results the extremely low rate of wages, where they are j)aid in money ; or the poor remuneration fur labour. Avhei'e it is paid lor by an allotment of land. From it result the ruinous competition for land, and the lawless violence and outrage made use of to retain pos- session of it. From it results the subdivision of farms, by which they are sometimes divided into portions so minute, as to be insulHcicJjt to supply a family even Avith potatoes. From it results the system of letting land on con-acre, as the only means of enabling the peasant to live, who cannot obtain employment Until this disproportion l)e removed, it is vain to expect improvement. To raise tlie labourer in the social scale requires that he sliould be constantly employed, fairly i)aid, well 129 clad, and comfortably lodged. These objects never can be effected while the present disproportion ex- ists. Some employers miiy pay their labourers bet- ter, and lodge them comfortal)ly ; and tliuv will prolitdjly l)e amply repaid for so doing, li^- the increased value of the services performed ; but such partial instances cannot influence the general standard, or free the country from its evil conse- quences. How tills disproportion has l)een affected by tlie present calamity is a m()>t im])ortant fpiestion. Is the number of men looking for em])loyment greater or less than f u-mei'ly V r)el'ore the pota- toes filled them, the laboui'ers, whether holders of con-acre or cottiers, were enabled to live without employment for live months in winter, de])ending ibr support ou tlie ])roduce of tlieii' own gai'deiis. This is now at an eiah The >mall i'armers also wei'C usuallv idle in winter f;)r the !>ame leiiQ'th of time, living jiiucli in the same manner as the laboui'ers they sometimes em[»loyed. Few of tliem will now l)e able to do so. The manv firm ser- vants who have been diseliarged f)rm an un- expected addition to the nundjei" of labourers. Certainly the number of men who will rerpiire employment this wi]iter n:iust be much greater than formerly. Hut what are the prol)abilities of their obtaining ein[)loyment ? Has the demand for K 130 labour increased or diminished ? The serious losses which the landed gentry have already experienced, — their incomes in some places being greatly dimi- nished by non-payment of rent, and by the lieavy taxLitiou for the support of the p<;)or, which they have never before been rcrpiired to pay — have so far crippled tlieir resources, as to forljid us to ex- pect tliat tliey will be able to employ even their usual nundjcr of labourers. Rather will they in many cases be forced to economise, by dismissing all thev cnn do without, and deferring many im- portant Avorks to a future day, when they may be better al)le to alford to pay for them. But Avliat are the extraordinary sonrces of em- ployment, which have been pruvith'd to relieve the labour-market ? how lar Avill tlicy go in snp])lying this want of demand ? The extniordinary sources of emplovmciit are drainage and other improve- ments, under tlie late act. Vict. Kltli, cap. 32 ; and the construction of railways. This act of parliament authorises the expenditure of £1,500,000 in various im]»rovements on the land. It is luA very likely tliat tlie whole sum will l)e expended ; but let us suppose it all expended in the six months of the coming winter and spring, and let us take £1,000.000 as the expenditure on railways during the same ])ei'iod, which is, probably, much over the amount ; the wliole sum of £2,500,000 would 131 employ about 240,000 labourers for six months, at the rate of eight shillinirs per "week, which is a low rate in railway work. Tliis amount, if each labourer maintained a family of hve persons, himself included, would support a population of 1,200,000 persons. Tliis then is the very utmost limit of extra employment ; but it may safely be affirmed that the actual result will he very much less. 'I'lic numljers supported by the tempoi'ary relief act, for a considerable period of last sum- mei', amounted to 3,000,000 ; and durina" that ]X'ri(Hl, the numl)er supjiortcd by railway works was |)ro1;)al)ly laruvr than at present. A\ e may take anothci' mode of com]")arison. The total cx[)cnditin-e on pvdilic works last winter pro- bably amouiited to about £5.00(),()00. It is not like- ly tliat the expenditure in the con.structiou of rail- ways, Avill be ijreater during the coming winter and spring, than it Avas during the last. The par- liamentar}- grant of ,£l,50r),000 is therelbre the only source of increased public expenditure during the coming season, being ,£3,ot)0.0()0 less than was fjund necessar\' last year.* In M'hatever point i_»f vicAV we regard it, there * The accounts nut liavins bwn yet presented to parliament, it i^ im- possible to state the exact ainuunt of expenditure on pxiblic vorks. Tiie aljove estimate is j'oiunleil on tlie best information to Avbicli U'.e \vritcr luis access. K 2 132 appears a fearful number of unemployed labour- ers — a multitude of persons, who were formerly supported by potatoes, tlie growtli of their own gardens, but Avho tliis }'ear have no sucli means of subsistence. How are these people to 'oe sup- ported during the coming winter V are any means to be taken for tliis purpose ? or are they to be left to die, in the vain expectation that tlie present arrangements Avill secure tliem eitlier em- Ifjyment, or gratuitous support in tlie several localities in wliich tliey now live ? or are tluy^ to wander with their families tlii-ough the l)et- tcr parts of Lx'land, begging their way and look- ing for woi'k ? Or are tliey to transfer tlieir hopes and their miseries to Enghnid, as to a land of ricluT promise and greater ability to assist thuni; obtaining only casual employment, until, at last, forced by Avnnt to seek [)arochi;il relief, thev ai-e bandied from one pari>h to another, iinallv sent back to Ireland, and perlKi[)s landed many miles from tlieir native home, to experience even greater distress ? lUit suppose, these unha|>py people are in some way enal)l('d to exist through the coming Avinter, — suppose them housed in tlie Avorkliouses, or I'e- ceiving out-door relief ; how are they to obtain the means of subsistence afterwards ? I-ast summer required the distribution of rations to three mil- 133 lions of persons. Will iioiie be required during the next? The expenditure of £1,500,000 in wages, under the aet of last session, should it ])e taken advantage of to its full extent, will have an important temporary effect ; l.tut it Avill ]:)y no means put an end to the dispro[»ortion l)e- tween the nund;)er of labourers and the demand for labour? llow is this to be effected? Is it l)y diminishing the numlier of lal)ourers, or by increasing tlie meajis of emphning them ? If no- tliing eifectual be done to increase the demand i'ov labr)U]', tlie solution of tlie diihcultv is oidy deferred. The givat evil still remains, tliat there is a large pro- ])ortion of the popidatioii. who even in the best of times scarcely conti'iltuted any thing to the re- sources of the state bv tlieiv labour, l)y tlie ]ia\'ment of rates, or the coii>um]Uioii dl' exciseable articles.* Thev liired a plut ol" ground bv the yeai", or for u single ci'op, and lived on its produce, spending a large ] (art of every vear in idlenos. Thev received no monev Avai-es exceV)t for a few davs in siirinu' ,' "^^ i ,.'1 t_j and harvest ; they had nothing to sell except their pig and fowl, and made but little use of monev except to ]iay tlieir rent. TIkw can- ^' The inimbcT lias Ixen e?tiniat(.Ml at ^.OHO.COO by a (.'ouipetcnt auliio- rity, anil jiroliaVily the actual nuniliLT was (.vcii hir^ar hufdie the rteciit calamity ; but death, euuLiration, ami the (lefioiency ut' births lias iVar- fullv tliinnetl this class. 134 not be employed without capital. Formerly they were their own employers, the store of pota- toes on whicli they sul)sisted being, in effect, the capital which enabled them to work ; but now, as they must be paid in money, so there must be a money capital, Avhich shall supply a fund to ])nj their wages ; and the present farmers and land- lords, in most parts of the west, do not, in gene- ral, possess it. Unless these unfortiuiate people are to be allowed to die, to be starved olf, and so end the difficult^', by reducing the nundjer of labourers to an ef[uality with tlie demand fur their labour, one of tliree events must take place. Either capital must l)e supplied from other sources, not now existing in the country, to enaljle them to l.)e em- ployed ; or tlic people themselves must remove to the Ijetter parts of Ireland and to England, tliere to obtain employment, and eventually to l)e ab- sorbed into the mass of the population ; or they must lall back on the ])Oor-rates for support. AVhether it l)e possible to work the poor-law, in the remote pai'ts of Ireland, so as to keep the people from starvation, is a question of great and pi'cssing importance. There are districts in wliich it may well l)e doul)ted, whether the whole property be sufficient to support the destitute in idleness for even the present year. CHAPTER YIII. 'I'liis is the time fm* iinprovoiiieut — The diflieultics are great, but not in?ijnnonntablc — Conditions essential to the future jJi-osperity of Ire- land — Edui. ation — ^'aluable in its elements — liut insufficient without moral and industrial training — Disadvantageous position of ^(jrk- house children in this respect — ])cfcctire education of the middle and liiglier classes. ('nil ]iotliin,ir tlion be done ? Are onr ])casan- tiy to l>e sttirved tlown to the level of our ])rc- i>eut re>oiircL'S ? and tlien again to plant potatoes and ]\\r by coii-aere ? to subsist on tlie lowest food ? to li\'e in tlie AVor.^t cabins v ;j]id to [>ay, in iviit. tlie utmo.-t aiiK^niit that ean be (b-aiiicd from tliein, and yet leave enough to >u]»port existence ? Ai'e the same vicious circles ui' want, ignorance, and ci'iine, — of ill-paid la1)Our, and ill-executed Avoi'k, — of insulficient ca[>ital, Avant of emplovinent, intense competition fui- land, out- rage, and insecurity (being reciprocally cause and elfect) for ever to exist, and [irevent improve- ment ? Are idl our former habits to be resuiued, until some other failure of the potato-crop l»rings Aviih it a I'ccurrence of the pi'csent calamity ? Or 136 are we to seize the present opportunity for im- provement, and, taught by the dear-bought experi- ence of the past year, to reconstruct society on a sounder basis ? To throw away the present op- portunity, — to recur to our former mode of hving, — again to phice our de[)endence on a root so lial)le to injurv, after sucli painful experience of the dan- o-er. — Avouh.l be madness in us. and most culi)a];)le neglect in those Avho arc placed in authority over us. This is the time for improvement. The atten- tion of the people of England is f^rciljly directed towards us. It is evident to all wlio rcilect upon the relative circumstances of the two countries, that our condition must he raised, or tlie condition of the Enulish ])eople will be loAvered to our level. The dithculties are indeed formidable, but tliey are far from lieing insurmountable. It requires judicious legi.>hition, uncontrolled by tlie interests of any class either in Ireland or England ; a firm determination to enforce the laws, and >ome assist- ance in our present state of exhaustion. It is necessary to free tlie industry and the ca'pital of the country from the tr.imn\els which have liound them, and have impeded their useful emplo}-ment. If our present suffering should lead to that, im- proved legislation, Avhicli may not only com|>el the property of the coimtry to su[)port its poverty, but enalde it to do so, l»y freeing it from tlie legal 137 restrictions wliicli now hinder its improvement and lessen its value ; if, by increased freedom of action, industry be encouraged, and a wider lield o}iened for tlie eniplovment of capital ; tlieii, as the dark- est ]i<.)ur precedes the niorninii, so this liour of unexampled di.^tress and suffering will yet be remembered, as that from wliich the ])right day of improvement iirst began to dawn. But we must pass through mucli furtlier sntfering Ijelbre we can liope ibr iirosperitv. 3Iany will lie reduced to poverty, 'i'he necessity of economy will be forced upon all elasses. They will liave less to spend, and nuist rherelbre l)e saving. The gentiy must learn to do without many of tlu-ir accustomed luxuries. Tile ccndbrts of the middle elasses will be abridged, and in some cases tliev Avill l)e forced to assume a lower -station. 'I'lie poor will find it extremely dif- ficult to support themselves at all. Jn the end, all will find their level, and we may tru>t that an improved and rounder state of society Avill be the result. fii'cat improvements ai'c required. The di>|)ro- portion l)et^veen the number oi" laliourers find the demand f >r lal)Our must be removed. The A\'ages of labour must jje raised. The truck system, the system of paying in potatoes, nut.'-t be abolished, and wages invariably paid in the current coin of the realm. The labourer must l)e better fed, l)etter clotlied, 138 better housed, and then he "svill be able to do more and better Avork, and will be worth liis increased wages. Education must be more extensively dif- fused ; not merely the knowledge of letters, but that religious and moral culture which may l)etter enable us to perfoi'm the duties of our stations, and that industrial instruction which will make every man more skilful in his particular branch of business. Especially do our farmers need instruc- tion, (.u'eat improvements in farming are necessary, if we arc ever to support our peasantry in comfort. The land now under cultivation must be drained, properly manured, and pro])erly tilled ; and much land that is now waste, must, by careful and [)er- sevcring industry, be ])rouL:]it into cultivation, or otherwise made subservient to the support of man. The cultivator of the ground must be placed in that ])osition. in which he will liavc full security for the value of his laltour and the outlay of liis capital ; and tlie owner of the huid Avill then have the best security against tlic detei-ioration of his property. Above all, the supremacy of laAv nmst be upheld, not by the coercion of armed force, or the cstal)lishment of martial law, but by increas- ing the numl)er of tliose who arc interested in its maintenance, and ])y promoting a sound j^idjlic spirit, which shall aid its execution instead of op- posing it. Tliese are among the improved circum- 139 stances, to obtain wliich slioiild be the endeavour of those who desire the Avellare of Ireland, and wliicli we may hope will produce that peaceful industry and contentment, and those kindly feel- ings among tlie various classes of society, wliich are at once the most valuable result and the surest pledge of [)ros])erity. Tt is easy to point out the wants of the country, and to state the various conditions of prosperity ; l)ut it is a very different matter to sliow how these improvements can l)e effected. Various plans liave been proposed. Almost every one who writes al)out Ireland has some remedy of his own. (Com- mission after commission has been ajipointed, and a great mass of information ol)tahjed. Alany sug- gestions have Ijeen made in the re[>orts of these connnissions, ;md some uf the suggested measures Iiave 1)eeii tried, and are now in operation. It m;iy lie useful to bestow a little attention on some ol" tlie sul»jects Avliich have been placed before tlie public as remedial measures, with a view of considering how far tliey are capal)le of meeting tlie pi'csent dilficulty, and whether they do not require other changes to facilitate tlieir elfective operation. In noticing the wants of Ireland, and the means of improvement, f^ducation claims the iirst place. Tlie sul))ect has long been i»rominenrly Itelore tlie 110 public, and its importance, as a means of elevating the cliaracter of the people, is universally recognized. A reference to the statistical tahles given in the appendix, will slie^v the great deficiency which exists even i]i the mere rudiments. Less tlian one-tenth of the female population of Connaught, over iive years of age, are alile to read and write ; and even in Down, the most faA'ored county, the number of females, above iive years old, who can read and write, is scarcely more tiian one-fourth of the whoh\ There is certainly great room for iiuprovement in this res[)ect. A very large number of persons in Connauglit cannot S})eak English, or speak it only iuiperfectly ; these of course cannot read or Avrite, except in a very few instances. However, the knowledge of the English tongue is rapidly spreading into the most remote districts ; and, Avith the present increased flicilities of communication, it will ])r()bably pene- trate into every part of tlie country before many years ehipse. To be able to read and write, although very valuable as aifording tlie means of further im- provement, is certainly but a part of the in- struction wliicli ouglit, and which may well he given in the schools throughout the country ; and even the most extended intellectual cultivation" is irreatlv delicient, Avithout that moral and religious Ill care 'w^liicli alone can be relied on for the imj^rove- nient of national character. NrYcrthc'less, the poAver of reading and writing is in itself highly im|)ortant. The acquisition of these arts stimulates thought, and cultivates the mind ; the possession of them gives new means for the attaimiient of knowledge, and of wealth. Tlieir diftusion tlirougli a comnninity constitutes an important addition to the people's means of suhsistence, increasing their power of heljiing tliemselvcs. ilabits of order, oV)edience, and attention, which are vahiahle in all situations in life, are freqiientlv ac(piired at school. Some good moj'al instructions mav al>o be im]»i*e>sed on the memory, but the right education of the feel- ings, tlie most valual>le moral impressions, are onh' to be aetpiircd in a, well-regulated home. fn the ])re.e want of skill greatlv lessens the value of their laboui', industrial instrtiction seems of the greate>t importance. This subject has engaged the attention of the National Board of Education. Several agricultural schools established by them are now in operation, and it is intended to establi>h otliej's. From these schools nuich benelit may l)e expected. IN-rhaps wlien their usefubiess is more full}^ jn'oved, a trial may l.)e made of industrial instruction in other 142 branches. The erection of working sheds, with a supply of carpenter's tools, &c. in connection with schools, has been suggested, :uid there are various other wavs in Avliich this important object may be promoted. It is obvious that an education wliich would coinbhie the training of the intellect with an improved manual dexterity, must be of the utmost value to the whole connnunity. The situation of the poor cliildren in the work- houses, many of whom have 1)eeu made oi'pluins l)y the present calamity, most im[)eratively calls for public attention. Hitherto the educati(3n given in the majority of the workhouses has been very defective. It is evident that eiforts must l)e made to fit tlie voutlifid inmates i"or earning a livelihood ; or else, when they leave the workliouse, they will be tit for nothing, and Avill be driven to crime in ordei" to support existence. ^lere reading and writing is not sufficient. Something additional is necessary to su[)plv the loss of the varied infor- mation, which the children of the poor acrptire in their own liomes, both from the necessity of doing much to assist their parents in many ways, and also from constant connnunicntion witli those who are Avorking around them. Confined from in- fancy within the Avails of the Avorkhouse, secluded from intercourse with the industi-ious. and exposed tis they must be, more or less, to injurious contact 143 with those, whom idleness, ignorance, or depravity have reduced to want, it is a question of extreme difficulty how to 1 jrina- them up so that they may be likely to become industrious and well-conducted men and women. JJut it is also a question of great aud paramount importance ; as, if tliey are not educated lor s^ood, thev will surclv be educated for evil, and will become a burden and an injury to society instead of a support and l)cne(it. It is un- necessary to go farther into tlie subject, as it is one to Avhich ])ul)lic attenrion is so strongly directed. IVrliiijis regular instruction in some liandicraft traf tl;e oli-crvati"n- in llie text : " Tiicy would never ^ueeeeil in eilucatnii.'' the (>nly portion of their " iimiates who wire Avorth eilueatin.c^, whieh were the yciunp-, so ioi!^^ as " they were allowe'l to remain with the oM paupers (hear. hear\ In " every workhouse, the vduuircr inmates were lookeil upon alrea'ly as a " nuisauee. rather than any thingr el-e hear, hear, luar). The sehool- " masters were .uenerally persons of very inhrior eilueation thenu-elves, " ami W(>re en'j:'a^creai!. 1-14 ly directed to the instruction of the mass of the people, some of whom cUiim the care of the state as paupers, while pecuniary assistance is requir- ed to nid in the instruction of others. But the nature and amount of the education bestowed on the middle and upper classes, has likewise a very imiiortant bearino" on the well-beinu: of so- ciety. AVhilst tlie education of the poor in Ire- land approaclies nearer to the standtird of the middle and upper classes tlian is the case in Eng- land, the education of the middle and upper classes themselves, is generally inferior to tliat of the cor- responding ranks in (Jreat Britain. Tliis remtu'k will n(:)t app]}- to tlie learned in'ofessions, whose mciiibri's do not suifer by a comparison witli tlie sister country ; neither Avill it a[)ply to many among the gentry and conmiereial classes, Avho are probalily fully on a par in this respect with those of the same i-ank in England or Scotland ; Init it must l)e admitted that the general tone of socletv, the average amount of intellectual culture, is lower, " tlie pcTj^ons to wliom they otfure.1 themselves for eniiiloyment wouM " not be euntciit -witli iuquiniii; into their litne^s I'or eniphniiient, hut " Avoiilil also investigate their charaeter for morality (^hear, hear). So " long as they were permittcJ to mix with the oM paupers, their morals " would be corrupted ; but if they attended to this point, a most desira- " ble rt'sult, whieh was heretofore impraeticable, would be accomplished, " namely, persons would be found willing to take appreutieus out of the " workhouse (hear. hear). — Sauiidcrs' Xctrs Lcflcr, Xov. \Stli, 1S47. 145 botli among the landed proprietors, the tanners, and the traders of Ireland, than among simihir persons in Givat Britain. The education of sucli })arties must mainly depend on themselves; still, it may1)e desiraljle that gcjvernjiu'nt should afford assistance, hy the estaldishmcnt of schools and colleges for superior instruction. \ step has already been taken in tliis dij'cction, and it is to l)e hoped tliat more may vet be done to^^■ards sup[»lying the deficiencv. (;iIAPTER IX. lOnglisIi capital looked to by many as a moans of improvement — Its introiluction iuiiicJeJ by want of confirlenee — Irisli capital largely invested out of Ireland — -Ditliculty of making suitable investments in Ireland — Evil results of non-residence of tlie landed XJrt'priutors — Causes of non-residence— A free sale of land the best remedy — Manu- facturing industry in Ireland — The Linen mauuf^icture has l]ouri^hed in Ulster — The Knglirli factory system a cause of the decay of the Irish \v(jolkn manufacture — Has had less inHuence on tlie Irish linen manu- facture — Injurious results of combination have been more iVlt in Ire- laud tiian in England— System of apprenticeship considered — De- liciency of home diaiiand injurious to home manufacture— Xational importance to Ireland of the linen manufacture and the cultivation of flax— Eislicries might be Uiucli more extensively carried on. Tlie lutrodiietiori <;»i" J-jiLili.-li (';i])it:il lias Ix'oii relit'd on l)y many as an important means of pnjiiioti]!!!- tlu; ])i'ospr]'ity of Irelant]. \Yq see the snperal)nn(lant eapital of luj^land seeking for profitable occupation in evei-y part of the world ; it works mines, makes raihvays, advances loans to foreign states ; no undertaking is too great or too distant, if it olfer a fair chance of pruiit. AVhy then does so little of it come to Irekiiid, wliicli is so near liome, which offers so witle a lield for its employment, and Avhere it is so mucli u'anted ? Tlie 14: answer is obvious ; that the security appears more doubtful, or the chances of profit smaller. Capital cannot be forced. Mercantile confidence is of slow growth. The slightest apj)earance of insecurity dis- turbs it. Men of capital become alarmed, and withdraw. If we are to oljtain assistance from the :ibounding wealth of our neighl)0urs, we nuist first (»l)tain their confidence, by showing that we oifer good security. J3ut if our security be ever so good, there must also be the lio|)e of ju'ofit. 1 >< >es Ireland otfer this inducement V How is it, tlieii, tliat so many of our own countiymen seem unable to find profitable employment for their capital at home, and there- fore invest in foreign securities, in railway's, or in the pultlic funds ? It is verv ([uestional)le whether the capital of the country lie iiot fully equivalent to the oppoi'tuifities Avhieh now exi:-t for making use of it. The [irofits of trade ru-e not higher than in bjigland. Is there anv defieienev of capital for the ordinary trade of the country ? Tlie agri- cultural population are imrpiestionably ])0or, yet many possess money lioai'ded U]) or lodged in tlie bank at a low rate of interest, lint it cann(jt 1)e expected that they Avill expend either labour or money on the improvement of the land, without security of possession. When the landlord is em- barrassed, and does not himself po-sess the means n -2 148 of improving his estate, how is it possible to assist liim effectually, except by enabling him to sell part, and so obtain capital for the improvement of the remainder ? The large importations of the jniblic funds fj-<.>m England into Irehuid, whicli have been made at many aiid various times since the union, show the increase of property in this country. These im- ports of stuck, tlie lar^e sums lent on inortiT^ao-e, and the competition for every estate brought into the market, prove the difficulty of making a suit- alile investment, rather than anv want of capital. An increase of capital would lie useless without the means r)f profitable einplovment. When we can offer the ojjportuinty of [trolitable occupation, with the security Avhich peace and (piietness would give, ca|)ital will Il»_)\v in lively, and will be of essential Service to tlie countrx'. The Al)senteeism of so many of the landed pro- })riet<>rs ion of ]»i'o- pertv elsewhei'e, fi'om the fear of outrage, or from the want of suitable society. Property cannot be as valualile to a non-resident propi'ietor, as it might be made by one who vrould give it his personal attention. If the diJlieulties wei'C removed which now prevent the fi'ee sale of landed ])ropei'ry. some 150 one who could attend to it would purchase from the non-resident owner ; and if the number of resident proprietors were increased, the induce- ments to residence would be greater on account of the improved society, whilst the danger of outrage would be less. Allusion has been already made to the }>enal code, as ha^^ng had a serious elfect in depressing the industry' of the country. It aifectcd the Eo- man Catholics directly, lessening their motives for exertion, by taking from them the means of iin'est- ing their profits in land ; and it indirectly atfected the dominant class, l)y creating in them a spirit of ])ride and exclusiveness, which looked to otlier means than industry for tlie ac<|uisition of wcaltli. It is the unvarying result of p;u'tial aud oppres- sive legislation, to injure b()th the oppressor and the oppressed. In tliat part of Ulster "where the population Avas almost exclusively Protestant, tlie iinen manufacture has ilourished ; but tlie woollen manufacture, which at one time was exten^ively carried on in the south of Ireland, lias almost wholly ceased. It is true that, in accordance with tlie mistaken policv ab'cady alluded to, the manufacture of woollen goods Avas systcjiiatically discouraged ly the goveriiiiient ; yvt its iiiud dee:iy seems due to other causes. It iIourisluMl during tlie })eriod of legal rotrictioii, eveii to tlie extent 151 of exporting to England in the face of heavy duties; but has gradually fallen away to its present reduced condition, since the restrictions have been removed, and our woollen manufacturers placed on a par with the English. Perhaps the main cause of the decay of both the Avoollen and cotton manufactures in Ireland, has been the growth of the factory system. AVhile the varii was spun and the cloth woven by liand, and the whole trade carried on without the employment (•f any vei'y large amount uf capital, by individual manufacturi'rs. the small tradesmen in Ireland were on (.'(pial terms with their competitors in England, as they possessed fully as much ingenuity and skill, and their pecuniary resoiu'ces were suHicieiit for the extent eif their Imsiness. But wlien the inventive genius of Watt, .Vrkwriglit, and others, changed the character of the manufacturing indtistry of Great Britain, it became impossible for ihe manufacttirers of Ireland to contend with tliose of England, luiless tliey also endiarked large capitals, and consented to devote tile same close attention to the business. To conduct a large manulactory Avith success re- (piires ca])ital, intelligence, luiremitting attention and industry. Yvw persons in the south of Ireland, possessing these requisites, have been Avilliiig to undertake a bnsijiess invoh ing >o much labour, and rc<|uiri]ig so large an invotment of cnpital ; wliicli, 1 :ri being sunk in buildings and machinery, could only be made available by the successful working of the concern. The higher price of coals in Ireland must have had some eiFect in discouraging the erection of fac- tories ; but Sir Robert Kane has clearly shown that this is of far less importance than has usually l:)een supposed.* There are important manufactures in many |)arts of England, Avhere the price of coals is considerably liigher tlian in the seaport towns of Ireland. The miiinifacture of ilax has more slowly ada[)ted itself to the fiictory system, than eitlier tliat of cot- ton or Avool. Linen is still woven l)y hand, and flax contiiuied to be spun by liinid until recently; the maeliinerv for s[>inning ilax by power not having been invented, until long after that for s]>inning cotton had l)een brouglit to nearly its [tresent state of perfection. The fictory systi/m had therefore sulticient time to develope itself in England, as applied to the manullicture of cotton, woollen, and worsted goods, liefore the linen trade was exposed to its iniluence. Wlien the contest be- tween tlie spinning-wheel and the ilax-mill com- menced, the linen trade of Ulster might have experienced the same fate as the cottoti and woollen * See Kane's Industrial Kesourees of Ir^'kunl. 153 trades of the south of Ireland, but that it was still necessarv to weave liv Jiaud, and also that larore capitals had been sunk in bleaching establishments, which would be useless unless the linen manufac- ture were supported. The habits and inclinations of tlie possessors of capital in many parts of Ulster must also be taken into account, as renderinir them more willing- to em1)ark in manniactui'cs, and to devote tlie requisite care and attention to the man- agement of tlieir business. Formerly there wei'e ])Ie:ich greens in several phices in tlie other three pi-uAinces. and a consider- al)le (jUiintity of biien maiiulaetiuvd ; noAV, this ti'ade is abnost wliolly conlined to Ulster. V*y a recent return presented to tlie liouse of connnons, the number ol" persons einph_>ved in ilax-niills in the kiiigdfim :ip])ea]'s to be as follows, vi/. : — ]n Ulster -----.. 1,;,-_'1)2 111 tlio rest of trelaiiil — the mills lieiii;,' all sitnatt-il in fmir ciiuntifS in lA-instur ... 1,7!"> Total in Jrclaml 17,uS8 In ScotlauJ -Jl.l'SO lnEus,'land l!>,S-iO Total - - - JS.-2.5S The trade and manufactures of Freland liave been more impede(l bv comlmiations among the Avork-peo])le than in Englnnd. Thev liave not had ]»iuch dii'cct inlluenee on faetoi'v labour, l)ut have alfected handicraft trades to a great extent, raising 154 the price, deteriorating the quality of the work, and creating uncertainty as respects the time and manner of its completion, AThich have inflicted very serious injury on many branches of trade.* Com- binations of workmen have proved more powerful tlian in England, from tlie greater difficulty of en- forcing the execution of the Liws in IruLind, and also ])ecause the want of ca]>ital on tlie part of the master manufacturers lias h'ft them more dependent on those they emphjy. Tlie result is, that tliere is nnich more ditference l^etween tlie wages of skilled and unskilled labour in Ireland than in England, as will appear from the rates of wages subjoined : r.irpcntc: !■. r i: rs- Wares .1. (> 2 4 4 BricWai .J 4 4 4 ;! 4 i-prs' \Va ges la.v. Tluliliii . .. . 4 1 8 n.llast C.rk o 4 1 C. 1 4 Citiubiiiatioiis among workmen are but en- deavours to support the exclusive privileges, a! one time gi\en by law to the legal members of each particular trade, Avho had served an ajv ' Arthur Young remarked, in 1770, that "artizans and mauulacturers " of all i^orts -were as -vvell paid by the day as in England ;" but that " the " quantity of work they gave for it, and in many eases the quality, dif- " fered exeeedingly,'" and that ■• hu.-liandry labuur was very low prieed, " lint by no means elieap." The same remark is applicable to the pre- sent dav. 155 prenticeship, and were supposed to have been instructed in all the mysteries of the craft. Per- haps the most effectual means used to maintain the waLi'es of an}' trade, is limitinii; the number of apprentices, and thus su[)portin_ir wa_2'es by pre- ventino- competition. This was carried some time since to such an extent, by the sliipwriglits of Dublin, and the numl)er of journeymen 'Nvas so reduced, that they Avere thus enabled to secure hiu;h waiiX'S, Avhenever it b.ecame necessary to re- |)air a vessel ; but ;it the same time, any trade in ship-building Avhich minht have existed, was effec- tunlly ],)i'eventeel. It seems Very rpiesti(jnal)le whether the system of a]>prentice^hi]) be not injurious to all trade in which it exists, and a very serious lu>s to the ])roductive industry of tlu' eounti'v. Young lads are often bound to a business for whicli tluy liave no indiniition or capacitv, and five or seven of the most valuable years of their lives are passed without imjjrovement, as regards their future pro- fession. The a|>prentice, knowing that his master nuist em}»loy him, and ])ay him the stipulated Avnges, or perhaps receiving no wages at all, has no inunediate interest in l)eing industrious; andtoofi'e- ([Ueiitly wastes his time, feeling little desire to serve his master, or to learn his trade, and being o]ily anxious for the tei'mir.ation ot liis "servitude," that 156 he may become " his own master." Why should not the labour of a youn"- lad be fairly remune- rated ? and if, l:>y industiy and attention, he is able to acquire a full knowledge of his business in less time than others, why should he not get wages in pro})ortion to his skill as a workman ? The con- sciousness of reaping the reward of industry, the feeling that he works for himself, is an incentive to A'onthfnl exertion, which must exercise itsiniiuence U])on all tlie future years of life ; while the deaden- ing elfect of a]»prenticeship is not only f-lt at the time, but the idle habits produced by it iVe(pu'iit]y extend thi'ough the wliole course of life. The cot- ton mtmufacture is carried on without ap])rentiees, and no where does the woj'kman mure quickly learn his business, and in no other trade does he more surely obtain a fair remuneration for tlie skill and in(hi.>try lie exerts. Troni nearly the lir.-t, the factory system of manutlu'turing has been free from tlie restrictions and IxMunubing elfect ol" ap- prenticcsliii.'s ; and its ])rogrcss has been propor- tionately rapid. The ingenuity of all employed is taxed to the utm<.)st, and many are the im})rove- ments and inventions Avliich have been suggested by the woi'kmen themselves. That an increase of mnnufacturing industry in Ireland would ])e of the greatest A'alue, is e\ndent to all. It would relieve the lalujur market i>v the 1 f^ p^ iDi additional eniploynient ; it would lessen the com- jxjtition for land, by affording other means of sup- porting existence ; it would tend to create a middle class, the want of 'whicli is so ijijuriuusly I'elt by the countiy. What means of encouragement exi^t? are there any restrictions to Ije removed ? or can any thing be done, which ma}' improve the condi- tion of the existing manuractures, or ficilitate the introduction of new oiu-s ? The rcstrictinns which formerly existed, and which cramped our wool- len trade, and fettered indtistrv, liave long >ince Ix'cn removed. TIil'J'C is nothing now in the laws *»r institutions of the cotuitiw, wliicli places our maiiiificturci'S in a worse pu.--ition than those of laigland. Vi.-t, with the exce]»tion of linen, all our milive maiinf ictures have deci'eased, while those of I'Jiglaiid .md Scothnid ha\e increased b-e- \-ond all fa'iuer i)recedent in aiiv aue or countrx'. The removal of injurious I'esti'ictions, if such ex- i^ted, is all that could l)e looked for. Xo one now could be weak enough to ask for bounties nv pro- tection, [f oui' nianufictui'es cannot l)e Juaintaiiied in a fiir and open competition with those of other counti'ies, they are undeser^•ing of supjiort, and sliould 1)0 allowed to fill. 'file absence of a sullicient home demand has liad an iiijui'ious inlliience in some cases, in which 158 it is essential to clieapness that the manufacture be conducted on a large scale. The various causes which have depressed the agricultural industry of the country, have thus indirectly affected manufac- tures also ; and the removal of those legal impedi- ments to im])rovement, wliich pi'css so heavily on the ai;ricultural classes, will essentially assist the manuilicturers, by increasing the number and the wealth of their customers. 1 [' we exert our industiy and intelligence as we ought, we shall readily u[)]iold those manufactures il)r wliii-li tlie cuuntry is ])est suited; and surely the lineii mamifacture, wliicli has so lona* existed in Ireland, is the cliief of these. llie eoi'M LiYs's hav(; lio'etofore tended to divert attention from tlie cultui-e of llax, 1)V holdinir out to till' fmiU'i's :m ideal protection, which made tlk'iji rely oil corn as their principal crop. But with a free trade, we may trust that it will re- ceive moiv attention, and tliat it will prove liigh- ly remunerative to the cidtivator. The soil and climate are very i'avorable to its growtli. Its cultivation is well suited to tlic manners of the people, and to tlie circumstances by vrliieli land is divided into small lioldinirs. It will reiiav the hiboui- and cost of garden cultivation by the spade, and give employment to all the members of ]5<) the lainily in preparing it for market. Flax may }>e made even more valuable to Ireland than cot- ton is to England ; because, wlnlc it is necessary to import the raw material of the cotton manu- ficture from a foreign country, at an annual cost exceeding £10,000,000, it is within our power, if proper attention be paid to tlie cultivation of ilax, to su]>ply not onh' our (;^vn nianufactuivrs, but also those of England and Scotland. .\ society has fieen formed in Belfast, to promote and im|)]-ovc the cultivation of ilax in Lvland, a] id their exertions appear to luu'e ];een ver\- usel'ul, 1)0th in extenf that s<)c!et\-, ^vc. fuid tliat tlie ([uantity of ilax and t<»\v imported into tlie kingdom in 1815 amoiuited to l.llS.IVio cwts. and that the ^•;due of the i]ii[K.>rts oi" ilax, IIax-S('ed, and oil-cakes a\erages abou.t £{),n( /(),<)()() annualh-. The deiicieney of ex])oi-ts this year has alreaih' been noticed. Enless otir pea.smtry agaiii revert to tlie potato as th.eir sole, or at least their ])riiicipai. 1'o'hI, our exports of grain must be ])er- manenilv dimini>hed ; in which case, some othei" articles of ex|)ort are necessary, to enable us to jair- clia>e clothing and l"oi'eign luxuries. Can we look to anvthiug s-o important as iiax to Mipply this icio deficiency ? We cannot expect at once to increase the cultivation, to such an extent as to render im- portation from foreign countries unnecessary ; but Ave may hope to do so in time, and that eventually, tlie growth of llax Ijcing extended throughout Ire- land, and the manufacture of linens greatly in- creased, "\ve may find these products of our industry to be the chief support of the prosperity of the countiy. That the fisheries of Ireland miglit be made a most important means of increasing tlie national Avealth is universally admitted, and the neglect of such valual)le resources a}»pears the more to be lamented at the present time, when so nuich sui- fering has been and is ('X[)erieneed fur want o!" food. The sea around our shores teems with fish, olforing an ;diiio.?t inex]uiu>tible ;>upplv of food, and :i mine (jf \v<':dth which only requires to be diligeiitlv and skiliiilh" AVorkcd. In tlie various sea-ports and fishing villages along the eastern c(»ast, the business is f )llowi(l with more or less .-uccess, su])poris a large nundx-r uf li.->u('njien, and su]>plies the Viirious markets well. lUit along the western coast, there is but little regular u>hing, except in a few of tlie ]>riiicipal jtoi't.-r. When the herrings ajipear on tlie coast, tlie\' take tliem, oiten in lai'ge (|uajitities. i)ut it is uuh' f.r Ic'cal .tnd jiiinieuiave 161 consumption. They are rarely salted, or sent to any great distance for sale. The small number of persons in the west of Ireland able to purchase fish, are insufficient to constitute a market, except in the larire towns. Under such circumstances, it could scarcely be expected that any regular hsliing should exist. The government, with the view of supplying this deficiency, liave instituted an experiment in the establishment of curing stations, where they arc always willing to purchase hsli for curing at a low fixed price. They hope thus to induce tlie habit of constant fishing, by securing to tlie fisherman the cei'tainty of a market. If tlie experiment ])r(.)ve successful, tlie curing stations will doubtless be transferred to pi'ivate individuals, jiiid tlie fish- ing trade will be left to the su[)}wjrt of ])riv;(te enterprise. Perhaps the lisherii'S on the western coast may never jjccome very ]»r<:)fitablc, until a Ix'tter distribution of property take place, which may increase the home market, so as to aifoi'd a good remunerntion to those who ma}^ be induced to devote their whole time to fisliing. Assistance has also been given to the formation of hiirbours in many places ; but as yet by no means sufficient for the due pi-otection of the fishermen, on a coast so much exposed to storms, 102 and open to the full force of the ocean. Much more will pi-obably be done in this respect, as the government are evidently impressed witli the im- portance of supplying this deficiency. CHAPTER X. Great extent of emigration— More advantageous to the emigrants than to Ireland — Large number of Irish resident in Great Britain — In- creased emigration to England this year — Must continue until the condition of the working classes in the two countries be equalized — Tenantry sometimes assisted by landlords to emigrate — Emigration must be on a very extensive scale to relieve the labour market — Esti- mate of the cost — Government assistance would interfere with volun- tary emigration — Cultivation of waste lands — Their reclamation by government considered — If they were saleable, government inter- ference unnecessary — Improvement of land now in cultivation a more important object — Consolidation of farms — Prejudice against small farms not well founded — Necessity of capital for farming purposes — Injurious effects of insecurity of possession — Advantages resulting from the custom of tenant-right in Ulster— Proposition to extend this custom to the rest of Ireland — If effected by Lynch-law, the results would be most disastrous — Definition of tenant-right — Difficulty of converting it into a legal right — Compensation to tenants for per- manent improvements considered — Abortive legislation on this sub- ject—Customs of tenantcy in England — Improvements best effected by the proprietor — Agrarian outrages — Popular sympathy with the offenders — Coercion unavailing while the exciting causes exist — Want of capital in connection with land the original cause — A free sale of land the remedy — Difficulty of supporting popular institutions in Ireland for want of a middle class — No means so likely to afford a remedy as the free sale of land. That there is a constant stream of Emigration from Ireland is well known. Those who sailed for foreign countries, direct from Irish ports, in M 2 164 the ten years preceding the census of 1841, ave- raged 21,404 yearly. When to this number we add the Irish emigrants who sailed from Liverpool and other English ports, it will probably raise the annual average to at least 40,000.* There is no doubt that emigration increased considerably during the five years from 1841 to 1846, and this year the number has been great beyond all former precedent. Of this description of emigration, the compiler of the " Digest of Evidence on the occu- pation of land in Ireland" remarks, that " it does not relieve the " country from those classes that it " would be desirable to part with ; that the volun- " tary emigrants for the most part consist of fami- " lies possessing capital, whilst the paupers remain "at home: the young, the strong, the enterprising " and industrious individuals of families leave "us, whilst the old, the impotent, the idle, and " indolent portion stay with us."f This emigration may be very useful to the emigrants themselves, but it can hardly be very advantageous to Ireland. We lose a part of that valuable portion of our work- ing classes, who are energetic and enterprising, and who possess some capital. The large amount * The commissioners appointed to take the census for Ireland in 1841, in their report, page xxvii. estimate the total colonial and foreign emigra- tion from Ireland between 1830 and 1841, to be 403,463. t Digest of Evidence, page 567. 165 of money sent back to their relations in Ire- land, by many of these industrious emigrants, is certainly some compensation. This money is fre- quently made use of, to enable the older and less enterprising- of the family to join tlieir friends Avho have preceded them to America. A young man or won] an will often save enough out of his earnings, to pay tlie jiassage for a fatlier ov motlicr, a brother or sister ; and so, in time, the whole family l)ecomes united again in a new country, where they are enabled to live in comfort, and often in aliiuence.* * Tlic folliiM-iufj txtrnct nf a kttir from Jncob Uarvoy of Nlw York, vill lif iiittiv.-tiiiu', as r^lnAvinj; sonic uf llie advaiitaiivs ooiifirreJ on the cniiirrants tlK'mstlvos, as well as tlie care taken uf tlicir wt-lfare. by the- state of New York. It is ilated May -ii'tli, 1.S47: "As an IrisluiKin, " liounil by duty as well as by syni]iatliy to give my jiour aid to surve my " eountnnn n, I ean see no ■way so elear as by encoura.u'inir emigration. " The benefits eonferred on the emigrants are in'sitirc. JIow I'an 1 " recommend them to stay at home, and live on hope, Avith this great " I'aet constantly lielbre nie ? Ireland is so thickly p(i]inlated, there is " no danger of your lieing left ilestitute of farmers anil labonrers. Yon will " increase fast euongb to till tlie i>laces of tlmse who leave your shores ; "and you will, as 1 have ab-eady shown, receive large sums from " these emigrants, to assist your poor avIio remain lieliind. IMy "mission, therefore, is to look after the emigrants ; and 1 shall liave " my hands full this year. Uinlcr a recent act of tliis slate, com- " missioners are ajipointed, (of Avhom I am one) to take cliarge of " all emigrants arriving in New York. We are erecting temporary '• buildings for the side, onr hosiiitals being full; and the al>le-bodied " are sent into tlie country at once, wliere there is i»lenty of employment " tnrsuits throughout the wJioU- Union, " and it will require an innnense iullux of foreigners to overload the U]() The emigration of jjoor ])ersons to England is a greater relief, because, although some of those who go are joung persons of energy and industrious habits, they rarely possess any capital. In general, tho,-e who remove to England are forced to do so, by the difficulty of oljtaining employment in their o^vn country. They would much prefer remainino- at home, eyen with considei'ably lower wages. It appears from the census of IS 11, that the num- ber of Irish ])ersons then resident in England and "Wales was '2^)2^)35. and T2(i,321 in Scothnid ; of these, lo2,(370 lived in the counties of Lanca- shire, Cheshire, and the ^YQst iJiding of Yorkshire, 44,. "Mo in Glasgow, and about 70,000 in tlie city of London. A small prop()rtion are absentees possessiiig j)ro]:)erty ; l)ut tlie great majority are certainly of the working classes. It is impossible to ascertain hoAv manv luive removed to England tins year, but the numl)er must liavc been very large. The failure of all their usual means of suppoi't, the hopelessness of obtaiiiing employment at home, impelled them to seek another country, "whose people tliey hoped would emplriy tliem. and from whose charity tliey felt sure of assistance, ^lanv of these will maintain tliemselves li\- rlieir "market. AVhat a Itlessiiie; it is, fluit tlitro is ?ucli a continent to lie " filled Aril h human being-?. Look at the map, ami yon will qnickly " decide tliat our present pojnilaiion is as a speck on tlie liorizoii." 167 own iiKlustrv; they will work for lower remune- ration, and will undertake more servile offices, tlian the English labourer ; their children ^\'ill be Eng- lish-born, and they will gradually be absorbed into the mass of the English ]»opulation. This emigra- tion will certainly continue, until the dilference be- tween the relative condition of the working classes of the two islands ceases to exist. The poor and ill-paid labourer will endeavour, to (_)l>t[iin ;l share of the Avell-paid em]tlovment given to his nioi-e fortunate neighbours. Tliere is anotlier kind of emigration, which takes place to a small extent, when landlords, wisliing to consolilan may be carried out more extensively. The act ol last session, for the amendment of the Poor LaAV, enables the guardians of the union to assist in the emigration of such families, by a grant to half the amount given by the lindlord. to be charged on the electoral idcd. Ihit those who look to emitiration as a means of 108 relieving the labour market of its surplus, must anticipate its being conducted on a very extensive scale ; as in this way alone can it effect any sensible diminution of the present pressure. It woukl require at least a million of persons to be sent away. How is it possible to transport such a number at once ? or to })rovide them with the means of sub- sistence, when they have reached the port of debark- atiuii ? At the legal rate of three passengers for every five tons, it would recjuire more than three thousand vessels of live hundi'cd tons each. But sup- pose this difficulty over, and the whole nund)er landed safely in Canada, how great is the responsi- bility Avhicli it entails on the government, that this uudtitude of peopk- may be supported, and ]»laced in some way of maintaining tliemsclves by honest industry I It is evidently impracti- cal >lc to act on so extensive a scale. r»ut suppose them to he removed ])y degrees, say one-tenth, or 1 00,000 every year. Will such emigration liave any perceptible effect ? It lias generally been esti- mated that population increases at the rate of one and une-lialf per cent, annually. If this estimate be correct, the amount of annual increase in Ire- land Avould be about 120,000, and therefore the population would still go on increasing in spite of this emigration. Tlie cost of bUch an emiui'ation would be enor- 169 mous. The estimate for cost of passage given in the '• Digest of Evidence" above referred to, is £30 for each fimily, or £(j for eacli individual ; say, in all, £(3,000,000, or £600,000 per annum. This estimate is founded on the evidence of John R. Godley, who seems also to thirjk it essential that the emigi'ants should be a well selected class, conijn'ising ellicient labourers. This selection might be very useful to Canada, but Avould not so Well serve the object of relieving Ireland. But even Avlicn ])]'0])orly located, a large amount "would still be j-equircd for tlicir employment and support, until they were i'ully in a eoiiditioD to support themselves.* It is nnich to ])e feared, thut they might consider themselves relieved from the necessity of over exertion. Avhen they found tlie govei-nment bound to Jiinintain tlicni. \Vnuld not the £16,000,000 or £20,000,000 wliif'li might be required to cari'y out an elective system of emigration, pi'ove mncli more usel'ul if laid out at home ? if facilities be afforded, by Avhich this amount may be ex|)ended in the various A\'0]'ks, Avliich, in many ])a]-ts of Ireland, are requi- * It ;iii])e:irs, froiu llie tvidciu'e nf tlie siimc uentlcnKui, tli;it the cnst l)cr iioad incurred by govemiiieut, for tlio passayc and loeatiun uf emi- grant? ?ent out to Uppei Canada, in tlie year ISi"), amounted to £21 .js., Aviru-l) would lie about L'lOCi .J5. fur an average lamily. — lligest of Evi- dence, page 5'jN. 170 site, before the ground can l:»e properly cultivated, Anil it not, in fact, afford the means of support at home to this million of people, either by direct employment, or by its indirect effects ? Another objection deserves to be noticed, namely, that any plan involvinir ,2;ove]'nment assistance to emigrants, would greatly interfere with pi'ivate emigration. Those wlio desire to go, instead of working to [)rocure the means of jniying for their passage, will spend their time in endeavouring to ol)tain a. free passage at the expense of the state. The lunnber emigrating at tlieir own ex- pense may be seriously diminished from tliis cause. Tlie Cultivation of tlie Waste Lands in Ireland has often )jeen proposed, both as a means of improving tlie condition of the unemployed po])ulation, and of deVelo[)ing tlie resources of the country. No one can doubt the important results whieh must ensue, from a large application of capital and la- bour to the improvement of the soil. It is exactly Avhat is wanted to I'aise the condition of the coun- try. But the question for consideration is, how this can be best effected; Avhether by government inter- ference, or bv leaving it to private enter|»rise : and whether it be moi'e judicious to bring addi- tional land into cultivation ; or to ex[)end the same amount of labour in draining or otherwise iniprov- 171 ing the lands now cultivated, so as to render tlieni nioi'e ])roduetive. It is -WL'll known that ninch "waste land has been ])rou_ij;]it under culture lor several years ])ast. This has been effected, chii-lly 1;)y allowinij; cottiers to take in a portion of the mountain side ; and when lliey liad tilled it for a few years, and pai'tially re- claimed it. caUiiiii' on tliem eitlier to pvc it np to the landlord, or to pay a rent. In some cases, they probal)ly retained it, and l)ecame permanent ten- ants : but in others, they ixave it up, and com- menced aru'W ; not unlVequcntlv endimr near the top of the mountain, at the bottom of which they conunenced many years before. Tims culti- vation crept up tlie mountain sides, or encroached on the secluded valleys lieretofore uutilled. Tliis mode of reclamation j'e(iuiivd no cajiital on the part of the landlord. The cottier or tenant was the sole as^'ent. He obtained a bare sub.^istence by very severe labour, and rarely ellected aiiv im- provement in his <.)WJi condition. It was practica- ble, on account of the lacility with Avhich the]>otato was cultivated ; and it is very doubtful whether it be practicable witli any other croj). Ihit when the reclamation of tlie waste land has been proposed as an inrportant means of improve- ment, the intention has t»een, tliat it should Itedone 172 on a large scale, with money to be advanced from the Treasury. Such was no doubt the mode in- tended by the government, in the measure proposed at the commencement of last session of parliament; but wliieh was afterwards dropped. Tliis plan seems free from many objections, which may be urged against any national ]»lan of emigration. It is less expensive. Its efll'ct in relieving tlie labour-market will l)e immediately felt. It inter- feres less with private operations. It cannot injure those who are the objects of the intended benefits. It must increase the productive capability and general resources of tlie country. Still it seems very rpiestionablc, Avhether tliis may be tlie best plan (jf eliecting, either tlie employment of the people or tJie cultivation of tlie land. All attempts to direct the application of labour or ca|)ital are dangerous, and quite at variance with those ]>rinri- ples of free action as respects trade, Avliicli are now generally admitted, and whicli are of universal application. liemove the existing diihculties whicli prevent the cultivation of these wastes ; faci- litate their sale and transfer, Avhether in smaller or larger portions, and if the speculation will pay, they Avill l)e reclaimed b}^ private enterprise : if not, it is better to leave them as they now are.* * Tlie authority vi Sir IJoliort IV'cl may be givcu in conlariiiation of tliis viiw of ilic Pulijtrt : — "'With respect to the eultivatioii of 173 A most important question still exists ; wliether it may not be more proiitable to bring the lands now under culture into a more efficient state for cultivation, instead of attempting to reclaim the Avastcs ; and this question will be decided cor- rectly, if left to the decision of individual inter- ests, uncontrouled by legislative enactment. The parliamentary assistance, oilcred 1)y mearis of the several drainage acts lately passed, and by the act of last session for facilitating the improvement of land in Ireland, aifords great ficilities, Avhich have l)een largely taken ad\'antage <)f, and which will probaldy be made still more generally useful hereafter. The ap|>lications for loans under the last named VA-t Iiave been veiy numerous ; liut not ha\ iiig yet come into eJfective operation, it is tot) eai'ly to speak of their results. Still we niay aiitici[iate that much improvement will I)e elfected, giving exten>ive em])loyment lor the present, and increasing the i'uture cajiabilities of the country. Some [)ersons sup]M)se that tliese im]»rovements, when completed, will enable the proprietor t(j " bogs ;nii] waste lamls in Iivland, I cannut lielj) Iliiiikin.tr, tliat -vrithtlie " cucoura^viiKiit llitrc lia> Ihtii to tiiiplny ])rivatL' capital in IIk' culti- " vation of land which woulil repay the outlay, if the noble lonl's bill '' for perniittiiig the sale of oiiciiiiil)ereil estates j-houM be eluctive, " these enterprises for reelainiiair \va.-te lamls will lie unilertaken by prl- " vate indiviiluals, if they are likely to be prolitalile; ami if not, then " i)iiblic mone}- would only be thrown away on them.'" — Times, Feb. -3, 1S47. 174 cultivate the soil with fewer labourers than he now requires ; on the i)ther liand, many of tlie best authorities in agricultural nuittcrs anticipate that the land, when rendered capable by higher cul- ture, for the production of crops M'liich could not now be profitably grown, will be in a condition to repay the expense of much more labour than has hitlierto hecn bestowed upon it. iM'Culloch, in his remarks on tl^ie Iri.--]i ])Oor-law, gives tlie following opinion on the su])ject : '' An}' attempt " to force waste lands sudderdy into cultivation •' on a lai'ge scale, Avould be attended Avith cnor- " mous expense, and would be a complete lailure. '" AVhat Ireland wants, is not the bringing in of " waste lands, but the application of an improved " system of agricultural management to the iaiids " already under tillage." An opinion generally prevails, that the Subdivi- sion of land into small farms has lieen very in- jnrious to Ireland. Tlu' iV'medy ]iroposed, and often attempted to be acted on, is, to unite several of these small farms into one large one. This mode of proceeding has been called " Consolida- tion."' If a whole district be cut up into portio]is vary- ing from one to live acres, the state of agriculture will jirobably be very defective, and the inhabitants all of o]ie class, and only one remove from })anper- 175 ism. These holdings are too small, without other resources, to afford comfortable support to a family after paying rent and taxes ; and it will in many eases be highly desirable, to use any opportunities tliat offer, to consolidate some of them into larger farms ; provided that in so doing, tlie tenants be treated with justice and humanity. Consolida- tions have takt'U place in many parts of Ireland, during the }>ast ten to fifteen years ; and will no d(jubt be mucli increased by the present circiun- stances, wliicli lessen tlie value of hnul as a means of mei'e sub>istence, since potatoes can no longer be de[)ended on. Some per>0!is have looked to this consolida- tion of small fai'ms into large ones, and the con- vej'sioii of the small farmers into labourers re- ceiving daily Avages, as a most important means f )r the improvement of the country, it m;tv- perhaps, be useful in some places, l)ut >urely it may l»e car- ried too fir ; and unless great caution l)e Used, and emplo}nient ])e [»rovided f)r the small iannei's when reduced to labourers, great sulfei'ing nuist bo })roduced, and the most serious consequences may ensue. The prejiulice against small firms a[)}!ears in many respects unfounded. Althongli tlie univer- sal l)reahing up of the land into small holdings may be injurious, yet it would be e([ually oljec- 176 tionable if the whole country were apportioned into flirnis, none of which were under one hundred acres. Small and large intermixed are best, and aUbrd opportunity for diversity in the mode of culture, and in tlie kind of crop raised. Flax has always succeeded best on small farms, and no crop gives more employment for the ])readth of ground under it. Unless the tenant of the large farm has a proportionatelv increased capi- tal, the consolidation must pro^-e injurious. A peasant holding two or three acres, ctdtivated by his own family, may supply tlie Avant of money by great industry ; but if the farm ha increased to forty or fifty acres, he must employ labourers, keep horses, Occ. and unless he possess sutiicient capital to provide all tliat is necessary, the farm is probably worse tilled and less productive than tlie separate small lots were Ijefore. The projiortion of small farms in UUter is considerablv more tlmu in ^lunster, and the people are uncptestionablv more comfortable, and the land better tilled. Armagh and Down taken togetlier are nearlv the size of Tipperary. The two former contain 25.385 farms under iive acres, and only 2,174 farms over thirty acres ; while the latter has only 13,(332 of the small farms, and 2.<)G0 of the larger. '1 he necessity of ca])ital for larming purposes is unfortunatelv but little understood m Ireland. i i If the flirmers, large and small, possessed capi- tal in ))roportion to tlie extent of their ground, and had such securit}^ as might encourage them to expend it in the necessary improvements, mucli more good would he effected, than by the consoli- dation of small fanns into large. ]\Iariy allusions liave Ijeen made, in the course of this essay, to tlie -want of security, whicli ])re\'ent3 the teiiant from eml)aj'king his capital in the im- provement of his holding ; and reference has been made to the system of Tenant-right existing in Ulster, -which has been of such evident value in the districts ^wliere it ])re^'ails. Many persons have proi)Osed to remedy tlie e^'ils existing in the soutli of livland. 1>y tlie compnUory extensioji of the Ulster sy>te]ii of Tenant-rigiit to that part of the country ; believing that its ;ido]>tion would ailbrd >uch security to the tenant-tai-mer, as Avould en- courage the investment of his capital in the im- provement of the land. 'l'«j u>e the wory Professor Tlaiieock, page 34. 2 N 180 they have themselves effected, unless through some previous contract, they have already received com- pensation in some other way. The peculiar cir- cumstances of Ireland have been such, as, in many cases, force them to this expenditure, in order to make the ground useful, or worth the rent paid for it. The landlord, if conscientious, would re- spect their claims, and would not deprive them of tlieir fari]is witliout giving tliem full compensation, or alloAving them to receive it fr(jm others. Where this equitable claim is sanctioned and uplield by long-established custom, as in Ulster, it becomes a prescriptive right, which being l)etter understood, is more readily acted upon by all parties. If Ave ai'c to consider tills custom as giving the tenant a right to retain possession of his firm, so long as the rent l)eduly paid: and to l)e(|ueath it ttj his heii-, or to sell liis interest to another, sultjeet to theappr(jl:)ation of tlie landlord, l)ut not Ix'ing liable to any aiK'ance on tlie present rent ; then there is no diihculty in establishing; it throufrhout Ireland by act of parliament. Its effects would be to con- vert every tenant-at-will into a cop3'-holder ; to confer on him a title in |)erpetuity, so long as he paid his rent ; to enable liim to assign his interest to another ; to make him, in fact, a joint ]>roprietor with the landloi'y the l^uildhigs erected, and the other improvements effected by tlie tenant himself. They " admit that tlie soil belongs to the landlord," and thei'efon' admit his claim to an increase of rent, whenever the value of lantead of statute law ; l»ut which Avould ]»robal»lv I'e very serious, if an attem}»t AVere made to c-Xteiid it to tlie whole country ])y act of })arliament. disputes Avould constantly arise between landlord and ten.'uit. involving litigation, and lessening that secnrity which tenant-right is especially intended to give. Tliat something is wanted to promote the ex|ten- ditui'c of capital, in the permanent imp]'oveiiieiit of the laud, is admitted by all. Tlie greater }>ro- 182 portion of the country is let to tenants-at-will. Certainly, nothing can be expected from these ; liable as they are to be evicted, or to have their rents raised, immediately after having effected the most valuable improvements. Even -where a lease exists, uidess the unexpired term Idc of consider- able length, there is not suiiieient prospective ad- van tas^e, to have much effect in inducinu' the out- lay of capital. As a remedy for this state of things, it has been strongly urged by many, that a tenant should be legally entitled to claim from his landlord, on the termination of his tenantcy, a pa}"- ment in money for the value of any permanent imj»ruvements effected l)y him. In tlie Digest of Evidence on the occupation of land in Ireland, it is stated to be the most general opinion, that "' if a substantial security were offer- " ed to the occupying tenant, for his jvulicious per- " manent improvements, ;i rapid change f )r the •■ l>etter would take place — a ehange calculated '^ to increase the strength of the empire, and " the tranquillity of this country ; to inqu'ove " the fjod, raiment, and house accommodation of " the population ; to remove that paralysis of in- " dustrv, wliieh the sworn evidence of nearlv every '• tenant, and of numerous landlords, examined '• on the subject, has pi'o\'ed to exist ; to call into " operation tlie active exertions of every occu}»ier 183 " of land upon his farm ; to add about five months " in each year to the reproductive occupation of " formers and lal)Ourers, which are now passed in " idly consuming ])ro(]uce, accumulatinir debts, or, '' for want of better employment, })erhaps in " tbmenting disturbance. It is difficult to appre- " ciate, as it merits, the pro1)al)le effects of a mea- •' sure tliat should stimulate the occupiers of land, " to turn the labour of the country to account " during the five idle months <:»f the year, wlien " they are not emplo^'ed in the ordinary operations " contingent upon tiUagc, as at present practised in " IreLujd."* Butliow can snch a security 1)0 ollered ? what are to l)e considered as eoiistituting permanent im|)i'ovements V Who is to be judge ? Is the t(.'nant to )>e at Hberty to make wliat altei'atloiis lie pleases, and then call on the legal authority to value themV oi- is the consent of the landlord to be first obtained ? If the latter, it will produce much diiicrence and bad feeling, should the laiid- Lji'd refuse to sanction im])rovements, whicji the ten- ant may consider of great importance to him. and of great permanent value. By the former, a land- lord may be com|)elled to pay tor altei'ations, which. * " DigL'St of Kvidonec on tlio law ami practici.' rtspecting tlic ocrupa- tiuii of land ill IrLlaud,' vol. i. page ItJO. 181 though made at coiisidera))le expense, may yet be unsuitable to the situation, and of little value to his property as a ^\^llole. Is there not great danger that any law on this subject, attempting to provide for such a variety of complicated circumstances, and to meet so man}' difficulties, may iliil in giving satisfaction to either party, and may lead to serious perplexity and much litigation ? A bill was laid bc'fore ]);irliament, founded on the report of the commissioners of inrpii ry into tlic occupatifjn of land in Irehmd ; but it Avas after- wards dropped. Troika bly s(jme difficulties, not before anticipated, presented themselves in the at- temi)t to carry out the details. It had no retrosjx^c- tive ell'ect ; it gave no right to com|)ensation for im[)rovements already etfected, or for any improve- ments indess registered. It would thercibre liave tended rather to increase than to allay the present irritation ; inasnnich as, by inference, it admitted the justice of the claims for compensation, but re- fused the legal power to enforce tliem. Such security is im])eratively called for, as will make it the interest of the tenant, Avhether holding under a lease or at Avill, to continue the proper cidtivation of his farm as long as he holds it. In England, there are customs of tenantcy wliicli have the force of law, and which liave been sufficient foi- the old modes of hu>liaiins, Avithout power to enforce law, or to repress or })iini>h crime. For nearly one liundred years, aa'rarian dis. 18G turbances have existed in some part of Ireland. Crimes of the deepest dye have been committed in the foce of day, in the presence of many witnesses, and have remained unpunished. There was no one to prosecute or to give evidence. The people sym- pathized with the oflenders, and endeavoured to protect them. If any one convicted of crime was exposed to punishment, he was looked upon by his comrades as a martyr to the cause, and held in honour as a soldier who liad fallen in battle. Tlie same cliaracter lias marked these disturliances from the fu-st. Arthur Young, in 177<'), alluding to the Whiteboys, who had first appeared under that name in 1760, mentions the Avant of evidence to convict ; " even those who sulfered l)y them"" not not liaving " tlie spirit to prosecute ;" and assigns as a reason why they were not ]>ut down, the neces- sity " of any person that gave evidence against them, " ([uitting Ills liuuse and country, or remaining " exposed to tlieir resentment."' The very same remarks apply e([ually to the present and to all tlie intervening time. Yet during this time the strong- est measures liave been taken to ])ut them down ; coercion acts, insurrection acts, mai'tial law. severi- ties Avithout number have been tried, and all without eifect. If these outi-ages ceased for a time, Tuuler the pressure, they re-appeared as soon as 187 it was witlidrawn. Coercion \Yill not do ; the most stringent laws are unavailing, so long as the causes of outrage remain. The only remedy is to seek out and remove the causes of irritation, and thus lessen the temptation to commit crime ; and to produce such a rliange in pulJic o]»inion, as may facilitate the execution of the ordinary laws of the realm. It nuist not be supposed, that resistance to tlia hiw is every where prevalent throughout L'eland. This is far from l)oing the case. These outrages are coidined to ])articular districts; and throughout the greater part of the countrv, life and ])roperty are as secure as in aiiv |)ai't of (ireat IVritidn. The po[»ulation (.)f the large towns and cities are [iroixi- Lly as free from crime, and as amena1»le to tlie Liws, :i* the civic po[)ulation of any otlier country. ]\lost of the northern and eastern counties are free from sucli outrages ; and even in those ])arts of the west, Avliere tlie greatest want lias existed, and btill exir?ts, the people l)ear their siilferings with extraordinary patience and re>ignation. Tlie })eo- ple of Ireland have alwavs evinced a desire fa* justice, and a willingness to obeyju.^t laws: and the fict of agrarian outrages existing in parts of the country for so great a length of time, ma\' in itself be considered a proof, that there is something 188 ill the law which presses unjustly, and therefore requires alteration.* The compiler of the " Digest of the Evidence in respect to the occupation of land in Ireland,"' states, that •' the great majority of outrages appear to " ha\'e arisen from the endeavours of the peasantry, " to convert the possession of land into an indcfea- '' sible title ;'' and further, tliat " in the nortliei'n '' counties, the general recognition of the tenunt- " right has prevented the frequent occurrence of " these crimes." He also refers to '"the disproportion '' between the demand for and sii})})ly of labour, " as the original source of agrarian outrage ;"' on account of Avhich disproportion, " the possession of '■ land, however small its extent, has become the ■ TliL- authority of Sir Iiobert Pucl may ho oitod, in proof of tlie general oheihture to law in Trclaml. In his ^peeoh on the di^cujjion of tlio hill lor repressing agrarian distnrhanc-LS, (now passing throngh parliament) he says : " It is most nnjust to judge of the general disposition of Ireland. '• IV( mi tho iniquity of these partieiilar distriets. I declare, with re- '• spwt to the lireat towns of Ireland — fur instance, Duhlin, Limeriek, " and Cork, — where the people are collected together in large hiulics, " that they seem to lie almost more submissive to the laAvs, more obe- " dient to the autlwrities, than they are in this country; and the same " may he said of the inhabitants of Wicklow, and other counties. In " many districts of Ireland, I think the people are more peaceable, more " resigned, and patient under privation, than the people of this coun- " try, :nid they are (juite as obedient to the laws; and I conceive tliat "nothing can be more imjnst, than to judge of the general character " of the peoi)lc of Ireland, fn)m these plague-spots which have been " mentioned." — 'I'inies. Nov. :]\)l\\, 1S17. 189 " only security lor a supply of food.'" * The "want of capital in conuexioii Avitli laud is evidently the inain.-spring of all. Proprietors, ngx'uts, tenants, ;dl })arties coiniected with land, seem to have for- gotten, that ('a[»ital is as necessary for its effective culti\ation, as for the working of a manidactor3\ Unless increased capital l)e expended on the land, it is inipossilde to employ the surplus lal)our of the country. It is in vain to L'X])ect that capital will be so expended, unless tliere he ample security. Some tenants Iiave money lioarded, or hidged in a hank at a low rate of intere.->t ; hut under ])resent (•ircum:?tances, it is Jiot likel}' to l)e expi'uded on theij' fai'ms. Some lan(Uords, also, are possessed of ('a]tit;d ; hut do not consider it their intere>t to employ it for t]ie im[)rovement of an estate, in Avhieh tluy have only a life-interest. If the means now [)Ossessed liy lamlloi'ds and tenants are to he rendered usel'uh tliey nuist he gi^'en a l)etter legal security than the present laws allbrd them. But this Avould not he enougli. 'flie capital held hy those inteivsted in land, is notoriously insultieient for the full developement of its resourees. I)oes any means exist, hy wliicli this want can l)e sup- plied, except hy tlie free and unre^tricted sale of hmded pro|)erty ; whieh, hy opening the lauil * " Digest . ami o21. 190 to men of capital, may afford the means of im- proving it, and supply funds for its effective cul- tivation, and for tlie employment of the peasantry on it ? The power of sale would benefit the present eml)arrassed proprietor, l)y freeing liim from heavy charges, and supplying him with means for the proper care of the portion he might retain ; and the new purchaser wouhl enter on the j)roperty Avith the intenti<)n of improving it. The laws of a country may be enforced, either by the arbitrary control of irres])onsible power, or by the strength of public opinion, approving and seconding the acts of a government l)ased on a respect for individual rights. The first recpiires force sntficient to repress any expression of discon- tent, and must often dispense with tlie regular f )rnis of law. A government l)ased on popular institutions fails to secure ordei", unless it have the support of the ])eople. Ireland a] »[)ears to labour under the difficultv of haviuir aristocratic social in- stitutions, without an aristocracy ; and tlie mechan- ism of a popular government, inapplicable to its present social condition ; because it does not possess an educat(.'d middle class, l\y whom these popular institutions nnght Ije worked. The great mass of the rnral po[)ulation have no respect for the laws relating to the tenure of land, Ix'cause they consider them unjust. The}' not merely give no assistance 191 to tlieir enforcement ; they are positively hostile. The only parties to assist in supporting them, are the landed proprietors, or those beneficially inte- rested in land. Tlie great landed proprietors are non-resident. The residents are few in nurnher, and in many cases their influence is grcatl}^ lessened 1)y their ■\vell-known end'jarrassments, and by the disre- putable shifts, to which they are often forced Ijy want of means to resort. To revert to arbitrary power is impossible. The only practicable course is, to elevate us to a capacity for using and enjoying the popular institutions we possess. Is there any means so likely to eifect tliis as tlie free sale of land ; Ijy which the numfter of proprietors may l)e increased, a]id their pecuniary res[)ectal)ility secured ; liy which rile industry of the tenant farmer may be stimulated, Avith the ])rospect of one day bec^aning a [»ro})i-ietor ; and by which hostility may lie neutralized, or co-operation obtained from all, Avho maj lujpe hereafter to possess a stake in the country ? CHAPTER XT. Poor huvs — Great want of omployinent — Larire nuinlier of lielples? poor — Great ditfereuce between England and Ireland, as respects the value of l)roperty assessed for poor-rate — I'roperty adequate to the support of the poor in the greater part of Ireland — Difficulty of collecting rates — Danger of pauperising the rate-payers in some districts — Necessity of enforcing payment from all who are al>le to pay — Union-rating con- sidei-ud — .Vverage area and population df unions and electoral divisions much greater than those of unions and parishes in England — Parochial system considered — Management and taxation should he localized — Great extent of some unions and electoral divisions — Injurious eflects — Management l\y local committees proposed — <."thjections answered — Iiiuquality of taxation— Clearance system— Law of Settlement— Irish paupers in England— Pemoval of iiaui)crs sometimes very oppressive — Ohjections to localizing the taxation — Some electoral divisions un- able to support their poor — A national rate considered — If any district be overburdened, aid should be given bj^ the state — Supposed case of IMauclustcr, in the event of a total failure nf the cotton crop — Sugges- tion of I'rofessor Hancock— Collection of rates must be enlbrced — titans of facilitatinu' it — Apiiointnieut of inspecting officers suggested — Necessity of a midille class for ellicicnt working of poor law. To discuss the value of the poor 1:iav as a means of hnprrjveiiient may now seciti useless. It exists. Its gooJ or evil conse{[uences uiaiuly tlepcnd on the wav it is woi-ked. It remains for us, by judi- cious and economical mana^'cment, to iviider it efficiriit for tlie relief of the destitute, Avithout 193 pressing too heavily on the resources of the coun- try. Tliis is a work of no small difiiculty. The Lnv conies into ot)eration at a most unfavorable time, when a national calamity, unprecedenteclly great, has reduced so many of the poor to destitu- tion, and has so much lessened the means of those wbu were heretofore rich. Under such circum- stances, Avith so few Avliose education and position in society ht them to as>ist in the work, the attempt to carry into (jperation the untried provisions of a new law presents (riiliculties of no ordinary cha- racter. The loss of the potato crop in h^dO, deprived a large proportion of oui* ])o]iulation of the means oi support. l)uring the succeedijig vrintei', they were maintained 1>v emjtiovment on public woi'ks ; and ill the .tri])Uted under the temjio]-ary nTicf act. They are uoav again without tlie means uf >ubsistence, and tlie ordinary sources of employment are utterly insul- ficient. In some parts, tlie farmers. tlK^ugh in Avant of labourers, seem to be without the inoney to pav them. A gentk'man writing from Castlcbar, in tlie county of .Ahi}o. under date 27t]i of Septem- lie]', says: "This is, without exception, the Avorst " country f(»r the em[)lovment of lal)Ourers, that has '' come under mv ob.^erA'ation. 1 liaA'C seen crowds '• of men standing in the streets of tliis town, Avitli o 194 " reaping hooks in their hands, offering their day's " labour for eight pence and ten pence per day, " and no one to hire tliem ; altliough the corn was " over ri])e, and much of it shedding on the ground. " If such he the state of tlie lahour market in the " height of the harvest, what nnist it l;)e in tlie " winter ?"' Ill mnnv parts nf the west of Ireland, there are liardly aii\' persons in tlie Imhit of emph)}ing labourers to work for (liem. The whole nund)er emploved during the week ending 11th Septendier, in the uniun «>f ^lilford, county of I)onegal, accord- ing to a very particular return made out ])y the government inspecting-otiicer of that union, was only 771) nien :ind 21^7 women, out of a population of 38,108 pers(.^ns. The nund)erof persons receiv- ing constant employment was •mly 311 men and l.")2 women. \u one electt nessiun has extended ir, so as to um- pOA\'er the guardians to grant out-door relief to the sick and inhrm, and eycii to the able-bodied, when specially directed 1»y the Commissioners to do so. The tem[)oj'ary relief act "was woi'ked by money adyanced from the Exehequer. Sueh adyanccs arc now at an end. The })0'ii' are wholly dependent on the enllection of the I'ates. ]f these camiot ]>e obtained, the law proyides no resource. They must ^.tar\-e. Can the pfjordaw be carried into elfect throughout tlie whole of Ireland ? can it be retidered elhcient, so as to keep the destitute IVom staryation ? If not, in what parts of the country is it at present impracticable 'i and what remedy can be suggested ? AVill the rates be paid willingly ? and if not, hovr can they be best en- forced V ]\Iay we anticipate that enough will be 1<)6 collected for the efficient working of the law ? and if not, by what means can the deliciency be sup- plied ? Tliese are most important qnestions, which time alone can fully solve, but which are well "wor- thy of examination in the mean time. There are many iniions in tho west of Ireland, in wliicli fully nine-tenths of tlie al»le-1)odied po- })ulation liave heretofore l;)een without em])loy- ment in vrinter. How are these to be snppui'ted V To keep them in idleness wnvdlovment to the ahle-liodied, and thus pre- vent them fi'om coniinij: on tlic rates. The land improvement act of last >e.-sion vras intended to facilitate this empltyment. If its provi-^ions be taken advantau'e c*!', and the laboui'ers employed, the rate> will l)e uTcatly lightened, the land im- proved m value, and the ]ieople saved from j'auper- ism : tlie poor law M'ill have so iJir worked well, and will have been really useful io tlie country. r»ut with the irreatest care and economy, th.e burden must 1)0 ver}^ heavy thi-ouuliout the mIioIc country, the amoinit of j'jroperty is so smrill wlieii li)7 compared MJtli the uiimbor of poor. Ap[)cndix P. iiivL'S. -with other statistical information, the proportion of tlie arniual value of the property liable tu Ik- taxed for poor-rate, averaged for every 10(» iiiliahitaiits, and fur every 100 acres of area, in each of tlie counties in li'cland ; and a])]>endix Q. iiives similar information as respects England and W ales. Some particulars may he stated here, viz. : AvurnyciinMi-landniurWak'f £J7I 1^ IdOam-s, £or»;l :[> lOOinliahilants Do. (.riivlaii.! c,s ., im Ui-lu'st lai-li-li Co. (Heivfur,!) IJ.V- ,, .JO.J Do. Iri.-li Co. (Dublin) iJl .. ;il)L) Lo\ve;:t Wclsli Cri. ( Cilaiiiorixan; 7-1 .. -17 ,. ,, Do. Iri>li Co. CMayu) -Jl .. 7<) Tliis >hows a very gi'eat dilference lietweeu tlie two countries, as to their ])resent capal)ility ol' sup- ])ortiiig the ])oor. The annual value oi' pr()]>erty liahle to he i'ated f )!' this purpose in I'higlaiid. is about two and a half times as great as in Ireland, when com])ared with tlie number of inhabitants ; while all will admit, that there is a much larger |»i'oportion of tlie people of Ireland who are desti- tute, and re([uire relief The proj)ortion to be " 'J lii- ami the two lollowina' statcniont> arc arrangeil accoivlinu to the |iro]iortion wliicli ilio annual value of property Ijears to the population. IKrctonl lieinu'' a thinly peopleil eounty. the valuation i-- low wIkii cuui- ]iareil with tho area ot'laml. It' arranged in proportitm to area, l.anea- ;-hire woul.i lie the highest, exempt :\li(lille>ex, the valuation liciug 1)71 ltions. The projiertv of the tenant consisting chieilv of cattle, a sei/ure is in many cases easily avoided. Tliere seems great reason to fear, that it will be f )und <]uite inija-acticable to collect a rate at all erpiivalent to the ])resent necessity ; and that nnlcss a>>i>tanee be given from some other (piarter, the ])eo])le must die. Ji' Ave look more closely into the mode of o])era- tion prescribed by the act, Ave lind, lirst, a boai'd of guardians, consisting partly of members elected bA' the rate-]>ayers, and ])artly of ex-olHcio mem- bers — that is to say, magistrates liaA'ing pr»^perty in the district. Xeitliei' ]»arty are desirous of bur- deniiig themselves Avith heavv taxation ; and there is no sullicieut pulilic opinion in the neighbour- hood, exterior to themselves, Avhich might compel 200 them to respect the eUiims of the destitute : there- fore they hesitate to strike a rate ; and even when struck, they use no diligence in collecting it. The rates due bv the auardians themselves are often the worst ]':nd, and tlie collectors feel tliat it is not their interest to attemjit to enforce them. The j)0(jr-law eommissioners have a rerne(h% in ease the guardians refuse to strike a rate. Tliey may dis- place them, and a])point paid guardians to mannge the aifairs of the union; hut it does not a]>pear that tliev possess any sutKcient remedy lor an ineilicient collection. '• r>ut let us suppose the gui'.rdians really wil- ling to do tlieii" dutv, (jr tliat tliey have been dis- plaeed, and eliieient ]»aid guurdians nominated in their stead, the dilliculty is oidy removed one de- gree iarther oit. ]*roper collectors are appointed, and an attempt is made to eollect. The small farmers refuse to pay, pleading })Overty. The col- lector attempts to distrain ; but there are various ways of defeating his intention. Terhaps one man in the district pays, and whenever the collector is out, all the cattle are driven on to his ground, and * Tlicre are no oflicers in Ireland exactly correspondinu to the overseers in an Enjjlish |>arish. Umler tlie Iri>li poor-law, the lioard of guardians applots the rate, appoints collectors, and gives all instructinns respecting' its enl'orcenient ; in England, the guardians call on the overseers, who are bound to CDlkct tJic rates, and \\liu tin re lore stand hctween llie gnardiims and the ratc-pavL-rs. 201 tlius are safe from seizure. It becomes a contest between the inijeniiity of the collector and tliat of the rate-payers. If he .succeed in eilL-ctina' a seizure, it is In' superior management. Even when the seizure is made, there is still dr.nger of fircible rescue and the refusal to purchase. Unless the te- nant haA'e [»aid up his rent in full, he cann(jt stop the rate from his landlord, wliich in manv cases practically deliai'.- him from ^to])[iinu' it at all. The landlord can o]dy be reached tlnvaigh the tenant, and has theref )r(' no interest in compcllinii' him to pay. Xeyri'thcless, many (,»f the>e (hliicultics Avill yani.-h l)cfure an eneriretic determination to enforce the law.* Another most important portion of the rates is that on the luddiiigs yaliied at :£-l and niuler. Of these, there are in ( 'onnanght upwards of 120,000, end)raciii_u' more than S( »(),()()() :icr<_'-. being al)<>ut onediith of the whole ]»royince. Any attempt to collect from the>e tenants is eyidently useless. The law makes the immediate lessor liable for the * Tlie remarks in tlie text are only intemled to refer to n lew of llie unions in tlie west of h-elaml. They ilo not apply to tlio-e parts of the C'onntry in which the greater value of tixcil }iroperty faeilitates the collection of taxes. It is nnderstooil thai. i:enerally sjnakiim, the rates liave been wi'll etillecteil in Trelainl : ami i vi n this year, the anioiuit reeeiveowers arc .greater than in Ijiulaml, and ample for the ;.ireat(.r part iif the cnuntry. 202 amount, and gives the remedy by action in the su ■ perior courts, or by civil bill, or by distress. This may perhaps l3e available as respects the resident proprietor ; but how can the non-resident be come at ? 1 [e has no property to be distrained. But even liere other difficulties arise. The proprietor of the fee is pei-liaps ]iot the immediate lessor ; tliero is a middleman who has no tangible pro- perty. Tlie ]iead landL^rd, the proprietor of the ground, is safe. There is nothing due by him, .and the rate is lost. It is easy to enforce payment from the resident gentry, and from the shopkeepers and mercantile class in the towns, Avho constitute almost the only senil)hince of a middle class existing in the west of Ireland. Tlie fonimissionei's niay appoint their own paid guardians, and may enforce payment iVom all tlio>e Avho have tangible pro[)ertv t(> be distrained ; and having failed in collecting fn^m the others, they may proceed to re-assess the arrears again and again, until thev have thoroughly broken doAvn the solvent rate-payers, or fjrced them to leave the country, and thus cleared it at once of all pri)|)e]*tv and educated intelligence, and reduced the inhabitants to one unif )i'ni level of pauperism. This picture may appear overdrawn. The Avriter does not anticipate that it will ever be realised. He feels conlident that no such extreme course will 203 be adopted ; but he is equally confident, that if the law be strinofently carried out, and no assist- ance afforded from elsewhere, such must l.)e the result.* Tile impression seems _2:enerally entertained in England, that the Irish ])oor-law nnist eventually occasion the coniiscation and sale of portions of the estates of embarrassed landed propi'ietors. Tlie Avriter cannot see hu^v it can lia^e anv such result. The wliole annual produce of the land is liable to tlie ]>ayment of the rate>, ])]"i<)r to any otlier claim ; l)ut the fee (if the land itself is not liable. The owner may de>ert it. and leave it untillcd. Tliere is Ji<.)thin2' to distrain. His I'ates are unpaid ; but there is no means of euforciuLi' tlie elaim iiii'aiii^t the land it>elf f^veu where an action is lirouiiht against a ])i'0])rieti)r, on account of rates due on huhhngs under £4 annual vahie, it mav p(rha[»s residt in the a])p()iiitmeiit of a receiver over liis property, but lie cannot be forced to .--ell. The debt is merely personal, and the estate jiasses after his death to the lieir of entail |)erfectly free.f * It limy be b-tateil. in \oor, tlie land was not sold. It was useless to its ov\-ners for the time, iDCcanse they could not ixet any one to rent it ; ])ut when the ])arish righted itself again, the o^vners resumed ])Ossession. The law in Trelaiid might no doubt be altered, if It be judicious to alter it, so as greatly to ficilitate tlie recovery of poor-rates ; and to give that power (:»f couiiscation. wliich flic English press seems to tliink so di'siraldc. 'Ihc laiullords might be made [irimarilv liabh' to poor-rate, as ihev liave lieen to tithe reut-cliai'ge, being entitled to add the tenant's |)ortion to the rent. Sunnnarv pOAvers might be given to the pooi'daw eommissioners, in case of the rates not being duly ])aid. to a]»[)oiiit a receiver, or to sell tlie property in whole or in part. Such powers would be very severe and arbiti'ai-y, and Avould l)e a Avide de[)arture from the T.nglish practice, but tliey Avould be ellicacious. AYlietlier it would Ije wisd<»m ami good ])oliev, thus to root out a large portion of the landed p)roprietary of tlic- fee i>f tlie lainl itself, l^niler the Irish ])oor-l;iw, tlie unpaid arrears on eaeh teneiiKiit remain a eliarue mi that teiieineiit ; there is no jinwer (if rcniis-iun, as in l^lnylaml. It is therefore jiossible that arrears might ateumulaie, until the amount exceeded the value uf the fee ; in whieh (M>r, an art nf jxirlianicnf would bo necessary, in cir.lt.r to remit the arrears, and so enable the land to be (■nllivateil. 205 Ireland, and introduce new men, is another ques- tion. Tbere are certainly many of them, who, by their con(Uiet under tlie recent circumstances of the country, liave not merited such a fate. A^'llilL■ it may be neces:>ary to aiford assistance to those |»ai'ts ^^i^ [ri.'hiiid, Avlicre tJie property is evidrntly uin,'([Ual to the l)Ui'o nece>sary to enibrce the [lavinent nf rates from all th<>se who possess any means of paying tlirm. To allow men to e>ca]ie pa^'nicnt ])y intimidation oi- manuiivi-e, would 1)0 an en- couragement to i-oguriy. and most disheartening to the honest man. it would inflict a serious wound on the moral ieeling of the country, li' it be necessai'y to advance money li-om ihe Trerisury, and there be no means oi' I'ejiayment, it >hoidd at once be given ex[)lieitl\- as a grant ; if it l)e a loan, tlie rcpavment >hould lie >trietl\" enlbjved. Arrangements may sureh' lie made. >-hort of the extreuie measures aij()Ve alluded to, wliitdi may facilitate the recovery of poor-rates. Sij tliat thev may be collected as fully at lea>t as anv other tax. lUit llie area ibr rating is l»y electoral divi- >ions, not unions : and even in the west, there are many electoral (fnisions which will 1)e fullv able to sujipoi't their own poor: tlie vahie of pro perty being greater, oi' the means of em]>lovment 1 letter. There are other electoi-al (livi>ions. where 206 the property is small compared with the popula- tion, where the landlords are non-resident, and no attempt has been made to alford employment, which are evidently unable to support the bur- den of the poor-rate. In order to meet tliis dilhculty, many have said, why not extend the area for ratino;^ and throw all on the union ? Others have proposed a national rate. These pro- positions have found flivor Avith many in England, because they expected in this ^vay to make the property of Ireland supjxirt all its po^r. In considering the provisions »if an Irish act, they have chiefly looked to English interests, aiid in so doing have evinced a very sliort-sighted policy; for surelv that which will best suit the circumstances of Ireland, will eventually be the best for both countries. T(.> j)rovide against this difficulty by an extension of the area for rating, appears a very questionable remedy. It would certaiidy lessen the inecpiality of taxation, ])ut it would at the same time almost wholly take away the inducement, which now ex- ists, to endeavour to provide sources of employment f )r the able-ltodied [)Oor, instead of feeding them in idleness ; because the eiforts of any one individual employer would be inappreciable, iu diminishing the am(.)unt of rates, if they wei'e s]»read over so o-i-eat an extent of countrv. The ellects of such 207 extension of the area of rating, would probably be highly injurious, under the present circumstances of Ireland ; inasmuch as it wcmld render nugatory the hopes of improvement, which have Ijeen enter- tained, from tlie ])Oor-law enforcing a lietter culti- A'ation, and the ex])enditure of more labour on the soil. It would also reUKjve many of the checks on the extravagnrit ai'd ex- penditure was so trifling, that it was not ^voj-th regarding. This sul)ject deserves furtlu'r investigation, witli the vieAV of considering wlietlua- it woidd not be judicious, to make some cliange in the contrary direction, by reducing tlie extent both of electoral divisions and unions. In a])pendices \l. and S. Avill l)e found a state- ment of the poor-law iniions and electoral divisions of Ireland, with the area and [)o]>ulation, arranged under the several counties ; also, similar statistics as regards the miions and pai'ishes of England and A^'^ales, so far as tlie writer has been able to o1)tain them from parliamentary documents. From these it a}»]»ears that : Tlie avcrnire area ol" .>13 unions in Englanil is . . . 54,018 acres, 1-iO ., Ireland . . . ljj,4GU 208 Out of 533 unions in Eno:lan(l and Wales, there are only 12 whose area exceeds 100,000 acres, while of the 130 unions in Ireland, there are 107 exceeding this extent ; of these, 25 exceed 200,000 ; and one of them, the union of Ballina, contains 507,154 acres. Part of this union is more than lurty miles from tlie poor-house.* Tlic average population (if 687 unions in En.u^laiid is . . . 2o,44.j persons, JoO ,, Irelaml .... (i:i,879 „ Tiie ,, area of 14,4'JO parishes in Knaland . . . 2.o'2{) acres, •2.049 tkell. ilivi-iiius in Irelaml 'J.SO:) The ., iiopulatidU of !4.41tO parishes in En::lau(] . . . 1,097 persons, 2,049 electoral div. in Irekunl . .■>.9S9 „ It is needless to remark fui-the]' on the irreatly increased difficulty, of managinii- unions and elec- toral divisions of such extent and ]>o))ulation. If we coni[)are the different parts of Ireland with each other, we of)tain tlic following result : Avorajc Area. Average ropulation. Vriions. Llectl. I>iv. Unions. Electl. Div. ristrr . . 43 740 120,979 7,378 54,93.3 3,192 Lcinster . . 33 4.pears to have been in >ul> stance a law to compel the jierformance of that, which was universally recognised as a ("liristian duty. It call('(l npon every parish to a>sc>s its inhabitants, for the relief of the destitute among them. It localized the administration of tlie law and the eolleetion of the funds, and for nearly one Innidred and tifty years it a]>pears to have answered the original intention, relieved ciisual distress, supported tlie aged mid infirm destitute, and provided employment for tlie able-bodied. Various circumstances resulting frenu the unnatu- ral position of tlie country, during the long war with France, and connected with the great clianges in the value of pro])erty and the rate of wages, led to many abuses in the execution of the pour-law. Some alteration appeared necessary ; and it was de- cided to form unions of sevei-al parislies joined together, for the purpose of more eilieient manage- 211 ment, but still making each individual parish liable for the support of its own poor ojily. It seems essential to the effective administration of out-door relief, to obtain tlie information of a committee, acquainted with tlie wants of the poor, and interested in economising the expendi- ture. Is there any plan so likely to secure this, as localizing the management and the taxation ? If the di^strict be limited in extent, it Avill l^e easier to obtain an elheieiit oversight of its wants, so that distress may l)e ]vlieved and imposition prevented; Jind the conunittee Avill liave a mo]-e innnediate and individual interest in good management. This is ]:)articularly the case as respects relief to the aide- bodied. It is of the utmost importance that tliey slu3uld ho supported by labour, instead of btii'den- iiig the pool- rates. If the areas fir taxation be large, they ahbrd less inducement Ibr individual exertion to |)rovide employment. The case is very clearly stated in the following extract from reso- lutions passed l)y the grand jury of tlie county of Limerick :* "For if large electoral divisions be pi'cserved, " individual rate-payei's will feel tliat they can but " little diminish tlieir rates, by giving increased " employment; and an inducement will ])e held out • Time?, I nth March, 1847. i> 2 212 " to them, to employ as few labourers as possible, " and to get for the poor in their o^^m neiiihbour- " liood as large a portion of the public funds as " they can: while in small electoral di^dsions, the " exertions of every propiietoi* will sensiljly dimi- " nish tlie amount of Ins taxation ; and wlien the " only choice left to him is, Avhether he shall pay " for tlic support of the poor in his neighl)ourliood, " or employ them productively, he Avill of course " do tlie latter/' Tt thci'efore appears advisaljle that the districts iuv taxation should be much smaller than most of the ] present electoral divisions ; l)oth as respects the eihcient relief of the sick and infirm, and especially for the sake of stimulating the rate-[>ayers to en- deavour to provide profitalUe em])l()yment fur the able-bodied, and thus avoid taxation, promote in- dustry, and improve the cultivati(.in of the land. The division into townlands lias bi'^n suggested, as the area for taxation ; but it is evidently unsuit- able, the townlands being very unequal in extent, and many of them very small. The whole num- ber in Ireland is stated by Ca}>taiu Larcom to Ix- about (10,700 ; the average ai*ea is therefore alwut 300 acres. The adoption of so small an area would evident]}' be to fall into the opposite extreme : there is a wide range between this, and the enor- mous extent of some of the electoral divisions in 213 Connaught, several of which exceed 50,000 acres. Two of them, viz. BebnuUet in Mayo, and Round- stone in Gulwa}^, have an area of 145,598 and 101,503 acres respectively. The statemen. . case of peculiar liardship, may serve to explain the difficulty in -which many are placed, l)y tlie present unwieldy size of som(_' electoral divisions. It rei'ers to a lai-gc electoral division in ('onnaught peculiarly circum- stanced, inasnuich as it is divided by a range of mountains into two parts, whicli have very little intercourse with each other. One ]>art is in fiir cultivation. The other is almost Avholly desolate. If separated, the better portion would pi-obably maintain its population without any assistance ; l)Ut if foi'ced to contribute to the support of the other half, the amouiit of taxation will be overwhelming. (Jne of the [>roi)rietoi's oi" land in the better jxirt, thus alludes to the htirdship of liis position. Refer- ring to the uncidtivated jiai't of the division, he says, " Joined to a district in which not an acre of tillage ''appears foi* miles, whei'e the people, if su]>|iorted '• at all, must be thrown on the out-door relief for " the wliole of next year ; where collecting a, rate '' is obviou.d}' impossible, because no property " exists to produce it ; thus our ruin is clear and " unavoidable. A\'e nni>t jkiv : and the landloi-ds " who have iled, neii'lected their estates, and done 214 " nothing to relieve the distress, will have their " povx'rty borne by us, until our properties are " reduced to a similar scene of desolation and " ruin. An estate free from debt, and prosperous, " well cidtivated, and ^vitli every thing to hope " from its appearance, is, with its proprietor, to '" be suddenly pounced upon, and made to bear " the 1)urdcn of tlie neglect of others ; and thus at " once the frugality of a lil'e is rendered vain and " useless." This is an extreme case, no doul)t, but it may illustrate the injurious etfects which nmst exist ill many places to a lesser extent. A\ e can scarcely conceive circumstances more discouraging to industry. It seems to hold out a premium to idleness. The industrious tenantry of a resident landlord arc thus ruined, 1»y being burdened with the wretchedness existing on the neglected estates of absentee proprietors, several miles distant. The pj(jor-law commissioners are empowered to vary the size of unions and electoral districts, and to divide and alter them as may appear needful from time to time ; and it is to be hoped tliat they will exercise their poAvcrs in cases of this de- scri])tion. But if, in order to localize the manage- ment and taxation, in districts of a much smaller area than many of the present electoral divisions, it be considered advisable to make any general alter- ation, it will i)robablv be necessiirv to elfect this •215 by means of some special enactment, without which the Commissioners mi "lit not be willincj to make such extensive use of their powers. The arrangements adopted by the relief commit- tee of the parish of Castletown, in the Queen's County, have l;)een already referred to.* It was a voluntary association, su])ported by voluntary sul)- sci'iptions, and managed by a committee of the su]jscril)ers. Kelief was atlministei'cd l)y those Avho were Avell ac(|uaintod with the locality, :md the Avants of the distressed. Tlie destitute were effi- ciently and economically relicAcd. It answered the original idea of ])arochial care of tlie })Oor. Is not the (,'asth'town voluntarv associa.tion a fair model for legal relief? could not the same ])Lin be carried into cil'ect througliout the country ? The writer ventures to sugQ-est, as an aiTangemont for this pu]'- pose, that conuuittees ^liuuld be elected by the I'ate- payei's, for the care of the poor in each electoral di- vision ; the present large electoral divisions being divided, where necessary. It should be their duty to administer out-door relief to tlie sick and inlirni of their respective districts, and to report <:)ther cases for admission to the W(_)rklioUse. The board of guardians to applot and collect the rates, and sup- ply funds to these committees as required. '1 he * Sec note, pni;c 103. 216 committee of eaeli electoi^al division sliould elect one representative to sit on the board of guardians, whicli plan would secure a much more respectable and efficient board, than the present mode of direct election by the rate-payers. The workhouse, and all the financial concerns and accounts of tlie uniun, should remain under the care of the board of guardians. The difficulty of obtaining suital»le connnittees in many parts of Ireland may appear to present grave ol)jections to this plan. The relief conunis- sioners in their tliird report state, that '• for a gene- " ralarrano[:ement, a trustwortliv local manaoement, " in most cases, cannot be ensured for smaller limits " than tliose of a union;" but add, that " in a great " number of districts the complaint is not apjdi- " cal)le." It is probable that this diihculty is more apparent tlian real, and that it Avuuld very mucli disappear in tlie working of local commit- tees, not distributing iood provided liy govern- ment, but dispensing tlie money of tlie rate-payers by whom they had been elected, and Ijy wliom their actions would be closely oljserved. But so far as this difficulty does exist, other means should be taken to raise the character of the country in this respect ; and it is surely safer in legislation, to an- ticipate an improved state of society, than to 217 enact laws which have a tendency to keep us from iniprovino". The most important ohjcction to localizing the assessment in small districts, is the consequent in- equality of taxation ; that some electoral di^'isions will haA'c very low rates to ]»ay, while others will be heavilv burdened, and in some cases mav even be totallv unable to support theii' poor. This is cer- tainly correct. In a well managed electoral divi- sion, where the laljouriuir poor are employed, and the sick and iiitirm destitute economically relieved, tlie taxation will l)e nKulcrate : but Avlu-re the owners of projiertv ncLi'lect their duties, and allow the law to be Itadly administered, and a course of wasteful expenditure to be ])ursued, the i]Jevitable consequence of their neglect Avill surely be felt, in a great h' increased amount of poor-rates. Sueli is tlie uiiiibrm re^^dt of [irudent management or of negligence in every situation in life. And will not tlie institutions, Avhieh most closely comiect prosperitv with ]»rudence in the management of pu1)lic or private alfairs. best conduce to the gene- ral j)rosperity of the state ? r)Ut even Avith the greatest care and attention, there can be no doid»t that some districts nuist be more lieaA'ily burdened than others, Cnder pre- sent circumstances, the countiy toAvns, in Avhich 218 little trade or manufacturing industry exist, will feel tlie pressure of a superabundant population, which have for some time past sought refuge in them, Avhen unable to obtain employment or land in the country. The rates in many electoral divi- sions in which such toAvns are placed, will probably be considerably higher than the average ; and the rate-jiayers in such cases may naturally think, that tlicir interest would be served, 1)y hii\'ing a unifurm rate over the whole union. But it is ].)y no means certain that this would ].)e the result: if the exten- sion of the area for taxation lessened the attention to economy, the increased expenditure would in inanv cases raise tlie uniform rate above the hiirhest amount ])reviously paid, and thus all parties would lose by tlu' change. 'i'he danger of harsh measures l»eing resorted to for tiie ch'ai'ance of estates, allccts any system of pooi'daws, by which the property of a country is made liable f^r the sup])ort of its poverty, Avhether the assessment be on larger or smaller districts, and can probrdjly be met only 1)y a law of settle- ment. It is well known that such clearances took place, ])revionsly to the inti'oduction of |)Oor-laws into Ii'elaiid. The circumstances of many parts of tlie country render it necessary either to diminish the j)opulation, or to increase the cajatal for em- 211) ploying them. AVlien an owner of land cannot procure the latter, or wants the enterprise required for its proper application to the improvement of the estate, his only resource is to get rid of the people. The act passed last session contains a settlement clause, under wliicli the expense incurred for the relief of a destitute persc)ii. is to he cliarged to the electoral division in wJiich he resides, or lias resided f)i' tliirty months out uf tlie hist three years. Tliis is so I'ar wrll. If the dispossessed tenant make Immediate a[i])lication for relief, the expense is lixed on ilie electoi'al division in which he so resided ; 1)Ut if in any maimer, he he enahled to support himself in any otlier electoral division, for more than six months, the cost of relieving liim must be cliai-ged tetween })arishes migiit be avoided by the appointment of official arljitrators, or by empowering the connnissioiiers to decide all cases of difference, on a written statement or statements to be submitted to them by the parties concerned. The expense of removal might easily be [ireventetl, by giving the district in which a pauper is relieved a riuht to claim a certain fixed allowance for his 221 support, from the paritili or electoral district in which he had a settlenient. It is certainly iiirjnst that any English parish should be Lurdened with the support of Irisli des- titution. Livei'pool and some other of the Avest- ern ports of Great Britain have suffered seriously from this cause. The only remedy provided is the |)()W('r of removal. wJiidi is very expensive, [ind M'hieh iidiicts an injury on the Irish port in which the paupers are landed ; as there is no power to compel them to remove from it. or to srnd tlicm to their original homes. Tiie power of sending back Irish paupers has in some cases proved wvy op- pressive, l)Ut the Act !) and 10 Yiet., cap. C)(i, Avhich, wirli otliLi" limitations, forl)ids removal i'rom a parish in Avhicli a poor [)ei'son has ivsided five years, has to some extent h'ssencd this hardship Ibv the futui-e. Still, if an Frishman go over to ]\hin- cliester, and mai'rv an Ihiglishwoman ; and, after supporting his family i'or liair years by his indus- try, becouie a pauper, liis wiie and chihh'cn, (none of Avhom perhaps have ever Ijcen out of ^lanches- ter) are liable to be slh|>ped olf along witli liim ibi" some port in Ireland, as Irish paupei'S. Cases iji some degree similar are of constant oc(l//(, 1847. 223 rating, expecting that they -would thus compel the property of Ireland to support its poverty. If the flicts and arguments already given are correct, they Avould ],)e much disappointed in this ex- pectation. Instead of union-rating having this eftl'ct, it would ]»rul»alily result, in many cases, in reducuig tlie whole union to the same state of bankru])tc\- as the electoral division. If elec- toi-al division rating be maintained, there are many disti'icts in tlie extreme west which will he al)le to meet tlie necessary expenses ; but with union rating, it i> liard to conceive vxdiat means exist to save i'rom pauperization, almost eveiy union <»n tlie west coast of Ireland, from Donegal to Cork; in wliieh ease, the imperial exchetpier wouhl be liurdeiied to an enormous amoiuit. It is indeed too evident, liiat there are several eleetoral divisions in the we.-tern parts of L'eland, whicli. under pre.>ent circumstances, are totally unabh' to support tlie poor within their bounds. The}' must receive as>i>tance from some ([uarti'r, ami the questio]i is, from wliom are they to reeei\'e it. It has licen ])roposed to assess the union for a rate-in-aid, or to meet tlie diiliculty l)y a national rate. The remarks on union-rating in general applv also to a union rate-in-aid. It would be calling on those who ai'c on the yqyizg of ruin, to support theii' neighbours who are utterly ruined. 224 They are Ijarely able to stand themselves, and can- not possibly bear another's burden. Under ordi- nary circumstances, every electoral division ought to Ije able to support its own poor, and with judi- cious legislation they will no doul)t shortly be in a position to do so ; Ijut the present calamity places them far ]:)cyond the limits of ordhiary circum- stances. It is a national, an imperial calamity, which must be l)orne ]jy each locality as far as its resources enable it, and the deficiency should be made up out of the imperial exchequer. If by a national rate it l>e meant, that the whole expense of supporting the })oor should ]ie paid out of tlie general taxation of the empire, like any other of the [)ublie Ijurdcns, it is evi- dently objectionable, as leading to the most pro- fuse expenditure and Avanton extravagance in the management, when freed from the check of local interests ; it would also be necessary that the poor of England and Scotland shoidd be |)laced on the same footing. Ihit if by the term, '' a national rate," it be meant that Ireland should be constituted into one large parish f )r poor-law pur- poses, what is this but to repeal the Union, by constituting a separation of interests on such an im|)ortant [)oint ? Unless the Union be repealed, these are not three kingdoms, but one united em- pire, of which the various counties are constituent 225 parts. Cork is as Yorkshire ; Mayo, Caithness, and Lancasliire are equally the objects of imperial care. If one suffer beyond its capal)ility of endu- rance, it is entitled to assistance from the common fund to Avliieli all contribute ; to the care of the central authority, which exists to promote the Avell-l)eing of all. It is a (piestion between the conunon o'overnment r)f the empire and the af- flicted cuuntv or province, not one l)etween Eng- land and (Jalway, oi' Ireland and Lancasliire. Enghmd mav liave lieen tlie I'ichest and most powerful of the tlireo separate kingd^nns ; but in consenting to a union, she waived her superiority, merged her individual existence, and ])hiced lier constituent eounties on a level witli those of Scot- land ami Ireland. To revive this claim of sujK'ri- oritv, to s|teak of T.ngland in terms "whieh arc a]t])lieable only to the empire at lai'ge. is luiwise, wliether on the ])art of indixiduals or of the ]tul>lic press. It can onlv tend to create dissen>ii»n l)e- tween ditfereiit ])arts of the same state, and to keep up those hostile feelings. Avhieh the sense of nuitual dependence and a common interest would soon bury in oldivion. In this spirit the Government have acted, and the advances from the Treasurv, the payment out of the national funds of half the expenditure on public works, have 1)een a just and a generous con- Q 226 tribution to^vards meeting the present difficulty. The destitute have been, to a great extent, sup- ported. Tliey should not now be allowed to starve, because the district in which they live is bankrupt. The most strenuous exertions should be used to collect the pooi'-rates, undeterred by threats, and uninfluenced by favouritism ; but if the amount prove insufficient, the government must again be called on to assist. It would be highly injudicious to coniiscate the property of the aliiicted district, to ruin the present inhaliitants, by insisting (jn too heavy a rate, and withholding all assistance, until, the whole po])uhition lacing reduced to ]>auperism, it became evident that thei'e was no alternative but assistance or death. liiere is no propi'iety in looking to Kildare or Antrim to iissist tlie povcrtv of Kerry or Done- gal. TliL'V support tlieir own poor, pav their own rates, contribute towards tlie general expenses of the empii'c by tlie ])avmeiit of taxes, and are no more bound to support the destitution of the west of Ireland, than are the inliabitants of Nor- folk or the citizens of London. If Manchester Were in distress, her factories idle, her liard-work- ing po[)ulatio]i unemployed, the j)oor-rate so high that even the Avealth of ^lauchester Avas unable to bear the burden ; it Nvould be utterly useless to apjily to lier neighbours, themselves suffi?rlng 227 from the same calamity. Relief could only come from the imj^erial exchequer ; and from it, unques- tionably, relief would l)e afforded. Let it not he supposed that the illustration is extravagant, or thiit such a case is impossible. Three years ago, the failure of the potato-crop a]')|)L'ared ([uite as impro- l)able. '' To the nortli-Avestern i>opulation of Eng- "• land, cotton is not only a necessary of life, but it " is that paramount necessary Avhich includes all " (jtliers."* Already j\lanchester sutlers from a short crop of cotton, as she never sutfered be- fore. But let the blight be total in Louisiana and (icorgin ; let a servile Avar interru[>t the cultivation, anil destroy tlie hopes oi" the cotton planter ; and tlie destitution in Manchester, and over a hu'ge part of Lancashire, Avould r;i])idl\' a})[)i-oacli to that ol' ^lay(). The soui'Ces of einployuK'nt vould I'C dried up. Tlie factoi'ies vould be as valueless as tlie untilled iields ot" hh'ris. The poor, having no money, and receiving no Avages, Avould become destitute. It Avould be impossil>le to collect a poor- i-ate suilicient for the necessity. Ticcourse must be had to the impei'ial exclie(pTer. The folloAving suggestion, mack^ by Professor Hancock, is much to the ])oint, and is here quo- ted, botli because it is so expLnuitoiy, mid also ^ Time?, Sept. ah. 1817. q2 228 that the proposal may have the support of his authorit)^ : — " The principle is thus admitted, " that although the property in the distressed " districts ought to l^e primarily charged with the " cost of relief, yet when the cost Ijecomes exces- " sive, part of the burden should be thrown on the " public taxes. This [)rinciple could Ije applied to " the extended pr»or-laAV, and the dilHculty about " confiscation would be at once avoided. If the " expenditure of any electoral division, under the " extended poor-law, in one month, sliould ex- " cecd live pence for each pound of net animal " value, that is, iive shillings a year, let onedialf " of the excessive expenditure be defrayed by " l)ublic grants. If the expenditure of any electo- " ral division in one month should exceed one " shilling and three pence f )r each ])(>und of net " annual value, let the excess abuve such sum be " cntirvli/ defi-ayed ]>y public grants ; with power " to the government, in the latter ca--e, to a|»p(»int " a special guardian, without whose consent no " further relief should be given. " In tins plan of raising the funds, the sums of " five pence in the pound, and one shilling and three " pence in the pound, are of course only taken for " illustr.'ition. The scale on which })ublic contribu- " tions should be given, ought not to be determined " without elaborate investigation of tlie su1)ject. 221) " But were this plan, or some plan on the same " principle, adopted, the public aid Avould not be " wasted on districts able to support their own " poor ; and ^\'here given, it would come in aid of " ample funds irom local taxes, instead of aiford- " ing a motive to resist their im[)osition and collec- '' tion. Local control would be enlisted l)y self- " interest, to guard the prudent expenditure of nil " the reliei" funds, and no coniiscation of property " or stoppage of cultivation could take ])lace."'" The necessity of enforcing the collection of the poor-rate, cannot be too strongly insisted on. If men able to ])aA' are allowed to escape payment, because thiy throw dilHeulties in the way of collecting it, a moral injury is inflicted Avliich will re(juire years to repair. Provided that, in the manner proposed by Pi'<»fessor Ihuicock. or ly^ some siuiilar plan, care lie taken that no (hstriet l)e taxed bevond its abilitv to l)ear, no excuse slioudd be allowed to interfere with, or delay the collec- tion. All de[)ends on the determination of the Government. This is a condition of such con- secpience, not oidy ibr the ])roper sup])ort of the jtoor, but for the gener:d well-being of the coun- try, that it cfuniot be ]>ressed too strongly, 'i'o maintain the standard of honestv eiiV-etively, it is ' Three Lectures liy W. Neilsun llancoek, [,L.D., I'rolestor of I'oli- tical Economy in the U^ivl'r^ity uf Dublin, p. -Jii. 230 necessary that we should be compelled to pay our debts. This may at first appear difficult, in the present impoverished condition of many districts, but the eventual result will be more beneficial than the remission of the amount. To facilitate the collection of the rates, it is very important that pu1>lic opinion should be conciliated, by the funds raised liein^ir judiciously and economi- cally administered. It may ])e said tliat the rate- payers elect the guardians ; and that if they make a ]iad choice, it is their own loss. PL-retofore the rates being moderate, the questiun a})}»('ared of less moment ; and in the election of guardians, very lit- tle attention was paid to tlieir fitness for the office, or their capalvility of fulfilling its duties. Xow, the case is altered, and we may expect tliat more con- sideration will be bestowed on tliis point in i'uture. But h<:»wever desirous the guardians niay be of acting judiciously, it requires close attention, pecu- liar ability, and considerable experience, to manage efficiently the distri1)ution of out-door relief in an extensive union, and to take pi'0])er care of the Avorkhouse. Few persons who have the recpiisite ability, are able to devote tlie ]ieedl'ul amount of time to the work. The distribution of relief was managed last sum- mer by electoral division comnfittees, a boartl of guardians, a finance committee, and an inspect- 231 ing-officer appointed by government ; now, it is proposed to leave it to the l)oard of guardians alone, who are directed to a])point relieving olh- cers to act under tliem. If so large a staff were required last summer, how can it he expected that the guardians alone. Avill now he sufhcient ? In tlie riclier unions along the eastern coast, they may manage tok-i-ably well. Tliere is a l)etter choice of guardians, and much fewer destitute persons to be relieved. In tlie western ])arts, and even in some of the midland counties, it is ])Lyond their ]WAver. So nuich do the guardians thrmselves Icel tliis in many places, that they are de-irous of being super- seded by a paid board, as tliey have been at Cas- tlel)ar, AVestport, and some other places. Tliey feel tliat this course Avould save them pei'sonally nuieh laboui* and ti'ouble, and lliey liave good rea- son to expect that it wu\dd prove more economi- cal ; that by better management, the paid guar- dians would be able to save the union mueh more than the amount of their salaries. To throw aside the local management, and work tlirougli ])aid othcial macliinery, is very undesirable, and should [)e avoided if ])ossible. The guardians re(piire some kind of assistance. Prol)a1»ly tlie iiiost valuable that can l)e aifjrded tiiem, would 1)e to continue the ap])ointment of ins[)ecting- oificers. It has been decided to do so, as respects 232 twenty-two of the most destitute unions in the west. If their assistance were aiforded to some of the unions in the midland counties also, much benefit would probably result. In this case, one inspector might, perhaps, have two or more unions under his charge. Uniformity of management would thus be obtained ; and as the law comes more fully into operation, and tlie guardians learn their business more thoroughly, the oihce may be eventually dispensed with. It is especi'ally important that the guardians themselves sh(juld be really desirous of carrying out the law, of relieving the destitute, and of col- lecting the rates. If a board absolutely refuse to act, the commissioners can displace them, but the remed}' for iiegligence is more diiticult. \A (»idd it not be right that the non-payment of his rates by any individual guardian, should be a disqualifica- tion ; say, that if his rates remained un]iaid iov six ^veeks after the rate was struck, his place should become vacant, and a new election take ])lace ? Havinii; themselves paid, thev would l)e much more anxious to collect from others ; and it is certaiidy very galling to other rate-payers to 1)e forced to pa}', when it is well known tliat some of the guar- dians themselves are in arrear. It has been sua'S'csted, that instead of looking- to the tenant for the whole rate, he sliould only 233 be assessed for his otvti portion ; and that the landlord, " that is, the owner of the hrst estate uf inheritance,'" slionld also be assessed for liis jtor- tion. This woukh in some cases, facilitate the collection, and obtain ])ayinent of rates whicli, nndcr the present system, are Avholly lost, on acconnt ui" the p-overt}- of tlie tenant. Still it in- volves a hardshi]). to compel a landlord to pay the rate for a pi'opertv from Avhicii he lias not received rent ; and sliould hardly l)e resorted to, nnless tlie present hnv ]»rove deeidedly inellicient. \i' it appear nece>,>arv, ]iiore summary means of re- Qoycvv miiiht also 1>r pi'MA'ided. ])V tlie>e or other ari'aiiLivments, li'reatt-r fieilitics miuht be !iiven. so as to eii>ure a 1 letter coHectioJi, without resoi-tiiig to the- liai'di and inm.';nal meastires Avhich some have pi'o])osed. r>ut the licnelit of a ])oordaw is limited to >liil"t- inu" a ])oi'ti(in e who are brtter able to bear it. It has no direet eifect iu a.ddiui:' to the resourees of the couiiti'v. It may even diminish theui, if badly admiiii>tered. The ])aymeiit of j'ates may consume the I'unds aj)[>licable to the emjiloMrieiit of labour ; and the inconie of the counti'V. instead of cart of Ire- land, If the tenantry Ije encouraged to improve their holdings l;)y some more efficient security than they nuw enjoy, we may antici])ate tliat tlie respecta- bility and the pecuniary means of tlie tenant-farmers being greatly increased, a middle class Avill thus be created. If fi-eedom be given to the sale and transfer of land, we i.-iy hope tliat the infusion of a larger body of resident proprietors will raise the general character of society, Avill alibrd timple means for the pro})er administration of all local ailuirs, and will give secuiity Ibr life and property, and increased stability to all the institutions of the country. CHAPTER XII. Principles of free trade should lie extended to land — Necessary to meet the various difficulties of Ireland — Injurious eti'ccts of insecurity — of settlements — of incnmhrances — Xeglect of his estate by a tenant for life, in tlie indir sale and lrau~i'er nfland — Sunielhing must he dune — Ijicundiered estates" hill — I'ruli-.dile ellei'ts. it'it had passed— ]'roperty under tlie courts — Tenure by livi_s remx^'able for ever — Intermediate interests — Leases in perpetuity — Ihavy expenses on transfers of landed priiperty — Dilliculty of proving a clear title — National registry jiro- po^cil — No >niall proprietors or ycoiuanry in Ireland — It is ilesiraMe to encourauc the formation of such a class — J-'Jl'ects of large estates in Spain — in Sardinia — l^ll'ects of a lutter distribution oi' property in Norway — in Noriliern Italy — in Switzerland — in Holland — inr.elgiTun — Indu^tr_^■ of Mjnatters on a mountain-connnon in Ireland— Opinion of Arlliur Vouu'^ as to tlie ellects of ]iroperly in land upon industry — Re- volution in llie tenure of landed i)roperty in Prussia — Beneticial results • — Independent cliaracter of small i)roiirietors— Compulsory sululi vi- sion of property in France injririous — Preedom of sale the best system — Honesty of the French people attrihutcd to the general dilfusion of jn'operty — Laws of landed ]jrojierty similar in England and Ireland — I'roperly belter distributed in f^nghnid — Nmnber of proprietors has diminished in Fngland — Kntails not essential lo the maintenance of an aristocracy — Ilecapitulation — Suggestions — Conclusion. Tlie commereitil legislation of the last few years lias been marked l»y the reduction of imposts on 23G many important articles of consumption, by the removal or lessening of discriminating or protec- tive duties, and bv various arrani2;ements givinGi; greater facilities for the conducting of mercantile aftairs. The year 181(1 saw the abrogation of tlie protective duty on corn and other agricul- tural |)roduce, and last year witnessed the partial relaxation of the navigation laws, wliicli had lieretofore been esteemed the chief support of the naval power of Great liritain. The change of opinion on these subjects has liecn great indeed, and the public are even prei)ared for further progress hi tlie sam(f direction ; believing that all attem])ts to force trade out <.>f its natural cliannels, arc injurious to the Avell-being of the comuiuuitv ; and that to remove all restrictions on buying and selHng. to nllow ever^' one to buy in the cheapest market and sell in tlie deai'est, is the surest wav to ])romote our commercial |>rosperity. Are Ave to have a free trade m the ])roducts of the land, and not in tlie land itself ? Are the utmost facilities to be given to the sale and transfer of all other articles, and is land alone to Ik- considered as requiring an exception in this jvspect ? Let tlie })rinciple of connnercial freedom l^e fully and fairly earried out. Let it apply to land as well as to other ])rope]'ty. AVill not this princii>le meet the various diliiculties of Ireland, more 237 surely and more quiekly than any other remedy whieh has been [)roposed ? Are not all other reme- dies incomplete without this ? Unless land be freely sold, how is English capital to be introduced lor its cidture ? How are we to obtain a resident proprietary, unless those A\'ho prelt-r living in other countries be enabled to sell theii" Irish property, thus permitting it to iall into the hands of those who can give it tlieir |>ej'sonal attention ? Is not the local demand of a numerous gentry and middle class, necessary ibr the suj»]>oi't <»f tlie lisli- cries of the western coast ; and how can such I3C ci'cated, uidcss tlie gi'cat laudi'd [)ro])riet(>rs be enabled to sell poi'tions of thrir estates ? I low can tlie largr ])r ^vagrs ])e >upj>lied, bv the inti'oductiou of new nu'U to tin- ownciship «>f thr soil ? How is outrage to be rojiressed V How are the laws to lie enforced ? How can the free institutions of the country Ijc maintained, except througli the agency of a numerous and educated middle class ? On the iiitelligent and eilective working of ;i mid- dle chiss, depend the social and political institutions of a free state ; Avithout such su]t|)ort, the freedom of England would soon be changed into anai'chy or despotic authority. Can that iVeedom ever exist in Ireland, until a numerous middle class be raised 238 up throughout the country ? And can a middle class be created in Ireland in any other way, than by the free sale of land, by the sub-division of estates, and the consequently increased number of resident proprietors ? Is there any system of tenant-right, or any plan of compensation for permanent im- provements, wliich Avill give half the stimulus to exertion, that actual ownership gives to him who tills Ills own ground ? In the earlier chapters, the writer endeavour- ed to point out some of the causes, which have so untavoral)ly inlluenced the industrial character of the peo])le of Ireland. He has shown that the Avant of industry is not fairly attributable to their Celtic origin or their religious creed, but that it is the natural result of the want of that security Ibr the possession of property, and for the enjoyment of the fruits of hd.)our, whidi is essential as a motive to exertion. He has attempted to prove that the industrious character of tlie English people is the slow growth of centuries of peaceful freedom, the rights of property being held sacred, and the law being su])reme. The success of Irish emigrants in Amei'ica has been alluded to, as a proof tliat under flivoui"al)le circumstances Irishmen Avoidd succeed at home. A comparison has been instituted be- tween the diiferent parts of Ireland, tending to show that the eastern counties differ less from England 230 in the habits of the people, than they do from the counties in the extreme west. An endeavour has beeJi made to delineate some of the principal features of the soutli and west. These are, briefly : estates of great territorial extent, in most cases strictly en- tailed, heavily mortgaged, and otherwise encum- bered; the owner often non-rrsident, and ivnaljle to expend any tiling for the improvement of his propert}' ; the land cut up into minute sub-divi- sions, held by a tenantry avIio have little iiiduce- ment to im])rove a ]iroperty oi' which the)' have no certain tenure; a large cottier population, lieivto- foi'c living on potatoes, the prod.uce (»f their own gardens, now withuut empluyment or any means of support. These difliculties, though nio^t severely felt in the we>t, exi>t in a lesr^er degree thi'oughout the will lie cuuntrw Almost tveiy wliei'e the land is held in large estates;'" the proprictois ;ire geiiei'ally bound up l:»y settlements, embarras>L'(l by mortgages and other eiieumbrances ; the gi'ovuid, with se)me exceptions, is in want of draining, and ill-cultivat- ed ; the holdings are generally small, ihe tenants too often ignorant and lazy. lA'ery where the dis- * M'Cnlldcli c•^^illlatc•?. on tlio autlmrity of Dr. I'.iMke. ilic ])roiirii-K)rs of land in iMigland ami Wales as liavinir liwii 200,ll(j0 in ISUl. Jt is sail] liiat ihrre arc only about 8,000 ptrsons in Irelantl \\ lio hold lanil in fee. 240 proportion exists between the demand for and the supply of labour. Can we doubt that the large estates held by embarrassed proprietors, who are unable to improve the property themselves, and are restricted 1)y law from selling it to others, produce most of the other evils which afflict the country? And is not the natural remedy, to remove tlicse restrictions, to allow the sale of these large L'^tates, to iipply the principles of free trade to land ? The great difflcultv of Ireland is the want of security, as respects the title to and possession of land. Hence arises the want <»f capital, as no one will expend labour or money in improving the soil, unless he be assured of reaping the fruits of his outlay. Until some change be produced in this respect, no im[)i-ovenR'nt can be expected. This insecurity alix'cts botli the }»roprietnr and the tenant. The iirst, in many cases, holds bv a doubt- ful title, or one so diiiicult to pi'ove, as seriously to interfere Avith the power of sale ; and the estate being entailed, he has onl)* a life interest, and is therefore disinclined to expend money on improve- ments which Avillnot behnmediately remimerative. The latter is merely a tenant-at-will, and always liable to be evicted; having no certainty of posses- sion, he will not of course give any lal)Oui' ur expend any money, Ibr which he does not ex})ect 241 nn immediate return. In both cases, the most injurious consequences result. A large proportion of the land is strictly bound up by settlements. The present landlord has merel}^ a life interest ; he is in reality not the owner ; he cannot deal with it as an owner ; he is merely a trustee for others ; he has no interest in its future thougli permanent improvement, except so far as he may wish to benefit his successors ; he cannot reap the benefit himself ; he cannot sell ; lie cannot dispose of a part, even though the alienation of a part might greatly enhance the value of the remainder ; he holds it during his life-time, as liis predecessor held it, unaltered, un- impi'oved, to transmit it to his heir clogcred with the same restrictions, alike injnrious to him and to Ills country. These are the results of the system under the most favorabk' circumst;inces, wlien tlie property is unencumbered and the landlord free from debt. r>ut let us suppose, as is generally the case, that the heir has received the estate encumbered under a settlement, with a jointure to the wudow of the late possessoi*, and provision for daugh- ters and younger sons. Or let us take tlic ex- treme, but l)y no means unconuuon case, in whicli lie comes into possession, burdened witli debts of his own, contracted on the faith of his inheritance, R •242 and borrowed on terms of usurious interest, pro- portioned to the risk incurred. In what difficul- ties is he at once involved ! — this owner for life of a large tract of country, with a long rent-roll, but in fact a small property ! He cannot main- tain his position in society witliout spending more than liis income ; debts accumulate : he borrows on the credit of his life interest, and insures his life for tlie security of the lender. Of course he cannot alford to lay out any thing on im- provements ; on the contrary, thougli pcrha])S heretofore kind-hearted and just, liis iiecessities force him to resort to every means of increas- ing his present rental. lie looks for the utmost amount ; he lets to the liighest bidder, without regard to character or means of payment. J lis object is inunediate income, not the future vahie of the pro])erty. If liis tenants are without k^ises, he raises their rents. If leases fall in, lie cannot aflbrd to give the preference to the last occupier. Perhaps, with all his exertions, he is unable to pay the interest, or put oif his creditors. Proceedings are commenced against him, and the estate passes, during liis life-time, under the care of the worst possible landlord — a receiver under the court of chancery. If the evil were confined to the proprietors of estates, they might be left to the results of their 243 own imprudence ; l)Ut the oonntry suffers. Even when the life ovnier is provident and economical, he cannot in many cases afford to improve. Jle ^vl\\ not expend money for the benefit of his eldest son, to the ])rejudice of tlie rest of his family. lie must save out of his income for his youn^'er children. Or perliaps he lias daughters and no son, and the estate must ])ass to a distant heir-at- law. IFe will not even ex]>end what is necessary to maintain tlie ])roperty in good order. The f )ilowing instance lias been comnnniicated by a |)ai'ty ac(|Uainted ^vitli tlie circumstance. It is that of an old gentlem;ni of independent pi'operty, residing on an estate of about two hundred acres. The fences are almost levelled, and the house, ex- cept that the roof is staunch, is in wretched repair; tio money has l)een l;iid out on it ibr yeai's ; his fimily is lai'ge, and he is eighty years of age. The jealousy thus kept u|> between father and son, and the necessity for the former to use means so injurious to tlie estate and to the country, in order to provide f >r liis younger children, are amongst the worst effects of entails.* * Tlie followin;,^ extract fniin the cvideiR-o of Peirce INfaUony, F.^q. giveu in 183.5 before the Select Coininittee on rulilic Works, is strikingly descriptive of the injurious ettects tif entails : — ' ' In the case of a provident holder of an estate for life, tlie dillicnltiea " he encounters are uhnost equal to tliose of the person wlio is encuni- •' l)ered largely hy previous deht. Sucli a person, under the u=ual terms K 2 244 Is not the principle on which this old gentleman has managed liis property, similar to tliat whicli is acted on by many others ? ]\Iay we not appeal to the landed gentry themselves ? Even when the l^est feelings exist between lather and son, are they not restrained by their duty towards their younger children, from the expenditure of money, which they know would permanently im[)rove the fa- mily property ? Or if the eldest son. being of age, unites with his father in charging the estate for the beneiit of the younger children, is not the nucleus of a dcl)t formed, which, increasing from ireneration to generation by a similar process, first embarrasses, and fnially ruins the family? Have not many estates been thus forced to t]\Q liammer ? Have not the difficulties in which he was involved destroyed the hap[)iuess of tlie last possessor, and in many cases embittered the lives of two genei'ations ? Have not the social condition and " of an Irisli settlement, lias jjower to charirc but a small sum as a pro- " vision for his younger chiWrcn ; as a prudent father, having more " than one ehikl, he naturally seeks to accumulate property in aid of " the provision to Avhich he is restricted by his settlement — that, muler " the present system, he does through the pulilic securities, &c. lie " cannot lay out his savings upon tlie improvement of his family estate, " for the effect trould be, to enrich the elder sou, and deprive himself of " means to provide for his younger children ; the consequence is gene- " r;dly, and in many cases even witliin nn' own professional experience, " that estates which otherwise would be improved are neglected, and " the savings accumulated by the tenants for life are laid out at interest " upon loans secured on neighbouring estates or in the public funds." 245 eliaraeter of the tenantry been ruined, by the mis- management resultinii; from these difficulties ? Proljably the estate may have been for years under the court of chancery bc-fore its sale, or perhaps it has been mortgaged to some one, who ad- vanced the money on condition of obtaining the agency, [uid wlio has made the most of liis posi- tion, without regard to the welfare of the property or tliose living on it. How many of the outrages and murders, whicli have stained the character of the country, may be distinctly traced to tlie dis- organization thus produced ? The purchaser en- deavour-^ to reduce tlie ])ropertv to order ; the severity which lie can scarcely avoid provokes retahation, and he at lengtli becomes the victim of a^ train of circmnstanccs, (dearly traceable to tliat setth'nient uf the c>tate, which the original pos- sessor fondly hoped would secure it to his pos- terity for ever. The permanencv of ])roperty in land is undoubt edl}' a great social advantage. It gives stal)ility to the institutions of a country. A timedionour- ed family, Avho have held the same lands, ti'ans- mitted from fither to son for many generations, demands our respect. If their names are honour- ably known to history, or if they have fullilled the no less important local duties attendant on })roperty and station, we feel that it gives them a title to 21G our confidence, whilst it imposes on them the obli- gation to uphold the high character which their ancestors enjoyed. But are entails necessary to eiFect this ol)ject ? If each successive owner of the property be a man of prudence and economy, no settlement is necessary. If, on the other liand, he involve himself in debt, by unwarrantable ex- penditure, and so render liimsclf unable to fulfil the duties of his station, he loses his local iiiihi- ence, and the respect which his predecessors had acquired ; and the entail Ix'comes alike iiijui-ious to himself and to his country. We cannot by leii'islation contnivenc the estab- lislied laws of Providence, which render prosperity dependent on prudent management. The attempt to do so inevitaldy brings sulfei-ing u[>on all |)arties concerned. It interfei'es Avitli tlie salutary exer- cise of parental conti'ol. Tlie lieir tliinks himself released fi'om the restraints of autliority, and iVom the necessity of prudence; and his fancied secu- rity often betrays him into a course of improvi- dent excess, wliich embitters the whole of his after life. If the estate were IVee from entail, he would be exposed to much less tem})tation. An education in those habits of prudence and economy, whieh Avould ])rcvent liim from spending beyond his in- come, Avoidd l)e much more likely to attain the object of the settlement, namely, tliC preservation 247 ol' tlie estate in the faniily ; and would, at the same time, qualify the owner to enj(jy his property, and to fulfil the duties of his station. But it is said, that the po\\'er of settlement is a right inherent in property, of whieh it should not be deprived ; that a man may do Avhat he likes with his own. Is this so V lias an owner of land a riu'ht to destroy it ? to keep it waste or unten- anted ? to break down the l)anks of his river, and c<;)nvert the neiiZ'hbouring fields into a moi'nss ? to cover tlieni Avith stones or ii'i'tn'el, ami destroy their fertihty ? It Avill be said that none Imt a madman Avould act thus. Granted: but >U\\ we may ask the (pK'stion, does he possess the al)stract rjo'ht to do so ? Certaiidy not. The soil of the country is the pi'(>[)erty of tlie state, ui'nnted to its possessors to use, not to destroy. It is a trust Ibr tlie benefit of all, Avhicli should ])e u'uardcd with ])eculiar care ; because, Avliilst limited in extent, all must idtimately derive their support from it. fliere are limits to the power of an oAviier over his land ; he nuiA' not destroy it ; he may not permanently in- jure it. He is fully entitled to eujoy it durinu" life, and to bequeath it at his death. There his ivspoji- siliility ends, and his natural riLibt ceases ; any extension of his pOAver is a factitious, not a natural right, ft is created by law, and is to be exercised only so i]\v as it does ]iot iutertere with the public 248 good ; the power which has created may control and limit it. This has already been done in the Thelluson case, and by the Yarious statntes of mortmain. The o^\mer of an estate in England and Ireland has been deprived of the power of entailing it for ever. Tlie state may interfere flir- ther — nay, is bound to do so, if a sufficient cause be slio^AHi. AVlien a railway or other ^)ubHc work is to be carried on, the owners of the ground arc deprived of their land. If sufficient cause be shown, parliament will even break an entail, and allow the sale of an estate. It is wholly a question of expe- diency. If the present power over landed property be injurious to the community, it ought to be fur- tlier limited. The ii]a1)ility to grant long leases has a most injurious effect upon towns. Some of the e\idence before tlie laud commissioners refers to this circum- stance ; in particular it is stated, that the improve- ment of the town of Bangor, in Dowu, has been much retarded from this cause. Tliey have been ol)liged " to build up half the town on holdings at " ^vill, waiting until they could get a satisfactory " lease, the tenants relying upon the landlord giA'- " ing them a better lease when he can." This is a ctise of frequent occurrence, and highly injurious. Xo man could 1)0 expected to build a good or permanent house under such circumstances. Those 249 ■\vlio are bound to the locality by previous engage- meiits in business, must have bouses to live in ; 1)ut tlie town cannot ini})rove. Tlie hindrances to the tree sale of land affect tlie country injuriously in many ways ; even when there is no dehciency of capital for ordi- nary purposes. To pi'ove this, it is only necessary to refer to the improvements which have been effected iji some places in wliicli land li;is been freely sold. No more striking instance c;ui be mentioned tlian tliat of Birkenhead, a srcund Liver- pool, on the opposite side of tlie Mcrse}'.''' This place is remarkalde not merely on account of the rapidity of its progi'ess, its large population, and its well built houses ; Init for tlie s[»ii-it and enter- prise Avhich have planned such an extent of docks, such s[)lendid warehouses, and esi»eci:dly the fore- thought Avhich has laid out so many miles of well paved streets, and which has provided f<.)r the health of the inhaliitants, by the mo,->t i)erfect arrange- ment of sewers in tlie kingdom, and for their re- creation by a park such as very i'ow cities possess. Could this b}' any possibility have been effected on an entiiiled estate, where long leases cannot he granted V Ts it conceivable that such improve- * Tlie imprnvi nicntp at r.iilunheaa aiv now at a staivl. It is pi-DbaMy only n leiuporary <'liook ; lnU liowevcr tliat may lif, it does not alicct tlie present argument. 250 merits could have been effected under any circum- stances, except a free sale and purchase of land, where every one felt that he was working for liim- self, and improving his own undoubted property ? Even under the best management, the poor rates must be a heavy tax. The\' fall Avholly on the nominal owner of the property. The mortgagee is not called on to bear any portion of the burden. Anmiitants, and others having charges on the pro- 2")erty, escape. The labour rate and poor rate will eat up the nominal owners interest in the land. The estate, if heavily mortgaged, will not be worth the amount of the mortgage ; confiscation must ensue. How can we meet these difficulties, so as to pro^■ide em])loyment for the aljle-liodied poor, and support tlie aged and inlinn, tlie widow and the orphan? How can Ave convert our peasantry, half employed, half clothed, half fed on potatoes grown in their own gardens, into a bread-and-meat-eating pco[)le, living liy tlie wagos of laljour, or cultivat- ing their own ground on fair terms, and having that security of possession which alone can induce the industry and energy necessary for aiiv im- provement ? To employ laliourors and })av wages requires a large amount of capital ; and, with some exce})tions, neither our fanners, nor gentr}', nor large landed proprietoi's, possess capital at all in 251 proportion to the extent of the land which they hold. If these premises be correct ; if employment, with reiiuhir Avages, must be found for the pea- santry ; if for this ])urpose capital be neces,-ary ; and if the parties liolding the land do not pos- sess sufficient, it follows, either that government must contiinie t<3 suppl}' the ca[>ital i-ecpiired, not merely l)y a loan i'oi- an emergency, ])ut as })art of a regular system ; (»r else tliat the land mu:?t pass into the liands of those who do possess the means of employing the people, — d'l men wJio will carry on ngricultui-e as a l)usiness, and will bi'ing to their occupation that capital, thle. In short, let a law be passed allowing the sale of landed property, notwithstand- ing entails or settlements ; !et it be accompanied 252 by arrangements for facilitating transfers, and for simplifying some of the more complicated modes of tenure, and the ol)JL'ct will he effected. Land will become an article of sale and purchase con- stantly in tlie market. Capital will be attracted to it, not merely as an investment producing a small but secure income, but as an investment for purposes of trade. Tlie unencumbered proprietor of land will find it liis interest to sell a portion of his estate, in order that he may be more able to im- prove the rest. The mortgagee will enter into pos- session, or sell the property for his own security. The soil of the country, like everything else wliich is open to free competition, will eventually fall into the liaiids of tiiose wlio liave the capital, and the ability to manaiie it with tlic irreatest advantai^c to themselves and to their country. Tliis would indeed be a irreat clianixe — a leiial revolution, more serious in its effects on indi- viduals, more im])ortant in its consequences to society at large, than any event which has for many years affected the destinies of tliis empire — a revo- lution infinitely more important in its bearings t]ian the reform bill, or free trade, or any of tlie subjects which have heretofore agitated the public mind so strongly. It is nuicli to be feared, from the present pressure on the means of the oAvners of the soil, that many who have long been accustomed 253 to all the elegancies of life, may ere long be re- duced to a position of serious deprivation ; that many who have thought themselves rieli, may find that they are left almost without property. Xo legislative measures can whollj' avert these dilli- culties. Reverses of fortune are at hand, and are inevitable. Tlicy will 1)e only the more severe, the longer the settlement is deferred. To grapjde boldly Avith the difficulty is tlie surest way to avoid the danger We caimot remain as ^vv are ; we are evidently on the eve of a great social revolution. 'J'he issue of tliat revolution must depend on the prudence and foresight (.>f those who condnet the alfairs of the em[)ire. The potatoes may again be planted without l»eing again blighted, but never with the same feeling of seeurity ; they can never again be relied on as the sole food of three-fourths of the people of Ireland. The position of the country is greatly changed Avithin the past few years. Par- liament has virtually declared, that Ireland must be governed by other means than force. Agrarian outrages have fearfully increased. In .^ome places, attem])ts have l)ecn made to compel the resump- tion of the public Avorks. In others, there is a cond)ination against the payment of rent, or of rates, or an endeavour to retain permanent posses- sion of land. Landlords are in some places ruth- 254 lessly evicting their pauper tenantry, or distrain- ing without consideration. In others, they look in vain for payment from tenants who are well able to pay. The minds of men are everywhere unsettled. The present circumstances have bronirht to a crisis the increasing troubles of years. The future })rospects, the ha|)piness or misery of the country, depend on the mode in Avliicli this crisis is met. Where is the prudent und able statesman, who can " out of tliis nettle dimger, pluck thQ. flower safety ?"' who will ])revent revolution by antici})ating necessity, instead of waiting until forced by outrage or popular clamour ? There ai'e times of difficulty, in which o]>position to the current of events is impossible, and the only course of safety is to yield with prudence to the irresisti- l)le force of the torrent. Last session, a Inll was l)ronght before parlia- ment, " to facilitate tlic sale of encumbered estates " in Ireland." It was introduced into the house of lords by the lord chancellor of" England, who, when introducing it, " detailed the peculiar evils " under Avhich the possessors of encumbered estates " in Ireland lal)oured, some of which estates were " mortgaged to the extent robation ; no voice was raised against it in Ireland, hut many expressed their concurrence in its intended objects. 3]ucli benelit was anticipated from its operation. The house of lords ]>assed it uuaiiimou.^ly, but on rradiing the commons, it was witlab'awn. The monied iutrrest of London, hold- ing mortgages on IrisJi pro|)erty, was alanned, and 0])])0S('d it, It Avas thrrati.-iicd tliat its pro\"isions .should be availed of, to force sales to tlic extent of several milHons. Tlie threat was sutHcient, aiid the session being too far advanced to admit of nnieh discu>sioii, the measure Avas deferred. f T'hus were the interests of Irehnid sacriliced to the fears of Englisli mortgagees, and the endxirrassed Irish ];indlords remain, possessing a nominal pro])ert_y, l)ut being in iact merely tlie agents of Englisli ca])italists, privileged to pay the whole poor rate, and condemned by the English [>ublic for the alnises of a system whieh they are po^verless to prevent or to cure. * Tinu-.s April -28, 1847. t Sec Lord .Tolm Kii<>eirs .-pecch on witlnlrawiiiL; llii.' lull, in 'J'he Times, C)th Julv, 1847. 256 This bill, if it had passed into a law, would have had most hiiportant effects. It purported to enable the ON^iier of any encumbered propert}' to sell it, and to give the same power to a mortgagee or incuml)rancer. It f(jlloAvs from this, that no entail made hereafter would prevent the sale of an estate, unless it were unencumlx'red. Such a circumstance would u'reatlv lessen the injurious oix^-ation of entails. To empOAver the proprietor of an entailed estate which is encumbered, to sell, is a step towards freedom, and must prove highly valuable ; but it seems open to serious fjuestion, whether it be right to confer the same power on an incumbrancer, so long as the terms of contract are fulfilled on the owner's part. The owner of property should be entitled to choose his own time for selling it. ^ This bill would not have given to the purchaser any better title than that of tlie previous owner, and therefore would not liave afforded any remedy for one of the most serious evils affecting landed pro- perty in Ireland. The government have stated their intention of introducing a sinular measure during the present session.* * A liill for facilitating the sale of encumbered estates had already been introduced into the House of Commons in ]846. It was prepared b}' Peirce Maliony, Esq., an eminent solicitor of Dublin. 'J'his bill would have enabled the owner in fee, or tenant for life of au encumbered estate, to petition the court for a sale; but would not have given any increased powers to an incumbrancer. The extensive practice and legal know- 257 Whatever doubt may exist as to the propriety of giving an incumbrancer the power of selling an estate, so long as tlie owner duly fuliils his engage- ments, there can be no question that when a failure Icils^^e of the aljove mentioned gentleman early ilrev his attention to the injurious ctlects of the present condition of property. The followin extracts from his evidence hefore the Select Committee on Tithes in Irelaml, in lS:i2, shows the clear view he took on this sul)ject, at a time when it attracted hut little attention from the pulilic in general : '• The Very large estates so held in the south and we.-t of Ireland •■ are comparatively uncultivated, and are heavily encunihered by judg- ' uicnts, &c. Those judgments affect the whole and each part of the ' estate ; as the system is not so much to horrow on mortgage, hut even ' when money has been borrowed on mortgage, it is nut Imrrowed, as in ' England, ujiou sejiaratc and distinct portions of the estate, so as to ' enable the proprietor, if he thiidc fit, to sell that separate and distinct ' portion of it, and discharge that particular class of debt; the Irish mort- ' gages cover the whole, and thus it becomes scarcely jiossilile for the ' owner to sell in small divisions. This in a great degree accounts for ' the immense accumulation of debt that has taken ])lace; liecause when ' you come to sell, you are forced into the Court of Chancery, and when ' there, endure the effects (upon the creilitnr as well as tlie debtor) of a ' most exi)ensive and tedious process ; all the dilferent ineunibraucers, ' trustees, v!ic. are (usually) neces-ary iiarties to the suit, and it is a ' matter of extreme ditticiilty to make out a satisfactory title; wiiile ' during its progress tiie suit is constantly impeded by the deaths nf * parties, and the revivals con-enuently neces-ary. JKncc the owner ' avoids selling as long he I'an ; but if the legislature wire b> interjMise ' so as to render the proceclings to a decree fa- sale mnieeessary, ' by enabling the parties to deal as tluy do with conniussioners ' for public purposes, and to bring the ninney into court to be ' there distributed, all that the parties need do would be to put ' forw;ird their respective rights to the fund, and on those being ad- ' justid the money coidd be distributed. I beg to state to the Commit- ' tee, as .an instance, that a noble lonl. wlidse estate M'as cncunilxred • by judgments, being extremely anxious to pay his debts (this case ' is known to an honourable member of the Conmiittee now present) ' vested his estates in trustees ibr that express purpose, and instituted a S 258 takes place in this respect, it is infinitely better for all parties that the estate should l)e sold, rather than let it be administered by the Court of Chaii- cerv". The evils incident to this mode of manatate; yet the difficulties in making out title have been so great, 'that he has nut been able to fulfil his contract; he can neither pay^ ' though he is willing to pay, nor part with his estate ; such is liis unfor- ' tuuate condition. That estate sold Air over i;iS(),(iOO.'' "For such a case as is suggested, [that of a proprietor whose estate ' is mortgaged to nearly the full value] I can have U" symjiathy en pub- ' lie grounds, but I should propose to give him every facility to sell ; for ' 1 think he ought not to be the landowner, and that such landlords ' cannot manage the estates nominally theirs, though in reality their ' creditors', Avith advantage to themselves or their country. It Avould ' be alike beneficial to such landlords and their tenants, that they Avere ' forced to part Avith a nominal enjoyment of large possessions ; after ' the landlords' debts Avere paid, the surplus (if any) Avould be more ' lieneficial to them and their families, than the casual income they now ' receive, after deducting expenses of management, i^c. from their < vMnhial estates. Let me submit one case out of man}- Avhicb may be 'mentioned: A. has a rental of, say £.5,000 ]ier annum; the interest ' on his encmnbrances, &c. amount to £4,000 per annum ; Avhilc the ' charge for management, casual losses by tenants, laAV expenses, &c. •259 ment are so well known, that it is unnecessary to repeat them here. To use tlie true and forcible words of a pamphlet recently published, it may be said, that '' in very many cases, where encum- " l)ered estates have fallen under the management •' of law courts, the district has u.>ually rather " resembled one wliich has been plundered l)y an " enemy, than one under an enlightened govern- " ment, in a country long exempt from the calanii- '' ties of wai*;"''^ The mode of tenure by lease for lives, Avith a covenant for ])cr]>etual ]-enewal, on ])ayment of a line, sometimes merely nominal, on the I'all " may be cstiniatod at 10 jier ec-iit. on the .irross rental ; ^o that tlie no- " niinal owner of a rental (if £5,0(10 ]ier annum n'ally lias 1iut L'j(tll a '• viar (?nppo^ing hi> whole rental duly reeovcred) to live njion. I have '• no ihiulit liut that ?u<-]i an estate shouM ho »M. ami that !-cllin;,^ it is " till' only ]iru'hnt course which .1. eouM talcc. In tlie one case, (a '• s.'ile) Ik- may jireserve .i'l.OOO per annum clear rental; in the otlier, lie " has hut .i'.ilK) c ncmiihuriil, with thi_' name anil statinn of a Lrciitlcman " -with i!5,t)0(t a year estate. Such is the condition of many of the *' laiiiUords of my country.'" Tlie followinu' is exlractcil IVnm the evidence of the same gentleman before the Select Committee on j'ulilic \Vnrhs in \S'>.'j: — " The chief pai't of the estates in Ireland are in large masses, " strictly, and almost continuously from generation to generation, en- " tailed. Upon the arrival at age of the eldest sou, it almost invariably •' follows that the estates are opened, a new set of incumbrances let in " upon them, and tluu a re-settlcuieut takes place; and so iin, until "■ they are disjiersed by Sales nnder the Court of Chancery, to discharge " the incumbrances so created.'' ' " ( >bservations upon Certain Evils arising out of the Present State of the Laws of Eeal Property in Ireland, and Suggestions for remedying the.-ame." — Ihiblin : Thou) : \>^7, p. i. O s j: 260 of each life, is universally felt as a severe griev- ance, causing uncertainty, trouble, and expense to all conceiuied, except the solicitor M'ho pre- pares the deed of renewal. This tenure, though evidentlv intended to be perijetual, has vet iriven rise to much litigation,* and property which was looked upon as certain, lias in many cases l)een lost by some trilling lapse on tlie |»art of the tenant. It is stated that one seventh of the land in Ireland is held under this descri[)tion of lease. The remedy is clear — to convert tliem into |)erpetuities, making an addition to tlie rent, to compensate the land- lord for the renewal lines. Iliis course Avas I'c- commended b}' the commissioners on tlie occupa- tion of Lnid, and has been promised by the govern- ment. It is to be ho})ed that the next session Avill not be allowed to pass, ^^■itho^t carrying it into effect. Another evil which greatly needs a remedy lias resulted, during a long course of years, from the present laws and tlie ])resent feeling respecting landed property ; namely, that in some parts of Ireland, there are several parties intervening be- tween the head landlord and the tenant in posses- sion, each deriving a proiit rent, and liolding the land, in many cases, for a term equivalent in value * See App inilx U. 2G1 to a perpetuity. The head landlord, liavhig long since let the lands on long leases, at a rent far below its present value, lias really no interest in it, except to receive his annual rents, as he might receive his dividends, if the same value of property were invested in tlie funds, lie cannot hope ever to come into possession, or to derive the least advantage from any im[)rovement that may take place. In many cases there are middlemen under similar circumstances, wlio liiive again suldet the property on tci'ms whicli preclude the ex|)ectation that it can ever revert to them ; wliilst the lowest holder hy a long k-asc, tlie party really iiitere.-^ted in the im])rovement of the [iropcrty, is debarred from many of the ])owers es>enti:d f )r its improve- ment, lie may sell his wliole interest, l)Ut he cannot dispose of a part, (.■xce[tt bv again sub- letting it. For many pur})oses, he is obliged to obtain the consent of those above him lx4bre he can act. Advantageous op])ortunitics may prc>ent themselves, of Aviiich the terms of his lease forbid him to avail himself. If a mine be f)und on the pro|)erty, he lias the mortiiication of seeing its })roiits engrossed by another, whilst the attempt to work it is perhaps a serious injury to tlie agricul- tural value of the land. It very often happens that tlie first lessee, holding a large tract of countiy, has sublet in several por- 202 tions ; these lessees have probably subdi\d(led it again ; and in this case, if the first lessee omit to pay his rent punctually, (a common occurrence) the head landlord can distrain, for the rent of the whole, from any one of the tenants in possession.* This often produces much hardship. AVhen the first lease is for lives renewable for ever, no lease in perpe- tuity can be granted except by the same tenure. The amount of land lea.scd in perpetuity. <'r for long terms of years, is very great, perhaps as nuicli as one-half of Ireland. To enal)le the holder of such a lease to purchase the fee on equitable terms, on the principle already acted on as respects the cpiit and crown rents, would Ije a great advantage to the coiiiitry. It would create a large additional numlx'r of [troprietors. and greatly lacilitate im- l>rovemeut, l)y freeing a large extent of land IVom tile diilieulties of a divided responsiliility. Lord •lolin Eussell. in liis place in the house of commons, has alluded (o tliese various derivative interests as '• a sul)ject worthy the attention of parliament," and has suLTQ'e^ted the consideration " how tenures " in Ireland might he r>implified," with the view to " establir-]] tlie same connection between the pro- * A most rLiiiarkaWe ca?e in point liiis been conimunicateil tn the antlidi-, \v/.., tl'.at of tlie manor of ]\Ioniit Eagle rjoyal, in the ennnty of Kerry, containing 40, WO acres, granted in fee farm in 173-j, by an ancestor of the Earl of Powi?, at a fee-farm rent of £1900 per annum, everv acre of which remains liable for the entire rent. 2G3 '• prictor and tenant as exists in England and Scot- •' land."* The present scale of stamp duties, being pro- portionately so much lieavier on the smaller pur- chase money tlian on the a'reatu]*, has a discouraninii; effect on the sale of land in small portions, and consequently on the division of large estates. The expenses of an enquiry int(> title are so great, as absolutely to prevent the sale of a small portion of an estate, unless the purcliaser be satisfied to take it without enquirv. In consequence of these heav}' charges on tran>fers, and other causes, '' it '■ rarely happens that land is brouglit into the " riiarkrt for sale, in h)ts of a moderate or small '' size. Instates are so generally encumbered by " family settlements or otherwisi', tliat the expense, '■ delay, and dillirulty which would attend the •' dividing of them, so as to sell in seviarate or ^- (k'tacliL'd portions, deter a propi'ictor from taking '' this course, although a larger sum might Ite raised '• by it on the Avhole.""j Whe]i a large estate is brought on the market, it is frequently purchased, iu part at least, with bori-owed capital, and thus the c<-»untrv merely exchanues one embarrassed [)ro- ■■ See hi? Siioech, as given in The J'iniL?, •J(It!i June, IH17. t lupiirt of Commissioners on Oer'.ipiitiiin of Lund in Ii\l;',ii'l. See 264 prietor for another. This subject is manifestly of the first importance. The difficulty of proving a clenr title to land in Ireland is well known, and the evils resulting from it are so universally felt and acknowledged, that it seems uiniecessar}^ to dwell long on it. It evidently interferes to a great extent with the prosperity of the country, and therefore impera- tively calls for the attention of the legislature. The public good rerpiires that some means should 1)0 taken to remedy this evil for the past, and to pre- vent its recurrence in future. If the land is to l)e properly tilled, if the needful improvements arc to T)e effected, some one must l)e its owner, and liis title nuist be declared by law to be valid and un- questionable, even at the risk of inilicting injury on individuals to some extent. Ought not the principle of the statute of limitations to be fai-ther extended to land ? Is it not adviseable to iix a day, after which no claim on land in the possession of another would be valid, unless revived by some public proceedings in the meanwhile ; so that Avhen this fixed time, say seven years hence, should arrive, there should be no occasion to go back more tlian seven years in any search after title — unquestioned possession for that period being sulfieient proof of o'wuership.* * Seven years i?, perhaps, too s-liort a period of" limitation for a 265 To declare all existing titles good, would be of comparatively little yalue, unless means were taken to lessen tJic diiiiculT}- for tlie future. A national registry of landed property, appears to afibrd means not only for ficilitating and cheapening transfers, hut also for giving perfect proof of titles ; as it is only needed for tliis purpose, to recpiire tliat all mortgages, and all other acts or deeds affecting the property, sliall he registered in the same hook of registry, in such a manner that thi-v mav l)e a}»})a- I'cnt to eveiy one in>]iL'Cting the regi^trv ; sav, for example, in a manner similar to the entry of a mortgage on a shi])"s register. Tlicre may he difH- cidt'ujs. 1)Ut they are not in^urmountahle. If the evils of till' present system l)t' acknowledged, and a lirm determination exi.-?t to refn-m it, some one ^vill l)e found ahle to eifeet tlie I'elormation. C)ther countries possess bimple forins of transfer, wliich have heen found eflicaciotts. If sucli an- swer in rrussia or l-fance, or IV-lgium, wh}' shrjidd the\' not do for us also ? The accurate maps of the Ordnance Survev aiford irreat facilities.* perniaiiLnt hnr ; Imt it is of sncli jiaraincniut importance to Cdiifirni the title-? iif estates in Ireland, that fume sunnnary muJe of determining all the dilliciiltiL-.3 rispeeling tilks sums neeessary \uider jiresent eireiim- stances. * The value of l!ie Ordnance Maps for p\irposes of registration, is alluded to in the following extract from the evidence given hy Peirce ^hduiny, Em]. hcforc Lord Langdale, respecting the registration of deeds in Ireland, as published in the Dublin Evening Tost, Nov. 2, 1S47 : — 266 Sucli a system of registration, under Avliicli transfers of property in fee should be made by an authorised entry in the books of registry, much in the same way as a transfer of stock is now made at the llnnk, Avould save most of the legal expenses of transfers. Simple forms of leases provided by the authority of parliament, giving i]\Q ordinary powers, might be sold at tlie Stamp Office, ready stamped ; every one bring left at lil)crt\' to make use of a fidler and more expensive f )rm if he wished. " In prcparini; the bill tor tln' rd'orni of onr IJigistry Olllro, anil of " which Lord Devon g:t\yc me tlie charjre, one of the great oliject? I had " in TiQw Avas the ultimate use of the Ordnanee Map ; hut I don't think " it is pcissihk' that we can use it hy any direct compulsory legislation ; " hut in due time we may get tlie puiilic, through seasonable advice and " iirecedeuts (to be eirculatc'i), to adoiit and understand the system I " suggest, especially if, in aid of tliat survey, forms for all future deeds " proceed from this commission, based upon a general registry of deeds " for this empire (liome and colonial.) Cy such means, and the simpli- " licntion of tlie tenure of lands, so as to get rid of copyhold renewable " leases, v.^o. in Kngland, fee-farm grants, leases for lives renewable lor "ever, corporate leases, customarily renewable leases, &c. in Ireland, " and such like, avc may be enabled to overcome iu some degree the " present dilliculties, and remove many of the burdens which now sur- " round tlie landed interest. In short, we might by such reforms, make " land and interests in land a portion of tlie currency, and available as " part of the capital of this great cmjiire. Tntil that is accomiilished, "the price of land will Huctuate greatly; at one period it will (as at " this moment in Ireland) be unsaleable, whilst in times of commercial " pro=]U'rity it will attain too liigh a value. The simplicity of title to " wliicli 1 refer, and for v.liich 1 am an advocate, may lie illustrated by " the system mider which railway companies pureliase lands. Tiiey " take a perfect title on jiayinent into court of the ascertained value of " the land whieli tliov want." 267 The great number of large estates in Ireland has been already remarked. The confiscated property was in general granted in pijrtions of considerable extent, and the difficulties before alluded to have prevented much sul)division. No class of small proprietors or yeomanry, such as are still to be found in some English counties, ever existed in Ire- land. Property constantly tends to accumulate in large masses. The large landed pi'uprii-tor fre- quently purchases a neighljouriiig estate, and unites it ]>ermanently to liis own by entailing it ; tlms diminishing still more the nund)er of propi'ie- tors in ice. Land ])e(;omes vested in fewer hands, and tlie manv are im])0\'erished. It should be the ()bj(.'rt of tlie Irgislature to counteract tliis tendcncv, liv promoting subdivision of freeholds iigr.in. — nut by jiositive laws, but ly arrangements vrliich, witliout interivj'ing Aviili tlie freedom of propertv, .should encourage the sale vS estates in smaller portions. Is it not of tlie utmost importance to the v\'ell- being of society, that tlie number of thr.se Avho liold land in fee should lie iiicivased ? Tliat land sh«)uld be h.eld in estates ni' various sizes ? That a c]as>« »if small proprietoi-.s r.r yeojuanry sliould l;e raided up ? To entitle tlie liolder of a lease in perpetuity to ])urchase tlie f 'e, would liave a vcJ'v exte]isive ell'eet, l)nt w oidd liardly produce 268 any of the class of small landed proprietors above referred to ; partly because they rarely hold land by long leases, and partly that they would not be able to make an immediate payment to the required extent. Sometliing might be done to facilitate this result ; partly perhaps by legislative enactments, partly by inliuencing public opinion. The purchase by a small farmer of his own firm might be freed from all stam[) duty- l^ncouragement might l)e given to leases on long terms, with powers to fine down the rent from time to time, and finally to purchase the fee itself. Thus might we hope to create an inde])endent yeomanry, thus might we encourage the exei'tions of the people, and emulate in our small farms the indellitigaltle industry, the careful garden cultivation of J>elgium and Switzer- land. It may l)e useful to look to the experience of other countries, both as respects large estates, and tiie eiibct of small properties on the industry and comforts of the people. Spain is held in large estates strictly entailed. The great mass of the peo])le are deprived of all interest in the soil. The land is ill cultivtited. Her peasantry are indolent and poor. ^NTCulloch, in reference to the low state of agriculture, makes the following remarks : " Probably moral causes have ■' had still more inlluence than physical, in retard- 2C>[) " ing the progress of agriculture in the Peninsula. '" At tlie liead r)f the former must be placed the " vast I'Xtent of the lands, beloiiging to the nobi- " lity, clergy, and corporations. Mr. Townsend " mentions that the estates of three great lords — " tlie dukes of Osuna, Alba, and ^Medina (\:eli, '• cover nrarlv the whole of tlie immense province '• of Andalusia ; and several in the other provinces '• are hardly less extensive. These vast possessions " are uniforndy held under strict entail ; and, " s[)eaking gfiierally, are all ]nanaged by stewards, " anxious only to remit money to their masters, who '' are irequeiitlv in eniliarrassed cii'cumstances. The " younger branches of the great lamilies, though '• they inherit all their [»ride, iidierit little or ]ione '■ of their wealth. They are Ibr the most ])art ex- '■' eeetlingly ill edueated. and when not employed in '• govei'iinient service, pass their days in a state of " slothful de[)endence.*"* .Vrthur Young refers to the Island of Sardinia in the following terms : " Wliiit keeps it in its " present unimproved situatioii, is chiefly the extent " of estates, tlie ahsence of some very great };»ro|)rie- " tors, and the inatteidion of all. Tlie duke of " Assinara has r^iUXOOO livres a year, or £15,000 " sterling ; the duke of St. Piera has lGO,000 ; the * !iI'Culloeh's Gco';raiiliical Dictiunary. art. Spain. 270 " jMarcliese di Pasclia Las a very great property. •' Many of tliem live in S])ain. The Conde de " Girali, a grandee of Spain, has an estate of two " days' jonrney, reaching from Pinta to Oliustra. " The peasants are a niiserahle set that live in poor " cabins, witliout other cliinmeys than a hole in the " roof to k't tlie :?moke out.* In tliis magnificent island, whicli is nearly half the size of Ireland, the population scarcely exceeds 500,000. Since Young's time, some improvement has taken ]>lace, but it still ay^pears to Ije in a miserable condition. It is even Avorse than Ireland. ^>I'(.iilloch thus describes it: "The division of the island into " immense estates, most of Avhich Avere acquired liy " Spani(?li grandees ; the Avant of leases, and tlie " restrictions on industry, have paralysed the in- " dustiy' of tlie inhabitants, and suidv them to the " loAvest point in the scale of ciA"ilizati(jn. Since '• iToO, however, improA'ements of A'arious hinds ■' have been sIoavIv, l>ut jjradually gaininnr o-i'ound ; " and Avithin the last few }'ears, scweral impoi'tant " and substantial reforms have been introduced, " that Avill, it is to be hoped, conspire to raise this " fme island from the abyss into Avhieh it lias been " cast by bad laws and bad government."'j The beneficial eifrcts of a numerous proprietary * A'oung's Tour in Franco, vol. 2, page 2()7. f ArCulloch's Gcograplii<'al r>iotionary. art. Sardinia. 271 are equally evident, whetlier we look to tlie cold and sterile lands of Xorway, to the earelullj irri- gated plains of Xortliern Italv, to the mountain fastnesses of Switzerland, or the swam|>y polders of ITolhnid and Bi'liiiuni. '• hi Nor^^'av the land '' is jiareelled uut into small estates, allurding a " comfortable suli>i^tenet:', and in a moderate de- " give the (.■k'gancics of civilized life, h'lit nothing ''■ more. \\'ith a population of OlO.OOO inhahitants ^' e.hnut the year 1810, tiiere were llJioli estates. " '" In Xorwav tlie hnv of r^iiccessiijn has prevented " ])i-operty from 1)eiiig accuniidateport a funily '• comibrtahlv, according to the habits and notions " of the c<;untry ; and it is indeed evident that a '■ piece of groinid without hou>es on it. and too •' small to keel) *' l'''i'^ily according to the national '• eslimation of Avhat is requisite, would lie of no 27-2 " value as a separate property. The heirs accord- " ingly either sell to each other or sell the whole to '• a stranger and divide the proceeds."* The fertility and careful cultivation of Xorthern Italy is the theme of every traveller. " No where '• is tlie art of irrigation carried to greater per- " fection than in that part of the great plain of the " Po included hi Piedmont. AVater is here mea- " sured witli as much accuracy as wine, an liour '• per Aveek is sold, and the fee simple of the water " is attended to with tlie same solicitude as tliat of "• the land. Tlie irrignted lands being under the " influence of a southern sun, pi'oduce tlie most " luxuriant crops... Savoy, which is remarkable for " the grandeur and beauty of its scenery, though a " poor countrv, produces sufficient for the wants of " its inhabitants. The peasants are all or mostly all •' lu'oprietors ; on tlie higli gi'ounds, tlie peasants '■■ lireak uyt the soil witii the pickaxe and spade, " and, to improve it, carry up mould and manure " in l)askets from tlie valleys. The plough is of '' use only in the valleys. Small reservoii-s are " prepared near the tops of the lulls and nioun- '' tains, from which water is let out at pleasure " in spring and summer, while to prevent the " earth from licing waslied down the declivity, ^ Laing'* Xorway, jiagcs 1(!2 and 2S0. 273 " small stone walls are erected, so that by dint of " skill and industry, cultivation is extended over " tracts whicli would otlierwise be a continued " surface of naked rock."* Switzerland is so well known, and the industry, and fruirality, and public S])irit of its inlial)itants so lii.ably a})[)reciated, that it nia\' seem hardly necessai'v to (|Uote authorities in proof of its supe- rior condition. '" It is a country of small |)ropric- " tors, an estate of 150 oi* -200 acres, belonging!: to " an individual. Avorth perhaps from £!)0 to -£100 " a vcar, Avould be consi'K'li"> (;c.)'j:rnpliir;il DiiMionary, .irt. King'l'v.n of Snr.linin. T 274 " and one or two other cantons that pauperism is "at all conn. ion."..." The peculiar feature in the " condition of the Swiss population, the great " charm of Switzerland, next to its natural scenery, " is the air of well-being, the neatness, the sense of " property imprinted on the people, tlieir dwell- " ings, their plots of land. Tliey have a kind of " Robinson Crusoe industry about their houses and " little properties ; they are perpetually building, " repairing, altering, or improving something al)()ut " tlicir tenements. The s})irit of the proprietliic;il Dictidiinrv, nrt. Switzorland. 275 " tivate and inlial)it."..." Zurich is also one of the " principal manufacturing cantons of SAvitzerland ; "■ its inhabitants frenerally clividinij: their attention " 1)etweon the labours of agriculture and those of " the loom. ' I have seldom entered.' says Dr. " BoAvring, ' a rural dwelling, ^vitliout iinding one " or more looms in it employed in the weaving of " silk or cotton. If the la1:)0urs of the field de- " mand the liand of the peasiint, his wife or " children are employed in manufacturing indus- '' try; when lighter toils sulHce for the agricultural "• pai't of the family exertions, the females and the " y(.»uiig ])eo[)le resign tlie loom to the lather or " tlie brotliers. Tlie interstices of agricultural " labour ai'e liUed up by manufacturing employ- " ment ; and in more than half of tlie operations " of Zurich, the firmer and the weaver are united.' " Most of the families of Zui'ieli canton, consisting*- " of fither and mother and two or tliree eliildi-cn, " earn among them, or possess in the. pro(bice of " their land, an income fully eipial to thirtv sliil- " lings a week in hhigland. The working elas'^es " are, compared with those of England, more " UKjral and better educated. ^\'ith regard to " education, tlie law compels it ; and consequently " tliere are scarcely any persons to be found, " who cannot read, and very fjw who cannot " \\'rite. Music is much cultivated ii; tliis can- T 2 276 " ton ; and the whole demeanor and appearance " of the working classes, present a most gratifyincr " picture of high prosperity, contentment, morality " and intelligence. Few cantons are really more " flourishing : the entire poor-rates a few years " since were only two pence halfpenny per head, " per annum. in [)oint of fact, however, this " state of things is mainly to be ascribed to the " extreme economy of the people, a consequejice " in })art, of severe sumptuary laws, and to their '' avoiding all superlluous expenditure. '* The frugality and cleanliness of the Dutch, are as remarkal)le as the eneigy and persevering indus- try which reclaimed the ])olders and sandy })lains, and whicli ^till maintain thrm iVoni the constant attacks of the ocean. '" Nothing,"' says ^Ir. Xicholls, " can exceed the ck-anline^s. the pe-rsonal propriety, " and theapjiarcnt comfort of the people of llulland. " I did not see a house or a fence out of repair, or '• a garden that was not carefully cultivateil. We " met no I'agged or dirty |)ersons, nor any drunken "man.... We only saw two beggars, and they in " manner and appearance scarcely came within the " designation A scrupulous economy and cautious " foresight seem to be the characteristic virtues of •• every class. To spend their full nnnual income is * M'Cuilofh's GoograplLical Dictionary, art. Znricli. ^t i " accounted a species of crime. The same syste- " matic prudence pervades every part ol" the " communitv, agrieidtural and commercial ; and " tluis the Dutch peo})le are enabled to bear up " ag-ainst the most i'ormidalJe physical difficulties, '' and to secure a laro-er amount of individual ''comfort than probalily exists in any other " country."* The higldy cultivated i)lains of Flanders alford striking evidence, of the effects of care and labour on a soil natui'allv sterile. Tlic C()Ulltr^'is not, like ]I(»llane of his life acctuutdates suihcient '•means to put them in possession of a little fai'm "of their own. There are many small proprietors, •' who have risen slowly by the labour of tlieir owii "hands; and their liabitations shew, bv the n'l'eat * M'CuHouIiV Cieograpliical Dictioiiary, art. Ilnll.iiiil. 278 " care and neatness observed in every particular, " that an lionest pride is felt in possessing this "reward of exertion."..." The flirms on the Pays " de A\"aes, between Ghent and Antwerp, are cul- " tivated A\'itli astonishing method and neatness ; "and a [ford the most perfect specimens of held " culture on the itrineiides of ixardenini]:. The soil " is artificial, and the result of centuries of " systematic manuring, which lias converted a "barren sand into a rich black loamy mould,'"... " Tlie extent of farms in Flanders and througliout " r»elgium Very I'arely exceeds one liundred acres. "The num1)er C()ntaining hfty acres is not great, " I)ut those of twenty, fifteen, ten, and live acres, " especiall)- between ten and live, are very nunier- " ous." " The small f u-ms between live and ten acres, " whii.'li abound in many parts of Belgium, liave " mueli reseml)l;nice to tlie small holdings in Ire- •' land ; ])ut while the lri>h cultivator exists in a " state of miserable privation of the common con- " veniences of civilized life, the Belgian peasant- " farmer eiijo}-s, comparatively, a great degree of. " comfort. His cottage is built substantially, ^vit]l " an upper floor for sleeping, and is kept in good " repair: it lias al\va}-s a cellarage for the dair}', " a store-room I'or the grain, an oven, an out-house " for potatoes, a roomy cattle stall, a piggery, and a " loft for the poultry. The furniture is decent, the " bedding amply sufficient, and an air of comfort "and prosperity pervades the whole establishment. "The cows are supplied with straw to lie upon: " the dung and its drainings are carefully collected " in the tank, and a compost heap is accumulated " from every possil)le source. Tlie premises are " kept extremely neat, with a constant observance of " the most rigid economy, industry, and regularity. " No member of tlie family is ever seen ragged or " slovenly ; but all are decently clothed, though it '' be with the coarsest materials. The men univer- " sally work in linen eanvass froeks, and both '' women and men wear Avooden shoes. Eye ln*ead " and milk j)rincipally constitute their diet. Mashed " potatoes and onions, with occasionally slices of "bacon, are the usual articles foi- dijiner. 'Hie •' great superiority of the Belgian over the Irish " peasant-farmer is owing, not to any advantages "of soil or climate, but to a better system of culti- " vation, and es])ecially to established habits of " soljriety, Ibrethought, ;nid prudent economy."* The su])eriority of Belgian cultivation is, no doubt, owing to the su[)erior frugality and industry of the peojile; but to what is this superior industry t<3 be atti'iliuted ? Tt is vain to spea.k of race or * .M'Tiillix-liV Gi-o;_'rnjiliii.'al Dictitinnry, r.rt. Iklsjiiiui. 280 religion. Both profess the same creed. The real cause is evident — that the industrious and prudent Flemish peasant tills his own (jrouncU secure that every penny he expends on it, every hour s labour he devotes to it, increases the value of his own undoubted property ; while the Irish tenant occu- pies the ground of another. He is idle and impro- vident, because he has no security that he ^vill be permitted to reap the fruits of liis exertions, lie is a mere tenant-at-will, liable to be turned out at the caprice of the lord of the soil. Tie has in many cases good reason to f.-ai", that an"S' improve- ment of the property will be followed by an increase of rent. Hoav could industry l^e expected under such circumstances ? Ihit it is not necessary to ]eave our own country for a striking illustration priid«:led with little patches of land, many of "' tlieni on the highest part of the nujuiitain, re " claimed and enclosed at a vast expense of labour " by the peasant-proprietors : Avho have been in- '■ dueed to ovei'come extraordinary dilliculties in '• the hope (»f at length making a little sp(tt ot' land '■ their t)Avn. The surface was thickh' covered " with large ma.^ses of rock of various ^izes, and " intersected by the gullies formed by wintei" tor- '' rents. These rocks have been broken, buried, ■' roUeil away, or liea])ed into the fjrm of fences. *' The land, when tluis cleared, has been carefully " enriched with soil, manured, any the right of •' possession ; thev are generally ])Oor ; l)ut they 282 " are peaceable, well conducted, independent, and " industrious ; and the district is absolutely free " from asfrarian outra^-e/'* These examples are so apposite, so clearly shew the result of small proprietors cultivating tlieir own grijund, that they miglit be considered as con- clusive ; yet the paramount importance of the sub- ject induces the wi'iter to quote the opinion of a most accurate observer, and one v.Ikj w;is by nu means prejudiced in fivour of small .>r(.)perties, Ijut who on the contrary loses no opportunity of expressing liis preference for large farms. Arthur Young, in his * TliL' amlior is aAvare tliat statements of a euntrary character liave been iiiaile respecting Jitierent parts of Ireland. .Some of the eviiknce Lefore tlie J^and Commissioners stated, tliit tenants liaviiig tlie security of a periH-tuity. or of a lease fur a loni: ti rm of years, -were even less iiidustrions than their neighhours, wliose [arms uere held at will and at a mneh hiuhcr rent. This may he true in snine cases, and yet it surely does not j)rovc that security is a discourag< inent to industry. Some other explanation must be sought for this apparent contradiction, reeuliar or local advantages rarely raise a man mud aliovc the ordinary level of tlie peojilc among wiiom he lives. If they are lazy, it is not likely that he uill he very industrious. The lu'cvalent fec'ling of insecurity in Ireland has produced its natural fruits ; and in those cases in whicJi security really exists, the parties are too often content to follow the examjile of their neighl)0urs ; and as their advantageous position ena- bles them to attain the same low degree of comfort with less exertion, so they arc sometimes more lazy than tho?e who are forced to labour by the necessity of providing for a higher rent. INIany eireuiustances have conspired to render the condition of the peasantry of the county of AVexford, s)iperior to that of the peasantry of most cither comities in Ireland; among which the division of tlK> land into estates of moderate extent, and the general residence of the pioprietors, are certainly not tlie least imjiortant. 283 " Tour through France," says, " In Beam I passed " through a region of small farmers, wliose appear- " ance, neatness, ease, ;uid happiness charmed me ; it '^ shows what property alone could, on a small scale, " eft'ect ; l>ut tliese Avere l)y no means contemptibly " small ; tliey are, as I judged by the distance from '' house to house, from Ibrty to eigiity acres. Ex- '' cept these and a very few otlier instances, I saw "nothing respectable on small })ro])erties, except a " most unremitting in(lu>trv. Indred it is neces- '• sary to im})rc'.--s on tlie ivaders numb that the ■' hu.-bandry 1 mcr with, in a great variety of iii- '' stances, on litth' ]ii"o]»i'rtics, was as bad as can avcII " I)e conceived, vet the industrv of the possessors '' was so con>|)icuous. and so meritorious, that no " connncndations would be too great for it. It is '" suilicient to prove, that |)ropcrty in land is, of '• all othci's, the mo>t active instigator to sevei'C '• and incessant labour." Again he says, in refe- rence to another district, ".Vn activity lias l)een '' here, that lias swept away all difliculties l)efore " it. and lias clothed the very rocks with verdure. '' It would be a disgrace to common sense to ask " tlic cause : the enjoyment of property must have " done it. (d\e a man the Secure possession ol' a '' bleak rock, and lie will tui-n it into a garden ; "' giv(' liim a nine veai\s' lease of a garden, and •' he will coiivci't it into a desert." L>84 One other instance is adduced, of a country Avhicli a short time since suffered the worst evils of the feudal system. The land in Prussia was vested in a small number of }»roprietors ; tlie peasantry were serfs bound to the soil, of which tliey were hereditary tenants, or tenant •> for life or fur a term of }'ears, but wliich none but nol)les or pri^•ih'^•ed persons could hold as property. " In 1807, how- " ever, the regulation wliicli pn'vented peasants, " tradesmen, &c. from acquiring land was abolislit'd ; "and in 1811 appeared the famous edict, wliicli " enacted that all the })easants who held perpetual " leases, on condition of ])avinLr certain ([uantities " of i)roduce, or of performinu' certain services on " account of the proprietors, should, upon giving " up one-third of the hinds held by them, become " the unconditional pi'Dprietors of the otlier two- " tliirds. And witli re>pect to the other classes of "' peasants, or those who occupied lands ujsoii life " leases, or leases for a term of years, it was " enacted that they should, U[)on giving up half " tlieir farms, become tiie unconditional proprietors " of the otlier half This edict certainly effected " the greatest and most swee})ing change, that was " ever peaceal)ly effected in the distribution of pro- " perty in any great country. It was regarded at "the time, and in some respects justly, as a dan- " orerous inteiTerence witli the rights of individuals. 285 " But the al)iises ^vlnch it went to eradicate were "'■ so injurious to tlie public welfare, and were, at '' the same time, so deeply seated, tliat tlKy could " not have ])een extirpated 1)}' any less powerful '• nn-ans. It h;is u;iven a wonderful stimulus to im- " provenient. The peasantry, relieved from tlie Ijur- '•• dens and services to which they were previously '*■ suhjected, and placed, in respect of political [and '' social] ])rivilegcs, on a level Avith their lords, have '• begun to display a s}»irit ot* enterprise and indus- '' try, that was formerly uiikiioAvn."'...." The Prussian " govennneiit has ;dso succee<]ed in eifecting the '' division of a vast numlx'i* ol" common ]>ro|)erties, '' [f )rmerlv belonging to towjis and villages] and " has tlnis totallv elianged the appearance of a great *■' extent of countrv, and created several tliousand " new propi'ietors. The M'ant of capital, and the '' foi-ce of old habits. I'endered the inlhience of these '' cliaiiiies at tlie outset le>s strikinu' than manv '• antieijiated ; but tliese I'etardiiig eircmnstances " have daily dimini>hed in })OAver : and it may be '■ safely allirmed, that the country has made a " greater progress since 1815, than it did during '• the preceiling hundred years."* The example of Prussia seems peculiarly in l)oint. It foi'cibly demon>trates the evils ivsultiiig M'C'iillofirs Gt:'f>urn;ilr.r;il I )ictinn;irv. nvt. Pnis-ia 286 from large estates, and the rapid advancement which may be expected from an increase of small properties, when the cultivator himself has an in- terest in the improvement of the land. Xothinc: uives a man a stron2:er feelinij of lov- altv, of conservatism, of determination to uphold the institutions of the country he lives in, than the possession of })roperty in land, tlie possession of a spot, however small, which is ^n's oirn. He feels himsi'lf a ])art of the strde ; he looks upon offences ao-ainst the laws as aggressions against himself and his own rights ; and tliese he is ever read}' to maintain. Mis home possesses a real value ; it is not merclv his dwelling, hired for the occasion, l)Ut hi,> own uii([uestionable [>ropcrty. If he spend liis labour or liis money in improving it, he knows that he works for himself and i'or his family ; and liis industry is encouraged, and liis energy prompted 1)V the consideration. He respects himself; he values liis independent position, and is carei'nl not to lose it by improvidence. His children are brought u|) in haliits of industiy and self-respect, and are thus enabled to work for themselves, and strengthened to withstand many of the dangerous temptations of life. They hesitate long Ix-fore they incur the danger of lowering their position, or losing their independence, l)v an improvident 287 marriage. vSuch vrore the yeomanry of EnglaiKl ; siK'li are the peasantry of many parts of Switzer- land, and in other places on the Continent. Wher- ever this class of men exists, the hcneficial eifects are felt hy the state, in the industry and frngality of the people, and in increased respect for the laws and institutiuns of the connti'v. Tlie great subdivision of landed ])rr>perty whicli exists in France, has frequently heen urged as an objection to the views advocated in this essay. lUit the nrgumeiit is hv no means a lair oue. The law uf France compels sidj-division. It forcibly divides the ])aternal estate. It is in fact a law hcs to advocate is — Treedom. This is to be obtained by the removal of restrictions, and letting individual interests have free scope f:)r action. AVitli freedom of sale, facility of ti'ansl'er, and security and simplicity of title, land will lie held in large or small portions, as may prove most advantageous for the owners and the communitv. llie localitv and nature of tlie s(jil will detei-niine the amount of sidjdivision, l)y determining tlie ptirposc to which it can most profital)h' be applied. Large estates, with farms managed on the most scientific principles, and whose extent admits the prohtable use of machi- nerv, will co-exist with small properties, under garden cidtivation by the spade, where perse- yering iiKlnstry and economy m;iy compensate for any disadvantage of size. All ranks will be found among the landed proprietiiry. There will 289 be estates of all sizes, from the princely demesne of the nobleman down to tlie freehold of the yeoman farmer and the peasant. The land will not become miiversally cut up into minute portions, neither will it be unduly accumulated into enor- mous ]>roperties. Tlie tendency to accumulation will exist, ])ut if the natural countervailing; tenden- cies to distribution be allowed to act, no inconve- nience will result. Individual interests will de- termine the amount of subdivision which is most prolitable for all. Even under present circumstances, the judicious landlord iinds it his interest to divide his estate into farms of vai'ic)us sizes. Some verv interest- inL' evidence was iiiven bi-fore tlie Connnission- ers on the occujiation of land in IreLmd, as to the beneficial eflects of the intermin<:'lin_L!; (,)f small and large I'arms on an estate in Scotland. The witness speaks of ■' dovetailing" small farms, which he calls •* crofts," of four, eight, or ten acres, among farms of thirty, lifty, and up to three hun- dred acres, and considers that it lias elfected the happiest residts. The " crofters" are labourers, tradesmen, or .small sho])keepers, sometimes work- ing at wages for others, sometimes cultivating their own grounutest proves their number and intelli- gence. The increase in tlie value of Lmd, which took place during the late war, tempted many of these small proprietors to a more expe]i>ive ^tyle of living; and when land I'ell again after tlie peace, many of them were forced to sell their estates, wliich Avere frecpiently puivliased by some of their neighbours. From these and otlier causes, the numbt'r of landed pi'opi'ietors lias diminished ; and there is reason to believe that this diminution is still going on. Thus the middle classes are reduced in number ; except in towns, where they are maintained by commercial and manufacturing industry, and by the large amount of capital already accumulated. Still the number of landed projirietors in England is nnich greater than in Ireland ; and, in some di;-tricts, there are even yet remaining many small proprietors, or yeoman- farmers, who cultivate their owii e>tates. 293 The political and social circumstances of Ireland have naturally had a greater tendency to induce an extravaa'ant mode of livinir tlian those of Eno-- land ; whilst tlie same causes have made entails more generally prevalent, in the liope of pre- serving the estate in the family, notwithstanding the improvidence of tlie life-oAvner. Hence it results, that estates in Ireland are more generally encum1)ered, and that a much smaller proportion of tlie land is unentailed than in England. In almost every part of England, land can he pur- chased in small portions, a ('ircum>tance so rare in Ireland, tliat it may lie said it nevei* occurs.* There can he no douht that the wealth of England has inereased and is increasing ; hut it is (piestion- ahle Avhether the prosjieritv of the great mass of the people keeps ])ace ^^■ith this achanee. There are many reasons to think tliat the reverse is the case ; that the rich are inci'easing in wealth. Avhilst the dilliculties of the louver and Avorking classes are increasing also : that pi'operty is being aecumti- lated in a few hands, Avliilst the many are impover- ished ; that the power of entailing lands is gradtTally })roducijig those enormous jiroperties, Avliich the Thelluson Act was passed to ])revent. The re>ult mav not he the less certain, because being slowly * See AiipciulicLS AA. ami ViH. for extract? from .M'Culloeirf (icog. IMct. on tlic ilis-trilnitii'n of laiiilcil jivuperty in ICni,'lan.l mil Ireland. 294 cfTected, its p:ro\vth is unperceived. If tliese fenrs be warranted hy facts, if the separation between rich and poor be daily becoming wider and more strongly marked, and the difficulty in passing it on the part of the latter increasing, the position of Eng- land itself may become one of great danger. Unless tliis tendency l)e checked in time, the con- sequences must be detrimental to the prosperity, if not to the internal peace and the social institutions of the country, which depend for their mainte- nance on the intelligence and public spirit of the middle classes of society. It has been frequently urged that entails are essential to the existence of an aristocracy, and therefore, that, however economically injiu'ious, it is necessary to maintain them, in order to pre- serve the 1)alance of the constitution. The ai'gu- ment is important, if the deduction Ije correct. The aristocratic element in the constitution is certainly of great moment, in giving stal)ility to the institutions of the coimtry. To be deprived of it would ])e a serious loss. l>ut this result by no means follows, as a necessary consequence of freedom in the sale of land, ^iany old families in Eno;land have retained estates for crenerations without their being entailed. The system of settlement has, no doubt, often tlie effect of i)re- venting the alienation of an estate by a spend- 295 thrift ; but there are countervailiDg disadvantages. In many cases, encumbrances are created with the consent of the heir, wliich surely, though porliaps more slowly, Ijring about the eventual sale of the ])ro|)erty. Still more frequently, while he I'ctains the nominal ownership of his ancestral estate, the proprietor is far from possessing the means of supporting the former station of the family ; in the attcmjjt to do so, lie probably lives beyond his income, and thus loses all hope of retrieving his position. If de])rived of this artificial support, the necessity of good management "would produce its nntural I'ruits. Pi'oprietors of land would trust to prudence and economy, to enable tliem to retain possession of their |)roperty, instead of relying on legal disnbilities, Avhich control their freedom of action, for good as well as for evil, riie aristocraey Avould no longer be disgraced l>y the di>re[)utable conduct of proprietors of entailed estates, in con- tracting debts Avhich they cannot discharge; and in so doing, bringing their rank into contempt, and lessening their inliuence more than if, having no such ])rotection, they were obliged to sell their ancestral inheritance. In conclusion, to recapitulate a portioii of the foregoing remarks, we mav enumerate some of the wants of Ireland, as follows : 29(i 1st. Certainty and secuiitv of title i'or both landlord and tenant. 2nd. The inducements to improvement, which may be expected to result from the greater cer- tainty of ownership. 3rd. Capital for effecting these improvements, and for the proper cultivation of the soil. 4th. Freedom of sale, by which cajiital may be attracted to land and its culture. 5th. Facilities for sale and transfer, and for the examination of titles. 6tli. A greatly increased iiuml>er of landed jiro- prictors, possessing estates of various sizes, and he creation of a class of .^imall })roprietors, or yeomanry. In ottering the following suggestions towards meeting these wants, and othei's referred to in the foregoing remai'ks, the wj'iter intends tliem merely as ail outline for consideration, jiut as a thorougldy digested plan. Tlie evils resulting from the com- plicated systems of tenure in Ireland, and irom uncertainty of title, are so many, and so destruc- tive to the interests of the country, tliat some effort nuist l)e made for their removal. If anv of these suggestions should induce some one, Avho is better qualiiied, to give liis attention to the sub- 29Cf ject, the writer's object in propobiug theiu will be answered : 1 St. That all leases for lives renewable for ever, and leases customarily renewable on payment of fines, should be converted into perpetuities, an addition being made to the rent as compensation for the renewal fines. 2nd. That all persons holding property in land or housi's, b}' leases in perpetuity, or 1a' leases for a long term of years, should be entitled to purchase the fee of their }»roperty, on equitable terms, on the principle already acted on as respects tlie cpiit and crown rents in Ireland, and the land-tax in England ; say, for a sum whicli, if ]-e-i]Jvested in the funds, would produce an income ecpiivalent to the rent received ; paying to cacli of tlie landlojxls a])ove tliem, if there be more than one, that sum which may l)e equivalent to the rent or prolit-rent received b\' liim. ord. That in case of a mortgage on tlie propertv, the auiomit paid by the [»urelia>er should be first ap[>lied in discharge of the mortgage debt, and the balance, if anv. liaid to the mortiiaiier. •tth. If the property were bound by settlements, so that the owner had only a. life interest in it, that the purcliase moiicy should (by nieans of tlie court of chancerv, or otherwise) be invented in the funds, f)r tlie benefit of llic jiarty liaving tlie reversionary 296'^ interest ; the dividends from such investment to be paid to the present possessor during his life. 5th. That no difficulties respecting title should he allowed to interfere with the proposed right to purchase ; Ijut that in such cases the money sliould be lodged in court for seven years, and invested in tlie public funds ; the party previously in posses- sion receiving the interest on such investment du- ring the seven years, and being entitled to receive the amount itself on the expiration of that period, unless his i-ight tliereto shouhl have been (pies- tioned during the said term ; the kipse of time, if no (piestion arose, l)eing deemed a sufhcient proof of title.* (3th. Tliat if any tax be retained on transfers of proper t}', it t-hould be a small per ccntage on tlic purchase money, in order that no obstacle should be raised to the sale of property in small lots. Ttli. That all future settlements should be set- tlements of property on f he person^, not a tj/inq np of the Idinl. The trustees to l;)e alwa}-s empowered to sell tlie property or any part of it, and to gi-ant leases ; in sliort, to exercise the full rights of ownersliip. The proceeds of such sales to l)e sub- ject to the original trust, and again invested in the funds, or in other land. * Sc-e note to pni^e -tU. 296' 8th. That legal powers should be given for the sale of land noA7 under entail, if tlie present possessor find it advantageous to do so ; care being taken to protect any one having a reversionary in- terest, as yn-oposed in the 4th suggestion. 9th. That a District Registrar of land should l)e appointed fjr e^'ery Ijarony, a (Jounty Registrar for ever^' county, and a General Registrar for Ire- land, (to have liis othce in Du1)lin,) and that the })resent holders of land or house property in fee'" should l)e eiititled to register their freeholds in triplicate, in suitable boohs of registry ; the various properties Ix'ing marked out on maps of tlie (Jrd- nanee Survey, and the registers having distinct re- ference to the maps. lUth. T]iat such registry, if unquestioned for seven yeai's, should be full and complete proof of title for ever afterwards. 11 til. That all mortgagees shouhl be entitled to have their mortgages registered in triplicate, in * It is liifrhly .k-^inible t1i:it all ilceils of transfer, ami I'tlitr deeds atfectins lauded property, should lie registered ; but the object of these suggestions is not so much to recommend a general plan of registration of deeds, as to suggest a new mode of tenure for land held in fee — namely, by entry in the national registers. There are many dilficulties ■which at once present themselves in considering tliis plan, and possibly they may be insuperable ; but if these could be overcome, ami this mode of registration were brought into operation, very great facilities ■would be allbrded for the examination of titles, and the expenses of transfer might be reduced almost as low as those of transfers of Govern- ment stock. 296'^ such books of registry ; which registry should then become legal proof of the mortgage debt, and Avithout which no morto-a<2:ee should be entitled to enforce his claim against the property. 12th. That all circumstances as to settlement or entail, in any Avay affecting the rights of the pos- sessor of the ])roperty, should for the future be duly registered, to render them binding in law ; the registr)^ to l:)e legal proof of the settlement, itc. 13th. That any judgment or mortgage, now ex- isting against any landed or house property in fee, which should not be registered within tlie seven years next ensuing, should become absolutely null and void, and should no longer be a lien on the property.* 14th. That all future transfers of property held in fee, all mortgages thereon, and all settlements and encumbrances of every kind, shuidd be effected by an entry in the books of registry, with refer- ences to the Ordnance ]\hi[is corres])onding there- Avith ; the registry to be made hi tri])licate, on tlic lodgment of certificates duly signed and witnessed, in a manner somewhat similar to the niodeof ti'ans- ferring stock at the liank of Ireland ; such enti'ies of transfer, of mort2:ao;e, or of settlement beinir made in triplicate, in the baronial, county, and See note to pa!,'e 'itU. general registers, and each of them beconiiiio; full legal proof of title. 15th. That all persons should have a right to inspect such Ijooks of registry, and to take extracts therefrom, on payment of a small fee. After attempting to show, that so many plans proposed hy others are ina|»plicable or insutiicient, as remedies for the complicated evils of Irehmd, it may appear presumptuous in the viiter, t(j imagine that he can suggest any thing better ; yet lie has been emboldened to olfer his ideas to the public, by the A'ery (Ulliculties of our position, whicli, i-etpii- ring prompt and searching measures of relief, im- peratively call upon all, vlio desire the welfare of their country, to do Avliat in tliem lies to assist her. The suggestions which lie has ventured to ])ropose, ^vill probably appear to some crude and impracti- cal)le ; wliile others may even consider tliem as revolutionary, and dangerous to tlie }>roperty and institutions of tlie country. Sucli is very far from his intention ; but tlie consideration of the sid:)ject has been forced on his mind by the fearful aspect of the present times. The intention (jf the present suggestions is, to give certainty to title ; toficilitate trau>fe]*s <.)f property ; to reduce the ex])enses of conveyancing to the lowest practicable point ; to extend the market for land. If these objects can 296^ be obtained, tlie effect, so far from injuring the owners of land, would be greatly to increase the value of their property. It is the focility of sale and transfer, the certainty of a read}^ market, the great number of persons interested in them, which maintain the price of the public funds at so high a rate, and wliicli enal)le the holder at any time to sell them for the full value. Surely the same results would also be obtained in the case of land. To deal with so difficult and complicated a subject needs extreme caution. The consideration of the (piestion rcrpiires, to do it full justice, the most expansive grasp of mind, joined to the most inti- mate knowhjdire of leiial fili-'il I'mm tlie Kcport of tliL' Commissioners for taking the Census in 1841, and from other autlicntic documents. They may serve to illustrate the ditferenees in wealili and eivilizatioii hetwei'n the four provinces of Irehmd. Tahles r. and (^. uiving some statistical information respecting;- tlie several cKuntics of Ireland and ICn.ahind. sliow tlie .-reat inferiority of tlie f(ir- nier country in \\ealtli. and i'nn.-c(|ue!itly in its capahility of supjiorting the destitute ly means nf a p.i,.r-rate. Tallies E. and S. are added, in order to exhibit at one view tlie L;reater territorial extent and population oi' tlic nninns and electoral divi>i(>r,s in Ireland, compared willi the unions and pari.-hcs in England, illn-tratini;- the ureater diilicnlty ol management in the former country. The remainder of the A]>pendix. excepting the three la-t portions, consists of extracts from the very valuahle T.eport of the Comniis- ^ioners of liKjuiry into the -late of llie Taw and I'ractice iu re-prolMl,ly not tieen very extiusively read. In Ai'iM-ndiccs 1)13 and CC, l!ie authority of M-CuUoch i- :al;lnced to siiow- that the -oil of England is distributed among a much larger nundier of proprietors than that of Ireland. Appendix 1>1) contains a comparative >tatenient of the exports of horned cattle, pigs, and vii'J:^ from the ports of Dublin. Cork, an.! Waterliu-d. in the hrst ten monlhs of the years \S\C> and IS-I?- The calculation of proportions in the following tahles is made not only with reference to the actual extent of arable land in the rural districts, hut also on the estimate that two-tiiirds of the area of the civic di.-tricl- i< available f>r huiuau -upport : and ibat the wa?te lands are made >o far u-el'ul in the I'eediug of cattle, .^c. that -even acre- of waste may be eon-idered as eijUivalent to one acre of arable land. a 29B AITENDIX A. Explanation of Classification used in Tables B. to G. Extracted from Report of Commissioners for taldng the Census of Ireland in lS-11. Parliamenfar;/ Ile/iorts. 1813, rol. xxiv. The value or condition of a house, as to the accommodation it affords, may be considered to depend mainly on — 1st, its extent, as shown by the number of the rooms — ^nd. its quality, as shown by the number of its windows— and. ord. its solidity or duraliility, as shoAvn by tlie ma- terials of it< walls and roof. If numlKTs be adopted to express the jiosi- tiiin of (.very house in a scale of each of these elements, and if the numbers tlius tibtained for every house be added toirether. we sliall have a new series of numbers, giving the position of the house in a scale compounded of all the elements, i. c. their actual state. "We adopted fnir classes, .and the result was, that in tiie lowest, or fourth class, were comprised all nnul ealini> having only one room — in the tliir•. ,^ -X ^ 1 r- (, ,, M CO 1 Ci i r^ a ::r 1 a '•Z' i" 1 r~ i ■§ '5 =^ = -^ n '5' -r 1 — ^ "t Tji "^ i = ■^ " 1 t. rl CO ~ c ^, .. .* a' ; 1 c-> 1 r:- 1 ^' £ -J X -, j : •' r. ^ "T ~ " C' •^ ~ ri^ iT c~ 'T i - "•? ^ 1 J - ■J 'i — — (, ^ •^ — 1 ., . ! . _ r y ^ ^ ° 3 ■-* — , " 'J '" ".- I' 1 — ,- -H 1 1- 1 - " , f -. .= ■ ^_ ~ ^ _ 1 cr c " ^ V ^ ^ — ■ C' — 't '■^ ~ Tl ^<^3S^ ^ J.- w u- _ J- X _ ,, ,_ v: X ; J" :c ^ Si 1 ^ ~ , '~ -■ "^ :<. ___! i 1 c' I i' Jl :/- — VT _t 7 » r ^ " - .2 lT — ;; -^ '— '< ■^r-.-^. '- 'f- J. - ^ "* H ;^ (i-^-^ 1 "1 '* -t ■j: — -~ 1 - ■^ _ ^ 1 ~ _r Z ^ 1 ^ -1 " 1 -• •~ 1 -N — ^ ^ ,. ■f. cc £r C " i: ~ ~ ■" ~ — ' • j_;- ' c? i - 1 _ _ _ ., „ v: 1 --^ j: '■ - ;:r 1 - 1 1^ 'd : ^ '— lI, £ E >- S '/^ J^ J: 5 c W •^ -4 ^ "^ -- I ^ .-: I I " ■^ H "" 22 I *-^ 'T "M C^ ^ I CO SI ! i ^ I I ?: '! ^ i 1 .! :? - ^ ! ^ 1 1 < '' 1 — ~— - .- 1 - =: ir "I '- 1 ._ ^ --. T-I ■- 1 ^. c ■r: __: -\ — • c — "' _ j '■' 'Z _■■ _* < -^ ' { -' -r n = ' — - _' .^ — , — 1 ^ ~ ^' X^ 3^1- 1 s ,_ _ - / ~ C ^ --'. Jj c — 1— i ~ -' - ' '' APPENDIX I. API ST^VTISTICS for Leinster, Ulster, .Minister, sind Cunnanght, and for tlie Counties < (Total of Pairal CoiiipileiJ from Urpoits of Couimixsioi. j^ Arabic L.ciJ. Number of Persons Number of Farna .H s| i.'^i Area 1 u if Pei'iilation m 1 i f ■J 2 5i I-<4I. -/ < u < — - ! 1 < ^4 ^ - T f D " - ~ ' - ■^ I'l'.OVlNCH.-'. \crL'<. A en'?. ACTL"?. A cri/s. Lri.vsrr.i; .. l.-:7i;.-.'|l ■^m.VA :i,:i71..-,(S 4.:o,i.oi;i 1.S7..7., KU7 jji.oy 4S.14 .30,110 ]34,7SC rtsTr.i; 0.17.".j:!S ■.\0.',iMO.'» ;Uio,5f);» :;.7i>7..v,7 IS.. 5 c) ■(i?.!ll 04.00 10-2,210 •230,094 MrN'sri;i:.... ij,oni,.'(:;i ii.iT.j.eTn .% SSI. -J PS 4.1:»-..l(.l L'..;:i(;.i(;i ."l'..'l i;l.,37 li;:3,88(i COXXAUriHT ■|Vl \L 1 mUXIIE-. ■j,o;i2.04a '.',i(;7.L'o(i 2,22o,.:44 :^.50:un I.IIS.X.-,') 0-J.oO o-.si .Jo.j7 100.'2.->4 1-3-5.842 •-'li.S(i.S,-'71 r.-nj.ii^j l:l,4l'2.;ai) l-i..V,.-,.'-i'4 .S.17.Vl-.>4 "I'.'Jii co..%:i .-.(;. IG ;;io.ir..i 0::)1.2O2 avexfoi:d.. .^ri;..JS.s vA.m ■.l-2.-2:'7 .V21.:;,;7 ■Jv>2,0::;3 VjM 3y.43 OS, 7 5 0,30-5 18.428 DOWN r.\\.:<\'> :i;.Ti4 01-:. -270 .v:s,;,;.o :?.(;]. !1G '■•■<« 70.14 GS.-"2 14.-094 31.07C KJniKV l.lS'^l'JG 770,70.% U-^.l-r.' .-.l'0..'.-.:3 -J!i3.SSo .,:. 70.78 .v3.;..-i 8,7-31 •2.3,.':4S MAVO To....... i.a<.;o,ss-2 j^<;.-..n7 l:)fi.l02 i;2i.7*7 „■,-. •'8.-31 78.06 ... .53,:'' a 4.1738 :3,73.S,51.> 1.7rt.1,7.jO 1.11^0.871 ■2M>1A>1H \.-2\';.'nc, 0.^:^:1 .4.-:i •JI...2 (■■2.17:1 12-2.:... IX D. xford, Down, Kerry, and Mayo, in connection with Land, Population, Poor Rates, &c. Jivic Districts.) Population, Par. Rep. 1843, Vol. xxiv. i Value of Stock. Average value of Stock Valuation for Poor Rate Number of Families. a a t^ a 2 S a 1 c 1 Number of persons who went to Eng- land in the Sum- mer of 1&41. Deaths on which in- quests were held, and verdicts of murder, manslaughter, or justi- fiable homicide, record- ed, in the 10 years end- ing June, 1811. ! S ss i T3 §1 (.-5 c o H a ^ si 1 c 8 s a 3 a 1 s a < %. 1 •5 ^^ JZ •F ft i 4 Males Females res. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ .46 5,951,827 44.15 145 301 4,624,541 112 234 362,134 5.45 8,190 3,214 641 64.1 32.5 .42 5,417,9.56 22.89 146 227 3,320,133 89 139 439,805 5.43 17,274 2,038 300 30.0 .12.5 .70 6,366,947 38.85 151 265 3,777,103 90 157 415,154 5,77 1,013 804 1,189 118.9 49.0 .27 3,369,073 21. C2 133 237 1,465,642 58 103 255,694 5.55 23,434 1,684 306 30.6 21.6 .52 21,105,808 30.53 145 258 13,187,419 90 161 1,472,787 5.55 49,911 7,740 2,436 243.6 29.79 .79 766,300 41.58 147 379 404,159 77 200 36,594 5.52 361 212 34 3.4 16.8 .12 817,917 25.58 154 226 638,532 120 176 68,153 5.30 1,348 207 39 3.9 10.7 .06 1,004,419 38.86 191 342 348,693 66 118 51,593 5.69 61 70 71 7.1 24.1 .66 956,432 20.46 154 246 295,398 47 76 70,910 5.48 10,008 422 111 11.1 28.5 v78 3,.54.5,068 28.82 161 284 1,686,782 76 135 227,250 5.48 11,778 911 255 25.5 20.46 304 ^1 'S^ .2 S ^§ ^•3 o <« ci S 43 'S Q^ .2 02 o I— I H CO »— ( 02 1 ^ '5 •* o t^ •1* to J 1 >o CO CO c'x § *^ ^ (M (N 00 Ph « Ch — 00 O CO o J d C>l o r-t o S Ol IN r» c^ o c £ ■5 * "S i O o r~- •w •* co 'S' -* &> fa £ a ^ c CO o CD 00 o CO > 3 S ■*** -* -^ CO •d 13 .| t. c» C; Ci 00 CO CO CI c a o CO O CO QO' uo CO ^s 01 c< CO C^ ».o uo 2 OO? fa _ "^ "is s a> CO *^ o> CO u^ o 00 e> 2 ■3 '3 ^ ^ ci o CJ 00 CO ;** c " s Ot CO CO ■^ CO -* > 1 1 -i ^ CO *t* uo era CO CS c * s ^ c^ CO CO CO h^ ci cc; .2 1^ (M CO 1—1 (>» CO r-t tH fa ^ «> CO ^ CO o t^ CO 00 c ^ (N ^ ^ ci r^ ■? a •-I ^ ■-I ■^ 1-H c-« '-' O) ■^ 'o •5 •g C^ r^ CO CO ■d« •^ OS g. c 1 1 s oi ^o o CO •-ji t-^ « ■* is; .2 CO (M CO CO N M o § ? fa 5 §• " ■a o Ci r-; 00 "*. C5 eo_ a' ? g d c^ t- CO uo •^ oi rH ■HH £ s o -* o o UO ■* '•CS c:> lO CO CO i-H C4 c S pamaade }oq su^ajv t>^ -* t^ CD t-' CO '^ CO g, 2 ca O, (M 00 00 00 t^ CO CO (M s5 = o ■jnoq'Bi -t>i o CO CO c^ -^ CS uo X^nuwui UAVO Jiai\x ■* CO CO CO .3 CO |§ = c JO uoipoJia atll ■^ •.*< -1« g CO CO OS uo a 1 S 1 •0^ 'SUOISSOJOJJ ■suBaH pajsoA 01 CO o ui CO CS CO OS us 2" 00 t^ Ci CO r- CO I-H ■j^ g •sjmsjnj jaq)0 ct ^ CO CO lO 00 CO S c^ 0^ c< CJ g. o ^o « 3 * M 5 •ajnpBjniTOM pui! apuji ui o CO CO 00 CO o 00 CO CO CO o US "N 1 2.^ '^ O g •ajimnDuSv ^ CO o rH uo 00 OS 9- ^ UI pa^uiSug s 05 t--^ S ^ 1-1 CO 0^ CO c» 1 ■uoiiTjponiraODDU ^ 00 « f- t- U5 CO c ;3 ssuiD mi. SUIABH -Jl rt ■^ .^ »< s? 3 S ■i fa ■aopBpotnmoasB c> CO t- C3 CO s» M t-- a,l SSBIO pjg SUJABH rfi CO CO CD uo CO CO C5 CO g 1 o ^ c •UOr»BpOnTOIODD« »-H >o XO ■« CO iH c^ . ■«1 o Bscia puj SuiABH o CO ci rH CI 00 CO uo" c» i s. M 2 •uo i^^poramooov C5 r-J CO O •^ (N CO Oi 6?BI0 ■ ?SI SuiABH 00 r^ KO -* CO CO ■* -si H i ^ cj H-t O s e S g o t/l 1^ a W i5 C3 1^ 03 C iA I-) P O O w < ij D S O O w S 1)5 ( c i. : .. tfi ^ c ; C t ic ^ c X 1 ! 1 - X rl X _i '3 ^ 1. ' 1 S -i — ' r -J -,) ~.\ ^' f 1 :i: ~^ ~ ~ •' (:-.. 1 -i •— *" z *• -J \z _• j^' .J _• , ^ ~ "^ ~ " "* — — ^ „ -= , 1 1 j _ -, r. - .^ .J- ,, n c L' i. 1 J ri ~" _; "i ,^ " V zv i. — '" X, "• > X ^ ~ '- ^ ^' ■; r c \ -^ ri - J- ■v: — _ _ r^ ~ 1 =^ " ■'■ ~ 71 ■^' " _ :. 1 ! ". ^. u 1 1 :^' '_\ 2£ ;^ -j -f -s 1- ! '-5 - - ~ ^- 1 i 1 i i: 5 ^ I ._ 1 ^ r. ■~ - ^ 1 ^ * — — r' .7' 1 J — ' 1 ~ 1 '' ' »^ "' ■^ "' 1 '1 _ ~'~~ ■^ _ ■^ -. .. -J 5 i .^ ! ^' L: ~ '- c! :-; ^■^ 1- ? •? .- - ,- -, „ T— i £ 1 5 := ■'/. r- 1- ^I - s =^' - 1 ■^ ~, ^ -, _ - - 1 1 I'.in.i.-.as v: UVU1.---.H 71 ^ •' ~ -' ~ "- "' ; it --, ^ ^ ,, _, r- ■" •jii" i'T _; -/ -»■ _; J- »• ^i 1 - = lUimi.niM. a,. j;..iii •^ u if r^ V ^ X ' 'I. 2 ',_ o ■jii. M"! ^ f; ■j: ;3 " t '"7 2 \ ■i joiioip c..i!l> oi|i ~ " ~ 71 "- T" •■•V SU' '--•■■r'jj -. A ■-. ■-. — -. ~! '-^ -lu.K V'is-'A .. ~zr -, ,^ .. ^ \ - ■si;i,sji .ljr.,.;0 ~ •• '- ■' '- - ■^7' :r ■tijlli- rjnin;^- ■ =" ■i f I-.ii:. !'>.MI ui - S- - - - '7 ^ - 1 ' i . •njii (nouSv ~: '•: ~. ^. "1 — ^ «U ofl:ru3 '- - ^■ ^ '^- •'^ j. Ji X „ _ ._. _ ~^ 1^ ^ T •uoijvvoi lUio.i.'Y j^-: ,_• _• _; «'j _ ■- 1 'm;I.i M:f .-U.A,:u 1 Lt o ci 71 -^ -Cr ' c iX •ut'Uri'Oi niKoriV - ^ ssi'LJ i'J:; rrNAL-n T -r :? rt — -^ 71 ^ c '"T f ^ -^ ■-3 S5i::0 1'",-. ,-inu-ji -- — •^ 71 71 ^ r 1 1 i rt -. _, -, _ .^ i 1 •ur.ni.-i>..i '""■■'■'V 1 ruiAUH 1 " — •' — ""' i 1 .J r; 1 1 1 ! > u- f-^ ~ ~ rt C £ ->- X. J* ? -< :z 1 £' ! — ^" — ^ z r^ ^ — i _ ~ " _2_ 3()(i I -i. O 1-. '^ -T< " '-^i 5 1. A 0.2 |. . ci r3 i^ b Ph ? to ■2 P^ ^."S .J <1 "ti ^ = tt >- ^ :5 5 ^ •i^ 5 -:? O O "^ ^B ^ g l-p^'yuw.ls }0i. tunoiM o_o -■ jO |. .-.jn)iii..urv ~ C X uotjuvonituoootr 307 Ari'ENDIX II. Tiible jliowiiiff the comparative onlcr of tiie aiiKmnt of property invested in Live Stock in eacli County in proportion to its extent. (From tlie Census of Ireland, 1841.) ^i7-'racli\lfn i:i Jii perl of Commissioners on Orcvjiafion of Land. — Par. ri'j\ ]^!5, vol x.-di. M.';itli Iiiil.liii AVo.f.ir.l. ... l)o\\ll Kill.nmy Kil.l;ire rarl.m W.itcrrulJ... l.(iut!i LniKi-irV M..::;i,t;lui:i... Aniiiitii . . . . Ou-irs WvMnK-.nli... Cork Ti]i].CT:iry.... ■\y 100 \i-i\'s Total. i;! l:;o IJO 1J4 I.':.' ll:i 110 n< \^< 1 1 ;'. IIJ 111 I OS loij ;o|.nlo •;i.-.Ji:i ;|o. io(i ■.jl,i;os C;; LoInlnll.lilTV Wield, .v.- Clare Antrim ri-riii;.uaLrIi 7<..:::ll I Mi;: 11 Lt-itrhii. T)-ruii=> >>{' V. ExtfMfe.iJ fr.'in tlm H'l'ori of th,' Cohinii/s.-oinr.'! fur I'di/if/ l/n- (.',;, siis uf Par. ll'i'. IS-IU, [-(if. x.\iv. /"W :!1. iri)i>. Irrhi'fl Alif.v,. 1 Ahovo i Aliove 1 I.. .-, I J u. 13 j 15 t.. yo Ai«.ve Stuck upuiu';ich el;i^!i_ . 1 . ; . LLi.\--ii;i; >.'j -s-.i 1 4-. 7 .MUXSlF-i: li'.O 2!.4 -47. s ULMEi; ;'.■: -ii.o ii.--> CUN.NAUt.lIT I'l.r, -.'1.4 1 47.1 '^ 1 ! ii.;.o i7;i.>i i 1 IL'.S 30fari,:d fvm Riport of Co,mrd.<.. acoumn i.J;uioii Fir-t 1 S,-oynd Tl.ird Foiiith' First ; Si^i-otHl Third Fuurll. (.1;,--. liov.n 1.4 ■J 1. 7 Wc,-niM':lt!l.... J..; 17.:; ,:U :;s. I'ublhi 7. •-'7.1 L'S.S Li'ndondrrry. . 1. ■ji.:; ... ., :)S. Wi'xl-.T.l Jl.;i It:..-. L'I'.J , l.HUlll ].-•. i:;..-, :.!S :j Kilkenny I.!i ■-'•".. 1J.2 i)!'!.!! 1 Mvi.th l.s 111.,, IS.7 :;.■<.!» Mcn:ialian .... iM.e A<.(; .';i..-. rrniiana<;li.... ■o li'.O 40. 411.5 Am;:igh I. i<.:> i-.-j 31. IJ ■|''l'f'l-aiy J.l K,.s 41. ■n.> Cail.-.w ■J. -2 ]!'.! :>.'.4 Ii-.ii.-al ■■ U'.:) 47.1 l.s ]>-.ri 17. <; ! h'Alvhn llo-oomnion... - ":' 4 4. J 47. J 17.:; Qu.x-n-^- l.r; '■ 17.S Antiiiu 1.- ! ■-').:. -1 ;.!! .Slig-o .1 :..•' ;;:i.:> •Ml.-j Kiidaiv L'.■^ H.2 •^^.! Oiahvay .11 ;'. :T7.r. .-.L'.S Longfovil .!' U.i :,... Liniui'ii'k 1.1 10.1 :j:;. 0.-,..^ Witklo-.v ■-'.4 1 -J-i.i) .07.7 C'.rk 1.1 '"■' .H-,.7 Tyioni" .s V'.-j l:;.7 :;(;.3 Llaiv .7 lo.s :;1.7 .5...S Cav.m I'i.l :i7..'< Mayo .- .... :;:.'.7 .;:'.s AVut.TiV.l 1 -■"••^ 37. i< : l-ny ..; ■-"■•- (:i;.7 310 APPENDIX L. The following table will show the proportions to the population, five years old and upwards, of the number of ignorant, together with some other interesting comparisons. The counties are arranged according to the order of their education. ExlrcKted from the HkPoH of the Conimmiomn for talbuj the Census of Ireland in IBil. Par. i?<'/). 1S40, roL xxiv., page 32. C<;il"NTlES AND ^o^^■^■■?. Carrickfergiis . . . Delfasi ToMii. . . Antrhii Lmblin City Powii LoiiJon.'.1 21.0 :n.3 01.3 ■2fi. 4o.l 17.2 ir;.9 1*12 21. to J'l I Tij'in-ran-.. — 74 I Lc.i.gfbnl . — 12.; — 4(1 — 1.3G — (;2 — 54 — TO — fi7 — 117 — Ill — Ui — liJS Kilkiiiny. .. . 1 Moiiaghali.. . j Cavau I ^\■c•stIIl£•at)l. i I G;ilw;iy Tuiv ' Meath i I- •, ; l.imcnck j Lcitrim 1 Louth j Donegal i Clare j i;o-rcojiimon Cork ! j Sligo Kcny Wattrfovu... — 04 ; I GaJway — uc. — 112 .-•l.Ol I 22..T .-.1.22 I I'i.O .1.24 i 27.2 .i.:a|io.. .•.1.471 1-V7 1 •V2.1o; 211.7 .1 .. i-n.7' 1".. 1-.. fr-;.07 1 17.1' (!).;i;i! U.ii (;"i..j> 23.2 (S.71 ; 11. 70.41 17. 70..'.0 ■2r,.r, 11.7 7:'.f.l i ^_:5 to l:;i — 1G2 — 12:. — 174 — 11.1 — 74 — 13.:. _ 1.-:; — 17. i — 14" — l:'2 — 172 — 157 — IfM — 171 — 147 — 224 311 APPENDIX M. Tiil'k- siK-wiiiLT thi pi-dbalile inKtntity i.t' I'niiiiproveil Pasture and Ho": Land? ii: tlie several eountie? lif Ireland, ite. E.rttade'Jji'.'ia Tlrpoii of C'ommi..(nht (luoo n..",oo :i.iioo ::ll.Oor, ■l.-..oi,o I'-'.aOeO :.;!.0oi"' Gl'.OOfi 1)..:mO 7 1 s.Of'n ■11:'. ".11(1 ]Si;.(iiii.i J:;.on.| 27.1 If HI ;;:;.fifiO M.iii.fi ll-'.dOii (;..,n;.l is"..ui:'0 1."l-2.fioO ll-l.liCU i.'i;,oi"t ; 7.000 l>, 0.111 7. .■.fill 7.0(10 •J "..0(10 l.OoO 11.000 ni.i •.'.■J.tlll!) li'.oon ■Jl, 0,111 .'■ll.OOO ].-,,(l.l(l li;. O.'i.onO ."il.OOfi 1.-,. 1:1 III ■J.. 1.001. so.ooij r.'o.oijo IV.OOO ,;■: 'oo.f.ixi ■:;l.oou l-i.O.JO 111. 0.1. ■J-.oiiO i!-l.o(i( 0(1.000 :ii;.''i.OO( ;;o.0(.o 2S.00< 71, f U-J.OoO 7i:.Oi.o llVooo 1.-1.1 ■jl.f.ori riU.ooO 312 ArrENDIX M. CONTINUED. COrSTIES. Coarse pas- ture .'iViove St* feet over sea lev,-!. Coarse pas- ture l>eIow ■too feet, in- cluUingtiow Ijogs, A;c. Improveable for Cultivation Inlprove.^l.;e l\-i--ture. Uniniprove- aUe. Total. Acres. 7d8.fiiiO 1 IKX'idd 800.000 ir.o.ood l-32.0|->0 CONXAl-i.IlT. Galwaj- ACIVS. ;i.^.ooo ics.ooo •J.fioO .•..".('11(1 Acres. Glo.dOO (ii<.r,oo G37,0CI0 Ii'S.dOO ;'7.iH.i(j Acres. ICO.OiiO SO.OOd 170. oon 40.d00 :;0.dfio Acre;:. -.'■'.0.0(10 :;(;.ddO 300.000 8(>,000 (;d.d("(0 Acres. 20S.dO0 .'.O.OOO sao^ooo Id.dtKi fi-2,000 Alayo r.oscommoii Sligo Tohi! .... ^irNSTEE. Clnro :l7ii..'iiiO l.'j-Vi.'ji)(\ 4 1(1.000 7-.'i;.0ii0 7-Jd.OOO l.orKj.oi((.( ^"1.(111.1 ■-•IT.lHIfl i.i;.(i(ifi L'(!7.0i(0 (id.dOii ]<.,I.IMM1 J. ■„.... 1,1. ^.'.".II.IIIHI .(0.(100 (id.fiOd r.ii.dod ino.do!. •JlC.Oi.d .'•.■27J-)dO .:.1.0(XJ ss.o(:id .5.J.0OO 2;";.d(io IC.b.lMlo 727.1100 121.dOd 17'^.dd(.) Id.".0d0 Cork :.':'(;.( lOO ."■Id.diKJ SCddii 07.0dO ;;ii,Od(i ] OO.OOd l.Jd.'Kju :;(\i)00 :;;0.0((d •^O.dOd K.rn- \Vatiifoi\l T(.t;il.... liM.OOO ■1.2.5:.i.OOO arid. 000 Clo.OdO S73.0O0 l.KSCl.ddd AI'..STr:ACT. JT.O'iI'.'i L>. Lciristcr .■;i]..jdO ::7d.,",00 onj.dOO ].d4'. 1.2.j; ..V)0 .d'"'0 , -jdo ,diiO ip.;.0(''d U:i.((dO 40O.d0O "r'O.ood r..i.-,.d(;id fi-.'li.fiOO 72(;.d00 i,::0,()o0 2do.o(:io 712.000 7.'.d.(.idO s7:;.o.:.o 7ni.iidO ].7i;;d.n,i0 l.;idf;jjOO I.'>:i.r..ddd ri.-^ter T. tul .... 2.d;jJ.doo l.2;.i;.ddo l,12o.000 2.:";.o,doo 2.o0.j.d00 0.200.000 o -j: 00 o c; Cf' I i 1 1 1 ■' 1 ;.■£ 1 1 n p 1 c '~ P 1 1 ^ 1 J 1 ^ )i 1 Co H II = ^ i "3 :■ ^ ^ '■^. '^ '' c. U'^l - 5 - ll ^ §' ^ 7 i ■x — 'T o r. < '- r ='■ ""^ ri ' F^ r, 2 t H ' ~ :_ X 1 : . ,— — r— ; — _— — \ 314 APPENDIX O. Comparison of some of tlie Agricultu -al aivl soniL- of tlie Manufacturing counties of England with tlie total of England and U'ale?, as resjiects occuimtion, education, early marriages, and Jiiortality of infants, taken from the Report of Commissioners for taking Census of Great Britain. Par. !i,-j>. If^U, rol. xxvii. /-aw 11 n«J22. 1 Occupiilicn. rroporlioii of KXii.fr- iuns wlifse occiip.a- lion was ascertained. Education. NuiuOer of Ter- niuniag-v rc'- jristry ivitli F.arly JIarriages. Xunilier of Persuns married ; imuallv un- cl.-r 21 V -ar-s of aire, out of 101 marriage.s Infant Mortality Animal Mortality ]>.T eeiit". ofol.ildren '■."•aVoo'l." ^i;;!t::;;\ mimljerot: 1-irilis. U'S tl.jj i. c 100 marriages. s 1 1 ~- 1 1 Kiigkind and Wales. . ■10. l:i.O 1 40.2 40.r, 4:i 41 4. OS 1 '..20 S.SO It.l Vortli Walcp lli.-l :!1.7 51.7 44.--. 00.0 IS 71 ,".0 ."i.'l s.sl 2 ;.02 1.-..01 u.o 11. s ■"Hertford ^ . Bedford Lincoln ■21.7 40. r,r,.G 21.4 27.4 O.j.G !'i 02 47 40 12.00 4. SO 1 -.03 is.li; 10.01 1.'..7 t£ '"' ^Esscx •'!■'). 2 00. 21. OO.O 47 .-,0 4.!0'. 21.44 lo.iri 12.0 to = TLaiicasliiiv 5 "I W,-=t Ki'liiii: of Y.ii-1:. iir.-'i 711. (;.7 111.7 02.il 01.7 0,0.1 , ..,> 07 ;-,0 -V21 O.fiO 11.20 21.2! 14. OS 17.7 1.-.. s .Staflbrd 07.4 :'.;i.S 14..3 47. -J OS. r.4.4 42 oL» .-.1 1-J 5.-")-5 1 l.OO 1 2.20 11.07 1.3.0 10.1 XoniwaU 20.!i 21.7 11 ill! n:i.2 11.11 .07.0 ;:.o.s 20 49 OS 4.01 1 ;..-i4 S.77 \r,.:y p: 211.0 l.j.4 17.4 01.4 4-J.l .-.1 l.S 01 ->* 0.-,4 1 .'.S7 1 .'.14 7.S'J 7.N4 lo.S 11. 'Xorthunil'erland 3 , IS.O 11. C 21. G 27.8 0-^s 42.4 O.'t. 1 10 20 -^tJ ;: 2.40 1 1.20 1.07 O.Oil .5.SU 11.;) 3 .Westmoreland Middlesex 2.-5 42.;) ,J4.0 12 20 17 i.o.-. 'IS.-, 4.2.5 15.S 315 "5 Sis ioOi^i-)-^ao-»f»«Dt^t»ou^lt^ t* QO C 3 ^ '« NOat^OJtO-^OOi-llOtMO!: 3 CM 3 -* 0( 3 CO e* 0(Mi-li-lr-li-lCOi-l.r-.iolt'- OJ «« o.i 1 o 0,0 MlOC^C^-^CtO-^OOrHCiO^lirS H CM 1? 1 (^^ 10 CM c > r-( CO r~ Tjl e- N 3 ^pfl CO « •* c^ CO CM CM T(< CO C 3 CO Tj< 1 CO CO Ij b.^ 1 §s • ■3rHCOI^OOC^I--.»OCOO- rH 1 r-l CM 'H C»-WlNC^OitJOC«OrHrHcr c< > <: a;< q2 fe§§S 10 00 CD CO t^ O- CO CO **i C^ -n 'I" c OCt^QOCftC^C^-'S^'^ zz> I-H ■* C ^ Tot Ann Valu Prop( fo: Poor- D CO C i l-H CO CM 1- H -* C = C75 Ot " t~ a C5 1- H- CM 3 (M 1-1 CM i!5 CM CO ■* (^ 1 CO CO ■* ^ CiO-^*r^cooci'r<.* 10 1* r— c< c^ c: >' t^ M< r- 00 i~ CO 1- ■^ •^ ■- 10 CM m -^ r-i ly CO "O "5 0< -W OC C3 >-i r- "H 00" »^ oT CO CIS .-<■ Qo" cT 0' c; <:d" i-T CO 1^ r i-h" hi r^ 0< -M ,* „34 -ti CC c i^ »o > " 0- to CO . »-H r- rt ■* QO rt Ci i^ CM CO c-- -s 1^ CM t~ 5. 1 s ^ -* c- " cr' -^T c- 00 •<3< CO CO Ci CO 1- CO 1(0 t^ C^ cj" ca" CC 1 1^ OC ■.^ rH GO ■<*< r-t r-l OC iro -li Cn CI. c t~- CM C3 £ " '"' ■^ 01 c- t^ C^ CO C' CM p-( C^ 00 IM Cr- CO 00 00 C cs t^ 1 1 i 0^ c CO ci 00 Cl^ c- t>r 1-4" 00 b" ■i CM t~ C^ 3" ^ 00 c- r- OS t^ -+ •* CO .I OC CO CO •S -1 < "■ 1* " " ■"' CO CO uo o- 0^ C3_ •^ 00 ** OC c. ^ C^ <-l C^ s Cj c cc CO C5 -a t^ C5 ^ ^ t- CO 1 00 ■^ CO t>- ■* ^ CO o" Cs ■=' C^ ^ 0" ■s ■§ s rH -^ m rl f- CT ^ -^ L- CM tK ^ -^ .* or CM C^ c CO_ ^ T).' "* i J 03 yA • f^ 'S [d t4 i-i H "3 h> > ^ > 1 ■s c 1 . M W ,= J (m >,; t 1 ■s 3 Q c c 1 a > 1 3 » 1 ►J 1 1 J > ^ s > U f H . 316 I— I H o o S3- ■^ r- o -* •o t* lO c:, CO o> "S§ %H 'H cZ ^ o ^ S 2! rt s IM s s l> £55 I* a3 ^1 S« U5 tym 00 en •^ ■^ ^ 00 ■o t^ (M r-( 'W s o Of o o ■* •o o o o S3« ■<^ .-. o -* „ ^ •* o IN r* ■^ d-2 'H CO o Ci h- Cl ■^ o c< 3 J. 2 s (M c^ c^ IM (M OA c< c^ iM flS.^ fc"" >g « Is (O O CO •* CO ca fa m CO Ci CO Oi =*< Ci iH s y ^ o ;:^ ^ ■^ ^ C5 > < l< "ZTz 1 °^-. . 00 ■^ -* CD o 00 CO 00 5 2 Si* CO "-^ '"' o 1^ o o ^ ci •y c-i c-i CO CI CO CO CO t^ o OJ o CJ ■* o CO ** o ■* 3.- a,^ '^Z l=i|ii1 CO o ■* Tt* c^ O c:> 00 ^ -** ^ o o 00 -li 00 -M 00 h' co^ 00 ■* 00 CD o o C2 'H o" ■^ a aD~ ro" iC ,_7 CO oc" o co' o ^^>ll 1 00 t- o -«*< CO (N c* « ■T^ o ^ o CO ^ -»< '^^ -M t^ CO ~ai _ CO o^" . o "* o o o -r^ CI »o t' -r* o C-I o_ 'Tt 00 M !>r '>r od" t.-s" '>f ~f co' cr QCT t^ 00 C5 CO 00 o l-l t* 'i* 00 ^ L-i CO r* CO ■^ o o' c 00 CO OO 00 o ^ ■* (M CO CO 00 CI CO 00 C5 iO ■^ 00 ■^ o r^ 3 3 ''f ■^ ■»»* ■»*< "i. CO CO '^ o* co" CD CO ■m' O t^" cT co' 3 - '^ o o o o t- oo Cl4 C c^ GS CS (?« (r< (M CO co^ of cf "~oo" CO CO ^ o CO r-i lO CO ^ CO Oi oo •^ t>* C3 CO -r^ i oc u 2 c<^ ^ C: oc 00 o o" o_ -^ »o_ o t-* CO o •S "^ < c* CO ■o c5 ca ** "- ■^ ZD 00 -M Ci ^ o J. ^ o m ~c^ CTJ o o o 00 i s t- O "* C) s CO l^ t^ 00 »"< t* t-l ci r- CD' •"• oo" H ■^ S 1 i ~ »o iO CO ■* ^ M* CO -« ^ 00 « cc o « •^ 00 o 1 1 1 g 4 q d t* «: DC CO 1--S o uo" •* a> < zz o c: « o s 11 o u 0) ■t-1 i jj "s H 3 T* M c o O U t3 ^ > c 1 c 1^ X ' I C c c 'c •r i I c t: c 3 - 3 c c < c ) c C ) u ) p ' E- t- ^ ^ ) .J J ( C_D 2 t t ^ :t -; II 1- --^ '-: ..t i' 1 ci v; ^, ;j: ^ a; ?: '^2 i^ v s ?: i' 5_ 11 .a 1 ^ i S2|i - j j H UUU '1 r;; iiilH ^ Hi ill lis 5 "• " w " ;: 5 ff i, -4 r? 1 ^ . ^ Z -f Ti r. < - -o f- ^ t - 1 . »; ^ ,- .^ ,_, ,, ,, v: 1^ \ II 1 i u H t 5 jg ■^r 'S -/? : J i- • 1 c 1 o la CC i-H O C7 ci c-i o c/: CC' ■>? p: ■TTi I CC -. v5 , ^. 3 w I •- 3i<) I^ ri CC > o i-H :r cc 320 c-i .-^ '■w CO o -^ :r o o c- y. Y y Y^ c 3-21 o o o i; f. x J. r. A x J. 3-2-2 ly-; 1 1 s I .. - v: _l 1^ j^ X ^. ^ 1 .-T "S . — i ■- 3 W *- n ct c* Ti -r »-- 1 ;- c. "rt '"' "^ t*- J_ j: : - O C C3 :C I. ?; "X c ^ CU i^ < j^ :« 1- "H — . 3; r. - ■/. :c X- 1—1 " rr C) n ■-T M *i l'=|~| ri r ;i U: y, z; 3i r r:* - i; C-. s i2 ^ &. "' )i^ o 5 f _ •:= >"— ' •-■siillM "^' •^ ,- - ** ■■' - •• ^ ~ rH illl--JI" •'• -' ^ -J •' '- ^' " -• '^i *' -' ._"?■- _^ V" — - -^ -, -- _;, _ ,, ^ X — X !r x ■3 § ^^~ ^ :r; cT -t" — ■ t7 _; — Tl ■c - - ct' .?r E- 1 r*"*" ^ — ■< ? £. ^ ^ 1 ^*s 1 ^ fv; 3 "" ^ ^ "? :S --: — ^. — . -- ^—^ •"^ -. ~ "". '-^. ' '"%- P ^I^eIhS ^ ^ ri !i -r. X ;; ^ •"t ^ > V 1 ^ 1 "4- ! '' ■A c 1 ->■■■- a ^' — 2 j^ •J ■J. T- L- - '^ 1 X ~ o -S "^ ^ ? J 1 ^ ^ 1: ' :^' r: -' ~ J. ^ y; 1: " ^£\ " ^ '~ •- ■? "" T^ * I -- ' — — » tl - r— — _ a |'"^l \A r \ X ^— ( ? i5 c r — w T '^. ~". T ~ — 1 " '" " - ^' X " ^ ■■ X s i— ' <^ — ^ — , ^ — — , s p ~" ' \ ~J. ;r ;7 ". X ■ r f; ^' i i i ! 1 .,. ■/ 1 H ^ :_! >' u 1 c i tc ^ ) I = c ^ j r Sj "? :: ^ — r3 ti: ^. * '— 'w *"' '" '"" •^ "r" 323 ^ ^ ■- c^ 5 1 ; 1 '-) 1 = u ■- i. ! .1ill?t|^ -^- = ^^ 1 . 7 . w e:' if r^' 1 < tUi " i 7 i 1 ^jtljr j >_ '" -f-' ' c - _. — S •/ 6 1 ^ i 1 j y. T, : 1 1 324 APPENDIX K. Statement of the- Poor-Law Unions in each County in Ireland, with the nuniLer of Electoral Division?, the population, the area, and the an- nual vahie for the assessment of the rate. Note — The pn]nil;ition, ai'cn. and valuation cri-vcn in the fcillowing taMe are not those of the several counties, but of the luiion or unions, who^c wovkliouses are ^ituated within the said counties. Coil I piled from Arllnir Moore's Statistics of Poor- Law Vnionsfor 1S47. ul' rnions. N..t,.lN.r nloolunil Hivisions roi.uIr.ti,,n, l.-Jl. Aren .\cn.'S. V:iIiintion f..r Poor Ita(e. Lr.ix>ri:i:. Tarlow 1 I It TS.Osij :',7t.2n;; I2"..:'.-2 \'m:A-'-1 tl7.:i7:; 17:i.o::7 l.lsi;..VJO Hul.hn Kildare Kilkenny 2 ;!5 I'.S.i:'"; :;>0.(:27 ;;2.'..s7:) 2 St tt (12 li;-..112 lt2.SS7 l>il,lo,S 1^1. .'-■S2 lo;Mii4 i:i7,i;.v: SI 1.. ".(;:. :.i:;.i.-o :!M.(;jt 2'i4.4:a; 211,705 ].-..;.(;7:! Li.utli Mi-ath Oueen's Ci.'inity 1 1 26 2-J''.o:;o 2:.i,.nl.^ l.S:i:Mo.S Kerry ■> U-, 2^S::n8 t.2jri,20i3 ;;:tt;.2;'(; Limerick 4 -i ;io.-,.i..%3 (:;(;:Ms;» i;C2.570 Tippcraiy $ \':a :."i;.':.si 1.23-.470 85\2i;fi AVaterford Total 3 to IJil.OlO tltJ.GS8 S52.;.to ...J .,,-„ 2.4S-J.St7 G,0('-",tSi. 3,850,!'i;2 325 APPENDIX Pv. CUNTIXUED. of ri.n-toral Uivibions 1 Ponul.atif.il, J*41. 1 Stauil.. Valuation P..or'"K.-,tc. CnNXAi;(,llT. <..ihv;,y I.vitiiiii ALiyo 1 71 1 ■in.7-j.i, ]~i.HL'i; ::i!i.s-J4 ]ll,n.-,, 1.1-^0,4-Ji >-20J):'-"i DO^.l-W ii];i;. 1.1 1) ii; I.. -2 v: 1 :-_> ll.-M lsL.-.:;(; •Jl:..-;;-l j-.t'.-'iriii 1 ■■.!.-! 17 ■^::.-\< •jiii.-v.;; ■_':.|.i'il ■J77.h;l l.-J-.l.'M.-l -■s.jj-|ii l'.7..-ls sl-J.-J.'.J 7:'l.lMl i.'.;7/j--.i •j.j-j.;i-j;i ■Jvi'.Uo ■■.7i:.)l-3 l.^."-is SUMMAi; V ( IF 11 nvix( i:s. 1 Li.ixsrn: ' .MrNsiii; coxxAV'.ur iL< rri; VI i;7l 7-10 l.:'.;::.M,s •2. |.;.-'.::!7 ].UJ.:-J1 (;.0""..i^.j J.n7u.7Mi ,"..i';",ii;' 4.:.27,l-> ^.:.l^20^ T.'t:ilfMrhvl •nd .... 1 l:;0 ! --'.ui:! ) *.sl7J.'Ji;s • ja ]:;,ls7.ln7 wIm.^i' ,-iren is a''ove jfiO.ii'W :ind les> than ^^v. i.,iiM >;;i(uie acivs. Xiimljprofrriions ■wlioso area is ubovo ilKi.OiO statute acrt-.-.. IV 1 alK ij!nl-it»r of I'liio o.. ,,n!,„l,-„i„l, vf:'ii).'.«iO.;.i.,il tlian i;0i.'.».'O. ess XunilK wlK.se aiioi rof Union' K'pulati.'ii i? e liOO.OOU. SJ •'.:. I'l Xrne. * A triflins (liscrep.nney r\i<-t?. between the i")pul;itifTi r.ini .nren f"i' eaili rnien, rsp .'.l.ited li\ Anluiv .Mriore, an'l the total nmouiit of the impdlalion ::;id ;ir<,,i M" Iri'.aiid. a« givm in :v_>(j APPENDIX S. vStatcmcnt vin Parlionoitari/ Accounts anJ Papers for IsJO. r../. .\lv. 1 Or.NTlES. .\iim1.er of Viiioiis. Nunilii.>r of rarishca. Area in St.itiite Acres. rui>ulaUon 1811. i 1 kx<_;l.\nd. 1 l'.edf..rd Ij 13-5 ;':o-i.(i03 ll-.'.::7;" s— ■izr. ■}'^'.:'^<.) lyo.icT V.«i IT" '.A.iiZ-i 171.l'4>i Camliridge i (.'Iieslor ;) 170 :.^\^:^ •■^71.:i:U 1.;; s 10 VI J17 lol l.S iir, s:>J..".08 7i;';.-lJ(i 4il.:_;ii; l.,;..l.,;.io orj.70;» :.40.7.'S 1 '.O.lC'o 107.S74 iVrbv IVVdl! .... r>or.-:'.-r H 17 Oo.'i ;;7-2 7i:;.r.'!) y--'0.f:;.'S Essex Gloucester ii; •uin t;7-.V004 .';.;o.o(:2 IT.roford s 17i 4S0j;i'; 4.".-.'.?.j;i 110.07O 171,. 17:1 1 1 enfold Kent -:; 410 •!-.'7 I'GS.SOfJ Lni(;.-j40 034,8*2 l,4J--2.872 Lrinciistcr L( icoster 11 SIS 4S0.4^--^ •2io,':3i; M 11 710 lo-> ]..^4iUol 174. .-.40 rii;i,^0!) :\uadicscx rorv.-ani .,:o finiu 14.17=;.:iOO .I708.n.n3 APL'ENDIX S. CONTINUE]). 1 ! for.vTiKS. j i Nmnl.or of of rarislios. Aiva 1 Mraiifo iVpiiUiti'jn llrouglit uvur ■-^CO i;ih;l H.17S.:iOU .,70S.3.3 •Jl ; 8 (•■•.r.\ ].i7--..'Jii; !UM::1 .Nuif.,lk Kni'tlU'.mpton IJ ;:■.'! l.OS,l'.S!t i;i:i.-J-VJ 12 ■K7 *;i:4.ii-7 •J7",7l:' 1 Noltinuliaiii j n\r,ii-,i S •J7-i .l"/i.(J4(; s.s.-:..Mj Ml.:: .1 ■J::.]-M> j i:v,ti..!ia j -,i„p Jo ■j-.l 7.;i.-.':-". r.'i.'i.-.-j .•^i n!rI-.-L-( 17 ]:'0 ].'!i^-.]71 JM.lhi 1 Sw;ifill;!lll.(;ill -■; .J.,, M,...:,. ■J...'...!-' 1 s;.ff.-.i k; L'j;» i,--i.''.3:i 44-.>,:;48 ,siiir,..ik 17 .".i'; .-.-.■..-.;,; :.1I.7-J-' 17 1!) n IJ-J -r.7 5H,-;.(i(iO 4i;-'.,:'.:.s •jl-;..-.s;( o.jdj, -i.i 1 j A\iir\vick \\ i-stiiii'ivl.iii'l o .., •Jl.77.". Wiit. 17 -1 7..;.s:.8 !;::-;,■-' ii; W,.iv..-ley i ; jr:; .■,i:,;.!m;.-^ ;,:.ans Yi.il- r i^t lliilhi"- " 3n4 i7i; l.„7„.J:.S 1-H.r,27 Xni-ili r.lJin- \Vr;t l;Ldi:ig r.\"MNJ iMio-E Ar.y:.\ i- .\ui i;xi.\v: I In (,'iniilierl;iiiJ in Itijvi'iiiliirL- In .Miaaicscx j Ju Mnninfiutli ]s I 111 111 SusSL->v Ill \Vo,tm.:TL'l;.i..i. •JO.IK'I l'.71-.' •,i>4il .■:4.i;'i4 :vy- APPENDIX S. CONTINUED. Ijl'dltgllt OVlT WALES. Anglopc-y Liecoii Curdigan Cann.-irtlu'ii C iniarviMi rx-iibiiih niiit Olitmnvgiin lIcrioiiL'rti MontEToniery rmibrcitc ll.uhior frjn7 i..n-)>lu-s includes the ai'ca of the ■\Velsh counties. ;ni(l of rlio portions of £ngli.=li counties -wliose area is not {riven in tlie p.-irlianien- tary reports from wliich tlie materials for this table are derived. t The number of pari'^lies not compri.-vd in unions, and tlieir area and i>opulation. are not fiinii.-ihcd in tlie jiarliamcntaiy docunuut alhulrd to; but are ealenlated by Mibtraeting the mmiber r>f parishes comprised in unions, from the whole nunrbi r in Digland and "Wales, and the area and poimJation given for these paribhe.-^ iVom the whole area and jiopulation. 32fj APPENDIX T. Jlistorical Account of the Tenure nf J.anil in In land. ExtrWcd from Pf port cf Comii}K<.'!oiin:i cm 0--r,ip,(t!,^!, of Laivl in ]i\l(iu/. xix. y. ,/./.-,< i; ainj 7. P.L'fore entering: tipun any detailed -tatcnient of the residt of our inquiry, we think it may imt lie iminteiv.-;tinL;- i>r uninstructive tn i^ive ;i sliulit sketch of the manner in Avliich landed pi-operty in Ireland has heen ikalt with I'np a lunu' series of years ; and we heliive that >ueh a. 1'evii.w is ini]iiirtant to a ckar iuiiler>t:in.!iii-- nf the suhject, a.nd tn tlie successful inve-liijation 111' the sovirce-; li'Hni ^vhieh many ut' tlie present evils have ^jirun.u''. In the civil contentions which at \ariiius jkri'ids and duriiii;' nirmy centurii.s di-iurhid the i-ejm-e of Paiulaiid and Scntland, ]iro]nrty gradu- ally pished fnuii ihe feudal ti niire of I'oriiier times to liie more civifized relation of landlord and tenant, a- known to our ]iri -eut law. It i^ for us hrielly to >hew how dilfermt has h,., n the ca-e in irelaial. Wiihnut enteriii-'' at ,-niy lenjtli into the history of the jia-t. we cannot avoid noticiiiLi' a few prominent matt»rs which e\erci-ed a matvrial inlhn nee' in produciu.ii the exi-tim.'' relation of landloril and tenant. We alluile to the conti-eation.s and colouizalious of j'.li/aheth and .laiiies — ihe wars of (fromwell — and la-lly. the jKual code. The first of ihc>e led. ill many instances, to the po-sessiun of lan^e tracts hy indi\iduals, v ho-e mure exteu.-ive e>tate~ in Ijiuaind made them re-ard!e^s ar.d ne-lectful y*^ their [iroperties in Ireland. Auain, ihe cunfi-cations of llie lands of oWeill in tlie north, and Desmond in the south, were followed hy tlie jilantations of lifter and .Mun-ter ; the extensive settlements of Scotch and laiuli^h in the coun- ties of Ukter. has intro(iuceland. ileuce also is suppo^cil to have ari-eu the >y>tem of tenaiit-i-i.L;ht. whieli, a> formin.ir a siuLTttlar feature iu the relation of landlord and tenant, we shall liavc occasion aturA''ard< to notice. In Munster the planialiou was m,-edly fir tl'.e improvement of Ireland, an act was jiassed in ]771,wliich alloweil Uoman Catiiolics to take a lease for sixty-one years of not less tlian ten acres, or more than lifty, of liog, with onl)' half an acre of arable land for the site of a house, btit not to be situated within a mile of a town ; and if it was n.id reclaimed in twenty-one years, the lease to be void. In 1777 it wa.s enacted, that titles not hitherto litigated shotdd not be disturbed, and l>'om;in t'atholics were allowed to take leases for any term under a thousand years. In 17S2. they were allowed to aciiuire freehold property for lives or by inheritance; and in 17!t-> was passed a further enactment, -whi.h 331 materially afToeted tlic position of landlord and tenant. The forty-sliil- lin^ frant'liiro Ma* by that act extended to lloman Catholics; tlie land- lords and the middlemen then lound the importance of a nnnierous following of ten;'.iitry. and sub-division and sub-letting;, beiu'^ by this hnv indirectly tncDuragi-d, urcatly increased. The war Avith France raised consid.erably the pirofits df the oc(Mipier. who was thus enabled to ]iay a larize rent tu the mesne k-ssee. These causes produced throughout tlie cuuntry a cla-s of intermediate prcprietiu's, ku'iwn by thr name of middlemen, whose decline atter the cessation of the war, ami the tall of prices in 1815. brouiiht with it uuich nf the evils we have wituessi_.d uf late years. :\Iany who durinu the long- Avar had anias-ed much wcidth, had become proprietors in fee : (■tliers asIio had nut been m) sncce-sful strnegled in after years to maintain a ]uisilinn in Mu-iety which their faihug- resuurces could not support. Their sub-tenants were unable to pay ■' Avar rent^." The middkanan liimself, Avlio had conie under rent during tlie sann' period, becauie npially unable to nieet his engagements. All became im})i>vcri.-ht '1 ; the nh.ldlenian parted with lii>intavst, or un- derlet the little lauil he had hilherto retained in his own han.k; himself au'l his I'amily Avciv invnlvid I'apidly in ruin. The h'.ndlord. in many case--, Avas obli'_u-d to look to the occupiers for his rent, or. at the e\i>iralion of the lea~e. foimd the farm^ covered Avith :i pauprr.and.il )!iay be. a superabundant population. Subsequently, the .vet ol' lS2i> di^troyrd the jiolltical vabie of tlie Ibrty-i-hiilinu- fn-rhol.!. r. and to rolievo liis prop^i-ty from the burden Avliich this clKiin of circum^laiices lirou.uht ujionit. tlie landlonl, in too many in.-tances, ad<;pted what !ia- been called the •'clearance ^v-tem." 332 APrENDIX U. Description of tlie Tenure by Lives IvLnowable for ever. KxiraclcJ from Rqmrt of Ci'i'iiwisgioiicrs on Ocoip'ifion of Lan'l hi Ir.-himl. — /".yc H:p. ]S4-'i, loJ. Xix. j'((;/..J IS «,(./ 14. In a'lvcrtinq- to the character of the landlord's tcnnrc in Ireland, it is our duty to oli^irve upon n species of tenure, scarcely kno^vn elsewhere, Aviiieh ])n,vails very extensively in that cunntry, one-seventh of Ireland bein.^■ said to he held under it. We allude In the tenure hy lease for lives, with a covenant of perpetual renewal on iiaynient of a hue. some- times merely nominal, on the fall of each liie. 'I'he origin of this tenure is said to he traeeahle to the condition and ^tate of proi)erty. con- soiiuent ujion the extensive conliseations to whirh nearly the whole of Ireland lias, at dill'ercnt periods, been sulyeeted ; the grantees, lieiiiLC generally absentees, and desirous of securin.Lr a recoirnition from time to time of their ]>roprietorship, a< well as the jiower of ree(.)verin_u' their rents, are sujiposed to have oriijinated this form of demise. This tenure, thouuh UKiniiVstly intended to he perpetual, has proved a source of frequent litigation, ^'arious constructions have been ])ut upon the covenants for perpetual renewal. AVe cannot more clearly exhiliit the extent of this evil, than by eitiu;^' from I\Ir. Lyueirs ^Measures for Ire- land, a (piotation he has given Iimui a jiiduinent of the late Sir 31. OT.oiihlen, when .Master of the liolls in Ireland, in reference to this subject. ■' l>ver\' day's experience shows how very uncertain the dura- tion of an interest imder such a tenure is. Forfeitures of the right to enforce a renewal diily occur, throngli the neglect of tenants, or the dexter(Mis management of landlords. (.'o\"enants treated in some ca«es for more than a century as entitling tenants to renewal for ever, have been construed by courts of justice as not conferring that right. Any person who is much engaged in the investigation of titles nnder leases of lives renewalde for ever, will iind in almost every ab>tract of such titles, a statement of the result ol one or more suits in eipiity for enforc- ing the right. The u-nal statement is — the right to a renewal having 333 been questioned, it beeanie nceessary tu iilc a bill in eciuity." In aildi- tion to this lii'-;li authority, we may retV'r to tlie evidence on this head. To remedy the inei.>nvenienee and ill etfocts vhicli arise IVom this species of tenure, we recommend that power should be given to tl c lessor and lessee, in all eases to conmuite the fines into an increased rent, and thus to convert the tenure of leases of lives renewnljk- tor ever into an absolute perpetuity--M [lowcr being given, as in the tliureli Tempo- ralities Act, to distrain and eject in case of non payment of the reserved rent, and to refer to a L'ourt of Ivpiity all questions as to the i)eeuuiary value to be placed on any re-.-rvatiou:^ by euvenaats which may interfere wit!) th.e proper cultivation of the land. 334 APPENDIX ^y. Eenifirlvs on the Man^igement of Land in respect to the IniiMina of Farm-houses, &c. by the Landlorel in England, and by the Tenant in Ireland. ExiradeJ fvom lU'i'Ort of Commissioners on Occiij^aiion of Land in Inland. — Par. A'.'/'. 18 ID, vol. xix. p(i(ie IC. It is well knnwn. that in England and Scotland, before a landlord oflers a farm for letting, he finds it necessary to provide a suitalile farm- house, witli necessary farm buildings, for the proper management of the farm. 1 le puts the gates and fences into good order, and he also takes Tipon liliiiself a great part of the burden of keeping the buildings in re- ]Kiir during the term ; and the rent is fixed witli reference to t'.iis state of things. Such, at least, is generally the case, although special con- tracts may occasionally be made, varying- tin- arrangement V)etweea landlord and tenant. In Ii'eland the case is win illy different. The smallness of the farms, as they are usually let, together with other circumstances, to ^^hieh it is not necessary to advert, remler tlie introdnction of the English system extremeh' diflicuU, and in many cases impracticalile. It is admitted on all hands, that according to the general practice in Ireland, the landlord builds neither dwilling-house nor farm-otliccs, ntn* puts fences, gates, &c. into gooil orui i\< on Occiipation of Lun-J in Iiduirl Par. lU'p. IS Id, rvL \ix. paijc ii to -0. Tlie Select Committee of 1800 describe the advancement of aiirieulture during tlie var, the conselill thiidc. that tho^e laws ought to have liceu accompanied by simie ]'rovision for the jtoor.' "The new sy-tem of ma.naging lands was that of consolidating farms, and bringinu the landlord and tenant more immediately in contact. It is stated to lead to better hii-bandj-y, to a greater certainty of the potato crop, to farm buiMings and mm-e comfirtable habitations, to the gra- dual improvement of the ipiality ol'the soil and the quantity of produce. Lower rents are assumed, but on an average of years larger rents are jiaid ; ami a race of yeomanry is likely to spring up and to be encou- raged. These benelits are so strongly felt, that all the witness.-- concur that they are universally recognised by hmdlords and agents, and are A.V 2 336 carried into practice as far as circumstanees will admit. The risk to be api)rcliended is not, that the proprietors of land should be insensible to these considerations, but that they should in some cases proceed with too much rapidity. " So far from its being for the interest of tlie landlord to sublet, and so far from there existing any inveterate haliit of sub-dividing farms for the sake of acquiring iiigher rents, experience has shown that per- sonal interest imperatively prescribes a contrary mode of proceeding. It is a mistake to imagine tliat these clearances of estates have originated with the subletting act, or with the statute that raised the franchise ; on the contrarj^ thej' existed more than ten years before those measures liad been adopted ; but it is undoubtedl}- true that both statutes have given motives or afforded facilities for pursuing a course previously adopted on the ground of private interest. If the condition of the landlord and of those tenants a^Iio remain in possession of the soil are alone considered, the change is undoubtedly one of unmixed good. lUit the situation of another class remains to be considered, that of the ejected tenantry, or of those who are obliged to give up their small holdings in order to promote the consolidation of farms. Their condi- tion is necessarily most deplorable. ' It would be impossible for language to couvej- an idea of the state of distress to which tlie ejected tenantry liave been reduced, or of the disease, misery, and even vice, which they have propagated in tlie to^ras wherein Ihey have settled ; so that not only they who have been ejected have been rendered miserable, but they have carried with tliem and propagated that misery. They have in- creased tlie stock 1)1' labnur. they liave rendered tlie haliitations of those who received them more crowded, they have given occasion to the dis- semination of disease, the}' have been obliged to resort to theft and all manner ome U^-al defect, or liis own neglect to enforce tliat covenant if existing. Many of these poor people are found living in a most miserable way, and quite ineapaljle of managing their laml i)ro- perly, or so as to derive from their small holdings a sutlicient ^upply even of food ibr their suVisistence. ll become^ ab^ohitily ui-cc-sary, wiih a view even to the comlition of the people themselves, as well as towards any general improvement in the countrv, to make some change. 338 APFEXDIX Y. Remarks respecting the Management uf Estates by the Court of Chancery. Exh'adcJ from Hi'port of Commissioners on Occupation or LfiH'! in IrelawJ. — Par. Rep. 1S45, roJ. Kis.. pwje 2iS. At an early period of our inquiry, Are directed our attention to the situ- ation of estates placed under receivers in the Court of Chancery, or Court of Exchcijucr, and wc i)])tained some returns, j-howing the extent of pro- perty so circumstanced. According to the usual practice, when a farm under a receiver came out of lease, a sort of auction was heM in the master's oflice, and the land wa> let to tlie liiuliest bidder: and as great dilliculties were experienced in obtaining the sanction of the Court in making ;uiy outlay, or taking any necessary step in the management, these circumstances necessarily caused all property under the courts to be left in a very unimproved state, and placed the tenants in an impoverishel condition. ]\Iany com- jilaints im this ^-ubjeet will be fouu'l throughout the K^ i'lence. Tlie jiresent Lord Chancellor and the Chief IJan.n of the Court of Exche- quer, have recently issued orders, which will tend to remove some of the evils consequent upon the former practice, on the properties of lunatics and minors; and as the attention of both these learned judges is fully alive to the suViject, we have no donlit that such further improvements will be ]iiade, as may be necessary to make the new system work pro- perly for the advantage of the property and the tenants. ,Some difficul- ties occtir in the case of properties brought into court, to be administered for the benclit of creditors; but it has been strongly recommended, and is, in our opinion, highly desiral)le, that a similar system should be made applicable to these cases, if the powers of the court be sutlicient ; but if this should not be tlie case, we trust that the learned judges will not hesitate to cause apjilication to be made to the legislature, for such alte- ration in the law as may appe.nr to them necessary, in order to enable them to administer an estate for the benefit of all persons having an interest in it. 339 But as an encumbered estate must at all times be managed at great expense and at much disadvantage under tlic courts, we recommend that every facility consistent with safety should be given for bringing such estates to an early sale, rather than allowing tlieni to remain for years tlie subject of expensive litigation. :34() APPENDIX Z. Remarks respecting- the Sale of Landed Property, and the advantages vrliich would result from its being more Irefiueutly sold in small lots. Exf rafted from 7iijj)<>rt of Comm.isfioitc?'s on Ocrujxition of Land in Ircloiid — Par. Rep. 1845, vol. xix. page I'l. It now rarely happens that land in Ireland is brought into the market for sale in lots of a moderate or small size. Estates are so generally eneuml)ered l»y family settlements or utherwise, that the expense, delay, and dilOeulty -whieh woidd attend the dividing them, so as to sell in separate or detached portions, deter a proprietor from taking this course, although a larger sum nuLditbe rai>-id by it in tliu xvlmle. "We believe tliat there is a Lirge number of per-ons hi h'L'land possess- in^' a small amount i>f capital, wldch they would gladly employ in the purchase and cultivation of land, and a still larger number, now resident in ditferent parts of the country, and hohling landfor uncertain or limited terms at a rent, who would most cheerfully embrace the opportunity of becoming proprietors. The gradual introduction of such a class of men woidd be a great improvement in the social condition of Ireland. A much larger proportion of the population than at present would become personally interested in the preservation of pe;ice and good order ; and the prospect of gaining admission into this class of small landowners, would often stinuilate the renting farmer to increased exertion and per- severing iiuhistry. We tliink that some facilities may safely be given towards making out titles to land, so as to lessen delay and expense, jiarticularly with reference to the searches necessary under the system of registry now established in Ireland. 341 APPENDIX A A. IiV'inarks respcctinjr tlie Con- Acre System and the general condition of tlie Labouring Classes in Ireland. Extracted from Report of Co}iimiss'oiiirs on Orrupatioii of Land in Ireland. — Par. Up. lSl-% vol. xix. paih- do. In adverting to tlie condition of tlie diffL-rent classes of occupiers in Ireland, we noticed, with dceji regret, tlie state of the cottiers and labourers in iiKwt parts of the country, fmni the want of certain eniploy- iiiL-nt. It will be seen in the Eviileiice, lliat in many distrit'ts their only food is the ]i(jhito, tlieir only beverage water, tliat tiieir cabins are seldom a Iiroteetinn against tlie weather, that a bed or a lilanketis a rare luxury, and lliat nearly in ail liieir jiig auil manure heap constitute their only jirnperty. When we cniisider tliis state of things, and tlic large proportion of tlic piijiulatiou whicli conies uu'ler the designation of agricuilnral labdurers, we have to repeat, that the patient endurance wliich they exhibit is de- servinu' iif liJLiii eoniiiiendatiou, and eiilitk- them to the best atteiitinii of Government and of Parliament. Their condition has engaged our most anxious cnuMderation. V\> to this period, any iinproveiiieiit tliat may have taken place is attributed almost entirely to tlie liabits of temperance in wliich tliey have so gene- rally persevered, and not. we grieve to say, to any incre:i>ed demand lor their lalionr. AVe deeply deplore the ditEculty which exists in suggesting any direct means for ameliorating their condition. AVc trust sucli means may be found in the general improvement of the country, and in tlie increased demand for labour, which, we liope, will follow from the adoption of the suggestions we have alreaily ventured to oiler. Put there are t.ne or two matters from wliich, although they maybe thought liy some of trivial importance, we are of opinion that some direct advantage might be derived by the labouring population. We have already ailvcrt- cd to the con-acre system. It will l)e seen in tlie Evidence, that the con- tracts between the labourer Avho hires, and the farmer who kts the plot 342 of ground in which the potatoes are to be planted, are usually verhal, and how completely the latter is in the power of the former, in the event of any dispute arising in reference to those contracts. "We recommend that a summary jurisdiction should be given to Magis- trates at Petty Sessions, to hear and adjudicate iipon disputes respecting con-acre, where the plot of ground shall not exceed half an acre. Where a cottier is summoned before magistrates for tresjiass committed by his pig, or for a nuisance, in his having a heap of manure upon a pub- lic road, it happens not unfrcquently that the person under whom he holds his calMn has furnished neither the means nor place to erect a pig cot, or keep his dung-heap from the road. It is worthy of consideration whether, as suggested b}- several witnesses, a fine might not be imposed upon the person who has let the cabin without adjuncts, necessary alike to the jjublic convenience, and for aftording the means of sustenance to the poor cottier ; and Avhether, in such cases, it might not be desirable to emjiower ^Magistrates at Petty Sessions to require the jiersim by whom the cabin is let, to provide such adjuncts where possible ; and tliat in de- fault of doing so, he should be liable to a fine. Considering also the wretched condition in wjiieli so many cabins in Tnlan 1 are luund, and the sufl'erings and disease to which cair fellow creatures living in such liDvels are exposed, it would be extremely dLsirable, if it were possible to crtL'Ct it, that in all cases of cottier holdings, the person who lets the cabin slumld be bound to keep it in suflicicnt repair, and that he should be compellable by Ma'jistrates to do so. It may also be proper to enact that the person lettiu'^ a caliln shall U'lt \k- entitk-d to rccowr bis rent by any k'gal procc>s. if it t-iin be shown that Ik- has not kept it in tenantable repair. AVe cannot however disguise from ourselves, the ^n-eat ditliculty of dcal- inj; by law with sucii matte-rs, an 1 the danger lest evils of this nature may be airgravated rather than diiuiuislicil, by too hasty attempts to re- move tliL-in by U-irisiation. "We have tliercfore tVlt ourselves unable to rcconnnend any direct measure for that purpose. We trust the exposure of such a slate of things may kail to its remedy. 343 Extractcii from M'Cnllodrs (iro^rapliiral Dictionary, in reference to tlic Distriliution of rrnpirtv in Vw in the st^veral Counties of Ireland. Antrim.., I'mperty in viry Lireat estates — but large portions of soniL' XiVv ^iiiall. Dublin I'rcpeny a gnod ileal sul'dividol. Bermanagli Di^tributi-ai ol' property not .-tated — farms of all sizes, but llie majority very >m:i]l. (iahvay ,..B?tales nio-tly very lar'.:e — tillage f;rms ni-i:-tly very >niall. and ^■ery gi;nent!ly let on the parluer.-)iii) -ystem. Kerry I'roperty meetly in very lai-ge estates — but some leased for ever — some rather extensive dairy firm-, but tillage farms generally very ^mall. ]\ildare Some very large e>lates. but property, notwithstanding, a g(_if)d deal iliviiled. Kilkenny Property mo-ily in very large estates. ]\ing"s (,'o Estates mo-tiy very large — tillage firm- small, but some grazing farm- very extensive. J-eitrim I'ropcrt}' in very large e-tates — tillage firm- -mall, and fre<]iiently held in iiartnrr.-hi]i. 344 Limerick Projierty in very large estates — tillage farms mostly very large, but some extensive grazing farms. Londonderry.... Almost all held by London Comjjanics. Longford Property mostly in large estates. Louth Estates of a medium size. Mayo Priiperty in a few hands, Meath Some large estates, but proYK-rty better divided tlian in most Irish counties. Monaghan Some large and a great many small estates. Queen's Co Estates mostly large — but many of tliem are let on per- petual leases, the head lessees on these estates forming the middle class of gentry. Poscommon Estates very large— many let on perpetual leases, &c. iSliiro A few pretty large estates — but a considerable propor- tion divided among small proprietors. Tipperary .Some very large estates, but many of moderate size — lillage farms very small, and mostly held under mid- dlemen ; the con-acre very prevnknt. but less so than in Conn aught. Tyrone rmiierty mostly in very large estates. AVatertord E^tates far the most part very large. Westmeatli J'roperty in moderate sized estates— grazing grounds extensive— tillage farms much subdivided. Wexford Property in pretty considerable estates— less subdi- vi-iun iif land than in most otlier Iri^h coiuities. Wicklow E-lates uin>tlv large. 345 AITEXDIX CC. Extracted from M'CiiUocli's Gaiijraiiliical Dictionar}-, in reference totlie Distribution of I'roperty in Fee in tlie several Counties of Englaml and Wales. Bedfin-d Some larg'e estates — but property notwithstandinu' a yiiod deal subilividcd. Berkshire rroiarty mneli subdivided — a third of county occu- pied liy inM]irictiirs. Ihick-; There are some large estates. Cambridge E-tates of all >izcs— some larcre — Imt many small — some bciny wurtli only i'litl, .i'.jd. to .I'llM) jier annum — size of farms eiiually various. Clieshire Estates fi.r the most part large — farms nicistly >mall. Cornwall I'roperiy much divided, and •' vexatiously iuter- nnxed" — farms for tlie mn-t part >man. L'umberland Eroperty much divided — a few large e-tates — but by far the large,-.t purtiim nfihe ci.)nnty iti small pro- Ijcrties. worth LUK l'-J(i. or iJ-Jlii) per aunmn. Derby (Not slate^l). Devon I'roperty much divided. Dorset I'rojierly in large estates- farms mostly large. Durham .Mustly large. Nottingham Estates of all sizes — many small. Oxford ... 15ut few large estates — farms generaiiy small. lintl;ind Estate* and farms of various ^izes. Salop I'l-operty \;iriMii>ly divided — some estates very large — while many are of very inferior degrees of size. Somerset Properly variously diviiled — some large estates — a good deal of land Occupied b\- \-eomcn-f;n'mcrs. Stniford Estate- varyinu from .UlO.OOO a year down to £2 Sullblk I'roperty much divided — a good deal in tlie hands of resjieetable yeomen who firm their own estates. Surrey Xo very lar:ie e.-tates — farms of all sizes. Sussex ,.,- Property much divideil. "Warwick Some e-latis vvvy large— others small. Westmoreland Sinular to Cumberland. Wiltsiiire Some large estates — but property nuicli siibdiviilcd. "Worcester Estates of all sizes — farms mostly small. York Property in the West and Xortli Hidings very nuich sub-ilivided. In the East Hiding less subdivided than in most parts of England — many families in this ridiiiL;' ha\e held their estates for centuries. 34- APPENDIX DD. A Comparative StiitL-nicnt of tlie I-',\ports by sttam vessels, of lIi)riKil Cattle, Vlixs, and Ey.irs, from the Ports of Dublin, Cork, and AA'ater- ford, in tlie tirst Ten ^lonths of the years 1S4G and 1S47. I oKXr.D C'ATTLK. In 1-41. In ]<47 j M^.Mlll r.ut.Un 1 Crk , W.-.torfnn'.' 1 T.nal Month 1 PuMin 1 Cork V;it.'riV)r.l| 1 Total lit -IITO 4i;(; J.:i;ii; 1st 1 1 4.--m;4 L'nd •J.:; 17 1 •Jl!l -.'i^jii L-nd| ",i\w; 1 i;fa 1 1.2:17 ■aA .!,:.17 "U • 1--.S :;,..!.; S\\\ ^ -.s.s L'i;i; i ni ;;.2:;? 4 til 3,1 Ol") V.js : llh 1 2.410 1 1 ::;'7 :i.:;.-.i> --.tu 4.r2i "1.;: IJt: -..■•i:; : .m i 7::'' l.-,ii •■..■17 <:tli .'Ml;. 1 .s;C ■J-' ■I.S ] -1:-. 1.I..S n.bsl Sill ... SI,; Clll 7.:-.iM ' s;)i 1 7.1:1 ; ,.4.. 1.-7S 1 li.bbi ;'ti! ■S.172 l.n:^ 1.M.'7 J "..-.77 • M,! .*.M'; .-.4:; !i.li;7 mil, 1...1 !'!S sl:i 1 •.'.■-' 1-^ 1 '"'■' so,:. 1 -:•'.' ■'■"■■' 1...3 (■..■J"4 ". :>1.j :.;::,7J 1 ! i<:i.::!ii \\:\ \ 7.1.:;s|. ri ;s. b: ls4ii .| ^■ i^i: Moiit'.i ' Dublin Clli W.Ufru.r,) j-.>t.-a Mr.nll. Dublin C.rk U'.-:tci-!'ircl Tci.-il 1 :.sv.' l-I ]>'AJ-i 7,7n] (-,.(,;.0 Jt.slJ 1 K=t 7.n„ 1.7-M . Jlld 1 ■.'.(' J S ."..7.-.S .■..v'.l -:-..7:;-: , end 0.:71 \A\Z ■2.4r>s :-.:;.'.' f;nl ir..;'lii r,.777 7,J•^] ;Xi.!Mis '1 ord r;.."iijii •.<:>.", 2.1:7:"; .-.til i i;;.cii :,.]71 •'.f'-'ii •-M.4;2 :i oth LI';:.' ;y:,<\ .1- 2,:;21 lull i i;.ii7 :".i;s} .•U:.l lL',;iG-2 J r;tu 1:;8 •:i7 11 lO Ttli r..i;47 IJAl :; :m,s M..-.7L' ' 7lli 170 117 ;:] :;21 .■^tli 1 ;;.s';:} -'.7"1 1.7:;. s.'_*;;s Stll 4:; IM 72 ■jbi; 1 Mil 4.VS-I L\.,s.; ■J i;-l i".;.-.l , f'th 4(i:i ::j') i.2;'S i lOtli s.Oii-2 4.:i.;;. .:..7t.4 i^^,->;) j K'tli 1.11^4 l.lJ'i ;o..S40 .;.,..7 1 j :.;.,0:. 47,rtCO l^i.JST l:M..,n, ■'1 1 . ;:(0 7.21-1 l-\2l(i 4.-.1I" 318 AITENDIX DD CONTINUED. CKATES AXT> BOXES OF EGGS.* In is-ii; Ij In- 1S17 Month j Duljlin Crk W.-Ufvford Tot.'il j Month r-uUin Cork WaterfurU; T„t.al ! ' 1 :;r(l 4tU ■Mil Otli Till 8tli :itli 1.507 2.481 1.'207 4,-504 :i,f:G7 5.-20O 1,-D;!0 l.OiVJ 1.747 l.l:JG 2,144 ?.7iU 4.140 .",420 .'!,401 2,."mO 2,042 2.074 ;iO ;a 47 20 2.r;43 ' 4,C2.5 7,'if»S 8.044 3JM\ 4,0..,; 1st 2iid ord 4th •Mb Cth 7tli .MU !.th lOlll 1 .31 S 40S 1.712 2,2-50 l,r;2S 1.218 1-17:; S33 822 1.022 l,10-'i •l.fHiO i,4;i7 2,2G0 l...-,l i,4:;r. ].72ti l,:ill 8fi oi :18 17 CO ri 8iy 1,1100 2,81.5 4,1-:;G ;:,2ii ;, .VT^ ;;,3G2 2.285 2,.-^(M ..- s- j '.,---- "-• ."'i.7.'a ' 1 12.414 1 13.;i2U 1 2-5i; 2G..., * It niiy he intprrstiii.u' to state- that tlie sliiiinirnt> i.f ilxs to Loiidoii nro generally ill liDXfs. confciiuiiig iiboiit 2,.5u0 i-ggs ; and tiio.x; to Liven-iuol in crates, coiit:unint; from G.OOO to 8.1100 eiijrs. ■11 II' KM). ; 5tcinuarii, 1848. > WORKS ON IRELAND pi'p.Lisnnn ky UODGES AXD SMITH, BOOKSELLERS TO THE UNIVERSITY, 101, GRAFTON-STREET, DUBLIN. London: longman and < o., and stmpkin, mahsiiali,, and (.h"' Tlic Annals of the Fonr Masters, from A.D. 1172, to the Conclusion, in li^lO; consistiiifr of the Irish Text, from tlio ori,L'iiinI MS. in the Koy.al Irisli Aomleinv, .-mil nn Englisli Translation, with (Hipious Explnnntory Notes. Hv .Tohn O'Donovnn, Esq., M. I{. I. A. •'! vols., 4to., pp. 24lis. Pricp i's"s.,. Th-re nre f w p.iuiitri.i in wliirh cr.^iits nl ■lalir iiitirrst for t.'iL- iu-ti.rian hurt takm |.lnec, in wliiuh iiiutliT:- of j:ih:iUt i:un"?it\ f.ir tlie iiu of ^rciieial kiiyninc li:ive hit tlnir lr:ici?, nil in lri.'laml. l^oii;! nftcT the othor Ci.lti<' n:i- i-K !i:ul ;i-lo)'t".''l new ionns of Wi>in:ii> jnul f'-'idal vili.-ation, Jr.hind rttuiiied tli.-pt-fiuiar iiiin= iiiul inLiniuTS of tlie I'liiniiivo Knioii.-yit nii'.v; iUicl.niiK- ami inijKrl i.'t a- lins.. uiicnn--- iiojily v-iTf, ill comi't'iifoii witli thosf of ilio i-hl«'>urins natiouf. tluv luuFt lie adinitU ;n some ofilio most '■lirrincr piiii'ds ■ modem ]:Utoi\-. NL'Vfrtl;eU^>. il srill rcniuins siiuulnv Imt. iu^st roi>roai-h lo t!.L- Iciirnrd in (.-."rnnntri^ ?,'"lliat tli'.- liMor,- of Iniriii.l is t to Ik wiitt.ll." rmil lat.lv, 1 ri«li scliolar?, ■111. linti d with Ilie |■ln^•L^ ofdrj.o-it, and ci'iii- tint t" tiic traiirhitlon of tin- iititlvi- annalf, ,'.\ Ijc-.n fareli;;^ of cuisviltinj.'. or niia1il(,' to oli- in ac'c'is?' to. oftioini noonlH: \i liiii? tliosi- to lion) till.' sotirccs of olIi<'!al inforiiiatioii havo •111 open, cither disrei/ai-cKd tlie aid, or wove itorant of tl;e existetiVe, of the other rl:i«n of .thoiiii'S. Jleiire, the reader of our principal i-U lii^torico fiud^, on (he one hand, a purely iiL'iith version of even's, .is in llol!:nt.'ir r.irhard Cov's lliher- :. An^lioana. there hn.l h:-.n i.o addition innde the lunterial? of ni.dia vid Iri-h history, with the single c.Tcei.tion ofth'' 'i.lendid eollortion of Irish annals translated into Latin hy l>r. Cliarh s (.•"Conor, and given to the world, liy the nuiuiti- ceiiec of the late JJiike of Huekintdiain, niuhr the title ofKermu Uiberuiearum Seriptorcs Ve- t.TeF. t.)f the Kerura llilKrnicaruni Seriptovc?. the most voliuninoiif and ino-t int< restiin.' jiart is that of the F..fi: .MA.sTr.i:s. cf ■wliieh it is omw proposed to pnhlish tl-.c ecmtiunation. with on ];n;r- iish translation and notes. T'ac early pr.nion ,,f these Aiu'.al-, as of all tl'.e others. Is, 'as has heen ohserved, Iniei'. and even In. acre in its no-ires-, and velnahle ehietiv for the settlement of aneient topojr;K.liy and family liistory : l.nt from the tv.elflh'aii'd thirteenth eenturKs onw.ird, the nar- rative is copions and irrnphie, and ahounds v itli varied incident and rharatleristie da;uls. Thi? hitherto nn|)uhlis!iea pi rtion. e.vtcndine' from A. )). U:i to A. D. II-IC, auil of which t.io ori- plnal anthorities are now. in ^.-reat p:irt. lost. com- prises more than three-fonrth^ of tlie entire com- l.ihition; so tlcat the jroposed publieution may lie regarded as virtiiallv I'iviin; these Annals t" the world for the first tiine'. Consideralile . xpense and tronhle hnvo Iietn incnrred ill sJectinL- models for tlie Irish Type, from tlie hcst written and iiio~t v:ilnohle ot the early Irish .\rann-cripts. The I'uhlisliers are happy to s.iy, that their pelcetion has nietwith the full approh'ution of all persons rapahle of forming' !i jndL'ment on the subject : ami lias been sdoiitod liy t-Ie Royal Irish Acadimy, and the Irish Arcl.a r.hiL'icnl Socielv, ■WORKS PUBLLSHED BY T. k« ON ii'.F.r.AND — confiiivnr/. Ecclesiastical Index of Ireland, with the Rectories, Vicarages, Perpetual and Imprripriate Curacies, arranged alpbabetically, with their Value, Glebe Lands, Churches, Glebe Houses, jNIembers of Established Church, Dioceses, and Patrons; also the Unions of all the Dignitaries at present existing, and the episcopal Incomes; with annexed Appendix, containing Forms, and Legal Precedents, for the L'se of Can- didates for Orders, and the Parochial Clergy. Edited by the Rev. Robert Knox, A. M. 1 vol. 8vo., clotli, Gs. A General Collection of the Ancient Mnsic of Ire- land; consisting of upwards of ir!5 Airs, few of which have ever before been piddished ; comprising an Explanation of the Principles on which Irish Melodies have l>ecn constructed; a copious Digest of ancient Irish Musical Science, and the technical Terms used by the Harpers ; a Disser- tation on the Antiquity and Characteristics of Irish Music and Musical Instruments ; together with Biograjihical Memoirs of various eminent Harpers of later Tinu's, au'l Notices of the more remarkable Melodies and Pieces of the Collection ; also, an Account of tlie several Eft'orts towards .1 Revival of the Use of the Harp in Ireland. By F.dward Uiuiting. I vol. royal -Ito., in elegantly ornamented cloth boards. I'ricc 31i. G(/. to '.li liivii-,- oi ]n<\\ mnsic. From Iho vciiv 17y-' (i.nni f) fli.- piv^nt tiiii.\Ilc Jin.- IviTi imlfniti- CtliA' ill !ii< LliV'its t'l Viscin' tlio cx'|iii-itt- nir? lii' cm- (•(.imtrv inmi f.l.livion. lli^- u:uw will Ix- liMMor.riiblv iii.iiti.mv.l in tlio republic of ktUrs, !i- ^v.■!! as in liiu wurid n)' .MM^•.•. '■ riiL' pivliminary fs>-:i.vs ami nicmnirs rulalivc to t!ic lri>h Inirp. ni'i- also, in tlicii' wii.v, iiiva- liialilc", anil ^voiilil in tliums<.'lro.= In' ?iitticii.'nt to I'.vrm a viry instru'^tivc vnhimc. IVtric and l"i r- Viis.ir have, in tlli.^ dciiartment, lent tlK-ir assist- :,n(i. On thu wh'A:. w.. miiv snlVlv ai.scrt. that, iiicl.-pi nilont oi the ^tcrlin? valnc of the ?iili,irot inattt-r ..■ftlii': Ivi.ili, it- tyiiojrrapli.v alone if fiifK- (.■i."it to cntillr tlio cnti,Ti.r:>;ina imidisln r? to cii- t-MinML-.-mint ami ii)i^ ]''ir!:vt. ".\lr. UimtiiiL' !ia5 in'odiKvii tlio most vahialilo In>li M,.vk i.f iiii' |.rf.>nt fvntnry, wliioh, ^vith the ..!li r two vi.hinK's. of whirli wo ]\-<\K .'^non to FCr a r,.-juililiration. i^ as iMltCt n, IJisiovvof Jri?li y\»Ar a? fan ever li'o liop.d for. It is ImMi.'ht. out in a very .=iii.ovior stvlc, and ntlccts great credit on tlie' piililinlipr?: imleid.a more periVot ipeeimen oC tvpojraphv could not lie produeed liy any i.n.sin rnrope."— />";■-''" M'nii/u, . Hound Towers of Ireland. The Ecclesiastical Ar- chitecture of Ireland, anterior to the Anglo-Nm-man Invasion ; comprising an Essay on tlie Oriuin and Uses of the Round Towers of Ireland, which obtained the Gold Medal and Prize of the Koval Irisli Acadeniv. Bv George Petrie, K. H. A.. V. P.I?. I. A. The Work is beautitully printed, and contains upwartls of i.jO Illustrations, from Drawings by Mr. Petrie. Second Edition, in 1 vol. rnyal 8vo., embossed cloth, price £1 Ss. ■■ \ iTork ■.rhioh can only Ik )iarall.lcd liy the labonrs ol l!.e great Xiebiilir, uud v.bieli, as a siiido puI'l'Cation, is tlio most complete and na- ti'-nally important work on AreliaiobiL'y tl\at has ever i^siKd from the [ire-?." — Fnfiii'in'^- J-nnii-il. '•We concratiilate onr.-elves and the country on the possessi'ui of a work to truly S|ileiidid in (very tiling' that contrilnite? to n-.ake a w. irk va- luable; in oriu-inality of matter absolntely u'lri- valied — in judicious learnins not inferior to the labours of the nm-t di-tin,L'ui?lied scholars of other countries — and in illustrative and typocrapiiica! beauty equal to any work of its class tluU has issued of Uite Year.- iioni anv press, either at home or abroad."— />»((■'./!» Lvcivnir Post. " Mr. Petrie lias brought to hi> inquiry extreme caution, pure candour, and all the temptratencss of an accurate and a calm scholar. * * * This is unquestionably the first work on British Anti- quities ofthe ape"."— Z)w'./(Ji I'nifi'rsili/ Mi-i-in^mr. ■■ Since the union xeith Great Britain, tliire ha? not issued from the Irish press any work at rll cmpaniblc. eitiier in nppe.irance >'r nJistan'-e. with tills siileiidld and learned volume : nav, we miL'I'.t !!'> much farther, and say, that of late years no work of C'iual elciiance. in its jieculiar depart- ment of learninrr, has enuinatcd from the Press -if auv part of the United Kinsdom.'" — Dn'jlin K';,i- ink .V'/<7. " Into his evidence for th.is opinion we sha!! :n .at a iiiture day, thanking him at present tor iiavins; di>piaee'd a heap of incongruous, thoui;!i a^rreeable fancies, .ind given lis the nu-sr learned, the nio-t exact, aiid thtMnost important work ever published on the antiijuitics ofthe ancicut Iri.-h nation.'' — yut'on. " Mr. Petrie has brought to light a greiit mass of most interesting facts, illustrative of Irish history and antiriuities,' which, we confess, liave surprised us, and added a disnity and character to (he his- tory of Ireland."— Z.iVi"r(7rt :ni.l i.:iiiist:ikiu- lah..ni- hi- Ir.is hvM..ui..l .>ii lii^ v.uk.l.Hs li.nu.iir tu l-.iinsclf. :nul i . H-its rn-lit oil thi In~h Cliuvcli. 'VW \nA"V\ ..I iIh-l' t;i.\:i- ti..:is.it!lUMkrLr\ i. m;-> t-iii.ui-. \u xhv .\.. li- nn. I A|.i.i-iiilix nf 1hi< \i.hiiiir. -Mr. K.tm- lui- (•..llcrtcd ;i \;i-t .iiuiuliO "\\\- have -.ilrrady raid tho hr.»k hns suriiris^jd u=. i-vcu on .•inniiiL' it f"r tlic lir.-t tiiiH'. iiur dues n JviH'atcd rcciiirc'iH'c t'> it-^ ii;i,l''S i:iinini>li tht'S.miin,.it. AVliiri. :iiid I'.'.v; tin- iv- v.ir.id M-;■it^■l•<■"llldalll:l^^ Mich a iiunntity .'1 auti- . [Kalian linnulrdiv. and nt the iniuiiti-t kind, a nriiMl .-in.-ula:h dark and luiy. raid.-. tlu h.-ii.-ii,-,- inoi;i..i-.id in t'l- ra\ar;..i.. Il i--in- j li:i< i.i-i-ii a r.iatli-r t-f a.-t.iii'-lnnnil t" us. X.-r U i-.i.h h..|,d ihi- u.M-k will \k v,i-,-hrd iviiitiu- ] nnr wund.-r ma:. -riallv diminish. -d !.v Ills ahun- ail.i.ii..u it .1. -.ivi-s. ami tha; Mr. lit rv . - n av l.c .lant .|n..ta!i.m ..laull'i.nili.-s. Win. a svari-h int.> I- HiraL-i.l t..|.r.-M-.-.im i;i-- -' ini !. -. a ml (-. I'.r.i-A lh.M-...l \\.^-m^Aw. v.i.nld hi- s-.:Hi.-iirt ti...riii|.y Mill thrtlur il.'lit .ni tlu- , . .1. s-aMi.ai l;i>t..jv ,.i I liaM'a iiiV. Om- v. .Hild think that .Mr. Iti-i vi-> had Jr.hiMl."— /(,-,■'.,,/, .)/.,!■. ':■'..-. ' ' n..i..nh the rn-.n-.i- in Uu- T.nvir ..t l...iMh.ii ami •■ ri|>i.-:. w..ik l-.i_':.:\ ,r..i;!alil. t..lla-;n.tii.T ; Ca-lt.ni Ki.U-. jmt L. .spiak ..I Ih-.s.- Unit \m v. 'h- :rid •...tl-.L-C'mir.-'i. rii.'rc- ha> m.t Lm-ii a m.-vi- 1 |iusili-.l hi rh, r.mind X.nwr .-f th-,- Ca-lk- ..f Jhih- imp.. riant .-..nirihnti.-n t.i Iri^h Clinn-ii hi^tw y ; lin. ,.r lii .-ni,.nil..-.l am.in.L-t tin- numinunt- ..l' an.!aKti.|iiili.ssin.-.- ;ln.-.hiv.s..jT>slur. . . '. ' ■VVcstni-n-tor Had and tlu- F..n.r (.■..nrts.Jnit that ■ria- h;-ant\ ..f tin- v.-hime, a- a s|.. .in ..-n ..ii\i..- 1 lie lia.l f-.L Vat;<-an ami tin- JJihliolh.-.im- dti Jh.i, -Jva|lll^..■a■•l s,-an-i-lv he .-Nc-id.-.l."— /,/-/( j\rl,.- \ at his ehr.w. Ami il is |.i rtV.-lly manifest tl'.at M i^n-'/ .l-",n-i/. ' 1 th.ie is iH. allVelafi..n of .iisniav in the in'te-s .-t "Jt is ivitlinmitlVfted deli;:lif M-ehai! thisialn- ' th.- si.ni i.i Ihv his;.)r\ ami ar.-1-.a-..I.^L'v ..f 1 ,.( lin- m..-.t i.r..r.mm; haniin-, ..n a theiiu-M hi. h a ll~:er, a i.i-.ivin.-. wliieh has'hc-.-n sadlv m -|.-.-;e.l ; Min.-riieial per-..ii i.iiL-ht hna-ine l.ardi v w.ntliy the ,.i \.t til. -re is mi |.art iiflrelanil m hi ri.-:i.-'r n.a-.-rial.— n 111. i.l 1-taine.i hatlh-la :.l.— llu- tl- ■.i t.-in|.le l,ail..\ved In tlu-:....tsl.-|.s Mr. K.-eves ha- ; ml |..aniim:eni|.i..ve.l."— /.'■.•//'//!' /'....A •■ 11. is is a m..-! valnahh- v.rk ../. I...-ai Cl.iir Ii;-t..rv ami .\nl!.| i.f Ih..- i.i!-iiin. the sell.. lar, and the saint. Il i.-m-.-sihl.-. in-.ln -|.a-.■^ve,-all.k^..te !.. a n.-lh-e I.l this w.ik, t.i eniniK-ral.- the \ari.. us iniL-r.-stinir arti.-les whieh are e..m|irised in the .\ii|.enili\. AW- havi- l..'i_' ae.-..niits ..1 the three (U...-e>es nf Ji-.vH. C..i:i-...r. ami J)nHm.r.-. aiai tin- .-..n-.-erk- .-f y\\ .•,<,-..,!' ..fMl.i.-h th--\- i>.-re Ihrmed. wWh lists ,a :;,, l:i-:i..|s. n-n.-h tali-r tlian -iveii hv \Vare, Il.v::-. ^e."— .;.«.:^A (:u„y.l,.ni'. ••.... Uae j.nh-.ie u ill reserve- tin iv .-ra- tiln.i.h.r th.-r--. eelal anth.-r llIn.^elt■. v.iu. l.a-, at a -reat di-a.UaiitaL-e ..t i...,-iti..n, su.-.ei.le.l in la\iiiL' heierethe \M.ri.la h.-.-k si„ha- this,. lated. in :lu- shan.-..! -Nnt. mnien-e h.'.lv ..fh.eai his .1 an Appemii K.rv. tia.r.lh.ii. eivna.h.^'h-a; ves..ai.-h. ami ai.n- .|iiariail learniii;; nVthe im.st auth.-nth- ki-i.l. In trulh. \re eau seari-elv heli.-ve that he iias hu iiim-h t.i irkaii. eirhei as t.. th.- eivil <.r u-el. -'as- th-a! l.isf.rv ..r Ihait j...il!..n .-f VIster. 1- ■ r, siiaijliiMav'in-..ii tlu- im-nti..u ..t any ehur.-h. .r ahhe\,..r enai-ei. Mr. lieeves i.re-.i-.-.s t... us « hat- ever is t'lhi- t.-aml ..I it. am! thedistri.-l ar..iin.l il. in everv .\..nnan Chi.miek-r. everv N..r^el..-ian s.-al.l. and e\er-. ]:i-h annaiist ,.r hard. wh,. ha, nam...'. i:s name. Tl-.e \..l-.ii.ie h.as h.en i.iinte.l at the l'jii\er>in Jhe-s.— that is t.- sa la'ie. e.->i'i.,.ns, and ae.jurate, au.I in evtr_\ p.-isibk- ■ b.st i.riuters prohaliiy now in Uurnju.-." — -V.(//(./i. Military IMcnioirs of tho Irish Nation: comprising' a liiM..ry nt' tin- l)-;>]i r.ri'jade in tlie Servic- i<\ Fr;.r.ff; with an Appen- dix nr.,ri;,-ial Prq-i-rs rc!;!li\.- t.i (he Brigade, fr^m tin- Aivliive- nf Paris. I!y ill.. l,-,t.; M;ij!l,.,\v (!<..iior. 1']m]., 'p.an-iMrr ai Law. .^m.. cluth, b.'avds, I'.-. ••A trnlv national m.in-iri.nt t.i tile iiii'-i"ii1mies | " A iri-.rk that v.-iil ho r.-nd -.-.il'i tnm-h interest, a .! 111.- L-all-.-.'ihv nf his IVIlu%v-e...iailr ui.n."— Its eiiarm e-'iisists in ilie iia>-i..nate h.ve ..f Mr. y •■.-/.<,■.•/ '.■./;.-"-•'. ' OX'.imir f..r ills siihi. et : in his h r\ . nt attaejiment ■■r-ie'stih- .-f tl-.e M-..i-k is earnest and -I-.iv. in-', ! t.. his e.>uiitr\ : in his 2l..»i hu .le-.-rii-ti-.n of hat- full irit .-f . ■.-.■■.-!. .nal eNees-ss ..f the Irisli m.r dhna.aJes l,..n..-ar aii.l ti-lelitv, v.hi,-h makes him na.iyt.. tl.-ir ,i.,.|..-neiits."—.\,. //..,/. i.. aise va-.-nr a iid ii.klitv in tlie woisi enemies of ■• This V. ..rk sh,-vnl.l he in lin-lihrar- M"everv Irisli i.-e!an.l."-.V.'..-/utc»(. c.,n;hin:m.--- A7//,-.-„«,v .1/ .•■,-.■„• .-: WORKS nULISHED BY woUKS ON miiLAND — Continued. The Irish Flora ; comprising the Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition, 1 vol. 12mo., fancy cloth, os- fh !;ia liclcl«, woo.ls. and iil:uit;;tiiiii^, iiiliiiiriii:: lii> «.juii wmUh, ur Uiu works I'Cliif :uicct!iii>,— the .vouml' lady who du- )i;-'lit> iu stti'ljiug Nature in its ^inllllc^t I'lirin. — mid tin- ii!.-itrM?i, wlii.-f plca>-iii<- it i.- ti. t^adi lic-r l.i-lowd oiiVprint' ti.'look llirnii-liXatiire upto tiiiL'ui'hiuL! tlK-ihariii;UTiatic! olthc uativL' i/iants I NatiKvV (;..d,'— all >houUl |lo^^t■.^s. as a cumpu- wliitli Uv iliuiUd cidlivuti;. or citiil'ati., — thi.' i;i;u- , i:iuij. llio Irialj riyra,.""— /ii;-/;n;;'i- O'lizelte. Industrial Uesourees of Ireland, carelully revised and corrected, with Maps illustratincr the geolosical and industrial Struc- ture of the Country. By Sir Robert Kane, M.U. Post Svo., New Edition, 1 vol., cloth, 7-S-. •■This w(.>ik Fhould be rir.d hy every man, , tlcji'.an T.-hn fnuntcrs throii|.'h hi" licld« vmiian, and child, iiitL-rthtud in buciuiiiu^ uc- liaiutud witli tlio va-t y.iii"Uiit id' bulaiiical trta- siiri-s with wliich Katuie has bk■l^s^.•d onr lovi-ly island. Tib- yoiirif; fardi-ncr as|]iriii^ to Cairii' iu tiis ipr.>fVf>i.,.ri",— thu ugriuulturist dt^iroiif vi d'l^ •' Dr. Kanu's ImliiHtrial Ri'Miurce- of Ircltind, vlnthur n^'aidc'd as a i-iiurcc of iulbniiatlon ou :r.iiiU5t every Mibjtet couiicut.-d with the cajiabi- lities of tliir. country, or a^ atl'ordiu^' ^Ul.•L.'l.■^lious tor turuing these capabilities to aeeouiit. i> tar :i:id away the nio>t iiiiijorlaiit work wliieli has e\er issucil froui the Irith pre^^." — J-'ut/w^i's iju- •■ AVithoMt o\ag-eratlon. Tlx- Induftrial Ke- • o,u CIS of Ireland is the ablest, as it is tiie most trn!\' nalioual work, tliiit ever issued Iroui the pr.. ." of Ireland.'"— .Vi/hVh/. •■ Had the spirit oi our tiuh s prorhiccd no olhrr faetwilhiu the vear tlian llie pr.blieation ol this v..l\iuie, we would coiitideiitly refer to it as salis- iuelory and eouelu^ivo evide'irce of the rapid pro- gress v\e are niakiri;:." — i'lcfiiian's Juvrnnt. " ■■ l>r. KaiK-'s work i:. full, oltar. seientifie, t-tact i^^lalill.; place?, e.vleut, priec>, and every other 11 iTkiii^' detail, and ia u liiauual of the wljoJe tub- i.el.-'-.VaJi:./.. •■ We rejoice that such a work should come from one wliose kiiowledL'e is so copious and exact, and wliose Well-deserved reiuitatioii ^taud- so high, that the uio>t iin!>l:cit eontideiice can be placed ou every jtateineiit."— ' o/ /.- Kj-kiiiiiht. ■• We Inn e no Invitation in reeomnundini' it as II (■.«/<■ /;(e.i(/;(. uliieh sliould be in the hands of every one interest.d iu Ireland, and as the h.>t hook wiiieh has ever i>sued from the Iri-h press." — Du'.hn J.rr.inl.' J\„l. ■•■file Autiior iiandles Lis subject with the dex- terity of a nia-ter, and eMnd^■nses iu one volume a- niueh of -eieutilie and jtalislieal iufornialiiui as we h:L\eever s.eii tloown toeetiier."— .//Acu" !/»(. ■' 1 1 enil>raees a, Oondeiis. d but masterly >nniniary r.f tiie enormous natural re>(nirees with '.vhieli this island lias beui iavonred. Who savs that Ireland is not caleulateil to be a preal nianufac- tnriuL' country 1 l.vt liiin r. ;(h Language, published for the I'se (if the .senior Classes in tlie College of St. Cnhuiiha. Wy .lulm t)'I)(iiiii\,in, Meniljer of the Irisli .VrelircdoL'-ical Sncitty. In i>t\r laiire vohuiie, with engraved specimens, from early Irish nianuscripts. Price IG.v. •■ » >ii( rKe>! iK)t he n inasttr. nor CTcn a stuiiont i-'t live Iriah lan-ua,u'e. to liinl interest and know h a la d-for k. v lo Urt3 locked m the ob^cnritv o Uiose best t;iai.in;aiian>. had onlv tin this work. It i.> no re.i-'inuut of rules without i dialect of their own pari..-hes, and wjio^e rno,.t ui, illu-tration. or authoiity. like mo^t L'ran mar?. It Is a profound and di>cursi.e treali>c o tlie j>roinineial!on, inlleetions, strue'.nrr, and )iro- sodv of tile most perlect of the Celtic toii^nie<. •fiiirr is not. we are sure, an anliipuirian or philo- )■ ;.-i?t in Kurope but v ill gra^ji it as the lony- notable cranimars were the works of pretonde n i Vet no one iiiu-t Mippnr hccn a (('•;- : intrinsic merit? nro pure to ccmmaiir! tlie crntcful ..,'A'/"f'i//i, aii.l wl- l.iivu ulUii lli"Ui.'lit it t. 1'!' this V''>'''' "I'lii. 'i'l-i iii> f.'vijiiis Wf luc iiuli'litcd " .Mr. Gaiidoii't connexion with niir city, as the tui IUl .-.si;,'n ofthr new i'ustuni llou>e, l!i'\al ; nruliiti.-i-t of t)ju uolilust of our jmhlic tdifiet-s, lias J".v.-li!iii_'i, 5l'li'.arv Hospital in tin ri-.ii.iiiN I'avk. u>s...'i.iti.d his iiaiiiu uitli tin.- liistorv oC .\n in 1i; (■aiii.-k-iSrid-i; tin- I'our Courts, tin- s|,|,.ndid ■ Ir.,i;i:id: mid th. vohiiiu-, bi-.sid.s ilic details ut I'.ilii'u oi liiL- iloi.si. ot holds in Wi-tniorilaml- lii.- ii«-ii vrivato lilV. is tilled witli intv-rostiiii.' iio- i-tix-. 1. \arioiis allLiaticnis in tlio lloiist. iii" Cum- I tii-ih of the eonteniporarv artists."— y;i(/,/i/i ii'.,'- III. .11- mow Ilie ih.iili ..f Ireland), and the Ciiiein'i I tin.-. 1„„..-^/:r,-ninL' .)h(il. \ ■■i'lioir.mi wlio eame lompjily the ,u't iiins hitent ••'I'lio -Jiai'liii- n.itireii of i-oiiteniporary artiUs \ hut nnciiitivated in !ier sons, w iiieli Ikt iiathmal lilh.r l.orii ill Ireland, or who made it tiie seme [ risi-,:;nii theluxiuiou.'dilktaiiti-.ni of liei «• althier ol Ih. ir laiiMUis, ju.iiriou^K iiHerspersid \'\ the ; .■hisstsiiow i„ eded, was ho wl:...-e l.iojraphv lies hmieiit.-d iditiT. .Mi.lvauv. tlifoutihout .Mr. t:.:m- , hef.Tons — hums OaiKloii. To the tupoL-iapher of d. ill's hi.v;:ra|ih\. eiiiiiiot tail to inerea-e to the : i'lihiin. and t'.ie artisl, the work is one of uiueii j-.Lerai reader the inieri..-t of a \\ork, \s ho=e mere \ aiiie."— .V-;n./j)endi.x, containing the Evidence oi' .lohn Neil>on Ihmcoek, Es<)., taken hefure the Landlord .'nid Tenant Comnii.ssion. I'y \\\ Neil.-on Haiienck. Emj., |!;ii-ri.-tir at Law. Svo., sewed, L'.-. Land Coininissioners' l{e])ort. Digest of ]*]> idenet> taken hefore Her Majesty's (.'onnnissi' l)i-1ricl.-. ditu iPL:' tin ir I'ojdilaliun, .\ri ;i, ("nunties in whieli situate. e\e. eomiiiltd iVi'iii Oi'iieial lU'lurns i>y .\rthur Moure, Esij. ■• 1 lin^. at the iire?eiit inonKul, is n nio-; iin i.f loer.I tuTcntiin. r.iiil thrd it -.vil! rc--i!l;ae the ap- portanl piihiieiition, \»iiieli oiieht lo In- in the ' phitnmit of the ta.Nation arisini.- out of the relief haiiii- olever\- iiidivida.il wh;T:i!i iitfoid the \eiv I nieasnres. it Mill he nidversallv admitted lliat m ihrale price at wiiirli it lias hecu is-iied."-"- I thi.- vork vill laove one of inestimable valne [.■^"(■■m(-,ni ^i„h:I.i,,I. !o all cla-ses. .-nrh a hr .k, loun.l. d on ilheial •• fj...!! the suhjict it leaves nothiiu liutl.erto | d.iel^,llellt^. has h.iig hen rciiuiied."— /n /ii/'i,' be ilesii-i.,!. The cinpri helisivc details i.ie re- | Wo,'. .h;-,d b^ a hieid ar.l «ell-dii.-.sted iiriaiij.i.ient I •• file statistics contuined in this ! iil'iieation t" a fi.ini intelli-ible ami interestine'. hy the I are most imp., i taut, and ap]iear |o he aij:inf.-ed siinii'.e iiispeethni of which we liecon.e at" once ] vith the ntniust care and aeeiiraey.''— /•'incr. A'iceroyallY oftlie Kai'l of Be.s.Nborougli. — Xotice>- fifthr Vieorovaltv of th<. late Laid of (ics^-hoiTiutrh. f^\o. hoards, .m-. WORKS PUULIbllED BY HODGES AXD y^HTII. la the Prci^s, — rcill be puhlisJicd in t'cbruiirii. AN ANxVLYSIS THE CRIMINAL LAAV OF IRELAND, BY THOMAS LEFKOY, ESQ., UAIUUSTZK AT LA'W. rrcpar'tini fur PiiliJicotton, Til One A'olumo 4to., flaboratelv illustrated l>y Engraviiiirs from original ni-a\\ in_'^ Z\)i ;^idjitcctuic, ^i^tstoin, anti ;^nttqui(ics <>i Tin: CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF ST. CANICF; Tuo'ctlier with Memoirs of the Bisliops of Oi;s(ir_v ; tlic Snr('-ii>ii of De.iris, 1 mill othei' Di^'iiitarics connocted witli the Cluircli; with some Ar-emnit (A' \ \\\v original Sees nf S, kilkknnv; and JOHN G. A. riHM, Esq. Arii.i?=t til!' ni:inv !nnniimf'nt> of t!ic r.rcliiti <■- ' i>n?:il. The r.nl v other ■nr.r'k which treLi',? C'\-l>r.'--ly tiir;.l ta*K:ir.t the Cutliedrat i^ a fiiuiU voUiine i.iibli-he.l liy iiiiathLiiii)re(hstnictiveh;inil..rm:m hnvr-^pareil, ! t!u- hite ]).'cic>i- Slici- i.l' Kilkeiiiiv. luiii^' iiitr^ls- 1. w i.HVr a J'aiivr tiel.I to tin- annalist ami t!ie ' a nivrint, witii a tran-l;ed !>y t'lc above- as yit. ilia LTcai ile^ne, to be written. ' iiieiitio;ud writers is eiiibodieil in tiiis worli, and It is true tliat ^VJ^realld liiseoiitiiaiator, Harris. for tlie first time pre-eiiled to the I'iib'iie in a eon- liave lett us a series i>f inenioirs of tlie lJi>lioii> of n.-eted form ; and. in nddition, tlie l^litor^ have \ e lei I n> a ^el o. s " >i iiie^n' 'i; > »u lu', iji>ii"i'> ••! ii' i. o'o loi iii i .11 in. mi i<«..aiti>-'ii. lo"- a.'i ii- 'i r. ii.vi v; .-. -ory.Y. iiieh eaiinot be too bi;rtily jirized : bnt as earelnlly eNaniiiied llic ancient " tied Bo..k" of rei'ards tile falirie of tin; Cathedral, or its iiioiui- '" ■"'■ " "' " " " ^ "' "' '" "" mental ai'tinuit'c-, tliese nieiiioir^, 11s ini^dit l>e - .. - - - - txpeeteil, all'ord little iiifornuitioii : and the work part of tin- seveiitieiitji ecntnrv, and other .^1S.■^. lA' wiiieli thev form a part. ha\ ini: been Ioiil' ..iit of ).ri served in (lie arcliives of the .»^ee : tlie n cords (.)>>orv,"a .M>. of the fourteenth ci iiturv, 13i>hop (i[\v:iyV \'i-itatiou IJook, compiled in the latter part of tile seveiitieiitji century, and other .^1S.■^. ._ ..,..,..,...,. ,,....vv.., ....... )iri>erved in (he arcliives of the .'^ee : thencords print, is iiow'exi.eiisivc. and rarelvtobeorocnred. oftli.- Chapter, of the A'icars Clioral, and of the V.ith resj.ect to Keiiu-i.-lie's ICssay towar.ls tlie Corporati.jii of Irishtowii, which have all atfordcd lli-tory and .\iitiMnities of Jri>htowii and Kil- ' inueh curious and iiiterettiiiir inforniatioii. The laiuiv," it is cnouj;h to .ibserve. tliat tb.is wliiiii-i- '■ various inaniiscripieolleetioiis in Duliiin. and that c;il ai'nl iiiacciirate'Vritcr availed liiin-elf but of a ' of the liritisli .Museum, will al^o ceiitribiite tu- SiiuU part of the materials which he liad at liisdis- wards tlie work. This l;>()()k is a prescrvalion facsiniile. Tt is made in compliance with c