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, SHOWING THE NEW WEST FRONT, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 THE MOST COMPLETE AND MOST POPULAR HISTORY 
 OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 FROM THE ABORIGINAL TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 
 
 Embracing an Account of the Aborigines; The Norsemen in the New World; 
 
 The Discoveries bv the Spaniards, English, and French; The Planting of Settlements ; 
 
 The Growth of the Colonies; The Struggle for Liberty in the Revolution; The Establishment 
 of the Union; The Development of the Nation; The Civil War; The Centennial 
 of Independence; and the Recent Annals of the Republic 
 
 BY ✓f , 
 
 JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. 
 
 AUTHOR OF RIDPATH’S SCHOOL HISTORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, AND A CYCLOPEDIA OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY 
 
 (Remscb anb 
 
 THE COMPLETE CENSUS OF 1890 AND OTHER VALUABLE STATISTICS, 
 MAGNIFICENTLY ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS DESCRIBING 
 
 THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 INTERNATIONAL BOOK AND PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 1899 
 
 SOSTO* 
 
 ,STO* 
 
Copyright, 1876, 
 
 By JOHN T. JONES. 
 
 Copyright, 1886, 
 
 By PHILLIPS AND HUNT. 
 
 Copyright, 1889, 1891, 
 
 By HUNT AND EATON. 
 
 Copyright, 1891, 1892, 1894, 
 
 By THE UNITED STATES HISTORY CO. 
 
 Press of Charles E. Brown & Co., Publishers, Boston. 
 

 PREFACE. 
 
 Dear People of the United States:— 
 
 By this, my Preface, I offer to you a New History of your coun¬ 
 try—and mine. The work is presented in the form of an abridged 
 narrative. My reasons for such a venture are brief, but, I trust, sat¬ 
 isfactory : 
 
 First , to every American citizen some knowledge of the history of 
 his country is indispensable. The attainment of that knowledge ought 
 to be made easy and delightful. 
 
 Second, the Centennial of the Republic furnishes an auspicious oc¬ 
 casion for the study of those great events which compose the warp 
 and woof of the new civilization in the West. 
 
 This book is intended for the average American; for the man 
 of business who has neither time nor disposition to plod through ten 
 or twenty volumes of elaborate historical dissertation; for the prac¬ 
 tical man of the shop, the counter, and the plow. The work is 
 dedicated to the household and the library of the working man. It is in¬ 
 scribed to the father, the mother, the son, and the daughter of the 
 American family. If father, mother, son, and daughter shall love 
 their country better—if they shall understand more clearly and ap¬ 
 preciate more fully the founding, progress, and growth of liberty in 
 
 the New World—the author will be abundantly repaid. 
 
 1 ' r n fl (iii) 
 
 A «l> U f.i v 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In the preparation of the work the following objects have been 
 kept in view: 
 
 I. To give an accurate and spirited Narrative of the principal 
 events in our National history from the aboriginal times to the pres¬ 
 ent day. 
 
 II. To discuss the Philosophy of that history as fully as possible 
 within the narrow limits of the work. 
 
 III. To avoid all Partiality, Partisanship, and Prejudice, as 
 things dangerous, baneful, and wicked. 
 
 IV. To preserve a clear and systematic Arrangement of the sev¬ 
 eral subjects, giving to every fact, whether of peace or war, its true 
 place and importance in the narrative. 
 
 V . To secure a Style and Method in the book itself which 
 shall be in seeping with the spirit and refinement of the times. 
 
 Whether these important ends have been attained, dear People, 
 it is not my province but yours to decide. I have labored earnestly 
 to reach the ideal of such a work, and if success has not rewarded 
 the effort, the failure has been in the execution rather than in the 
 plan and purpose. 
 
 I surrender the book, thus undertaken and completed, to You— 
 for whom it was intended. With diffidence I ask a considerate judg¬ 
 ment and just recognition of whatever worth the work may be found 
 to possess. 
 
 J. C. P. 
 
PREFACE TO COLUMBIAN EDITION. 
 
 # % 
 
 The issuance of the present edition of the History of the 
 United States falls fittingly on the four hundredth anniversary of 
 the discovery of our country. The author has availed himself of 
 the occasion to revise and enlarge the work, bringing the narrative 
 down to the present day. He has expanded those parts which cover 
 the last two decades of our history, so as to give to current events 
 as much space as the limitations of the volume will permit. It is 
 hoped that the reader may thus find not only an adequate account 
 of the earlier epochs, but also a satisfactory narration of the recent 
 — even the most recent — parts of our national development. 
 
 Little apology should be made for the publication of a work 
 of this kind. Whatever may be the defects of composition and 
 arrangement, the essential merits of the subject must prove to be 
 not only the explanation, but in some measure the justification of 
 the enterprise. The history of our country is a theme which can 
 never be exhausted by repetition. It increases in interest with its 
 diffusion; familiarity, in this case at least, instead of breeding 
 contempt, adds rather an increasing charm to the story. 
 
 I have attempted in this work to give within the moderate 
 limits of a single volume a succinct account of the principal events 
 in the history of the United States. Beginning with the earliest 
 voyages and discoveries, I have spoken of the first foothold and 
 plantings of civilization on our continent. I have attempted to 
 narrate, not in minute details but in general outline of sufficient 
 amplitude, the adventures and tentative movements by which the 
 better parts of the New World were reclaimed and brought at 
 length under the dominion of the English-speaking race. The same 
 method has been pursued in the so-called Colonial period of our 
 history, and through the epoch of the intercolonial wars. 
 
 Two reasons may be assigned for dwelling with tolerable ful¬ 
 ness upon this part of our career as a people. The first is the 
 inherent interest which the early ages of our history possess;, and 
 the second is the dependency of our larger development upon the 
 Colonial planting. He who dwells with care on the matters pre¬ 
 sented in our age of discovery can hardly fail to find in the same 
 such interest as the drama furnishes to the eager and curious mind. 
 He who studies with attention the facts present in our Colonial 
 epoch will discover in the same the fundamental conditions of the 
 larger national life which has arisen therefrom. 
 
 The formative period of that life includes the great event by 
 which our independence of the Mother Country was achieved, 
 namely, the War of the Revolution. In this struggle of our heroic 
 age the movements of the new American societies towards unity, 
 freedom and greatness can be easily discerned. The virtues of 
 
PREFACE TO COLUMBIAN EDITION. 
 
 that important period — its patriotism, singleness of purpose, high 
 motives of conduct and devotion to principle — must plainly appear 
 to every thoughtful reader. The example of the patriot fathers 
 may well furnish to their descendants the motives and inspiration 
 requisite to right citizenship in the greatest of republics. 
 
 In history not everything is accomplished at one stroke. Our 
 War of Independence did not suffice for the nationality of the 
 United States. That came afterwards, by trial stages, by attraction 
 and repulsion, by the growth of many things and the decay of some, 
 and finally by the ordeal of the greatest war of modern history. 
 
 It was needed that a considerable period should elapse between 
 the founding and the completion of our national structure, Room 
 must be afforded for the abatement of old antagonisms and the 
 death of hurtful prejudices. Opportunity must be given for the 
 birth and development of new sentiments to which our fathers were 
 strangers. Space must be had for the spread of this strong Anglo- 
 American race, and for the obliteration of that localism with which 
 it had been hampered in the beginning. 
 
 Our War for the Union carries still in the memories of men 
 the bruises of the battlefield. That struggle made for itself a great 
 memory in the world, and marked the limitation which the civilized 
 life of man drew at last around some of the most grievious abuses 
 of ancient times. It was in this furnace that African slavery per¬ 
 ished ; out of it came new concepts of the rights of man and the 
 blessings possible under a purified and enlarged democracy. 
 
 Nor should we fail to reflect upon the great period which has 
 now elapsed since the close of our civil conflict. More than one- 
 fourth of our whole national career, measured from the foundation 
 of the Republic, lies this side of Appomattox! During this period 
 an increment of twenty-seven millions of souls, or forty per cent, 
 of the whole, has been added to our population. A continent has 
 been reclaimed and organized into great States; the foundations 
 have been laid with seeming security for the greatest nationality 
 in the world. We have made a way for posterity, as our fathers 
 made a way for us. 
 
 It is fitting that all this should come vividly to the recollection 
 in the Columbian year. The occasion of the international celebra¬ 
 tion in the most American and most marvellous of all cities may 
 well invite all classes of readers to a review of the history of their 
 country. I have endeavored in the following pages to recite the 
 story in a manner befitting the year. It has been my aim to include 
 all the essentials of the narrative, omitting only so much as may 
 be spared without marring the outline of the whole. I do not 
 flatter myself that the work has been perfectly done, but may claim 
 to have spared no effort to make this one-volume history of our 
 country worthy of the theme and of the great public, into whose 
 hands I cordially deliver the result of my labor. 
 
 J. C. R. 
 
 Greencastle, Ind., August 27, 1893. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 What constitutes a period in history.—The period of the Aborigines.—The second 
 period in the history of the United States.—Extends from the discovery of the conti¬ 
 nent to the establishment of permanent settlements.—The third period.—Reaches from 
 the first colonies to the war of the Revolution.—The fourth period.—Embraces the 
 Revolution and the consolidation of the government.—The fifth period is most im¬ 
 portant.—Extends from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time.—The 
 names and dates of the several periods. 39, 40. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE RED MEN—ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. 
 
 The Indians.—Their name accounted for.—Differences between them and th® 
 Asiatics.—The origin of the Indian races unknown.—Theories controverted.—The 
 question likely to remain unsolved.—Language may give us light.—The Red men Gan- 
 owanians.—Habits of that race.—Divisions of the aboriginal nations.—The Esqui¬ 
 maux.—Their manner of life.—The race of Algonquins.—Their distribution.—And 
 character.—The Huron-Iroquois.—Their domain.—Nature of their confederation.— 
 Their influence and character.—The Southern races.—Cherokees.—Mobilians.—Man¬ 
 ners and characteristics.—The Dakotas.—Their limits.—The Comanches.—The na¬ 
 tions beyond the Mountains.—Shoshonees.—Selish.—Klamaths.—Californians.—Aztecs 
 and Toltecs of old.—The Indian character in general.—Sense of personal inde¬ 
 pendence.—Passion for war.—Principles of war.—And of peace.—The Indian unsocial 
 and solitary.—His family organization.—The European family.—Diagram thereof.— 
 Indian method.—And diagram.—Aboriginal government.—Powers and limitations.—• 
 Native religion.—Beliefs of the Red men.—Their arts.—Rudeness of the same.—The 
 Indian house.—Utensils.—Weapons.—Clothing.—Decorations.—Paint.—And writing.— 
 The savage tongues.—Peculiarities of Indian speech.—Personal appearance of the 
 aborigines.—Stature.—Features.—Bodily habit.—Indian amusements.—The dance.— 
 Other sports.—Gaming.—The use of tobacco.—Strong drinks.—Indian prospects.—• 
 
 Reflections. ... 41-50, 
 
 (▼) 
 
vi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 A. I>. 986—1607. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. 
 
 Heijulfson is driven by a storm to the American coast.—Lief Erickson discovers 
 America.—Thorwald and Thorstein Erickson make voyages.—Thorfinn Karlsefne ex¬ 
 plores the shores of Maine and Massachusetts.—Other voyages are made by the Norse¬ 
 men.—The name of Vinland.—Character of the sea-kings.—Voyages in the following 
 centuries.—No practical results from the Icelandic discoveries.—Their authenticity.— 
 Note.51-54. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 
 
 Spain makes the New World known to Europe.—Old ideas about the figure of the 
 earth.—Columbus.—Sketch of his life.—The favor of Isabella.—Columbus departs on 
 his first voyage.—Discovers* San Salvador, Cuba, and Hayti.—Second voyage of Co¬ 
 lumbus.—Third.—He discovers South America.—Fourth voyage.—Columbus’s misfort¬ 
 unes and death.—Wrong done to his memory.—Vespucci makes two voyages to South 
 America.—Excitement in Europe on account of discoveries.—Colony planted on the 
 Isthmus.—Balboa discovers the Pacific.—Ponce de Leon makes explorations in Flor¬ 
 ida.—Is killed in a fight with the Indians. . . 54-58. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES—CONTINUED. 
 
 Cordova discovers Yucatan.—Grijalva explores Mexico.—Cortez lands at Tabasco.— 
 Terror pervades the country.—The natives are beaten back.—Cortez proceeds to Vera 
 Cruz.—Montezuma sends embassies and presents.—The Spaniards march towards the 
 capital.—And are forbidden to approach.—The Mexican tribes revolt.—Cortez reaches 
 the city.—And enters.—His critical situation.—He seizes Montezuma.—Who acknowl¬ 
 edges the king of Spain.—The governor of Cuba sends forces against Cortez.—He over¬ 
 powers them.—Returns to the capital.—The struggle for possession of the city.—Mon¬ 
 tezuma is wounded.—And dies.—The Spaniards are victorious.—Mexico becomes a 
 Spanish province.—Magellan sails around South America.—Crosses the Pacific.—Is 
 killed at the Philippines.—His crew reach the East Indies.—Double the Cape of 
 Good Hope.—Return to Europe.—De Narvaez is appointed governor of Florida.—Ex¬ 
 plores the country around the Gulf.—The company embark in boats, and are wrecked.— 
 Four men reach San Miguel.—De Soto sets out on an expedition to explore and con¬ 
 quer Florida.—Arrives at Tampa Bay.—Marches into the interior,—Spends the winter 
 on Flint River.—The company march into South Carolina.—Cross into Georgia.—Capt¬ 
 ure Manville.—Spend the next winter on the Yazoo.—Discover the Mississippi.—Ex¬ 
 plore Arkansas and return to the Mississippi.—De Soto dies.—His men again march 
 westward to the mountains.—Return to the mouth of Red River.—Build boats and 
 descend the Mississippi.—Reach the Spanish settlements in Mexico.—Melendez comes 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 to Florida, and founds St. Augustine—Murders the Huguenots on the St. John’s.— 
 Massacres the crews of the French vessels.—Extent of the Spanish explorations. Tho 
 Portuguese voyage of Gaspar Cortereal.—He sells a cargo of Indian slaves in Portu¬ 
 gal. . 61-69. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. 
 
 First acquaintance of the French with America.—Verrazzani is sent out to make ex¬ 
 plorations.—Arrives on the coast of North Carolina.—Explores the shores of the country 
 as far north as Newfoundland.—Cartier is sent on a voyage to America.—Reaches 
 Newfoundland and enters the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence.—Returns to Europe.— 
 Sails on a second expedition.—Ascends the St. Lawrence to Montreal.—Llis crew are 
 attacked with scurvy.—He passes the winter near the site of Quebec.—And returns to 
 France.—Roberval undertakes to colonize the country.—Cartier joined to the under¬ 
 taking.—Prisons of France are opened to furnish emigrants.—Expedition reaches the 
 St. Lawrence.—The leaders quarrel, and Cartier goes back to France.—The whole 
 colony returns.—Roberval sails with another fleet.—And is lost at sea.—Ribault con¬ 
 ducts a band of Huguenots to Port Royal.—Builds Fort Carolina.—The settlement is 
 abandoned.—The enterprise renewed by Laudonniere.—A Huguenot colony estab¬ 
 lished on the St. John’s River.—But destroyed by Melendez.—De Gourges takes venge¬ 
 ance on the Spaniards.—La Roche is commissioned to plant colonies in America.— 
 French prisons again opened.—A settlement is made on Sable Island.—The company 
 rescued and carried to France.—De Monts made viceroy of New France.—Departs with 
 a colony.—Reaches the Bay of Fundy.—Port Royal founded by Poutrincourt, and the 
 St. Croix settlement by De Monts.—The country named Acadia.—Champlain receives 
 a commission.—Sails with a colony to the St. Lawrence.—Goes against the Iroquois.— 
 Returns and founds Quebec. 70-76. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 Henry VII. commissions John Cabot.—Who discovers North America.—Is re¬ 
 commissioned.—Sebastian takes charge of the expedition.—Explores the American 
 coast from Labrador to Cape Hatteras.—Leaves England to become pilot of Spain.— 
 The notable year 1498.—Causes which impeded English discovery.—Maritime enter¬ 
 prise revives under Elizabeth.—Frobisher sails to America and discovers Meta Incog¬ 
 nita.—Takes spurious ore to London.—A new voyage is planned.—Frobisher conducts 
 a fleet to Meta Incognita.—The expedition proves a failure.—Sir Francis Drake cap¬ 
 tures Spanish merchantmen.—Goes to the Pacific coast.—Attempts the discovery of a 
 north-west passage.—Gilbert forms a plan of colonization.—Is assisted by Raleigh.— 
 Conducts a fleet to Newfoundland--The crews find spurious minerals.—The voyage is 
 continued to Massachusetts.—Gilbert loses his best ship and a hundred men.—Starts 
 home, and is lost at sea —Raleigh sends Amidas and Barlow with a colony.—They 
 reach Roanoke Island and begin a settlement.—The place is abandoned.—Raleigh 
 Bends a second colony under Lane.—The colonists reach Roanoke and begin to build.—• 
 Difficulties arise with, the Indians.—The settlement is broken up.—The colony taken 
 home by Drake.—A new charter granted by Raleigh, and White chosen governor.— 
 The new emigrants arrive at Roanoke.—The foundations of a town laid on the Island.—• 
 Troubles with the Indians.—Manteo is made a peer.—White returns to England.—Birth 
 of Virginia Dare.—The fate of the colony never ascertained.—Condition of affairs in 
 England.—White returns, and finds Roanoke deserted.—Raleigh assigns his patent to 
 
VU1 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 London merchants.—Gosnold makes a voyage directly across the Atlantic.—Attempts 
 to form a settlement on Elizabeth Island.—The place is abandoned.—Gosnold trades 
 with the natives.—The crew demand to return.—Flattering accounts are given of the 
 country.—An expedition is sent out under Pring.—He explores a part of the New 
 England coast, and returns to Bristol.—Waymouth sails on a voyage.—Trades with 
 the Indians of Maine.—Returns to England. 76-85. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS.—CONTINUED. 
 
 King James issues patents to the London and Plymouth Companies.—The London 
 'Company to plant colonies between the 34th and the 38th parallels.—The Plymouth Com¬ 
 pany to make settlements from the 41st to the 45th degree.—Gosnold, Smith, Hakluyt 
 and Wingfield lead the affairs of the Southern Company.—No democratic principles 
 are recognized in the charter.—A ship is sent out by the Plymouth Company.—A 
 second vessel is dispatched to America.—A settlement is attempted at the mouth of the 
 Kennebec.—Is abandoned in the summer of 1608.—A fleet with a colony is sent out by 
 the London Company.—Newport commands.—They arrive in the Chesapeake.—Enter 
 James River.—Make a landing and lay the foundations of Jamestown.—The affairs of 
 the Plymouth Company are revived by Smith.—He explores and maps the coast of 
 Maine and Massachusetts.—Several attempts are made to form a colony in New Eng¬ 
 land.—The Plymouth Company is superseded by the Council of Plymouth.—A new 
 plan of colonization is made, and Smith appointed admiral.—The Puritans arise in the 
 North of England.—They remove to Amsterdam and Leyden.—Determine to remove to 
 America.—Ask permission of the king and the Council of Plymouth.—Meet with dis¬ 
 couragements.—Procure two vessels at their own expense.—Sail from Leyden, and after¬ 
 ward from Southampton.—The Speedwell is found unfit for the voyage, and the Pilgrims 
 depart in the Mayflower.—The Pilgrims have a stormy voyage.—Come in sight of Cape 
 Cod.—They make a frame of government.—Carver is elected governor.—The landing 
 is delayed by bad weather.—The ship is driven by storms.—Enters Plymouth harbor.— 
 The Puritans go ashore on the 11th of December.—Begin to build.—Are attacked with 
 diseases.—Many of the colony die.—An early spring brings them relief. . 85-91. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 
 
 Dutch settlements in America result from the voyages of Hudson.—He is employed 
 by London merchants to reach the Indies.—Sails into the North Atlantic.—Fails in his 
 effort.—Is sent on a second voyage.—And fails.—Goes into the service of the Dutch East 
 India Company.—Sails on a third voyage.—Is driven back by the icebergs.—Turns to 
 America.—Reaches Newfoundland.—Sails southward to the Chesapeake.—Then north¬ 
 ward to New York harbor.—Discovers the Hudson River.—Explores that stream as far 
 as Albany.—Returns to Dartmouth.—Is detained by the English government.—Is sent on 
 a fourth expedition.—Discovers Hudson Strait and Bay.—Is overtaken by winter.—The 
 crew mutiny.—Hudson is cast off among the icebergs.—Dutch vessels begin to trade at 
 the mouth of the Hudson.—The states-general grant a right to trade.—A settlement is 
 made on Manhattan Island.—Block explores Long Island Sound.—Christianson builds 
 Fort Nassau.—May explores the coast of New Jersey.—Holland claims the country 
 from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod. „ 92-94 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ix 
 
 PART III. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. 
 
 A. I>. 1607—1775. 
 
 PARENT COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 The progress of Virginia is hindered.—First settlers are of bad character.—Necessity 
 drives them to labor.—The king gives sealed instructions.—Smith is arrested.—And ex¬ 
 cluded from the council.—He and Newport explore the James.—Return to Jamestown. 
 —Newport goes to England.—The colonists are discouraged.—Disease ravages the settle¬ 
 ment.—Gosnold dies.—Wingfield embezzles the funds.—And is removed from office.— 
 Ratcliffe succeeds.—And is also impeached.—Smith takes control of the colony.—Sketch 
 of his life.—The settlement flourishes under his care.—He explores the country, and pro¬ 
 cures supplies.—The Indians furnish provisions.—Smith explores the Chickahominy.— 
 Is captured by the Indians.—Saves his life by stratagem.—Is carried to Orapax.-—Thence 
 to Pamunkey.—Is condemned to death.—And saved by Pocahontas.—He remains in 
 Powhatan’s household.—Is liberated.—Returns to Jamestown.—Terrifies the savages.— 
 Deplorable condition of the settlement.—Plot to abandon the place.—Newport arrives 
 with new immigrants.—Who are as bad as the others.—The gold-hunters go abroad.— 
 And find mica in the sand of James River.—A ship is loaded with dirt and sent to Eng¬ 
 land.—The planting season goes by.—Smith makes his great exploration of the Chesa¬ 
 peake.—And maps the country.—Returns.—Is elected president.—Newport arrives with 
 more immigrants and supplies.—Progress of the colony. 95-104. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 King James grants a new charter.—Changes are made in the form of government.—A 
 new council is organized.—Delaware is chosen governor.—The other officers.—A fleet 
 with five hundred emigrants sails for America.—Encounters a storm.—Two vessels are 
 wrecked.—Seven ships reach Jamestown.—The commissioners are left-on the Bermuda 
 Islands.—Smith retains the presidency.—New settlements are projected.—Smith is 
 wounded.—Delegates his authority to Percy.—Returns to England.—Colony suffers after 
 his departure.—The starving time.—Gates and his companions reach Virginia.—The 
 settlement is abandoned.—Delaware meets the colony.—And persuades them to return.— 
 Prosperity begins.—But Delaware falls sick.—And returns to England.—Percy is deputy. 
 —Dale arrives as governor.—Brings immigrants.—Writes for supplies and new colo¬ 
 nists.—Who arrive.—The colony improves.—Gates is made governor.—The right of 
 private property is recognized.—And the settlements enlarged. . . , 104-107 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 The London Company receive a third patent.—The colony had proved unprofitable. 
 —Argali kidnaps Pocahontas.—Who is married to Rolfe.—They visit England.—And 
 leave descendants in Virginia.—Argali destroys the French settlements in Acadia. - 
 And reduces the Dutch colony of Manhattan.—Dale becomes governor of Virginia - 
 Tobacco is the staple of Jamestown.—And is used for money.—Argali is chosen gov¬ 
 ernor.—Delaware sails for America.—And dies.—Yeard ley supersedes Argali.—Abolishes 
 martial law.—Establishes the House of Burgesses.—Slavery is introduced.—Society is 
 low.—Women are sent over.—And married to the colonists.—A constitution is granted. 
 —Wyatt becomes governor.—Settlements spread abroad.—The Indians become jealous, 
 —And massacre the people.—But are defeated.—The company is opposed by the king.— 
 A commission is appointed.—Who report against the company.—And its charter is re¬ 
 voked.—But liberty is planted in Virginia.108-113 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Royal government is established.—But the administration is unchanged.—Charles I. 
 becomes king.—Recognizes the Virginia Assembly.—Yeardley is re-elected governor.— 
 Dies.—West is chosen by the council.—Harvey arrives from England.—Land-grants vex 
 the people.—Harvey is impeached.—But is sustained by the king.—Wyatt succeeds.— 
 English Revolution breaks out.—King Charles is beheaded.—Monarchy is.abolished.—• 
 Cromwell becomes Protector.—Virginia inclines to royalty.—Berkeley becomes gov¬ 
 ernor.—The Puritans are persecuted.—An Indian war arises.—The savages are beaten. 
 —Virginia refuses to acknowledge Parliament.—Cromwell restricts her commerce.— 
 Sends a fleet to America.—And the Virginians submit.—Favorable terms are granted 
 —Peace continues during the commonwealth.—The Burgesses elect three governors.— 
 Berkeley is thus chosen.—Accepts.—But at the Restoration renounces his acceptance. 
 —And issues Avrits in the king’s name.—Tyranny follows.—Commerce is restricted.—> 
 The Virginians complain.—In vain.—Charles II. gives away Virginia lands.—And 
 finally the whole State to Arlington and Culpepper.—The Quakers and the Baptists are 
 persecuted.—Taxes are odious.—The people rebel.—An Indian war is the excuse.— 
 And Berkeley’s tyranny the cause.—Bacon heads the insurrection.—The Indians are 
 punished.—Berkeley abdicates.—Returns.—Captures Jamestown.—Bacon takes the 
 place, and burns it.—Dies.—The patriots are dispersed.—And the leaders hanged.— 
 A worse despotism is established.—Culpepper becomes governor.—Treats Virginia as 
 an estate.—Arlington surrenders his claim.—The king recalls the grant.— And Vir¬ 
 ginia becomes a royal province.—Howard and Nicholson administer the government.— 
 William and Mary College founded.—Andro3 becomes governor.—Future history of Vir¬ 
 ginia. .... .114-123 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 The Pilgrims are saved by the coming of spring.—Health is restored.—Miles Stan- 
 dish is sent out to reconnoitre.—Samoset and Squanto come to Plymouth.—A treaty is 
 made with Massasoit.—Other tribes acknowledge the sovereignty of England.—Canon- 
 icus is overawed.—An unfruitful summer.—Immigrants arive.—Are quartered on the 
 colony.—The Pilgrims are destitute.—The new-comers found Weymouth.—The Indi- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 ans plan a massacre.—And are punished by Standish.—Weymouth is abandoned.—A 
 plentiful harvest.—Robinson remains at Leyden.—The colonial enterprise proves un¬ 
 profitable.—The managers sell out to the colonists.—The Established Church is fa¬ 
 vored.—Salem is founded.—The Company of Massachusetts Bay is chartered by the 
 •king and the council.—Boston is founded.—The government is transferred to America. 
 —A large immigration in 1630.—Winthrop is governor.—Cambridge is founded.— 
 Watertown.—Roxbury.—Dorchester.—The colony suffers greatly.—Suffrage is restricted. 
 —Williams protests.—And is banished/—Goes among the Indians.—Is kindly received. 
 —Tarries at Seekonk.—Removes.—And founds Providence.—A representative govern¬ 
 ment is established.—The ballot-box is introduced.—Three thousand immigrants ar¬ 
 rive.—Vane and Peters are the leaders.—Concord is founded.—Colonies remove to the 
 Connecticut.—Religious controversies.—Mrs. Hutchinson is banished.—She and her 
 friends establish a republic on Rhode Island.—Harvard College is founded at Cam¬ 
 bridge.—A printing-press is set up.—Eliot, Welde, and Mather translate the Psalms.-— 
 Liberty flourishes in Massachusetts.—Emigration is hindered by England. 123-133 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—THE UNION. 
 
 Progress of New England.—Circumstances favor a union of the colonies.—Massa¬ 
 chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven are confederated.—No other colonies 
 are admitted.—A Body of Liberties is formed.—The two legislative branches are sepa¬ 
 rated.—The English Revolution is favorable to New England.—Vane and others de¬ 
 fend the rights of the colonies.—The Parliament demands the charter of Massachusetts. 
 —Which is refused.—Cromwell the friend of Massachusetts.—Maine is annexed.- • 
 Early settlements in Maine.—The Quakers arrive at Boston.—Are persecuted and ban¬ 
 ished.—The death penalty is passed against them.—Four persons are executed.—Reac¬ 
 tion against the law.—And the law is abolished.—News of the Restoration reaches 
 Boston.—Whalley and Goffe arrive.—And escape to Connecticut.—Vane and Peters arc 
 executed.—The Navigation Act is passed.—Its bearing on the commerce of New Eng¬ 
 land.—War between England and Holland.—Charles II. attempts to subvert the colo¬ 
 nial charters,—Commissioners are sent to Massachusetts.—Are met with resistance.— 
 And defeated in their objects.—The colony prospers. .... 133-139. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.-KING PHILIP’S WAR. 
 
 Philip becomes king of the Wampanoags.—Causes of jealousy and war.—Alexan¬ 
 der’s imprisonment.—Outrages are committed.—The war begins.—Swanzey is attacked. 
 —Philip is pursued to Mount Hope.—Escapes to Tiverton.—Is driven from the Narra- 
 gansett country.—Goes to the Nipmucks.—A general war ensues.—The Narragansetts 
 are obliged to remain neutral.—English ambassadors are massacred at Brookfield.—The 
 town is attacked.*—Rescued.—Abandoned.—Burned.—Deerfield is partly destroyed.—■ 
 Lathrop attempts to bring off the harvests.—Is ambushed at Bloody Brook.—The battle. 
 —Hadley is attacked.—Rescued by Goffe.—Springfield is assaulted.—And destroyed. 
 —Hadley is burned.—The savages are defeated at Hatfield.—Philip repairs to the Nar¬ 
 ragansetts.—The English declare war.—And invade the country.—Philip and his forces 
 take refuge in a swamp.—Are surrounded.—Attacked.—And utterly routed.—Ruin of 
 the Narragansett nation.—The war continues on the frontiers.—Towns and villages are 
 destroyed.—The savages grow feeble.—Canonchet is taken.—And put to death.—Philip’s 
 family are captured.—And sold as slaves.—Himself hunted down.—And shot.—Sub- 
 
xu 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 mission of the tribes.—Losses of New England.—The English government refuses help. 
 —Randolph comes to abridge the liberties of Massachusetts.—And is defeated.—Mas¬ 
 sachusetts purchases Maine of the heirs of Gorges.—Difficulties concerning New Hamp¬ 
 shire.—A royal government is established in the province.—Cranfield’s administration. 
 —The king’s hostility.—The charter of Massachusetts is annulled.—King Charles dies. 
 —James II. appoints Dudley governor.—And then Andros.—The liberties of the peo¬ 
 ple are destroyed.—The government of Andros is extended over New England.—But 
 the charter of Connecticut is saved.—The Revolution of 1688.—Andros is seized, and 
 imprisoned.—And the colonies restore their liberties. .... 139-147. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 King William’s War begins.—The causes.—Dover is\ attacked and burned.—Pema- 
 quid is destroyed.—And then Schenectady.—And Salmon Falls.—An expedition is 
 planned against Canada.—Phipps takes Port Royal.—But fails at Quebec.—And re¬ 
 turns.—Paper money is issued.—Failure of the expedition against Montreal.—Phipps 
 goes to England.—And returns as royal governor.—Oyster River is destroyed.—Haver¬ 
 hill is attacked and burned.—Mrs. Dustin’s captivity.—The treaty of Ryswick.—The 
 witchcraft excitement begins at Salem.—The causes.—Parris and Mather.—The trials. 
 —Convictions.—Executions.—The reaction.—Mather’s book.—Reflections. 147-153. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 Causes of Queen Anne’s War.—Field of operations in America.—A treaty is made 
 with the Five Nations.—The conflict begins.—Deerfield is burned.—And the inhab¬ 
 itants carried captive to Canada.—Barbarities of the Indians.—An expedition is sent 
 against Port Royal.—The attempt fails.—Is renewed in 1710.—Port Royal is taken.— 
 And named Annapolis.—Preparations are made for invading Canada.—Nicholson com¬ 
 mands the land forces.—And Walker the fleet.—The squadron is delayed.—Stops at 
 Gaspe Bay.—Is shattered by a storm in the St. Lawrence.—Returns in disgrace.—The 
 expedition by land is abandoned.—A treaty is made at Utrecht.—A separate peace is 
 concluded with the Indians.—The people of Massachusetts resist the royal governor. 
 —Causes of King George’s War.—The conflict begins.—Importance of Louisburg.—Its 
 conquest is planned by Shirley.—The colonies contribute men and means.—The expe¬ 
 dition leaves Boston.—Is detained at Canseau.—Joined by Warren’s fleet.—Reaches 
 Gabarus Bay.—Invests Louisburg.—The siege.—The surrender.—Cape Breton submits. 
 —France attempts to reconquer Louisburg.—Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.—Character of 
 the Puritans.. 153-160. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 Character of Sir Henry Hudson.—The East India Company govern Manhattan.—A 
 colony is sent from Holland.—A charter is granted to the West India Company.—The 
 Walloons arrive at New Amsterdam.—May builds Fort Nassau.—And Joris, Fort 
 Orange.—Civil government begins in New Netherlands—May is governor.—And then 
 Verhulst.—And Minuit.—Manhattan is purchased.—And fortified.—Friendly relations 
 are established between the Walloons and the Puritans.—The Dutch devote themselves 
 to the fur-trade.—Growth of the colony.—A charter is granted.—The patroons.—Five 
 manors are laid out.—Delaware is colonized.—And then abandoned.—Van Twiller sue- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 ceeds Minuit.— A fort is built at Hartford.—The English claim the Connecticut.—Swe¬ 
 den purposes to plant an American colony.—The project is delayed.—But renewed by 
 Minuit.—A Swedish colony reaches the Delaware.—Settles at Christiana.—Is prosper¬ 
 ous.—And New Netherland is jealous.—Fort Nassau is rebuilt.—Printz removes to Tin- 
 icum.—The Indians are provoked by the Dutch.—War breaks out.—A desultory contest. 
 —The Mohawks come.—Kieft massacres the Algonquins.—The Avar continues.—Fate ol 
 Mrs. Hutchinson.—Underhill conquers the Indians.—Kieft the author of the war.— 
 De Vries succeeds him... . 160-167. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 NEW YORK.—ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 
 
 Stuy vesant is appointed governor.—Peace established Avith the Indians.—Free trade 
 succeeds monopoly.—Growth of the colony.—A boundary is established between New 
 England and NeAv Netherland.—The Dutch again claim New Sweden.—Build Fort 
 Casimir.—The place is captured by the Swedes.—Stuyvesant conquers and annexes New 
 SAveden.—The Algonquins rebel.—And are subdued.—The Indians of Ulster rise.— 
 Burn Esopus.—Are punished.—Stuyvesant is troubled about his boundaries.—Domes¬ 
 tic difficulties.—New Netherland lags.—The Dutch prefer English laws.—The province 
 is granted to the Duke of York.—The duke makes good his claim.—Sends out Nicolls. 
 —And conquers New Netherland..167-171. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGEISH. 
 
 Nicolls settles the boundaries of NeAv York.—New Jersey is granted to Berkeley 
 and Carteret.—Is claimed by Nicolls.—But the claim is set aside.—The Territories.— 
 The Dutch claim liberty.—Are disappointed.—New land-titles are issued.—Lovelace 
 succeeds Nicolls.—And is resisted by the people.—His tyranny.—Friendship of the 
 English and the Dutch.—War Avith Holland.—Evertsen reconquers NeAv York.—But 
 the province is restored to England.—Andros begins his government.—Proves himself 
 a despot.—Claims the country from the Connecticut to Maryland.—Goes to Saybrook. 
 —Is baffled by Captain Bull.—Attempts to overawe New Jersey.—And fails.—Delaware 
 is separated from New York.—And joined to Pennsylvania.—Dongan becomes gov¬ 
 ernor.—The right of representation is conceded.—Character of the Constitution.—A 
 treaty is made with the Iroquois.—The Duke of York becomes king.—And overthrow* 
 colonial liberties.—Andros is sent out as governor of NeAv England.—Usurps the gov¬ 
 ernments of all the colonies north of the Delaware.—Leisler’s insurrection.—The prov¬ 
 ince yields to his authority.—Schenectady is burned.—Ingoldsby arrives as governor. 
 —Leisler and Milborne are arrested.—Tried.—And hanged.—The Iroquois treaty is 
 renewed.—The Indians make Avar on the French.—The assembly declares against ar¬ 
 bitrary authority.—Fletcher becomes governor.—Attempts to usurp the government 
 of Connecticut and New Jersey.—Is defeated.—Effort to establish the Episcopal 
 Church.—The project fails.—The French invade New York.—Are repelled.—Bello- 
 mont becomes governor.—The career of Captain Kidd.—Cornbury succeeds Bellomont. 
 —New Jersey is annexed to NeAv York.—Cornbury’s fraudulent administration.—He 
 is overthrown.—And succeeded by Lovelace.—An unsuccessful expedition is made 
 against Montreal.—The fleet also fails.—New York is in debt.—The treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 ■—The Tuscarora migration.—A fort is built at Oswego.—The French fortify Niagara 
 and Crown Point.—Crosby is sent out as governor.—Assails the freedom of the press. 
 —The trial of Zenger.—The negro plot.—French invasions of New York.—Treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle.—Slow growth of the province.—Prospects.—Reflections. . 172-183. 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. —Continued. 
 
 MINOR EASTERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Connecticut is granted to Warwick.—And transferred to Say-and-Seal.—The Dutch 
 fortify Hartford.—The Puritans claim the country.—Send an expedition up the Con¬ 
 necticut.—Found Windsor.—A colony leaves Boston.—Settles on the Connecticut.— 
 Winthrop founds Saybrook.—The English control the river.—The Pequod War.—The 
 Narragansetts make a treaty with the English.—The Pequods do likewise.—Violate the 
 compact.—Attempt an alliance with the Narragansetts.—Williams defeats the project. 
 —The Mohegans join the English.—A massacre at Wethersfield.—Mason is chosen to 
 command.—A force is organized.—Proceeds against the Pequods.—And destroys the 
 nation.—The coast of Long Island Sound is explored.—New Haven is founded.—The 
 Bible for a constitution.—Civil government begins in Connecticut.—Character of the 
 laws.—Connecticut joins the Union.—Saybrook is annexed.—A treaty is made with 
 Stuyvesant.—War with New Netherland is threatened.—King Charles is recognized. 
 —Winthrop is sent to England.—Obtains a charter.—Returns.—Is chosen governor.— 
 Growth of the colony.—Andros attempts to assume the government.—Is thwarted at Say¬ 
 brook.—Returns after twelve years.—Invades the assembly at Hartford.—Subverts the 
 government.—The charter is saved.—Fletcher enters the colony.—Is batlled by Wads¬ 
 worth.—Yale College is founded.—Development of the province.—Reflections. 184-192. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 . ' / . \ 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Williams founds Rhode Island.—Sketch of his life.—The Baptist Church is or¬ 
 ganized.—Civil government begins.—Character of the institutions.—Massachusetts re¬ 
 fuses to recall Williams from exile.—A colony at Portsmouth.—The Jewish common¬ 
 wealth.—Newport is founded.—The Norse tower.—A democracy is established.—Rhode 
 Island is rejected by the Union.—Williams procures a charter.—The island of Rhode 
 Island secedes.—Is reannexed.—Patriotism of Williams.—Charles II. reissues the 
 charter.—Prosperity of Rhode Island.—Andros overturns the government.—Is over¬ 
 thrown.—Henry Bull is governor.—Reflections.. 193-198. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 New Hampshire is granted to Gorges and Mason.—And colonized.—Settlements 
 on the Piscataqua.—The province is divided.—Wheelwright purchases the Indian 
 title.—Mason’s patent is confirmed.—He dies.—Difficulties ensue.—Exeter is founded. 
 —New Hampshire is united with Massachusetts.—The Masonian claim is revived.— 
 The question is decided.—The two provinces are separated.—Cranfield is appointed 
 governor.—A general assembly is convened.—Character of the laws.—The royal officers 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xv 
 
 are resisted.—Andros assumes the government.—New Hampshire and Massachusetts 
 are united.—Governed by Bellomont.—Finally separated.—The Masonian claim again. 
 —How decided.—Suffering of the colony in the Indian wars.—Character of the people. 
 —Reflections on the New England colonists. ...... 198-202. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR MIDDLE COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Early settlements in New Jersey.—At Bergen.—And Fort Nassau.—Grants and 
 purchases.—The province is given to Berkeley and Carteret.—Nicolls makes a grant to 
 Puritans.—Elizabethtown is founded.—Nicolls contends with the Carterets.—The pro¬ 
 prietors frame a constitution.—Character of the laws.—The quit-rents.—The colonists 
 resist payment.—Philip Carteret is deposed.—And James Carteret becomes governor.— 
 New Jersey is retaken by Holland.—And again ceded to England.—The Duke of York 
 has his charter renewed.—Andros comes as governor.—Carteret resists.—Berkeley sells 
 West Jersey to Fenwick.—Philip Carteret and Andros dispute about the Eastern prov¬ 
 ince.—Laurie, Lucas, and Penn buy West Jersey.—Object of the purchase.— New Jersey 
 is divided.—Line of division. The proprietors of West Jersey issue the Concessions.—• 
 The Quakers colonize West Jersey.—The Duke of York claims the country.—Sir Wil¬ 
 liam Jones decides against him.—Andros’s claim to East Jersey is annulled.—The Qua¬ 
 kers convene an assembly.—And frame a constitution.—East Jersey is purchased by the 
 Friends.—Barclay is governor.—The two Jerseys submit to Andros.—And afterward 
 regain their liberties.—Conflicting claims to the country.—Discord.—The proprietors 
 surrender their rights of government to the Crown.—New Jersey becomes a royal 
 province.—Is attached to New York under Cornbury.—The people petition for a sepa¬ 
 ration.—Which is granted.—Morris becomes governor.—New Jersey not injured by 
 Indian wars.—Reflections. 203-208. 
 
 CHAPTER XXY. 
 
 PENNS YEV ANI A. 
 
 The Friends are persecuted in Europe.—Penn designs to plant a Quaker State in 
 America.—Charles II. grants the charter of Pennsylvania.—Penn relinquishes his 
 claims on the British government.—Declares his purposes.—Writes a letter to the 
 Swedes.—Invites emigration.—A colony departs under Markham.—The Indians are 
 assured of friendship.—Penn frames a constitution.—The Duke of York surrenders 
 Delaware.—Extent of Penn’s dominion.—He leaves England with a second colony.— 
 Sketch of his life.—He addresses the people at New Castle.—Passes through the 
 Jerseys to New York.—Returns.—Makes the great treaty with the Indians.—Which is 
 kept inviolate.—A convention is held at Chester.—A provisional constitution is 
 adopted.—Penn visits Lord Baltimore.—Philadelphia is founded.—Growth of the 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 city.—Penn sails for England.—Lloyd remains as governor.—Delaware secedes.—Penn 
 adheres to the Stuarts.—Is imprisoned.—His province is taken away.—But afterward 
 restored.—Penn revisits America.—The constitution is modified.—Delaware is finally 
 separated.—Penn returns to England.—Condition of his province.—Hamilton and Evans 
 deputy governors.—Conduct of the latter.—He is removed from office.—Succeeded by 
 Gookin.—Penn’s trials in England.—He dies.—His sons become proprietors of Penn¬ 
 sylvania.—The province is purchased by the colonial assembly.—Reflections. 209-215. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY —Continued. 
 
 MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Clayborne is commissioned by the London Company.—Explores the Chesapeake.— 
 Establishes trading-posts.—Sketch of Sir George Calvert’s life.—He plans a Catholic 
 colony.—Sends a company to Newfoundland.—Goes to Virginia.—Refuses the oath.— 
 Returns to England.—Obtains a charter.—Character and extent of the patent.—Calvert 
 dies.—Sir Cecil succeeds him.—The name of Maryland.—A colony is sent out under 
 Leonard Calvert.—Reaches the Chesapeake.—Ascends the Potomac.—Returns.—And 
 founds St. Mary’s.—Friendly relations are established with the Indians.—Growth of 
 the colony.—An assembly is convened.—Clayborne incites an insurrection.—Is beaten. 
 —Escapes into Virginia.—Is sent to England.—Representative government is estab¬ 
 lished.—An Indian war breaks out.—Clayborne returns to America.—Leads a second 
 insurrection.—Overthrows the government.—The rebellion is suppressed.—Tolerant 
 character of the laws.—Division of the legislature.—Commissioners are appointed by 
 Parliament.—Dissensions of Stone and Clayborne.—The civil war between the Catholics 
 and Protestants.—Fendall’s rebellion.—Maryland declares independence.—Fendall is 
 condemned.—Charles Calvert is governor.—The Protestants gain control of the State. 
 —Maryland becomes a royal province.—The heir of Lord Baltimore is restored to his 
 rights.—The Calverts rule the colony until the Revolution.—Reflections. . 216-224. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 The name of Carolina.—Early explorations.—The country is granted to Clarendon 
 and others.—Albemarle and Clarendon colonies are founded. Cooper and Locke 
 frame the grand model.—Its establishment impossible.—Clarendon county is aban¬ 
 doned.—The proprietors oppress the colonists.—A rebellion ensues. Governor Cul¬ 
 pepper goes to England.—And defends the people.—Clarendon sells his rights. Sothel 
 is sent out as governor.—His tyranny.—He is overthrown.—Ludwell succeeds. And 
 then Walker.—The colony prospers.—Decline of the Indian tribes.—A war breaks out. 
 —Barnwell’s expedition.—Peace.—And war again.—Moore invades the country of th« 
 Tuscaroras.—The savages are beaten.—The nation is divided.—The Tuscarora migra¬ 
 tion.—Division of the Carolinas.—Character of the people. . . - 224-229- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xvii 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 A colony is sent out under West and Sayle.—Reaches Beaufort.—But settles on 
 Ashley River.—Locke’s constitution is rejected.—And a simple government adopted.— 
 West becomes governor.—And then Yeamans.—Slavery is introduced.—Rapid immi¬ 
 gration.—Charleston is founded.—An Indian war arises.—Immigrants arrive from 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland.—The Edict of Nantes is revoked.—The Huguenots 
 flock to South Carolina.—Colleton becomes governor.—Declares martial law.—Is over¬ 
 thrown.—Sothel takes the office.—Is banished.—Ludwell next.—Who retires to Vir¬ 
 ginia.—The proprietors abrogate the grand model.—The Quaker Archdale.—His wise 
 administration.—Moore succeeds.—Tlie war with Florida.—Moore and Daniel attempt 
 to take St. Augustine.—And fail.—Moore makes a successful campaign against the In¬ 
 dians.—The Church of England is established.—The dissenters are disfranchised.—But 
 the act is revoked by Parliament.—The Spaniards besiege Charleston.—And are re¬ 
 pelled.—War with the Yamassees.—The savages are conquered.—Popular revolution 
 in South Carolina.—Nicholson is governor.—The proprietors sell Carolina to the 
 king.— A royal government is established.—Character of the people. . 230-237. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia founded in benevolence.—Oglethorpe the founder.—Sketch of his life.— 
 He leads forth a colony.—And founds Savannah.—The friendly natives.—A treaty is 
 made with the Muskhogees.—Immigrants arrive from various parts of Europe.—Ogle¬ 
 thorpe goes to England.—Returns.—The Moravians.—The Wesleys.—And Whitefield.— 
 Conflicting claims of Georgia and Florida.—Oglethorpe builds forts.—Is commissioned 
 as general.—War breaks out.—The governor besieges St. Augustine.—And fails.—The 
 Spaniards invade Georgia.—Oglethorpe’s stratagem.—The battle of Bloody Marsh.— 
 The Spaniards are defeated.—And- retreat to Florida.—The governor returns to Eng¬ 
 land.—Slavery is introduced.—The prohibitory law is repealed.— Growth of Georgia.— 
 Reflections on the thirteen colonies. 238 - 244 . 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 The colonies begin to act together.—A sense of common danger unites them.—The 
 French and Indian War arises.—Causes considered.—Conflicting territorial claims.—• 
 English colonies on the sea-board.—French colonies in the interior.—France purposes 
 to confine the English to the Atlantic slope.—French settlements result from the efforts 
 2 
 
XV111 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 of the Jesuits.—Missions are established on the lakes.—Joliet and Marquette discover the 
 Mississippi.—Descend the river.—Return to Michigan.—La Salle passes through the 
 lakes.—Descends the Illinois.—Goes to Canada.—Returns.—And explores the Missis¬ 
 sippi to the gulf.—Sails ior France.—Returns with a colony.—Reaches Texas.—Sets 
 out for Canada.—Is murdered.—French posts are established.—The Ohio valley to be 
 occupied.—The animosity of France and England leads to war.—The frontiersmen of 
 the two nations come in conflict.—The Ohio Company is organized.—Obtains a grant 
 of land.—Bienville explores and claims the Ohio valley.—Gist traverses the country to 
 the falls of the Ohio.—The French fortify Le Boeuf and Venango.—Attack a British 
 post.—Gist makes a second exploration.—An English colony on the Youghiogheny.— 
 The Indians favor the English.—The Half-King goes to Erie.—The chiefs confer with 
 Franklin.—Dinwiddie sends a despatch to St. Pierre.—Washington is chosen for the 
 mission.—Sets out by way of Will’s Creek to the site of Pittsburg.—And thence to Le 
 Boeuf.—Washington confers with St. Pierre.—And returns to Virginia.—Hardships 
 of the journey.—Trent begins a fort at the fork of the Ohio.—The French capture the 
 place.—And build Du Quesne.—Washington is sent to retake the fort. . 245-255. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 Washington marches to Great Meadows.—Builds Fort Necessity.—Attacks and 
 defeats Jumonville.—Extends the road toward Du Quesne.—De Villiers approaches.— 
 Attacks Fort Necessity.—And compels a surrender.—An American congress assembles 
 at Albany.—Franklin plans a union.—The colonies reject the constitution.—France 
 sends soldiers to America.—Braddock is sent by England.—He confers with the gov¬ 
 ernors.—Plans four compaigns.—Marches his army to Fort Cumberland.—Proceeds 
 against Du Quesne.—Approaches the fort.—Meets the French and Indians.—And is 
 terribly defeated-—Washington saves the remnant of the army.—Death of. Braddock. 
 —Dunbar retreats.—Destroys the stores.—Evacuates Fort Cumberland.—Retires to 
 Philadelphia... 255-261. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 Nova Scotia under English rule.—Lawrence fears an insurrection.—Is authorized 
 to subdue the French inhabitants.—The English fleet leaves Boston.—The French 
 forts on the Bay of Fundy.—The fleet arrives at Beau-Sejour.—The place is besieged. 
 
 -—And obliged to surrender.—The other forts capitulate.—The British officers deter¬ 
 mine to exile the inhabitants.—The country is laid waste.—And the people carried into 
 banishment. .. 261-264. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 A campaign is planned against Niagara.—Shirley commands.—Proceeds to Os¬ 
 wego.—Wastes the time.—Marches homeward.—Oswego is rebuilt.—Johnson and Ly¬ 
 man go against the French on Lake Champlain.—Build Fort Edward.—Form a camp 
 on Lake George.—Dieskau approaches.—Proceeds by way of Wood Creek against Fort 
 Edward.—Meets the English.—And drives them to the camp.—The battle.—-Tha 
 French are defeated.—Dieskau is killed.—The English lose heavily.—Johnson builds 
 Fort William Henry.—The French reinforce their forts. .... 264-266. 
 
CONTENTS . 
 
 xix 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 Shirley becomes commander-in-chief.—Washington repels the Indians.—Franklin 
 defends Pennsylvania.—The campaigns of 1756 are planned.—The military forces of 
 America are consolidated.—Loudoun is commander-in-chief.—He and Abercrombie 
 arrive in New York with soldiers and supplies.—England declares war.—Abercrombie 
 goes to Albany.—And stays there.—Montcalm besieges and captures Oswego.—The 
 Delawares revolt.—And are punished.—Loudoun burrows at Albany.—The French 
 strengthen their forts.—The conquest of Louisburg is planned.—Loudoun proceeds to 
 Halifax.—Ilolbourn joins him.—They muster and do nothing.—Loudoun returns to 
 New York.—Montcalm and the Iroquois besiege and capture Fort William Henry.'— 
 The Indians massacre the prisoners.—Review of the situation. 267-270. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 Pitt becomes prime minister.—Loudoun is deposed.—Abercrombie succeeds.—An 
 able corps of generals sent to America.—Three campaigns are planned.—Amherst and 
 Wolfe proceed against Louisburg.—Besiege and take the fortress.—Abercrombie attacks 
 Ticonderoga.—And is repulsed with great loss.—Bradstreet takes Fort Frontenac.— 
 Montcalm advises peace.—Forbe3 marches against Du Quesne.—Grant is defeated.— 
 Washington leads the advance.—The French abandon and burn Du Quesne.—The 
 place named Pittsburg.—Amherst commander-in-chief.—Relative strength of the Eng¬ 
 lish and the French.—Pitt plans the conquest of Canada.—Prideaux defeats the French 
 before Niagara.—And captures the fortress.—Amherst takes Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point.—Wolfe proceeds against Quebec.—Reaches the Island of Orleans.—Besieges the 
 city.—The Lower Town is destroyed.—Montcalm’s position.—The battle of Montmor- 
 enci.—Wolfe’s fever.—He ascends the river.—Plans an assault.—Discover’s Wolfe’s 
 Cove.—Gains the Plains of Abraham.—Fights a decisive battle.—Defeats the French.— 
 Is slain.—Quebec capitulates.—And then Montreal.—The Cherokee revolt is quelled.— 
 The effect of the conquest of Canada. The French outposts are included in the sur¬ 
 render of Montreal.—Rogers is sent to take possession of the forts.—He reaches De¬ 
 troit.—Receives the surrender of Forts Miami and Ouatanow.—Mackinaw, Green Bay 
 and St. Marie afteiward capitulate.—The English treat the Red men badly.—The lat¬ 
 ter become revengeful.—They make an attempt against Detroit.—And are baffled.— 
 Conspiracies grow rife.—Pontiac organizes a confederacy.—Makes a plot for the cap¬ 
 ture of Detroit.—And fails.—An unsuccessful siege ensues.—The savages are victorious 
 in other quarters.—They capture most of the western forts.—The confederacy breaks 
 up.—Pontiac is abandoned.—And killed.—The war continues on the ocean.—England 
 is victorious.—A treaty of peace.—The terms. 270-279. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 The thirteen colonies.—Institutions.—Population.—Distribution of the same.— 
 Growth of a national character and sentiment.—Education.—Character of the same in 
 New England.—In the South.—Colleges.—Newspapers.—Books and men.—Absence ol 
 roads.—Agriculture the predominating pursuit.—Ship-building and manufactures.— 
 What the British Board of Trade was good for.—Reflections on the character of the 
 Anglo-American colonists. 280-284. 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION. 
 
 A. I>. 1775—1789. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 • CAUSES. 
 
 Importance of the revolution.—The question decided by it.—Character of the con¬ 
 test.—The causes.—Great Britain claims the right of arbitrary government.—France 
 incites the rebellion.—The disposition of the Americans encourages independence.— 
 Publio opinion leads to the same result.—The king provokes a conflict.—Parliament 
 passes oppressive acts.—The question of taxation.—Nature of the dispute.—Tbe Im¬ 
 portation Act.—Its provisions.—Writs of Assistance are issued.—And resisted.—The 
 sugar and wine duties.—The colonists refuse to pay them.—A Stamp Act is proposed.— 
 Indignation in the colonies.—The question of the Indian war-debt arises.—The Stamp 
 Act is passed.—Its provisions.—The news is received in America.—The wrath of the 
 people.—Scene in the House of Burgesses.—Patrick Henry’s speech.—Passage of the 
 resolutions.—Other assemblies pursue a similar course.—Tbe first Colonial Congress.— 
 A declaration of Rights is adopted.—Memorials to tbe king and Parliament.—The 
 Stamp Act is resisted.—And the stamps destroyed.—Suspension of business.—Tbe Sons 
 of Liberty.—A non-importation agreement is made.—The wrath of England.—Camden 
 and Pitt defend the colonists.—Repeal of the Stamp Act.—Joy follows.—Townshend re¬ 
 news the scheme.—Secures the passage of a glass and tea-tax.—The Americans resist 
 the act.—Circular of Massachusetts.—Seizure of a sloop at Boston.—Insurrection of the 
 people.—Gage takes possession of Boston.—Is ordered to arrest the patriots.—Rebellion 
 of Virginia and North Carolina.—Conflict at New York.—Tbe Boston massacre.—Re¬ 
 peal of the duties.—Passage of the Salary Act.—Burning of the Gaspee.—Stratagem 
 ©f the ministry.—Tea is shipped to America.—Is spoiled at Charleston.—Refused at 
 New York and Philadelphia.—And poured overboard at Boston.—Passage of the Port 
 Bill.—Opposition of the Burgesses.—The charter of Massachusetts is annulled.—The 
 people declared rebels.—The second Congress assembles.—Resolutions and addresses. 
 —A British army is ordered to America.—Boston Neck fortified.—Military stores re¬ 
 moved.—The assembly refuses to disband.—War becomes inevitable, . 285-296. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE BEGINNING. 
 
 The patriots remove their stores.—Gage plans to destroy them.—Pitcairn is sent for 
 that purpose.—Dawes and Revere arouse the people.—The’British reach Lexington.— 
 Fire on the patriots.—Proceed to Concord.—Ransack the village.—Are attacked.—And 
 Jriven back to Boston.—The country is fired.—The patriots gather at Cambridge.— 
 Allen and Arnold march against Ticonderoga.—And capture the fortress.—The British 
 *re reinforced.—Proclamation of Gage.—His plans.—The Americans fortify Breed’s 
 Hill.—Amazement of the British.—The battle.—Excitement of the people.—The North 
 Carolinians declare independence.—The Colonial Congress assembles.—An appeal to 
 She king.—Washington commander-in-chief.—Sketch of his life.— TTis duties and ern- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxi 
 
 barrassments.—Organization of the army.—Royal rule is overthrown.—Struggle with 
 Dunmore.—Expedition against Quebec.—Led by Schuyler, Montgomery and Arnold.— 
 Schuyler falls sick.—Montgomery takes Montreal.—Hardships of Arnold’s march.—He 
 and Montgomery unite against Quebec.—The town is invested.—The assault and defeat.—- 
 Fall of Montgomery.—The expedition is abandoned.—Sketch of Montgomery. 297-305. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE WORK OF ’76. 
 
 The king answers the colonies.—Howe succeeds Gage.—Siege of Boston.—The Brit¬ 
 ish evacuate the city.—The Americans enter.—Public rejoicings.—Washington goes to 
 New York.—Clinton threatens the city.—Cornwallis and Parker proceed against 
 Charleston.—Rising of the Carolinians.—The attack on Moultrie.—Repulse of the Brit¬ 
 ish.—Distresses of the army.—Great Britain hires the Hessians.—And makes new lev¬ 
 ies.—Exasperation of the patriots.—The question of independence.—Lee’s resolutions. 
 —Debates.—A committee is appointed.—The Declaration of Independence adopted.— 
 And received with enthusiasm.—Its leading principles.—Howe returns.—Lands an 
 army.—Attempts to open negotiations.—And fails.—The British advance on Long Is¬ 
 land.—Fight a battle.—And defeat the patriots.—Washington saves the army.—Dis¬ 
 couragement of the people.—The British take New York.—Negotiations are again at¬ 
 tempted.—But fail.—Movements of the two armies.—Battle of White Plains.—Dispo¬ 
 sition of the American forces.—Notice of Hamilton.—The capture of Fort Washington 
 —Fort Lee is taken.—The Americans retreat across New Jersey.—The pursuit ends.— 
 Enlargement of Washington’s powers.—British successes in Rhode Island.—Lee’s cap¬ 
 ture.—Washington recruits his army.—Recrosses the Delaware.—Defeats the British at 
 
 Trenton.—Effect of the battle.—Alarm of the British.—Robert Morris to the rescue.—• 
 * 
 
 Washington threatens the British posts. 305-317. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OPERATIONS OF ’77. 
 
 The British advance against Trenton.—Washington withdraws his forces.—Attacks 
 Princeton.—And wins a victory.—Takes post at Morristown.—The British at New 
 Brunswick.—Cornwallis on the defensive.—Destruction of stores at Peekskill.—Lincoln 
 attacked at Boundbrook.—Tryon burns Danbury.—Is attacked and driven away.— 
 Meigs takes Sag Harbor.—Washington advances into New Jersey.—The British 
 threaten Philadelphia.—Retire to Amboy.—Leave the State.—Barton captures Prescott. 
 —Congress returns to Philadelphia.—Help from France.—Coming of La Fayette and 
 De Kalb.—Plan of Burgoyne’s campaign.—The invasion begins.—Fall of Crown Point 
 and Ticonderoga.—The battle of Hubbardton.—Capture of Whitehall.—Fort Edward 
 is taken.—Schuyler retreats to the Mohawk.—The British advance is impeded.—The 
 battle of Bennington.—St. Leger besieges Schuyler.—Herkimer brings relief.—And is 
 defeated.—Arnold advances.—The Indians desert the British.—St. Leger retreats.—Dis¬ 
 couragement of Burgoyne.—Gathering of the Americans.—Burgoyne at Saratoga.—The 
 first battle.—Critical condition of the British.—A diversion is attempted by Clinton.— 
 But fails.—The second battle.—The Americans victorious.—Burgoyne is surrounded.— 
 And driven to surrender.—The army of the North relieves Washington.—The move¬ 
 ment of Howe against Philadelphia.—He enters the Chesapeake.—The battle of Brandy¬ 
 wine.—Retreat of the Americans.—Washington advances to Warren’s Tavern.—A 
 storm prevents the battle.—Countermarching of the armies.—The British capture Phil¬ 
 adelphia.—Congress adjourns to Lancaster.—Washington on Skippack Creek.—The 
 
xxn 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 battle of Germantown.—Capture of Forts Mercer and Mifflin.—The Americans at 
 Whitemarsh.—Adventure of Lydia Darrah.—The British winter at Philadelphia.—The 
 Americans at Valley Forge.—Sorrows of Washington. 317-328. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 Silas Deane is sent to France.—His mission.—France favors the Americans.—Sup¬ 
 plies are sent to the patriots.—Steuben arrives.—Lee and Franklin are appointed to 
 negotiate a treaty.—Franklin’s influence at the French court.—A treaty is concluded.— 
 Sketch of Franklin.—Arrival of D’Estaing’s fleet.—War threatened between France and 
 England.—Effort of Great Britain for peace.—The British fleet at Philadelphia.—With¬ 
 drawal of the squadron.—The city evacuated.—Washington pursues.—The battle of 
 Monmouth.—Lee disobeys orders.—Is court-martialed and dismissed.—British concen¬ 
 trate at New York.—The city threatened by D’Estaing.—He sails against Rhode Island. 
 —Sullivan co-operates against Newport.—Howe follows D’Estaing.—Both squadrons 
 shattered by a storm.—The siege of Newport.—Abandonment of the enterprise.—De¬ 
 struction of American shipping.—Byron succeeds Howe.—Marauding of the British.— 
 The Wyoming massacre.—Ruin of Cherry Valley.—The expedition of Major Clarke.— 
 The French and British fleets sail away.—A force is sent against Savannah.—Capture of 
 the city.—The situation. 328-333. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF ’79. 
 
 Hardships of the soldiers.—T-yon’s expedition.—Is attacked by the militia.—Put¬ 
 nam’s explait.—Fall of Stony Point and Verplank’s.—Insurrection in Virginia.—Tryon 
 invades Connecticut.—Destruction of East Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk.—Stony 
 Point is retaken by Wayne.—Lee captures Jersey City.—An American flotilla sails to 
 the Penobscot.—Is ruined.—Sullivan ravages the Indian country.—The British evacuate 
 Rhode Island.—War in the South.—Fort Sunbury is taken.—Fall of Augusta.—Ander¬ 
 son defeats the tories.—Pickens gains a victory.—Augusta is evacuated.—Defeat of 
 Lincoln’s army.—The militia rally.—Lincoln takes the field.—Threatens Augusta.— 
 Retums to Charleston.—Is beaten at Stono Ferry.—Suspension of activity.—D’Estaing 
 arrives.—Siege of Savannah.—The unsuccessful assault.—Paul Jones’s victory.—Re¬ 
 flections. . . . 334-339. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 REVERSES AND TREASON. 
 
 . Operations in the North suspended.—Ternay’s fleet arrives.—Campaigns are planned. 
 —Arbuthnot and Clinton besiege Charleston.—The city is taken.—Ravages of Tarleton. 
 —Plan of the British to conquer South Carolina.—Capture of Ninety-Six.—Cornwallis’s 
 success.—Tarleton’s massacre.—South Carolina is subjugated.—Clinton returns to New 
 York .—Marion and Sumter’s bands.—They scour the countrv.—Their victories.—Gates 
 takes command.—The British at Camden.—Gates advances against them.—Is met and 
 defeated.—Is superseded by Greene.—Sumter’s corps is broken up.—Cruelty of the 
 British.—Rawdon advances into North Carolina.—Ferguson’s tories are defeated.— 
 Financial distresses.—Sacrifices of Morris.—The treason of Arnold.—Sketch of his 
 career.—Andre is sent to a conference.—The interview.—Andr6 attempts to return to 
 New York.—Is captured, condemned, and executed.—Treaty with Holland. 339-345. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxm 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Desperate condition of the army.—The Pennsylvania line revolt.—Mutiny of the 
 Jersey brigade.—Robert Morris secretary of finance.—Champe attempts to capture 
 Arnold.—Fails.—Arnold’s expedition to Virginia.—Second plan to capture him.— 
 He becomes commander-in-chief in Virginia.—Is superseded.—And ordered out of the 
 State.—Leads a band into Connecticut.—Captures Fort Griswold.—Greene in the 
 South.—Advances into South Carolina.—Morgan at the Cowpens.—Is attacked by 
 Tarleton.—But defeats him.—Cornwallis attempts to cut off Morgan’s retreat.—Greene 
 takes command.—Crosses the Catawba.—Race for the Yadkin.—Greene wins it.—- 
 Race for the Dan.—Greene wins it.—Chagrin of the British.—Greene turns upon 
 the enemy.—Lee disperses the tories.—Greene moves forward to Guilford.—Cornwallis 
 attacks him.—An indecisive battle.—The British retreat to Wilmington.—Cornwallis 
 goes to Virginia.—The Americans advance into South Carolina.—The battle of Hob- 
 kirk’s Hill.—The British retire to Eutaw Springs.—The siege of Ninety-Six.—The 
 place is abandoned by the enemy.—Greene in the Highlands.—Sumter, Lee, and 
 Marion overrun the country.—Execution of Ilnyne.—Greene advances against Eutaw 
 Springs.—The battle.—The British retreat to Charleston.—The situation.—The cam¬ 
 paign in Virginia.—Cornwallis ravages the State.—Marches down the James.—Is 
 attacked by Wayne.—Proceeds to Portsmouth.—And thence to Yorktown.—The Army 
 of the North comes down upon him.—The French fleet co-operates.—Yorktown is 
 besieged.—And Cornwallis’s army taken.—Rejoicings.—Fall of the king’s party in Par¬ 
 liament.—Negotiations for peace.—A treaty is concluded.—Its terms.—Carleton super¬ 
 sedes Clinton.—Evacuation of New York.—Washington bids farewell to his officers.— 
 Retires to private life. .. 345-356. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 
 
 Bad condition of the government.—Its defects.—Franklin pleads for union.— 
 A committee appointed to prepare a Constitution.—The Articles of Confederation 
 are adopted.—The colonies are slow to ratify.—The Confederation.—Defects of the 
 same.—Chaotic condition of affairs.—A firmer Constitution is projected.—The con¬ 
 vention at Annapolis.—Adjournment to Philadelphia.—The Constitution is re¬ 
 ported to the convention.—And adopted.—The last colonial Congress.—Its final work. 
 —The North-western Territory is organized.—The several States cede their rights 
 away.—St. Clair appointed governor.—Plan of organization.—Slavery is restricted.— 
 —The people divide on the question of adopting the Constitution.—Sketch of Ham¬ 
 ilton.—Character of the Constitution.—Amendments thereto.—The struggle in the 
 colonial conventions.—Ratification by eleven States.—Washington is chosen Pres¬ 
 ident.—John Adams for the vice-presidency.—Washington’s journey to New York.— 
 Conclusion. 356-362. 
 
XXIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART Y. 
 
 NATIONAL PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 Washington’s administration. 
 
 Washington is inaugurated President.—And the new government organized.—The 
 country is beset with difficulties.— A cabinet is formed.—The Supreme Court is organ¬ 
 ized.—Rhode Island and North Carolina ratify the Constitution.—Washington makes a 
 tour through New England.—Presidential etiquette.—Hamilton’s financial measures. 
 —The seat of government is fixed.—An Indian war breaks out.—Harmar marches 
 against the Miamis.—Is defeated on the Maumee.—The Bank of the United States is 
 established.—Vermont is admitted into the Union.—The first census.—St. Clair is sent 
 against the Indians.—His army is defeated.—The wrath of Washington.—St. Clair is 
 superseded by Wayne.—Kentucky is admitted.—Washington re-elected.—The foreign 
 relations of the government are troubled.—Genet’s conduct.—Fouchet supersedes 
 him.-—Troubles in the President’s cabinet.—Antagonism of Jefferson and Hamilton.— 
 The whisky insurrection breaks out.—Is suppressed by Lee.—Wayne invades the 
 Indian country.—Defeats the Red men at Waynesfield.—Compels a cession of ter¬ 
 ritory.—Dies.—Great Britain orders the seizure of American vessels.—Jay procures 
 reparation and a treaty.—Popular opposition thereto.—The compact with Spain.— 
 Peace is purchased of Algiers.—Tennessee is admitted.—Washington issues his Fare¬ 
 well address.—The candidates for the Presidency.—Adams is elected.—Jefferson for 
 Vice-President. 363-371. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 ADAMS’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Sketch of John Adams.—Opposition to the new administration.—France demands 
 an alliance.—Orders the destruction of American commerce.—Pinckney is dismissed.— 
 The extra session of Congress.—Gerry, Marshall, and Pinckney are sent to France.— 
 The Directory want money.—Pinckney’s answer.—An American army is organized.— 
 Washington comander-in-chief.—The work of the navy.—Truxtun’s victories.—-Doings 
 of Talleyrand.—Napoleon seeks peace.—The successful embassy of Murray, Ellsworth, 
 and Davie.—Death of Washington.—Close of the administration.—Growth of the 
 country.—The Alien and Sedition laws.—Overthrow of the Federal party.—Jefferson 
 is elected President.—And Burr Vice-President.. 372-376. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 Jefferson’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of Jefferson.—He puts Democrats in office.—Ohio is admitted.—Indiana 
 and Mississippi organized.—Louisiana is purchased from France.—Boundaries.—The 
 territory of Orleans is set off.—John Marshall in the chief-justiceship.—The Mediter- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXV 
 
 ranean pirates.—Preble is sent against them.—The Philadelphia is captured.—Retaker 
 and burned.—The siege of Tripoli.—Expedition of Eaton.—Yusef signs a treaty.—The 
 duel of Burr and Hamilton.—Jefferson is re-elected.—Michigan is organized.—Lewis 
 and Clarke explore Oregon.—Burr makes a conspiracy.—Is tried for treason.—Brit¬ 
 ish aggressions on American commerce.—England blockades the coast of France.— 
 Napoleon retaliates.—Great Britain forbids the coasting trade.—An old abuse revived, 
 r—The rule of 1756 again asserted.—The effect on American commerce.—The English 
 theory of citizenship.—The object of that theory.—The attack of the Leopard on the 
 Chesapeake. —Passage of the Embargo Act.—The Orders in Council and Milan Decree.— 
 Fulton and his steamboat.—Invention of the torpedo.—Summary of events. 376-388. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 madison’s administration and the war of ’12. 
 
 Sketch of the life and previous services of Madison.—His politics.—The Non¬ 
 intercourse Act takes the place of the Embargo.—Erskine promises the repeal of the 
 Orders in Council.—The promise not fulfilled.—Bonaparte makes a decree.—And then 
 revokes it.—Obstinacy of Great Britain.—A crisis is reached.—Third census.—Tecumtha 
 and the Prophet.—Harrison purchases lands.—Tecumtha refuses to ratify.—Harrison 
 marches up the Wabash Valley.—Approaches the Prophet’s town.—Is attacked by 
 night.—And routs the savages.—Fight of the President and Little Belt. —The twelfth 
 Congress.—War inevitable.—The President’s timid disposition.—Henry’s conspiracy is 
 discovered.—Nature of the plot.—Effect of the disclosure.—British vessels are embar¬ 
 goed.—Louisiana is admitted.—War declared against England.—Preparations.—Relative 
 strength of the belligerents.—Hull’s campaign.—He marches to the head of Lake Erie. 
 —Reaches Detroit.—Invades Canada.—Retreats.—Van Horne’s defeat.—Miller’s vic¬ 
 tory.—Siege of Detroit.—Hull’s disgraceful surrender.—He is convicted of cowardice. 
 —Capture and burning of Fort Dearborn.—Character assumed by the war.— Sketch of 
 the American defences.—The Constitution captures the Guernere. —The Wasp the Frolic. 
 —The Poictiers the Wasp. —The United States the Macedonian. —The Essex the Noclon. — 
 And the Constitution the Java. —Effect of these victories.—Comment of the English 
 newspapers.—Van Rensselaer moves against Queenstown.—Carries the batteries.—• 
 Death of Brock.—The Americans entrench.—But are forced to surrender.—Smyth suc¬ 
 ceeds Van Rensselaer.—And makes a fool of himself.—The Americans at Black Rock 
 cross and recross the river.—Madison re-elected.. 388-399. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 WAR OF ’12.—CONTINUED. 
 
 Plan of the campaigns of ’13. —The Americans capture Frenchtown.—Are as¬ 
 sailed by Proctor.—Surrender.—And are butchered.—Harrison at Fort Meigs.—He 
 is besieged.—Clay raises the siege.—Proctor and Tecumtha return.—Attack Fort 
 Stephenson.—And are defeated by Croghan.—Affairs on Lake Erie.—Perry buildg 
 a fleet.—Attacks the British squadron.—And gains a signal victory.—Harrison em¬ 
 barks his forces to Malden.—Follows the British and Indians to the Thames.—And 
 routs them in battle.—The Creeks massacre the garrison at Fort Mims.—Jackson 
 and Coffee with the Tennesseeans.—They burn Tallushatchie.—Battles of Talladega 
 vnd Autosse.—Winter and starvation.—Battle of Emucfau.—And Horse Shoe Bend.— 
 Dearborn proceeds against Toronto.—Battle at the water’s edge.—The Americans 
 capture the town.—The British attack Sackett’s Harbor.—The Americans on the 
 Niagara.—They storm Fort George.—Suspension of operations.—Wilkinson is made 
 
XXVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 commander-in-chief.—Expedition against Montreal. The battle of Chrysler s Field. 
 —The expedition is abandoned.—Winter quarters at Fort Covington—McClure 
 evacuates Fort George.—Turns Newark.—The British retaliate. The Hornet captures 
 the Peacock. —The Chesapeake is taken by the Shannon. —Death of Lawrence—Cap¬ 
 ture of the Argus. —The Enterprise takes the Boxer. The Essex is captuied by the 
 Phoebe and Cherub—A British fleet bombards Lewiston.—Marauding in the Chesa¬ 
 peake. . 400-407 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OP ’14. 
 
 Scott and Ripley capture Erie.—Battles of Chippewa and Niagara.—The Amer¬ 
 icans retreat to Erie.—Siege of that place by the British. They are driven off. Winter 
 quarters at Black Rock.—Wilkinson again invades Canada.—Is defeated at La Colle. 
 And retreats to Plattsburg.—McDonough’s squadron on the lake. I lie Biitish ad¬ 
 vance—Attack by land and water.—And are defeated—Cochrane and Ross in the 
 Chesapeake.—Barney destroys his vessels.—Battle of Bladensbuig. Washington is 
 captured by the British—Public buildings burned.—Alexandria pays a ransom — 
 Siege of Baltimore.—Ravages in New England.— The Federal peace paity. The Hart¬ 
 ford Convention.—Jackson captures Pensacola.—Takes command at New Orleans. 
 Approach of the British.—Skirmishing and fighting.—The decisive battle. Ruin of 
 Packenham’s army.—The news of peace.—Sea-fights afterward.— The treaty of Ghent. 
 —Great rejoicings.—Terms of the treaty.—Condition of the country. Rechaiteiing of 
 the United States Bank.—The Mediterranean pirates again.—Decatur sent out against 
 them.—He captures a Moorish ship.—And then another. Enters the Bay of Algiers. 
 And dictates the terms of peace.—Indiana is admitted.—Liberia founded.—Monroe is 
 elected President. . .. 407-416. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 monroe’s administration. 
 
 The new President and his policy.—The cabinet.—Revival of the country.—De¬ 
 mand for the recognition of Hayti—Treaty with the Northwestern Indians.—Missis¬ 
 sippi is admitted.—The pirates of Amelia Island dispersed—The question of internal 
 improvements arises.—The canal from Buffalo to Albany. The Seminole wai bieaks 
 out.—Jackson invades the hostile country.—Captures St. Marks.—Hangs Arbuthnot and 
 Ambrister.—Takes Pensacola.—An excitement follows.—Which leads to the cession of 
 Florida.—Great financial crisis of 1819.—Illinois is admitted.—And Alabama.—Ar¬ 
 kansas is organized.—And Maine admitted.—And Missouri.—The slavery agitation. 
 And Missouri Compromise—Its terms—Monroe and Tompkins are re-elected.—Com¬ 
 modore Porter suppresses piracy in the AVest Indies.—Sympathy of the United States 
 for the South American republics.—The Monroe Doctrine. The visit of La Fayette. 
 Excitement attending the presidential election.—John Quincy Adams chosen. 416-423. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Sketch of the President.—Partisan opposition in Congress.—Internal improve¬ 
 ments favored by the executive.—Trouble with Georgia about the lands of the Creeks. 
 
 Settled by a treaty.—Death of Adams and Jefferson.—The Masonic excitement in 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXV11 
 
 New York.—Discussion of the tariff in Congress.—A protective duty laid on fabrics.— 
 A new departure in American history.—Adams renominated for the Presidency.—Gen¬ 
 eral Jackson put forward by the Democrats.—And elected. . . . 423-426. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 jackson’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of Jackson’s life and character.—He fills the offices with his political 
 friends—Opposes the rechartering of the United States Bank.—And vetoes the bill.— 
 The new political organization.—Sketch of parties.—The tariff question again.—South 
 Carolina attempts nullification.—Debate of Webster and Hayne.—The President’s proc¬ 
 lamation.—South Carolina recedes from her position.—Mr. Clay’s tariff compromise.— 
 The Black Hawk war breaks out.—Generals Scott and Atkinson are sent against the 
 Red men.—Who are driven to submission.—The difficulty with the Cherokees.—Char¬ 
 acter of that race.—The wrongs done to them.—Scott compels their removal to the 
 West.—A second Seminole war.—The arrest of Osceola.—His release and conspiracy.— 
 Dade’s massacre.—Murder of General Thompson.—Clinch fights the savages and re¬ 
 treats.—Gaines defeats the Indians on the Withlacoochie.—Battle of the Wahoo Swamp. 
 —A second fight.—Tbe President orders the distribution of the funds.—A panic follows. 
 —The President is vituperated.—Is censured by Congress.—But re-elected.—He brings 
 France and Portugal to terms.—Death-list of eminent men.—Fires in New York and 
 Washington.—Arkansas and Michigan admitted into the Union.—Jackson’s farewell 
 address.—Van Buren elected President. .. 426-436. 
 
 CHAPTER LY. 
 van btjren’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of the new executive.—Another monetary disturbance.—Continuance of the 
 Seminole war.—Colonel Taylor hunts the savages to Lake Okeechobee.—Defeats them. 
 —And compels submission.—The financial panic of ’37.—Causes which led thereto — 
 Especially the Specie Circular.—The banks suspend.—Tremendous failures.—Treasury 
 notes are issued.—The Independent Treasury Bill is discussed.—And finally passed.— 
 Partial revival of business.—The Canada insurrection.—Affair of the Caroline .—Wool is 
 sent to the Niagara.—Order is restored.—An early presidential canvass.—Uneventful 
 character of Van Buren’s administration.—The sixth census.—General Harrison is 
 elected President. .. 436-440 
 
 CHAPTER LYI. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYDER. 
 
 Sketch of the President’s life.—He enters upon his duties.—Falls sick.—And dies. 
 —Tyler succeeds to the Presidency.—Sketch.—Repeal of the Independent Treasury 
 Bill.—A bill is passed to recharter the United States Bank.—And vetoed by the Presi¬ 
 dent.—The bankrupt law.—Rupture between the executive and Congress.—Resignation 
 of the cabinet—The north-eastern boundary is settled by the Webster-Ashburton treaty. 
 —The Rhode Island insurrection.—The suffrage party elects Dorr. And the law-and- 
 order party, King.—The latter is supported by the government.—Dorr’s followers are 
 scattered—And himself convicted of treason—But afterward pardoned.—Building and 
 dedication of Bunker Hill monument.—The Van Rensselaer land troubles in New 
 York—The Mormons—They are driven from Missouri.—Found Nauvoo.—Popular 
 feeling against them.—Smith and his brother are murdered.—And the Mormons driven 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxviii 
 
 into exile.—They journey to Salt Lake.—The Texas excitement begins.—Outline of 
 Texas history.—The people rebel against Mexico.—Battle of Gonzales.—Capture of the 
 Alamo.—And massacre of the garrison.—The battle of San Jacinto decides the contest. 
 —Texas independent.—Seeks admission into the Union.—Is refused at first.—The peo¬ 
 ple of the United States divide on the question of annexation.—On that issue Polk 
 is elected President.—Professor Morse and the telegraph.—Texas admitted into the 
 Union. 440-447. 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 polk’s administration and the Mexican war. 
 
 Sketch of President Polk.—Texas ratifies the annexation.—General Taylor sent to 
 defend the country.—The boundary question.—Proposition to negotiate.—Mexico 
 refuses.—Taylor ordered to the Neuees.—And thence to the Rio Grande.—He estab- 
 lislies a post at Point Isabel.—And builds Fort Brown.—Beginning of hostilities by the 
 Mexicans.—Taylor retires to Point Isabel.—Mexican boasting.—Returns toward Mata- 
 moras.—Meets the Mexicans.—Fights and gains the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de 
 la Palma.—Siege of Fort Brown.—News of the battles in the United States.—Declaration 
 of War.—Plan of the campaigns.—General Wool musters the forces.—Taylor captures 
 Matamoras.—Advances against Monterey.—Besieges and storms the town.—An armis¬ 
 tice.—Santa Anna made President of Mexico and general of the army.—Saltillo is taken 
 by Worth.—Victoria by Patterson.—And Tampico by Conner.—Wool advances.—And 
 Scott assumes command.—Kearney captures Santa Fe.—Moves westward.—Is joined by 
 Carson.—And marches to the Pacific coast.—The deeds of Colonel Fremont.—Rebellion 
 of the Californians.—They defeat the Mexicans.—Monterey, San Diego, and Los Angelos 
 taken.—Battle of San Gabriel.—The march and battles of Colonel Doniphan.—Taylor’s 
 and Wool’s forces ordered to the coast.—Critical condition of Taylor’s army.—Ap¬ 
 proach of Santa Anna.—Battle of Buena Vista.-—Retirement of Taylor from the 
 service.—Scott besieges and captures Vera Cruz.—Marches against the capital.—Battle 
 of Cerro Gordo.—Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla are taken.—Negotiations.—The march 
 renewed.—The army passes the Cordilleras.—Reaches Ayotla.—Turns to the left.—The 
 approaches and fortifications of the city.—Storming of Contreras and San Antonio.— 
 Churubusco is carried.—The Mexicans driven back to Chapultepec.—More foolish nego¬ 
 tiations.—Scott rests his army.—And then advances.—Molino del Rey and Casa de 
 Mata are stormed.—Chapultepec is taken.—Flight of the Mexican government.—The 
 American army enters the city.—Santa Anna attacks the hospitals at Puebla.—Is driven 
 off by General Lane.—Downfall of the Mexican authority.—The treaty of Gaudalupe 
 Hidalgo.—Its terms.—Settlement of the Oregon boundary.—The international line es¬ 
 tablished on the forty-ninth parallel.—The discovery of gold in California.—The excite¬ 
 ment which ensued.— Importance of the mines.—Founding of the Smithsonian Institu¬ 
 tion.—Death of Jackson and John Quincy Adams.—Wisconsin is admitted.—Establish¬ 
 ment of the Department of the Interior.—The canvass for President.—Rise of the Free 
 Soil party.—The Wilmot proviso.—Ejection of Taylor to the presidency. 447-462, 
 
 CHAPTER LVItl. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 Sketch of the chief magistrate.—The question of slavery in California —A terri* 
 torial government is organized.—A petition for admission.—The controversy in Con¬ 
 gress.—Other political vexations.—Clay as a peace-maker.—Passage of the Omnibus 
 Bill.—And its provisions.—Death of the President.—The slaverv excitement subsides. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXIX 
 
 —The question not permanently settled.—Retirement of Mr. Clay.—Effects of the Om¬ 
 nibus Bill on the administration.—The Cuban expedition is organized.—Lopez and his 
 associates are executed.—Important measures recommended by the President.—A diffi¬ 
 culty arises about the coast-fisheries.—And is settled by a treaty.—The tour of Kossuth. 
 —Arctic expeditions of Franklin, De Haven, and Kane.—Death of Calhoun, Clay, and 
 Webster.—The Cuban excitement in Europe.—The Tripartite Treaty is proposed.— 
 And rejected.—Everett’s reply to France and Great Britain.—The candidates for the 
 presidency.—Pierce is elected. 463-469. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 fierce’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of Franklin Pierce.—A route for a Pacific railroad is explored.—Settle¬ 
 ment of the boundary of New Mexico.—The Japanese ports are opened to the United 
 States.—The World’s Fair.—Walker organizes a filibustering expedition against Central 
 America.—Is captured.—Makes a second descent on Nicaraugua.—And then a third.— 
 Is defeated, captured, and executed.—The Martin Koszta affair.—Cuban difficulties.— 
 The Ostend manifesto.—A bill to organize Kansas and Nebraska is passed.—Repeal 
 of the Missouri Compromise.—Renewal of the slavery agitation.—The troubles in Kan¬ 
 sas.—Two territorial governments are organized.—Geary sent thither as military gov¬ 
 ernor.—Marshaling of parties on the slavery question.—Buchanan is elected to the pres¬ 
 idency. 469-474. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 buchanan’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of the President.—The Dred Scott decision.—The Mormon rebellion in 
 Utah.—Is suppressed by the army.—A difficulty arises with Paraguay.—But is settled 
 by treaty.—The first Atlantic cable is laid.—Minnesota is admitted.—Retirement and 
 sketch of Houston.—Death of Washington Irving.—His work in American literature. 
 —The Personal Liberty bills.—John Brown’s insurrection.—Continuance of the troubles 
 in Kansas—The political parties again divide on the slavery question.—The National 
 conventions.—The candidates and the canvass.—Lincoln is elected President.—Condi¬ 
 tion of affairs in the government.—Position of Buchanan.—The drama of secession.— 
 Seven States withdraw from the Union.—The secession conventions.—Position of Steph¬ 
 ens.—Organization of the Provisional Confederate government.—Davis for President.— 
 The peace movements end in failure.—Paralysis of the administration.—Seizure 
 of forts and arsenals by the Confederates.—The strife in Kansas continues.—The 
 Star of the West is driven off from Fort Sumter.—The President elect reaches Wash¬ 
 ington. , . .. 474-482. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 Lincoln’s administration and the civil war. 
 
 Sketch of Abraham Lincoln.—Organization of his cabinet.—His purpose to repos¬ 
 sess the forts of the United States.—Preparations to reinforce Fort Sumter.—Confed¬ 
 erate movements in Charleston.—Bombardment and fall of Fort Sumter.—The event 
 fires the nation.—The call for troops.—Secession of Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, 
 and Tennessee.—The soldiers attacked in Baltimore.—Capture of Harper’s Ferry and 
 the Norfolk navy yard.—Prodigious activity and preparations.—Davis and his cabinet 
 at Richmond. . .. 482-485, 
 
XXX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 THE CAUSES. 
 
 The causes.—First, the different construction of the Constitution in the North and 
 the South.—Fatal character of this dispute.—Second, the system of slavery.—The 
 cotton gin.—The Missouri agitation.—The annexation of Texas, and the Mexican 
 War.—The nullification measures of South Carolina.—The Omnibus Bill.—The Kan 
 sas-Nebraska imbroglio.—Third, the want of intercourse between the North and 
 the South—Fourth, the publication of sectional books.—Fifth, the influence of dema¬ 
 gogues. 485-488, 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 Advance of the Union army.—Fight at Big Bethel.—Morris and McClellan move 
 forward in West Virginia.—Engagements at Philippi, Rich Mountain, Carrick’s Ford. 
 Carnifex Ferry, Cheat Mountain, and Romney—The Confederates concentrate at 
 Manassas.—The national forces advance.—The skirmish, the battle, and the rout.— 
 Effect on the country.—The Confederate government at Richmond.—Sketch of Davis. 
 —Affairs in Missouri.—Confederates capture Liberty.—Form Camp Jackson.—Lyon 
 defends St. Louis.—Battles of Carthage and Springfield.—Price captures Lexington.— 
 Fremont pursues him.—And is superseded.—Grant captures Belmont.—McClellan is 
 made commander-in-chief.—The disaster at Ball’s Bluff.—Hatteras inlet, Port Royal, 
 and Hilton Head secured by the Federals.—Capture of Mason and Slidell.—They are 
 released by Mr. Seward. 490-495. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF ’62. 
 
 Extent and position of the Union forces.—The Confederates defeated on the Big 
 Sandy and at Mill Spring.—Fort Henry is taken.—Siege and capture of Fort Donelson. 
 —Battle of Shiloh.—Island Number Ten is taken.—The battle of Pea Ridge.—Fight 
 of the Monitor and the Merrimac. —Burnside captures Roanoke Island, Newbern, and 
 Beaufort.—Savannah is blockaded.—Farragut aud Butler ascend the Mississippi.—Pass 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip.—Capture of New Orleans.—Fall of Jackson and St. 
 Philip.—Kirby Smith invades Kentucky.—Battle of Richmond.—Bragg marches on 
 Louisville.—The city held by Buell.—Bragg retreats.—Battle of Perryville.— Battles of 
 Iuka and Corinth.—Grant moves against Vicksburg.—Retreats.—Battle of Chickasaw 
 Bayou.—Battle of Murfreesborough.—Banks and Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley.— 
 Fight at Front Royal.—The Federals retreat across the Potomac.—The Confederates 
 fall back in turn.—Battles of Cross Keys and Port Republic.—McClellan advances.— 
 Beginning of the Peninsular campaign.—Yorktown is taken.—Then Williamsburg and 
 West Point.—Wool captures Norfolk.—The Virginia destroyed.—Battle of Fair Oaks.— 
 Lee made general-in-chief of the Confederates.—McClellan changes base.—The seven 
 days’ battles.—The Union army at Harrison’s Landing.—Lee strikes for Washington.—■ 
 Is opposed by Pope.—Flank movement of Jackson.—Battles of Manassas, Centreville, 
 and Chantilly.—Lee invades Maryland.—Harper’s Ferry is taken.—Engagement at 
 South Mountain.—Battle of Antietam.—Confederates retreat.—Burnside in command.— 
 Plans a campaign against Richmond.—Advances against Fredericksburg.—And is de¬ 
 feated.. 495-510. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 CHAPTER LXY. 
 
 THE WORK OP ’63. 
 
 Proportions of the conflict.—New calls for troops.—The Emancipation Proclama¬ 
 tion—Capture of Arkansas Post.—Movements against Vicksburg.—The fleet passes the 
 batteries.—Grant at Bruinsburg.—Battles of Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson, and 
 Champion Hills.—The siege and capture of Vicksburg.—Fall of Port Hudson.—Cav¬ 
 alry raids of Jackson, Stuart, and Grierson.—Rosecrans drives Bragg across the Ten¬ 
 nessee.—Battle of Chattanooga.—And the siege.—Storming of Lookout and Missionary 
 Ridge.—Longstreet in Tennessee.—Siege of Knoxville.—Engagements at Springfield, 
 Cape Girardeau, and Helena.—The sacking of Lawrence.—Capture of Little Rock.— 
 Morgan invades Indiana.—Passes into Ohio.—Is hemmed in and captured.—The Con¬ 
 federates take Galveston.—The siege of Charleston.—Hooker commands the Army of 
 the Potomac.—Battle of Chancellorsville.—Death of Stonewall Jackson.—Stoneman’s 
 raid.—Siege of Suffolk.—Lee invades Pennsylvania.—The battle of Gettysburg.—Re¬ 
 treat of the Confederates.—The conscription.—Riot in New York.—The draft.—New 
 calls for soldiers.—West Virginia a State. . . . . . 510-523. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 Sherman’s campaign to Meridian.—Smith fails to form & junction.—Sherman 
 retires to Vicksburg.—Forrest’s raid.—The Red River expedition.—Plan of the cam¬ 
 paign.—Capture of Fort de Russy, Alexandria, and Natchitoches.—Union disaster and 
 retreat.—Steele falls hack to Little Rock.—Grant lieutenant-general.—Plan of the cam¬ 
 paigns of ’64. —Sherman advances.—Battles of Dalton, Resaca, and Dallas.—Attacks 
 and repulses at Kenesaw.—The Confederates fall back to Atlanta.—Siege and capture of 
 the stronghold.—Hood invades Tennessee.—Thomas sent to confront him.—Battle of 
 Franklin.—Siege of Nashville.—Rout and ruin of Hood’s army.—Sherman’s march to 
 the sea.—Capture of Macon, Milledgeville, Gibson, and Waynesborough.—Storming 
 of Fort McAllister.—Escape of Ilardee.—And capture of the city.—The Union army in 
 Savannah.—Renewal of the march.—Columbia, Charleston, and Fayetteville are taken. 
 —Battle of Kilpatrick’s and Hampton’s Cavalry.—Johnston restored to command.— 
 Battles of‘Averasborough and Bentonsville.—Capture of Goldsborough and Raleigh.— 
 Great raid of Stoneman.—Surrender of Johnston.—Farragut enters Mobile Bay.— 
 Defeats the Confederate squadron.—Captures Forts Gaines and Morgan.—Fort Fisher 
 is besieged by Porter and Butler.—The first effort fails.—The siege is renewed.— 
 And the fort taken by storm.—Cushing’s exploit.—The Confederate cruisers.—Injury 
 done to the commerce of the United States.—The Savannah. —Career of the Sumter. —• 
 Cruise of the Nashville. —The Confederates use the British ship-yards.—Building of the 
 Florida. — Her fate.—The Georgia, the Olustee, the Shenandoah, and the Chickamauga built 
 at Glasgow.—End of the Chickamauga and the Tallahassee. —Career of the Georgia and 
 the Shenandoah. —The Alabama. —Her character.—She scours the ocean.—Runs into 
 Cherbourg.—Is caught by the Kearsarge. —And destroyed.—The Army of the Potomac 
 moves from Culpepper.—Reaches the Wilderness.—The battles.—Grant advances to 
 Spottsylvania.—Terrible fighting there.—The Union army moves to Cold Harbor.— 
 Is repulsed in two battles.—Losses.—Grant changes base.—Butler captures Bermuda 
 and City Point.—Is driven back by Beauregard.—Junction of the armies.—Advance on 
 Petersburg.—The assaults.—The siege begins.—Sigel on the Shenandoah.—Battle of 
 New Market.—Hunter in command.—Engagement at Piedmont.—Retreat of Hunter.—- 
 Early enters the valley.—Crosses the Potomac.—Defeats Wallace.—Threatens Wash- 
 3 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxxii 
 
 ington and Baltimore.—Retreats into Virginia.—Fight at Winchester.—The Confed¬ 
 erates burn Chambersburg.—Sheridan is sent into the valley.—Battles of Winchester 
 and Fisher’s Hill.—Sheridan ravages the country.—Early comes.—Routs the Federals 
 at Cedar Creek.—Sheridan returns, and destroys Early’s army.—The siege of Peters¬ 
 burg continues.—Battles of Boydtown and Five Forks.—Flight of the Confederate 
 government.—Fall of Petersburg and Richmond.—Surrender of Lee.—Collapse of the 
 Confederacy.—The Federal authority is re-established.—Capture, imprisonment, and 
 trial of Davis.—Lincoln re-elected.—Financial condition of the country.—Treasury 
 notes.—Internal Revenue.—Legal Tenders.—Bonds.—Banks.—The debt.—Lincoln is 
 reinaugurated.—Visits Richmond.—Is assassinated.—Punishment of his murderers.— 
 Character of Lincoln. .......... 523-543. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 Johnson’s administration. 
 
 Johnson in the presidency.—Sketch of his life and character.—Slavery is formally 
 abolished.—The Amnesty Proclamation.—A struggle with the war-debt.—Napoleon’s 
 empire in Mexico.—Maximilian is captured and shot.—Final success of the Atlantic 
 telegraph.—The Postal Money-Order system is established.—The Territories assume 
 their final form.—Alaska is purchased from Russia.—The difficulty between the Presi¬ 
 dent and Congress.—The reconstruction imbroglio.—Second amnesty.—The Civil Rights 
 Bill is passed.—The Southern States are re-admitted.—A national convention at Phila¬ 
 delphia.—The President makes a tour of the country.—Congressional measures of 
 reconstruction.—The breach is widened between the executive and Congress.—The ve¬ 
 toing business.—The President removes Stanton.—Is impeached.—And acquitted.—Gen¬ 
 eral Grant is elected President. ........ 544-55L 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. 
 
 grant’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of President Grant.—The Pacific Railroad is completed.—The Fourteenth 
 and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution are adopted.—The story of Black 
 Friday.—The Southern States are restored to their place in the Union.—The ninth 
 census and its lesson.—The Santo Domingo business.—The Alabama claims are ad¬ 
 justed by the treaty of Washington and the Geneva court.—Railroad development 
 of the United States.—The burning of Chicago.—The North-western boundary la 
 settled by arbitration.—The presidential election.—The candidates.—Grant is re¬ 
 elected.—Character of Greeley.—His death.—Great fire in Boston.—The Modoc war.— 
 Murder of the peace commissioners.—The savages are subdued.—The Louisiana im¬ 
 broglio.—The Credit Mobilier investigation.—The financial crisis of 1873-’74.—The 
 Northern Pacific Railroad enterprise.—Admission of Colorado.—Death-roll of emi¬ 
 nent men.—Sketches of Sumner and Wilson.—The great Centennial.—Origination of 
 the enterprise.—Opposition.—General plan of the Exposition.—Organization.—The 
 monetary management.— : Lukewarmness of the Government.—The Centennial Grounds. 
 —Dedication.—The General Regulations.—Nations participating.—Classification of 
 products.—The Centennial Buildings.—Descriptions of the same.—Main Building.— 
 Memorial Hall.—Machinery Hall.—Agricultural Hall.—Horticultural Hall.—United 
 States Government Building.—Woman’s Pavilion.—Foreign and State Buildings.—Re¬ 
 ception of materials.—Scheme of Awards.—Opening ceremonies.—The Exposition 
 itself.—Description of exhibits in Main Building.—In Machinery HalL—In the Gov- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxxiii 
 
 ernment Building.—In Agricultural Hall.—In Horticultural Hall.—In the Woman’s 
 Pavilion.—In Memorial Hall —The celebration of the Fourth of July in Philadel¬ 
 phia.—Attendance at the Exposition.—The closing ceremonies.—The Sioux War. 
 —The great election of 1876.—A disputed presidency.—The result. . 553-633 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 hayes’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of President Hayes.^-His inaugural address.—The policy indicated.— 
 Effect of the same upon the country.—The new cabinet is organized.—The great 
 Railroad Strike breaks out.—And is suppressed.—Beginning of the Nez Perce 
 War.—The tribe is subdued by General Howard.—Silver is remonetized.—The 
 Yellow Fever epidemic in the South.—The Halifax Fishery Commission.—How 
 constituted.—The award.—A Chinese Embassy established in the United States.— 
 A Life Saving Service is instituted by Congress.—Resumption of Specie Payments 
 bv the Government.—Issues of 1880.—Garfield elected President.—Refunding 
 legislation.—Tour of Ex-President Grant.—Results of the Census of 1880.—Death 
 of Senator Morton, William Cullen Bryant, Bayard Taylor, and Senators Chandler 
 and Carpenter. 633-646 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 
 
 Sketch of President Garfield.—His inaugural.—The new cabinet.—Question 
 of Civil Service Reform.—Break in the Republican Party.—Assassination of the 
 President.—Accession of Arthur.—Sketch cf the new executive.—Cabinet changes. 
 —Star-Route conspiracy.—Applications of science.—The telephone.—The phono¬ 
 graph.—The electric light.—The Brooklyn bridge.—Party questions of 1884.— 
 The tariff issue.—Doctrine of free-trade.—Incidental protection.—Limited pro¬ 
 tection.—High protection.—Prohibitory tariffs.—Presidential contest of 1884.— 
 Election of Cleveland and Hendricks.—Transfer of the command of the army.— 
 The Washington Monument.. . . . 647-671 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 Cleveland’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of President Cleveland.—The new cabinet.—Question of Civil Service 
 Reform.—Struggle for office.—Revival of War memories.—Literature on the sub¬ 
 ject.—Death of General Grant.—Of General McClellan.—Of General Hancock.— 
 Of General Logan.—Of Vice-President Hendricks.—Of Horatio Seymour.—Of 
 Samuel J. Tilden.—Of Henry Ward Beepher.—Of Chief-Justice Waite.—Historical 
 sketch of the Supreme Court.—Appointment of Melville W. Fuller.—Death of 
 Roscoe Colliding.—His life and character.—The labor agitations and strikes of 
 1886-88. —The Hay-market riot in Chicago.—The Charleston earthquake.—The 
 Forty-ninth Congress.—Question of extending the Pension list.—The Interstate 
 Commerce Bill.—Political excitements of 1888. —Questions at issue.—Protection 
 to American Industry.—Attitude of the Parties.—Nominations for the Presidency. 
 —The result.—Admission of South and North Dakota, Montana, and Washington.— 
 Institution of the Department of Agriculture. .... 672-695 
 
 3 
 
XXXIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 harrison’s administration. 
 
 Sketch of President Harrison. — His cabinet. — Centenary of the American 
 Government. — Crises of the Revolutionary Epoch. — Declaration of Independence. 
 
 — Formation of the Constitution. — Its adoption. — Institution of the Government 
 in 1789. — Sketch of the ceremonies of Washington’s Inauguration. — His journey 
 to New York. — His reception. — Character of New York in 1 789. — Inaugural pro¬ 
 gramme prepared by Congress.—The Washingtonian procession.—The Inauguration 
 proper. — First policy of the Government. — The Centennial commemoration of 
 1889. — Preparations for the event. — The throng in New York. — Coming of Pres¬ 
 ident Harrison and his company. — Decoration of the city. — Receptions of the 
 Presidential Party, Literary Exercises. — Whittier’s Poem and Depew’s Oration. — 
 The Military Parade. — Features of the great Procession. — Sketch of the various 
 divisions. — Metropolitan Banquets. — The Civic Parade. — Its historical features. — 
 Management of the throngs. — Difficulty with Germany relative to Samoa. — Causes 
 of the controversy. — Wreck of the American and German fleets. — The Embassy to 
 Berlin. — Meeting of Pan-American Congress. — Representatives thereto.— Subjects 
 discussed and results.— Work of the International Maritime Conference. — Resume 
 of discussions and Acts of the Fifty-first Congress. — The McKinley Bill. — New 
 rules for the government of the House. — The Elections Bill. — Movement for the 
 free coinage of silver. — Questions connected therewith. — Statehood for Idaho and 
 Wyoming. — Census of 1890. — Deaths of Sheridan, Sherman and Johnston. — The 
 Italian embroglio at New Orleans. — Serious complication with Italy. — Difficulty 
 between the United States and Chili. — Affair of the Itata. — Overthrow of Balrna- 
 ceda.—The mob in Valparaiso.— Threatenings of war.— Settlement of the difficulty. 
 Behring Sea controversy with Great Britain. — Commission appointed to arbitrate 
 meet at Paris, France. — Question of restoring American Influence on high seas.— 
 Great war-ships constructed.— Methods of reducing surplus in Treasury.— Expenses 
 of Government increased to more than a billion dollars. — Danger of National deficit. 
 
 — James G. Blaine resigns his office as Secretary of State. — Nominations for Presi¬ 
 
 dency. — Result. — Democratic control of Senate and House of Representatives for 
 ensuing quadrennium. — Death of James G. Blaine. 695-750 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIII. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF CLEVELAND. 
 
 Re-election of President Cleveland. — His cabinet.—World’s Columbian Exposi¬ 
 tion. — Officers and Commissioners for same. — Appropriations of nations of the 
 world.—Contest for location. — Energy of citizens of Chicago. — Ground broken and 
 work continued night and day until completion.— Dedication.— Great procession. — 
 Distinguished gathering of eminent men. — Opening of Exposition May 1, 1893.— 
 Principal Buildings.—Administration Building.—Transportation Building.—Agricul¬ 
 tural Building.— Horticultural Building. — Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. 
 Fisheries Building.—Machinery Hall.— Woman’s Building.—Electricity Building.— 
 Mines and Mining Building. — United States Government Building. — Buildings of 
 Foreign Governments. — Wooded Island.— Peristyle. — State Buildings. — Midway 
 Plaisance.—Ferris Wheel.— Closing of Exposition.— Assassination of Mayor of Chi¬ 
 cago.— Conclusion. 751-793 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIY. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The outlook for the Republic.—Byron’s view of nations. —The hopeful side.— 
 Present achievements of the United States.—Natural advantages.—How the Saxon 
 has improved them.—Things necessary to the perpetuity of American institutions: 
 First, National Unity.— Second , Universal Education. — Third, Toleration. — Fourth, 
 Tiie Nobility of Labor.—Reflections. . . . 794-797 
 
 APPENDIXES. 
 
 Appendix A.—Mandeville’s Argument.798 
 
 Appendix B.—Franklin’s Constitution ..802 
 
 Appendix C.—Declaration of Independence.804 
 
 Appendix D.—Articles of Confederation.807 
 
 Appendix E.—Constitution of the United States.813 
 
 Appendix F.—Washington’s Farewell Address.824 
 
 Appendix G.—The Emancipation Proclamation.834 
 
 Vocabulary.836 
 
 Census.839 
 
 Index.. . 847 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PA6B 
 
 Front view of the Capitoi. Frontispiece. 
 
 Map of Aboriginal America. 44 
 
 Diagram of European Kinship. 45 
 
 Diagram of Indian Kinship. 46 
 
 Specimen ot Indian Writing. 48 
 
 A North American Indian. 49 
 
 Norse Explorations. 52 
 
 A Norse Sea King of the 11th Century... 53 
 
 Christopher Columbus. 55 
 
 Chart of Voyage and Discovery. 56 
 
 The Night of October 11, 1492. 56 
 
 Fernando Cortez. 59 
 
 Burial of De Soto. 66 
 
 Dining Hall of the French Colonists at Port Royal. 73 
 
 Map of Voyage of Discovery. 76 
 
 Baptism of Virginia Dare. 83 
 
 Map of English Grants.*. 86 
 
 The Mayflower at Sea. 90 
 
 Captain John Smith. 96 
 
 John Smith Among the Indians.„. 99 
 
 Jamestown and Vicinity. 103 
 
 Wives for the Settlers at Jamestown. Ill 
 
 Governor Berkeley and the Insurgents. 120 
 
 Chart of the Colonial Period. 122 
 
 The Treaty between Governor Carver and Massasoit... 124 
 
 John Winthrop. 127 
 
 Roger Williams’s Reception by the Indians. 129- 
 
 Early Settlements in New England. 131 
 
 First Scene of King Philip’s War..,.. 140' 
 
 Second Scene of King Philip’s War. 141 
 
 Third Scene of King Philip’s War.. 143 
 
 Death of King Philip. 144 
 
 Siege of Louisburg, 1745. 158 
 
 Sir Henry Hudson. 161 
 
 De Vries Revisits his Ruined Settlement... 164 
 
 French, English, Dutch, Swedish, and Spanish Provinces, 1655. 168 
 
 Peter Stuyvesant.. 171 
 
 Roger Williams Opposing the Pequot Emissaries. 185 
 
 Scene of the.Pequod War. 187 
 
 The Younger Winthrop. 190 
 
 The Old Stone Tower at Newport...... 195 
 
 East and West Jersey, 1677. 205 
 
 XXXV 
 
xxxvi 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ' PACK 
 
 Penn’s Colonists on the Delaware. 209 
 
 William Penn. 211 
 
 Philadelphia and Vicinity. 213 
 
 Lord Baltimore. 217 
 
 James Oglethorpe.. .... 239 
 
 Country of the Savannah, 1740. 242 
 
 Scene in St. Augustine. 242 
 
 Marquette and Joliet Discover the Mississippi. 247 
 
 First Scene of the French and Indian War, 1750. 253 
 
 Scene of Braddock's Defeat, 1755..... 260 
 
 Fall of Braddock. 2C0 
 
 The Acadian Isthmus, 1755. 262 
 
 The Exile of the Acadians. 263 
 
 Vicinity of Lake George, 1755. 265 
 
 Vicinity of Quebec, 1759. 274 
 
 General James Wolfe. 275 
 
 The Revelation of Pontiac’s Conspiracy. 278 
 
 The Old Thirteen Colonies.'. 281 
 
 Patrick Henry. 290 
 
 Samuel Adams. 295 
 
 Scene of the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775. 300 
 
 Siege of Boston, 1776. 306 
 
 Chart of the Revolution and Confederation. 306 
 
 Battle of Long Island, 1776. 311 
 
 Scene of Operations about New York, 1776. 314 
 
 Battles of Trenton and Princeton, 1776-77. 316 
 
 Scene of Burgoyne’s Invasion, 1777 ... 323 
 
 Encampment at Valley Forge, 1777-78. 327 
 
 Benjamin Franklin........ 330 
 
 Siege of Charleston, 17SO... 340 
 
 Scene of Operations in the South, 1780-81. 342 
 
 Scene of Arnold’s Treason, 1780. 344 
 
 General Greene. 351 
 
 Siege of Yorktown, October, 1781. 353 
 
 Map of the United States at the Close of the Revolution. 354 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. 359 
 
 George Washington. 363 
 
 Chart of the National Period—First Section. 364 
 
 John Adams. 372 
 
 Thomas Jefferson... 377 
 
 Inauguration of the Territorial Government at Marietta, Ohio. 378 
 
 Chief-Justice Marshall. 380 
 
 Robert Fulton. 386 
 
 James Madison. 389 
 
 Scene of Hull’s Campaign, 1812. 394 
 
 The Niagara Frontier, 1812. 399 
 
 Scene of the Creek War, 1813-14. 403 
 
 La Fayette. 423 
 
 Chart of the National Period—Second Section. 424 
 
 Andrew Jackson....T.427 
 
 Daniel W sbster. 429 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxvii 
 
 PAG£ 
 
 Land of the Seminoles. 431 
 
 The New Patent-Office at Washington. 433 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument. 443 
 
 Professor Morse. 446 
 
 Texas and Coahuila, 1845 ... 448 
 
 Scene of Taylor’s Campaign, 1846-47 . 449 
 
 Fremont on the Rocky Mountains. 452 
 
 Scene of Scott’s Campaign, 1847 . 454 
 
 General Winfield Scott. 457 
 
 The Smithsonian Institution. 460 
 
 Overland to California, 1849 . (Pass of the Sierras) .. 460 
 
 President Tayior. 463 
 
 Henry Clay.. 465 
 
 John C. Calhoun. 468 
 
 General Sam Houston... 477 
 
 Alexander Irving.. 478 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens. 481 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 483 
 
 Scene of Operations in West Virginia, 1861 . 490 
 
 Vicinity of Manassas Junction, 1861 . 491 
 
 Jefferson Davis. 492 
 
 Scene of Operations in the South-west, 1861 . 493 
 
 William H. Seward. 495 
 
 Battle of Murfreesborough, December 31 , 1862 . 500 
 
 Battle of Murfreesborough, January 2 , 1863 . 501 
 
 Scene of Campaign in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, 1862 ...... 503 
 
 General Robert E. Lee. 504 
 
 Vicinity of Richmond, 1862 . 505 
 
 The Battle of Antietam, September 17 , 1862 . 507 
 
 The Proposed Routes from Washington to Richmond, 1862 . 508 
 
 Vicksburg and Vicinity, 1863 . 512 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga, September 19 , 20 , 1 S 63 . -514 
 
 Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 23 - 25 , 1863 . 515 
 
 Stonewall Jackson. 519 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 - 3 , 1863 . 520 
 
 Sherman’s Campaign, 1864 . 525 
 
 General Thomas. 527 
 
 General Sherman.. . 528 
 
 Admiral Farragut. 531 
 
 Operations in Virginia, 1864-65 . 535 
 
 Petersburg, Richmond, Appomattox, 1865 . 539 
 
 Chief-Justice Chase. 551 
 
 President Grant .. 552 
 
 Horace Greeley. 558 
 
 Charles Sumner. 562 
 
 Independence Hall, 1876 . 563 
 
 General Joseph R. Hawley ....• • • . . 566 
 
xxxviii 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Centennial Medal—Reverse. 5G7 
 
 The Centennial Grounds aud Buildings. 569 
 
 Main Exposition Building, Centennial Exhibition. 576 
 
 Memorial Hall, “ “ 579 
 
 Machinery Hall, “ H 5S1 
 
 Agricultural Hall, “ “ 583 
 
 Horticultural Hall, “ . 585 
 
 H. S. Government Building, “ “ 587 
 
 "Woman’s Pavilion, “ “ 589 
 
 Inaugural Ceremonies of the Centennial Exhibition. 593 
 
 ilfred T. Goshoru. 595 
 
 (/lew in the Main Exhibition Building. 597 
 
 Interior View of Machinery Hall. C07 
 
 Interior View of the United States Government Building. 613 
 
 Interior View of Agricultural Hall. 616 
 
 Interior View of Horticultural Hall. 621 
 
 Rotunda of Memorial Hall. 623 
 
 Scene of the Sioux War, 1876. 629 
 
 Sioux Indians in Battle with Emigrants. 629 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes. 633 
 
 James A. Garfield. 647 
 
 Chester A. Arthur. 652 
 
 The Telephone . 655 
 
 Brooklyn Bridge. 661 
 
 Philip H. Sheridan. 671 
 
 Grover Cleveland. 672 
 
 Thomas F. Bayard. 673 
 
 Thomas A. Hendricks. 674 
 
 George B. McClellan.'.. 674 
 
 Ambrose E. Burnside. 675 
 
 Joseph Hooker. 675 
 
 Winfield Scott Hancock. 676 
 
 George G. Meade. 677 
 
 John A. Logan. 679 
 
 Samuel J. Tilden. 680 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher. 681 
 
 Morrison R. Waite. 682 
 
 Roscoe Conkling. 685 
 
 Benjamin Harrison.... 696 
 
 James G. Blaine. 697 
 
 Old Federal Hall, 1789.... 702 
 
 Inauguration of Washington. 707 
 
 Old St. Paul’s Chapel. 709 
 
 Sub-Treasury Building in Wall Street. 714 
 
 John M. Schofield. 718 
 
 Memorial Arch in Washington Square. 719 
 
 Administration Building. 765 
 
 Agricultural Building. 767 
 
 Horticultural Building. 768 
 
 Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. 770 
 
 Fish and Fisheries Building. 771 
 
ILL USTRA TIONS. xli 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Machinery Hall. 772 
 
 Woman’s Building. 773 
 
 Electricity Building. 774 
 
 Mines and Mining Building. 775 
 
 Palace of Fine Arts.776 
 
 United States Government Building. 778 
 
 Battle-ship. 779 
 
 Illinois Building.insert after 784 
 
 Maine Buiiding. “ “ 784 
 
 New Hampshire Building. “ “ 784 
 
 Vermont Building. “ “ 784 
 
 Ehode Island Building. “ “ 784 
 
 Connecticut Building. " “ 784 
 
 New York Building. " “ 784 
 
 Pennsylvania Building. “ " 784 
 
 Liberty Bell. 786 
 
 New Jersey Building.insert after 786 
 
 Delaware Building. “ “ 786 
 
 Massachusetts Building. “ “ 786 
 
 Virginia Building. “ “ 786 
 
 West Virginia Building. “ “ 786 
 
 Maryland Building. " “ 786 
 
 Florida Building. “ “ 786 
 
 Louisiana Building. ** “ 786 
 
 Texas Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Kentucky Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Missouri Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Joint Territorial Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Ohio Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Indiana Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Michigan Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Wisconsin Building. “ “ 788 
 
 Minnesota Building. “ “ 790 
 
 Iowa Building. “ " 790 
 
 Kansas Building. “ “ 790 
 
 Nebraska Building. ** “ 790 
 
 Montana Building. “ * 790 
 
 Colorado Building. “ “ 790 
 
 Idaho Building. “ " 790 
 
 Washington Building. * “ 790 
 
 North Dakota Building. ** “ 792 
 
 South Dakota Building. “ “ 792 
 
 Utah Building. “ “ 792 
 
 California Building. “ “ 792 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
J 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The history of every nation is divided into periods. For 
 a while the genius of a people will be turned to some particular pur¬ 
 suit. Men will devote themselves to certain things and labor to ac¬ 
 complish certain results. Then the spirit of the age will change, and 
 historical facts will assume a different character. Thus arises what is 
 called A Period in History. In studying the history of the United 
 
 • States it is of the first importance to understand the periods into which 
 it is divided. 
 
 2. First of all, there was a time when the New World was under 
 the dominion of the aborigines. From ocean to ocean the copper-col¬ 
 ored children of the woods ruled with undisputed sway. By bow and 
 arrow, by flint and hatchet, the Red man supported his rude civiliza¬ 
 tion and waited for the coming of the pale-faced races. 
 
 3. After the discovery of America, the people of Europe were 
 
 ’ * 
 
 hundreds of years in making themselves acquainted with the shape and 
 character of the New World. During that time explorers and adven¬ 
 turers went everywhere and settled nowhere. To make new discov¬ 
 eries was the universal passion; but nobody cared to plant a colony. 
 As long as this spirit prevailed, historical events bore a common char¬ 
 acter, being produced by common causes. Hence arose the second pe¬ 
 riod in our history—the Period of Voyage and Discovery. 
 
 4. As soon as the adventurers had satisfied themselves with trac¬ 
 ing sea-coasts, ascending rivers and scaling mountains, they began to 
 form permanent settlements. And each settlement was a new State in 
 the wilderness. Every voyager now became ambitious to plant a col¬ 
 ony. Kings and queens grew anxious to confer their names on the 
 towns and commonwealths of the New World. Thus arose a third pe¬ 
 riod—the Period of Colonial History. 
 
xl 
 
 INTROD UCTION. 
 
 » 
 
 5. Then the colonies grew strong and multiplied. There were 
 thirteen little sea-shore republics. The people began to consult about 
 their privileges and to talk of the rights of freemen. Oppression on 
 the part of the mother-country was met with resistance, and tyranny 
 with defiance. There was a revolt against the king; and the patriots 
 of the different colonies fought side by side, and won their freedom. 
 Then they built them a Union, strong and great. This is the Period 
 of Revolution and Confederation. 
 
 6. Then the United States of America entered upon their career 
 as a nation. Three times tried by war and maiy times vexed with 
 civil dissensions, the Union of our fathers still remains for us and for 
 posterity. Such is the Period of Nationality. 
 
 7. Collecting these results, we find five distinctly marked peri¬ 
 ods in the history of our country : 
 
 First. The Aboriginal Period ; from remote antiquity to the 
 coming of the White men. 
 
 Second. The Period of Voyage and Discovery; A. D. 
 986-1607. 
 
 Third. The Colonial Period; A. D. 1607-1775. 
 
 Fourth. The Period of Revolution and Confederation; 
 A. D. 1775-1789. 
 
 Fifth. The National Period ; A.D. 1789 to present decade. 
 
 In this order the History of the United States will be presented 
 in the following pages. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE RED MEN—ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. 
 
 T HE primitive inhabitants of the New World were the Red men 
 called Indians. The name Indian was conferred upon them from 
 their real or fancied resemblance to the people of India. But without 
 any such similarity the name would have been the same; for Colum¬ 
 bus and his followers, believing that they had only rediscovered the 
 Indies, would of course call the inhabitants Indians. The supposed 
 similarity between the two races, if limited to mere personal appearance, 
 had some foundation in fact; but in manners, customs, institutions, 
 and character, no two peoples could be more dissimilar than the Amer¬ 
 ican aborigine^ and the sleepy inhabitants of China and Japan. 
 
 The origin of the North American Indians is involved in com¬ 
 plete obscurity. That they are one of the older races of mankind can 
 not be doubted. But at what date or by what route they came to the 
 Western continent is an unsolved problem. Many theories have been 
 proposed to account for the Red man’s presence in the New World, 
 but most of them have been vague and unsatisfactory. The notion that 
 the Indians are the descendants of the Israelites is absurd. That half 
 civilized tribes, wandering from beyond the Euphrates, should reach 
 North America, surpasses human credulity. That Europeans or Afri¬ 
 cans, at some remote period, crossed the Atlantic by voyaging from is¬ 
 land to island, seems altogether improbable. That the Kamtchatkans, 
 coming by way of Behring’s Strait, reached the frozen North-west and 
 
 ( 41 ) 
 
42 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 became the progenitors of the Red men, has no evidence other than 
 conjecture to support it. Until further research shall throw additional 
 light on the history and migrations of the primitive races of mankind, 
 the origin of the Indians will remain shrouded in mystery. It is not 
 unlikely that a more thorough knowledge of the North American lan¬ 
 guages may furnish a clue to the early history of the tribes that spoke 
 them. 
 
 The Indians belong to the Ganowanian, or Bow-and-Arrow 
 family of men. Some races cultivate the soil; others have herds and 
 flocks; others build cities and ships. To the Bed man of the Western 
 continent the chase was every thing. Without the chase he pined and 
 languished and died. To smite with swift arrow the deer and the bear 
 was the chief delight and profit of the primitive Americans. Such a 
 race could live only in a country of woods and wild animals. The il¬ 
 limitable hunting-grounds—forest, and hill, and river—were the In¬ 
 dian’s earthly paradise, and the type of his home hereafter. 
 
 The American aborigines belonged to several distinct families or 
 nations. Above the sixtieth parallel of latitude the whole continent 
 from Labrador to Alaska was inhabited by the Esquimaux. The name 
 means the eaters of raw meat. They lived in snow huts, or in hovels, 
 partly or wholly underground. Sometimes their houses were more ar¬ 
 tistically constructed out of the bones of whales and walruses. Their 
 manner of life was that of fishermen and hunters. They clad them¬ 
 selves in winter with the skins of seals, and in summer with those of 
 reindeers. Inured to cold and exposure, they made long journeys in 
 sledges drawn by dogs, or risked their lives in open boats fighting 
 with whales and polar bears among the terrors of the icebergs. By 
 eating abundantly of oils and fat meats they kept the fires of life 
 a-burning, even amid the rigors and desolations of the Arctic winter. 
 
 Lying south of the Esquimaux, embracing the greater part of 
 Canada and nearly all that portion of the United States east of the 
 Mississippi and north of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, 
 spread the great family of the Algonquins. It appears that their 
 original seat was on the Ottawa Biver. At the beginning of the sev¬ 
 enteenth century the Algonquins numbered fully a quarter of a million. 
 The tribes of this great family were nomadic in their habits, roaming 
 from one hunting-ground and river to another, according to the exi¬ 
 gencies of fishing and the chase. Agriculture was but little esteemed. 
 They were divided into many subordinate tribes, each having its local 
 name, dialect, and traditions. When the first European settlements 
 were planted the Algonquin race was already declining in numbers 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 43 
 
 and influence. "Wasting diseases destroyed whole tribes. Of all the 
 Indian nations the Algonquins suffered most from contact with the 
 White man. Before his aggressive spirit, his fiery rum, and his de¬ 
 structive weapons, the warriors were unable to stand. The race has 
 withered to a shadow; only a few thousands remain to rehearse the 
 story of their ancestors. 
 
 Within the wide territory occupied by the Algonquins lived the 
 powerful nation of the IIuron-Iroquois. Their domain extended 
 over the country reaching from Georgian Bay and Lake Huron to 
 Lakes Erie and Ontario, south of those lakes to the valley of the Up¬ 
 per Ohio, and eastward to the River Sorel. Within this extensive dis¬ 
 trict was a confederacy of vigorous tribes, having a common ancestry, 
 and generally—though not always—acting together in war. At the 
 time of their greatest power and influence the Huron-Iroquois em¬ 
 braced no less than nine allied nations. These were the Hurons 
 proper, living north of Lake Erie; the Eries and Andastes, south of 
 the same water; the Tuscaroras, of Carolina, who ultimately joined 
 their kinsmen in the North; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Onei- 
 das, and Mohawks, constituting the famous Five Nations of New York. 
 The warriors of this great confederation presented the Indian character 
 in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic, and eloquent; 
 not wholly averse to useful industry; living in respectable villages; 
 tilling the soil with considerable success; faithful as friends but terri¬ 
 ble as enemies. 
 
 South of the country of the Algonquins were the Cherokees 
 and the Mobieian Nations; the former occupying Tennessee, and 
 the latter covering the domain between the Lower Mississippi and the 
 Atlantic. The Cherokees were highly civilized for a primitive peo¬ 
 ple, and contact with the whites seemed to improve rather than 
 degrade them. The principal tribes of the Mobilians were the Ya- 
 massees and Creeks of Georgia, the Seminoles of Florida, and the 
 Choctaws and Chickasaws of Mississippi. These displayed the usual 
 characteristics of the Red men, with this additional circumstance, that 
 below the thirty-second parallel of latitude evidences of temple-build¬ 
 ing, not practiced among the Northern tribes, began to appear. 
 
 West of the Father of Waters was the great and widely-spread 
 race of the Dakotas, whose territory extended from the Arkansas 
 River to the country of the Esquimaux and westward to the Rocky 
 Mountains. Their languages and institutions, differing much among 
 the various tribes, are not so well understood as those of some other 
 nations. South of the land of the Dakotas, in a district nearly cor- 
 
44 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 responding with the present State of Texas, lived the wild Coman- 
 ches, whose very name is a synonym for savage ferocity. Beyond the 
 Rocky Mountains were the Indian nations of the Plains; the great 
 family of the Shoshonees, the Selish, the Klamatiis, and the 
 Californians. On the Pacific slope farther southward dwelt in for¬ 
 mer times the famous races of Aztecs and Toltecs. These were the 
 most civilized of the primitive Indian nations, but at the same time 
 among the most feeble; the best builders in wood and stone, but the 
 least warlike of any of the aborigines. Such is a brief sketch of the 
 distribution of the copper-colored race in the New World. The ter¬ 
 ritorial position of the various nations and tribes will be easily under¬ 
 stood from an examination of the accompanying map. 
 
 The Indians were strongly marked with national peculiarities. 
 The most striking characteristic of the race was a certain sense of per¬ 
 sonal independence—willfulness of action—freedom from restraint. To 
 the Red man’s imagination the idea of a civil authority which should 
 subordinate his passions, curb his will, and thwart his purposes, was 
 intolerable. Among this people no common enterprise was possible 
 unless made so by the concurrence of free wills. If the chieftain 
 entered the war-path, his kinsmen and the braves of other tribes fol¬ 
 lowed him only because they chose his leadership. His authority and 
 right of command extended no further than to be foremost in danger, 
 most cunning in savage strategy, bravest in battle. So of all the 
 relations of Indian life. The Medicine Man was a self-constituted 
 physician and prophet. No man gave him his authority; no man took 
 it away. His right was his own; and his influence depended upon 
 himself and the voluntary respect of the nation. In the solemn de¬ 
 bates of the Council House, where the red orators pronounced their 
 wild harangues to groups of motionless listeners, only questions of 
 expediency were decided. The painted sachems never thought of 
 imposing on the unwilling minority the decision which had been 
 reached in council. 
 
 Next among the propensities of the Red men was the passion 
 for war. Their wars, however, were always undertaken for the re¬ 
 dress of grievances, real or imaginary, and not for conquest. But 
 with the Indian, a redress of grievances meant a personal, vindictive, 
 and* bloody vengeance on the offender. The Indian’s principles of 
 war were easily understood, but irreconcilable with justice and hu¬ 
 manity. The forgiveness of an injury was reckoned a weakness and 
 a shame. Revenge was considered among the nobler virtues. The 
 open, honorable battle of the field was an event unknown in Indian 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 45 
 
 warfare. Fighting was limited to the surprise, the ambuscade, the 
 massacre; and military strategy consisted of cunning and treachery. 
 Quarter was rarely asked, and never granted ; those who were spared 
 from the fight were only reserved for a barbarous captivity, ransom, 
 or the stake. In the torture of his victims all the diabolical ferocity 
 of the savage warrior’s nature burst forth without restraint. 
 
 In times of peace the Indian character shone to a better advan¬ 
 tage. But the Red man was, at his best estate, an unsocial, solitary, 
 and gloomy spirit. 
 
 He was a man of 
 the woods. He 
 communed only 
 with himself and 
 the genius of sol¬ 
 itude. He sat 
 apart. The forest 
 was better than 
 his wigwam, and 
 his wigwam bet¬ 
 ter than the vil¬ 
 lage. The Indian 
 woman was a de¬ 
 graded creature, a 
 drudge, a beast 
 of burden; and 
 the social prin¬ 
 ciple was cor¬ 
 respondingly low. 
 
 The organization 
 of the Indian fam¬ 
 ily was so peculiar 
 as to require a special consideration. Among civilized nations tho 
 family is so constructed that the lines of kinship diverge constantly 
 from the line of descent, so that collateral kinsmen with each gem> 
 eration stand at a still greater remove from each other. The above 
 diagram will serve to show how in a European family the lines of 
 . consanguinity diverge until the kinship becomes so feeble as to be no 
 longer recognized. It will be observed that this fact of constant di¬ 
 vergence is traceable to the establishment of a male line of descent. 
 
 In the Indian family all this is reversed. The descent is es- 
 tablished in the female line; and as a consequence the ties of kinship 
 
 DIAGRAM OF EUROPEAN KINSHIP. 
 
46 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 converge upon each other until they all meet in the granddaughter. 
 That is, in the aboriginal nations of North America, every grandson 
 and granddaughter was the grandson and granddaughter of the whole 
 tribe. This arose from the fact that all the uncles of a given person 
 were reckoned as his fathers also; all the mother’s sisters were mothers; 
 all the cousins were sisters and brothers; all the nieces were daugh¬ 
 ters ; all the nephews, sons, etc. This peculiarity of the Indian family 
 organization is illustrated in the annexed diagram. 
 
 Civil government 
 among the Indian na¬ 
 tions was in its primi¬ 
 tive stages of develop¬ 
 ment. Each tribe had 
 its own sachem, or 
 chieftain, to whom in 
 matters of peace and 
 war a tolerable degree 
 of obedience was ren¬ 
 dered, At times con¬ 
 federations were form¬ 
 ed, based either on ties 
 of kinship or the exi¬ 
 gencies of war. But 
 these confederations 
 were seldom enduring, 
 and were likely at any 
 time to be broken up 
 by the barbarous pas¬ 
 sion and insubordina¬ 
 tion of the tribes who 
 composed them. Sometimes a sachem would arise with such marked 
 abilities, warlike prowess, and strength of will, as to gain an influence, 
 if not a positive leadership over many nations. But with the death of 
 the chieftain, or sooner, each tribe, resuming its independence, would 
 return to its own ways. No general Indian Congress was known; but 
 national and tribal councils were frequently called to debate questions 
 of policy and right. 
 
 In matters of religion the Indians were a superstitious race, but 
 seldom idolaters. They believed in a great spirit, everywhere present, 
 ruling the elements, showing favor to the obedient, and punishing the 
 sinful. Him they worshiped; to him they sacrificed. But not in tem- 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 47 
 
 pies, ior the Indians built none. They also believed in many subordi¬ 
 nate spirits—some good, some bad. Both classes frequented the earth. 
 The bad spirits brought evil dreams to the Indian; diseases also, bad 
 passions, cruel winters, and starvation. The good spirits brought sun¬ 
 shine, peace, plentiful harvests, all the creatures of the chase. The 
 Medicine Man, or Prophet, obtained a knowledge of these things by 
 fasting and prayer, and then made revelations of the will and purposes 
 of the spirit world. The religious ceremonies of the Indians were per¬ 
 formed with great earnestness and solemn formality. 
 
 In the matter of the arts the Indian was a barbarian. His house 
 was a wigwam or hovel. Some poles set up in a circle, converging at 
 the top, covered with skins and the branches of trees, lined and some¬ 
 times floored with mats, a fire in the center, a low opening opposite 
 the point from which the wind blew—such was the aboriginal abode 
 of North America. Indian utensils were few, rude, and primitive. 
 Poorly-fashioned earthen pots, bags and pouches for carrying provis¬ 
 ions, and stone hammers for pounding parched corn, were the stock 
 and store. A copper kettle was a priceless treasure. The warrior’s 
 chief implement was his hatchet of stone or copper. This he always 
 carried with him, and it was rarely free from the stain of blood. His 
 weapon of offence and defence was the bow and arrow, by no means 
 an insignificant or feeble instrument. The arrow pointed with stone 
 or iron was frequently driven entirely through the ponderous buffalo. 
 The range of the winged missile was two hundred yards or more, and 
 the aim was one of fatal accuracy when the White man was the tar¬ 
 get. The Indian’s clothing was a blanket, thrown over his shoulders, 
 bound around him perhaps with a thong of leather. The material for 
 his moccasins * and leggins was stripped from the red buck, elk, or 
 buffalo. He was fond of hanging about his person an infinity of non¬ 
 sensical trappings; fangs of rattlesnakes, claws of hawks, feathers of 
 eagles, bones of animals, scalps of enemies. He painted his face and 
 body, specially when the passion of war was on him, with all manner 
 of glaring and fantastic colors. So the Prophet of his nation taught 
 him; so he would be terrible to his enemies; so he would exemplify 
 the peculiarities of his nation and be unlike the Pale face. All the 
 higher arts were wanting. Indian writing consisted only of quaint 
 and half-intelligible hieroglyphics rudely scratched on the face of 
 rocks or cut in the bark of trees. The artistic sense of the savage 
 could rise no higher than a coarse necessity compelled the flight. 
 
 The language spoken by a people is always a matter of special 
 
 * The Algonquin word is makmn. 
 
 4 
 
48 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 interest and importance. The dialects of the North American races 
 bear many and evident marks of resemblance among themselves; but 
 little or no analogy to the languages of other nations. If there is any 
 similarity at all, it is found between the. Indian tongues and those 
 
 spoken by the 
 nomadic races 
 of Asia. The 
 vocabulary of 
 the Red men 
 was a very 
 limited one. 
 The principal 
 objects of na¬ 
 ture had spec¬ 
 ial names, and 
 actions were 
 likewise spe¬ 
 cifically ex¬ 
 pressed. Ab¬ 
 stract ideas but 
 rarely fo u n d 
 expression in 
 
 any of the Indian languages; such ideas could only be expressed by 
 a long and labored circumlocution. Words had a narrow but very 
 intense meaning. There was, for instance, no general word signify¬ 
 ing to hunt or to fish; but one word signified “ to-kill-a-deer-with-an- 
 arrow; ” another, “ to-take-fish-by-striking-the-ice.” In most of the 
 dialects there was no word for brother; but “elder-brother” and 
 “ younger-brother ” could be expressed. Among many of the tribes 
 the meanings of words and phrases were so restricted that the war¬ 
 rior would use one set of terms and the squaw another to express 
 the same ideas. The languages were monosyllabic; but many of the 
 monosyllables might be combined to form compounds resembling the 
 polysyllables of European tongues. These compounds, expressing ab¬ 
 stract and difficult ideas, were sometimes inordinately long,* the whole 
 forming an explanation or description of the thing rather than a sin¬ 
 gle word. Scholars have applied the term agglutinative to those lan¬ 
 guages in which such labored and tedious forms of expression occur. 
 Of this sort are the tongues spoken by the nomadic races of Asia. 
 
 * For instance, in the Massachusetts dialect, the form of speech meaning “ our ques¬ 
 tion” was this: Kum-mog-ko-don-at-toot-tum-moo-et-it-e-a-ong-an-nun-non'ash. 
 
 Translation: Eight soldiers (9), with muskets (10), commanded by a cap¬ 
 tain (1), and accompanied by a secretary (2), a geologist (3), three attend¬ 
 ants (4, 5, 6), and two Indian guides, encamped here. They had three 
 camp fires (13,14,15), and ate a turtle and a prairie hen (11,12), for supper. 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA . 
 
 49 
 
 In personal appearance the Indians were strongly marked. In 
 stature they were nearly all below the average of Europeans. The 
 Esquimaux are rarely five feet high, but are generally thick-set and 
 heavy. The Algonquins are taller and lighter in build; a straight and 
 agile race, lean and 
 swift of foot. Eyes 
 jet-black and sunk¬ 
 en ; hair black and 
 straight ; beard black 
 and scant; skin 
 copper-colored, a red- 
 dish-black, cin- 
 namon-hued, brown; 
 high cheek bones; 
 forehead and skull 
 variable in shape and 
 proportion; hands 
 and feet small; body 
 lithe but not strong; 
 expression sinister, or 
 rarely dignified and 
 noble :—these are the 
 well-known features 
 and person of the 
 Indian. 
 
 Though gener¬ 
 ally sedate in man- 
 
 J A NORTH AMERICAN I.1DIAN. • 
 
 ners and serious in 
 
 behavior, the Red men at times gave themselves up to merry-making 
 and hilarity. The dance was universal—not the social dance of civ¬ 
 ilized nations, but the dance of ceremony, of religion, and of war. 
 Sometimes the warriors danced alone, but frequently the women joined 
 in the wild exercise, circling around and around, chanting the weird, 
 monotonous songs of the tribes. Many other amusements were com¬ 
 mon, such as running, leaping, wrestling, shooting at a mark, racing 
 in canoes along swift rivers or placid lakes, playing at ball, or en¬ 
 gaging in intricate and exciting games, performed with small stones 
 resembling checkers cr dice. To this latter sport was not unfre- 
 quently added the intoxication of gambling, in which the warriors, 
 under the influence of their fierce passion, would often hazard and 
 
 * An authentic portrait of the celebrated Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes. 
 
50 
 
 ms TORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lose their entire possessions. In soberer moments, the Red men, 
 never inclined to conversation, would sit in silence, communing each 
 with his own thoughts or lost in a dream under the fascination of 
 his pipe. The use of tobacco was universal and excessive; and after 
 the introduction of intoxicating liquors by the Europeans the Indi¬ 
 ans fell into terrible drunkenness, only limited in its extent by the 
 amount of spirits which they could procure. It is doubtful whether 
 any other race has been so awfully degraded by drink. 
 
 Such is a brief sketch of the Red man—who was rather than is. 
 The only hope of the perpetuity of his race seems now to center in 
 the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks and Chickasaws of the Indian Ter¬ 
 ritory. These nations, numbering in the aggregate about forty-eight 
 thousand souls, have attained a considerable degree of civilization; 
 and with just and liberal dealing on the part of the Government the 
 outlook for the future is not discouraging. Most of the other Indian 
 tribes seem to be rapidly approaching extinction. Right or wrong, 
 such is the logic of events. Whether the Red man has been justly 
 deprived of the ownership of the New World will remain a subject 
 of debate; that he has been deprived, can be none. The Saxon has 
 come. His conquering foot has trodden the vast domain from shore to 
 shore. The weaker race has withered from his presence and sword. 
 By the majestic rivers and in the depths of the solitary woods the 
 feeble sons of the Bow and Arrow will be seen no more. Only their 
 names remain on hill and stream and mountain. The Red man sinks 
 and fails. His eyes are to the West. To the prairies and forests, the 
 hunting-grounds of his ancestors, he says farewell. He is gone! The 
 cypress and the hemlock sing his requiem. 
 
PART II. 
 
 VOYAGE AMD DISCOVERY. 
 
 A. D. 986-1607. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. 
 
 T HE western continent was first seen by white men in A. D. 986. 
 
 A Norse navigator by the name of Herjulfson, sailing from 
 Iceland to Greenland, was caught in a storm and driven westward to 
 Newfoundland or Labrador. Two or three times the shores were 
 seen, but no landing was made or attempted. The coast was low, 
 abounding in forests, and so different from the well-known cliffs of 
 Greenland as to make it certain that another shore hitherto unknown 
 was in sight. On reaching Greenland, Herjulfson and his companions 
 told wonderful stories of the new lands seen in the west. 
 
 Fourteen years later, the actual discovery of America was made 
 by Lief Erickson. This noted Icelandic captain, resolving to know 
 the truth about the country which Herjulfson had seen, sailed west¬ 
 ward from Greenland, and in the spring of the year 1001 reached 
 Labrador. Impelled by a spirit of adventure, he landed with his 
 companions, and made explorations for a considerable distance along 
 the coast. The country was milder and more attractive than his own, 
 and he was in no haste to return. Southward he went as far as 
 Massachusetts, where the daring company of Norsemen remained for 
 more than a year. Rhode Island was also visited; and it is alleged 
 that the hardy adventurers found their way into New York harbor. 
 
 What has once been done, whether by accident or design, may 
 easily be done again. In the years that followed Lief Erickson’s dis¬ 
 covery, other companies of Norsemen came to the shores of America. 
 Thorwaed, Lief ’s brother, made a voyage to Maine and Massachu¬ 
 setts in 1002, and is said to have died at Fall River in the latter state. 
 
 ( 51 ) 
 
52 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Then another brother, Thorstein by name, arrived with a band of 
 followers in 1005; and in the year 1007, Thorfinn Karlsefne, the 
 most distinguished mariner of his day, came with a crew of a hundred 
 and fifty men, and made explorations along the coast of Massachusetts, 
 
 Rhode Island, and per¬ 
 haps as far south as the 
 capes of Virginia. Other 
 companies of Icelanders 
 and Norwegians visited 
 the countries farther 
 north, and planted col¬ 
 onies in Newfoundland 
 and Nova Scotia. Little, 
 however, was known or 
 imagined by these rude 
 sailors of the extent of 
 the country which they 
 had discovered. They 
 supposed that it was only 
 a portion of Western 
 Greenland, which, bend¬ 
 ing to the north around 
 an arm of the ocean, had 
 reappeared in the west. 
 The settlements which 
 were made, were feeble and soon broken up. Commerce was an im¬ 
 possibility in a country where there were only a few wretched savages 
 with no disposition to buy and nothing at all to sell. The spirit of 
 adventure was soon appeased, and the restless Northmen returned to 
 their own country. To this undefined line of coast, now vague 1\ 
 known to them, the Norse sailors gave the name of A^inland; and 
 the old Icelandic chroniclers insist that it was a pleasant and beauti¬ 
 ful country. As compared with their own mountainous and frozen 
 island of the North, the coasts of New England may well have seemed 
 delightful. 
 
 The men who thus first visited the shores of the New World 
 were a race of hardy adventurers, as lawless and restless as any that 
 ever sailed the deep. Their mariners and soldiers penetrated every 
 clime. The better parts of France and England fell under their do¬ 
 minion. All the monarchs of the latter country after William the 
 Conqueror—himself the grandson of a sea-king are descendants of 
 
 I'AnCH rVOrnDATTAMC 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 53 
 
 the Norsemen. They were rovers of the sea; freebooters and pi¬ 
 rates; warriors audacious and headstrong, wearing hoods surmounted 
 with eagles’ wings and walruses’ tusks, mailed armor, and for robes the 
 skins of polar bears. Woe to the people on whose defenceless coasts 
 the sea-kings landed with sword and torch! Their wayward life and 
 ferocious disposition are well portrayed in one of their own old bal¬ 
 lads : TT , 
 
 He scorns to rest ’neath the smoky rafter, 
 
 He plows with his boat the roaring deep; 
 
 The billows boil and the storm howls after— 
 
 But the tempest is only a thing of laughter,— 
 
 The sea-king loves it better than sleep ! 
 
 During tiie twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries occa¬ 
 sional voyages continued to be made; and it is said that as late as 
 A. D. 1347 a Norwegian ship visited Labrador and the north-eastern 
 parts of the United States. The Norse remains which have been 
 found at Newport, at Garnet 
 Point, and several other 
 j)laces seem to point clearly 
 to some such events as are 
 here described; and the Ice¬ 
 landic historians give a uni¬ 
 form and tolerably consistent 
 account of these early ex¬ 
 ploits of their countrymen. 
 
 When the word America is 
 mentioned in the hearing of 
 the Icelandic schoolboys, they 
 will at once answer, with en¬ 
 thusiasm, u Oh, yes; Lief Er¬ 
 ickson discovered that country 
 in the year 1001.” 
 
 An event is to be 
 weighed by its consequences. 
 
 From the discovery of Amer¬ 
 ica by the Norsemen, nothing 
 whatever resulted. The 
 world was neither wiser nor better. Among the Icelanders themselves 
 the place and the very name of Vinland were forgotten. Europe 
 never heard of such a country or such a discovery. Plistorians have 
 until late years been incredulous on the subject, and the fact is as 
 though it had never been. The curtain which had been lifted for a 
 
 A NORSE SEA-KING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
54 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 moment was stretched again from sky to sea, and the New World 
 still lay hidden in the shadows. * 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPANISH DISCO VERIES IN AMERICA. 
 
 i 
 
 I T was reserved for the people of a sunnier clime than Iceland first to 
 make known to the European nations the existence of a Western con¬ 
 tinent. Spain was the happy country under whose auspicious patronage 
 a new world was to be added to the old; but the man who was destined 
 to make the revelation was not himself a Spaniard: he was to come from 
 genial Italy, the land of olden valor and the home of so much greatness. 
 Christopher Columbus was the name of that man whom after ages 
 have justly rewarded with imperishable fame. 
 
 The idea that tl e world is round was not original with Columbus. 
 Others before him had held a similar belief; but the opinion had been so 
 feebly and uncertainly entertained as to lead to no practical results. 
 Copernicus, the Prussian astronomer, had not yet taught, nor had Galileo, 
 the great Italian, yet demonstrated, the true system of the universe. The 
 English traveler, Sir John Mandeville, had declared in the very first 
 English book that ever was written (A. D. 1356) that the world is a 
 sphere; that he himself, when traveling northward, had seen the polar 
 star approach the zenith, and that on going southward the antarctic con¬ 
 stellations had risen overhead; and that it was both possible and practicable 
 for a man to sail around the world and return to the place of starting: 
 but neither Sir John himself nor any other seaman of his times was bold 
 enough to Undertake so hazardous an enterprise.! Columbus was, 
 no doubt, the first practical believer in the theory of circumnaviga¬ 
 tion ; and although he never sailed around the world himself, he 
 demonstrated the possibility of doing so. 
 
 * As to the reality of the Norse discoveries in America, the following from Hum¬ 
 boldt’s Cosmos, Vol. II., pp. 269-272, may be cited as conclusive: “We are here on 
 historical ground. Bv the critical and highly praiseworthy efforts of Professor Rafn 
 and the Royal Society of Antiquaries in Copenhagen, the Sagas and documents in 
 regard to the expeditions of the Norsemen to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
 Vinland have been published and satisfactorily commented upon. ” The dis- 
 
 covery of the northern part of America by the Norsemen can not be disputed. The length 
 of the voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the sun’s rising and 
 setting, are accurately given. While the Caliphate of Bagdad was still flourish¬ 
 ing, * * * * America was discovered about the year A. D. 1000, by Lief, the son 
 of Eric the Red, at the latitude of forty-one and a-half degrees north.” 
 t See Appendix A. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 So 
 
 The great mistake with Columbus and others who shared his opinions 
 was not concerning the figure of the earth, but in regard to its size. He 
 believed the world to be no more than ten thousand or twelve thousand 
 miles in circumference. He therefore confidently expected that after sail¬ 
 ing about three thousand miles to the westward he should arrive at the 
 East Indies; and to do that was the one great purpose of his life. 
 
 Christopher Columbus was born at Genoa, a seacoast town of North¬ 
 western Italy, in A. D. 1435. He was carefully educated, and then devoted 
 
 himself to the sea. His 
 ancestors had been sea¬ 
 men before him. His 
 own inclination as well 
 as his early training 
 made him a sailor. 
 For twenty years he 
 traversed the Mediter¬ 
 ranean and the parts 
 of the Atlantic adjacent 
 to Europe; he visited 
 Iceland; then went to 
 Portugal, and finally 
 to Spain. The idea 
 of reaching the Indies 
 by crossing the Atlan¬ 
 tic had already pos¬ 
 sessed him. For more 
 than ten years the poor 
 enthusiast was a beg¬ 
 gar, going from court 
 to court, explaining to dull monarchs and bigoted monks the figure of 
 the earth and the ease with which the rich islands of the East might be 
 reached by sailing westward. He found one appreciative listener, after¬ 
 ward his constant and faithful friend—the noble and sympathetic Isa¬ 
 bella, queen of Castile. Be it never forgotten that to the faith, and 
 insight, and decision of a woman the final success of Columbus must be 
 attributed. 
 
 On the morning of the 3d day of August, 1492, Columbus, with 
 his three ships, left the harbor of Palos. After seventy-one days of 
 sailing, in the early dawn of October 12, ilodrigo Triana, who chanced 
 to be on the lookout from the Pinta, set up a shout of “Land!’' A gun 
 was fired as the signal. The ships lay to. There was music and jubilee; 
 
 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 
 
56 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and just at sunrise Columbus himself first stepped ashore, shook out the 
 royal banner of Castile in the presence of the wondering natives, and 
 named the island San Salvador. During the three remaining months 
 of this first voyage the islands of Concepcion, Cuba and Hayti were 
 added to the list of discoveries; and on the bay of Caracola, in the last- > 
 named island, was erected out of the timbers of the Santa Maria a fort, 
 the first structure built by Europeans in the New World. In the early 
 part of January, 1493, Columbus sailed for Spain, where he arrived 
 in March, and was everywhere greeted with rejoicings and applause. 
 
 In September of the following autumn Columbus sailed on his 
 second, voyage. He still believed that by this route westward he should 
 reach, if indeed he had not already reached, the Indies. The result of the 
 second voyage was the discovery of the Windward group and the islands 
 of Jamaica and Porto Rico. It was at this time that the first colony was 
 established in Hayti and Columbus’s brother appointed governor. After 
 an absence of nearly three years, Columbus returned to Spain in the sum¬ 
 mer of 1496—returned to find himself the victim of a thousand bitter 
 jealousies and suspicions. All the rest of his life was clouded with perse¬ 
 cutions and misfortunes. He made a third voyage, discovered the island 
 of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the 
 Orinoco. Thence he sailed back to Hayti, where he found his colony 
 disorganized; and here, while attempting to restore order, he was seized 
 by Bobadilla, an agent of the Spanish government, put in chains and car¬ 
 ried to Spain. After a disgraceful imprisonment, he was liberated and 
 sent on a fourth and last voyage in search of the Indies; but besides 
 making some explorations along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 the expedition accomplished nothing, and Columbus, overwhelmed with 
 discouragements, returned once more to his ungrateful country. The 
 good Isabella was dead, and the great discoverer found himself at last a 
 friendless and despised old man tottering into the grave. Death came, 
 and fame afterward. 
 
 Of all the wrongs done to the memory of Columbus, perhaps 
 the greatest was that which robbed him of the name of the new conti¬ 
 nent. This was bestowed upon one of the least worthy of the many 
 adventurers whom the genius and success of* Columbus had drawn to the 
 West. In the year 1499, Amekigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator 
 of some daring but no great celebrity, reached the eastern coast of South 
 America. It does not appear that his explorations there were of any 
 great importance. Two years later he made a second voyage, and then 
 hastened home to give to Europe the first published account of the 
 Western World. Vespucci’s only merit consisted in his recognition of 
 
THE NIGHT OF OCTOBER U, 14&d. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 57 
 
 the feet that the recent discoveries were not a portion of that India already 
 known, but were in reality another continent. In his published narrative 
 all reference to Columbus was carefully omitted; and thus through his 
 own craft, assisted by the unappreciative dullness of the times, the name 
 of this Vespucci rather than that of the true discoverer was given to the 
 New World. 
 
 The discovery of America produced great excitement throughout 
 the states of Western Europe. In Spain especially there was wonderful 
 zeal and enthusiasm. Within ten years after the death of Columbus, the 
 principal islands of the West Indies were explored and colonized. In the 
 year 1510 the Spaniards planted on the Isthmus of Darien their first con¬ 
 tinental colony. Three years later, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the 
 governor of the colony, learning from the natives that another ocean lay 
 only a short distance to the westward, crossed the isthmus and from an 
 eminence looked down upon the Pacific. Not satisfied with merely seeing 
 the great water, he waded in a short distance, and drawing his sword 
 after the pompous Spanish fashion, took possession of the ocean in the 
 name of the king of Spain. 
 
 Meanwhile, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion 
 of Columbus on his second voyage, fitted out a private expedition of dis¬ 
 covery and adventure. De Leon had grown rich as governor of Porto 
 Rico, and while growing rich had also grown old. But there was a foun¬ 
 tain of perpetual youth somewhere in the Bahamas—so said all the learn¬ 
 ing and intelligence of Spain—and in that fountain the wrinkled old 
 cavalier would bathe and be young again. So in the year 1512 he set 
 sail from Porto Rico; and stopping first at San Salvador and the neighbor¬ 
 ing islands, he came, on Easter Sunday, the 27th of March, in sight of an 
 unknown shore. He supposed that another island more beautiful than 
 the rest was discovered. There were waving forests, green leaves, birds 
 of song and the fragrance of blossoms. Partly in honor of the day, called 
 in the ritual of the Church Pascua Florida, and partly to describe the 
 delightful landscape that opened on his sight, he named the new shore 
 Florida—the Land of Flowers. 
 
 After a few days a landing was effected a short distance north of 
 where, a half century later, were laid the foundations of St. Augustine. 
 The country was claimed for the king of Spain, and the search for the 
 youth-restoring fountain was eagerly prosecuted. The romantic adven¬ 
 turer turned southward, explored the coast for many leagues, discovered 
 and named the Tortugas, doubled Cape Florida, and then sailed back to 
 Porto Rico, not perceptibly younger than when he started. 
 
 The king of Spain rewarded Ponce with the governorship of hi? 
 
5b 
 
 HISTORY OF THE VETTED STATES. 
 
 Land of Flowers, and sent him thither again to establish a colony. The 
 aged veteran did not, however, reach his province until the year 1521, 
 and then it was only to find the Indians in a state of bitter hostility. 
 Scarcely had he landed when they fell upon him in a furious battle; 
 many of the Spaniards were killed outright, and the rest had to betake 
 themselves to the ships for safety. Ponce de Leon himself received a 
 mortal wound from an arrow, and 'was carried back to Cuba to die. 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA.—CONTINUED. 
 
 T HE year 1517 was marked by the discovery of Yucatan and the Bay 
 of Campeachy by Fernandez de Cordova. While exploring the 
 northern coast of the country, his company was attacked by the natives, 
 and he himself mortally wounded. During the next year the coast of 
 Mexico was explored for a great distance by Grijalva, assisted by Cl r- 
 dova’s pilot; and in the year 1519, Fernando Cortez landed with his 
 fleet at Tabasco and began his famous conquest of Mexico, 
 
 As soon as the news of the invasion spread abroad, the subjects 
 f the Mexican empire were thrown into consternation. Armies of 
 lative warriors gathered to resist the progress of the Spaniards, but 
 were dispersed by the invaders. After freeing the coast of his oppo¬ 
 nents, Cortez proceeded westward to Vera Cruz, a seaport one hun¬ 
 dred and eighty miles south-east of the Mexican capital. Here he 
 was met by ambassadors from the celebrated Montezuma, emperor 
 of the country. From him they delivered messages and exhibited 
 great anxiety lest Cortez should march into the interior. He as¬ 
 sured them that such was indeed his purpose; that his business in 
 the country was urgent; and that he must confer with Montezuma 
 in person. 
 
 The ambassadors tried in vain to dissuade the terrible Spaniard. 
 They made him costly presents, and then hastened back to their 
 alarmed sovereign. Montezuma immediately despatched them a sec¬ 
 ond time with presents still more valuable, and with urgent appeals 
 to Cortez to proceed no farther. But the cupidity of the Spaniards 
 was now inflamed to the highest pitch, and burning their ships behind 
 them, they began their march towards the capital. The Mexican em 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 59 
 
 peror by his messengers forbade their approach to his city. Still they 
 pressed on. The nations tributary to Montezuma threw off their al¬ 
 legiance, made peace with the conqueror, and even joined his stand¬ 
 ard. The irresolute and vacillating Indian monarch knew not what 
 to do. The Span¬ 
 iards came in sight 
 of the city—a glit¬ 
 tering and splen¬ 
 did vision of spires 
 and temples; and 
 the poor Montezu¬ 
 ma came forth to 
 receive his remorse¬ 
 less enemies. On 
 the morning of the 
 8th of November, 
 
 1519, the Spanish 
 army marched over 
 the causeway lead¬ 
 ing into the Mexi¬ 
 can capital and was 
 quartered in the 
 great central square 
 near the temple of 
 the Aztec god of 
 
 FERNANDO CORTEZ. 
 
 war. 
 
 It was new winter time. For a month Cortez remained quietly 
 in the city. He was permitted to go about freely with his soldiers, 
 and was even allowed to examine the sacred altars and shrines where 
 human sacrifices were daily offered up to the deities of Mexico. He 
 made himself familiar with the defences of the capital and the Mex¬ 
 ican mode of warfare. On every side he found inexhaustible stores 
 of provisions, treasures of gold and silver, and what greatly excited 
 his solicitude, arsenals filled with bows and javelins. But although 
 surrounded with splendor and abundance, his own situation became 
 extremely critical. The millions of natives who swarmed around him 
 were becoming familiar with his troops and no longer believed them 
 immortal. There were mutterings of an outbreak which threatened to 
 overwhelm him in an hour. In this emergency the Spanish general 
 adopted the bold and unscrupulous expedient of seizing Montezuma 
 and holding him as a hostage. A plausible pretext for this outrage 
 was found in the fact that the Mexican governor of the province 
 
60 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 adjacent to Vera Cruz had attacked the Spanish garrison at that place, 
 and that Montezuma himself had acted with hostility and treachery 
 towards the Spaniards while they were marching on the city. As soon 
 as the emperor was in his power, Cortez compelled him to acknowledge 
 himself a vassal of the king of Spain and to agree to the payment of 
 a sum amounting to six million three hundred thousand dollars, with 
 an annual tribute afterwards. 
 
 In the mean time, Velasquez, the Spanish governor of Cuba, 
 jealous of the fame of Cortez, had despatched a force to Mexico to 
 arrest his progress and to supersede him in the command. The ex¬ 
 pedition was led by Pamphilo de Narvaez, the same who was 
 afterwards governor of Florida. His forces consisted of more than 
 twelve hundred well armed and well disciplined soldiers, besides a 
 thousand Indian servants and guides. But the vigilant Cortez had 
 meanwhile been informed by messengers from Vera Cruz of the 
 movement which his enemies at home had set on foot against him, 
 and he determined to sell his command only at the price of his own 
 life and the lives of all his followers. He therefore instructed Al¬ 
 varado, one of his subordinate officers, to remain in the capital with 
 a small force of a hundred and forty men; and with the remainder, 
 numbering less than two hundred, he himself hastily withdrew from 
 the city and proceeded by a forced march to encounter De Narvaez 
 on the sea-coast. On the night of the 26th of May, 1520, while the 
 soldiers of the latter were quietly asleep in their camp near Vera 
 Cruz, Cortez burst upon them with the fury of despair, and before 
 they could rally or well understand the terrible onset, compelled the 
 whole force to surrender. Then, adding the general’s skill to the 
 warrior’s prowess, he succeeded in inducing the conquered army to 
 join his own standard; and with his forces thus augmented to six 
 times their original numbers he began a second time his march to¬ 
 wards the capital. 
 
 While Cortez was absent on this expedition, the Mexicans of 
 the capital rose in arms, and the possession of the country was staked 
 on the issue of war. Alvarado, either fearing a revolt or from a 
 spirit of atrocious cruelty, had attacked the Mexicans while they 
 were celebrating one of their festivals, and slain five hundred of the 
 leaders and priests. The people in a frenzy of astonishment and rage 
 flew to their arms and laid siege to the palace where Alvarado and 
 his men were fortified. The Spaniards were already hard pressed 
 when Cortez at the head of his new army reached the city. He en¬ 
 tered without opposition and joined Alvarado’s command; but the 
 passions of the Mexicans were now thoroughly aroused, and not all 
 
VOYAGE AXD DISCOVERY. 
 
 61 
 
 the diplomacy of the Spanish general could again bring them into 
 subjection. In a few days the conflict began in earnest. The streets 
 were deluged with the blood of tens of thousands; and not a few of 
 the Spaniards fell befor§ the vengeance of the native warriors. For 
 months there was almost incessant fighting in and around the city ; and 
 it became evident that the Spaniards must ultimately be overwhelmed 
 and destroyed. 
 
 To save himself from his peril, Cortez adopted a second shame¬ 
 less expedient, more wicked than the first. Montezuma was compelled 
 to go upon the top of the palace in front of the great square where the 
 besiegers were gathered and to counsel them to make peace with the 
 Spaniards. For a moment there was universal silence, then a murmur 
 of vexation and rage, and then Montezuma was struck down by the 
 javelins of his own subjects. In a few days he died of wretchedness 
 and despair, and for a while the warriors, overwhelmed with remorse, 
 abandoned the conflict. But with the renewal of the strife Cortez was 
 obliged to leave the city. Finally a great battle was fought, and the 
 Spanish arms and valor triumphed. In the crisis of the struggle the 
 sacred Mexican banner was struck down and captured. Dismay seized 
 the hosts of puny warriors, and they fled in all directions. In De¬ 
 cember of 1520, Cortez again marched on the capital. A siege, last¬ 
 ing until August of the following year, ensued; and then the famous 
 city yielded. The empire of the Montezumas was overthrown, and 
 Mexico became a Spanish province. 
 
 Among the many daring enterprises which marked the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, that of Ferdinand Magellan is worthy 
 of special mention. A Portuguese by birth, a navigator by profession, 
 this man, so noted for extraordinary boldness and ability, determined 
 to discover a south-west rather than a north-west passage to Asia. 
 With this object in view, he appealed to the king of Portugal for 
 ships and men. The monarch listened coldly, and did nothing to 
 give encouragement. Incensed at this treatment, Magellan threw off 
 his allegiance, went to Spain—the usual resort of disappointed sea¬ 
 men—and laid his plans before Charles V. The emperor caught 
 eagerly at the opportunity, and ordered a fleet of five ships to be im¬ 
 mediately fitted at the public expense and properly manned with 
 crews. 
 
 The voyage was begun from Seville in August of 1519. Sailing 
 southward across the equinoctial line, Magellan soon reached the coast 
 of South America, and spent the autumn in explorations, hoping to find 
 some strait that should lead him westward into that ocean which Balboa 
 had discovered six years previously. Not at first successful in this effort. 
 
62 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 he passed the winter—which was summer on that side of the equator— 
 somewhere on the coast of Brazil. Renewing his voyage southward, he 
 came at last to the eastern mouth of that strait which still bears the name 
 of its discoverer, and passing through it found himself in the open and 
 boundless ocean. The weather was beautiful, and the peaceful deep was 
 called the Pacific. 
 
 Setting his prows to the north of west, Magellan now held steadily 
 on his course for nearly four months, suffering much meanwhile from 
 want of water and scarcity of provisions. In March of 1520 he came to 
 the group of islands called the Ladrones, situated about midway between 
 Australia and Japan. Sailing still westward, he reached the Philippine 
 group, where he was killed in a battle with the natives. But the fleet was 
 now less than four hundred miles from China, and the rest of the route 
 was easy. A new captain was chosen, and the voyage continued by way 
 of the Moluccas, where a cargo of spices was taken on board for the market 
 of Western Europe. Only a single ship was deemed in a fit condition to 
 venture on the homeward voyage; but in this vessel the crews embarked, 
 end returning by way of the Cape of Good Hope arrived in Spain on the 
 17th day of September, 1522. The circumnavigation of the globe, long 
 believed in as a possibility, had now become a thing of reality. The 
 theory of the old astronomers, of Mandeville and of Columbus had 
 been proved by actual demonstration. 
 
 The next important voyage undertaken to the shores of America was 
 in the year 1520. Lucas Yasquez de Ayllon, who had been a judge 
 in St. Domingo and had acquired great riches, conducted the expedition. 
 He and six other wealthy men, eager to stock their plantations with slaves, 
 determined to do so by kidnapping natives from the neighboring Bahamas. 
 Two vessels were fitted out for the purpose, and De Ayllon commanded 
 in person. When the vessels were nearing their destination, they encoun¬ 
 tered a storm which drove them northward about a hundred and fifty 
 leagues, and brought them against the coast of South Carolina. The ships 
 entered St. Helena Sound and anchored in the mouth of the Cambahee 
 River. The name of Chicora was given to the country, and the river was 
 called the Jordan. The timid but friendly natives, as soon as their fears 
 had subsided, began to make presents to the strangers and to treat them 
 with great cordiality. They flocked on board the ships; and when the 
 decks were crowded, De Ayllon, watching his opportunity, weighed 
 anchor and sailed away. A few days afterward an avenging storm sent 
 one of the ships to the bottom of the sea, and death came mercifully to 
 most of the poor wretches who were huddled under the hatches of the 
 her. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 03 
 
 Going at once to Spain, De Ayllon repeated the story of his exploit 
 to Charles V., who rewarded him with the governorship of Chicora and 
 the privilege of conquest. Returning to his province in 1525, he found 
 the natives intensely hostile. His best ship ran aground in the mouth 
 of the Jordan, and the outraged Indians fell upon him with fury, killing 
 many of the treacherous crew, and making the rest glad enough to get 
 away with their lives. De Ayllon himself returned to St. Domingo 
 humiliated and ruined. Thus ended the first disgraceful effort to enslave 
 the Indians. 
 
 In the year 1526, Charles V. appointed the unprincipled Pampiiilo 
 de .Narvaez governor of Florida, and to the appointment was added 
 the usual privilege of conquest. The territory thus placed at his disposal 
 extended from Cape Sable fully three-fifths of the way around the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and was limited on the south-west by the mouth of the River 
 of Palms. With this extensive commission De Narvaez arrived at Tampa 
 Bay in the month of April, 1528. His force consisted of two hundred 
 and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen. The natives treated them with 
 suspicion, and, anxious to be rid of the intruders, began to hold up their 
 gold trinkets and to point to the north. The hint was eagerly caught at 
 by the avaricious Spaniards, whose imaginations were set on fire with the 
 sight of the precious metal. They struck boldly into the forests, expect¬ 
 ing to find cities and empires, and found instead swamps and savages. 
 They reached the Withlacoochie and crossed it by swimming, they passed 
 over the Suwanee in a canoe which they made for the occasion, and finally 
 came to Apalachee, a squalid village of forty cabins. This, then, was the 
 mighty city to which their guides had directed them. 
 
 Oppressed with fatigue and goaded by hunger, they plunged again 
 into the woods, wading through lagoons and assailed by lurking savages, 
 until at last they reached the sea at the harbor of St. Mark’s. Here they 
 expected to find their ships, but not a ship was there, or had been. With 
 great labor they constructed some brigantines, and put to sea in the vain 
 hope of reaching the Spanish settlements in Mexico. They were tossed 
 by storms, driven out of sight of land and then thrown upon the shore 
 again, drowned, slain by the savages, left in the solitary woods dead of 
 starvation and despair, until finally four miserable men of all the adven¬ 
 turous company, under the leadership of the heroic De Vaca, first lieu¬ 
 tenant of the expedition, were rescued at the village of San Miguel, on 
 the Pacific coast, and conducted to the city of Mexico. The story can 
 hardly be paralleled in the annals of suffering and peril. 
 
 But the Spaniards were not yet satisfied. In the year 1537 a new 
 expedition was planned which surpassed all the others in the bril- 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 iiancy of its beginning and the disasters of its end. The most cavalier 
 of the cavaliers was Ferdinand de Soto, of Xeres. Besides the dis¬ 
 tinction of a noble birth, he had been the lieutenant and bosom friend of 
 Pizarro, and had now returned from Peru loaded with wealth. So great 
 was his popularity in Spain that he had only to demand what he would 
 have of the emperor that his request might be granted. At his own dic¬ 
 tation he was accordingly appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, with 
 the privilege of exploring and conquering the latter country at his pleasure. 
 A great company of young Spaniards, nearly all of them wealthy and 
 high-born, flocked to his standard. Of these he selected six hundred of 
 the most gallant and daring. They were clad in costly suits of armor 
 of the knightly pattern, with airy scarfs and silken embroidery and all 
 the trappings of chivalry. Elaborate preparations were made for the 
 grand conquest; arms and stores were provided; shackles were wrought 
 for the slaves; tools for the forge and workshop were abundantly sup¬ 
 plied ; bloodhounds were bought and trained for the work of hunting 
 fugitives; cards to keep the young knights excited with gaming; twelve 
 priests to conduct religious ceremonies; and, last of all, a drove of swine 
 uO fatten on the maize and mast of the country. 
 
 When, after a year of impatience and delay, everything was at last 
 in readiness, the gay Castilian squadron, ten vessels in all, left the harbor 
 of San Lucar to conquer imaginary empires in the New World. The fleet 
 touched at Havana, and the enthusiasm was kindled even to a higher 
 pitch than it had reached in Spain. De Soto left his wife to govern Cuba 
 during his absence; and after a prosperous and exulting voyage of two 
 weeks, the ships cast anchor in Tampa Bay. This was in the early part 
 of June, 1539. When some of the Cubans who had joined the expedition 
 first saw the silent forests and gloomy morasses that stretched before them, 
 they were terrified at the prospect, and sailed back to the security of home; 
 but De Soto and his cavaliers despised such cowardice, and began their 
 march into the interior. During the months of July, August and Sep¬ 
 tember they marched to the northward, wading through swamps, swim¬ 
 ming rivers and fighting the Indians. In October they arrived at the 
 oountry of the Apalachians, on the left bank of Flint River, where 
 they determined to spend the winter. For four months they remained in 
 this locality, sending out exploring parties in various directions. One of 
 these companies reached the gulf at Pensacola, and made arrangements 
 that supplies should be sent out from Cuba to that place during the fol¬ 
 lowing summer. 
 
 In the early spring the Spaniards left their winter quarters and con¬ 
 tinued their march to the north and east. An Indian guide told them or' 
 
BURIAL. OF DE SOTO 
 

 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 65 
 
 a powerful and populous empire in that direction ; a woman was empress, 
 ind the land was full of gold. A Spanish soldier, one of the men of 
 Narvaez, who had been kept a captive among the Indians, denied the 
 truth of the extravagant story; but De Soto only said that he would find 
 gold or see poverty with his own eyes, and the freebooters pressed on 
 through the swamps and woods. It was April, 1540, when they cam© 
 upon the Ogechee River. Here they were delayed. The Indian guide 
 vent mad; and when the priests had conjured the evil spirit out of him, 
 he repaid their benevolence by losing the whole company in the forest. 
 Bv the 1st of May they had reached South Carolina, and were within a 
 two days’ march of where De Ayllon had lost his ships and men at the 
 mouth of the Jordan. Thence the wanderers turned westward; but that 
 De Soto and his men crossed the mountains into North Carolina and Ten¬ 
 nessee is hardly to be believed. They seem rather to have passed across 
 Northern Georgia from the Chattahouche to the upper tributaries of the 
 Coosa, and thence down that river to the valleys of Lower Alabama. 
 Here, just above the confluence of the Alabama and the Tombecbee, they 
 came upon the fortified Indian town called Mauville, or Mobile, where a 
 terrible battle was fought with the natives. The town was set on fire, 
 and two thousand five hundred of the Indians were killed or burned to 
 death. Eighteen of De Soto’s men were killed, and a hundred and fifty 
 wounded. The Spaniards also lost about eighty horses and all of their 
 baggage. 
 
 The ships of supply had meanwhile arrived at Pensacola, but De 
 Soto and his men, although in desperate circumstances, were too stubborn 
 and proud to avail themselves of help or even to send news of their where¬ 
 abouts. They turned resolutely to the north; but the country was poor, 
 and their condition grew constantly worse and worse. By the middle of 
 December they had reached the country of the Chickasas, in Northern 
 Mississippi. They crossed the Yazoo; the weather was severe; snow 
 fell; and the Spaniards were on the point of starvation. They succeeded, 
 however, in finding some fields of ungathered maize, and then came upon 
 a deserted Indian village which promised them shelter for the winter. 
 After remaining here till February, 1541, they were suddenly attacked in 
 the dead of night by the Indians, who, at a preconcerted signal, set the 
 town on fire, determined then and there to make an end of the desolating 
 foreigners; but the Spanish weapons and discipline again saved De Soto 
 and his men from destruction. 
 
 After gathering provisions and reclothing themselves as well as pos¬ 
 sible, the Spaniards set out again in early spring to journey still farther 
 westward. The guides now brought them to the Mississippi. The point 
 
66 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 where the majestic Father of Waters was first seen by white men was at 
 the lower Chickasaw Biuff, a little north of the thirty-fourth parallel of 
 latitude; the day of the discovery cannot certainly be known. The In¬ 
 dians came down the river in a fleet of canoes, and offered to carry the 
 Spaniards over; but the horses could not be transported until barges were 
 built for that purpose. The crossing was not effected until the latter part 
 of May. 
 
 De Soto’s men now found themselves in the land of the Dakotas. 
 Journeying to the north-west, they passed through a country where wild 
 fruits were plentiful and subsistence easy. The natives were inoffensive 
 and superstitious. At one place they were going to worship the woe¬ 
 begone cavaliers as the children of the gods, but De Soto was too good a 
 Catholic to permit such idolatry. The Spaniards continued their march 
 until they reached the St. Francis River, which they crossed, and gained 
 the southern limits of Missouri, in the vicinity of New Madrid. Thence 
 westward the march was renewed for about two hundred miles; thence 
 southward to the Hot Springs and the tributaries of the Washita River. 
 On the banks of this river, at the town of Atiamque, they passed the win¬ 
 ter of 1541--42. The Indians were found to be much more civilized than 
 those east of the Mississippi; but their civilization did not protect them 
 in the least from the horrid cruelties which the Spaniards practiced. No 
 consideration of justice, humanity or mercy moved the stony hearts of 
 these polite and Christian warriors. Indian towns were set on fire for 
 sport; Indian hands were chopped off for a whim; and Indian captives 
 burned alive because, under fear of death, they had told a falsehood. 
 
 But De Soto’s men were themselves growing desperate in their mis¬ 
 fortunes. They turned again toward the sea, and passing down the 
 tributaries of the Washita to the junction of that stream with the Red 
 River, came upon the Mississippi in the neighborhood of Natchez. The 
 spirit of De Soto was at last completely broken. The haughty cavalier 
 bowed his head and became a prey to melancholy. No more dazzling 
 visions of Peru and Mexico flitted before his imagination. A malignant 
 fever seized upon his emaciated frame, and then death. The priests 
 chanted a requiem, and in the middle of the solemn night his sorrowful 
 companions put the dead hero’s body into a rustic coffin, and rowing out 
 a distance from shore sunk it in the Mississippi. Ferdinand de Soto had 
 found a grave under the rolling waters of the great river with which his 
 name will be associated for ever. 
 
 Before his death, De Soto had named Moscoso as his successor; and 
 now, under the leadership of the new governor, the ragged, half-starved 
 adventurers, in the vain hope of reaching Mexico, turned once more to the 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 67 
 
 west. They crossed the country to the upper waters of the Red River, on 
 the confines of Texas. Thence they turned northward into the territory 
 of the Pawnees and the Comanches, ranging the hunting-grounds of 
 those fierce savages until stopped by the mountains. In December of 
 1542, after almost endless wanderings and hardships, they came again 
 to the Mississippi, reaching the now familiar stream a short distance above 
 the mouth of Red River. They now formed the desperate resolution of 
 building boats, and thus descending the river to the gulf. They erected 
 a forge, broke off the fetters of the captives in order to procure iron, sawed 
 timber in the forest, and at last completed seven brigantines and launched 
 them. The time thus occupied extended from January to July of 1543. 
 The Indians of the neighborhood were now for the last time plundered 
 in order to furnish supplies for the voyage; and on the 2d day of July 
 the Spaniards went on board their boats and started for the sea. The dis¬ 
 tance was almost five hundred miles, and seventeen days were required to 
 make the descent. On reaching the Gulf of Mexico, they steered to the 
 south-west; and keeping as close to the shore as possible, after fifty-five 
 days of buffetings and perils along the dangerous coast, they came—three 
 hundred and eleven famished and heart-broken fugitives—to the settle¬ 
 ment at the mouth of the River of Palms; and thus ended the most 
 marvelous expedition in the early history of our country. 
 
 The next attempt by the Spaniards to colonize Florida was in the 
 year 1565. The enterprise was entrusted to Pedro Melendez, a Span¬ 
 ish soldier of ferocious disposition and criminal practices. He was undei 
 sentence to pay a heavy fine at the very time when he received his com¬ 
 mission from the bigoted Philip II. The contract between that monarch 
 and Melendez was to the effect that the latter should within three years 
 explore the coast of Florida, conquer the country, and plant in some 
 favorable district a colony of not less than five hundred persons, of whom 
 one hundred should be married men. Melendez was to receive two hun¬ 
 dred and twenty-five square miles of land adjacent to the settlement, and 
 an annual salary of two thousand dollars. Twenty-five hundred persons 
 collected around Melendez to join in the expedition. The fleet-left Spain 
 in July, reached Porto Rico early in August, and on the 28th of the same 
 month came in sight of Florida. » 
 
 It must now be understood that the real object had in view by 
 Melendez was to attack and destroy a colony of French Protestants called 
 Huguenots, who, in the previous year, had made a settlement about thirty- 
 five miles above the mouth of the St. John’s River. This was, of course, 
 within the limits of the territory claimed by Spain ; and Melendez at once 
 perceived that to extirpate these French heretics in the name of patriotism 
 
68 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and religion would be likely to restore his shattered character and bring 
 him into favor again. His former crimes were to be washed out in the 
 blood of the innocents. Moreover, the Catholic party at the French 
 court had communicated with the Spanish court as to the whereabouts and 
 intentions of the Huguenots, so that Melendez knew precisely where to 
 find them and how to compass their destruction. 
 
 It was St. Augustine’s day when the dastardly Spaniard came in 
 Bight of the shore, but the landing was not effected until the 2d of Sep¬ 
 tember. The spacious harbor and the small river which enters it from 
 the south were named in honor of the saint. On the 8th day of the 
 same month, Philip II. was proclaimed monarch of all North America; 
 a solemn mass was said by the priests; and there, in the sight of forest, and 
 sky, and sea, the foundation-stones of the oldest town in the United States 
 were put into their place. This was seventeen years before the founding 
 of Santa Fe by Antonio de Espego, and forty-two years before the 
 settlement at Jamestown. 
 
 As soon as the new town was sufficiently advanced to be secure 
 against accident, Melendez turned his attention to the Huguenots. The 
 latter were expecting to be attacked, but had supposed that the Spanish 
 fleet would sail up the St. John’s, and make the onset from that direction. 
 Accordingly, knowing that they must fight or die, all the French vessels 
 except two left their covert in the river and put to sea, intending to an¬ 
 ticipate the movements of the Spaniards; but a furious storm arose and 
 dashed to pieces every ship in the fleet. Most of the crews, however, 
 reached the shore just above the mouth of the river. Melendez now 
 collected his forces at St. Augustine, stole through the woods and swamps, 
 and falling unexpectedly on the defenceless colony, utterly destroyed 
 it. Men, women and children were alike given up to butchery. Two 
 hundred were killed outright. A few escaped into the forest, Laudonniere, 
 the Huguenot leader, among the number, and making their way to the 
 coast, were picked up by the two French ships which had been saved 
 from the storm. 
 
 The crews of the wrecked vessels were the next object of Spanish 
 vengeance. Melendez discovered their whereabouts, and deceiving them 
 with treacherous promises of clemency, induced them to surrender. They 
 were ferried across the river in boats; but no sooner were they completely 
 in the power of their enemy than their hands were bound behind them, 
 and they were driven off, tied two and two, toward St. Augustine. As 
 they approached the Spanish fort the signal was given by sounding a 
 trumpet, and the work of slaughter began anew. Seven hundred defence¬ 
 less victims were added to the previous atrocious massacre. Only a few 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 69 
 
 mechanics and Catholic servants were left alive. Under these bloody 
 auspices the first permanent European colony was planted in our country. 
 In what way the Huguenots were revenged upon their enemies will be 
 told in another place. 
 
 The Spaniards had now explored the entire coast from the Isthmus 
 of Darien to Port Royal in South Carolina. They were acquainted with 
 the country west of the Mississippi as far north as New Mexico and 
 Missouri, and east of that river they had traversed the Gulf States as far 
 as the mountain ranges of Tennessee and North Carolina. With the es¬ 
 tablishment of their first permanent colony on the coast of Florida the 
 period of Spanish voyage and discovery may be said to end. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, a brief account of the only important 
 voyage made by the Portuguese to America will be given: At the time 
 of the first discovery by Columbus, the unambitious John II. was king 
 of Portugal. He paid but little attention to the New World, prefer¬ 
 ring the security and dullness of his own capital to the splendid allure¬ 
 ments of the Atlantic. In 1495 he was succeeded on the throne by his 
 cousin Manuel, a man of very different character. This monarch could 
 hardly forgive his predecessor for having allowed Spain to snatch from the 
 flag of Portugal the glory of Columbus’s achievements. In order to secure 
 some of the benefits which yet remained, King Manuel fitted out two ves¬ 
 sels, and in the summer of 1501 commissioned Gaspar Cortereal to 
 6ail on a voyage of discovery. The Portuguese vessels reached America in 
 the month of July, and beginning at some point on the shores of Maine, 
 sailed northward, exploring the coast for nearly seven hundred miles. Just 
 below the fiftieth parallel of latitude Cortereal met the icebergs, and could 
 go no farther. Little attention was paid by him to the great forests of 
 pine and hemlock which stood tall and silent along the shore, promising 
 ship-yards and cities in after times. He satisfied his rapacity by kid¬ 
 napping fifty Indians, whom, on his return to Portugal, he sold as slaves. 
 A new voyage was then undertaken, with the avowed purpose .of capturing 
 another cargo of natives for the slave-mart of Europe; but when a year 
 went by, and-no tidings arrived from the fleet, the brother of the Portuguese 
 captain sailed in hope of finding the missing vessels. He also was lost, 
 but in what manner has never been ascertained. The fate of the Corte- 
 reals and their slave-ships has remained one of the unsolved mysteries 
 of tfie sea. 
 
70 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. 
 
 F RANCE was not slow to profit by the discoveries of Columbus. As 
 early as 1504 the fishermen of Normandy and Brittany began to plv 
 their vocation on the banks of Newfoundland. A map of the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence was drawn by a Frenchman in the year 1506. Two years 
 later some Indians were taken to France; and in 1518 the attention of 
 Francis I. was turned to the colonization of the New World. Five years 
 afterward a voyage of discovery and exploration was planned, and John 
 Verrazzani, a native of Florence, was commissioned to conduct the 
 expedition. The special object had in view was to discover a north-west 
 passage to Asia. 
 
 In the month of January, 1524, Verrazzani left the shores of Europe. 
 His fleet consisted at first of four vessels; but three of them were damaged 
 in a storm, and the voyage was undertaken with a single ship, called the 
 Dolphin. For fifty days, through the buffetings of tempestuous weather, 
 the courageous mariner held on his course, and on the 7th day of March 
 discovered the main land in the latitude of Wilmington. He first sailed 
 . southward a hundred and fifty miles in the hope of finding a harbor, 
 but found none. Returning northward, he finally anchored somewhere 
 along the low sandy beach which stretches between the mouth of Cape 
 Fear River and Pamlico Sound. Here he began a traffic with the natives. 
 The Indians of this neighborhood were found to be a gentle and timid 
 sort of creatures, unsuspicious and confiding. A half-drowned sailor who 
 was washed ashore by the surf was treated with great kindness, and as soon 
 as opportunity offered, permitted to return to the ship. 
 
 After a few days the voyage was continued toward the north. The 
 whole coast of New Jersey was explored, and the hills marked as con¬ 
 taining minerals. The harbor of New York was entered, and its safe 
 and spacious waters were noted with admiration. At Newport, Rhode 
 Island, Verrazzani anchored for fifteen days, and a trade was again opened 
 with the Indians. Before leaving the place the French sailors repaid the 
 confidence of the natives by kidnapping a child and attempting to steal 
 a defenceless Indian girl. 
 
 Sailing from Newport, Verrazzani continued his explorations north- 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 71 
 
 •ward. The long and broken line of the New England coast was traced 
 with considerable care. The Indians of the north were wary and sus¬ 
 picious. They would buy neither ornaments nor toys, but were eager to 
 purchase knives and weapons of iron. Passing to the east of Nova 
 Scotia, the bold navigator reached Newfoundland in the latter part of 
 May. In July he returned to France and published an account, still ex¬ 
 tant, of his great discoveries. The name of New France was now given 
 to the whole country whose sea-coast had been traced by the adventurous 
 crew of the Dolphin. 
 
 Such was the distracted condition of France at this time, that 
 another expedition was not planned for a period of ten years. In 1534, 
 however, Chabot, admiral of the kingdom, selected James Cartier, a 
 seaman of St. Malo, in Brittany, to make a new voyage to America. 
 Two ships were fitted out for the enterprise, and after no more than 
 twenty days of sailing under cloudless skies anchored on the 10th day of 
 May off the coast of Newfoundland. Before the middle of July, Cartier 
 had circumnavigated the island to the northward, crossed the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence to the south of Anticosti, and entered the Bay of Chaleurs. 
 Not finding, as he had hoped, a passage out of this bay westward, he 
 changed his course to the north again, and ascended the coast as far as 
 Gaspe Bay. Here, upon a point of land, he set up a cross bearing a 
 shield with the lily of France, and proclaimed the French king monarch 
 of the country. Pressing his way still farther northward, and then west¬ 
 ward, he entered the St. Lawrence, and ascended the broad estuary until 
 the narrowing banks made him aware that he was in the mouth of a river. 
 Cartier, thinking it impracticable to pass the winter in the New World, 
 now turned his prows toward France, and in thirty days anchored his ships 
 in the harbor of St. Malo. 
 
 So great was the fame of Cartier’s first voyage that another was 
 planned immediately. Three good ships were provided, and quite a num¬ 
 ber of young noblemen joined the expedition. Colonization rather than 
 discovery was now the inspiring motive. The sails were set by zealous 
 and excited crews, and on the 19th of May the new voyage was begun. 
 This time there was stormy weather, yet the passage to Newfoundland 
 was made by the 10th of August. It was the day of St. Lawrence, and 
 the name of that martyr was accordingly given to the gulf, and after¬ 
 ward to the noble stream which enters it from the west. Sailing north¬ 
 ward around Anticosti, the expedition proceeded up the river to the island 
 of Orleans, where the snips were moored in a place of safety. Two In¬ 
 dians vhom Cartier had taken with him to France in the previous year 
 now gave information that higher up the river there was an important 
 
72 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 town on the island of Hochelaga. Proceeding thither in his boats, the 
 French captain found it as the Indians had said. A beautiful village lay 
 there at the foot of a high hill in the middle of the island. Climbing to 
 the top of the hill, Cartier, as suggested by the scene around him, named 
 the island and town Mont-Real. The country was declared to belong by 
 right of discovery to the king of France; and then the boats dropped 
 down the river to the ships. During this winter twenty-five of Cartier’s 
 men were swept off by the scurvy, a malady hitherto unknown in Europe. 
 
 With the opening of spring, preparations were made to return to 
 France. The terrible winter had proved too much for French enthusiasm. 
 The emblem of Catholicism, bearing the arms of France, was again planted 
 in the soil of the New World, and the homeward voyage began; but be¬ 
 fore the ships had left their anchorage, the kindly king of the Hurons, 
 who had treated Cartier with so much generosity, was decoyed on board 
 and carried off to die. On the 6th day of July the fleet reached St. 
 Malo in safety; but by the accounts which Cartier published on his return 
 the French were greatly discouraged. Neither silver nor gold had been 
 found on the banks of the St. Lawrence; and what was a new world good 
 for that had not silver and gold ? 
 
 Francis of La Roque, lord of Roberval, in Picardy, was the next 
 to undertake the colonization of the countries discovered by the French. 
 This nobleman, four years after Cartier’s return from his second voyage, 
 was commissioned by the court of France to plant a colony on the St. 
 Lawrence. The titles of viceroy and lieutenant-general of New France 
 were conferred upon him, and much other vainglorious- ceremony attended 
 his preparations for departure. The man, however, who was chiefly 
 relied on to give character and direction to the proposed colony was no 
 other than James Cartier. He only seemed competent to conduct the 
 enterprise with any promise of success. His name was accordingly added 
 to the list, and he was honored with the office of chief pilot and captain- 
 general of the expedition. 
 
 The next thing to be done was to find material for the colony. This 
 was a difficult task. The French peasants and mechanics were not eager 
 to embark for a country which promised nothing better than savages and 
 snow. Cartier’s honest narrative about the resources of New France had 
 left no room for further dreaming. So the work of enlisting volunteers 
 went on slowly, until the government adopted the plan of opening the 
 prisons of the kingdom and giving freedom to whoever would join the 
 expedition. There was a rush of robbers, swindlers and murderers, and 
 the lists were immediately filled. Only counterfeiters and traitois were 
 denied the privilege of gaining their liberty in the New World. 
 
1 DINING-HALL OF THE FRENCH COLONISTS AT PORT ROYAL. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 1% 
 
 In the latter part of May, 1541, five ships, under the immediate 
 command of Cartier, left France, and soon reached the St. Lawrence. 
 The expedition proceeded up the river to the present site of Quebec, 
 where a fort was erected and named Charlesbourg. Here the colonists 
 passed the winter. Cartier, offended because of. the subordinate position 
 which he held, was sullen and gloomy, and made no effort to prosecute 
 discoveries which could benefit no one but the ambitious Roberval. The 
 two leaders never acted in concert; and when La Roque, in June of the 
 following year, arrived with immigrants and supplies, Cartier secretly 
 sailed away with his part of the squadron, and returned to Europe. 
 Roberval was left in New France with three shiploads of criminals who 
 could only be restrained by whipping and hanging. During the autumn 
 some feeble efforts were made to discover a northern passage; the winter 
 was long and severe, and spring was welcomed by the colonists chiefly 
 for the opportunity which it gave them of returning to France. The 
 enterprise undertaken with so much pomp had resulted in nothing. In 
 the year 1549 Roberval, with a large company of emigrants, sailed on a 
 second voyage, but the fleet was never heard of afterward. 
 
 A period of fifty years now elapsed before the French authorities 
 again attempted to colonize America. Meanwhile, private enterprise 
 and religious persecution had co-operated in an effort to accomplish in 
 Florida and Carolina what the government had failed to accomplish on 
 the St. Lawrence. About the middle of the sixteenth century Coligni, 
 the Protestant admiral of France, formed the design of establishing in 
 America a refuge for the persecuted Huguenots of his own country. In 
 1562 this liberal and influential minister obtained from the sovereign, 
 Charles IX., the coveted privilege of planting a colony of Protestants 
 in the New World. John Ribault of Dieppe, a brave and experienced 
 sailor, was selected to lead the Huguenots to the land of promise. Sail¬ 
 ing in February, the company reached the coast of Florida at a point 
 where three years later St. Augustine was founded. The River St. John’s, 
 called by the Spaniards the St. Matthew, was entered by the French and 
 named the River of May. The vessels then continued northward along 
 the coast until they came to the entrance of Port Royal; here it was 
 determined to make the settlement. The colonists were landed on an 
 island, and a stone engraved with the arms of their native land was set 
 up to mark the place. A fort was erected, and in honor of Charles IX. 
 named Carolina—a name which a century afterward was retained by the 
 English and applied to the whole country from the Savannah River to 
 the southern boundary of Virginia. In this fort Ribault left twenty-six 
 men to keep possession, and then sailed back to France for additional 
 fi 
 
74 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 emigrants and stores. But civil war was now raging in the kingdom, 
 and it was quite impossible to procure either supplies or colonists. No 
 reinforcements were sent to Carolina, and in the following spring the men 
 in the fort, discouraged with long waiting, grew mutinous, and killed 
 their leader for attempting to control them. Then they constructed a 
 rude brig and put to sea. After they had been driven about by the 
 winds for a long time, they were picked up half starved by an English 
 ship and carried to the coast of France. 
 
 Coligni did not yet despair of success in what he had undertaken. 
 Two years after the first attempt another colony was planned, and Lau- 
 donniere chosen leader. The character, however, of this second Prot¬ 
 estant company was very bad. Many of them were abandoned men, of 
 little industry and no prudence. The harbor of Port Royal was now 
 shunned by the Huguenots, and a point on the River St. John’s about 
 fifteen miles west of where St. Augustine now stands was selected for the 
 settlement. A fort was built here, and things were going well until a part 
 of the colonists, under the pretext of escaping from famine, contrived to get 
 away with two of the ships. Instead of returning to France, as they had 
 promised, they began to practice piracy in the adjacent seas, until they were 
 caught, brought back and justly hanged. The rest of the settlers, im¬ 
 provident and dissatisfied, were on the eve of breaking up the colony, 
 when Ribault arrived with supplies of every sort, and restored order and 
 content. It was at this time that the Spaniard Melendez, as already 
 narrated, discovered the whereabouts of the Huguenots, and murdered the 
 entire company. 
 
 It remained for Dominic de Gourges, a soldier of Gascony, to 
 visit the Spaniards of St. Augustine with signal vengeance. This man 
 fitted out three ships, mostly with his own means, and with only fifty 
 daring seamen on board arrived in mid-winter on the coast of Florida. 
 With this handful of soldiers he surprised successively three Spanish 
 forts on the St. John’s, and made prisoners of the inmates. Then, when 
 he was unable to hold his position any longer, he hanged his leading 
 captives to the branches of the trees, and put up this inscription to explain 
 what he had done: “ Not Spaniards, but murderers.” 
 
 In the year 1598 the attention of the government of France was 
 once more directed to the claims which French discovery had established 
 in America. The Marquis of La Roche, a nobleman of influence and 
 distinction, now obtained a commission authorizing him to found an empire 
 in the New World. The prisons of France were again opened to furnish 
 the emigrants, and the colony was soon made up. Crossing the Atlantic 
 by the usual route, the vessels reached the coast of Nova Scotia, and 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 75 
 
 anchored at Sable Island. A more dismal place could not have been 
 found between Labrador and Mexico; yet here, on this desolate island, La 
 Roche left forty men to form a settlement, while he himself, under the pre¬ 
 text of procuring more men and supplies, returned to France. Shortly 
 after his arrival in that country he died; and for seven dreary years the 
 new French empire, composed of forty criminals, languished on Sable 
 Island. Then they were mercifully picked up by some passing ships and 
 carried back to France. Their punishment had been enough, and they 
 were never remanded to prison. 
 
 But the time had now come when a colony of Frenchmen should 
 actually be established in America. In the year 1603 the sovereignty of 
 the country from the latitude of Philadelphia to one degree north of 
 Montreal was granted to De Monts. The items of chief importance in 
 the patent which he received from the king were a monopoly of the fur- 
 trade of the new country and religious freedom for Huguenot immigrants. 
 De Monts, with two shiploads of colonists, left France early in March of 
 1604, and after a pleasant voyage reached the Bay of Fundy. The sum¬ 
 mer was spent in making explorations and in trafficking with the natives. 
 De Monts seems to have been uncertain as to where he should plant his 
 colony; but while in this frame of mind, Poutrincourt, the captain of one of 
 the ships, being greatly pleased with a harbor which he had discovered on 
 the north-west coast of Nova Scotia, asked and obtained a grant of the same, 
 together with some beautiful lands adjacent, and he and a part of the crew 
 went on shore. De Monts, with the rest of the colony, crossed to the west 
 side of the bay, and began to build a fort on an island at the mouth of 
 the St. Croix River. But in the following spring they abandoned this 
 place, and returned to the harbor which had been granted to Poutrin¬ 
 court. Here, on the 14th day of November, 1605, the foundations of the 
 first permanent French settlement in America were laid. The name of 
 Port Royal was given to the harbor and the fort, and the whole country, 
 including Nova Scotia, the surrounding islands and the main land as far 
 south as the St. Croix River, was called Acadia. 
 
 Two years before the settlement was made at Port Royal, Samuel 
 Champlain, one of the most eminent and soldierly men of his times, was 
 commissioned by a company of Rouen merchants to explore the country of 
 the St. Lawrence and establish a trading-post. The traders saw that a traffic 
 in the furs which those regions so abundantly supplied was a surer road 
 to riches than rambling about in search of gold and diamonds. Under 
 this commission, Champlain crossed the ocean, entered the gulf, sailed up 
 the river, and with remarkable prudence and good judgment selected 
 the spot on which Quebec now stands as the site for a fort. In t 
 
76 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 autumn of 1603, he returned to France, and published an interesting and 
 faithful account of his expedition. 
 
 In the year 1608, Champlain again visited America, and on the 
 3d of July in that year the foundations of Quebec were laid. In the 
 following year he and two other Fr.nchmen joined a company of Huron 
 and Algonquin Indians who were at ; r ar with the Iroquois of New York. 
 While marching with this party of warriors, he ascended the Sorel River 
 until he came to the long, narrow lake which he was the first white man 
 to look upon, and which has ever since borne the name of its discoverer. 
 
 Champlain was a religious enthusiast, and on that account the 
 development of his colony was for some time hindered. In 1612 the 
 Protestant party came into power in France, and the great Conde, the 
 protector of the Protestants, became viceroy of the French empire in 
 America. Now, for the third time, Champlain came to New France, 
 and the success of the colony at Quebec was fully assured. Franciscan 
 monks came over and began to preach among the Indians. These 
 friars and the Protestants quarreled a good deal, and the settlement 
 was much disturbed. A second time Champlain went with a war- 
 party against the Iroquois. His company was defeated, he himself 
 wounded and obliged to remain all winter among the Hurons; but 
 in the summer of 1617 he returned to the colony, in 1620 began to 
 build, and four years afterward completed, the strong fortress of St. 
 Louis. When the heavy bastions of this castle appeared on the high 
 cliff above'the town and river, the permanence of the French settle¬ 
 ments in the valley of the St. Lawrence was no longer doubtful. To 
 Samuel Champlain, more than to any other man—more than to the 
 French government itself—the success of the North American colo¬ 
 nies of France must be attributed. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 JYTO day in the early history of the New World was more important 
 than the 5th of May, 1496. On that day Henry VII., king of 
 England, signed the commission of John Cabot of Venice to make dis¬ 
 coveries and explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, to carry the 
 English flag, and to take possession of all islands and continents which he 
 might discover. Cabot was a brave, adventurous man who had been a 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 77 
 
 sailor from his boyhood, and was now a wealthy merchant of Bristol. 
 The autumn and winter were spent in preparations for the voyage; 
 five substantial ships were fitted, crews were enlisted, and everything 
 made ready for the opening of the spring. In April the fleet left Bris¬ 
 tol ; and on the morning of the 24th of June, at a point about the 
 middle of the eastern coast of Labrador, the gloomy shore was seen. 
 This was the real discovery of the American continent. Fourteen 
 months elapsed before Columbus reached the coast of Guiana, and more 
 than two years before Ojeda and Vespucci came in sight of the main 
 land of South America. 
 
 Cabot explored the shore-line of the country which he had dis¬ 
 covered for several hundred miles. He supposed that the land was a 
 part of the dominions of the Cham of Tartary; but finding no inhabitants, 
 he went on shore, according to the terms of his commission, planted the 
 flag of England, and took possession in the name of the English king. 
 No man forgets his native land; by the side of the flag of his adopted 
 country Cabot set up the banner of the republic of Venice—auspicious 
 emblem of another flag which should one day float from sea to sea. 
 
 As soon as he had satisfied himself of the extent and character of 
 the country which he had discovered, Cabot sailed for England. On the 
 homeward voyage he twice saw on the right hand the coast of Newfound¬ 
 land, but did not stop for further discovery. After an absence of but 
 little more than three months, he reached Bristol, and was greeted with 
 great enthusiasm. The town had holiday, the people were wild about 
 the discoveries of their favorite admiral, and the whole kingdom took up 
 the note of rejoicing. The Crown gave him money and encouragement, 
 new crews were enlisted, new ships fitted out, and a new commission 
 more liberal in its provisions than the first was signed in February of 1498. 
 Strange as it may seem, after the date of this second patent the very 
 name of John Cabot disappears from the annals of the times. Where 
 the remainder of his life was passed and the circumstances of his death 
 are involved in complete mystery. 
 
 But Sebastian, second son of John Cabot, inherited his father’s 
 plans and reputation, and to his father’s genius added a greater genius 
 of his own. He had already been to the New World on that first famous 
 voyage, and now, when the opportunity offered to conduct a voyage of 
 his own, he threw himself into the enterprise with all the fervor of youth. 
 It is probable that the very fleet which had been equipped for his father 
 was entrusted to Sebastian. At any rate, the latter found himself, in the 
 spring of 1498, in command of a squadron of well-manned vessels and 
 on his way to the new continent. The particular object had in view was 
 
78 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that common folly of the times, the discovery of a north-west passage to 
 the Indies. 
 
 The voyage continued prosperously until, in the ocean west of Green¬ 
 land, the icebergs compelled Sebastian to change his course. It was July, 
 and the sun scarcely set at midnight. Seals were seen and the ships 
 ploughed through such shoals of codfish as had never before been heard of. 
 The shore was reached not far from the scene of the elder Cabot’s discov¬ 
 eries, and then the fleet turned southward, but whether across the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence or to the east of Newfoundland is uncertain. New 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Maine were next explored. The whole 
 coast-line of New England and of the Middle States was now for the 
 first time since the days of the Norsemen traced by Europeans. Nor did 
 Cabot desist from this work, which was bestowing the title of discovery 
 on the crown of England, until he had passed beyond the Chesapeake. 
 After all the disputes about the matter, it is most probable that Cape 
 Hatteras is the point from which Sebastian began his homeward voyage. 
 
 The future career of Cabot was as strange as the voyages of his 
 boyhood had been wonderful. The scheming, illiberal Henry VII., 
 although quick to appreciate the value of Sebastian’s discoveries, was 
 slow to reward the discoverer. The Tudors were all dark-minded and 
 selfish princes. When King Henry died, Ferdinand the Catholic enticed 
 Cabot away from England and made him pilot-major of Spain. While 
 holding this high office he had almost entire control of the maritime 
 affairs of the kingdom, and sent out many successful voyages. He lived 
 to be very old, but the circumstances of his death have not been ascer¬ 
 tained, and his place of burial is unknown. 
 
 The year 1498 is the most marked in the whole history of discovery. 
 In the month of May, Vasco de Gama of Portugal doubled the Cape 
 of Good Hope and succeeded in reaching Hindostan. During the sum¬ 
 mer the younger Cabot traced the eastern coast of North America through 
 more than twenty degrees of latitude, thus establishing for ever the claim 
 of England to the most valuable portion of the New World. In August, 
 Columbus himself, now sailing on his third voyage, reached the mouth of 
 the Orinoco. Of the three great discoveries, that of Cabot has proved to 
 be by far the most important. 
 
 But several causes impeded the career of English discovery during 
 the greater part of the sixteenth century. The next year after the New 
 World was found, the pope, Alexander the Sixth, drew an imaginary line 
 north and south three hundred miles west of the Azores, and issued a 
 papal bull giving all islands and countries west of that line to Spain. 
 Henry VII. of England was himself a Catholic, and he did not care to 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 79 
 
 begin a conflict with his Church by pressing his own claims to the newiy- 
 found regions of the west. His son and successor, Henry VIII., at first 
 adopted the same policy, and it was not until after the .Reformation had 
 been accomplished in England that the decision of the pope came tc be 
 disregarded, and finally despised and laughed at. 
 
 During the short reign of Edward VI. the spirit of maritime adven¬ 
 ture was again aroused. In 1548 the king’s council voted a hundred 
 pounds sterling to induce the now aged Sebastian Cabot to return from 
 Spain and become grand-pilot of England. The old admiral quitted 
 Seville and once more sailed under the English flag. In the reign of 
 Queen Mary the power of England on the sea was not materially extended, 
 but with the accession of Elizabeth a wonderful impulse was given to all 
 enterprises which promised the aggrandizement of her kingdom. 
 
 The spirit of discovery now reappeared in that bold and skillful 
 sailor, Martin Frobisher. Himself poor, Dudley, earl of Warwick, 
 came to his aid, and fitted out three small vessels to sail in search of a 
 north-west passage to Asia. Three-quarters of a century had not sufficed 
 to destroy the fanatical notion of reaching the Indies by sailing around 
 America to the north. One of Frobisher’s ships was lost on the voyage, 
 another, terrified at the prospect, returned to England, but in the third the 
 dauntless captain proceeded to the north and west until he attained a 
 higher latitude than had ever before been reached on the American coast. 
 Above the sixtieth parallel he discovered the group of islands which 
 lies in the mouth of Hudson’s Strait. Still farther to the north he came 
 upon a large island which he supposed to be the mainland of Asia; to 
 this he gave the name of Meta Incognita. North of this island, in lati¬ 
 tude sixty-three degrees and eight minutes, he entered the strait which 
 has ever since borne the name of its discoverer, then sailed for England, 
 carrying home with him one of the Esquimaux and a stone which was 
 declared by the English refiners to contain gold. 
 
 London was greatly excited. Queen Elizabeth herself added a 
 vessel to the new fleet which in the month of May, 1577, departed for 
 Meta Incognita to gather the precious metal by the shipload. Coming 
 among the icebergs, the ships were for weeks together in constant danger 
 of being crushed to atoms between the floating mountains. The summei 
 was unfavorable. No ships reached as high a point as Frobisher had 
 attained by himself on the previous voyage. The mariners were in con¬ 
 sternation at the gloomy perils around them, and availed themselves of 
 the first opportunity to get out of these dangerous seas and return to 
 England. 
 
 Were the English gold-hunters satisfied? Not at all. Fifteen new 
 
80 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vessels were immediately fitted out, the queen again bearing part of the 
 expense, and as soon as the spring of 1578 opened the third voyage was 
 begun. This time a colony was to be planted in the gold-regions of the 
 north. Three of the ships, loaded with emigrants, were to remain in the 
 promised land. The other twelve were to be freighted with gold-ore and 
 return to London. When they reached the entrance to Hudson’s Strait, 
 they encountered icebergs more terrible than ever. Through a thousand 
 perils the vessels finally reached Meta Incognita and took on cargoes of 
 dirt. The provision-ship now slipped away from the fleet and returned 
 to England. Affairs grew desperate. The north-west passage was for¬ 
 gotten. The colony which was to be planted was no longer thought of. 
 Faith in the shining earth which they had stored in the holds gave way, 
 and so, with disappointed crews on board and several tons of the spurious 
 ore under the hatches, the ships set sail for home. The El Dorado of the 
 Esquimaux had proved an utter failure. 
 
 The English admiral, Sir Francis Drake, sought fortune in a 
 different manner. Without much regard for the law of nations, he began, 
 in the year 1572, to prey upon the merchant-ships of Spain, and gained 
 thereby enormous wealth. Five years later he sailed around to the Pacific 
 coast by the route which Magellan had discovered, and became a terror to 
 the Spanish vessels in those waters. When he had thus sufficiently en¬ 
 riched himself by a process not very different from piracy, he formed the 
 daring project of tracing up the western coast of North America until he 
 should enter the north-west passage from the Pacific, and thence sail east¬ 
 ward around the continent. With this object in view, he sailed northward 
 along the coast as far as Oregon, when his sailors, who had been for seve¬ 
 ral years within the tropics, began to shiver with the cold, and the enter¬ 
 prise, which could have resulted in nothing but disaster, was given up. 
 Returning to the south, Drake passed the winter of 1579-80 in a harbor 
 on the coast of Mexico. To all that portion of the western shores of 
 America which he had thus explored he gave the name of New Albion; 
 but the earlier discovery of the same coast by the Spaniards rendered the 
 English claim of but little value. No colony of Englishmen had yet 
 been established in the New World. 
 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert was perhaps the first to conceive a rational 
 plan of colonization in America. His idea was to form somewhere on the 
 shores of the New Continent an agricultural and commercial state. With 
 this purpose he sought aid from the queen, and received a liberal patent 
 authorizing him to take possession of any six hundred square miles of 
 unoccupied territory in America, and to plant thereon a colony of which 
 he himself should be proprietor and governor. With this commission, 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 b i 
 
 Gilbert, assisted by his illustrious step-brother, Walter Raleigh, pre¬ 
 pared a fleet of five vessels, and in June of 1583 sailed for the west. 
 Only two days after their departure the best vessel in the fleet treacher¬ 
 ously abandoned the rest and returned to Plymouth. Early in August, 
 Gilbert reached Newfoundland, and going ashore, took formal possession 
 of the country in the name of his queen. Unfortunately, some of the 
 sailors discovered in the side of a hill scales of mica, and a judge of 
 metals, whom Gilbert had been foolish enough to bring w T ith him, de¬ 
 clared that the glittering mineral was silver ore. The crews became in¬ 
 subordinate. Some went to digging the supposed silver and carrying it 
 on board the vessels, while others gratified their piratical propensities by 
 attacking the Spanish and Portuguese ships that were fishing in the 
 neighboring harbors. 
 
 Meanwhile, one of Gilbert’s vessels became worthless, and had to be 
 abandoned. With the other three he left Newfoundland, and steered 
 toward the south. When off the coast of Massachusetts, the largest of 
 the remaining ships was wrecked, and a hundred men, with all the spuri¬ 
 ous silver ore, went to the bottom. The disaster was so great that Gilbert 
 determined to return at once to England. The weather was stormy, and 
 the two ships that were now left were utterly unfit for the sea; but the 
 voyage was begun in hope. The brave captain remained in the weaker 
 vessel, a little frigate called the Squirrel, already shattered and ready to 
 sink. At midnight, as the ships, within hailing distance of each other, 
 were struggling through a raging sea, the Squirrel was suddenly en¬ 
 gulfed ; not a man of the courageous crew was saved. The other ship 
 finally reached Falmouth in safety. 
 
 But the project of colonization was immediately renewed by Raleigh. 
 In the following spring that remarkable man obtained from the queen a 
 aew patent fully as liberal as the one granted to Gilbert. Raleigh was to 
 become lord-proprietor of an extensive tract of country in America ex¬ 
 tending from the thirty-third to the fortieth parallel of north latitude. 
 This territory was to be peopled and organized into a state. The frozen 
 regions of the north were now to be avoided, and the sunny country of 
 the Huguenots was to be chosen as the seat of the rising empire. Two 
 ships were fitted out, and the command given to Philip Amidas and 
 Arthur Barlow. 
 
 In the month of July the vessels reached the coast of Carolina. 
 The sea that laved the long, low beach was smooth and glassy. The 
 woods were full of beauty and song. The natives were generous and 
 hospitable. Explorations were made along the shores of Albemarle and 
 Pamlico Sounds, and a landing finally effected on Roanoke Island, where 
 
82 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the English were entertained by the Indian queen. But neither Amidas 
 nor Barlow had the courage or genius necessary to such an enterprise. 
 After a stay of less than two months they returned to England to exhaust 
 the rhetoric of description in praising the beauties of the new land. In 
 allusion to her own life and reign, Elizabeth gave to her delightful 
 country in the New World the name of Virginia. 
 
 In December of 1584, Sir Walter brought forward a bill in Par¬ 
 liament by which his previous patent was confirmed and enlarged. The 
 mind of the whole nation was inflamed at the prospects which Raleigh’s 
 province now offered to emigrants and adventurers. The plan of coloni¬ 
 zation, so far from being abandoned, was undertaken with renewed zeal and 
 earnestness. The proprietor fitted out a second expedition, and appointed 
 the soldierly Ralph Lane governor of the colony. Sir Richard Gren¬ 
 ville commanded the fleet, and a company, not unmixed with the gallant 
 young nobility of the kingdom, made up the crew. Sailing from Ply¬ 
 mouth, the fleet of seven vessels reached the American coast on the 20th 
 of June. At Cape Fear they were in imminent danger of being wrecked; 
 but having escaped the peril, they six days afterward reached Roanoke in 
 safety. Here Lane was left with a hundred and ten of the emigrants to 
 form a settlement. Grenville, after making a few unsatisfactory explora¬ 
 tions, returned to England, taking with him a Spanish treasure-ship which 
 he had captured. Privateering and colonization went hand in hand. 
 
 Meanwhile, some Indians of a village adjacent to Roanoke had 
 committed a petty theft, and the English wantonly burned the whole 
 town as a measure of revenge. Jealousy and suspicion took the place of 
 former friendships. Lane and some of his companions were enticed with 
 false stories to go on a gold-hunting expedition into the interior; their 
 destruction was planned, and only avoided by a hasty retreat to Roanoke. 
 Wingina, the Indian king, and several of his chiefs were now in turn 
 allured into the power of the English and inhumanly murdered. Hatred 
 and gloom followed this atrocity, then despondency and a sense of danger, 
 until the discouragement became so great that when Sir Francis Drake, 
 returning with a fleet from his exploits on the Pacific coast, came in sight, 
 the colonists prevailed on him to carry them back to England. 
 
 It was a needless and hasty abandonment, for within a few days a 
 shipload of stores arrived from the prudent Raleigh; but finding no colony, 
 the vessel could do nothing but return. Two weeks later Sir Richard 
 Grenville himself came back to Roanoke with three well-laden ships, and 
 made a fruitless search for the colonists. Not to lose possession of the 
 country altogether, he left fifteen men upon the island, and set sail for 
 home. 
 
OF VIRGINIA DARE. 
 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 83 
 
 The ardor of the English people was now somewhat cooled. Yet 
 they had before them truthful descriptions of the beauty and mag¬ 
 nificence of the new country, and another colony, consisting largely of 
 families, was easily made up. A charter of municipal government was 
 granted by the proprietor, John White was chosen governor, and every 
 precaution taken to secure the permanent success of the City of Raleigh, 
 soon to be founded in the west. In July the emigrants arrived in Caro ¬ 
 lina. Avoiding the dangerous capes of Hatteras and Fear, they came 
 safely to Roanoke; but a search for the fifteen men who had been left 
 there a year before only revealed the fact that the natives, now grown 
 savage, had murdered them. Nevertheless, the northern extremity of 
 the ill-omened island was chosen as the site for the city, and on the 23d 
 of the month the foundations were laid. 
 
 But disaster attended the enterprise. Jealousy between the settlers 
 and the Indians grew into hostility, and hostility into war. Then a peace 
 was concluded, and Sir Walter gave countenance to an absurd perform¬ 
 ance by which Manteo, one of the Indian chiefs, was made a peer of 
 England, with the title of Lord of Roanoke. It was a silly and stupid 
 piece of business. Notwithstanding the presence of this copper-colored 
 nobleman, the colonists were apprehensive and gloomy. They pretended 
 to fear starvation, and in the latter part of August almost compelled 
 Governor White to return to England for an additional cargo of supplies. 
 It was a great mistake. If White had remained, and the settlers had 
 given themselves to tilling the soil and building houses, no further help 
 would have been needed. The 18th of August was marked as the birth¬ 
 day of Virginia Dare, the first-born of English children in the New 
 World. When White set sail for England, he left behind him a colony 
 of a hundred and eight persons. What their fate was has never been 
 ascertained. The story of their going ashore and joining the Indians is 
 unlikely in itself, and has no historical evidence to support it. 
 
 The Invincible Armada was now bearing down upon the coasts of 
 England. All the resources and energies of the kingdom were demanded 
 for defence; and although Raleigh managed to send out two supply- 
 ships to succor his starving colony, his efforts to reach them were unavail¬ 
 ing. The vessels which he sent with stores went cruising after Spanish 
 merchantmen, and were themselves run down and captured by a man-of- 
 war. Not until tire spring of 1590 did the governor finally return to 
 search for the unfortunate colonists. The island was a desert, tenantless 
 and silent. No soul remained to tell the story of the lost. 
 
 In the mean time, Sir Walter, after spending two hundred thou¬ 
 sand dollars of his own means in the attempt to found and foster a colony, 
 
84 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 had given up the enterprise. He assigned his exclusive proprietary rights 
 to an association of London merchants, and it was under their auspices 
 that White had made the final search for the settlers of Roanoke. From 
 the date of this event very little in the way of voyage and discovery was 
 accomplished by the English until the year 1602, when maritime enter¬ 
 prise again brought the flag of England to the shores of America. Bar 
 tholomew Gosnold was the man to whom belongs the honor of mak¬ 
 ing the next explorations of our coast. 
 
 The old route from the shores of Europe to America was very eir 
 cuitous. Ships from the ports of England, France and Spain sailed first 
 southward to the Canary Islands, thence to the West Indies, and thence 
 northward to the coast-line of the continent. Abandoning this path as 
 unnecessarily long and out of the way, Gosnold, in a single small vessel 
 called the Concord, sailed directly across the Atlantic, and in seven weeks 
 reached the coast of Maine. The distance thus gained was tully two 
 thousand miles. It was Gosnold’s object to found a colony, and fur 
 that purpose a company of emigrants came with him. Beginning at 
 Cape Elizabeth, explorations were made to the southward; Cape Cud 
 was reached, and here the captain, with four of his men, went on shore. 
 It was the first landing of Englishmen within the limits of New Eng¬ 
 land. Cape Malabar was doubled, and then the vessel, leaving Nantucket 
 on the right, turned into Buzzard’s Bay. Selecting the most westerly 
 island of the Elizabeth group, the colonists went on shore, and there be¬ 
 gan the first New England settlement. 
 
 It was a short-lived enterprise. A traffic was opened with the 
 natives which resulted in loading the Concord with sassafras root, so much 
 esteemed for its fragrance and healing virtues. Everything went well for 
 a season ; but when the ship was about to depart for England, the settlers 
 became alarmed at the prospect before them, and pleaded for permission to 
 return with their friends. Gosnold acceded to their demands, and the 
 island was abandoned. After a pleasant voyage of five weeks, and in 
 less than four months from the time of starting, the Concord reached 
 home in safety. 
 
 Gosnold and his companions gave glowing accounts of the country 
 which they had visited, and it was not long until another English expe* 
 dition to America was planned. Two vessels, the Speedwell and the 
 Discoverer, composed the fleet, with Martin Pring for commander. A 
 cargo of merchandise suited to the tastes of the Indians was put into 
 the holds; and in April of 1603, a few days after the death of Queen 
 Elizabeth, the vessels sailed for America. They came safely to Penobscot 
 Bay, and afterward spent some time in exploring the harbors and shores 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 85 
 
 of Maine. Then, turning to the south and coasting Massachusetts, Pring 
 readied the sassafras region, and loaded his vessels at Martha’s Vineyard. 
 Thence he returned to England, reaching Bristol in October, after an 
 absence of six months. 
 
 Two years later, George Waymouth, under the patronage of the 
 earl of Southampton, made a voyage to America, and passing Cape Cod 
 on the left, came to anchorage among the islands of St. George, on the 
 coast of Maine. He explored the harbor, and sailed up the river for a 
 considerable distance, taking note of the fine forests of fir and of the 
 beautiful scenery along the banks. A profitable trade was opened with 
 the Indians, some of whom learned to speak English and returned with 
 Waymouth to England. The voyage homeward was safely made, the 
 vessels reaching Plymouth about the middle of June. This was the last 
 of the voyages made by the English preparatory to the actual establish¬ 
 ment of a colony in America. The time had at last arrived when, in the 
 beautiful country of the Chesapeake, a permanent settlement should be 
 effected. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS.—CONTINUED. 
 
 T HE 10th of April, 1606, was full of fate in the destinies of the west¬ 
 ern continent. On that day King James I. issued two great patents 
 directed to men of his kingdom, authorizing them to possess and colo¬ 
 nize all that portion of North America lying between the thirty-fourth 
 and forty-fifth parallels of latitude. The immense tract thus embraced 
 extended from the mouth of Cape Fear River to Passamaquoddy Bay, 
 and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The first patent was granted to an 
 association of nobles, gentlemen and merchants residing at London, and 
 called the London Company, while the second instrument was issued 
 to a similar body which had been organized at Plymouth, in South-west¬ 
 ern England, and which bore the name of the Plymouth Company. 
 To the former corporation was assigned all the region between the thirty- 
 fourth and the thirty-eighth degrees of latitude, and to the latter the tract 
 extending from the forty-first to the forty-fifth degree. The narrow belt 
 of three degrees lying between the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallels 
 was to be equally open to the colonies of either company, but no settle- 
 
86 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ment of one party was to be made within less than one hundred mile 3 
 of the nearest settlement of the other. The nature and extent of these 
 grants will be fully understood from an examination of the accompany¬ 
 ing map. Only the London Company was successful under its charter 
 in planting an American colony. 
 
 The man who was chiefly instrumental in organizing the London 
 Company was Bartholomew Gosnold. His leading associates were Edward 
 Wingfield, a rich merchant, Robert Hunt, a clergyman, and John Smith, 
 a man of genius. Others who aided the enterprise were Sir John Pop- 
 ham, chief-justice of England, Richard Hakluyt, a historian, and Sir 
 Ferdinand Gorges, a distinguished nobleman. By the terms of the char¬ 
 ter, the alfairs of the company were to be administered by a Superior 
 Council, residing in England, and an Inferior Council, residing in the 
 colony. The members of the former body were to be chosen by the king, 
 and to hold office at his pleasure; the members of the lower council were 
 also selected by the royal direction, and were subject to removal by the 
 same power.* All legislative authority was likewise vested in the mon¬ 
 arch. In the first organization of the companies not a single principle 
 of self-government was admitted. The most foolish clause in the patent 
 was that which required the proposed colony or colonies to hold all prop¬ 
 erty in common for a period of five years. The wisest provision in the 
 instrument was that which allowed the emigrants to retain in the New 
 World all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. 
 
 In the month of August, 1606, the Plymouth Company sent their 
 first ship to America. The voyage, which was one of exploration, 
 was but half completed, when the company’s vessel was captured by a 
 Spanish man-of-war. In the autumn another ship was sent out, which 
 remained on the American coast until the following spring, and then 
 returned with glowing accounts of the country. Encouraged by these 
 reports, the company, in the summer of 1607, despatched a colony of a 
 hundred persons. Arriving at the mouth of the River Kennebec, the 
 colonists began a settlement under favorable circumstances. Some forti¬ 
 fications were thrown up, a storehouse and several cabins built, and the 
 place named St. George. Then the ships returned to England, leaving 
 a promising colony of forty-five members; but the winter of 1607-8 
 was very severe; some of the settlers were starved and some frozen, the 
 storehouse burned, and when summer came the remnant escaped to 
 England. 
 
 The London Company had better fortune. A fleet of three vessels 
 was fitted out, and the command given to Christopher Newport. On the 
 9th of December the ships, having on board a hundred and five colonists. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 37 
 
 among whom were Wingfield and Smith, left England. Newport, to 
 begin with, committed the astonishing folly of taking the old route by 
 way of the Canaries and the West Indies, and did not reach the American 
 coast until the month of April. It was the design that a landing should 
 be made in the neighborhood of Roanoke Island, but a storm prevailed 
 and carried the ships northward into the Chesapeake. Entering the 
 magnificent bay and coasting along the southern shore, the vessels came 
 to the mouth of a broad and beautiful river, which was named in honor 
 of King James. Proceeding up this stream about fifty miles, Newport 
 noticed on the northern bank a peninsula more attractive than the rest 
 for its verdure and beauty; the ships were moored, and the emigrants 
 went on shore. Here, on the 13th day of May (Old Style), in the year 
 1607, were laid the foundations of Jamestown, the oldest English settle¬ 
 ment in America. It was within a month of a hundred and ten years 
 after the discovery of the continent by the elder Cabot, and nearly forty- 
 two years after the founding of St. Augustine. So long a time had been 
 required to plant the first feeble germ of English civilization in the New 
 World. 
 
 After the unsuccessful attempt to form a settlement at the mouth 
 of the Kennebec, very little was done by the Plymouth Company for 
 several years; yet the purpose of planting colonies was not relinquished. 
 Meanwhile, a new impetus was given to the affairs of North Virginia by 
 the ceaseless activity and exhaustless energies of John Smith. Wounded 
 by an accident, and discouraged, as far as it was'possible for such a man 
 to be discouraged, by the distractions and turbulence of the Jamestown 
 colony, Smith left that settlement in 1609, and returned to England. On 
 recovering his health he formed a partnership with four wealthy mer¬ 
 chants of London, with a view to the fur-trade and probable establish¬ 
 ment of colonies within the limits of the Plymouth grant. Two ships 
 were accordingly freighted with goods and put under Smith’s command. 
 The summer of 1614 was spent on the coast of lower Maine, where a 
 profitable traffic was carried on with the Indians. The crews of the ves¬ 
 sels were well satisfied through the long days of July with the plea¬ 
 sures and profits of the teeming fisheries, but Smith himself found nobler 
 work. Beginning as far north as practicable, he patiently explored the 
 country, and drew a map of the whole coast-line from the Penobscot 
 River to Cape Cod. In this map, which is still extant, and a marvel of 
 accuracy considering the circumstances under which it was made, the 
 country was called New England —a name which Prince Charles con¬ 
 firmed, and which has ever since remained as the designation of the North¬ 
 eastern States of the republic. In the month of November the ships re- 
 7 
 
88 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 turned to Plymouth, taking with them many substantial proofs of a suc¬ 
 cessful voyage. 
 
 Smith now pleaded more strongly than ever in behalf of coloniza¬ 
 tion. Some of his friends in the Plymouth Company gave him aid, and 
 in 1615 a small colony of sixteen persons was sent out in a single ship. 
 When nearing the American coast, they encountered a terrible storm, and 
 after being driven about for two or three weeks were obliged to return to 
 England. In spite of these reverses, the undaunted leader renewed the 
 enterprise, and again raised a company of emigrants. Part of his crew 
 became mutinous, betrayed him, and left him in mid-ocean. His own 
 ship was run down and captured by a band of French pirates, and him¬ 
 self imprisoned in the harbor of Rochelle. Later in the same year he 
 escaped in an open boat and made his way back to London. With as¬ 
 tonishing industry, he now published a description of New England, 
 and was more zealous than ever in inciting the company of Plymouth to 
 energetic action. In these efforts he was much impeded. The London 
 Company was jealous of its rival, and put obstacles in the way of every 
 enterprise. The whole of the years 1617-18 was spent in making and 
 unmaking plans of colonization, until finally, on the petition of some of 
 its own leading members, the Plymouth Company was formally super¬ 
 seded by a new corporation called the Council of Plymouth, consisting 
 of forty of the most wealthy and influential men of the kingdom. On 
 this body were conferred, by the terms of the new charter, almost un¬ 
 limited powers and privileges. All that part of America lying between 
 the fortieth and the forty-eighth parallels of north latitude, and extending 
 from ocean to ocean, was given to the council in fee simple. More than a 
 million of square miles were embraced in the grant, and absolute jurisdic¬ 
 tion over this immense tract was committed to forty men. How King 
 James was ever induced to sign such a charter has remained an unsolved 
 mystery. 
 
 A plan of colonizing was now projected on a grand scale. John 
 Smith was appointed admiral of New England for life. The king, not¬ 
 withstanding the opposition of the House of Commons, issued a procla¬ 
 mation enforcing the provisions of the charter, and everything gave 
 promise of the early settlement of America. Such were the schemes of 
 men to possess and people the Western Continent. Meanwhile, a Power 
 higher than the will of man was working in the same direction. The 
 time had come when, without the knowledge or consent of James I., 
 •without the knowledge or consent of the Council of Plymouth, a per¬ 
 manent settlement should be made on the bleak shores of New England. 
 
 The Puritans ! Name of all names in the early history of the 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 West! About the close of the sixteenth century a number of poor dis¬ 
 senters scattered through the North of England, especially in the counties 
 of Nottingham, Lincoln and York, began to join themselves together for 
 the purposes of free religious worship. Politically, they were patriotic 
 subjects of the English king; religiously, they were rebels against the 
 authority of the English Church. Their rebellion, however, only ex¬ 
 tended to the declaration that every man has a right to discover and ap¬ 
 ply the truth as revealed in the Scriptures without the interposition of 
 any power other than his own reason and conscience. Such a doctrine was 
 very repugnant to the Church of England. Queen Elizabeth herself 
 declared such teaching to be subversive of the principles on which her 
 monarchy was founded. King James was not more tolerant; and from 
 time to time violent persecutions broke out against the feeble and dis¬ 
 persed Christians of the north. 
 
 Despairing of rest in their own country, the Puritans finally deter¬ 
 mined to go into exile, and to seek in another land the freedom of wor¬ 
 ship which their own had denied them. They turned their faces toward 
 Holland, made one unsuccessful attempt to get away, were brought back 
 and thrown into prisons. Again they gathered together on a bleak heath 
 in Lincolnshire, and in the spring of 1608 embarked from the mouth of 
 the Humber. Their ship brought them in safety to Amsterdam, where, 
 under the care of their heroic pastor, John Robinson, they passed one 
 winter, and then removed to Leyden. Such was the beginning of their 
 wandering. They took the name of Pilgrims, and grew content to have 
 no home or resting-place. Privation and exile could be endured when 
 sweetened with liberty. 
 
 But the love of native land is a universal passion. The Puritans 
 in Holland did not forget—could not forget—that they were Englishmen. 
 During their ten years of residence at Leyden they did not cease to long 
 for a return to the country which had cast them out. Though ruled by 
 a heartless monarch and a bigoted priesthood, England was their country 
 still. The unfamiliar language of the Dutch grated harshly on their ears. 
 They pined with unrest, conscious of their ability and willingness to do 
 something which should convince even King James of their patriotism 
 and worth. 
 
 It was in this condition of mind that aoout the year 1617 the 
 Puritans began to meditate a removal to the wilds of the New World. 
 There, with honest purpose and prudent zeal, they would extend the 
 dominions of the English king. They would forget the past, and be at 
 peace with their country. Accordingly, John Carver and Robert Cush¬ 
 man were despatched to England to ask permission for the church of 
 
90 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Leyden to settle in America. The agents of the London Company 
 and the Council of Plymouth gave some encouragement to the request, 
 but the king and his ministers, especially Lord Bacon, set their faces 
 against any project which might seem to favor heretics. The most that 
 King James would do was to make an informal promise to let the Pil¬ 
 grims alone in America. Such has always been the despicable attitude 
 of bigotry toward every liberal enterprise. 
 
 The Puritans were not discouraged. With or without permission, 
 protected or not protected by the terms of a charter which might at best 
 be violated, they would seek asylum and rest in the Western wilderness. 
 Out of their own resources, and with the help of a few faithful friends, 
 they provided the scanty means of departure and set their faces toward 
 the sea. The Speedwell, a small vessel of sixty tons, was purchased at 
 Amsterdam, and the Mayflower, a larger and more substantial ship, was 
 hired for the voyage. The former was to carry the emigrants from Ley¬ 
 den to Southampton, where they were to be joined by the Mayflower, with 
 another company from London. Assembling at the harbor of Delft, on 
 the River Meuse, fifteen miles south of Leyden, as many of the Pilgrims 
 as could be accommodated went on board the Speedwell. The whole con¬ 
 gregation accompanied them to the shore. There Robinson gave them a 
 consoling farewell address, and the blessings and prayers of those who 
 were left behind followed the vessel out of sight. 
 
 Both ships came safely to Southampton, and within two weeks the 
 emigrants were ready for the voyage. On the 5th of August, 1620, the 
 vessels left the harbor; but after a few days’ sailing the Speedwell was 
 found to be shattered, old and leaky. On this account both ships an¬ 
 chored in the port of Dartmouth, and eight days were spent in making 
 the needed repairs. Again the sails were set; but scarcely had the land 
 receded from sight before the captain of the Speedwell declared his vessel 
 unfit to breast the ocean, and then, to the great grief and discouragement 
 of the emigrants, put back to Plymouth. Here the bad ship was aban¬ 
 doned ; but the Pilgrims were encouraged and feasted by the citizens, and 
 the more zealous went on board the Mayflower, ready and anxious for a 
 final effort. On the 6th day of September the first colony of New Eng¬ 
 land, numbering one hundred and two souls, saw the shores of Old 
 England grow dim and sink behind the sea. 
 
 The voyage was long and perilous. For sixty-three days the ship 
 was buffeted by storms and driven. It had been the intention of the 
 Pilgrims to found their colony in the beautiful country of the Hudson; 
 but the tempest carried them out of their course, and the first land seen 
 was the desolate Cape Cod. On the 9th of November the vessel was 
 
THE MAYFLOWER AT SEA. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY 
 
 91 
 
 anchored in the bay; then a meeting was held on board and the colony 
 organized under a solemn compact. In the charter which they there 
 made for themselves the emigrants declared their loyalty to the English 
 Crown, and covenanted together to live in peace and harmony, with equal 
 rights to all, obedient to just laws made for the common good. Such was 
 the simple but sublime constitution of the oldest New England State. A 
 nobler document is not to be found among the records of the world.* To 
 this instrument all the heads of families, forty-one in number, solemnly 
 set their names. An election was held in which all had an equal voice, 
 and John Carver was unanimously chosen governor of the colony. 
 
 After two days the boat was lowered, but was found to be half 
 rotten and useless. More than a fortnight of precious time was required 
 to make the needed repairs. Standish, Bradford and a few other hardy 
 spirits got to shore and explored the country; nothing was found but a 
 heap of Indian corn under the snow. By the 6th of December the boat 
 was ready for service, and the governor, with fifteen companions, went 
 ashore. The weather was dreadful. Alternate rains and snow-storms 
 converted the clothes of the Pilgrims into coats-of-mail. All day they 
 wandered about, and then returned to the sea-shore. In the morning 
 they were attacked by the Indians, but escaped to the ship with their 
 lives, cheerful and giving thanks. Then the vessel was steered to the 
 south and west for forty-five miles around the coast of what is now the 
 county of Barnstable. At nightfall of Saturday a storm came on; the 
 rudder was wrenched away, and the poor ship driven, half by accident 
 and half by the skill of the pilot, into a safe haven on the west side 
 of the bay. The next day, being the Sabbath, was spent in religious 
 devotions, and on Monday, the 11th of December, Old Style, 1620, the 
 Pilgrim Fathers landed on the Rock of Plymouth. 
 
 It was now the dead of winter. There was an incessant storm of 
 sleet and snow, and the houseless immigrants, already enfeebled by their 
 sufferings, fell a-dying of hunger, cold and exposure. After a few days 
 spent in explorations about the coast, a site was selected near the first 
 landing, some trees were felled, the snow-drifts cleared away, and on the 
 9th of January the heroic toilers began to build New Plymouth. Every 
 man took on himself the work of making his own house; but the rav¬ 
 ages of disease grew daily worse, strong arms fell powerless, lung-fevers 
 and consumptions wasted every family. At one time only seven men 
 were able to work on the sheds which were building for shelter from the 
 storms; and if an early spring had not brought relief, the colony must 
 have perished to a man. Such were the privations and griefs of that 
 terrible winter when New England began to be. 
 
 * See Appendix, note -B. 
 
92 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 / 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 
 
 T HE first Dutch settlement in America was made on Manhattan or 
 New York Island. The colony resulted from the voyages and 
 explorations of the illustrious Sir Henry Hudson. In the year 1607 
 this great British seaman was employed by a company of London mer¬ 
 chants to sail into the North Atlantic and discover a route eastward or 
 westward to the Indies. He made the voyage in a single ship, passed up 
 the eastern coast of Greenland to a higher point of latitude than ever 
 before attained, turned eastward to Spitzbergen, circumnavigated that 
 island, and then was compelled by the icebergs to return to England. In 
 the next year lip renewed his efforts, hoping to find between Spitzbergen 
 and Nova Zembla an open way to the East. By this course he confi¬ 
 dently expected to shorten the route to China by at least eight thousand 
 miles. Again the voyage resulted in failure; his employers gave up the 
 enterprise in despair, but his own spirits only rose to a higher determi¬ 
 nation. When the cautious merchants would furnish no more means, he 
 quitted England and went to Amsterdam. Holland was at this time the 
 foremost maritime nation of the world, and the eminent navigator did not 
 long go begging for patronage in the busy marts of that country. The 
 Dutch East India Company at once furnished him with a ship, a small 
 yacht called the Half Moon, and in April of 1609 he set out on his 
 third voyage to reach the Indies. About the seventy-second parallel of 
 latitude, above the capes of Norway, he turned eastward, but between 
 Lapland and Nova Zembla the ocean was filled with icebergs, and further 
 sailing was impossible. Baffled but not discouraged, he immediately 
 turned his prow toward the shores of America; somewhere between the 
 Chesapeake and the North Pole he would find a passage into the Pacific 
 ocean. 
 
 In the month of July Hudson reached Newfoundland, and passing 
 to the coast of Maine, spent some time in repairing his ship, which had 
 been shattered in a storm. Sailing thence southward, he touched at Cape 
 Cod, and by the middle of August found himself as far south as the 
 Chesapeake. Again he turned to the north, determined to examine the 
 coast more closely, and on the 28th of the month anchored in Delaware 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 93 
 
 Bay. After one day’s explorations the voyage was continued along the 
 coast of New Jersey, until, on the 3d of September, the Half Moon came 
 to a safe anchorage in the bay of Sandy Hook. Two days later a land¬ 
 ing was effected, the natives flocking in great numbers to the scene, and 
 bringing gifts of corn, wild fruits and oysters. The time until the 9th 
 of the month was spent in sounding the great harbor; on the next day 
 the vessel passed the Narrows, and then entered the noble river which 
 bears the name of Hudson. 
 
 To explore the beautiful stream was now the pleasing task. For 
 eight days the Half Moon sailed northward up the river. Such mag¬ 
 nificent forests, such beautiful hills, such mountains rising in the distance, 
 such fertile valleys, planted here and there with ripening corn, the Neth- 
 erlanders had never # seen before. On the 19th of September the vessel 
 was moored at what is now the landing of Kinder hook; but an exploring 
 party, still unsatisfied, took to the boats and rowed up the river beyond 
 the site of Albany. After some days they returned to the ship, the moor¬ 
 ings were loosed, the vessel dropped down the stream, and on the 4th of 
 October the sails were spread for Holland. On the homeward voyage 
 Hudson, not perhaps without a touch of national pride, put into the har¬ 
 bor of Dartmouth. Thereupon the government of King James, with 
 characteristic illiberality, detained the Half Moon, and claimed the crew 
 as Englishmen. All that Hudson could do was to forward to his employ¬ 
 ers of the East India Company an account of his successful voyage and 
 of the delightful country which he had visited under the flag of Holland. 
 
 Now were the English merchants ready to spend more money to 
 find the north-west passage. In the summer of 1610, a ship, called the 
 Discovery, was given to Hudson; and with a vision of the Indies flitting 
 before his imagination he left England, never to return. He had learned 
 by this time that nowhere between Florida and Maine was there an open¬ 
 ing through the continent to the Pacific. The famous pass must now be 
 sought between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the southern point of 
 Greenland. Steering between Cape Farewell and Labrador, in the track 
 which Frobisher had taken, the vessel came, on the 2d day of August, 
 into the mouth of the strait which bears the name of its discoverer. No 
 ship had ever before entered these waters. For a while the way west¬ 
 ward w r as barred with islands; but passing between them, the bay seemed 
 to open, the ocean widened to the right and left, and the route to China 
 was at last revealed. So believed the great captain and his crew; but 
 sailing farther to the west, the inhospitable shores narrowed on the more 
 inhospitable sea, and Hudson found himself environed with the terrors 
 of winter in the frozen gulf of the North. With unfaltering courage he 
 
94 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITER STATES. 
 
 bore up until his provisions were almost exhausted; spring was at hand, 
 and the day of escape had already arrived, when the treacherous crew 
 broke out in mutiny. They seized Hudson and his only son, with seven 
 other faithful sailors, threw them into an open shallop, and cast them off 
 among the icebergs. The fate of the illustrious mariner has never been 
 ascertained. 
 
 In the summer of 1610 the Half Moon was liberated at Dartmouth, 
 and returned to Amsterdam. In the same year several ships owned by 
 Dutch merchants sailed to the banks of the Hudson River and engaged 
 in the fur-trade. The traffic was very lucrative, and in the two following 
 years other vessels made frequent and profitable voyages. Early in 1614 
 an act was passed by the States-General of Holland giving to certain 
 merchants of Amsterdam the exclusive right to trade and establish settle¬ 
 ments within the limits of the country explored by Hudson. Under this 
 commission a fleet of five small trading-vessels arrived in the summer of 
 the same year at Manhattan Island. Here some rude huts had already 
 been built by former traders, but now a fort for the defence of the place 
 was erected, and the settlement named New Amsterdam. In the course 
 of the autumn Adrian Block, who commanded one of the ships, sailed 
 through East River into Long Island Sound, made explorations along the 
 coast as far as the mouth of the Connecticut, thence to Narraganset Bay, 
 and even to Cape Cod. Almost at the same time Christianson, another 
 Dutch commander, in the same fleet, sailed up the river from Manhattan 
 to Castle Island, a short distance below the site of Albany, and erected a 
 block-house, which was named Fort Nassau, for a long time the northern 
 outpost of the settlers on the Hudson. Meanwhile, Cornelius May, the 
 captain of a small vessel called the Fortune, sailed from New Amsterdam 
 and explored the Jersey coast as far south as the Bay of Delaware. Upon 
 these two voyages, one north and the other south from Manhattan Island 
 where the actual settlement was made, Holland set up a feeble claim to 
 the country which was now named New Netherlands, extending from 
 Cape Henlopen to Cape Cod—a claim which Great Britain and France 
 treated with derision and contempt. Such were the feeble and inaus¬ 
 picious beginnings of the Dutch colonies in New York and Jersey. 
 
PART III. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY! 
 
 A. D. 1007—1775. 
 
 PARENT COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 M ANY circumstances impeded the progress of the oldest Virginia 
 colony. The first settlers at Jamestown were idle, improvident, 
 dissolute. Of the one hundred and five men who came with Newport 
 in the spring of 1607, only twelve were common laborers. There were 
 four carpenters in the company, and six or eight masons and blacksmiths, 
 but the lack of mechanics was compensated by a long list of forty-eight 
 gentlemen. If necessity had not soon driven these to the honorable 
 vocations of toil, the colony must have perished. The few married men 
 who joined the expedition had left their families in England. The pros¬ 
 pect of planting an American State on the banks of James River was 
 not at all encouraging. 
 
 From the first the affairs of the colony were badly managed. King 
 James made out instructions for the organization of the new State, and 
 then, with his usual stupidity, sealed up the parchment in a box which 
 was not to be opened until the arrival of the emigrants in America. The 
 names of the governor and members of the council were thus unknown 
 during the voyage; there was no legitimate authority on shipboard; 
 insubordination and anarchy prevailed among the riotous company. In 
 this state of turbulence and misrule, an absurd suspicion was blown out 
 against Captain John Smith, the best and truest man in the colony. He 
 was accused of making a plot to murder the council, of which he was 
 supposed to be a member, and to make himself monarch of Virginia. 
 An arrest followed, and confinement until the end of the voyage. When 
 at last the colonists reached the site of their future settlement, the king’s 
 instructions were unsealed and the names of the seven members of the 
 
96 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Inferior Council made known. Then a meeting of that body was held 
 and Edward Wingfield duly elected first governor of Virginia. Smith, 
 who had been set at liberty, was now charged with sedition and excluded 
 from his seat in the council. He demanded to be tried; and when it was 
 found that his jealous enemies could bring nothing but their own suspi¬ 
 cions against him, he was acquitted, and finally, through the good offices 
 of Robert Hunt, restored to his place as a member of the corporation. 
 
 As soon as the settlement was well begun and the affairs of the colony 
 
 came into a better 
 condition, the rest¬ 
 less Smith, accom¬ 
 panied by New¬ 
 port and twenty 
 others, ascended 
 and explored 
 James River for 
 forty-five miles. 
 This was the first 
 of those marvelous 
 expeditions which 
 were undertaken 
 and carried out by 
 Smith’s enterprise 
 and daring. Just 
 below the falls of 
 the river, at the 
 present site of 
 Richmond, the 
 English explorers 
 came upon the 
 capital of Pow¬ 
 hatan, the Indian king. Smith was not greatly impressed with the mag¬ 
 nificence of* an empire whose chief city was a squalid village of twelve 
 wigwams. The native monarch received the foreigners with formal 
 courtesy and used his authority to moderate the dislike which his sub¬ 
 jects manifested at the intrusion. About the last of May the company 
 returned to Jamestown, and fifteen days later Newport embarked for 
 England. 
 
 The colonists now for the first time began to realize their situation. 
 They were alone amid the solitudes of the New World. The beauties 
 of the Virginia wilderness were around them, but the terrors of the 
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
VIRGINIA.—FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 97 
 
 approaching winter were already present to their imagination. In the 
 latter part of August dreadful diseases broke out in the settlement, and 
 the colony was brought to the verge of ruin. The fort which had been 
 built for the defence of the plantation was filled with the sick and dying. 
 At one time no more than five men were able to go on duty as sentinels. 
 Bartholomew Gosnold, the projector of the colony and one of the best 
 men in the council, died, and before the middle of September one-half 
 of the whole number had been swept off by the terrible malady. If the 
 frosts of autumn had not come to check the ravages of disease, no soul 
 would have been left to tell the story. 
 
 Civil dissension was added to the other calamities of the settlement. 
 President Wingfield, an unprincipled man, and his confederate, George 
 Kendall, a member of the council, were detected in embezzling the stores 
 of the colony. Attempting to escape in the company’s vessel, they were 
 arrested, impeached and removed from office. Only three councilmen 
 now remained, Ifatcliffe, Martin and Smith; the first was chosen presi¬ 
 dent. He was a man who possessed neither ability nor courage, and the 
 affairs of the settlers grew worse and worse. After a few weeks of vacil¬ 
 lation and incompetency, he, like his predecessor, was caught in an attempt 
 to abandon the colony, and willingly gave up an office which he could not 
 fill. Only Martin and Smith now remained; the former elected the lat¬ 
 ter president of Virginia! It was a forlorn piece of business, but very 
 necessary for the public good. In their distress and bitterness there had 
 come to pass among the colonists a remarkable unanimity as to Smith’s 
 merits and abilities. The new administration entered upon the..discharge 
 of its duties without a particle of opposition. 
 
 The new president, though not yet thirty years of age, was a veteran 
 in every kind of valuable human experience. Born an Englishman; 
 trained as a soldier in the wars of Holland; a traveler in France, Italy 
 and Egypt; again a soldier in Hungary; captured by the Turks and 
 sold as a slave; sent from Constantinople to a prison in the Crimea; 
 killing a taskmaster who beat him, and then escaping through the woods 
 of Russia to Western Europe; going with an army of adventurers against 
 Morocco; finally returning to England and joining the London Com¬ 
 pany,—he was now called upon by the very enemies who had persecuted 
 and ill-treated him to rescue them and their colony from destruction. A 
 strange and wonderful career! John Smith was altogether the most noted « 
 man in the early history of America. 
 
 Under the new administration the Jamestown settlement soon began 
 to show signs of vitality and progress. Smith’s first care, after the set¬ 
 tlers were in a measure restored to health, was to improve the buildings 
 
98 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the plantation. The fortifications of the place were strengthened, 
 dwellings were repaired, a storehouse erected, and everything made ready 
 for the coming winter. The next measure was to secure a supply of pro¬ 
 visions from the surrounding country. A plentiful harvest among the 
 Indians had compensated in some degree for the mismanagement and 
 rascality of the former officers of the colony, but to procure corn from the 
 natives was not an easy task. Although ignorant of the Indian language, 
 Smith undertook the hazardous enterprise. Descending James River as 
 far as Hampton Roads, he landed with his five companions, went boldly 
 among the natives, and began to offer them hatchets and copper coins in 
 exchange for corn. The Indians only laughed at the proposal, and then 
 mocked the • half-starved foreigners by offering to barter a piece of bread 
 for Smith’s sword and musket. Finding that good treatment was only 
 thrown away, the English captain formed the desperate resolution of fight¬ 
 ing. He and his men fired a volley among the affrighted savages, who 
 ran yelling into the woods. Going straight to their wigwams, he found 
 an abundant store of corn, but forbade his men to take a grain until the 
 Indians should return to attack them. Sixty or seventy painted warriors, 
 headed by a priest who carried an idol in his arms, soon came out of the 
 forest and made a violent onset. The English not only stood their ground, 
 but made a rush, wounded several of the natives and captured their idol. 
 A parley now ensued; the terrified priest came and humbly begged for his 
 fallen deity, but Smith stood grimly with his musket across the pros¬ 
 trate idol, and would grant no terms until six unarmed Indians had loaded 
 his boat with corn. Then the image was given up, beads and hatchets 
 were liberally distributed among the warriors who ratified the peace by 
 performing a dance of friendship, while Smith and his men rowed up the 
 river with a boat-load of supplies. 
 
 There were other causes of rejoicing at Jamestown. The neighbor¬ 
 ing Indians, made liberal by their own abundance, began to come into 
 the fort with voluntary contributions. The fear of famine passed away. 
 The woods were full of wild turkeys and other game, inviting to the chase 
 as many as delighted in such excitement. Good discipline was maintained 
 in the settlement and friendly relations established with several of the 
 native tribes. Seeing the end of their distresses, the colonists revived in 
 spirit; cheerfulness and hope took the place of melancholy and despair. 
 
 As soon as the setting in of winter had made an abandonment of 
 the colony impossible, the president, to whose ardor winter and summer 
 were alike, gave himself freely to the work of exploring the country. 
 With a company of six Englishmen and two Indian guides he began the 
 ascent of the Chickahominy River. It was generally believed by the 
 
JOHN SMITH AMONG TH3 I 'DIANS 
 
VIRGINIA .—FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 99 
 
 people of Jamestown that by going up this stream they could reach the 
 Pacific Ocean. Smith knew well enough the absurdity of such an opin¬ 
 ion, but humored it because of the opportunity which it gave him to 
 explore new territory. The rest might dig imaginary gold-dust and hunt 
 for the Pacific; he would see the country and map the course of the 
 river. 
 
 The company proceeded up the Chickahominy until their barge ran 
 aground in shallow water. Mooring the boat in a place of safety, Smith left 
 four of the Englishmen to guard it, and with the other two and the Indian 
 guides ascended the stream in a canoe. When this smaller craft could go 
 no farther, it was put. in charge of the white men, while the captain, with 
 only the savages, proceeded on foot. For twenty miles he continued along 
 the banks of the river, now dwindled to a mere creek winding about the 
 woods and meadows. Meanwhile, the men who were left to protect the 
 barge disobeyed their orders, and wandering into the forest, were attacked 
 by three hundred Indians under the command of their king, Opechan- 
 canough, the brother of Powhatan. Three of the Englishmen escaped 
 to the boat, but the fourth, George Cassen by name, was taken prisoner. 
 Him the savages compelled by torture to reveal the whereabouts of Smith. 
 The two men who guarded the canoe were next overtaken and killed. 
 The captain himself was at last discovered, attacked, wounded with an 
 arrow and chased through the woods. The missiles of the barbarians 
 flew around him in a shower, but he compelled the Indian guides to stand 
 between him and his enemies, and every discharge of his musket brought 
 down a savage. He fought like a lion at bay, tied one of the guides to 
 his left arm for a buckler, ran and fired by turns, stumbled into a morass, 
 and was finally overtaken. The savages were still wary of their danger¬ 
 ous antagonist until he laid down his gun, made signs of surrender and 
 was pulled out of the mire. 
 
 Without exhibiting the least signs of fear, Smith demanded to see 
 the Indian chief, and on being taken into the presence of that dignitary 
 began to excite his interest and curiosity by showing him a pocket com¬ 
 pass and a watch. These mysterious instruments struck the Indians 
 with awe; and profiting by his momentary advantage, the prisoner began 
 to draw figures on the ground, and to give his captors some rude lessons 
 in geography and astronomy. The savages were amazed and listened for 
 an hour, but then grew tired, bound their captive to a tree and prepared 
 to shoot him. At the critical moment he flourished his compass in the 
 air as though performing a ceremony, and the Indians forbore to shoot. 
 His sagacity and courage had gained the day, but the more appalling 
 
 danger of torture was yet to be avoided. The savages, however, were 
 8 
 
100 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thoroughly superstitious, and became afraid to proceed against liim except 
 in the most formal manner. He was regarded by them as an inhabitant 
 of another world whom it was dangerous to touch. 
 
 Smith was first taken to the town of Orapax, a few miles north¬ 
 east of the site of Richmond. Here he found the Indians making 
 great preparations to attack and destroy Jamestown. They invited him 
 to join them and become their leader, but he refused, and then terrified 
 them by describing the cannon and other destructive weapons of the 
 English. He also managed to write a letter to his countrymen at the 
 settlement, telling them of his captivity and their own peril, asking for 
 certain articles, and requesting especially that those bearing the note should 
 be thoroughly frightened before their return. This letter, which seemed 
 to them to have such mysterious power of carrying intelligence to a dis¬ 
 tance, was not lost on the Indians, who dreaded the writer more than ever. 
 When the warriors bearing the epistle arrived at Jamestown and found 
 everything precisely as Smith had said, their terror and amazement knew 
 no bounds, and as soon as they returned to Orapax all thought of attack¬ 
 ing the settlement w T as at once given up. 
 
 The Indians now marched their captive about from village to vil¬ 
 lage, the interest and excitement constantly increasing, until, near the 
 fork of York River, they came to Pamunkey, the capital of Opechan- 
 canough: Here Smith was turned over to the priests, who assembled in 
 their Long House, or judgment-hall, and for three days together danced 
 around him, sang and yelled after the manner of their superstition. The 
 object was to determine by this wild ceremony what their prisoner’s fate 
 should be. The decision was against him, and he was condemned to death. 
 
 It was necessary that the sanction of the Indian emperor should 
 be given to the sentence, and Smith was now taken twenty-five miles 
 lown the river to a town where Powhatan lived in winter. The savage 
 monarch was now sixty years of age, and, to use Smith’s own language, 
 looked every inch a king. He received the prisoner with all the rude 
 formalities peculiar to his race. Going to the Long House of the village, 
 the emperor, clad in a robe of raccoon skins, took his seat on a kind of 
 throne prepared for the occasion. • His two daughters sat right and left, 
 while files of warriors and women of rank were ranged around the hall. 
 The king solemnly reviewed the cause and confirmed the sentence of 
 death. Two large stones were brought into the hall, Smith w T as dragged 
 forth bound, and his head put into position to be crushed with a war- 
 elub. A stalwart painted savage was ordered out of the rank and stood 
 ready for the bloody tragedy. The signal was given, the grim execu¬ 
 tioner raised his bludgeon, and another moment had decided the fate of 
 
VIRGINIA.—FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 101 
 
 both the illustrious captive and his colony. But the peril went by harm¬ 
 less. Matoaka,* the eldest daughter of Powhatan, sprang from her seat 
 and rushed between the warrior’s uplifted club and the prostrate prisoner. 
 ' She clasped his head in her arms and held on with the resolution of despair 
 ontil her father, yielding to her frantic appeals, ordered Smith to be 
 Unbound and lifted up. Again he was rescued from a terrible death. 
 There is no reason in the world for doubting the truth of this affecting 
 and romantic story, one of the most marvelous and touching in the his¬ 
 tory of any nation. 
 
 Powhatan, having determined to spare his captive’s life, received 
 him into favor. The prisoner should remain in the household of the mon¬ 
 arch, making hatchets for the warriors and toys for the king’s daughters. 
 By degrees his liberties were enlarged, and it was even agreed soon 
 afterward that he should return to his own people at Jamestown. The 
 conditions of his liberation wore that he should send back to Grapax two 
 cannons and a grindstone. Certain warriors were to accompany Smith to 
 the settlement and carry the articles to Powhatan. There should then 
 be peace and friendship between the English and the Bed men. The 
 journey was accordingly begun, the company camping at night in the 
 woods, and Smith being in constant peril of his life from the uncertain 
 disposition of the savages. But the colony was reached in safety, the lost 
 captain and his twelve Indian guides being received with great gladness. 
 
 Smith’s first and chief care was to make a proper impression on 
 the minds of the savages. He had improved the opportunities of his 
 captivity by learning the language of Powhatan’s people, and by making 
 himself familiar with their peculiarities and weaknesses—an experience of 
 vast importance to himself and the colony. He now ordered the two 
 cannons which he had promised to give Powhatan to be brought out and 
 loaded to the muzzle with stones. Then, under pretence of teaching the 
 Indians gunnery, he had the pieces discharged among the tree-tops, which 
 were bristling with icicles. There was a terrible crash, and the savages, 
 cowering with fear and amazement, could not be induced to touch the 
 dreadful engines. The barbarous delegation returned to their king with 
 neither guns nor grindstones. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the settlers were very little to be dreaded by 
 anybody. Only thirty-eight of them were left alive, and these were frost¬ 
 bitten and half starved. Their only competent leader had been absent 
 for seven weeks in the middle of one of the severest winters known in 
 
 * Powhatan’s tribe had a superstition that no one whose, real name was unknown could 
 be injured. They therefore told the English falsely that Matoaka’s name was Poca* 
 hontas. 
 
102 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 modern times. The old fears and discontents of the colonists had revived; 
 and when Smith returned to the settlement, he found all hands preparing 
 to escape in the pinnace as soon as the ice should break in the river. 
 With much persuasion and a few wholesome threats he induced the 
 majority to abandon this project, but the factious spirits of the colony, 
 burning with resentment against him and his influence, made a conspir¬ 
 acy to kill him, and lie knew not what hour might be his last. 
 
 In the midst of these dark days Captain Newport arrived from 
 England. He brought a full store of supplies and one hundred and 
 twenty emigrants. Great was the joy throughout the little plantation; 
 only the president was at heart as much grieved as gladdened, for he saw 
 in the character of the new comers no promise of anything but vexation 
 and disaster. Here were thirty-four gentlemen at the head of the list 
 to begin with ; then came gold-hunters, jewelers, engravers, adventurers, 
 strollers and vagabonds, many of whom had more business in jail than 
 at Jamestown. To add to Smith’s chagrin, this company of worthless 
 creatures had been sent out contrary to his previous protest and injunc¬ 
 tion. He had urged Newport to bring over only a few industrious 
 mechanics and laborers; but the love of gold among the members of the 
 London Company had prevailed over common sense to send to Virginia 
 another crowd of profligates. 
 
 The kind of industry which Smith had encouraged in the colony 
 was now laughed at. As soon as the weather would permit, the new¬ 
 comers and as many of the old settlers as had learned nothing from the 
 past year’s experience began to stroll about the country digging for gold. 
 In a bank of sand at the mouth of a small tributary of the James some 
 glittering particles were found, and the whole settlement was ablaze with 
 excitement. Martin and Newport, both members of the council, were 
 carried away with the common fanaticism. The former already in imagi¬ 
 nation saw himself loaded with wealth and honored with a peerage. The 
 latter, having filled one of his ships with the supposed gold-dust, sent it 
 to England, and then sailed up James River to find the Pacific Ocean! 
 Fourteen weeks of the precious springtime, that ought to have been given 
 to ploughing and planting, were consumed in this stupid nonsense. Even 
 the Indians ridiculed the madness of men who for imaginary grains of 
 gold were wasting their chances for a crop of corn. 
 
 In this general folly Smith was quite forgotten; but foreseeing that 
 the evil must soon work its own cure, he kept his patience, and in the 
 mean time busied himself with one of his most brilliant and successful 
 enterprises; this was no less than the exploration of Chesapeake Bay and 
 its tributaries. Accompanied by Dr. Russell and thirteen other comrades 
 
VIRGINIA.—FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 103 
 
 who had remained faithful to him, he left Jamestown on the 2d day of 
 June. He had nothing but an open barge of three tons’ burden, but in 
 this he steered boldly out by way of Hampton Roads and Cape Henry 
 as far as Smith’s Island. Returning thence around the peninsula which 
 ends with Cape Charles, the survey of the eastern shore of the bay was 
 begun, and continued northward as far as the river Wicomico, in Mary¬ 
 land. From this point the 
 expedition crossed over to the 
 mouth of the Patuxent, and 
 thence coasted northward along 
 the western side to the Pataps- 
 co. Here some members of 
 the company became discon¬ 
 tented, and insisted on return¬ 
 ing to the colony. Smith gave 
 a reluctant consent, but in steer¬ 
 ing southward had the good 
 fortune to enter the mouth of 
 the Potomac. The crew were 
 so much pleased with the pros¬ 
 pect that they agreed to explore 
 the great river before returning 
 homeward. Accordingly, the 
 barge was steered up stream as 
 far as the falls above George¬ 
 town. The country was much 
 admired; and when the explor¬ 
 ers were tired of adventure, 
 they dropped down the river 
 to the bay, and turning south- Jamestown and Vicinity. 
 
 Ward, reached JameStOWn On Smith’s First Voyage in the Chesapeake- 
 
 Smith’s Second Voyage in the Chesapeake- 
 
 After a rest of three days a second voyage was begun. This time 
 the expedition reached the head of the bay, and sailed up the Susquehanna 
 River until the volume of water would float the barge no farther. Here 
 an acquaintance was made with a race of Indians of gigantic stature and 
 fiercer disposition than was known among the natives of Virginia. On 
 the return voyage Smith passed down the bay, exploring every sound and 
 inlet of any note, as far as the mouth of the Rappahannoc; this stream 
 he ascended to the head of navigation, and then, returning by way of the 
 York and Chesapeake Rivers, reached Jamestown on the 7th of Septem- 
 
 the 21st of July 
 
104 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ber. He had been absent a little more than three months, had explored 
 the winding coast of the great bay for fully three thousand miles, had 
 encountered hostile savages by hundreds and thousands, had been driven 
 hither and thither by storms, once wrecked, once stung by a poisonous 
 fish and brought so near to death that his comrades digged his grave; 
 now he was come back to the colony with a Map of the Chesapeake, 
 which he sent by Newport to England, and which is still preserved. Only 
 one man had been lost on the expedition. Richard Fetherstone had died, 
 and was buried on the Rappahannoc. 
 
 Within three days after Smith’s return to Jamestown he was form¬ 
 ally elected president. He entered at once upon the duties of his office, 
 correcting abuses, enforcing the laws and restoring order to the distracted 
 colony. There was a marked change for the better; gold-hunting be¬ 
 came unpopular, and the rest of the year was noted as a season of great 
 prosperity. Late in the autumn Newport arrived with seventy additional 
 immigrants, increasing the number to more than two hundred. The 
 health was so good that only seven deaths occurred between September 
 and May of the following year. Excellent discipline was maintained. 
 Every well man was obliged to work six hours a day. New houses were 
 built, new fields fenced in; and all through the winter the sound of axe 
 and saw and hammer gave token of a prosperous and growing village. 
 Such was the condition of affairs in the spring of 1609. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 O N the 23d of May, 1609, King James, without consulting the wishes 
 of his American colonists, revoked their constitution, and granted to 
 the London Company a new charter, by the terms of which the govern¬ 
 ment of Virginia was completely changed. The territory included under 
 the new patent extended from Cape Fear to Sandy Hook, and westward 
 to the Pacific Ocean. The members of the Superior Council were now 
 to be chosen by the stockholders of the company, vacancies were to be 
 filled by the councilors, who were also empowered to elect a governor 
 from their own number. 
 
 The council wa° at once organized in accordance with this charter, 
 
VIRGINIA.—SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 105 
 
 and the excellent Lord De La Ware chosen governor for life. With him 
 were joined in authority Sir Thomas Gates, lieutenant-general; Sir George 
 Somers, admiral; Christopher Newport, vice-admiral; Sir Thomas Dale, 
 high marshal; Sir Ferdinand Wainman, master of horse; and other dig¬ 
 nitaries of similar sort. Attracted by the influence of these noblemen, a 
 large company of more than five hundred emigrants was speedily col¬ 
 lected, and early in June a fleet of nine vessels sailed for America. Lord 
 Delaware did not himself accompany the expedition, but delegated his 
 authority to three commissioners, Somers, Gates and Newport. About 
 the middle of July the ships, then passing the West Indies, were over¬ 
 taken and scattered by a storm. One small vessel was wrecked, and 
 another, having on board the commissioners of Lord Delaware, was driven 
 ashore on one of the Bermuda Islands, where the crew remained until 
 April of the following year; the other seven ships came safely to James¬ 
 town. 
 
 But who should now be governor? Captain Smith was at first dis¬ 
 posed to give up his office, but in a few days the affairs of the colony 
 were plainly going to ruin, and he was urged by the old settlers and the 
 better class of new-comers to continue in authority. Accordingly, declar¬ 
 ing that his powers as president under the old constitution did not cease 
 until some one should arrive from England properly commissioned to 
 supersede him, he kept resolutely to the discharge of his duties, although 
 in daily peril of his life. He arrested Ratcliffe* and Archer, put some 
 of the most rebellious brawlers in prison, and then, in order to distract 
 the attention of the rest, planned two new settlements, one, of a hun¬ 
 dred and twenty men, under the command of Martin, to be established 
 at Nansemond; the other, of the same number, under Captain West, to 
 form a colony at the falls of the James. Both companies behaved badly. 
 In a few days after their departure troubles arose between West’s men 
 and the Indians. The president was sent for in order to settle the diffi¬ 
 culty ; but finding his efforts unavailing, he returned to Jamestown. On 
 his way down the river, while asleep in the boat, a bag of gunpowder 
 lying near by exploded, burning and tearing his flesh so terribly that in 
 his agony he leaped overboard. Being rescued from the river, he was 
 carried to the fort, where he lay for some time racked with fever and tor¬ 
 tured with his wounds. Finally, despairing of relief under the imperfect 
 medical treatment which the colony afforded, he decided, to return to 
 England. He accordingly delegated his authority to Sir George Percy, 
 a brother of the earl of Northumberland, and about the middle of Sep- 
 
 * This man’s real name was not Ratcliffe, but Sicklemore. He had been president of 
 the colony in 1607, and was an accomplished thief as well as an impostor. 
 
106 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tember, 1609, left the scene of his heroic toils and sufferings, never to 
 return. 
 
 There remained at Jamestown a colony of four hundred and ninety 
 persons, well armed, well sheltered and well supplied. But such was the 
 viciousness and profligacy of the greater number, and such the insubor¬ 
 dination and want of proper leadership, after Smith’s departure, that by 
 the beginning of winter the settlement was face to face with starvation. 
 The Indians became hostile and hovered around the plantations, strag¬ 
 glers were intercepted and murdered, houses were fired at every opportu¬ 
 nity, disease returned to add to the desolation, and cold and hunger 
 completed the terrors of a winter which was long remembered with a 
 shudder and called The Starving Time. By the last of March there 
 were only sixty persons alive, and these, if help had not come speedily, 
 could hardly have lived a fortnight. 
 
 Meanwhile, Sir Thomas Gates and his companions, who had been 
 shipwrecked in the Bermudas, had constructed out of the materials of 
 their old ship, with such additional timber as they could cut from the for¬ 
 est, two small vessels, and set sail for Virginia. They came in full expec¬ 
 tation of a joyful greeting from a happy colony. What, therefore, was 
 their disappointment and grief when a few wan, half-starved wretches 
 crawled out of their cabins to beg for bread! Whatever stores the com¬ 
 missioners had brought with them were distributed to the famishing 
 settlers, and Gates assumed control of the government. 
 
 But the colonists had now fully determined to abandon for ever a 
 place which promised them nothing but disaster and death. In vain did 
 the commissioners remonstrate; they were almost driven by the clamors 
 around them to yield to the common will. An agreement was made to 
 sail for Newfoundland ; there the remnant of the Virginia colony should 
 be distributed among the fishermen until such time as some friendly ship 
 might carry them back to England. 
 
 On the 8th of June Jamestown was abandoned. The disheartened 
 settlers, now grown resentful, were anxious before leaving to burn the 
 town, but Gates defeated this design, and was himself the last man to go 
 on board. Four pinnaces lay at their moorings in the river ; embark¬ 
 ing in these, the colonists dropped down with the tide, and it seemed as 
 though the enterprise of Raleigh and Gosnold had ended in failure and 
 humiliation. 
 
 But Lord Delaware was already on his way to America. Before 
 the escaping settlers had passed out of the mouth of the river, the ships 
 of the noble governor came in sight. Here were additional immigrants, 
 plentiful supplies and promise of better things to come. Would the 
 
VIRGINIA.—SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 107 
 
 colonists return ? The majority gave a reluctant consent, and before night¬ 
 fall the fires were again kindled on the hearthstones of the deserted village. 
 The next day was given to religious services; the governor caused his com¬ 
 mission to be read, and entered upon the discharge of his duties. The 
 amiability and virtue of his life, no less than the mildness and decision of 
 his administration, endeared him to all and inspired the colony with hope. 
 
 Autumn came, and Lord Delaware fell sick. Against his own will, 
 and to the great regret of the colony, he was compelled to return to Eng¬ 
 land. Having reluctantly delegated his authority to Percy—the same 
 who had been the deputy of Captain Smith—the good Delaware set sail 
 for his own country. It was an event of great discouragement; but for¬ 
 tunately, before a knowledge of the governor’s departure reached England, 
 the Superior Council had despatched a new shipload of stores and another 
 company of emigrants, unde;' command of Sir Thomas Dale. The vessel 
 arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of May, and Percy was superseded by 
 the captain, who bore a commission from the council. Dale had been a 
 military officer in the wars of the Netherlands, and he now adopted a 
 system of martial law as the basis of his administration. He was, how¬ 
 ever, a man so tolerant and just that very little complaint was made on 
 account of his arbitrary method of governing. 
 
 One of Dale’s first acts was to write to the council in England, 
 requesting that body to send out immediately as large a number of colon¬ 
 ists as possible, with an abundance of supplies. For once the council acted 
 promptly; and in the latter part of August, Sir Thomas Gates arrived with 
 a fleet of six ships, having on board three hundred immigrants and a large 
 quantity of stores. There was great thanksgiving in the colony, a fresh 
 enthusiasm was enkindled, and contentment came with a sense of security. 
 
 Thus far the property of the settlers at Jamestown had been held 
 in common. The colonists had worked together, and in time of harvest 
 deposited their products in storehouses which were under the control of 
 the governor and council. Now the right of holding private property 
 was recognized. Governor Gates had the lands divided so that each set¬ 
 tler should have three acres of his own; every family might cultivate a 
 garden and plant an orchard, the fruits of which no one but the owner 
 was allowed to gather. The benefits of this system of labor were at once 
 apparent. The laborers, as soon as each was permitted to claim the 
 rewards of his own toil, became cheerful and industrious. There were 
 now seven hundred persons in the colony; new plantations were laid out 
 on every side, and new settlements were formed on both banks of the 
 river and at considerable distances from Jamestown. The promise of an 
 American State, so long deferred, seemed at last to be realized. 
 
108 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 E ARLY in the year 1612 the London Company obtained from the 
 king a third patent, by the terms of which the character of the gov¬ 
 ernment was entirely changed. The Superior Council was abolished and 
 the powers of that body transferred to the stockholders, who were author¬ 
 ized to hold public meetings, to elect their own officers, to discuss and 
 decide all questions of law and right, and to govern the colony on their 
 own responsibility. The cause of this change was the unprofitableness 
 of the colony as a financial enterprise, and the consequent dissatisfaction 
 of the company with the management of the council. The new patent, 
 although not so intended by the king, was a great step toward a demo¬ 
 cratic form of government in Virginia. 
 
 2. The year 1613 was marked by two important events, both of them 
 resulting from the lawless behavior of Captain Samuel Argali. While 
 absent on an expedition up the Potomac River he learned that Pocahon¬ 
 tas, who had had some difficulty with her father’s tribe, was residing in 
 that neighborhood. Procuring the help of a treacherous Indian family, 
 the English captain enticed the unsuspecting girl on board his vessel and 
 carried her captive to Jamestown. The authorities of the colony, instead 
 of punishing Argali for this atrocity, aggravated the outrage by demand¬ 
 ing that Powhatan should pay a heavy ransom for his daughter’s libera¬ 
 tion. The old king indignantly refused, and ordered his tribes to prepare 
 for war. Meanwhile, Pocahontas, who seems not to have been greatly 
 grieved on account of her captivity, was converted to the Christian faith 
 and became by baptism a member of the Episcopal Church. She was 
 led to this course of action chiefly by the instruction and persuasion of 
 John Rolfe, a worthy young man of the colony, who after the baptism 
 of the princess sought her in marriage. Powhatan and his chief men 
 gave their consent, and the nuptials were duly celebrated in the spring 
 of the following year. By this means war was averted, and a bond of 
 union established between the Indians and the whites. 
 
 3. Two years later Rolfe and his wife went to England, where they 
 were received in the highest circles of society. Captain Smith gave them 
 a letter of introduction to Queen Anne, and many other flattering atten- 
 
VIRGINIA.—THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 109 
 
 tions were bestowed on the modest daughter of the Western wilderness. 
 In the following year, Rolfe made preparations to return to America; but 
 before embarking, Pocahontas fell sick and died. There was left of this 
 marriage a son, who afterward came to Jamestown and was a man of some 
 importance in the affairs of the colony. To him several influential families 
 of Virginians still trace their origin. John Randolph of Roanoke was a 
 grandson of the sixth generation from Pocahontas. 
 
 When Captain Argali returned from his expedition up the Potomac, 
 he was sent with an armed vessel to the coast of Maine. The avowed 
 object of the voyage was to protect the English fishermen who frequented 
 the waters between the Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod, but the real pur¬ 
 pose was to destroy the colonies of France, if any should be found within 
 the limits of the territory claimed by England. Arriving at his destina¬ 
 tion, Argali soon found opportunity for the display of his violence and 
 rapacity. The French authorities of Acadia were at this time building 
 a village on Mount Desert Island, near the mouth of the Penobscot. Thi3 
 settlement was the first object of Argali’s vengeance. The place was cap¬ 
 tured, pillaged and burned ; part of the inhabitants were put on board a 
 vessel bound for France, and the rest were carried to the Chesapeake. The 
 French colony at the mouth of the St. Croix River next attracted the 
 attention of the English captain, who cannonaded the fort and destroyed 
 every building in the settlement. Passing thence across the bay to 
 Port Royal, Argali burned the deserted hamlet which Poutrincourt and 
 his companions had built there eight years before. On his way back to 
 Virginia he made a descent on the Dutch traders of Manhattan Island, 
 destroyed many of their huts, and compelled the settlers to acknowledge 
 the sovereignty of England. The result of these outrageous proceedings 
 was to confine the French settlements in America to the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence, and to leave a clear coast for the English flag from Nova Scotia 
 to Florida. 
 
 In the month of March, 1614, Sir Thomas Gates returned to Eng¬ 
 land, leaving the government in the hands of Dale, whose administration 
 lasted for two years. During this time the laws of the colony were 
 much improved, and, more important still, the colonial industry took 
 an entirely different form. Hitherto the labor of the settlers had been 
 directed to the planting of vineyards and to the manufacture of potash, 
 soap, glass and tar. The managers of the London Company had at last 
 learned that these articles could be produced more cheaply in Europe 
 than in America. They had also discovered that there, were certain 
 products peculiar to the New World which might be raised and exported 
 with great profit. Chief among such native products was the plant called 
 
110 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tobacco, the use of which had already become fashionable in Spain, Eng¬ 
 land and France. This, then, became the leading staple of the colony, 
 and was even used for money. So entirely did the settlers give them¬ 
 selves to the cultivation of the famous weed that the very streets of 
 Jamestown were ploughed up and planted with it. 
 
 It was a great disaster to the people of the colony when Argali was 
 chosen deputy-governor. He was a man who had one virtue, courage; 
 and in all other respects was thoroughly bad. The election occurred in 
 1617, and through the influence of an unscrupulous faction composed of 
 Argali’s friends he was not only selected as Lord Delaware’s deputy in 
 America, but was also made an admiral of the English navy. ITis 
 administration was characterized by fraud, oppression and violence. 
 Neither property nor life was secure against his tyranny and greed. By 
 and by, the news of his proceedings reached England; emigration ceased 
 at once, and the colony became a reproach, until Lord Delaware restored 
 confidence by embarking in person for Virginia. But the worthy noble¬ 
 man died on the voyage, and Argali continued his exactions and cruelty. 
 In the spring of 1619, he was at last displaced through the influence 
 of Sir Edwyn Sandys, and the excellent Sir George Yeardley appointed 
 to succeed him. 
 
 Martial law was now abolished. The act which required each 
 settler to give a part of his labor for the common benefit was also 
 repealed, and thus the people were freed from a kind of colonial servi¬ 
 tude. Another action was taken of still greater importance. Governor 
 Yeardley, in accordance with instructions received from the company, 
 divided the plantations along James River into eleven districts, called 
 boroughs, and issued a proclamation to the citizens of each borough to 
 elect two of their own number to take part in the government of the 
 colony. The elections were duly held, and on the 30th of July, 1619, 
 the delegates came together at Jamestown. Here was organized the 
 Virginia House of Burgesses, a colonial legislature, the first popular 
 assembly held in the New World. 
 
 The Burgesses had many privileges, but very little power. They 
 might discuss the affairs of the colony, but could not control them; pass 
 laws, but could not enforce them; declare their rights, but could not 
 secure them. Though the governor and council should both concur in 
 the resolutions of the assembly, no law was binding until ratified by the 
 company in England. Only one great benefit was gained—the freedom 
 of debate. Wherever that is recognized, liberty must soon follow. 
 
 The year 1619 was also marked by the introduction of negro slavery 
 into Virginia. The servants of the people of Jamestown had hitherto 
 
WIVES FOR THE SETTLER& AT JAMESTOWN 
 
VIRGINIA.—THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 Ill 
 
 been persons of English or German descent, and their term of service 
 had varied from a few months to many years. No perpetual servitude 
 had thus far been recognized, nor is it likely that the English colonists 
 would of themselves have instituted the system of slave labor. In the 
 month of August a Dutch man-of-war sailed up the river to the planta¬ 
 tions, and offered by auction twenty Africans. They were purchased by 
 the wealthier class of planters, and made slaves for life. It was, however, 
 nearly a half century from this time before the system of negro slavery 
 became well established in the English colonies. 
 
 Twelve years had now passed since the founding of Jamestown. 
 Eighty thousand pounds sterling had been spent by the company in the 
 attempted development of the new State. As a result there were only 
 six hundred men in the colony, and these for the most part were rovers 
 who intended to return to England. Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer, 
 had managed matters badly. Very few families had emigrated, and 
 society in Virginia was coarse and vicious. In this condition of affairs 
 Smith was superseded by Sir Edwyn Sandys, a man of great prudence and 
 integrity. A reformation of abuses was at once begun and carried out. 
 By his wisdom and liberality the new treasurer succeeded before the end 
 of the summer of 1620 in collecting and sending to America a company 
 of twelve hundred and sixty-one persons. Another measure of still 
 greater importance was equally successful. By the influence of Sandys 
 and his friends, ninety young women of good breeding and modest man¬ 
 ners were induced to emigrate to Jamestown. In the following spring sixty 
 others of similar good character came over, and received a hearty welcome. 
 
 The statement that the early Virginians bought their wives is 
 absurd. All that was done was this: when Sandys sent the first company 
 of women to America, he charged the colonists with the expense of the 
 voyage—a measure made necessary by the fact that the company was 
 almost bankrupt. An assessment was made according to the number 
 who were brought over, and the rate fixed at a hundred and twenty 
 pounds of tobacco for each passenger—a sum which the settlers cheerfully 
 paid. The many marriages that followed were celebrated in the usual 
 way, and nothing further was thought of the transaction. When the sec¬ 
 ond shipload came, the cost of transportation was reported at a hundred and 
 fifty pounds for each passenger, which was also paid without complaint. 
 
 In July of 1621 the London Company, which had now almost 
 run its course, gave to Virginia a code of written laws and frame of 
 government modeled after the English constitution. The terms of the 
 instrument were few and easily understood. The governor of the colony 
 was as hitherto to be appointed by the company, a council to be chosen 
 
112 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by the same body, and a house of burgesses, two members from each 
 district, to be elected by the people. In making laws the councilors and 
 burgesses sat together. When a new law was proposed, it was debated, 
 and if passed received the governor’s signature, then was transmitted to 
 England and ratified or rejected by the company. The constitution also 
 acknowledged the right of petition and of trial by jury, but the most 
 remarkable and liberal concession was that which gave the burgesses the 
 power of vetoing any objectionable acts of the company. 
 
 Governor Yeardley’s administration ended in October of 1621. 
 At that time Sir Francis Wyatt arrived, commissioned as governor and 
 bearing the new' constitution of Virginia. The colony was found in a 
 very flourishing condition. The settlements extended for.a hundred and 
 forty miles along both banks of James River and far into the interior, 
 especially northward toward the Potomac. There remained but one 
 cause of foreboding and alarm. The Indians had seen in all this growth 
 and prosperity the doom of their own race, and had determined to make 
 one desperate effort to destroy their foes before it should be too late. To 
 do this in open war was impossible; necessity and the savage impulse work¬ 
 ing together suggested treachery as the only means likely to accomplish 
 the result. Circumstances favored the villainous undertaking. Pocahon¬ 
 tas was dead. The peaceable and faith-keeping Powhatan had likewise 
 passed away. The ambitious and crafty Opechancanough, who succeeded 
 to his brother’s authority in 1618, had ever since been plotting the destruc¬ 
 tion of the English colony, and the time had come for the bloody tragedy. 
 
 The savages carefully concealed their murderous purpose. Until 
 the very day of the massacre they continued on terms of friendship with 
 the English. They came unmolested into the settlements, ate with their 
 victims, borrowed boats and guns, made purchases, and gave not the 
 slightest token of hostility. The attack was planned for the 22d of 
 March, at mid-day. At the fatal hour the work of butchery began. 
 Every hamlet in Virginia was attacked by a band of yelling barbarians. 
 No age, sex or condition awakened an emotion of pity. Men, women 
 and children were indiscriminately slaughtered, until three hundred and 
 forty-seven had perished under the knives and hatchets of the savages. 
 
 But Indian treachery was thwarted by Indian faithfulness. What 
 was the chagrin and rage of the warriors to find that Jamestown and the 
 other leading settlements had been warned at the last moment, and were 
 prepared for the onset ? A converted Red man, wishing to save an Eng¬ 
 lishman who had been his friend, went to him on the night before the 
 massacre and revealed the plot. The alarm was spread among the settle¬ 
 ments, and thus the greater part of the colony escaped destruction. But 
 
VIRGINIA — THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 113 
 
 the outer plantations were entirely destroyed. The people crowded to¬ 
 gether on the larger farms about Jamestown, until of the eighty settlements 
 there were only eight remaining. Still, there were sixteen hundred reso¬ 
 lute men in the colony; and although gloom and despondency prevailed 
 for a while, the courage of the settlers soon revived, and sorrow gave 
 place to a desire for vengeance. 
 
 It was now the turn of the Indians to suffer. Parties of English 
 soldiers scoured the country in every direction, destroying wigwams, 
 burning villages and killing every savage that fell in their way, until the 
 tribes of Opechancanough were driven into the wilderness. The colon¬ 
 ists, regaining their confidence and zeal, returned to their deserted farms, 
 and the next year brought such additions that the census showed a popu¬ 
 lation of two thousand five hundred. 
 
 Meanwhile, difficulties arose between the corporation and the king. 
 Most of the members of the London Company belonged to the patriot 
 party in England, and the freedom with which they were in the habit of 
 discussing political and governmental matters was very distasteful to the 
 monarch. A meeting of the stockholders, now a numerous body, was 
 held once every three months, and the debates took a wider and still 
 wider range. The liberal character of the Virginia constitution was 
 offensive to King James, who determined by some means to obtain con¬ 
 trol of the London Company, or else to suppress it altogether. A com¬ 
 mittee was accordingly appointed to look into the affairs of the cor¬ 
 poration and to make a report on its management. The commissioners 
 performed their duty, and reported that the company, in addition to being 
 a hot-bed of political agitation, was unsound in every part, that the treas^ 
 ury was bankrupt, and especially that the government of Virginia was 
 bad and would continue so until a radical change should be made in the 
 constitution of the new State. 
 
 Legal proceedings were now instituted by the ministers to ascer¬ 
 tain whether the company’s charter had not been forfeited. The question 
 came before the judges, who had no difficulty in deciding that the violated 
 patent was null and void. In accordance with this decision, the charter 
 of the corporation was canceled by the king, and in June of 1624 the 
 London Company ceased to exist. But its work had been well done; a 
 torch of liberty had been lighted on the banks of the James which all 
 the gloomy tyranny of after times could not extinguish. The Virgin¬ 
 ians were not slow to remember and to claim ever afterward the precious 
 rights which were guaranteed in the constitution of 1621. And the 
 other colonies would be satisfied with nothing less than the chartered 
 
 privileges which were recognized in the laws of the Old Dominion. 
 
 c* 
 
114 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 « 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 A ROYAL government was now established in Virginia. To the 
 colonists themselves the change of authorities was scarcely percepti¬ 
 ble. The new administration consisted of a governor and twelve coun¬ 
 cilors appointed by the crown. The General Assembly of the colony 
 was left undisturbed, and all the rights and privileges of the colonists 
 remained as before. The king’s hostility had been directed against the 
 London Company, and not against the State of Virginia; now that the 
 former was destroyed the latter was left unmolested. Governor Wyatt 
 was continued in office; and in making up the new council the king 
 wisely took pains to select the known friends of the colony rather than 
 certain untried partisans of his own court. The Virginians found in the 
 change of government as much cause of gratitude as of grief. 
 
 King James of England died in 1625. His son, Charles I., a young, 
 inexperienced and stubborn prince, succeeded to the throne. The new 
 king paid but little attention to the affairs of his American colony, until 
 the commerce in tobacco attracted his notice. Seeing in this product a 
 source of revenue for the crown, he attempted to gain a monopoly of the 
 trade, but the colonial authorities outwitted him and defeated the project. 
 It is worthy of special note that while conferring with the colony on this 
 subject the king recognized the Virginia assembly as a rightfully consti¬ 
 tuted power. The reply which was finally returned to the king’s proposal 
 was signed not only by the governor and council, but by thirty-one of the 
 burgesses. 
 
 In 1626 Governor Wyatt retired from office, and Yeardley, the old 
 friend and benefactor of the colonists, was reappointed. The young 
 State was never more prosperous than under this administration, which 
 was terminated by the governor’s death, in November of 1627. During 
 the preceding summer a thousand new immigrants had come to swell the 
 population of the growing province. 
 
 The council of Virginia had a right, in case of an emergency, to 
 elect a governor. Such an emergency was now present, and Francis 
 West was chosen by the councilors; but as soon as the death of Yeardley 
 
VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 115 
 
 was known in England, King Charles commissioned John Harvey to 
 assume the government. He arrived in the autumn of 1629, and from 
 this time until 1635, the colony was distracted with the presence of a 
 most unpopular chief magistrate. He seems to have been disliked on 
 general principles, but the greatest source of dissatisfaction was his par¬ 
 tiality to certain speculators and land monopolists who at this time in¬ 
 fested Virginia, to the annoyance and injury of the poorer people. There 
 were many old land grants covering districts of territory which were now 
 occupied by actual settlers, and between the holders of the lands and the 
 holders of the titles violent altercations arose. In these disputes the 
 governor became a partisan of the speculators against the people, until 
 the outraged assembly of 1635 passed a resolution that Sir John Harvey 
 be thrust out of office, and Captain West be appointed in his place “until 
 the king’s pleasure may be known in this matter.” A majority of the 
 councilors sided with the burgesses, and Harvey was obliged to go to 
 England to stand his trial. 
 
 King Charles treated the whole affair with contempt. The com¬ 
 missioners appointed by the council of Virginia to conduct Harvey’s im¬ 
 peachment were refused a hearing, and he was restored to the governor¬ 
 ship of the unwilling colony. He continued in power until the year 
 1639, when he was superseded by Wyatt, who ruled until the spring of 
 1642. 
 
 And now came the English Revolution. The exactions and tyranny 
 of Charles at last drove his subjects into open rebellion. In January of 
 1642, the king and his friends left London, and repairing to Nottingham, 
 collected an army of royalists. The capital and southern part of the 
 country remained in the power of Parliament. The High Church party 
 and the adherents of monarchy took sides with the king, while the re¬ 
 publicans and dissenters made up the opposing forces. The country was 
 plunged into the horrors of civil war. After a few years of conflict the 
 royal army was routed and dispersed ; the king escaped to Scotland, and 
 the leading royalists fled to foreign lands. On the demand of Parliament 
 Charles was given up and brought to trial. The cause was heard, a sen¬ 
 tence of death was passed, and on the 30th of January, 1649, the unhappy 
 monarch was beheaded. 
 
 Monarchy was now abolished. Oliver Cromwell, the general of 
 the Parliamentary army, was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth 
 of England. By him the destinies of the nation were controlled until 
 his death, in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. But the 
 latter, lacking his father’s abilities and courage, became alarmed at the 
 dangers that gathered around him, and resigned. For a few months tim 
 
116 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 country was in anarchy, until General Monk, who commanded the Eng¬ 
 lish army of the North, came down from Scotland and declared a restora¬ 
 tion of the monarchy. The exiled son of Charles I. was called home 
 and proclaimed king, the people acquiesced, Parliament sanctioned the 
 measure, and on the 18th of May, 1660, Charles II. was placed on the 
 throne of England. 
 
 These were times full of trouble. Virginia shared in some degree 
 the distractions of the mother-country, yet the evil done to the new State 
 by the conflict in England was less than might have been expected. In 
 the first year of the civil war Sir William Berkeley became governor of 
 the colony, and, with the exception of a brief visit to England in 1645, 
 remained in office for ten years. His administration, notwithstanding the 
 commotions abroad, was noted as a time of rapid growth and develop¬ 
 ment. The laws were greatly improved and made conformable to the 
 English statutes. The old controversies about the lands were satisfacto¬ 
 rily settled. Cruel punishments were abolished and the taxes equalized. 
 The general assembly was regularly convened to bear its part in the gov¬ 
 ernment, and Virginia was in all essential particulars a free as well as a 
 prosperous State. So rapid was the progress that in 1646 there were 
 twenty thousand people in the colony. 
 
 But there were also drawbacks to the prosperity of Virginia. Re¬ 
 ligious intolerance came with its baleful shadow to disturb the State. The 
 faith of the Episcopal Church was established by law, and dissenting was 
 declared a crime. The Puritans were held in contempt by the people, 
 who charged them with being the destroyers of the peace of England. 
 In March of 1643 a statute was enacted by the assembly declaring that 
 no person who disbelieved the doctrines of the English Church should be 
 allowed to teach publicly or privately, or to preach the gospel, within the 
 limits of Virginia. The few Puritans in the colony were excluded from 
 their places of trust, and some were even driven from their homes. Gov¬ 
 ernor Berkeley, himself a zealous churchman, was a leader in these per¬ 
 secutions, by which all friendly relations with New England were broken 
 off for many years. 
 
 A worse calamity befell in a second war with the Indians. Early 
 in 1644, the natives, having forgotten their former punishment, and 
 believing that in the confusion of the civil war there still remained a hope 
 of destroying the English, planned a general massacre. On the 18th of 
 April, at a time when the authorities were somewhat off their guard, the 
 savages fell upon the frontier settlements, and before assistance could be 
 brought murdered three hundred people. Alarmed at their own atrocity, 
 the warriors then fled, but were followed by the English forces and 
 
VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 117 
 
 driven into the woods and swamps. The aged Opechancanough was cap¬ 
 tured, and died a prisoner. The tribes were chastised without mercy, and 
 were soon glad to purchase peace by the cession of large tracts of land. 
 
 The Virginians adhered with great firmness to the cause of Charles 
 I. in his war with Parliament, and after his death proclaimed the exiled 
 Charles II. as rightful sovereign of the country. Cromwell and the 
 Parliament were much exasperated at this course of conduct, and mea¬ 
 sures were at once devised to bring the colony to submission. An ordi¬ 
 nance was passed laying heavy restrictions on the commerce of such 
 English colonies as refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Parliament. 
 All foreign ships, especially those of Holland, were forbidden to enter 
 the colonial harbors. In 1651 the noted statute called the Navigation 
 Act was passed, and the trade of the colonies was still more seriously 
 distressed. In this new law it was enacted that the foreign commerce 
 of Virginia, now grown into importance, should be carried on wholly in 
 English vessels, and directed exclusively to English ports. 
 
 The Virginians held out, and Cromwell determined to employ 
 force. A war-vessel called the Guinea was sent into the Chesapeake to 
 compel submission, but in the last extreme the Protector showed him¬ 
 self to be just as well as wrathful. There were commissioners on board 
 the frigate authorized to make an offer of peace, and this was gladly 
 accepted. It was seen that the cause of the Stuarts was hopeless. The 
 people of Virginia, although refusing to yield to threats and violence, 
 cheerfully entered into negotiations with Cromwell’s delegates, and ended 
 by acknowledging the supreme authority of Parliament. The terms of 
 the settlement were very favorable to popular liberty; the commercial 
 restrictions of the two previous years were removed, and the trade of the 
 colony was made as free as that of England. No taxes might be levied 
 or duties collected except such as were imposed by the general assembly 
 of the State. The freedom of an Englishman was guaranteed to every 
 citizen, and under the control of her own laws Virginia again grew pros¬ 
 perous. 
 
 No further difficulty arose during the continuance of the Common¬ 
 wealth. The Protector was busied with the affairs of Europe, and had 
 neither time nor disposition to interfere in the affairs of a remote colony. 
 The Virginians were thus left free to conduct their government as they 
 would. Even the important matter of choosing a governor was sub¬ 
 mitted to an election in the House of Burgesses; when so great a power 
 had been once exercised, it was not likely to be relinquished without a 
 struggle. Three governors were chosen in this way, and what was at 
 first only a privilege soon became a right. Special acts of the assembly 
 
118 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 declared that such a right existed, and that it should be transmitted to 
 posterity. 
 
 In 1660, just at the time of the resignation of Richard Cromwell, 
 Samuel Matthews, the last of the three elected governors, died. The 
 burgesses were immediately convened, and an ordinance was passed de¬ 
 claring that the supreme authority of Virginia was resident in the colony, 
 and would continue there until a delegate with proper credentials should 
 arrive from the British government. Having made this declaration, the 
 house elected as governor Sir William Berkeley, who by accepting the 
 office acknowledged the right of the burgesses to choose. The question 
 of recognizing Charles II. as king was debated at the same session, but 
 prudence suggested that the colonial authorities would better await the 
 natural course of events. For the present it was decided to remain faith¬ 
 ful to Parliament. Most of the people, no doubt, desired the restoration, 
 but policy forbade any open expressions of such a preference. It would 
 be time enough when monarchy was actually restored. 
 
 In May of 1660 Charles II. became king of England. As soon 
 as this event was known in Virginia, Governor Berkeley, forgetting the 
 source of his own authority, and in defiance of all consistency, issued writs 
 in the name of the king for the election of a new assembly. The friends 
 of royalty were delighted with the prospect. The adherents of the Com¬ 
 monwealth were thrust out of office, and the favorites of the king estab¬ 
 lished in their places. Great benefits were expected from the change, and 
 the whole colony was alive with excitement and zeal. But the disap¬ 
 pointment of the people was more bitter than their hopes had been extrav¬ 
 agant. The Virginians soon found that they had exchanged a republican 
 tyrant with good principles for a monarchial tyrant with bad ones. King 
 Charles II. was the worst monarch of modern times, and the people of 
 Virginia had in him and his government a special cause of grief. The 
 commercial system of the Commonwealth, so far from being abolished, 
 was re-enacted in a more hateful form than ever. The new statute pro¬ 
 vided that all the colonial commerce, whether exports or imports, should 
 be carried on in English ships, the trade between the colonies was bur- . 
 dened with a heavy tax for the benefit of the government, and tobacco, 
 the staple of Virginia, could be sold nowhere but in England. This 
 odious measure gave to English merchantmen a monopoly of the carry¬ 
 ing trade of the colonies, and by destroying competition among the buy¬ 
 ers of tobacco robbed the Virginians to that extent of their leading 
 product. Remonstrance was tried in vain. The cold and selfish monarch 
 only sneered at the complaints of his American subjects and the commer¬ 
 cial ordinances were rigorously enforced. 
 
VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 119 
 
 Charles II. seemed to regard the British empire as personal property 
 to be used for the benefit of himself and his courtiers. In order to reward 
 the worthless profligates who thronged his court, he began to grant to them 
 large tracts of land in Virginia. What did it matter that these lands had 
 been redeemed from the wilderness and were covered with orchards and 
 gardens ? It was no uncommon thing for an American planter to find that 
 his farm, which had been cultivated for a quarter of a century, was given 
 away to some dissolute flatterer of the royal household. Great distress 
 was occasioned by these iniquitous grants, until finally, in 1673, the king 
 6et a limit to his own recklessness by giving away the whole State. Lord 
 Culpepper and the earl of Arlington, two ignoble noblemen, received 
 under the great seal a deed by which was granted to them for thirty- 
 one years all the dominion of land and water called Virginia. 
 
 Unfortunately, the colonial legislation of these times became as 
 selfish and narrow-minded as the policy of the king was mean. An 
 aristocratic party which had arisen in the colony obtained control of the 
 House of Burgesses, and the new laws rivaled those of England in illiber¬ 
 ally. Episcopalianism was again established as the State religion. A 
 proscriptive ordinance was passed against the Baptists, and the peace-lov¬ 
 ing Quakers were fined, persecuted and imprisoned. Burdensome taxes 
 were laid on personal property and polls; the holders of large estates were 
 exempt and the poorer people afflicted. The salaries of the officers were 
 secured by a permanent duty on tobacco, and, worst of all, the biennial 
 election of burgesses was abolished, so that the members of the existing 
 assembly continued indefinitely in power. For a while Berkeley and his 
 council outdid the tyranny of England. 
 
 And then came open resistance. The people were worn out with 
 the governor’s exactions, and availed themselves of the first pretext to 
 assert their rights by force of arms. A war with the Susquehanna In¬ 
 dians furnished the occasion for an insurrection. The tribes about the 
 head of Chesapeake Bay and along the Susquehanna had been attacked by 
 the Senecas and driven from their homes. They, in turn, fell upon the 
 English settlers of Maryland, and the banks of the Potomac became the 
 scene of a border war. Virginia and Maryland made common cause 
 against the savages. John Washington, great-grandfather of the first 
 president of the United States, led a company of militia into the enemy’s 
 country, and compelled the Susquehannas to sue for peace. Six of their 
 chieftains went into Virginia as ambassadors, and, to the lasting dishonor 
 of the colony, were foully murdered. This atrocity maddened the savages, 
 and a devastating warfare raged along the whole frontier. 
 
 Governor Berkeley, not without some show of justice, sided with 
 
120 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Indians. But the colonists remembered only the many acts of 
 treachery and bloodshed of which the red men had before been guilty, 
 and were determined to have revenge. In this division of sentiment 
 among the people, the assembly and the aristocratic party took sides with 
 the governor and favored a peace; while the popular party, disliking 
 Berkeley and hating the Indians, resolved to overthrow him and destroy 
 them at one blow. A leader was found in that remarkable man, Nathaniel 
 Bacon. Young, brave, eloquent, patriotic, full of enthusiasm and energy, 
 he became the soul and life of the popular party. His own farm in the 
 county of Henrico had been pillaged and his tenants murdered by the 
 savages. Exasperated by these injuries, he was the more easily urged by 
 the public voice to accept the dangerous office of leading an insurrection. 
 
 Five hundred men rushed to arms and demanded to be led against 
 the Indians. Alarm, excitement and passion prevailed throughout the 
 colony. The natriot forces were organized; and without permission of a 
 government which they had ceased to regard, the march was begun into 
 the enemy’s country. Berkeley and the aristocratic faction were enraged 
 at this proceeding, and proclaimed Bacon a traitor. A levy of troops was 
 made for the purpose of dispersing the rebellious militia; but scarcely had 
 Berkeley and his forces left Jamestown when another popular uprising in 
 the lower counties compelled him to return. Affairs were in an uproar. 
 Bacon came home victorious. The old assembly was unceremoniously 
 broken up, and a new one elected on the basis of universal suffrage. 
 Bacon was chosen a member for Henrico, and soon after elected com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Virginia army. The governor refused to sign his 
 commission, and Bacon appealed to the people; the militia again flew to 
 arms, and Berkeley was compelled to yield. Not only was the com¬ 
 mission signed, but a paper drawn up by the burgesses in commendation 
 of Bacon’s loyalty, zeal and patriotism received the executive signature 
 and was transmitted to Parliament. 
 
 Peace returned to the colony. The power of the savages was com¬ 
 pletely broken. A military force was stationed on the frontier, and a 
 sense of security returned to all the settlements. But Berkeley was petu¬ 
 lant, proud and vengeful; and it was only a question of time when the 
 Btruggle would be renewed. Seizing the first opportunity, the governor 
 left Jamestown and repaired to the county of Gloucester, on the north 
 side of York River. Here he summoned a convention of loyalists, who, 
 contrary to his expectations and wishes, advised moderation and com¬ 
 promise ; but the hot-headed old cavalier would yield no jot of his pre¬ 
 rogative to what he was pleased to call a rabble, and Bacon was again 
 proclaimed a traitor. 
 
GOVERNOR BERKELEY AND THE INSURGENTS 
 
VIRGINIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 121 
 
 It was evident that there must be fighting. Berkeley and his 
 forces left Gloucester, crossed the Chesapeake Bay, and took station on 
 the eastern shore, in the county of Accomac. Here his troops were 
 organized; the crews of some English ships were joined to his command, 
 and the fleet set sail for Jamestown. The place was taken without much 
 resistance; but when Bacon with a few companies of patriots drew near, 
 the loyal forces deserted and went over to his standard. The governor 
 with his adherents was again obliged to fly, and the capital remained in 
 possession of the people’s party. The assembly was about to assume con¬ 
 trol of the government without the governor, whose flight to Accomac 
 had been declared an abdication, when a rumor arose that an English fleet 
 was approaching for the subjugation of the colonies. The patriot leaders 
 held a council, and it was determined that Jamestown should be burned. 
 Accordingly, in the dusk of the evening the torch was applied, and the 
 only town in Virginia laid in ashes. The leading men set the example 
 by throwing firebrands into their own houses; others caught the spirit of 
 sacrifice; the flames shot up through the shadows of night; and Governor 
 Berkeley and his followers, on board a fleet twenty miles down the river, 
 had tolerably fair warning that the capital of Virginia could not be used 
 for the purposes of despotism. 
 
 In this juncture of affairs Bacon fell sick and died. It was an 
 event full of grief and disaster. The patriot party, discouraged by the 
 loss of the heroic chieftain, was easily dispersed. A few feeble efforts 
 were made to revive the cause of the people, but the animating spirit 
 which had controlled and directed until now was gone. The royalists 
 found an able leader in Robert Beverly, and the authority of the governor 
 was rapidly restored throughout the province. The cause of the people 
 and the leader of the people had died together. 
 
 Berkeley’s vindictive passions were now let loose upon the defeated 
 insurgents. Fines and confiscations became the order of the day. The 
 governor seemed determined to drown the memory of his own wrongs in 
 the woes of his subjects. Twenty-two of the leading patriots were seized 
 and hanged with scarcely time to bid their friends farewell. Thus died 
 Thomas Hansford, the first American who gave his life for freedom. 
 Thus perished Edmund Cheesnian, Thomas W ilford and the noble Wil¬ 
 liam Drummond, martyrs to liberty. Nor is it certain when the vengeful 
 tyrant would have stayed his hand, had not the assembly met and passed 
 an edicf that no more blood should be spilt for past offences. One of the 
 burgesses from the county of Northampton said in the debate that if the 
 governor were let alone he would hang half the country. When Charles 
 II. heard of Berkeley’s ferocity, he exclaimed, “The old fool has taken 
 
122 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 away more lives in that naked country than I for the murder of my 
 father” ; and the saying was true. 
 
 The history of this insurrection was for a long time recited by 
 Bacon’s enemies. Until the present century no one appeared to rescue 
 the leader’s name from obloquy. In the light of after times his character 
 will shine with a peculiar lustre. His motives were as exalted as his life 
 was pure, and his virtues as noted as his abilities were great. His ambi¬ 
 tion was for the public welfare, and his passions were only excited against 
 the enemies of his country. 
 
 The consequences of the rebellion were very disastrous. Berkeley 
 and the aristocratic party had now a good excuse for suppressing all liberal 
 sentiments and tendencies. The printing-press was interdicted. Educa¬ 
 tion was discouraged or forbidden. To speak or to write anything against 
 the administration or in defence of the late insurrection was made a crime 
 to be punished by fine or whipping. If the offence should be three times 
 repeated, it was declared to be treason punishable with death. The former 
 tyrannical methods of taxation were revived, and Virginia was left at the 
 mercy of arbitrary rulers. 
 
 In 1675, Lord Culpepper, to whom with Arlington the province 
 had been granted two years previously, obtained the appointment of 
 governor for life. The right of the king was thus by his own act relin¬ 
 quished, and Virginia became a proprietary government. The new execu¬ 
 tive arrived in 1680 and assumed the duties of his office. His whole 
 administration was characterized by avarice and dishonesty. Regarding 
 Virginia as his personal estate, he treated the Virginians as his tenants 
 and slaves. Every species of extortion was resorted to, until the mutter- 
 ings of rebellion were again heard throughout the impoverished colony. 
 In 1683, Arlington surrendered his claim to Culpepper, who thus became 
 sole proprietor as well as governor; but before he could proceed to further 
 mischief, his official career was cut short by the act of the king. Charles 
 II., repenting of his own rashness, found in Culpepper’s vices and frauds 
 a sufficient excuse to remove him from office and to revoke his patent. 
 In 1684, Virginia again became a royal province, under the government 
 of Lord Howard, of Effinglmm, who was succeeded by Francis Nich¬ 
 olson, formerly governor of New York. His administration was sig¬ 
 nalized by the founding of A illiam and Mary College, so named 
 in honor of the new sovereigns of England. This, next to Harvard, 
 was the first institution of liberal learning planted in America. Here 
 the boy Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, shall be 
 educated! From these halls, in the famous summer of 1776, shall be 
 sent forth young James Monroe, future President of the United States! 
 
MASS A CHUSETTS.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 123 
 
 After Nicholson’s administration, Sir Edmund Andros, recently ex¬ 
 pelled by the people of Massachusetts, assumed for a while the gov¬ 
 ernment of Virginia. The affairs of the colony during the next forty 
 or fifty years are not of sufficient interest and importance to require 
 extended notice in an abridgment of American history. At the out¬ 
 break of the French and Indian War, Virginia will show to the world 
 that the labors of Smith, and Gosnold, and Bacon have not been in 
 vain. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MASS A CHUSETTS.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 T HE spring of 1621 brought a ray of hope to the distressed Pilgrims 
 of New Plymouth. Never was the returning sun more welcome. 
 The fatal winter had swept off one-half of the number. The son of the 
 benevolent Carver was among the first victims of the terrible climate. 
 The governor himself sickened and died, and the broken-hearted wife 
 found rest in the same grave with her husband. But now, with the ap¬ 
 proach of warm weather, the destroying pestilence was stayed, and the 
 spirits of the survivors revived with the season. Out of the snows of 
 winter, the desolations of disease, and the terrors of death the faith of the 
 Puritan had come forth triumphant. 
 
 For a while the colonists were apprehensive of the Indians. In 
 February, Miles Standish was sent out with his soldiers to gather in¬ 
 formation of the numbers and disposition of the natives. The army of 
 New England consisted of six men besides the general. Deserted wig¬ 
 wams were found here and there; the smoke of camp-fires arose in the 
 distance; savages were occasionally seen in the forest. These fled, how¬ 
 ever, at the approach of the English, and Standish returned to Plymouth. 
 
 A month later the colonists were astonished by the sudden appear¬ 
 ance in their midst of a Wampanoag Indian named Samoset. He ran 
 into the village, offered his hand in token of friendship, and bade the 
 strangers welcome. He gave an account of the numbers and strength of 
 the neighboring tribes, and recited the story of a great plague by which, 
 a few years before, the country had been swept of its inhabitants. The 
 present feebleness and desolate condition of the natives had resulted from 
 the fatal malady. Another Indian, by the name of Squanto, who had 
 been carried away by Hunt in 1614, and had learned to speak English, 
 came also to Plymouth, and confirmed what Samoset had said. 
 
124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 By the influence of these two natives friendly relations were at once 
 established with the Wampanoags. Massasoit, the great sachem of the 
 nation, was invited to visit the settlement, and came attended bv a few 
 of his warriors. The Pilgrims received him with as much parade and 
 ceremony as the colony could provide; Captain Standish ordered out his 
 soldiers, and Squanto acted as interpreter. Then and there was ratified 
 the first treaty made in New England. The terms were few and simple. 
 There should be peace and friendship between the whites and the red 
 men. No injury should be done by either party to the other. All 
 offenders should be given up to be punished. If the English engaged in 
 
 THE TREATY BETWEEN GOVERNOR CARVER AND MASSASOIT. 
 
 war, Massasoit should help them; if the Wampanoags were attacked un¬ 
 justly, the English should give aid against the common enemy. Mark 
 that word unjustly: it contains the essence of Puritanism. 
 
 The treaty thus made and ratified remained inviolate for fifty years. 
 Other chiefs followed the example of the great sachem and entered into 
 friendly relations with the colony. Nine of the leading tribes acknow¬ 
 ledged the sovereignty of the English king. One chieftain threatened 
 hostilities, but Standish’s army obliged him to beg for mercy. Canonicus, 
 king of the Narragansetts, sent to William Bradford, who had been chosen 
 governor after the death of Carver, a bundle of arrows wrapped in the 
 skin of a rattlesnake; but the undaunted governor stuffed the skin with 
 
MASSA CHUSETTS — SETTLEMENT. 
 
 125 
 
 powder and balls and sent it back to the chief, who did not dare to 
 accept the dangerous challenge. The hostile emblem was borne about 
 from tribe to tribe, until finally it was returned to Plymouth. 
 
 The summer of 1621 was unfruitful, and the Pilgrims were brought 
 to the point of starvation. To make their condition more grievous, 
 a new company of immigrants, without provisions or stores, arrived, 
 and were quartered on the colonists during the fall and winter. For six 
 months together the settlers were obliged to subsist on half allowance. 
 At one time only a few grains of parched corn remained to be distri¬ 
 buted, and at another there was absolute destitution. In this state of 
 affairs some English fishing-vessels came to Plymouth and charged 
 the starving colonists two prices for food enough to keep them alive. 
 
 The intruding immigrants just mentioned had been sent to Amer¬ 
 ica by Thomas Weston, of London, one of the projectors of the colony. 
 They remainecbwith the people of Plymouth until the summer of 1622, 
 then removed to the south side of Boston Harbor and began a new 
 settlement called Weymouth. Instead of working with their might 
 to provide against starvation, they wasted the fall in idleness, and at¬ 
 tempted to keep up their stock of provisions by defrauding the Indians. 
 Thus provoked to hostility, the natives formed a plan to destroy the 
 colony ; but Massasoit, faithful to his pledges, went to Plymouth and 
 revealed the plot. Standish marched to Weymouth at the head of 
 his regiment, now increased to eight men, attacked the hostile tribe, 
 killed several warriors and carried home the chief’s head on a pole. 
 The tender-hearted John Robinson wrote from Leyden: “ I would 
 that you had converted some of them before you killed any.” 
 
 In the following spring most of the Weymouth settlers aban¬ 
 doned the place and returned to England. The summer of 1623 brought 
 a plentiful harvest to the people of the older colony, and there was no 
 longer any danger of starvation. The natives, preferring the chase, 
 became dependent on the settlement for corn, and furnished in ex¬ 
 change an abundance of game. The main body of Pilgrims still tarried 
 at Leyden. Robinson made unwearied efforts to bring his people to 
 America, but the adventurers of London who had managed the enter¬ 
 prise would provide no further means either of money or transporta¬ 
 tion; and now, at the end of the fourth year, there were only a hun¬ 
 dred and eighty persons in New England. The managers had expected 
 pi ofitable returns, and were disappointed. They had expended thirty- 
 four thousand dollars; there was neither profit nor the hope of any. 
 Under this discouragement the proprietors made a proposition to sell 
 out their claims to the colonists. The offer was accepted; and in 
 November of 1627 eight of the leading men of Plymouth purchased 
 
126 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the Londoners their entire interest for the sum of nine thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 Before this transfer of right was made the colony had been much 
 vexed by the efforts of the managers to thrust on them a minister of 
 the Established Church. Was it not to avoid this very thing that 
 they had come to the wilds of the New World? Should the tyranny 
 of the prelates follow them even across the sea and into the wilder¬ 
 ness? There was dissension and strife for a while; the English mana¬ 
 gers withheld support; oppression was resorted to ; the stores intended 
 for the colonists were sold to them at three prices; and they were 
 obliged to borrow money at sixty per cent. But no exactions could 
 break the spirit of the Pilgrims ; and the conflict ended with the pur¬ 
 chase of whatever rights the London proprietors had in the colony. 
 
 The year 1624 was marked by the founding of a settlement at 
 Cape Ann. John White, a Puritan minister of Dorchester, England, 
 collected a small company of emigrants and sent them to America. The 
 colony was established, but after two years of discouragement the cape 
 was abandoned as a place unsuitable, and the company moved farther 
 south to Naumkeag, afterward called Salem. Here a settlement was 
 begun, and in 1628 was made permanent by the arrival of a second col¬ 
 ony, in charge of John Endicott, who was chosen governor. In March 
 of the same year the colonists obtained a patent from the Council of 
 Plymouth; and in 1629 Charles I.issued a charter by which the pro¬ 
 prietors were incorporated under the name of The Governor and 
 Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England. In July two 
 hundred additional immigrants arrived, half of whom settled at Ply¬ 
 mouth, while the other half removed to a peninsula on the north side 
 of Boston Harbor and laid the foundation of Charlestown. 
 
 At the first it had been decided that the charter of the colony 
 should be left in England, and that the governor should reside there 
 also. After further discussion, this decision was reversed, and in Sep¬ 
 tember it was decreed that the whole government should be transferred 
 to America, and that the charter, as a pledge of liberty, should be en¬ 
 trusted to the colonists themselves. As soon as this liberal action was 
 made known emigration began on an extensive scale. In the year 
 1630 about three hundred of the best Puritan families in the kingdom 
 came to New England. Not adventurers, not vagabonds, were these 
 brave people, but virtuous, well-educated, courageous men and women 
 who for conscience’ sake left comfortable homes with no expectation 
 of returning. It was not the least of their good fortune to choose a 
 noble leader. 
 
 If ever a man was worthy to be held in perpetual remembrance 
 
MASSACHUSETTS. — SETTLEMENT. 
 
 127 
 
 that man was John Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts. Born a royalist, 
 he cherished the principles of republicanism. Himself an Episcopalian 
 he chose affliction 
 with the Puritans. 
 
 Surrounded with 
 affluence and com¬ 
 fort, he left all to 
 share the destiny 
 of the persecuted 
 Pilgrijns. Calm, 
 prudent and peace¬ 
 able, he joined the 
 zeal of an enthusi¬ 
 ast with the sub¬ 
 lime faith of a 
 martyr. 
 
 A part of 
 the new immi¬ 
 grants settled at 
 Salem; others at 
 Cambridge and 
 Watertown, on 
 Charles River; 
 while others, going 
 farther south, 
 founded Roxbury and Dorchester. The governor, with a few of the 
 leading families, resided for a while at Charlestown, but soon crossed 
 the harbor to the peninsula of Shawmut and laid the foundation of Bos¬ 
 ton, which became henceforth the capital of the colony and the metropolis 
 of New England. With the approach of winter sickness came, and the 
 distress was very great. Many of the new-comers were refined and ten¬ 
 der people who could not endure the bitter blasts of Massachusetts Bay. 
 Coarse fare and scanty provisions added to the griefs of disease. Sleet 
 and snow drifted through the cracks of the thin board huts where en¬ 
 feebled men and delicate women moaned out their lives. Before mid¬ 
 winter two hundred had perished. A few others, heartsick and despair¬ 
 ing, returned to England; but there was heard neither murmur nor 
 repining. Governor Winthrop wrote to his wife: “ I like so well to be 
 here that I do not repent my coming/’ 
 
 At a session of the general court of the colony, held in 1631. a law 
 
 was passed restricting the right of suffrage. It was enacted that none but 
 
 10 
 
 JOHN WINTHROP. 
 
128 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 members of the church should be permitted to vote at the colonial eleo- 
 tions. The choice of governor, deputy-governor and assistant councilors 
 was thus placed in the hands of a small minority. Nearly three-fourths 
 of the people were excluded from exercising the rights of freemen. Taxes 
 were levied for the support of the gospel ; oaths of obedience to the magis¬ 
 trates were required ; attendance on public worship was enforced by law; 
 none but church-members were eligible to offices of trust. It is strange 
 indeed that the very men who had so recently, through perils by sea and 
 land, escaped with only their lives to find religious freedom in another 
 continent, should have begun their career with intolerance and proscrip¬ 
 tion. The only excuse that can be found for the gross inconsistency and 
 injustice of such legislation is that bigotry was the vice of the age rather 
 than of the Puritans. 
 
 One manly voice was lifted up against this odious statute. It was 
 the voice of young Roger Williams, minister of Salem. To this man 
 belongs the shining honor of being first in America or in Europe to pro¬ 
 claim the full gospel of religious toleration. He declared to his people 
 that the conscience of man may in no wise be bound by the authority of 
 the magistrate; that civil government has only to do with civil matters, 
 such as the collection of taxes, the restraint and punishment of crime, 
 and the protection of all men in the enjoyment of equal rights. For 
 these noble utterances he was obliged to quit the ministry of the church 
 at Salem and retire to Plymouth. Finally, in 1634, he wrote a paper in 
 which the declaration was made that grants of land, though given by the 
 king of England, were invalid until the natives were justly recompensed. 
 This was equivalent to saying that the' colonial charter itself was void, and 
 that the people were really living upon the lands of the Indians. Great 
 excitement was occasioned by the publication, and Williams consented 
 that for the sake of public peace the paper should be burned. But he 
 continued to teach his doctrines, saying that compulsory attendance at re¬ 
 ligious worship, as well as taxation for the support of the ministry, was 
 contrary to the teachings of the gospel. When arraigned for these bad 
 doctrines, he crowned his offences by telling the court that a test of 
 church-membership in a voter or a public officer was as ridiculous as the 
 selection of a doctor of physic or the pilot of a ship on account of his skill 
 in theology. 
 
 These assertions raised such a storm in court that Williams was 
 condemned for heresy and banished from the colony. In the dead of 
 winter he left home and became an exile in the desolate forest. For four¬ 
 teen weeks he wandered on through the snow, sleeping at night on the 
 ground or in a hollow tree, living on parched corn, acorns and roots. He 
 
Canonicus, king of the Narragansetts, received him as a friend and 
 brother. On the left bank of Blackstone River, near the head of Narra- 
 gansett Bay, a resting-place was at last found; the exile pitched his tent, 
 and with the opening of spring planted a field and built the first house in 
 the village of Seekonk. Soon the information came that he was still 
 within the territory of Plymouth colony, and another removal became 
 necessary. With five companions who had joined him in banishment, 
 he embarked in a canoe, passed down the river and crossed to the west 
 side of the bay. Here he was safe; his enemies could hunt him no 
 farther. A tract of land was honorably purchased from Canonicus; and 
 in June of 1636, the illustrious founder of Rhode Island laid out the city 
 of Providence. 
 
 Meanwhile, his teachings were bearing fruit in Massachusetts. In 
 1634 a representative form of government was established against the 
 opposition of the clergy. On election-day the voters, now numbering 
 between three and four hundred, were called together, and the learned 
 
 MASS A CHUSETTS —SETTLEMENT. 129 
 
 carried with him one precious treasure—a private letter from Governor 
 Winthrop, giving him words of cheer and encouragement. Nor did the 
 Indians fail to show their gratitude to the man who had so nobly de¬ 
 fended their rights. In the country of the Wampanoags he was kindly 
 entertained. Massasoit invited him to his cabin at Pokanoket, and 
 
 ROGER WILLIAMS’ RECEPTION BY THE INDIANS. 
 
130 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cotton preached powerfully and long against the proposed change. The 
 assembly listened attentively, and then went on with the election. To 
 make the reform complete, a ballot-box was substituted for the old 
 method of public voting. The restriction on the right of suffrage was 
 the only remaining bar to a perfect system of self-government in New 
 England. 
 
 During the next year three thousand new immigrants arrived. It 
 was worth while—so thought the people of England—to come to a country 
 where the principles of freedom were spreading with such rapidity. The 
 new-comers were under the leadership of Hugh Peters and Sir Henry 
 Vane; the former the Puritan pastor of some English exiles at Rotter¬ 
 dam, in Holland, and the latter a young nobleman who afterward played 
 an important part in the history of England. Such was his popularity 
 with the people of Massachusetts, and such his zeal and piety, that in less 
 than a year after his arrival he was chosen governor of the colony. 
 
 By this time the settlements around Massachusetts Bay were 
 thickly clustered. Until new homes should be found there was no room 
 for the immigrants who were constantly coming. To enlarge the frontier, 
 to plunge into the wilderness and find new places of abode, became a 
 necessity. One little company of twelve families, led by Simon Willard 
 and Peter Bulkeley, marched through the woods until they came to some 
 open meadows sixteen miles from Boston, and there laid the foundations 
 of Concord. A little later in the same year, another colony of sixty per¬ 
 sons left the older settlements and pressed their way westward as far as 
 the Connecticut River. The march itself was a grievous hardship, but 
 greater toils and sufferings were in store for the adventurous company. 
 A dreadful winter overtook them in their new homes but half provided. 
 Some died; others, disheartened, waded back through the dreary untrod¬ 
 den snows and came half famished to Plymouth and Boston; but the 
 rest, with true Puritan heroism, outbraved the winter and triumphed over 
 the pangs of starvation. Spring brought a recompense for hardship: the 
 heroic pioneers crept out of their miserable huts to become the founders 
 of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, the oldest towns in the Con¬ 
 necticut valley. 
 
 The banishment of Roger Williams, instead of bringing peace, 
 brought strife and dissension to the people of Massachusetts. The minis¬ 
 ters were stern and exacting. Every shade of popular belief was closely 
 scrutinized; the slightest departure from orthodox doctrines was met 
 with a charge of heresy, and to be a heretic was to become an outcast. 
 Still, the advocates of free opinion multiplied. The clergy, notwithstand¬ 
 ing their great influence among the people, felt insecure. Religious de- 
 
MA SSA CHUSETTS.—SE T TL EM ENT. 
 
 131 
 
 bates became the order of the day. Every sermon had to pass the ordeal 
 of review and criticism. 
 
 Most prominent among those who were said to be “as bad as 
 Roger Williams, or worse,” was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of 
 genius who had come over in the ship with Sir Henry Vane. She de¬ 
 sired the privilege of speaking at the weekly debates, and was refused. 
 Women had no business at these assemblies, said the elders. Indignant 
 at this, she became the champion of her sex, and declared that the minis¬ 
 ters who were defrauding women of the gospel were no better than Phari¬ 
 sees. She called meetings of her friends, spoke much in public, and 
 pleaded with great fervor for the full freedom of conscience. The liberal 
 doctrines of the exiled Williams were reaffirmed with more power and 
 eloquence than ever. Many of the magistrates were converted to the new 
 beliefs; the governor himself espoused the cause of Mrs. Hutchinson; 
 and a majority of the people of Boston inclined to her opinions. 
 
 For a while there was a reign of discord; but as soon as Sir 
 Henry’s term of office expired a call was issued for a meeting of the 
 synod of New England. The body convened in August of 1637; a 
 
132 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 decree was proposed; Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends were declared 
 unfit for the society of Christians, and banished from the territory of 
 Massachusetts. With a large number of friends the exiles wended their 
 way toward the home of Roger Williams. Miantonomoh, a Narragansett 
 chieftain, made them a gift of the beautiful island of Rhode Island; 
 there, in the month of March, 1641, a little republic was established, in 
 whose constitution freedom of conscience was guaranteed and persecution 
 for opinion’s sake forbidden. 
 
 The year 1636 was an important epoch in the history of Massa¬ 
 chusetts. The general court of the colony passed an act appropriating 
 between one and two thousand dollars to found and endow a college. 
 The measure met with popular favor; the Puritans were an educated 
 people, and were quick to appreciate the advantages of learning. New¬ 
 town was selected as the site of the proposed school. Plymouth and 
 Salem gave gifts to help the enterprise; and from villages in the Con¬ 
 necticut valley came contributions of corn and wampum. In 1638, John 
 Harvard, a young minister of Charlestown, died, bequeathing his library 
 and nearly five thousand dollars to the school. To perpetuate the memory 
 of the noble benefactor the new institution was named Harvard Col¬ 
 lege ; and in honor of the place where the leading men of Massachusetts 
 had been educated, the name of Newtown was changed to Cambridge. 
 Thus early did the people of New England stamp their approval on the 
 cause of education. In spite of sterile soil and desolate landscapes— 
 in spite of destroying climate and wasting diseases—in spite even of 
 superstition and bigotry—the people who educate will ever be great 
 and free. 
 
 The printing-press came also. In 1638, Stephen Daye, an 
 English printer, arrived at Boston, bringing a font of types, and in the 
 following year set up a press at Cambridge. The first American publica¬ 
 tion was an almanac calculated for New England, and bearing date of 
 1639. During the next year, Thomas Welde and John Eliot, two minis¬ 
 ters of Roxbury, and Richard Mather, of Dorchester, translated the 
 Hebrew Psalms into English verse, and published their rude work in 
 a volume of three hundred pages—the first book printed on this side 
 of the Atlantic. 
 
 The rapid growth of Massachusetts now became a source of alarm 
 to the English government. Those liberal principles of religion and 
 politics which were openly avowed and gloried in by the citizens of the 
 new commonwealth were hateful to Charles I. and his ministers. The 
 archbishop of Canterbury was much offended. Something must be 
 done to check the further growth of the Puritan colonies. The first 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—THE UNION. 
 
 133 
 
 measure which suggested itself was to stop emigration. For this purpose 
 an edict was issued as early as 1634, but was of no effect. The officers 
 of the government neglected to enforce the law. Four years later, more 
 vigorous measures were adopted. A squadron of eight vessels, ready to 
 sail from London, was detained by the royal authority. Many of the 
 most prominent Puritan families in England were on board of these 
 ships. Historians of high rank have asserted—but without sufficient 
 proof—that John Hampden and Oliver Cromwell were of the number 
 who were turned back by the detention. At all events, it would have 
 been the part of wisdom in King Charles to allow all Puritans to leave 
 his realm as fast as possible. By detaining them in England he only 
 made sure the Revolution, and by so much hastened his own downfall. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—THE UNION. 
 
 AT"EW ENGLAND was fast becoming a nation. Wellnigh fifty towns 
 -L' and villages dotted the face of the country. Nearly a million of 
 dollars had been spent in settling and developing the new State. Enter¬ 
 prises of all kinds were rife. Manufactures, commerce and the arts were 
 rapidly introduced. William Stephens, a shipbuilder who came with 
 Governor Winthrop to Boston, had already built and launched an Ameri¬ 
 can vessel of four hundred tons burden. Before 1640, two hundred and 
 ninety-eight emigrant ships had anchored in Massachusetts Bay. Twenty- 
 one thousand two hundred people, escaping from English intolerance ot 
 Church or State, had found home and rest between Plymouth Rock and 
 the Connecticut valley. It is not wonderful that the colonists began to 
 cast about them for better political organization and more ample forms 
 of government. 
 
 Many circumstances impelled the colonies to union. First of all, 
 there was the natural desire of men to have a regular and permanent 
 government. England, torn and distracted with civil war, could do 
 nothing for or against her colonies; they must take care of themselves. 
 Here was the western frontier exposed to the hostilities of the Dutch 
 towns on the Hudson; Connecticut alone could not defend herself. 
 Similar trouble was apprehended from the French on the north' the 
 
134 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 English settlements on the Piscataqua were weak and defenceless. In¬ 
 dian tribes capable of mustering a thousand warriors were likely at any 
 hour to fall upon remote and helpless villages; the prevalence of common 
 interests and the necessities of common defence made a union of some sort 
 indispensable. 
 
 The first effort to consolidate the colonies was ineffectual. Two 
 years later, in 1639, the project was renewed, but without success. 
 Again, in 1643, a measure of union was brought forward and finally 
 adopted. By the terms of this compact, Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con¬ 
 necticut and New Haven were joined in a loose confederacy, called The 
 United Colonies of New England. The chief authority was con¬ 
 ferred upon a general assembly, or congress, composed of two representa¬ 
 tives from each colony. These delegates were chosen annually at an 
 election where all the freemen voted by ballot. There was no president 
 other than the speaker of the assembly, and he had no executive powers. 
 Each community retained, as before, its separate local existence; and all 
 subordinate questions of legislation were reserved to the respective colo¬ 
 nies. Only matters of general interest—such as Indian affairs, the levy¬ 
 ing of troops, the raising of revenues, declarations of war and treaties of 
 peace—were submitted to the assembly. 
 
 Provision was made for the admission of other colonies into the 
 union, but none were ever admitted. The English settlement on the 
 Piscataqua was rejected because of heterodoxy in religion. The Provi¬ 
 dence Plantations were refused for similar reasons. Should Roger Wil¬ 
 liams return to plague an assembly where an approved church-member¬ 
 ship was the sole qualification for office? The little island of Rhode 
 Island, with its Jewish republic, also knocked for admission; Anne 
 Hutchinson’s commonwealth was informed that Plymouth colony had 
 rightful jurisdiction there, and that heresy was a bar to all petitions. 
 
 Until the year 1641 the people of Massachusetts had had no regular 
 code of laws. At a meeting of the assembly in December of this year, 
 Nathaniel Ward brought forward a written instrument which; after ma¬ 
 ture deliberation, was adopted as the constitution of the State. This 
 fundamental statute was called the Body of Liberties, and was ever 
 afterward esteemed as the great charter of colonial freedom. It may be 
 doubted whether any other primitive constitution, either ancient or 
 modern, contains more wisdom than this early code of Massachusetts. 
 
 A further modification in the government was effected in 1644. 
 Until this time the representatives of the people had sat and voted in the 
 same hall with the governor and his assistant magistrates. It was now 
 decreed that the two bodies should sit apart, each with its own officers 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—THE UNION. 
 
 135 
 
 and under its own management. By this measure the people’s branch of 
 the legislature was made independent and of equal authority with the 
 governor’s council. Thus step by step were the safeguards of liberty 
 established and regular forms of government secured. 
 
 The people of Massachusetts were little grieved ou account of the 
 English Revolution. It was for them a vindication and a victory. The 
 triumph of Parliament over King Charles was the triumph of Puritanism 
 both in England and America. Massachusetts had no cause to fear so 
 long as the House of Commons was crowded with her friends and patrons. 
 But in the hour of victory the American Puritans showed themselves 
 more magnanimous than those of the mother-country; when Charles I., 
 the enemy of all colonial liberties, was brought to the block, the people 
 of New England, whose fathers had been exiled by his father, lamented 
 his tragic fate and preserved the memory of his virtues. 
 
 During the supremacy of the Long Parliament several acts were 
 passed which put in peril the interests of Massachusetts, but by a prudent 
 and far-sighted policy all evil results were avoided. Powerful friends, 
 especially Sir Henry Vane, stood up in Parliament and defended the 
 colony against the intrigues of her enemies. Ambassadors, men of age 
 and experience, went often to London to plead for colonial rights. Soon 
 after the abolition of monarchy a statute was made which threatened for 
 a while the complete subversion of the new State. Massachusetts was in¬ 
 vited to surrender her charter, to receive a new instrument instead, and 
 to hold courts and issue writs in the name of Parliament. The measure 
 seemed fair enough, but the people of New England were too cautious to 
 stake their all on the fate of a Parliament whose power was already 
 waning. The requisition was never complied with. Cromwell did not 
 insist on the surrender; no one else had power to enforce the act; and 
 Massachusetts retained her charter. 
 
 The Protector was the constant friend of the American colonies. 
 Even Virginia, though slighting his authority, found him just as well as 
 severe. The people of New England were his special favorites. To them 
 he was bound by every tie of political and religious sympathy. For more 
 than ten years, when he might have been an oppressor, he continued the 
 benefactor, of the English in America. During his administration the 
 northern colonies were left in the full enjoyment of their coveted rights. 
 In commerce, in the industry of private life, and especially in religion, 
 the people of Massachusetts were as free as the people of England. 
 
 In the year 1652, it was decreed by the general court at Boston 
 that the jurisdiction of the province extended as far north as three miles 
 above the most northerly waters of the river Merrimac. This declaration, 
 
136 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which was in strict accordance with the charter of the colony, was made 
 for the purpose of annexing Maine to Massachusetts. By this measure 
 the territory of the latter State was extended to Casco Bay. Settlements 
 had been made on the Piscataqua as early as 1626, but had not flourished. 
 Thirteen years later a royal charter was issued to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, 
 a member of the Council of Plymouth, who became proprietor of the 
 province. His cousin, Thomas Gorges, was made deputy-governor. A 
 high-sounding constitution, big enough for an empire, was drawn up, and 
 the little village of Gorgeana, afterward York, became the capital of the 
 kingdom. Meanwhile, in 1630, the Plymouth Council had granted to 
 another corporation sixteen hundred square miles of the territory around 
 Casco Bay, and this claim had been purchased by Rigby, a republican 
 member of Parliament. Between his deputies and those of Gorges violent 
 disputes arose. The villagers of Maine, sympathizing with neither party, 
 and emulous of the growth and prosperity of the southern colonies, laid 
 their grievances before the court at Boston, and the annexation of the 
 province followed. 
 
 In July of 1656, the Quakers began to arrive at Boston. The 
 first who came were Ann Austin and Mary Fisher. The introduction of 
 the plague would have occasioned less alarm. The two women were caught 
 and searched for marks of witchcraft, their trunks were broken open, 
 their books were burned by the hangman, and they themselves thrown 
 into prison. After several weeks’ confinement they were brought forth 
 and banished from the colony. Before the end of the year eight others 
 had been arrested and sent back to England. The delegates of the union 
 were immediately convened, and a rigorous law was passed, excluding all 
 Quakers from the country. Whipping, the loss of one ear and banish¬ 
 ment were the penalties for the first offence; after a second conviction the 
 other ear should be cut off; and should the criminal again return, his 
 tongue should be bored through witli a red-hot iron. 
 
 In 1657, Ann Burden, who had come from London to preach 
 against persecution, was seized and beaten with twenty stripes. Others 
 came, were whipped and exiled. As the law became more cruel and 
 proscriptive, fresh victims rushed forward to brave its terrors. The 
 assembly of the four colonies again convened, and advised the authorities 
 of Massachusetts to pronounce the penalty of death against the fanatical 
 disturbers of the public peace. When the resolutions embodying this ad¬ 
 vice was put before the assembly, to his everlasting honor, the younger 
 Winthrop, delegate from Connecticut, voted No! Massachusetts ac¬ 
 cepted the views of the greater number, and the death-penalty was passed 
 by a majority of one vote. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—THE UNION. 
 
 137 
 
 In September of 1659, four persons were arrested and brought to 
 trial under this law. The prisoners were given the option of going into 
 exile or of being hanged. Two of them (Mary Dyar and Nicholas Davis) 
 chose banishment; but the other two (Marmaduke Stephenson and Wil¬ 
 liam Robinson) stood firm, denounced the wickedness of the court, and 
 were sentenced to death. Mary Dyar, in whom the love of martyrdom 
 had triumphed over fear, now returned, and was also condemned. On 
 the 27th of October the three were led forth to execution. The men 
 were hanged without mercy; and the woman, after the rope had been 
 adjusted to her neck, was reprieved only to be banished. She was con¬ 
 veyed beyond the limits of the colony, but immediately returned and was 
 executed. William Leddra was next seized, tried and sentenced. As in 
 the case of the others, he was offered perpetual exile instead of death. 
 He refused, and was hanged. 
 
 Before the trial of Leddra was concluded, Wenlock Christison, 
 who had already been banished, rushed into the court-room and began to 
 upbraid the judges for shedding the blood of the innocent. When put on 
 his second trial, he spoke boldly in his own defence; but the jury brought 
 in a verdict of guilty, and he was condemned to die. Others, eager for 
 the honor of martyrdom, came forward in crowds, and the jails were filled 
 with voluntary prisoners. But before the day arrived for Christison’s exe¬ 
 cution, the public conscience was aroused; the law was repealed, the prison- 
 doors were opened, and Christison, with twenty-seven companions, came 
 forth free. The bloody reign of proscription had ended, but not until four 
 innocent enthusiasts had given their lives for liberty of conscience. 
 
 But let a veil be drawn over this sorrowful event. The history of 
 all times is full of scenes of violence and wrong. It could not be ex¬ 
 pected that an American colony, founded by exiles, pursued with malice 
 and beset with dangers, should be wholly exempt from the shame of evil 
 deeds. The Puritans established a religious rather than a civil common¬ 
 wealth ; whatever put the faith of the people in peril seemed to them 
 more to be dreaded than pestilence or death. To ward off heresy, even 
 by destroying the heretic, seemed only a natural self-defence. A nobler 
 lesson lias been learned in the light of better times. 
 
 The English Revolution had now run its course. Cromwell was 
 dead. The Commonwealth tottered and fell. Charles II. was restored to 
 the throne of his ancestors. Tidings of the Restoration reached Boston 
 on the 27th of July, 1660. In the same vessel that bore the news came 
 Edward Whalley and William Goffe, two of the judges who had passed 
 sentence of death on Charles I. It was now their turn to save their lives 
 by flight. Governor Endicott received them with courtesy; the agents 
 
138 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 from the British government came in hot pursuit with orders to arrest 
 them. For a while the fugitives, aided by the people of Boston, baffled 
 the officers, and then escaped to New Haven. Here for many weeks 
 they lay in concealment; not even the Indians would accept the reward 
 which was offered for their apprehension. At last the exiles reached the 
 valley of the Connecticut and found refuge at the village of Hadley, 
 where they passed the remainder of their lives. It was in October of this 
 same fatal year that Hugh Peters, the old friend of the colony, the father- 
 in-law of the younger Winthrop, was hanged at London. The noble Sir 
 Henry Vane was hunted down in Holland, surrendered to the English 
 government, condemned and beheaded. 
 
 Owing to the partiality of Cromwell, the restrictions on colonial 
 commerce which bore so heavily on A T irginia were scarcely felt by Massa¬ 
 chusetts. On the restoration of monarchy a severer policy was at once 
 adopted. All vessels not bearing the English flag were forbidden to 
 enter the harbors of New England. A law of exportation was enacted 
 by which all articles produced in the colonies and demanded in England 
 should be shipped to England only. Such articles of American produc¬ 
 tion as the English merchants did not desire might be sold in any of the 
 ports of Europe. The law of importation was equally odious; such 
 articles as were produced in England should not be manufactured in 
 America, and should be bought from England only. Free trade between 
 the colonies was forbidden; and a duty of five per cent., levied for the 
 benefit of the English king, was put on both exports and imports. 
 Human ingenuity could hardly have invented a set of measures better 
 calculated to produce an American Revolution. 
 
 In 1664, war broke out between England and Holland. It became 
 a part of the English military plans to reduce the Dutch settlements on 
 the Hudson; and for this purpose a fleet was sent to America. But there 
 was another purpose also. Charles II. was anxious to obtain control of 
 the New England colonies, that he might govern them according to the 
 principles of arbitrary power. The chief obstacle to this undertaking 
 was the charter of Massachusetts—an instrument given under the great 
 seal of England, and not easily revoked. To accomplish the same end by 
 other means was now the object of the king; and with this end in view 
 four commissioners were appointed with instructions to go to America, to 
 sit in judgment upon all matters of complaint that might arise in New 
 England, to settle colonial disputes, and to take such other measures as 
 might seem most likely to establish peace and good order in the country. 
 The royal commissioners embarked in thf* British fleet, and in July ar 
 rived at Boston. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 139 
 
 They were not wanted at Boston. The people of Massachusetts 
 knew very well that the establishment of this supreme judgeship in their 
 midst was a flagrant violation of their chartered right of self-government. 
 Before the commissioners landed the patent was put into the hands of a 
 committee for safe keeping. A decree of the general court forbade the 
 citizens to answer any summons issued by the royal judges. A powerful 
 letter, full of loyalty and manly prc tests, was sent directly to the king. 
 The commissioners became disgusted with the treatment which they re¬ 
 ceived at the hands of the refractory colony, and repaired to Maine and 
 "New Hampshire. Here they were met with some marks of favor; but 
 their official acts were disregarded and soon forgotten. In Bhode Island 
 the judges were received with great respect, and their decisions accepted 
 as the decisions of the king. The towns of Connecticut were next 
 visited; but the people were cold and indifferent, and the commissioners 
 retired. Meanwhile, the English monarch, learning how his grand judges 
 had been treated, sent a message of recall, and before the end of the year 
 they gladly left the country. After a gallant fight, Massachusetts had 
 preserved her liberties. Left in the peaceable enjoyment of her civil 
 rights, she entered upon a new career of prosperity which, for a period 
 of ten years, was marked with no calamity. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 M ASSASOIT, the old sachem of the Wampanoags, died in 1662. Foj 
 forty-one years he had faithfully kept the treaty made by himself 
 with the first settlers at Plymouth. His elder son, Alexander, now be¬ 
 came chief of the nation, but died within the year; and the chieftainship 
 descended to the younger brother, Philip or Mount Hope. It was 
 the fate of this brave and able man to lead his people in a final and hope¬ 
 less struggle against the supremacy of the whites. Causes of war had 
 existed for many years, and the time had come for the conflict. 
 
 The unwary natives of New England had sold their lands. The 
 English were the purchasers; the chiefs had signed the deeds; the price 
 had been fairly paid. Year by year the territory of the tribes had nar¬ 
 rowed ; the old men died, but the deeds remained and the lands could 
 not be recovered. There were at this time in the country east of the 
 
140 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hudson not more than twenty-five thousand Indians; the English had 
 increased to fully twice that number. A new generation had arisen who 
 could not understand the validity of the old titles. The young warriors 
 sighed for the freedom of their fathers’ hunting-grounds. They looked 
 with ever-increasing jealousy on the growth of English villages and the 
 spread of English farms. The ring of the foreigner’s axe had scared the 
 game out of the forest, and the foreigner’s net had scooped the fishes from 
 the red man’s river. Of all their ancient domain, the Wampanoags had 
 nothing left but the two narrow peninsulas of Bristol and Tiverton, on 
 the eastern coast of Narragansett Bay. 
 
 There were personal grievances also. While Alexander lived he 
 had been arrested, tried by an English jury and imprisoned. He had 
 caught his death-fever in a Boston jail. Another chieftain was appre¬ 
 hended in a similar way; and then the Indian witness who appeared at 
 the trial was murdered for giving testimony. The perpetrators of this 
 crime were seized by the English, convicted and hanged. Perhaps King 
 Philip, if left to himself, would have still sought peact He was not a 
 rash man, and clearly foresaw the inevitable issue of the struggle. He 
 hesitated, and was affected with great grief when the news came that an 
 Englishman had been killed. But the young men of the tribe were 
 thirsting for bloody revenge, and could no longer be restrained. The 
 women and children were hastily sent across the bay and put under the 
 
 protection of Canonchet, king of the 
 Narragansetts. On the 24th of June, 
 1675, the village of Swanzey was 
 attacked; eight Englishmen were 
 
 Within a week the militia of 
 Plymouth, joined by volunteer com¬ 
 panies from Boston, entered the 
 enemy’s country. A few Indians 
 were overtaken and killed. The 
 troops marched into the peninsula 
 of Bristol, reached Mount Hope, 
 and compelled Philip to fly for his 
 life. With a band of fugitives 
 numbering five or six hundred, he 
 escaped to Tiverton, on the eastern side of the bay. Here, a few days 
 afterward, they were attacked; but lying concealed in a swamp, they beat 
 back their assailants with considerable loss. The place was then sur- 
 
 killed; and the alarm of war sound¬ 
 ed through the colonies. 
 
 FIRST SCENE OF KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 141 
 
 rounded and besieged for two weeks; but Philip and his men, whea 
 brought to the point of starvation, managed to escape in the night, crossed 
 the bay and fled to the country of the Nipmucks, in Central Massa¬ 
 chusetts. Here the king and his warriors became the heralds of a general 
 war. The slumbering hatred of the savages was easily kindled into opefc 
 hostility. For a whole year the scattered settlements of the frontier be¬ 
 came a scene of burning, massacre and desolation. 
 
 After Philip’s flight from Tiverton, the English forces marched 
 into the country of the Narragansetts. Here the women and children of 
 the Wampanoags had been received and sheltered. The wavering Canon- 
 chet was given his choice of peace or war. He cowered before the Eng¬ 
 lish muskets and signed a treaty, agreeing that his nation should observe 
 neutrality and deliver up all fugitives from the hostile tribe. Still, it 
 was only a question of time when the Narragansetts would break their 
 covenant and espouse the cause of Philip. 
 
 The war was now transferred to the Connecticut valley. It had 
 been hoped that the Nipmucks would remain loyal to the English; but 
 the influence of the exiled chieftain prevailed with them to take up arms. 
 As usual with savages, treachery was added to hos¬ 
 tility. Captains Wheeler and Hutchinson, with a 
 company of twenty men, were sent to Brookfield to 
 hold a conference with ambassadors from the Nip- 
 muck nation. Instead of preparing for the council, 
 the Indians laid an ambush near the village, and 
 when the English were well surrounded, fired upon 
 them, killing nearly the whole company. A few 
 survivors, escaping to the settlement, gave the alarm, 
 and the people fled to their block-house just in 
 time to save their lives. 
 
 For two days the place was assailed with every 
 missile that savage ingenuity could invent. Finally, 
 the house was fired with burning arrows, and the 
 destruction of all seemed certain; but just as the roof 
 began to blaze, the friendly clouds poured down a shower of rain, and 
 the flames were extinguished. Then came reinforcements from Spring- 
 field, and the Indians fled. The people of Brookfield now abandoned 
 their homes and sought refuge in the towns along the river. On the 
 26th of August, a battle was fought in the outskirts of Deerfield. The 
 whites were successful; but a few days afterward the savages succeeded 
 in firing the village, and the greater part of it was burned to the ground. 
 A storehouse containing the recently-gathered harvests was saved, and 
 
142 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Captain Lathrop, with a company of eighty picked men, undertook the 
 dangerous task of removing the stores to Hadley. A train of wagons, 
 loaded with wheat and corn and guarded by the soldiers, left Deerfield on 
 the 18th of September, and had proceeded five miles, when they were 
 suddenly surrounded by eight hundred Indians who lay in ambush at 
 the ford of a small creek. The whites fought desperately, and were 
 killed almost to a man. Meanwhile, Captain Mosely, at the head of 
 seventy militia, arrived, and the battle continued, the English retreating 
 until they were reinforced by a band of a hundred and sixty English and 
 Mohegans. The savages were then beaten back with heavy losses. The 
 little stream where this fatal engagement occurred, was henceforth called 
 Bloody Brook. 
 
 On the same day of the burning of Deerfield, Hadley was attacked 
 while the people were at church. Everything was in confusion, and the 
 barbarians had already begun their work of butchery, when the gray¬ 
 haired General GofFe, who was concealed in the village, rushed forth from 
 his covert, and by rallying and directing the flying people saved them 
 from destruction. After the Indians hail been driven into the woods, the 
 aged veteran went back to his hiding-place, and was seen no more. Late 
 in the autumn, a battle was fought at Springfield; the town was assaulted 
 and most of the dwellings burned. Another attack was made on Hadley, 
 and a large part of the village was left in ashes. Hatfield was the next 
 object of savage vengeance; but here the English were found prepared, 
 and the Indians were repulsed with heavy losses. The farms and the 
 weaker settlements were now abandoned, and the people sought shelter in 
 the stronger towns near the river. 
 
 Philip, finding that he could do no further harm on the northern 
 frontier, gathered his warriors together and repaired to the Narragansetts. 
 By receiving them, Canonchet openly violated his treaty with the Eng¬ 
 lish, but to refuse them was contrary to the savage virtues of his race. 
 To share the dubious fate of Philip was preferred to the longer con¬ 
 tinuance of a hateful alliance with foreigners. The authorities of Massa¬ 
 chusetts immediately declared war against the Narragansett nation, and 
 Rhode Island was invaded by a thousand men under command of Colonel 
 Josiah Winslow. It was the determination to crush the Wampanoags 
 and the Narragansetts at one blow; the manner of*defence adopted by 
 the savages favored such an undertaking. In the middle of an immense 
 cedar swamp, a short distance south-west of Kingston, in the county of 
 Washington, the Indians collected to the number of three thousand. 
 Into this place was gathered the whole wealth of the Narragansett nation. 
 A village of wigwams extended over several acres of land that rose out 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 143 
 
 of the surrounding morasses. A fort was built on the island, and fortified 
 with a palisade and a breastwork of felled timber. Here the savages be¬ 
 lieved themselves secure from assault. The English regiment arrived at 
 the swamp at daybreak on the 19th of December, and struggling through 
 the bogs, reached the fort at noonday. The attack was made imme¬ 
 diately. The only entrance to the camp was by means of a fallen tree 
 that lay from an opening in the palisade to the opposite bank of a pond. 
 Over this hazardous passage a brave 
 few sprang forward, but were in¬ 
 stantly swept off by the fire of the 
 Indians. Another company, made 
 cautious by the fate of their com¬ 
 rades, crept around the defences, un¬ 
 til, finding a point unguarded, they 
 charged straight into the enclosure. 
 
 The work of death and destruction 
 
 now began in earnest. The wigwams third scene of king philip’s war. 
 
 were set on fire, and the kindling 
 
 flames swept around the village. The yells of the combatants mingled 
 with the roar of the conflagration. But the superior discipline and 
 valor of the whites soon decided the battle. The Indians, attempting 
 to escape from the burning fort, ran everywhere upon the loaded muskets 
 of the English. A thousand warriors were killed and hundreds more 
 were captured. Nearly all the wounded perished in the flames. There, 
 too, the old men, the women and babes of the nation met the horrors 
 of death by fire. The pride of the Narragansetts had perished in a day. 
 But the victory was dearly purchased; eighty English soldiers, including 
 six captains of the regiment, were killed, and a hundred and fifty others 
 were wounded. 
 
 A few of the savages, breaking through the English lines, escaped. 
 Led by Philip, they again repaired to the Nipmucks, and with the open¬ 
 ing of spring the war was renewed with more violence than ever. As 
 their fortunes declined the Indians grew desperate; they had nothing 
 more to lose. Around three hundred miles of frontier, extending from 
 Maine to the mouth of the Connecticut, there was massacre and devasta¬ 
 tion. Lancaster, Medfield, Groton and Marlborough were laid in ashes. 
 Weymouth, within twenty miles of Boston, met the same fate. Every¬ 
 where were seen the traces of rapine and murder. 
 
 But the end was near at hand. The resources of the savages were 
 wasted, and their numbers grew daily less. In April, Canonchet was 
 overtaken and captured on the banks of the Blackstone. He was offered 
 11 
 
144 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his life if he would procure a treaty of peace; but the haughty chieftain 
 rejected the proposal with disdain, and was put to death. Philip was still 
 at large, but his company had dwindled to a handful. In the early sum¬ 
 mer, his wife and son were made prisoners; the latter was sold as a slave, 
 and ended his life under the lash of a taskmaster in the Bermudas. The 
 savage monarch was heartbroken now, and cared no longer for his life. 
 Repairing secretly to his old home at Mount Hope, his place of conceal¬ 
 ment was revealed to the whites. A company of soldiers was sent to sur¬ 
 round him. A treacherous Indian guided the party to the spot, and then 
 himself, stealing nearer, took a deadly aim at the breast of his chieftain. 
 The report of a musket rang through the forest, and the painted king 
 of the Wampanoags sprang forward and fell dead. 
 
 New England suffered terribly in this war. The expenses and 
 losses of the war amounted to fully five hundred thousand dollars. 
 Thirteen towns and six hundred dwellings lay smouldering in ashes. 
 Almost every family had heard the war-whoop of the savages. Six 
 hundred men, the flower and pride of the country, had fallen in the field. 
 Hundreds of families had been butchered in cold blood. Gray-haired 
 sire, mother and babe had sunk together under the vengeful blow of the 
 red man’s gory tomahawk. Now there was peace again. The Indian 
 race was swept out of New England. The tribes beyond the Connecticut 
 came humbly submissive, and pleaded for their lives. The colonists re¬ 
 turned to their desolated farms and villages to build new homes in the 
 ashes of old ruins. 
 
 The echo of King Philip’s war had hardly died away before the 
 country was involved in troubles of a different sort. It had been ex¬ 
 pected that the English government would do something to repair the 
 heavy losses which the colonists had sustained; but not so. Instead of 
 help came Edward Randolph, a royal emissary, with authority to collect 
 duties and abridge colonial liberties. Governor Leverett received him 
 coldly, and told him in plain words that not even the king could right¬ 
 fully restrict the freedom of his American subjects; that the people of the 
 colonies had finished the Indian war without a cent of expease to the 
 English treasury, and that they were now fairly entitled to the enjoyment 
 of their chartered rights. After a six weeks’ sojourn at Boston, Randolph 
 sailed back to London, bearing to the ministry an exaggerated account 
 of colonial arrogance. The king was already scheming to revoke all the 
 New England charters; Randolph’s reception furnished a further pretext 
 for such a course of action. 
 
 The next trouble was concerning the jurisdiction of Maine. Sir 
 Ferdinand Gorges, the old proprietor of that province, was now dead; 
 
DEATH OF KING PHILIP, 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 145 
 
 but his heirs had never relinquished their claims to the territory. The 
 people of Maine had meanwhile put themselves under the authority of 
 Massachusetts; but the representatives of Gorges carried the matter before 
 the privy council, and in 1677 a decision was rendered in their favor. 
 Thereupon the Boston government made a proposition to the Gorges 
 family to purchase their claims; the proposition was accepted, and on the 
 6th of May the heirs signed a deed by which, in consideration of twelve 
 hundred and fifty pounds sterling, the soil and jurisdiction of the province 
 were transferred to Massachusetts. 
 
 A similar difficulty arose in regard to New Hampshire. As far 
 back as 1622 the Plymouth council had granted this territory to two of 
 their own number—Gorges, just mentioned, and Captain John Mason. 
 Seven years after the grant was made, Gorges surrendered his claim to 
 Mason, who thus became sole proprietor. But this territory was also 
 ■covered by the charter of Massachusetts. Mason died; and now, in 1679, 
 his son Robert came forward and claimed the province. This cause was 
 .also taken before the ministers, who decided that the title of the younger 
 Mason was valid. To the great disappointment of the people of both 
 provinces, the two governments were arbitrarily separated. The king’s 
 policy was now made manifest. A royal government, the first in New 
 England, was immediately established over New Hampshire; Mason 
 nominated Edward Cranfield as governor, the king confirmed the ap¬ 
 pointment, and received in return one-fifth of all the rents. 
 
 But the people took care that the rents should not amount to much. 
 They refused to recognize Cranfield’s commission, and thwarted his plans 
 in every way possible. Being in despair, he wrote to. the English govern¬ 
 ment that he would esteem it the greatest happiness to return home and 
 leave the unreasonable people of New Hampshire to themselves. The 
 king attributed all this trouble to the influence of Massachusetts. He 
 could not forget how that commonwealth had treated his custom-house 
 officer Randolph. The hostility' of the English government to the exist¬ 
 ing order of things in New England became more bitter than ever. To 
 carry out his plan of subverting the colonial governments, the king 
 directed his judges to make an inquiry as to whether Massachusetts had 
 not forfeited her charter. The proceedings were protracted until the 
 summer of 1684, when the royal court gave a decision in accordance with 
 the monarch’s wishes. The patent was forfeited, said the judges; and 
 the English crown might justly assume entire control of the colony. The 
 plan of the king was thus on the point of realization, but the shadow of 
 death was already at his door. On the 6th of February, 1685, his evil 
 reign of twenty-five years ended with his life. 
 
146 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The new sovereign, James II., immediately adopted his brother’s 
 colonial policy. In the next year after his accession, the scheme so long 
 entertained was successfully carried out. The charter of Massachusetts 
 was formally revoked; all the colonies between Nova Scotia and Narra- 
 gansett Bay were consolidated, and Joseph Dudley appointed president. 
 New England was not prepared for open resistance; the colonial assembly 
 was dissolved by its own act, and the members returned sullenly to their 
 homes. In the winter following, Dudley was superseded by Sir Edmund 
 Andros, who had been appointed royal governor of all New England. 
 His commission ought to have been entitled An Aeticle foe the 
 Desteuction of Colonial Libeety. If James II. had searched his 
 kingdom, he could hardly have found a tool better fitted to do his will. 
 The scarlet-coated despot landed at Boston on the 20th of December, and 
 at once began the work of demolishing the cherished institutions of the 
 people. Randolph was made chief secretary and censor of the press; 
 nothing might be printed without his sanction. Popular representation 
 was abolished. Voting by ballot was prohibited. Town meetings were 
 forbidden. The Church of England was openly encouraged. The public 
 schools were allowed to go to ruin. Men were arrested without warrant 
 of law; and when as prisoners they arose in court to plead the privileges 
 of the great English charter which had stood unquestioned for four hun¬ 
 dred and fifty years, they were told that the Great Charter was not made 
 for the perverse people of America. Dudley, who had been continued in 
 office as chief-justice, was in the habit of saying to his packed juries, at 
 the close of each trial: “ Now, worthy gentlemen, we expect a good ver c 
 diet from you to-day;” and the verdicts were rendered accordingly. 
 
 Thus did Massachusetts lose her liberty; and Plymouth fared no 
 better. If the stronger colony fell prostrate, what could the weaker do ? 
 The despotism of Andros was quickly extended from Cape Cod Bay to 
 the Piscataqua. New Hampshire was next invaded and her civil rights 
 completely overthrown. Rhode Island suffered the same calamity. In 
 May of 1686 her charter was taken away with a writ, and her constitu¬ 
 tional rights subverted. Some of the colonists brought forward Indian 
 deeds for their lands; the royal judges replied, with a sneer, that the sig¬ 
 nature of Massasoit was not worth as much as the scratch of a bear’s paw. 
 The seal of Rhode Island was broken, and an irresponsible council ap¬ 
 pointed to conduct the government. Attended by an armed guard, Andros 
 proceeded to Connecticut. Arriving at Hartford in October of 1687, he 
 found the assembly of the province in session, and demanded the surren¬ 
 der of the colonial charter. The instrument was brought in and laid upon 
 the table. A spirited debate ensued, and continued until evening. When 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 147 
 
 it was about to be decided that the charter should be given up, the lamps 
 were suddenly dashed out. Other lights were brought in; but the char¬ 
 ter had disappeared. Joseph Wadsworth, snatching up the precious 
 parchment, bore it off through the darkness and concealed it in a hollow 
 tree, ever afterward remembered with affection as The Charter Oak. 
 But the assembly was overawed and the free government of Connecticut 
 subverted. Thus was the authority of Andros established throughout 
 the country. The people gave vent to their feelings by calling him The 
 Tyrant of New England. 
 
 But his dominion ended suddenly. The English Revolution of 
 1688 was at hand. James II. was driven from his throne and kingdom. 
 The entire system of arbitrary rule which that monarch had established 
 fell with a crash, and Andros with the rest. The news of the revolution 
 and of the accession of William and Mary reached Boston on the 4th of 
 April, 1689. A few days afterward, the governor had occasion to write 
 a note to his colonel of militia, telling him to keep the soldiers under 
 arms, as there was “a general buzzing among the people.” On the 18th 
 of the month, the citizens of Charlestown and Boston rose in open rebel¬ 
 lion. Andros and his minions, attempting to escape, were seized and 
 marched to prison. The insurrection spread through the country; and 
 before the 10th of May every colony in New England had restored its 
 former liberties. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 I N 1689, war was declared between France and England. This con¬ 
 flict, known in American history as King William’s War, grew 
 out of the English Revolution of the preceding year. When James II. 
 escaped from his kingdom, he found refuge at the court of Louis XIV. 
 of France. The two monarchs were both Catholics, and both held the 
 same despotic theory of government. On this account, and from other 
 considerations, an alliance was made between them, by the terms of which 
 Louis agreed to support James in his effort to recover the English throne. 
 Parliament, meanwhile, had settled the crown on William of Orange. 
 By these means the new sovereign was brought into conflict not only 
 with the exiled James, but also with his confederate, the king of France 
 
148 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The war which thus originated in Europe soon extended to the American 
 colonies of the two nations; New England and New France entered the 
 conflict under the flags of their respective countries. 
 
 The struggle began on the north-eastern frontier of New Hamp¬ 
 shire. On the 27th of June, a party of Indians in alliance with the 
 French made an attack on Dover. The venerable magistrate of the 
 town, Richard Waldron, now eighty years of age, was inhumanly mur¬ 
 dered. Twenty-three others were killed, and twenty-nine dragged off 
 captive into the wilderness. 
 
 In August a war-party of a hundred Abenakis embarked in a fleet 
 of canoes, floated out of the mouth of the Penobscot, and steered down 
 the coast to Pemaquid, now Bremen. The inhabitants were taken by 
 surprise; a company of farmers were surrounded in the harvest-field and 
 murdered. The fort was besieged for two days and compelled to sur¬ 
 render. A few of the people escaped into the woods, but the greater 
 number were killed or carried away captive. A month later an alliance 
 was effected between the English and the ^powerful Mohawks west of the 
 Hudson; but the Indians refused to make war upon their countrymen of 
 Maine. The Dutch settlements of New Netherland, having now passed 
 under the dominion of England, made common cause against the French. 
 
 In January of 1690 a regiment of French and Indians left Montreal 
 and directed their march to the south. Crossing the Mohawk River, they 
 arrived on the 8th of February at the village of Schenectady. Lying 
 concealed in the forest until midnight, they stole through the unguarded 
 gates, raised the war-whoop and began the work of death. The town was 
 soon in flames. Sixty people were killed and scalped; the rest, escaping 
 half clad into the darkness, ran sixteen miles through the snow to Albany. 
 The settlement of Salmon Falls, on the Piscataqua, was next attacked and 
 destroyed by a war-party led by the Frenchman Hertel. Joining another 
 company from Quebec, under command of Portneuf, the savages pro¬ 
 ceeded against the colony at Casco Bay. The English fort at that place 
 was taken and the settlements broken up. Thus far the fortunes of the 
 war had been wholly on the side of the French and their allies. 
 
 But New England was now thoroughly aroused. In order to pro¬ 
 vide the ways and means of war, a colonial congress was convened at New 
 York. Here it was resolved to attempt the conquest of Canada by march¬ 
 ing an army by way of Lake Champlain against Montreal. At the same 
 time, Massachusetts was to co-operate with the land forces by sending a 
 fleet by way of the St. Lawrence for the reduction of Quebec. ’ Thirty- 
 four vessels, carrying two thousand troops, were accordingly fitted out, and 
 the command given to Sir William Phipps. Proceeding first against Port 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 149 
 
 Royal, he compelled a surrender; the whole of Nova Scotia submitted 
 without a struggle. If the commander had sailed at once against Quebec, 
 that place too Avould have been forced to capitulate; but vexatious delays 
 retarded the expedition until the middle of October. Meanwhile, an 
 Abenaki Indian had carried the news of the coming armament to Fronte- 
 nac, governor of Canada; and when the fleet came in sight of the town, 
 the castle of St. Louis was so well garrisoned and provisioned as to bid 
 defiance to the English forces. The opportunity was lost, and it only 
 remained for Phipps to sail back to Boston. To meet the expenses of 
 this unfortunate expedition, Massachusetts was obliged to issue bills of 
 credit which were made a legal tender in the payment of debt. Such 
 was the origin of paper money in America. 
 
 Meanwhile, the land forces had proceeded from Albany as far as 
 Lake Champlain. Here dissensions arose among the commanders. 
 Colonel Leisler of New York charged Winthrop of Connecticut with 
 treachery; and the charge was returned that Leisler’s commissary had 
 furnished no supplies for the Connecticut soldiers. The quarrel became 
 so violent that the expedition had to be abandoned, and the troops 
 marched gloomily homeward. The great campaign had resulted in com¬ 
 plete humiliation.. 
 
 Sir William Phipps had as little success in civil matters as in the 
 command of a fleet. Shortly after his return from Quebec he was sent as 
 ambassador to England. The objects of his mission were, in the first 
 place, to procure aid from the English government in the further prose¬ 
 cution of the Avar; and secondly, to secure, if possible, a reissue of the old 
 colonial charter. To the first of these requests the ministers replied that 
 the armies and navies of England could not be spared to take part in 
 a petty Indian Avar; and the second Avas met with coldness and refusal. 
 King William Avas secretly opposed to the liberal provisions of the former 
 charter, and looked Avith disfavor on the project of reneAving it. It is 
 eA T en doubtful Avhether Phipps himself desired the restoration of the old 
 patent; for Avhen he returned to Boston in the spring of 1692, he bore a 
 neAv instrument from the king, and a commission as royal governor of the 
 province. By the terms of this new constitution, Plymouth, Maine and 
 No\ T a Scotia Avere consolidated Avith Massachusetts; Avliile New Hamp¬ 
 shire, against the protests and petitions of her people, Avas forcibly sepa¬ 
 rated from the mother colony. 
 
 The Avar still continued, but Avithout decisi\ r e results. In 1694, the 
 village of Oyster River, iioav Durham, Avas destroyed by a band of savages 
 led by the French captain Villieu. The inhabitants, to the number of 
 ninety-four, were either killed or carried into captivity. Tavo years later 
 
150 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the English lortress at Pemaquid was a second time surrendered to the 
 French and Indians, under command of Baron Castin. The captives 
 were sent to Boston and exchanged for prisoners in the hands of the 
 English. In the following March, the town of Haverhill, on the Merri- 
 mac, was captured under circumstances of special atrocity. Nearly forty 
 persons were butchered in cold blood; only a few were spared for cap¬ 
 tivity. Among the latter was Mrs. Hannah Dustin. Her child, only 
 a week old, was snatched out of her arms and dashed against a tree. The 
 heartbroken mother, with her nurse and a lad named Leonardson, from 
 Worcester, was taken by the savages to an island in the Merrimac, a short 
 distance above Concord. Here, while their captors, twelve in number, 
 were asleep at night, the three prisoners arose, silently armed themselves 
 with tomahawks, and with one deadly blow after another crushed in the 
 temples of the sleeping savages, until ten of them lay still in death; 
 then, embarking in a canoe, the captives dropped down the river and 
 reached the English settlement in safety. Mrs. Dustin carried home with 
 her the gun and tomahawk of the savage who had destroyed her family, 
 and a bag containing the scalps of her neighbors. It is not often that the 
 mother of a murdered babe has found such ample vengeance. 
 
 But the war was already at an end. Early in 1697, commissioners 
 of France and England assembled at the town of Ryswick, in Holland; 
 And on the 10th of the following September, a treaty of peace was con¬ 
 cluded. King William was acknowledged as the rightful sovereign of 
 England, and the colonial boundary-lines of the two nations in America 
 were established as before. 
 
 Massachusetts had in the mean time been visited with a worse 
 calamity than war. The darkest page in the history of New England is 
 that which bears the record of the Salem Witchcraft. The same 
 town which fifty-seven years previously had cast out Roger Williams was 
 now to become the scene of the most fatal delusion of modern times. In 
 February of 1692, in that part of Salem afterward called Danvers, a 
 daughter and a niece of Samuel Parris, the minister, were attacked with 
 a nervous disorder which rendered them partially insane. Parris be¬ 
 lieved, or affected to believe, that the two girls were bewitched, and that 
 Tituba, an Indian maid-servant of the household, was the author of the 
 affliction. He had seen her performing some of the rude ceremonies of 
 her own religion, and this gave color to his suspicions. He tied Tituba, 
 and whipped the ignorant creature until, at his own dictation, she con¬ 
 fessed herself a witch. Here, no doubt, the matter would have ended 
 had not other causes existed for the continuance and spread of the miser¬ 
 able delusion. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 151 
 
 But Parris had had a quarrel in his church. A part of the congre¬ 
 gation desired that George Burroughs, a former minister, should be rein¬ 
 stated, to the exclusion of Parris. Burroughs still lived at Salem; and 
 there was great animosity between the partisans of the former and the 
 present pastor. Burroughs disbelieved in witchcraft, and openly ex¬ 
 pressed his contempt of the system. Here, then, Parris found an oppor¬ 
 tunity to turn the confessions of the foolish Indian servant against his 
 enemies, to overwhelm his rival with the superstitions of the community, 
 and perhaps to have him put to death. There is no doubt whatever that 
 the whole murderous scheme originated in the personal malice of Parris. 
 
 But there were others ready to aid him. First among these was 
 the celebrated Cotton Mather, minister of Boston. He, being in high re¬ 
 pute for wisdom, had recently preached much on the subject of witchcraft, 
 teaching the people that witches were dangerous and ought to be put to 
 death. He thus became the natural confederate of Parris, and the chief 
 author of the terrible scenes that ensued. Sir William Phipps, the royal 
 governor, who had just arrived from England, was a member of Mather’s 
 church. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton, had nominated Phipps to 
 his present office. Stoughton, the deputy-governor, who was appointed 
 judge and presided at the trials of the witches, was the tool of Parris and 
 the two Mathers. To these men, more especially to Parris and Mather, 
 must be charged the full infamy of what followed. 
 
 By the laws of England witchcraft was punishable with death. 
 The code of Massachusetts was the same as that of the mother-country. 
 In the early history of the colony, one person charged with being a 
 wizard had been arrested at Charlestown, convicted and executed. But 
 with the progress and enlightenment of the people, many had grown bold 
 enough to denounce and despise the baleful superstition. Something, 
 therefore, had to be done to save the tottering fabric of witchcraft from 
 falling into contempt. A special court was accordingly appointed by 
 Governor Phipps to go to Salem and to sit in judgment on the persons 
 accused by Parris. Stoughton was the presiding judge, Parris himself 
 the prosecutor, and Cotton Mather a kind of bishop to decide when the 
 testimony was sufficient to condemn. 
 
 On the 21st of March, the horrible proceedings began. Mary Cory 
 was arrested, not indeed for being a witch, but for denying the reality of 
 witchcraft. When brought before the church and court, she denied all 
 guilt, but was convicted and hurried to prison. Sarah Cloyce and 
 Rebecca Nurse, two sisters of the most exemplary lives, were next appre¬ 
 hended as witches. The only witnesses against them were Tituba, her half¬ 
 witted Indian husband and the simple girl Abigail Williams, the niece 
 
152 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Parris. The victims were sent to prison, protesting their innocence. 
 Giles Cory, a patriarch of eighty years, was next seized; he also was one 
 of those who had opposed Parris. The Indian accuser fell down before 
 Edward Bishop pretending to be in a fit under satanic influence; the 
 sturdy farmer cured him instantly with a sound flogging, and said that 
 he could restore the rest of the afflicted in the same manner. He and his 
 wife were immediately arrested and condemned. George Burroughs, the 
 rival of Parris, was accused and hurried to prison. And so the work 
 went on, until seventy-five innocent people were locked up in dungeons. 
 Not a solitary partisan of Parris or Mather had been arrested. 
 
 In the hope of saving their lives, some of the terrified prisoners 
 now began to confess themselves witches, or bewitched. It was soon 
 found that a confession was almost certain to procure liberation. It be¬ 
 came evident that the accused were to be put to death, not for being 
 witches or wizards, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. The special 
 court was already in session; convictions followed fast; the gallows stood 
 waiting for its victims. The truth of Mather’s preaching was to be estab 
 lished by hanging whoever denied it; and Parris was to save hi? pastorate 
 by murdering his rival. When the noble Burroughs mounted the scaffold, 
 he stood composedly and repeated correctly the test-prayer which it was 
 said no wizard could utter. The people broke into sobs and moans, and 
 would have rescued their friend from death; but the tyrant Mather dashed 
 among them on horseback, muttering imprecations, and drove the hang¬ 
 man to his horrid work. Old Giles Cory, seeing that conviction was cer¬ 
 tain, refused to plead, and was pressed to death. Five women were hanged 
 in one day. Between the 10th of June and the 2 2d of September, twenty 
 victims were hurried to their doom. Fifty-five others had been tortured 
 into the confession of abominable falsehoods. A hundred and fifty lay in 
 prison awaiting their fate. Two hundred were accused or suspected, and 
 ruin seemed to impend over New England. But a reaction at last set in 
 among the people. Notwithstanding the vociferous clamor and denuncia¬ 
 tions of Mather, the witch tribunals were overthrown. The representative 
 assembly convened early in October, and the hated court which Phipps 
 had appointed to sit at Salem was at once dismissed. The spell was dis¬ 
 solved. The thralldom of the popular mind was broken. Reason shook 
 off the terror that had oppressed it. The prison doors were opened, and 
 the victims of malice and superstition went forth free. In the beginning 
 of the next year a few persons charged with witchcraft were again 
 arraigned and brought before the courts. Some were even convicted, but 
 the conviction went for nothing; not another life was sacrificed to passion 
 and fanaticism. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 153 
 
 Most of those who had participated in the terrible deeds of the 
 preceding summer confessed the great wrong which they had done; but 
 confessions could not restore the dead. The bigoted Mather, in a vain 
 attempt to justify himself before the world, wrote a treatise in which he 
 expressed his great thankfulness that so many witches had met their just 
 loom. It is not the least humiliating circumstance of this sad business 
 that Mather’s hypocritical and impudent book received the approbation 
 of the president of Harvard College. In all this there is to the American 
 student one consoling reflection—the pages of his country’s history will 
 never again be blotted with so dark a stain. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 T HE peace which followed the treaty of Ryswick was of short dura¬ 
 tion. Within less than four years France and England were again 
 involved in a conflict which, beginning in Europe, soon extended to the 
 American colonies. In the year 1700, Charles II., king of Spain, died, 
 having named as his successor Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis 
 XIV. This measure pointed clearly to a union of the crowns of France 
 and Spain. The jealousy of all Europe was aroused; a league was 
 formed between England, Holland and Austria; the archduke Charles 
 of the latter country was put forward by the allied powers as a candidate 
 for the Spanish throne; and war was declared against Louis XIV. for 
 supporting the claims of Philip. 
 
 England had against France another cause of offence. In Septem¬ 
 ber of 1701, James II., the exiled king of Great Britain, died at the court 
 of Louis, who now, in violation of the treaty of Ryswick, recognized the 
 son of James as the rightful sovereign of England. This action was re¬ 
 garded as an open insult to English nationality. King William led his 
 armies to the field not less to thwart the ambition of France than to save 
 his own crown and kingdom. But the English monarch did not live to 
 carry out his plans. While yet the war was hardly begun, the king fell 
 from his horse, was attacked with fever, and died in May of 1702. 
 Parliament had already settled the crown on Anne, the sister-in-law 
 of William and daughter of James II. The new sovereign adopted the 
 
154 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 policy of her predecessor. From the circumstance of her reign, the con¬ 
 flict with France, which lasted for nearly thirteen years, is known in his¬ 
 tory as Queen Anne’s War ; but a better name is The War of the 
 Spanish Succession. 
 
 In America the field of operations was limited to New England 
 and South Carolina. The central colonies were scarcely aware that war 
 existed. The military operations of both parties were conducted in a 
 feeble and desultory manner. The more influential Indian tribes held 
 aloof from the struggle. In August, 1701, the powerful Five Nations, 
 whose dominions south of Lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence formed 
 a barrier between Canada and New York, made a treaty of neutrality 
 with both the French and the English. The Abenakis of Maine did the 
 same; but the French Jesuits prevailed with the latter to break their 
 compact. The first notice of treachery which the English had, was a 
 fearful massacre. In one day the whole country between the town of 
 Wells and the Bay of Casco was given up to burning and butchery. 
 
 In midwinter of 1703-4 the town of Deerfield was destroyed. A 
 war-party of three hundred French and Indians, setting out from Canada, 
 marched on the snow-crust into the Connecticut valley. On the last 
 night of February, the savages lay in the pine forest that surrounded the 
 ill-fated village. Just before daybreak they rushed from their covert and 
 fired the houses. Forty-seven of the inhabitants were tomahawked. A 
 hundred and twelve were dragged into captivity. The prisoners, many 
 of them women and children, were obliged to march to Canada. The 
 snow lay four feet deep. The poor wretches, haggard with fear and 
 starvation, sank down and died. The deadly hatchet hung ever above 
 the heads of the feeble and the sick. Eunice Williams, the minister’s 
 wife, fainted by the wayside; in th< presence of her husband and five 
 captive children, her brains were dashed out with a tomahawk. Those 
 who survived to the end of the journey were afterward ransomed and 
 permitted to return to their desolated homes. A daughter of Mr. Wil¬ 
 liams remained with the savages, grew up among the Mohawks, married 
 a chieftain, and in after years returned in Indian garb to Deerfield. No 
 entreaties could induce her to remain with her friends. The solitude of 
 the woods and the society of her tawny husband had prevailed over the 
 charms of civilization. 
 
 In Maine and New Hampshire the war was marked with similar 
 barbarities. Farms were devastated; towns were burned ; the inhabitants 
 were murdered or carried to Canada. Prowling bands of savages, led on 
 by French officers, penetrated at times into the heart of Massachusetts. 
 Against the treacherous barbarians and their bloodthirsty leaders there 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 155 
 
 was no security either at home or abroad. Along the desolated frontier 
 ruin prevailed, as in the days of King Philip. 
 
 In 1707, the reduction of Port Royal was undertaken by Massa¬ 
 chusetts. A fleet, bearing a thousand soldiers, was equipped and sent 
 against the town. But Baron Castin, who commanded the French garri¬ 
 son, conducted the defence with so much skill that the English were 
 obliged to abandon the undertaking. From this costly and disastrous 
 expedition Massachusetts gained nothing but discouragement and debt. 
 Nevertheless, after two years of preparation, the enterprise was renewed; 
 and in 1710 an English and American fleet of thirty-six vessels, having 
 on board four regiments of troops, anchored before Port Royal. The 
 garrison was weak; Subercase, the French commander, had neither 
 talents nor courage; famine came; and after a feeble defence of eleven 
 days, the place surrendered at discretion. By this conquest all of Nova 
 Scotia passed under the dominion of the English. The flag of Great 
 Britain was hoisted over the conquered fortress, and the name of Port 
 Royal gave place to Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne. 
 
 Vast preparations were now made for the invasion of Canada. A 
 land force under command of General Nicholson was to march against 
 Montreal, while Quebec, the key to the French dominions in America, 
 was to be reduced by an English fleet. For this purpose fifteen men-of- 
 war and forty transports were placed under command of Sir Hovenden 
 Walker. Seven regiments of veterans, selected from the armies of Europe, 
 were added to the colonial forces and sent with the expedition. Before 
 such an armament the defences of Quebec could hardly hold out an hour. 
 But for the utter incompetency of the admiral, success would have been 
 assured. 
 
 For six weeks in midsummer the great fleet lay idly in Boston Har¬ 
 bor. Sir Hovenden was getting ready to sail. The Abenaki Indians 
 carried the news leisurely to Quebec; and every day added to the strength 
 of the ramparts. At last, on the 30th of July, when no further excuse 
 could be invented, tho ships set sail for the St. Lawrence. At the Bay 
 of Gaspe the admiral thought it necessary to loiter a while; then he 
 busied himself with devising a plan to save his ships from the ice during 
 the next winter. Proceeding slowly up the St. Lawrence, the fleet, on 
 the 22d of August, was enveloped in a thick fog. The wind blew hard 
 from the east. The commander was cautioned to remain on deck, but 
 went quietly to bed. A messenger aroused him just in time to see eight 
 of his best vessels dashed to pieces on the rocks. Eight hundred and 
 eighty-four men went down in the foaming whirlpools. A council of war 
 was held, and all voted that it was impossible to proceed. In a letter to 
 
156 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the English government, Walker expressed great gratitude that by the 
 loss of a thousand men the rest had been saved from freezing to death at 
 Quebec. The fleet sailed back to England, and the colonial troops were 
 disbanded at Boston. 
 
 Meanwhile, the army of General Nicholson had marched against 
 Montreal. But when news arrived of the failure of the fleet, the land 
 expedition was also abandoned. The dallying cowardice of Walker had 
 brought the campaign of 1711 to a shameful end. France had already 
 made overtures for peace. Negotiations were formally begun in the early 
 part of 1712; and on the 11th of April in the following year a treaty 
 was concluded at Utrecht, a town of Holland. By the terms of the settle¬ 
 ment, England obtained control of the fisheries of Newfoundland. Labra¬ 
 dor, the Bay of Hudson and the whole of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, were 
 ceded to Great Britain. On the 13th of July the chiefs of the hostile 
 Indian tribes met the ambassadors of New England at Portsmouth, and a 
 second treaty was concluded, by which peace was secured throughout the 
 American colonies. 
 
 For thirty-one years after the close of Queen Anne’s war, Massa¬ 
 chusetts was free from hostile invasion. This was not, however, a period 
 of public tranquillity. The people were dissatisfied with the royal govern¬ 
 ment which King William had established, and were at constant variance 
 with their governors. Phipps and his administration had been heartily 
 disliked. Governor Shute was equally unpopular. Burnett, who suc¬ 
 ceeded him, and Belcher afterward, were only tolerated because they 
 could not be shaken off. The opposition to the royal officers took the 
 form of a controversy about their salaries. The general assembly in¬ 
 sisted that the governor and his councilors should be paid in proportion 
 to the importance of their several offices, and for actual service only. 
 But the royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed salary, which was 
 frequently out of all proportion to the services required. After many 
 years of antagonism, the difficulty was finally adjusted with a compromise 
 in which the advantage was wholly on the side of the people. It was 
 agreed that the salaries of the governor and his assistants should be an¬ 
 nually allowed, and the amount fixed by vote of the assembly. The 
 representatives of popular liberty had once more triumphed over the 
 principles of arbitrary rule. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI. of Austria, in 1740, there were 
 two principal claimants to the crown of the empire—Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of the late emperor, and Charles Albert of Bavaria. Each 
 claimant had his party and his army; Avar followed; and nearly all the 
 nations of Europe Avere swept into the conflict. As usually happened in 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 157 
 
 such struggles, England and France were arrayed against each other. 
 The contest that ensued is generally known as the War of the Austrian 
 Succession, but in American history is called Xing George’s War; 
 for George II. was now king of England. 
 
 In America the only important event of the war was the capture 
 of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. This place had been fortified at 
 vast expense by th French. Standing at the principal entrance to the 
 gulf and river of St. Lawrence, the fortress was regarded as a key to the 
 Canadian provinces. New England was quick to note that both New¬ 
 foundland and Nova Scotia were threatened so long as the French flag 
 floated over Louisburg. Governor Shirley brought the matter before the 
 legislature of Massachusetts, and it was resolved to attempt the capture 
 of the enemy’s stronghold. 
 
 The other colonies were invited to aid the enterprise. Connecticut 
 responded by sending more than five hundred troops; New Hampshire 
 and Rhode Island each furnished three hundred; a park of artillery 
 was sent from New York; and Pennsylvania contributed a supply of 
 provisions. The forces of Massachusetts alone numbered more than three 
 thousand. It only remained to secure the co-operation of the English 
 fleet then cruising in the West Indies. An earnest invitation was sent to 
 Commodore Warren to join his armament with the colonial forces; but 
 having no orders, he declined the request. Everything devolved on the 
 army and navy of New England, but there was no quailing under the 
 responsibility. William Pepperell, of Maine, was appointed commander- 
 in-chief; and on the 4th of April, 1745, the fleet sailed for Cape Breton. 
 
 At Canseau, the eastern cape of Nova Scotia, the expedition was 
 detained for sixteen days. The sea was thick with ice-drifts floating 
 from the north. But the delay was fortunate, for in the mean time Com¬ 
 modore Warren had received instructions from England to proceed to 
 Massachusetts and aid Governor Shirley in the contemplated reduction 
 of Cape Breton. Sailing to the north, Warren brought his fleet safely to 
 Canseau on the 23d of April. On the last day of the month the arma¬ 
 ment, now numbering a hundred vessels, entered the Bay of Gabarus in 
 sight of Louisburg. A landing was effected four miles below the city. 
 On the next day a company of four hundred volunteers, led by William 
 Vaughan, marched across the peninsula and attacked a French battery 
 which had been planted on the shore two miles beyond the town. The 
 French, struck with terror at the impetuosity of the unexpected charge, 
 spiked their guns and fled. Before morning the cannons were re-drilled 
 and turned upon the fortress. An English battery was established on 
 the east side of the harbor, but the sea-walls of Louisburg were so strong 
 12 
 
158 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that little damage was clone by the guns across the bay. An attack in 
 the rear of the town seemed impossible on account of a large swamp 
 which lay in that direction; but the resolute soldiers of New England 
 lashed their heavy guns upon sledges, and dragged them through the 
 marsh to a tract of solid ground within two hundred yards of the enemy’s 
 bastions. Notwithstanding the advantage of this position, the walls of 
 the fort stood firm, and the siege progressed slowly. 
 
 On the 18th of May a French ship of sixty-four guns, laden with 
 stores for the garrison, was captured by Warren’s fleet. The French 
 were greatly discouraged by this event, and the defence grew feeble. 
 The English were correspondingly elated with the prospect of success. 
 On the 26th of the month an effort was made to capture the French bat¬ 
 tery in the harbor. A company of daring volunteers undertook the 
 hazardous enterprise by night. Embarking in boats, they drew near the 
 island where the battery was planted, but were discovered and repulsed 
 with the loss of a hundred and seventy-six men. It was now determined 
 to carry the town by storm. The assault was set for the 18th of June; 
 but on the day previous the desponding garrison sent out a flag of truce; 
 terms of capitulation were proposed and accepted, and the English flag 
 rose above the conquered fortress. 
 
 By the terms of this surrender not only Louisburg, but the whole 
 of Cape Breton, was given up to England. The rejoicing at Boston and 
 
 throughout the colonies was only 
 equaled by the indignation and alarm 
 of the French government. Louis¬ 
 burg must be retaken at all hazards, 
 said the ministers of France. For 
 this purpose a powerful fleet, under 
 command of Duke d’Anville, was sent 
 out in the following year. Before 
 reaching America the duke died of a 
 pestilence. His successor went mad 
 siege of louisburg, 1745 . and killed himself. Storms and ship¬ 
 
 wrecks and disasters drove the ill- 
 fated expedition to utter ruin. The renewal of the enterprise, in 1747, 
 was attended with like misfortune. Commodores Warren and Anson 
 overtook the French squadron and compelled a humiliating surrender. 
 
 In 1748, a treaty of peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, a 
 town of \\ estern Germany. After eight years of devastating warfare, 
 nothing was gained but a mutual restoration of conquests. By the terms 
 of settlement, Cape Breton was surrendered to France. With grief and 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 159 
 
 shame the fishermen and farmers of New England saw the island which 
 had been subdued by their valor restored to their enemies. Of all the 
 disputed boundary-lines between the French and English colonies in 
 America, not a single one was settled by this treaty. The European 
 nations had exhausted themselves with fighting; what cared they for the 
 welfare of distant and feeble provinces? The real war between France 
 and England for colonial supremacy in the West was yet to be fought 
 Within six years after the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the two great powers 
 were involved in the final and decisive conflict. 
 
 The history of Massachusetts has now been traced through a period 
 of a hundred and thirty years. A few words on the Character of 
 the Puritans may be appropriately added. They were in the begin¬ 
 ning a vigorous and hardy peoplej firm-set in the principles of honesty 
 and the practices of virtue. They were sober, industrious, frugal; reso¬ 
 lute, zealous and steadfast. They esteemed honor above preferment, and 
 truth more than riches. Loving home and native land, they left both 
 for the sake of freedom; and finding freedom, they cherished it with the 
 zeal and devotion of martyrs. Without influence, they became influential; 
 without encouragement, great. Despised and mocked and hated, they 
 rose above their revilers. In the school of evil fortune they gained the 
 discipline of patience. Suffering without cause brought resignation with¬ 
 out despair. Themselves the victims of persecution, they became the 
 founders of a colony—a commonwealth—a nation. They were the chil¬ 
 dren of adversity and the fathers of renown. 
 
 The gaze of the Puritan was turned ever to posterity. He believed 
 in the future. His affections and hopes were with the coming ages. For 
 his children he toiled and sacrificed; for them the energies of his life were 
 cheerfully exhausted. The system of free schools is the enduring monu¬ 
 ment of his love and devotion. The printing-press is his memorial. 
 Almshouses and asylums are the tokens of his care for the unfortunate. 
 With him the outcast found sympathy, and the wanderer a home. He 
 was the earliest champion of civil rights, and the builder of the Union, 
 
 The fathers of New England have been accused of bigotry. The 
 charge is true: it is the background of the picture. In matters of re¬ 
 ligion they were intolerant and superstitious. Their religious faith was 
 gloomy and foreboding. Human life was deemed a sad and miserable 
 journey. To be mistaken was to sin. To fail in trifling ceremonies was 
 reckoned a grievous crime. In the shadow of such belief the people be¬ 
 came austere and melancholy. Escaping from the splendid formality of 
 the Episcopal Church, they set up a colder and severer form of worship; 
 and the form was made like iron. Dissenters themselves, they could not 
 
160 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tolerate the dissent of others. To restrain and punish error seemed 
 right and necessary. Williams and Hutchinson were banished; the 
 Quakers were persecuted and the witches hanged. But Puritanism 
 contained within itself the power to correct its own abuses. Within 
 the austere and gloomy fabric dwelt the very soul and genius of Free 
 Thought. Under the ice-bound rigors of the faith flowed a current 
 which no fatalism could congeal, no superstition poison. The heart 
 of a mighty, tumultuous, liberty-loving life throbbed within the cold, 
 stiff* body of formalism. A powerful vitality, which no disaster could 
 subdue, no persecution quench, warmed and energized and quickened. 
 The tyranny of Phipps, the malice of Parris, and the bigotry of Mather 
 are far outweighed by the sacrifices of Winthrop, the beneficence of 
 Harvard, and the virtues of Sir Henry Vane. The evils of the sys¬ 
 tem may well be forgotten in the glory of its achievements. Without 
 the Puritans, America would have been a delusion and liberty only a 
 name. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 I LLUSTRIOUS Sir Henry Hudson I Indomitable explorer, daunt¬ 
 less cavalier of the ocean! Who so worthy to give a name to the 
 great inland sea of the frozen North as he who gave his life in heroic 
 combat with its terrors ? Who so fit to become the father of a colony 
 in the New World as he who braved its perils and revealed its mys¬ 
 teries ? And where should the new State be planted unless by the 
 broad haven—broadest and best on the American coast—and among 
 the beautiful hills and landscapes 
 
 Where The Hudson came rolling through valleys a-smoke 
 From the lands of the Iroquois? 
 
 It was the good fortune of the American colonies to be founded by 
 men whose lives, like the setting suns of summer, cast behind them 
 a long and glorious twilight. But for the name and genius of Hud¬ 
 son the province of New Netherland had never been. 
 
 For ten years after the founding of New Amsterdam the colony 
 was governed by directors. These officers were appointed and sent 
 
NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 161 
 
 out by the Dutch East India Company, in accordance with the char¬ 
 ter of that corporation. The settlement on Manhattan Island was a* 
 yet only a village of traders. Not until 1623 was an actual colony 
 sent from Holland 
 to New Netherland. 
 
 Two years previous¬ 
 ly, the Dutch West 
 India Company had 
 been organized, with 
 the exclusive privi¬ 
 lege of planting set¬ 
 tlements in America. 
 
 The charter of this 
 company was grant¬ 
 ed for a period of 
 twenty-four years, 
 with the privilege 
 (tf renewal; and the 
 territory to be colo¬ 
 nized extended from 
 the Strait of Magel¬ 
 lan to Hudson’s Bay. 
 
 Manhattan Island, 
 
 ..i , c SIR HENRY HUDSON. 
 
 with its cluster of 
 
 huts, passed at once under the control of the new corporation. 
 
 In April of 1623, the ship New Netherland, having on board a 
 colony of thirty families, arrived at New Amsterdam. The colonists, 
 called Walloons, were Dutch Protestant refugees from Flanders, in 
 Belgium. They were of the same religious faith with the Huguenots of 
 France, and came to America to find repose from the persecutions of their 
 own country. Cornelius May was the leader of the company. The 
 greater number of the new immigrants settled with their friends on Man¬ 
 hattan Island; but the captain, with a party of fifty, passing down the 
 coast of New Jersey, entered and explored the Bay of Delaware. Sailing 
 up the bay and river, the company landed on the eastern shore; here, at 
 a point a few miles below Camden, where Timber Creek falls into the 
 Delaware, a site was selected and a block-house built named Fort Nassau. 
 The natives were won over by kindness; and when shortly after the fort 
 was abandoned and the settlers returned to New Amsterdam, the Indians 
 witnessed their departure with affectionate regret. In the same year 
 Joris, another Dutch captain, ascended the Hudson to Castle Island, 
 
 u 
 
162 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 where, nine years previously, Christianson had built the older Fort 
 Nassau. A flood in the river had swept the island bare. Not deeming 
 it prudent to restore the works in a place likely to be deluged, Joris 
 sailed up stream a short distance and rebuilt the fortress on the present 
 site of Albany. The name of this northern outpost was changed to Fort 
 Orange; and here the eighteen families of Joris’s company were per¬ 
 manently settled. 
 
 In 1624 civil government began in New Netherland. Cornelius 
 May was first governor of the colony. His official duties, however, were 
 only such as belonged to the superintendent of a trading-post. In the 
 next year William Verhulst became director of the settlement. Herds 
 of cattle, swine and sheep were brought over from Holland and distributed 
 among the settlers. In January of 1626, Peter Minuit, of Wesel, was 
 regularly appointed by the Hutch West India Company as governor of 
 New Netherland. Until this time the natives had retained the owner¬ 
 ship of Manhattan Island; but on Minuit’s arrival, in May, an offer of 
 purchase was made and accepted. The whole island, containing more 
 than twenty thousand acres, was sold to the Dutch for twenty-four dol¬ 
 lars. The southern point of land was selected as a site for fortifications; 
 there a block-house was built and surrounded with a palisade. New 
 Amsterdam was already a town of thirty houses. In the first year of 
 Minuit’s administration were begun the settlements of Wallabout and 
 Brooklyn, on Long Island. 
 
 The Dutch of New Amsterdam and the Pilgrims of New Plymouth 
 were early and fast friends. The Puritans themselves had but recently 
 arrived from Holland, and could not forget the kind treatment which 
 they had had in that country. They and the Walloons were alike exiles 
 fleeing from persecution and tyranny. On two occasions, in 1627, a 
 Dutch embassy was sent to Plymouth with an expression of good will. 
 The English were cordially invited to remove without molestation to the 
 more fertile valley of the Connecticut. Governor Bradford replied with 
 words of cheer and sympathy. The Dutch were honestly advised of the 
 claims of England to the country of the Hudson; and the people of New 
 Netherland were cautioned to make good their titles by accepting new 
 deeds from the council of Plymouth. A touch of jealousy was manifested 
 when the Dutch were warned not to send their trading-boats into the 
 Bay of Narragansett. 
 
 In 1628 the population of Manhattan numbered two hundred and 
 seventy. The settlers devoted their whole energies to the fur-trade. 
 Every bay, inlet and river between Rhode Island and the Delaware was 
 visited by their vessels. The colony gave promise of rapid development 
 
NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 163 
 
 and of great profit to the proprietors. If the houses were rude and 
 thatched with straw, there were energy and thrift within. If only wooden 
 chimneys carried up the smoke, the fires of the hearthstones were kindled 
 with laughter and song. If creaking windmills flung abroad their un¬ 
 gainly arms in the winds of Long Island Sound, it was proof that the 
 people had families to feed and meant to feed them. 
 
 The West India Company now came forward with a new and pecu¬ 
 liar scheme of colonization. In 1629, the corporation created a Charted 
 of Privileges, under which a class of proprietors called patroons wen- 
 authorized to possess and colonize the country. Each patroon might 
 select anywhere in New Netherland a tract of land not more than sixteen 
 miles in length, and of a breadth to be determined by the location. On 
 the banks of a navigable river not more than eight miles might be ap¬ 
 propriated by one proprietor. Each district was to be held in fee simple 
 by the patroon, who was empowered to exercise over his estate and its 
 inhabitants the same authority as did the hereditary lords of Europe. 
 The conditions were that the estates should be held as dependencies of 
 Holland ; that each patroon should purchase his domain of the Indians • 
 and that he should, within four years from the date of his title, establish 
 on his manor a colony of not less than fifty persons. Education and re¬ 
 ligion were commended in the charter, but no provision was made for 
 the support of either. 
 
 Under the provisions of this instrument five estates were imme¬ 
 diately established. Three of them, lying contiguous, embraced a district 
 of twenty-four miles in the valley of the Hudson above and oelow Fort 
 Orange. The fourth manor was laid out by Michael Pauw on Staten 
 Island; and the fifth, and most important, included the southern half of 
 the present State of Delaware. To this estate a colony was sent out from 
 Holland in the spring of 1631. Samuel Godyn was patroon of the do¬ 
 main, but the immediate management was entrusted to David Peterson de 
 Vries. With a company of thirty immigrants, he reached the entrance 
 to Delaware Bay, and anchored within Cape Henlopen. Landing five 
 miles up the bay, at the mouth of Lewis Creek, the colony selected a site 
 and laid the foundations of Lewistown, the oldest settlement in Delaware. 
 
 After a year of successful management, De Vries returned to Hol¬ 
 land, leaving the settlement in charge of Gillis Hosset. The latter, a 4 
 man of no sagacity, soon brought the colony to ruin. An Indian cliief 
 who offended him was seized and put to death. The natives, who thus 
 far had treated the strangers with deference and good faith, were aroused 
 to vengeance. Rising suddenly out of an ambuscade upon the terrified 
 colonists, they left not a man alive. The houses and palisades were 
 
164 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 burned to the ground; nothing but bones and ashes remained tc testify 
 of savage passion. When De Vries returned, in December of 1632, he 
 found only the blackened ruins of his flourishing hamlet. He sailed first 
 to Virginia for a cargo of supplies, and thence to New Amsterdam; but 
 before the colony could be re-established, Lord Baltimore had received 
 from the English government a patent which embraced the whole of 
 Delaware; the weaker, though older, claim of the Dutch patroon gave 
 way before the charter of his more powerful rival. 
 
 In April of 1633, Minuit was superseded in the government of New 
 Netherland by Wouter van Twiller. Three months previously the Dutch 
 had purchased of the natives the soil around Hartford, and had erected a 
 block-house within the present limits of the city. This was the first 
 fortress built on the Connecticut River; but the Puritans, though pro¬ 
 fessing friendship, were not going to give up the valley without a struggle. 
 In October of the same year an armed vessel, sent out from Plymouth, 
 sailed up the river and openly defied the Dutch commander at Hartford. 
 Passing the fortress, the English proceeded up stream to the mouth of 
 the river Farmington, where they landed and built Fort Windsor. Two 
 years later, by the building of Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut, 
 the English obtained command of the river both above and below the 
 Dutch fort. The block-house at Hartford, being thus cut off, was com¬ 
 paratively useless to the authorities of New Netherland; English towns 
 multiplied in the neighborhood; and the Dutch finally surrendered their 
 eastern outpost to their more powerful rivals. 
 
 Four of the leading European nations had now established perma¬ 
 nent colonies in America. The fifth to plant an American State was 
 Sweden. As early as 1626, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant king 
 of that country and the hero of his age, had formed the design of estab¬ 
 lishing settlements in the West. For this purpose a company of mer¬ 
 chants had been organized, to whose capital the king himself contributed 
 four hundred thousand dollars. The objects had in view were to form a 
 refuge for persecuted Protestants and to extend Swedish commerce. But 
 before his plans of colonization could be carried into effect, Gustavus be¬ 
 came involved in the Thirty Years’ War, then raging in Germany. The 
 company was disorganized, and the capital wasted in the purchase of mili¬ 
 tary stores. In November of 1632 the Swedish king was killed at the 
 battle of Liitzen. For a while it seemed that the plan of colonizing 
 America had ended in failure, but Oxenstiern, the great Swedish minis¬ 
 ter, took up the work which his master had left unfinished. The charter 
 of the company was renewed, and after four years of preparation the 
 enterprise was brought to a successful issue. 
 
DEVRIES REVISITS HIS RUINED SETTLEMENT, 
 
NEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 165 
 
 In the mean time, Peter Minuit, the recent governor of New 
 Netherland, had left the service of Holland and entered that of Sweden. 
 To him was entrusted the management of the first Swedish colony which 
 was sent to America. Late in the year 1637, a company of Swedes and 
 Finns left the harbor of Stockholm, and in the following February 
 arrived in Delaware Bay. Never before had the Northerners beheld so 
 beautiful a land. They called Cape Henlopen the Point of Paradise. 
 The whole country, sweeping around the west side of the bay and up the 
 river to the falls at Trenton, was honorably purchased of the Indians. 
 In memory of native land, the name of New Sweden was given to this 
 fine territory. The colony landed just below the mouth of the Brandy¬ 
 wine, in the northern part of the present State of Delaware. On the left 
 bank of a small tributary, at a point about six miles from the bay, a spot 
 was chosen for the settlement. Here the foundations of a fort were laid, 
 and the immigrants soon provided themselves with houses. The creek 
 and the fort were both named in honor of Christiana, the maiden queen 
 of Sweden. 
 
 The colony prospered greatly. By each returning ship letters were 
 borne to Stockholm, describing the loveliness of the country. Immigra¬ 
 tion became rapid and constant. At one time, in 1640, more than a hun¬ 
 dred families, unable to find room on the crowded vessels which were 
 leaving the Swedish capital, were turned back to their homes. The 
 banks of Delaware Bay and River were dotted with pleasant hamlets. 
 On every hand appeared the proofs of well-directed industry. Of all 
 the early settlers in America, none were more cheerful, intelligent and 
 virtuous than the Swedes. 
 
 From the first, the authorities of New Amsterdam were jealous 
 of the colony on the Delaware. Sir William Kieft, who had succeeded 
 the incompetent Van Twilier in the governorship, sent an earnest remon¬ 
 strance to Christiana, warning the settlers of their intrusion on Dutch 
 territory. But the Swedes, giving little heed to the complaints of their 
 neighbors, went on enlarging their borders and strengthening their out¬ 
 posts. Governor Kieft was alarmed and indignant at these aggressions, 
 and as a precautionary measure sent a party to rebuild Fort Nassau, on 
 the old site below Camden. The Swedes, regarding this fortress as a 
 menace to their colony, adopted active measures of defence. Ascending 
 the river to within six miles of the mouth of the Schuylkill, they landed 
 ob the island of Tinicum, and built an impregnable fort of hemlock 
 logs. Here, in 1643, Governor Printz established his residence. To 
 Pennsylvania, as well as to Delaware, Sweden contributed the earliest 
 colony. 
 
166 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In 1640, New Nether land became involved in a war with the 
 Indians of Long Island and New Jersey. The natives of the lower 
 Hudson were a weak and unwarlike people; under just treatment they 
 would have faithfully kept the peace. But dishonest traders had mad- 
 iened them with rum and then defrauded and abused them. Burning 
 with resentment and hate, the savages of the Jersey shore crossed over to 
 Staten Island, laid waste the farms and butchered the inhabitants. New 
 Amsterdam was for a while endangered, but was soon put in a state 
 of defence. A company of militia was organized and sent against the 
 Delawares of New Jersey, but nothing resulted from the expedition. A 
 large bounty was offered for every member of the tribe of the Raritans, 
 and many were hunted to death. On both sides the war degenerated 
 into treachery and murder. Through the mediation of Roger Williams, 
 the great peacemaker of Rhode Island, a truce was obtained, and imme¬ 
 diately broken. A chieftain’s son, who had been made drunk and robbed, 
 went to the nearest settlement and killed the first Hollander whom he 
 met. Governor Kieft demanded the criminal, but the sachems refused 
 to give him up. They offered to pay a heavy fine for the wrong done, 
 but Kieft would accept nothing less than the life of the murderer. 
 
 While the dispute was still unsettled, a party of the terrible Mo¬ 
 hawks came down the river to claim and enforce their supremacy over 
 the natives of the coast. The timid Algonquins in the neighborhood of 
 New Amsterdam cowered before the mighty warriors of the North, 
 huddled together on the bank of the Hudson, and begged assistance of 
 the Dutch. Here the vindictive Kieft saw an opportunity of wholesale 
 destruction. A company of soldiers set out secretly from Manhattan, 
 crossed the river and discovered the lair of the Indians. The place was 
 surrounded by night, and the first notice of danger given to the savages 
 was the roar of muskets. Nearly a hundred of the poor wretches were 
 killed before daydawn. Women who shrieked for pity were mangled to 
 death, and children were thrown into the river. 
 
 When it was known among the tribes that the Dutch, and not the 
 Mohawks, were the authors of this outrage, the war was renewed with 
 fury. The Indians were in a frenzy. Dividing into small war-parties, 
 they concealed themselves in the woods and swamps; then rose, without a 
 moment’s warning, upon defenceless farmhouses, burning and butchering 
 without mercy. At this time that noted woman Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
 was living with her son-in-law in the valley of the Housatonic. Her 
 house was surrounded and set on fire by the savages; every member of 
 the family except one child was cruelly murdered. Mrs. Hutchinson 
 herself was burned alive. 
 
NEW YORK.—ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 167 
 
 In 1643, Captain John Underhill, a fugitive from Massachusetts, 
 was appointed to the command of the Dutch forces. At the head of a 
 regiment raised by Governor Kieft he invaded New Jersey, and brought 
 the Delawares into subjection. A decisive battle was fought on Long 
 Island; and at Greenwich, in Western Connecticut, the power of the In-' 
 dians was finally broken. Again the ambassadors of the Iroquois came 
 forward with proposals for peace. Both parties were anxious to rest from 
 the ruin and devastation of war. On the 30th of August, 1645, a treaty 
 was concluded at Fort Amsterdam. 
 
 Nearly all of the bloodshed and sorrow of these five years of war 
 may be charged to Governor Kieft. He was a revengeful and cruel man, 
 whose idea of government was to destroy whatever opposed him. The 
 people had many times desired to make peace with the Indians, but the 
 project had always been defeated by the headstrong passions of the 
 governor. A popular party, headed by the able De Vries, at last grew 
 powerful enough to defy his authority. As soon as the war was ended, 
 petitions for his removal were circulated and signed by the people. Two 
 years after the treaty, the Dutch West India Company revoked his com¬ 
 mission and appointed Peter Stuyvesant to succeed him. In 1647, Kieft 
 embarked for Europe; but the heavy-laden merchantman in which he 
 sailed was dashed to pieces by a storm on the coast of Wales, and the 
 guilty governor of New Netherland found a grave in the sea. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 NEW YORK—ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 
 
 rriHE honest and soldierly Peter Stuyvesant was the last and 
 -L greatest of the governors of New Netherland. He entered upon his 
 duties on the 11th of May, 1647, and continued in office for more than 
 seventeen years. His first care was to conciliate the Indians. By the 
 wisdom arid liberality of his government the wayward red men were re¬ 
 claimed from hostility and hatred. So intimate and cordial became the 
 relations between the natives and the Dutch that they were suspected of 
 making common cause against the English; even Massachusetts was 
 alarmed lest such an alliance should be formed. But the policy of 
 Governor Stuyvesant was based on nobler principles. 
 
 Until now the West India Company had had exclusive control of 
 
168 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the commerce of New Netherland. In the first year of the new adminis¬ 
 tration this monopoly was abolished, and regular export duties were sub¬ 
 stituted. The benefit of the change was at once apparent in the improve¬ 
 ment of the Dutch province. In one of the letters written to Stuyvesant 
 by the secretary of the company, the remarkable prediction is made that 
 the commerce of New Amsterdam should cover every ocean and the ships 
 of all nations crowd into her harbor. But for many years the growth of 
 the city was slow. As late as the middle of the century, the better parts 
 of Manhattan Island were still divided among the farmers. Central Park 
 was a forest of oaks and chestnuts. 
 
 In 1650, a boundary-line was fixed between New England and New 
 Netherland. The Dutch were fearful lest the English should reach the 
 Hudson and cut otf the fur-trade between Fort Orange and New Amster¬ 
 dam. Governor Stuyvesant met the ambassadors of the Eastern colonies 
 at Hartford, and after much discussion an eastern limit was set to the 
 Dutch possessions. The line there established extended across Long 
 Island north and south, passing through Oyster Bay, and thence to Green¬ 
 wich, on the other side of the sound. From this point northward the 
 dividing-line was nearly identical with the present boundary of Connec¬ 
 ticut on the west. This treaty was ratified by the colonies, by the West 
 India Company and by the states-general of Holland; but the English 
 government treated the matter with indifference and contempt. 
 
 Stuyvesant had less to fear from the colony of New Sweden. The 
 people of New Netherland outnumbered the Swedes as ten to one, and 
 the Dutch claim to the country of the Delaware had never been re¬ 
 nounced. In 1651, an armament left New Amsterdam, entered the bay 
 and came to anchor at a point on the western shore five miles below the 
 mouth of the Brandywine. On the present site of New Castle, Fort Cas- 
 imir was built and garrisoned with Dutch soldiers. This act was 
 equivalent to a declaration of war. The Swedish settlement of Christiana 
 was almost in sight of the hostile fortress, and a conflict could hardly be 
 avoided. Rising, the governor of the Swedes, looked on quietly until 
 Fort Casimir was completed, then captured the place by stratagem, over¬ 
 powered the garrison and hoisted the flag of Sweden. 
 
 It was a short-lived triumph. The West India Company were 
 secretly pleased that the Swedes had committed an act of open violence. 
 Orders were at once issued to Stuyvesant to visit the Swedish colonists 
 with vengeance, and to compel their submission or drive them from the 
 Delaware. In September of 1655 the orders of the company were car¬ 
 ried out to the letter. The old governor put himself at the head of more 
 than six hundred troops—a number almost equal to the entire population 
 
NEW YORK. — ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 169 
 
 of New Sweden, and sailed to Delaware Bay. Resistance was hope¬ 
 less. The Dutch forces were landed at New Castle, and the Swe’des 
 gave way. Before the 25th of the month every fort belonging to the 
 colony had been forced to capitulate. Governor Rising was captured, 
 but was treated with great respect. Honorable terms were granted 
 to all, and in a few days the authority of New Netherland was estab¬ 
 lished throughout the country. Except a few turbulent spirits who 
 removed to Maryland and Virginia, submission was universal. After 
 an existence of less than eighteen years, the little State of New Swe¬ 
 den had ceased to be. The American possessions and territorial claims 
 of France, England, Holland, Sweden and Spain will be best under¬ 
 stood from the accompanying map, drawn for the year 1655. 
 
 Ho iv hardly can the nature of savages be restrained 1 While Gov¬ 
 ernor Stuyvesant was absent on his expedition against the Swedes, the 
 Algonquin tribes rose in rebellion. The poor creatures were going to 
 take New Amsterdam. In a fleet of sixty-four canoes they appeared be¬ 
 fore the town, yelling and discharging arrows. What could their puny 
 missiles do against the walls of a European fortress? After paddling 
 about until their rage, but not their hate, was spent, the savages went on 
 shore and began their old work of burning and murder. The return of 
 the Dutch forces from the Delaware induced the sachems to sue for peace, 
 which Stuyvesant granted on better terms than the Indians had deserved. 
 The captives were ransomed, and the treacherous tribes were allowed to 
 go with trifling punishments. 
 
 For eight years after the conquest of New Sweden the peace of New 
 Netherland was unbroken. In 1663 the natives of the county of Ulster, 
 on the Hudson, broke out in war. The town of Esopus, now Kingston, 
 was attacked and destroyed. Sixty-five of the inhabitants were either 
 tomahawked or carried into captivity. To punish this outrage a strong 
 force was sent from New Amsterdam. The Indians fled, hoping to find 
 refuge in the woods; but the Dutch soldiers pursued them to their vil¬ 
 lages, burned their wigwams and killed every warrior who could be over¬ 
 taken. As winter came on, the humbled tribe began to beg for mercy. 
 In December a truce was granted; and in May of the following year 
 a treaty of peace was concluded. 
 
 Governor Stuyvesant had great difficulty in defending his province 
 beyond the Delaware, The queen of Sweden and her ministers at Stock¬ 
 holm still looked fondly to their little American colony, and cherished 
 the hope of recovering the conquered territory. A more dangerous com¬ 
 petitor was found in Lord Baltimore, of Maryland, whose patent, given 
 under the great seal of England, covered all the territory between the 
 
170 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Chesapeake and Delaware Bay, as far north as the latitude of Phila¬ 
 delphia. Berkeley, of Virginia, also claimed New Sweden as a part of 
 his dominions. Connecticut pushed her settlements westward on Long 
 Island, and purchased all the remaining Indian claims between her 
 western frontier and the Hudson. Massachusetts boldly declared her in¬ 
 tention to extend her boundaries to Fort Orange. The indignant Stuy- 
 vesant asked the agents of Connecticut where the province of New 
 Netherland could shortly be found; and the agents coolly answered that 
 they did not know. 
 
 Discord at home added to the governor’s embarrassments. For 
 many years the Dutch had witnessed the growth and prosperity of the 
 English colonies. Boston had outgrown New Amsterdam. The schools 
 of Massachusetts and Connecticut flourished; the academy on Man¬ 
 hattan, after a sickly career of two years, was discontinued. In New 
 Netherland heavy taxes were levied for the support of the poor; New 
 England had no poor. Liberty and right were the subjects of debate in 
 every English village; to the Dutch farmers and traders such words had 
 little meaning. The people of New Netherland grew emulous of the 
 progress of their powerful neighbors, and attributed their own abasement 
 to the mismanagement and selfish greed of the West India Company. 
 Without actual disloyalty to Holland, the Dutch came to prefer the laws 
 and customs of England. Under these accumulating troubles the faithful 
 Stuyvesant was wellnigh overwhelmed. 
 
 Such was the condition of affairs at the beginning of 1664. Eng¬ 
 land and Holland were at peace. Neither nation had reason to appre¬ 
 hend an act of violence from the other. In all that followed, the arbi¬ 
 trary principles and unscrupulous disposition of the English king were 
 fully manifested. On the 12th of March in this year the duke of York 
 received at the hands of his brother, Charles II., two extensive patents 
 for American territory. The first grant included the district reaching 
 from the Kennebec to the St. Croix River, and the second embraced the 
 whole country between the Connecticut and the Delaware. Without re¬ 
 gard to the rights of Holland, in utter contempt of the West India Com¬ 
 pany, through whose exertions the valley of the Hudson had been peopled, 
 with no respect for the wishes of the Dutch, or even for the voice of his 
 own Parliament, the English monarch in one rash hour despoiled a sister 
 kingdom of a well-earned province. 
 
 The duke of York made haste to secure his territory. No time 
 must be left for the states-general to protest against the outrage. An 
 English squadron was immediately equipped, put under command of 
 Richard Nicolls and sent to America. In July the armament reached 
 
NEW YORK.—ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 
 
 Boston, and thence proceeded against New Amsterdam. On the 28th of 
 August, the fleet passed the Narrows, and anchored at Gravesend Bay. 
 The English camp was pitched at Brooklyn Ferry; and before the Dutch 
 had recovered from their surprise, the whole of Long Island was sub¬ 
 dued. An embassy came over from New Amsterdam. Governor Stuy- 
 vesant, ever true to his employers, demanded to know the meaning of all 
 this hostile array. To 
 receive the surrender 
 of New Nether land 
 was the quiet answer 
 of Nicolls. There 
 must be an immediate 
 acknowledgment of the 
 sovereignty of Eng¬ 
 land. Those who sub¬ 
 mitted should have the 
 rights of Englishmen; 
 those who ref u s e d 
 should hear the crash 
 of cannon-balls. The 
 Dutch council of New 
 Amsterdam was im¬ 
 mediately convened. 
 
 It was clear that the 
 burgomasters meant to 
 
 surrender. The stormy pkter stuyvesant. 
 
 old governor exhorted 
 
 them to rouse to action and fight; some one replied that the Dutch 
 West India Company was not worth fighting for. Burning with indig¬ 
 nation, Stuyvesant snatched up the written proposal of Nicolls and tore 
 it to tatters in the presence of his council. It was all in vain. The 
 brave old man was forced to sign the capitulation; and on the 8th of 
 September, 1664, New Netherland ceased to exist. The English flag 
 was hoisted over the fort and town, and the name of New York was 
 substituted for New Amsterdam. The surrender of Fort Orange, now 
 named Albany, followed on the 24th; and on the 1st of October the 
 Swedish and Dutch settlements on the Delaware capitulated. The con¬ 
 quest was complete. The supremacy of Great Britain in America was 
 finally established. From the north-east corner of Maine to the southern 
 limits of Georgia, every mile of the American coast was under the flag 
 of England. 
 
 IS 
 
172 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 % 
 
 R ICHARD NICOLLS, the first English governor of New York, 
 began his duties by settling the boundaries of his province. It was 
 d work full of trouble and vexation. As early as 1623 the whole of Long 
 Island had been granted to the earl of Stirling. Connecticut also claimed 
 and occupied all that part of the island included in the present county of 
 Suffolk. Against both of these claimants the patent of the duke of York 
 was now to be enforced by his deputy Nicolls. The claim of Stirling was 
 fairly purchased by the governor, but the pretensions of Connecticut were 
 arbitrarily set aside. This action was the source of so much discontent 
 that the duke was constrained to compensate Connecticut by making a 
 favorable change in her south-west boundary-line. 
 
 Two months before the conquest of New Netherland by the Eng¬ 
 lish, the irregular territory between the Hudson and the Delaware, as far 
 north as a point on the latter river in the latitude of forty-one degrees 
 and forty minutes, w T as granted to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. 
 This district, corresponding, except on the northern boundary, with the 
 present State of New Jersey, w T as now wrested from the jurisdiction of 
 New York, and a separate government established by the proprietors. 
 Die country below the Delaware, until recently called New r Sweden, but 
 10 w named The Territories, was consolidated with New York and 
 :-uled by deputies appointed by the governors of that province. Finally, 
 the new name conferred by Nicolls on his capital was extended to all 
 the country formerly called New Netherland. 
 
 At the first the people were deluded with many promises of civil 
 liberty. To secure this, the Dutch, against the passionate appeals of the 
 patriotic Stuyvesant, had voluntarily surrendered themselves to the Eng¬ 
 lish government. But it was a poor sort of civil liberty that any province 
 was likely to obtain from one of the Stuart kings of England. The 
 promised right of representation in a general assembly of the people was 
 evaded and withheld. To this was added a greater grief in the annulling 
 of the old titles by which, for half a century, the Dutch farmers had held 
 their lands. The people were obliged to accept new deeds at the hands 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 173 
 
 of the English governor, and to pay him therefor such sums as yielded an 
 immense revenue. The evil done to the province, however, was less than 
 might have been ‘expected from so arbitrary and despotic a government. 
 
 In 1667, Nicolls was superseded by Lovelace. With less ability 
 and generosity than his predecessor, he proved a greater tyrant. The bad 
 principles of the system established by the duke of York were now fully 
 developed. The people became dissatisfied and gloomy. Protests against 
 the government and petitions for redress were constantly presented, and 
 constantly rejected with contempt. The discontent was universal. The 
 towns of Southold, Southampton and Easthampton resisted the tax- 
 gatherers. The people of Huntington voted that they were robbed of the 
 privileges of Englishmen. The villagers of Jamaica, Flushing and Hemp¬ 
 stead passed a resolution that the governor’s decree of taxation was contrary 
 to the laws of the English nation. The only attention which Lovelace 
 and his council paid to these resolutions was to declare them scandalous, 
 illegal and seditious, and to order them to be publicly burnt before the 
 town-house of New York. When the Swedes, naturally a quiet and 
 submissive people, resisted the exactions of the government, they were 
 visited with additional severity. “ If there is any more murmuring against 
 the taxes, make them so heavy that the people can do nothing but think 
 how to pay them,” said Lovelace in his instructions to his deputy. 
 
 The Dutch and the English colonists were always friends. Not 
 once in the whole history of the country did they lift the sword against 
 each other. Even while England and Holland were at war, as they were 
 in 1652-54, the American subjects of the two nations remained at peace. 
 Another war followed that act of violence bv which, in 1664, the duke 
 of York possessed himself of New Netherland; but the conflict did not 
 extend to America. A third time, in 1672, Charles II. was induced by 
 the king of France to begin a contest with the Dutch government. This 
 time, indeed, the struggle extended to the colonies, and New York was 
 revolutionized, but not by the action of her own people. In 1673 a small 
 squadron was fitted out by Holland and placed under connnaud of the 
 gallant Captain Evertsen. The fleet sailed for America, an4 arrived be¬ 
 fore Manhattan on the 30th of July. The governor of New York was 
 absent, and Manning, the deputy-governor, was a coward. The defences 
 of the city were dilapidated, and the people refused to strengthen them. 
 Within four hours after the arrival of the squadron the fort was sur¬ 
 rendered. The city capitulated, and the whole province yielded without 
 a struggle. New Jersey and Delaware sent in their submission; the 
 name of New Netherland was revived ; and the authority of Holland was 
 restored from Connecticut to Maryland. 
 
174 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The reconquest of New York by the Dutch was only a brief mili¬ 
 tary occupation of the country. The civil authority of Holland was never 
 reestablished. In 1674, Charles II. was obliged by his Parliament to 
 conclude a treaty of peace. There was the usual clause requiring the 
 restoration of all conquests made during the war. New York reverted 
 to the English government, and the rights of the duke were again recog¬ 
 nized in the province. To make his authority doubly secure for the 
 future, he obtained from his brother, the king, a new patent confirming 
 the provisions of the former charter. The man who now received the 
 appointment of deputy-governor of New York was none other than Sir 
 Edmund Andros. On the last day of October the Dutch forces were 
 finally withdrawn, and Andros assumed the government. 
 
 It was a sad sort of government for the people. The worst prac¬ 
 tices of Lovelace’s administration were revived. The principles of arbi¬ 
 trary rule were openly avowed. Taxes were levied without authority of 
 law, and the appeals and protests of the people were treated with derision. 
 The clamor for a popular legislative assembly had become so great that 
 Andros was on the point of yielding. He even wrote a letter to the duke 
 of York advising that thick-headed prince to grant the people the right 
 of electing a colonial legislature. The duke replied that popular assem¬ 
 blies were seditious and dangerous; that they only fostered discontent and 
 disturbed the peace of the government; and finally, that he did not see 
 any use for them. To the people of New York the civil liberty of the 
 New England colonies seemed farther off than ever. 
 
 By the terms of his grant the duke of York claimed jurisdiction 
 over all the territory between the Connecticut River and Maryland. To 
 assert and maintain this claim of his master was a part of the deputy- 
 governor’s business in America. The first effort to extend the duke’s 
 territorial rights to the limits of his charter was made in July of 1675. 
 With some armed sloops and a company of soldiers, Andros proceeded to 
 the mouth of the Connecticut in the hope of establishing his jurisdiction. 
 The general assembly of the colony had heard of his coming, and had 
 sent word to Captain Bull, who commanded the fort at Saybrook, to re¬ 
 sist Andros in the name of the king. When the latter came in sight and 
 hoisted the flag of England, the same colors were raised within the fortress. 
 The royal governor was permitted to land; but when he began to read 
 his commission, he was ordered in the king’s name to desist. Overawed 
 by the threatening looks of the Saybrook militia, Andros retired to his 
 boats and set sail for Long Island. 
 
 Notwithstanding the grant of New Jersey to Carteret and Berkeley, 
 the attempt was now made to extend the jurisdiction of New York over 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 175 
 
 the lower province. Andros issued a decree that ships sailing to and 
 from the ports of New Jersey should pay a duty at the custom-house 
 of New York. This tyrannical action was openly resisted. Andros 
 attempted to frighten the assembly of New Jersey into submission, and 
 proceeded so far as to arrest Philip Carteret, the deputy-governor. But 
 it was all of no use. The representatives of the people declared them 
 selves to be under the protection of the Great Charter, which not even the 
 duke of York, or his brother the king, could alter or annul. In August 
 of 1682 the territories beyond the Delaware were granted by the duke t- 
 William Penn. This little district, first settled by the Swedes, afterward 
 conquered by the Dutch, then transferred to England on the conquest of 
 New Netherland, was now finally separated from the jurisdiction of New 
 York and joined to Pennsylvania. The governors of the latter province 
 continued to exercise authority over the three counties on the Delaware 
 until the American Revolution. 
 
 At the close of Andros’s administration, in 1683, Thomas Dongan, 
 a Catholic, became governor of New York. For thirty years the people 
 had been clamoring for a general assembly. Just before Andros left the 
 province, the demand became more vehement than ever. The retiring 
 governor, himself of a despotic disposition, counseled the duke to concede 
 the right of representation to the people. At last James yielded, not so 
 much with the view of extending popular rights, as with the hope of in¬ 
 creasing his revenues from the improved condition of his province. 
 Dongan, the new governor, came with full instructions to call an assem¬ 
 bly of all the freeholders of New York, by whom certain persons of their 
 own number should be elected to take part in the government. Seventy 
 years had passed since the settlement of Manhattan Island; and now for 
 the first time the people were permitted to choose their own rulers and to 
 frame their own laws. 
 
 The first act of the new assembly was to declare that the supreme 
 legislative power of the province resided in the governor, the council and 
 the people. All freeholders were granted the right of suffrage; trial 
 by jury was established; taxes should no more be levied except by con¬ 
 sent of the assembly; soldiers should not be quartered on the people; 
 martial law should not exist; no person accepting the general doctrines 
 of religion should be in any wise distressed or persecuted. All the rights? 
 and privileges of Massachusetts and Virginia were carefully written by 
 the zealous law-makers of New York in their first charter of liberties. 
 
 In July of 1684 an important treaty was conclflded at Albany. 
 The governors of New York and Virginia were met in convention by the 
 sachems of the Iroquois, and the terms of .a lasting peace were settled 
 
176 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A long war ensued between the Five Nations and the French. The 
 Jesuits of Canada employed every artifice and intrigue to induce the 
 Indians to break their treaty with the English, but all to no purpose; 
 the alliance was faithfully observed. In 1684, and again in 1687, the 
 French invaded the territory of the Iroquois; but the mighty Mohawks 
 and Oneidas drove back their foes with loss and disaster. By the barrier 
 of the friendly Five Nations on the north, the English and Dutch colo¬ 
 nies were screened from danger. 
 
 In 1685 the duke of York became king of England. It was soon 
 found that even the monarch of a great nation could violate his pledges. 
 King James became the open antagonist of the government which had 
 been established under his own directions. The popular legislature of 
 New York was abrogated. An odious tax was levied by an arbitrary 
 decree. Printing-presses were forbidden in the province. All the old 
 abuses were revived and made a public boast. 
 
 In December of 1686, Edmund Andros became governor of all 
 New England. It was a part of his plan to extend his dominion over 
 New York and New Jersey. To the former province, Francis Nicholson, 
 the lieutenant-general of Andros, w r as sent as deputy. Dongan was super¬ 
 seded, and until the English Revolution of 1688, New York was ruled 
 as a dependency of New England. When the news of that event and of 
 the accession of William of Orange reached the province, there w r as a 
 general tumult of rejoicing. The people rose in rebellion against the . 
 government of Nicholson, who was glad enough to escape from New 
 York and return to England. 
 
 The leader of the insurrection was Jacob Leisler, a captain of the 
 militia. A committee of ten took upon themselves the task of reorganizing 
 the government. Leisler was commissioned to take possession of the fort 
 of New York. Most of the troops in the city, together with five hundred 
 volunteers, proceeded against the fort, which was surrendered without a 
 struggle. The insurgents published a declaration in which they avowed 
 their loyalty to the prince of Orange, their countryman, and expressed 
 their determination to yield immediate obedience to his authority. A 
 provisional government was organized, with Leisler at the head. The 
 provincial councilors, who were friends and adherents of the deposed 
 Nicholson, left the city and repaired to Albany. Here the party who 
 were opposed to the usurpation of Leisler proceeded to organize a second 
 provisional government. Both factions were careful to exercise authority 
 in the name of William and Mary, the new sovereigns of England. 
 
 In September of 1689, Milborne, the son-in-law of Leisler, was 
 sent to Albany to demand the surrender of the town and fort. Court- 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 177 
 
 land and Bayard, who were the leaders of the northern faction, opposed 
 the demand with so much vigor that Milborne was obliged to retire with¬ 
 out accomplishing his object. Such was the condition of affairs at the 
 beginning of King William’s War. How the village of Schenectady was 
 destroyed by the French and Indians, and how an unsuccessful expedition 
 by land and water was planned against Quebec and Montreal, has been 
 narrated in the history of Massachusetts. Such was the dispiriting effect 
 of these disasters upon the people of Albany and the north that a second 
 effort made by Milborne against the government of the opposing faction 
 was successful; and in the spring of 1690 the authority of Leisler as tem¬ 
 porary governor of New York was recognized throughout the province. 
 The summer was spent in fruitless preparations to invade and conquer 
 Canada. The general assembly was convened at the capital; but little 
 was accomplished except a formal recognition of the insurrectionary 
 government of Leisler. 
 
 In January of 1691, Richard Ingoldsby arrived at New York. 
 He bore a commission as captain, and brought the intelligence that Colo¬ 
 nel Sloughter had been appointed royal governor of the province. Leisler 
 received Ingoldsby with courtesy, and offered him quarters in the city; 
 but the latter, without authority from either the king or the governor, 
 haughtily demanded the surrender of His Majesty’s fort. Leisler refused 
 to yield, but expressed his willingness to submit to any one who bore 
 a commission from King William or Colonel Sloughter. On the 19th 
 of March the governor himself arrived; and Leisler on the same day 
 despatched messengers, tendering his service and submission. The mes¬ 
 sengers were arrested, and Ingoldsby, the enemy and rival of Leisler, w r as 
 sent with verbal orders for the surrender of the fort. Leisler foresaw his 
 doom, and hesitated. He wrote a letter to Sloughter, expressing a desire 
 to make a personal surrender of the post to the governor. The letter was 
 unanswered; Ingoldsby pressed his demand; Leisler wavered, capitu¬ 
 lated, and with Milborne was seized and hurried to prison. 
 
 As soon as the royal government was organized the two prisoners 
 were brought to trial. The charge was rebellion and treason. Dudley, 
 the chief-justice of New England, rendered a decision that Leisler had 
 been a usurper. The prisoners refused to plead, were convicted and sen¬ 
 tenced to death. Sloughter, however, determined to know the pleasure 
 of the king before putting the sentence into execution. But the royalist 
 assembly of New York had already come together, and the members were 
 resolved that the prisoners should be hurried to their death. The governor 
 was invited to a banquet; and when heated with strong drink, the death- 
 
 warrant was thrust before him for his signature. He succeeded in affix- 
 12 
 
178 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing his name to the fatal parchment; and almost before the fume3 of his 
 drunken revel had passed away, his victims had met their fate. On the 
 16th of May, Leisler and Milborne were brought from prison, led through 
 a drenching rain to the scatfold and hanged. Within less than a year 
 afterward, their estates, which had been confiscated, were restored to their 
 heirs; and in 1695 the attainder of the families was removed. 
 
 The same summer that witnessed the execution of Leisler and 
 Milborne was noted for the renewal of the treaty with the Iroquois. At 
 Albany, Governor Sloughter met the sachems of the Five Nations, and 
 the former terms of fidelity and friendship were reaffirmed. In the fol¬ 
 lowing year the valiant Major Schuyler, at the head of the New York 
 militia, joined a war-party of the Iroquois in a successful expedition 
 against the French settlements beyond Lake Champlain. Meanwhile, 
 the assembly of the province had been in session at the capital. Although 
 the representatives were royalists, a resolution was passed against arbitrary 
 taxation, and another which declared the people to be a part of the govern¬ 
 ing power of the colony. It was not long until one of the governors had 
 occasion to say that the people of New York were growing altogether too 
 big with the privileges of Englishmen. 
 
 Soon after his return from Albany, Sloughter’s career was cut 
 short by death. He was succeeded in the office of governor by Benjamin 
 Fletcher, a man of bad passions and poor abilities. The new executive 
 arrived in September of 1692. One of the first measures of his adminis¬ 
 tration was to renew the recent treaty with the Iroquois. It was at this 
 time the avowed purpose of the English monarch to place under a com¬ 
 mon government all the territory between the Connecticut River and 
 Delaware Bay. To further this project, Fletcher was armed with an 
 ample and comprehensive commission. He was made governor of New 
 York, and commander-in-chief not only of the troops of his own province, 
 but also of the militia of Connecticut and New Jersey. In the latter 
 province he met with little opposition; but the Puritans of Hartford re¬ 
 sisted so stubbornly that the alarmed and disgusted governor was glad to 
 return to his own capital. 
 
 The next effort of the administration was to establish the Episcopal 
 Church in New York. The Dutch and the English colonists of the 
 province were still distinct in nationality; the former, though Calvinists, 
 were not unfriendly to the Episcopal service which the Puritans so 
 heartily despised. In a religious controversy between Fletcher’s council 
 and the English, the Dutch, not being partisans of either, looked on with 
 comparative indifference. But when the governor was on the point of 
 succeeding with his measures, the general assembly interposed, passed a 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 179 
 
 decree of toleration, and brought the pretentious Church to a level with 
 the rest. Fletcher gave vent to his indignation by calling his legislators 
 a set of unmannerly and insubordinate boors. 
 
 In 1696 the territory of New York was invaded by the French 
 under Frontenac, governor of Canada. The faithful Iroquois made com¬ 
 mon cause with the colonial forces, and the formidable expedition of the 
 French was turned into confusion. Before the loss could be repaired 
 and a second invasion undertaken, King William’s War was ended by the 
 treaty of Ryswick. In the following year, the earl of Bellomont, an 
 Irish nobleman of excellent character and popular sympathies, succeeded 
 Fletcher in the government of New York. His administration of less 
 than four years was the happiest era in the history of the colony. His 
 authority, like that of his predecessor, extended over a part of New Eng¬ 
 land. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were under his jurisdiction, 
 but Connecticut and Rhode Island remained independent. To this period 
 belong the exploits of the famous pirate, Captain William Kidd. 
 
 For centuries piracy had been the common vice of the high seas 
 The nations were just now beginning to take active measures for the sup¬ 
 pression of the atrocious crime. The honest and humane Bellomont was 
 one who was anxious to see the end of piratical violence. His commission 
 contained a clause which authorized the arming of a vessel to range the 
 Ocean in pursuit of pirates. The ship was to bear the English flag, and 
 was also commissioned as a privateer to prey upon the commerce of the 
 enemies of England. The vessel was owned by a company of distin¬ 
 guished and honorable persons; Governor Bellomont himself was one of 
 the proprietors; and William Kidd received from the English admiralty 
 a commission as captain. The ship sailed from England before Bello- 
 mont’s departure for New York. Hardly had the earl reached his 
 province when the news came that Kidd himself had turned pirate and 
 become the terror of the seas. For two years he continued his infamous 
 career, then appeared publicly in the streets of Boston, was seized, sent 
 to England, tried, convicted and hanged. What disposition was made 
 of the enormous treasures which the pirate-ship had gathered on the ocean 
 has never been ascertained. It has been thought that the vast hoard of 
 ill-gotten wealth was buried in the sands of Long Island. Governor 
 Bellomont was charged with having shared the booty, but an in¬ 
 vestigation before the House of Commons showed the accusation to be 
 groundless. 
 
 In striking contrast with the virtues and wisdom of Bellomont 
 were the vices and folly of Lord Cornbury, who succeeded him. He 
 arrived at New York in the beginning of May, 1702. A month 
 
180 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 previously the proprietors of New Jersey had surrendered their rights 
 in the province to the English Crown. All obstacles being thus removed, 
 the two colonies were formally united in one government under the 
 authority of Cornbury. For a period of thirty-six years the territories, 
 though with separate assemblies, continued under the jurisdiction of a 
 single executive. 
 
 One of Cornbury’s first acts was to forge a clause in his own com¬ 
 mission. Desiring to foster the Established Church, and finding nothing 
 to that effect in his instructions, he made instructions for himself. At 
 first the people received him with great favor. The assembly voted two 
 thousand pounds sterling to compensate him for the expenses of his 
 voyage. In order to improve and fortify the Narrows, an additional sum 
 of fifteen hundred pounds was granted. Th§ money was taken out of the 
 treasury, but no improvement was visible at the Narrows. The repre¬ 
 sentatives modestly inquired what had become of their revenues. Lord 
 Cornbury replied that the assembly of New York had no right to ask 
 questions until the queen should give them permission. The old and 
 oft-repeated conflict between personal despotism and popular liberty broke 
 out anew. The people of the province were still divided on the subject 
 of Leisler’s insurrection. Cornbury became a violent partisan, favoring 
 the enemies and persecuting the friends of that unfortunate leader; and so 
 from year to year matters grew constantly worse, until between the gov¬ 
 ernor and his people there existed no relation but that of mutual hatred. 
 
 In 1708 the civil dissensions of the province reached a climax. 
 Each succeeding assembly resisted more stubbornly the measures of the 
 governor. Time and again the people petitioned for his removal. The 
 councilors selected their own treasurer, refused to vote appropriations, 
 and curtailed Cornbury’s revenues until he was impoverished and ruined. 
 Then came Lord Lovelace with a commission from Queen Anne, and the 
 passionate, wretched governor was unceremoniously turned out of office. 
 Left to the mercy of his injured subjects, they arrested him for debt and 
 threw him into prison, where he lay until, by his father’s death, he be¬ 
 came a peer of England and could be no longer held in confinement. 
 
 During the progress of Queen Anne’s War the troops of New York 
 cooperated with the army and navy of New England. Eighteen hun¬ 
 dred volunteers from the Hudson and the Delaware composed the land 
 forces in the unsuccessful expedition against Montreal in the winter of 
 1709-10. The provincial army proceeded as far as South River, east 
 of Lake George. Here information was received that the English fleet 
 which was expected to cooperate in the reduction of Quebec had been 
 sent to Portugal; the armament of New England was insufficient of 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 181 
 
 itself to attempt the conquest of the Canadian stronghold; and the troops 
 of New York and New Jersey were obliged to retreat. Again, in 1711, 
 when the incompetent Sir Hovenden Walker was pretending to conduct 
 his fleet up the St. Lawrence, and was in reality only anxious to get 
 away, the army which was to invade Canada by land was furnished by 
 New York. A second time the provincial forces reached Lake George; 
 but the dispiriting news of the disaster to Walker’s fleet destroyed all 
 hope of success, and the discouraged soldiers returned to their homes. 
 
 Failure and disgrace were not the only distressing circumstances 
 of these campaigns; a heavy debt remained to overshadow the prosperity 
 of New York and to consume her revenues. For many years the re¬ 
 sources of the province were exhausted in meeting the extraordinary 
 expenses of Queen Anne’s war. In 1713 the treaty of Utrecht put an 
 end to the conflict, and peace returned to the American colonies. In this 
 year the Tuscaroras of Carolina—a nation of the same race with the Iro¬ 
 quois and Hurons of the North—were defeated and driven from their 
 homes by the Southern colonists. The haughty tribe marched north¬ 
 ward, crossed the middle colonies and joined their warlike kinsmen on 
 the St. Lawrence, making the sixth nation in the Iroquois confederacy. 
 Nine years later a great council was held at Albany. There the grand 
 sachems of the Six Nations were met by the governors of New York, 
 Pennsylvania and Virginia. An important commercial treaty was 
 formed, by which the extensive and profitable fur-trade of the Indians, 
 which, until now, had been engrossed by the French, was diverted to the 
 English. In order to secure the full benefits of this arrangement, Governor 
 Burnett of New York hastened to establish a trading-post at Oswego, on 
 the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Five years later a substantial fort 
 was built at the same place and furnished with an English garrison. As 
 late as the middle of the century, Oswego continued to be the only forti¬ 
 fied outpost of the English in the entire country drained by the St. Law¬ 
 rence and its tributaries. The French, meanwhile, had built a strong fort 
 at Niagara, and another at Crown Point, on the western shore of Lake 
 Champlain. The struggle for colonial supremacy between the two nations 
 was already beginning. 
 
 The administration of Governor Cosby, who succeeded Burnett in 
 1732, was a stormy epoch in the history of the colony. The people were 
 in a constant struggle with the royal governors. At this time the contest 
 took the form of a dispute about the freedom of the press. The liberal 
 or democratic party of the province held that a public journal might criti¬ 
 cise the acts of the administration and publish views distasteful to the 
 government. The aristocratic party opposed such liberty as a dangerous 
 
182 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 license, which, if permitted, would soon sap the foundations of all au¬ 
 thority. Zenger, an editor of one of the liberal newspapers, published 
 hostile criticisms on the policy of the governor, was seized and put in 
 prison. Great excitement ensued. The people were clamorous for their 
 champion. Andrew Hamilton, a noted lawyer of Philadelphia, went to 
 New York to defend Zenger, who was brought to trial in July of 1735. 
 The charge was libel against the government; the cause was ably argued, 
 and the jury made haste to bring in a verdict of acquittal. The aldermen 
 of the city of New York, in order to testify their appreciation of Hamil¬ 
 ton’s services in the cause of liberty, made him a present of an elegant 
 gold box, and the people were wild with enthusiasm over their victory. 
 
 New York, like Massachusetts, was once visited with a fatal delu¬ 
 sion. In the year 1741 occurred what is known as the Negro Plot. 
 Slavery was permitted in the province, and negroes constituted a large 
 fraction of the population. Several destructive fires had occurred, and it 
 was believed that they had been kindled by incendiaries. The slaves 
 were naturally distrusted; now they became feared and hated. Some 
 degraded women came forward and gave information that the negroes 
 had made a plot to burn the city, kill all who opposed them, and set up 
 one of their own number as governor. The whole story was the essence 
 of absurdity; but the people were alarmed, and were ready to believe 
 anything. The reward of freedom was offered to any slave who would 
 reveal the plot. Many witnesses rushed forward with foolish and contra¬ 
 dictory stories; the jails were filled with the accused; and more than 
 thirty of the miserable creatures, with hardly the form of a trial, were 
 convicted and then hanged or burned to death. Others were transported 
 and sold as slaves in foreign lands. As soon as the supposed peril had 
 passed and the excited people regained their senses, it came to be doubted 
 whether the whole shocking affair had not been the result of terror and 
 fanaticism. The verdict of after times has been that there was no plot 
 at all. 
 
 During the progress of King George’s War the territory of New 
 York was several times invaded by the French and Indians. But the 
 invasions were feeble and easily repelled. Except the abandonment of a 
 few villages in the northern part of the State and the destruction of a 
 small amount of exposed property, little harm was done to the province. 
 The alliance of the fierce Mohawks with the English always made the in¬ 
 vasion of New York by the French an exploit of more danger than profit. 
 The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded in 1748, again brought peace 
 and prosperity to the people. 
 
 Notwithstanding the central position of New York, her growth 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 183 
 
 was slow, her development unsteady, and her prospects darkened with 
 much adversity. In population she stood, at the outbreak of the 
 French and Indian war, but sixth in a list of the colonies. Massa¬ 
 chusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia had all 
 outstripped her in the race. But the elements of future renown were 
 nowhere else more abundantly bestowed. Here at the foot of her 
 principal city lay the most convenient and commodious harbor on the 
 Atlantic. A magnificent river—draining the country as far as where, 
 at Onondaga, burned the great council-fire of the Six Nations—rolled 
 down through fruitful valleys to join the waters of the bay. Best of 
 all, the people who inhabited the noble province were ever ready to 
 resist oppression, bold to defend their rights, and zealous in the cause 
 of freedom. 
 
 Such is the history of the little colony planted on Manhattan 
 Island. A hundred and thirty years have passed since the first feeble 
 settlements were made; now the great valley of the Hudson is filled with 
 beautiful farms and teeming villages. The Walloons of Flanders and 
 the Puritans of New England have blended into a common people. Dis¬ 
 cord and contention, though bitter while they lasted, have borne only the 
 peaceful fruit of colonial liberty. There are other and greater struggles 
 through which New York must pass, other burdens to be borne, other 
 calamities to be endured, other fires in which her sons must be tried and 
 purified, before they gain their freedom. But the oldest and greatest of 
 the middle colonies has entered upon a glorious career, and the ample 
 foundations of an Empike State are securely laid. 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY— Continued. 
 
 MINOR EASTERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 T HE history of Connecticut begins with the year 1630. The first 
 grant of the territory was made by the council of Plymouth to the 
 earl of Warwick; and in March of 1631 the claim was transferred by 
 him to Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, John Hampden and others. 
 Before a colony could be planted by the proprietors, the Dutch of New 
 Nether land reached the Connecticut River and built at Hartford their 
 fort, called the House of Good Hope. The people of New Plymouth 
 immediately organized and sent out a force to counteract this movement 
 of their rivals. The territorial claim of the Puritans extended not only 
 over Connecticut, but over New Netherland itself and onward to the 
 west. Should the intruding Dutch colonists of Manhattan be allowed 
 to move eastward and take possession of the finest valley in New Eng¬ 
 land ? Certainly not. 
 
 The English expedition reached the mouth of the Connecticut and 
 sailed up the river. When the little squadron came opposite the House 
 of Good Hope, the commander of the garrison ordered Captain Holmes, 
 the English officer, to strike his colors; but the order was treated 
 with derision. The Dutch threatened to tire in case the fleet should attempt 
 to pass; but the English defiantly hoisted sails and proceeded up the river. 
 The puny cannons of the House of Good Hope remained cold and silent. 
 At a point just below the mouth of the Farmington, seven miles above 
 Hartford, the Puritans lauded and built the block-house of Windsor. 
 
 In October of 1635 a colony of sixty persons left Boston, traversed 
 the forests of Central Massachusetts, and settled at Hartford, Windsor 
 and Wethersfield. Earlier in the same year the younger Winthrop, a 
 
 man who in all the virtues of a noble life was a worthy rival of his 
 (184) 
 
ROGER WILLIAMS OPPOSING THE PEQUOT EMISSARIES, 
 
CONNECTICUT. 
 
 185 
 
 father, the governor of Massachusetts, arrived in New England. He 
 bore a commission from the proprietors of the Western colony to build a 
 fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River, and to prevent the further 
 encroachments of the Dutch. The fortress was hastily completed and 
 the guns mounted just in time to prevent the entrance of a Dutch 
 trading-vessel which appeared at the mouth of the river. Such was the 
 founding of Saybrook, so named in honor of the proprietors, Lords Say- 
 and-Seal and Brooke. Thus was the most important river of New Eng¬ 
 land brought under the dominion of the Puritans; the solitary Dutch 
 settlement at Hartford was cut off from succor and left to dwindle into 
 insignificance. 
 
 To the early annals of Connecticut belongs the sad story of the 
 Pequod War. The country west of the Thames was more thickly 
 peopled with savages than any other portion of New England. The 
 haughty and warlike Pequods were alone able to muster seven hundred 
 warriors. The whole effective force of the English colonists did not 
 amount to two hundred men. But the superior numbers of the cunning 
 and revengeful savages were more than balanced by the unflinching 
 courage and destructive weapons of the English. 
 
 The first act of violence was committed in the year 1633. The 
 crew of a small trading-vessel were ambushed and murdered on the banks 
 of the Connecticut. An Indian embassy went to Boston to apologize for 
 the crime; the nation was forgiven and received in friendship. A treaty 
 was patched up, the Pequods acknowledging the supremacy of the Eng¬ 
 lish and promising to become civilized. The Narragansetts, the heredi¬ 
 tary enemies of the Pequods, had already yielded to the authority of 
 Massachusetts and promised obedience to her laws. A reconciliation was 
 thus effected between the two hostile races of savages. But as soon as the 
 Pequods were freed from their old fear of the Narragansetts, they began 
 to violate their recent treaty with the English. Oldham, the worthy 
 captain of a trading-vessel, was murdered near Block Island. A com¬ 
 pany of militia pursued the perpetrators of the outrage and gave them 
 a bloody punishment. All the slumbering hatred and suppressed rage 
 of the nation burst forth, and the war began in earnest. 
 
 In this juncture of affairs the Pequods attempted a piece of danger¬ 
 ous diplomacy. A persistent effort was made to induce the Narragansetts 
 and the Mohegans to join in a war of extermination against the English; 
 and the plot was wellnigh successful. But the heroic Roger Williams, 
 faithful in his misfortunes, sent a letter to Sir Henry Vane, governor of 
 Massachusetts, warned him of the impending danger, and volunteered his 
 services to defeat the conspiracy. The governor replied, urging Williams 
 U 
 
186 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to use his utmost endeavors to thwart the threatened alliance. Embark¬ 
 ing alone in a frail canoe, the exile left Providence, which he had founded 
 only a month before, and drifted out into Narragansett Bay. Every mo¬ 
 ment it seemed that the poor little boat with its lonely passenger would be 
 swallowed up; but his courage and skill as an oarsman at last brought 
 him to the shore in safety. Proceeding at once to the house of Canonicus, 
 kinc; of the Narragansetts, he found the painted and bloody ambassadors 
 of the Pequods already there. For three days and nights, at the deadly 
 peril of his life, he pleaded with Canonicus and Miantonomoh to reject 
 * the proposals of the hostile tribe, and to stand fast in their allegiance to 
 the English. His noble efforts were successful; the wavering Narra- 
 gansetts voted to remain at peace, and the disappointed Pequod chiefs 
 were sent away. 
 
 The Mohegans also rejected the proposed alliance. Uncas, the 
 sachem of that nation, not only remained faithful to the whites, but fur¬ 
 nished a party of warriors to aid them against the Pequods. In the 
 meantime, repeated acts of violence had roused the colony to vengeance. 
 During the winter of 1636-37 many murders were committed in the 
 neighborhood of Saybrook. In the following April a massacre occurred 
 at Wethersfield, in which nine persons were butchered. On the 1st day 
 of May the three towns of Connecticut declared war. Sixty gallant volun¬ 
 teers—one-third of the whole effective force of the colony—were put under 
 command of Captain John Mason of Hartford. Seventy Mohegans joined 
 the expedition ; and the thoughtful Sir Henry Vane sent Captain Under¬ 
 hill with twenty soldiers from Boston. 
 
 The descent from Hartford to Saybrook occupied one day. On the 
 20th of the month the expedition, sailing eastward, passed the mouth of 
 the Thames; here was the principal seat of the Pequod nation. When 
 the savages saw the squadron go by without attempting to land, they set 
 up shouts of exultation, and persuaded themselves that the English were 
 afraid to hazard battle. But the poor natives had sadly mistaken the 
 men with whom they had to deal. The fleet proceeded quietly into 
 Narragansett Bay and anchored in the harbor of Wickford. Here the 
 troops landed and began their march into the country of the Pequods. 
 After one day’s advance, Mason reached the cabin of Canonicus and 
 Miantonomoh, sachems of the Narragansetts. Them he attempted to 
 persuade to join him against the common enemy; but the wary chieftains, 
 knowing the prowess of the Pequods, and fearing that the English might 
 be defeated, decided to remain neutral. 
 
 On the evening of the 25th of May the troops of Connecticut came 
 within hearing of the Pequod fort. The unsuspecting warriors spent 
 
CONNECTICUT. 
 
 187 
 
 SCENE OF THE PEQUOD VAR 
 
 their last night on earth in uproar and jubilee. At two o’clock in the 
 morning the English soldiers rose suddenly from their places of conceal¬ 
 ment and rushed forward to the fort. A dog ran howling among the 
 wigwams, and the warriors sprang t.o 
 arms, only to receive a deadly volley 
 from the English muskets. The fear¬ 
 less assailants leaped over the puny 
 palisades and began the work of 
 death; but the savages rose on every 
 side in such numbers that Mason’s 
 men were about to be overwhelmed. 
 
 “ Burn them ! burn them !” shouted 
 the dauntless captain, seizing a flaming 
 mat and running to the windward of 
 the cabins. “ Burn them!” resounded on every side; and in a few 
 minutes the dry wigwams were one sheet of crackling flame. The Eng¬ 
 lish and Mohegans hastily withdrew to the ramparts. The yelling savages 
 found themselves begirt with fire. They ran round and round like wild 
 beasts in a burning circus. If one of the wretched creatures burst through 
 the flames, it was only to meet certain death from a broadsword or a 
 musket-ball. The destruction was complete and awful. Only seven 
 warriors escaped; seven others were made prisoners. Six hundred men. 
 women and children perished, nearly all of them being roasted to death 
 in a hideous heap. Before the rising of the sun the pride and glory of 
 the Pequods had passed away for ever. Sassacus, the grand sachem of 
 the tribe, escaped into the forest, fled for protection to the Mohawks, and 
 was murdered. Two of the English soldiers were killed and twenty 
 ethers wounded in the battle. 
 
 In the early morning three hundred Pequods, the remnant of the 
 nation, approached from a second fort in the neighborhood. They had 
 heard the tumult of battle, and supposed their friends victorious. To their 
 utter horror, they found their fortified town in ashes and nearly all their 
 proud tribe lying in one blackened pile of half-burnt flesh and bones. 
 The savage warriors stamped the earth, yelled and tore their hair in 
 desperate rage, and ran howling through the woods. Mason’s men re¬ 
 turned by way of New London to Say brook, and thence to Hartford. 
 New troops arrived from Massachusetts. The remnants of the hostile 
 nation were pursued into the swamps and thickets west of Saybrook. 
 Every wigwam of the Pequods was burned, and every field laid waste. 
 The remaining two hundred panting fugitives were hunted to death or 
 captivity. The prisoners were distributed as servants among the Narra- 
 
188 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gansetts and Mohegans; a few were sold as slaves. The first war between 
 the English colonists and the natives had ended in the overthrow and 
 destruction of one of the most powerful tribes of New England. For 
 many years the other nations, when Xempted to hostility, remembered the 
 fate of the Pequods. 
 
 The final capture of the Pequod fugitives was made at Fairfield, 
 on Long Island Sound, fifty miles south-west from Saybrook. The Eng¬ 
 lish thus became better acquainted with the coast west of the mouth of 
 the Connecticut. Some men of Boston were delighted with the beautiful 
 plain between the Wallingford and West Rivers. Here they tarried over 
 winter, building some cabins and exploring the country; such was the 
 founding of New Haven. Shortly afterward, a Puritan colony from 
 England, under the leadership of Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport, 
 arrived at Boston. Hearing of the beauty of the country on the sound, 
 the new immigrants again set sail, and about the middle of April reached 
 New Haven. On the morning of the first Sabbath after their arrival the 
 colonists assembled for worship under a spreading oak; and Davenport, 
 their minister, preached a touching and appropriate sermon on The 
 Temptation in the Wilderness. The next care was to make an 
 honorable purchase of land from the Indians—a policy which was ever 
 afterward faithfully adhered to by the colony. For the first year there 
 was no government except a simple covenant, into which the settlers 
 entered, that all would be obedient to the rules of Scripture. 
 
 In June of 1639 the leading men of New Haven held a convention 
 in a barn, and formally adopted the Bible as the constitution of the State. 
 Everything was strictly conformed to the religious standard. The govern¬ 
 ment was called the House of Wisdom, of which Eaton, Davenport and 
 five others were the seven Pillars. None but church members were ad¬ 
 mitted to the rights of citizenship. All offices were to be filled by the 
 votes of the freemen at an annual election. For twenty years consecu¬ 
 tively, Mr. Eaton—first and greatest of the pillars—was chosen governor 
 of the colony. Other settlers came, and pleasant villages sprang up on 
 both shores of Long Island Sound. 
 
 Civil government began in Connecticut in the year 1639. Until 
 that time the Western colonies had been subject to Massachusetts, and 
 had scarcely thought of independence. But when the soldiers of Hartford 
 returned victorious from the Pequod war, the exulting people began to 
 think of a separate commonwealth. If they could fight their own battles, 
 could they not make their own laws? Delegates from the three towns 
 came together at Hartford, and on the 14th of January a constitution was 
 framed for the colony. The new instrument was one of the most simple 
 
CONNECTICUT. 
 
 189 
 
 and liberal ever adopted. An oath of allegiance to the State was the 
 only qualification of citizenship. No recognition of the English king or 
 of any foreign authority was required. Different religious opinions were 
 alike tolerated and respected. All the officers of the colony were to be 
 chosen by ballot at an annual election. The law-making power wae 
 vested in a general assembly, and the representatives were apportioned 
 among the towns according to population. Neither Say brook nor New 
 Haven adopted this constitution, by which the other colonies in the valley 
 of the Connecticut were united in a common government. 
 
 In 1643, Connecticut became a member of the Union of New Eng¬ 
 land. Into this confederacy New Haven was also admitted; and in the 
 next year Saybrook was purchased of George Fenwick, one of the pro¬ 
 prietors, and permanently annexed to Connecticut. The anticipated diffi¬ 
 culties with the Dutch of New Netherland had made the colonies of the 
 West anxious for a closer union with Massachusetts. The fears of the 
 people were not entirely quieted until 1650, when Governor Stuyvesant 
 met the commissioners of Connecticut at Hartford, and established the 
 western boundary of the province. This measure promised peace; but in 
 1651 war broke out between England and Holland, and notwithstanding 
 the recent pledges of friendship, New England and New Netherland were 
 wellnigh drawn into the conflict. Stuyvesant was suspected of inciting 
 the Indians against the English; a declaration of war was proposed be¬ 
 fore the delegates of the united colonies, and was only prevented from 
 passing by the veto of Massachusetts. Left without support, Connecticut 
 and New Haven next sought aid from Cromwell, who entered heartily 
 into the project and sent out a fleet to co-operate with the colonists in the 
 reduction of New Netherland. But while the western towns were busily 
 preparing for war, the news of peace arrived, and hostilities were happily 
 averted. 
 
 On the restoration of monarchy in England, Connecticut made 
 haste to recognize King Charles as rightful sovereign. ,It was as much 
 an act of sound policy as of loyal zeal. The people of the Connecticut 
 valley were eager for a royal charter. They had conquered the Pequods; 
 they had bought the lands of the Mohegans; they had purchased the 
 claims of the earl of Warwick; it only remained to secure all these 
 acquisitions with a patent from the king. The infant republic selected 
 its best and truest man, the scholarly younger Winthrop, and sent him 
 as ambassador to London. He bore with him a charter which had been 
 carefully prepared by the authorities of Hartford; the problem was to 
 induce the king to sign it. 
 
 The aged Lord Say-and-Seal, for many years the friend and bene- 
 
190 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 factor of the colony, was now an important officer of the Crown. To him 
 Winthrop delivered a letter, unfolded his plans and appealed for help; 
 and the appeal was not in vain. The earl of Manchester, lord chamber' 
 lain to the king, was induced to lend his aid. Winthrop easily obtained 
 an audience with the sovereign, and did not fail to show him a ring 
 which Charles I. had given as a pledge of friendship to Winthrop’s 
 grandfather. The little token so moved the wayward monarch’s feelings 
 
 that in a moment 
 of careless mag¬ 
 nanimity he signed 
 the colonial charter 
 without the alter¬ 
 ation of a letter. 
 Winthrop returned 
 to the rejoicing col¬ 
 ony, bearing a pat¬ 
 ent the most liberal 
 and ample ever 
 granted by an Eng¬ 
 lish monarch. The 
 power of govern¬ 
 ing themselves was 
 conferred on the 
 people without 
 qualification or re¬ 
 striction. Every 
 right of sovereign¬ 
 ty and of inde¬ 
 pendence, except 
 the name, was con¬ 
 ceded to the new State. The territory included under the charter ex¬ 
 tended from the bay and river of the Narragansetts westward to the 
 Pacific. The people who had built the House of Wisdom at New 
 Haven now found themselves the unwilling subjects of the new com¬ 
 monwealth of Connecticut. 
 
 For fourteen years the excellent Winthrop was annually chosen 
 governor of the colony. Every year added largely to the population and 
 wealth of the province. The civil and religious institutions were the 
 freest and best in New England. Peace reigned; the husbandman was 
 undisturbed in the field, the workman in his shop. Even during King 
 Philip’s War, Connecticut was saved from invasion. Not a war-whoop 
 
 THE VOOSGKB WINTHROP. 
 
CONNECTICUT. 
 
 191 
 
 was heard, not a hamlet burned, not a life lost, within her borders. Her 
 soldiers made common cause with their brethren of Massachusetts and 
 Rhode Island; but their own homes were saved from the desolations 
 of war. 
 
 In July of 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, the governor of New York, 
 arrived with an armed sloop at the mouth of the Connecticut. Orders 
 were sent to Captain Bull, who commanded the fort at Saybrook, to sur¬ 
 render his post; but the brave captain replied by hoisting the flag of 
 England and assuring the bearer of the message that his master would 
 better retire. Andros, however, landed and came to a parley with the 
 officers of the fort. He began to read his commission, but was ordered 
 to stop. In vain did the arrogant magistrate insist tnat the dominions 
 of the duke of York extended from the Connecticut to the Delaware. 
 “ Connecticut has her own charter, signed by His Gracious Majesty King 
 Charles II.,” said Captain Bull. “ Leave otf your reading, or take the 
 consequences!” The argument prevailed, and the red-coated governor, 
 trembling with rage, was escorted to his boat by a company cf Saybrook 
 militia. 
 
 In 1686, when Andros was made royal governor of New England, 
 Connecticut was again included in his jurisdiction. The first year of his 
 administration was spent in establishing his authority in Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island and New Hampshire. In the following October he made 
 his famous visit to Hartford. On the day of his arrival he invaded the 
 provincial assembly while in session, seized the book of minutes, and with 
 his own hand wrote Finis at the bottom of the page. He demanded the 
 immediate surrender of the colonial charter. Governor Treat pleaded 
 long and earnestly for the preservation of the precious document. Andro 
 was inexorable. The shades of evening fell. Joseph Wadsworth foun<! 
 in the gathering darkness an opportunity to conceal the cherished parch¬ 
 ment—a deed which has made his own name and the name of a tret 
 immortal. Two years later, when the government of Andros was over¬ 
 thrown, Connecticut made haste to restore her liberties. 
 
 In the autumn of 1693, another attempt was made to subvert the 
 freedom of the colony. Fletcher, the governor of New York, went to 
 Hartford to assume command of the militia of the province. He bore 
 a commission from King William; but by the terms of the charter the 
 right of commanding the troops was vested in the colony itself. The 
 general assembly refused to recognize the authority of Fletcher, who, 
 nevertheless, ordered the soldiers under arms and proceeded to read his 
 commission as colonel. “ Beat the drums!” shouted Captain Wadsworth, 
 who stood at the head of the company. “ Silence 1” said Fletcher; the 
 
192 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 drums ceased, and the reading began again. “ Drum! drum!” cried 
 Wadsworth; and a second time the voice of the reader was drowned 
 in the uproar. “ Silence! silence!” shouted the enraged governor. The 
 dauntless Wadsworth stepped before the ranks and said, “Colonel 
 Fletcher, if I am interrupted again, I will let the sunshine through your 
 body in an instant.” That ended the controversy. Benjamin Fletcher 
 thought it better to be a living governor of New York than a dead 
 colonel of the Connecticut militia. 
 
 “ I give these books for the founding of a college in this colony.” 
 Such were the words of ten ministers who, in the year 1700, assembled at 
 the village of Branford, a few miles east of New Haven. Each of the 
 worthy fathers, as he uttered the words, deposited a few volumes on the 
 table around which they were sitting; such was the founding of Yale 
 College. In 1702 the school was formally opened at Saybrook, where 
 it continued for fifteen years, and was then removed to New Haven. 
 One of the most liberal patrons of the college was Elihu Yale, from whom 
 the famous institution of learning derived its name. Common schools 
 had existed in almost every village of Connecticut since the planting 
 of the colony. The children of the Pilgrims have never forgotten the 
 cause of education. 
 
 The half century preceding the French and Indian -war was a 
 period of prosperity to all the western districts of New England. Con¬ 
 necticut was especially favored. Almost unbroken peace reigned through¬ 
 out her borders. The blessings of a free commonwealth were realized in 
 full measure. The farmer reaped his fields in cheerfulness and hope. 
 The mechanic made glad his dusty shop with anecdote and song. The 
 merchant feared no duty, the villager no taxes. Want was unknown and 
 pauperism unheard of. Wealth was little cared for and crime of rare 
 occurrence among a people with whom intelligence and virtue were the 
 only foundations of nobility. With fewer dark pages in her history, less 
 austerity of manners and greater liberality of sentiment, Connecticut had 
 all the lofty purposes and shining virtues of Massachusetts. The visions 
 of Hooker and Haynes, and the dreams of the quiet Winthrop, were more 
 than realized in the happy homes of the Connecticut valley. 
 
CHAPTER XXir, 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 I T was in June of 1636 that the exiled Roger Williams left the country 
 of the Wampanoags and passed down the Seekonk to Narragansett 
 River. His object was to secure a safe retreat beyond the limits of Ply¬ 
 mouth colony. He, with his five companions, landed on the western 
 bank, at a place called Moshassuck, purchased the soil of the Narragansett 
 sachems, and laid the foundations of Providence. Other exiles joined the 
 company. New farms were laid out, new fields were ploughed and new 
 houses built; here, at last, was found at Providence Plantation a 
 refuge for all the distressed and persecuted. 
 
 The leader of the new colony was a native of Wales; born in 1606; 
 liberally educated at Cambridge; the pupil of Sir Edward Coke; in after 
 years the friend of Milton; a dissenter; a hater of ceremonies; a disciple 
 of truth in its purest forms; an uncompromising advocate of freedom; 
 exiled to Massachusetts, and now exiled by Massachusetts, he brought 
 to the banks of the Narragansett the great doctrines of perfect religious 
 liberty and the equal rights of men. If the area of Rhode Island had 
 corresponded with the grandeur of the principles on which she w r as 
 founded, who could have foretold her destiny ? 
 
 Roger Williams belonged to that most radical body of dissenters 
 called Anabaptists. By them the validity of infant baptism was denied. 
 Williams himself had been baptized in infancy; but his views in regard 
 to the value of the ceremony had undergone a change during his ministry 
 at Salem. Now that he had freed himself from all foreign authority both 
 of Church and State, he conceived it to be his dulv to receive a second 
 baptism. But who should perform the ceremony ? Ezekiel Holliman, 
 a layman, was selected for the sacred duty. Williams meekly received 
 the rite at the hands of his friend, and then in turn baptized him and ten 
 other exiles of the colony. Such was the organization of the first 
 Baptist Church in America. 
 
 The beginning of civil government in Rhode Island was equally 
 simple and democratic. Mr. Williams was the natural ruler of the little 
 province, but he reserved for himself neither wealth nor privilege. The 
 
194 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lands which he purchased from Canonicus and Miantonomoh were freely 
 distributed among the colonists. Only two small fields, to be planted 
 and tilled with his own hands, were kept by the benevolent founder for 
 himself. How different from the grasping avarice of Wingfield and Lord 
 Cornbury ! All the powers of the colonial government were entrusted to 
 the people. A simple agreement was made and signed by the settlers that 
 in all matters not affecting the conscience they would yield a cheerful 
 obedience to such rules as the majority might make for the public welfare. 
 In questions of religion the individual conscience should be to every man 
 a guide. When Massachusetts objected that such a democracy would leave 
 nothing for the magistrates to do, Rhode Island answered that magistrates 
 were wellnigh useless. 
 
 The new government stood the test of experience. The evil prophe¬ 
 cies of its enemies were unfulfilled; instead of predicted turmoil and dis¬ 
 sension, Providence Plantation had nothing but peace and quiet. It was 
 found that all religious sects could live together in harmony, and that 
 difference of opinion was not a bar to friendship. All beliefs were wel¬ 
 come at Narragansett Bay. A Buddhist from Japan or a pagan from 
 Madagascar would have been received at Providence and cordially enter¬ 
 tained. Miantonomoh, the young sachem of the Narragansetts, loved 
 Roger Williams as a brother. It was the confidence of this chieftain that 
 enabled Williams to notify Massachusetts of the Pequod conspiracy, and 
 then at the hazard of his life to defeat the plans of the hostile nation. 
 This magnanimous act awakened the old affections of his friends at Salem 
 and Plymouth, and an effort was made to recall him and his fellow-exiles 
 from banishment. It was urged that a man of such gracious abilities, so 
 full of patience and charity, could never be dangerous in a State; but his 
 enemies answered that the principles and teachings of Williams would 
 subvert the commonwealth and bring Massachusetts to ruin. The pro¬ 
 posal was rejected. The ancient Greeks sometimes recalled their exiled 
 heroes from banishment; the colony of Massachusetts, never. 
 
 During the Pequod war of 1637, Rhode Island was protected by the 
 friendly Narragansetts. The territory of this powerful tribe lay between 
 Providence and the country of the Pequoas, and there was little fear of 
 an invasion. The next year was noted for the arrival of Mrs. Hutchinson 
 and her friends at the island of Rhode Island. The leaders of the com¬ 
 pany were John Clarke and William Coddington. It had been their 
 intention to conduct the colony to Long Island, or perhaps to the country 
 of the Delaware. But Roger Williams made haste to welcome them 
 to his province, where no man’s conscience might be distressed. Gov¬ 
 ernor Vane of Massachusetts, sympathizing with the refugees, prevailed 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 195 
 
 with Miantonomoh to make them a gift of Rhode Island. Here, in the 
 early spring of 1638, the colony was planted. The first settlement was 
 made at Portsmouth, in the 
 northern part of the island. 
 
 Other exiles came to join their 
 friends, and civil government 
 was thought desirable. The 
 Jewish nation furnished the 
 model. William Coddington 
 was chosen judge in the new 
 Israel of Narragansett Bay, 
 and three elders were ap¬ 
 pointed to assist him in the 
 government. In the follow¬ 
 ing year the title of judge 
 gave way to that of governor, 
 and the administration be¬ 
 came more modern in its 
 methods. At the same time 
 a party of colonists removed 
 from Portsmouth, already 
 crowded with exiles, to the 
 
 south-western part of the island, and laid the foundations of Newport. 
 Hither had come, more than six hundred years before, the hardy adven¬ 
 turers of Iceland. Here had been a favorite haunt of the wayward sea- 
 kings of the eleventh century. Here, in sight of the new settlement, 
 stood the old stone tower, the most celebrated monument left by the 
 Norsemen in America. 
 
 The island was soon peopled. The want of civil government began 
 to be felt as a serious inconvenience. Mr. Coddington’s new Israel had 
 proved an utter failure. In March of 1641 a public meeting was con¬ 
 vened ; the citizens came together on terms of perfect equality, and the 
 task of framing a constitution was undertaken. In three days the instru¬ 
 ment was completed. The government was declared to be a “ Demo¬ 
 cracy,” or government by the people. The supreme authority was 
 lodged with the whole body of freemen in the island; and freemen, in 
 this instance, meant everybody. The vote of the majority should always 
 rule. No soul should be distressed on account of religious doctrine. 
 Liberty of conscience, even in the smallest particular, should be uni¬ 
 versally respected. A seal of State was ordered, having for its design 
 a sheaf of arrows and a motto of Amor vincet omnia The little 
 
 THE OLD STONE TOWER AT NEWPORT. 
 
196 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 republic of Narragansett Bay was named the Plantation of -Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 In 1643 was formed the Union of New England. Providence and 
 Rhode Island both pleaded for admission, and both were rejected. The 
 meaning of this illiberal action on the part of the older and more power- 
 fill colonies was that the settlements on the Narragansett belonged to the 
 jurisdiction of Plymouth. Alarmed at the prospect of being again put 
 under the dominion of their persecutors, the exiled republicans of Rhode 
 Island determined to appeal to the English government for a charter. 
 Roger Williams was accordingly appointed agent of the two plantations 
 and sent to London. He was cordially received by his old and steadfast 
 friend Sir Henry Vane, now an influential member of Parliament. The 
 plea of Rhode Island was heard with favor; and on the 14th of March 
 in the following year the coveted charter was granted. Great was the 
 rejoicing when the successful ambassador returned to his people. The 
 grateful colonists met their benefactor at Seekonk, and conducted him to 
 Providence with shouts and exultation. Rhode Island had secured her 
 independence. 
 
 The first general assembly of the province was convened at Ports¬ 
 mouth, in 1647. The new government was organized in strict accordance 
 with the provisions of the charter. A code of laws was framed; the 
 principles of democracy were reaffirmed, and full religious toleration and 
 freedom of conscience guaranteed to all. A president and subordinate 
 officers were chosen, and Rhode Island began her career as an independent 
 colony. 
 
 Once the integrity of the province was endangered. In 1651. 
 William Coddington, who had never been satisfied with the failure of his 
 Jewish commonwealth, succeeded in obtaining from the English council 
 of state a decree by which the island of Rhode Island was separated from 
 the common government. But the zealous protests of John Clarke and 
 Roger Williams, who went a second time to London, prevented the dis¬ 
 union, and the decree of separation was revoked. The grateful people 
 now desired that their magnanimous benefactor should be commissioned 
 by the English council as governor of the province; but the blind grat¬ 
 itude of his friends could not prevail over the wisdom of the prudent 
 leader. He foresaw the danger, and refused the tempting commission. 
 Roger Williams was proof against all the seductions of ambition. 
 
 The faithful Clarke remained in England to guard the interests of 
 the colony. It was not long until his services were greatly needed. The 
 restoration of monarchy occurred in 1660. Charles II. came home in 
 triumph from his long exile. Rhode Island had accepted a charter from 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 197 
 
 the Long Parliament; that Parliament had driven Charles I. from his 
 throne, had made war upon him, beaten him in battle, imprisoned him. 
 beheaded him. Was it likely that the son of that monarch would allow a 
 colonial charter issued by the Long Parliament to stand? Would he not 
 with vindictive scorn dash the patent of the little republic out of exist¬ 
 ence ? The people of Rhode Island had hardly the courage to plead for the 
 preservation of their liberty; but taking heart, they wrote a loyal petition 
 to the new sovereign, praying for the renewal of their charter. To their in¬ 
 finite delight, and to the wonder of after times, the king listened with favor: 
 Clarendon, the minister, assented; and on the 8th of July, 1663, the 
 charter was reissued. The freedom of the colony was in no wise restricted. 
 All the liberal provisions of the parliamentary patent were revived. Not 
 even an oath of allegiance was required of the people. 
 
 On the 24th of November the island of Rhode Island was thronged 
 with people. George Baxter had come with the charter. Opening the 
 box that contained it, he held aloft the precious parchment. There, sure 
 enough, was the signature of King Charles II. There was His Majesty’s 
 royal stamp; there was the broad seal of England. The charter was read 
 aloud to the joyful people. The little “democracie” of Rhode Island 
 was safe. The happy colonists were not to blame when they began their 
 letter of thanks as follows: “ To King Charles of England, for his high 
 and inestimable—yea, incomparable—favor.” 
 
 For nearly a quarter of a century Rhode Island prospered. The 
 distresses of King Philip’s War were forgotten. Roger Williams grew 
 old and died. At last came Sir Edmund Andros, the enemy of New 
 England. After overthrowing the liberties of Massachusetts, he next 
 demanded the surrender of the charter of Rhode Island. The demand 
 was for a while evaded by Governor Walter Clarke and the colonial as¬ 
 sembly. But Andros, not to be thwarted, repaired to Newport, dissolved 
 the government and broke the seal of the colony. Five irresponsible 
 councilors were appointed to control the affairs of the province, and the 
 commonwealth was in ruins. 
 
 But the usurpation was as brief as it was shameful. In the spring 
 of 1689 the news was borne to Rhode Island that James II. had abdi¬ 
 cated the throne of England, and that Andros and his officers were pris¬ 
 oners at Boston. On May-day the people rushed to Newport and made 
 a proclamation of their gratitude for the great deliverance. Walter Clarke 
 was reelected governor, but was fearful of accepting. Almy was elected, 
 and also declined. Then an old Quaker, named Henry Bull, more than 
 eighty years of age, was chosen. He was one of the founders of the colony. 
 He had known Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams. Should he, in 
 
198 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his gray hairs, through fear and timidity, refuse the post of danger ? The 
 old veteran accepted the trust, and spent his last days in restoring the 
 liberties of Rhode Island. 
 
 Again the little State around the Bay of Narragansett was pros¬ 
 perous. For more than fifty years the peace of the colony was undis¬ 
 turbed. The principles of the illustrious founder became the principles 
 of the commonwealth. The renown of Rhode Island has not been in 
 vastness of territory, in mighty cities or victorious armies, but in a stead¬ 
 fast devotion to truth, justice and freedom. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 T N the year 1622 the territory lying between the rivers Merrimac and 
 Kennebec, reaching from the sea to the St. Lawrence, was granted 
 by the council of Plymouth to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason. 
 The history' of New Hampshire begins with the following year. For the 
 proprietors made haste to secure their new domain by actual settlements. 
 In the early spring of 1623 two small companies of colonists were sent 
 out by Mason and Gorges to people their province. The coast of New 
 Hampshire had first been visited by Martin Pring in 1603. Eleven 
 years later the restless Captain Smith explored the spacious harbor at 
 the mouth of the Piscataqua, and spoke with delight of the deep and 
 tranquil waters. 
 
 One party of the new immigrants landed at Little Harbor, two 
 miles south of the present site of Portsmouth, and began to build a village. 
 The other party proceeded up stream, entered the Cocheco, and, four miles 
 above the mouth of that tributary, laid the foundations of Dover. With 
 the exception of Plymouth and Weymouth, Portsmouth and Dover are 
 the oldest towns in New England. But the progress of the settlements 
 was slow; for many years the two villages were only fishing-stations. 
 In 1629 the proprietors divided their dominions, Gorges retaining the 
 part north of the Piscataqua, and Mason taking exclusive control of the 
 district between the Piscataqua and the Merrimac. In May of this year, 
 Rev. John Wheelwright, who soon afterward became a leader in the party 
 of Anne Hutchinson, visited the Abenaki chieftains, and purchased their 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE.. 
 
 199 
 
 claims to the soil of the whole territory held by Mason; but in the fol¬ 
 lowing November, Mason’s title was confirmed by a second patent from 
 the council, and the name of the province was changed from Laconia to 
 New Hampshire. Very soon Massachusetts began to urge her chartered 
 rights to the district north of the Merrimac; already the claims to the 
 jurisdiction of the new colony were numerous and conflicting. 
 
 In November of 1635, Mason died, and his widow undertook the 
 government of the province. But the expenses of the colony were greater 
 than the revenues; the chief tenants could not be paid for their services; 
 and after a few years of mismanagement the territory was given up to the 
 servants and dependents of the late proprietor. Such was the condition 
 of affairs when Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends were banished from 
 Boston. Wheelwright, who was of the number, now found use for the 
 lands which he had purchased in New Hampshire. When Clarke and 
 Coddington, leading the greater number of the exiles, set out for Rhode 
 Island, Wheelwright, with a small party of friends, repaired to the banks 
 of the Piscataqua. At the head of tide-water on that stream they halted, 
 and founded the village of Exeter. The little colony was declared a 
 republic, established on the principle of equal right and universal toler¬ 
 ation. 
 
 The proposition to unite New Hampshire with Massachusetts was 
 received with favor by the people of both colonies. The liberal provisions 
 of the Body of Liberties, adopted by the older province in 1641, excited 
 the villagers of the Piscataqua, and made them anxious to join the desti¬ 
 nies of the free commonwealth of Massachusetts. A union was immedi¬ 
 ately proposed; on the 14th of the following April terms of consolidation 
 were agreed on, and New Hampshire, by the act of her own people, was 
 united with the older colony. It is worthy of special notice that the law 
 of Massachusetts restricting the rights of citizenship to church members 
 was not extended over the new province. The people of Portsmouth and 
 Dover belonged to the Church of England, and it was deemed unjust to 
 discriminate against them on account of their religion. New Hampshire 
 was the only colony east of the Hudson not originally founded by the 
 Puritans. 
 
 The union continued in force until 1679. In the mean time the 
 heirs of Mason had revived the claim of the old proprietor of the province. 
 The cause had been duly investigated in the courts of England, and in 
 1677 a decision was reached that the Masonian claims were invalid as to 
 the civil jurisdiction of New Hampshire, but valid as to the soil —that is, the 
 heirs were the lawful owners, but not the lawful governors, of the territory, 
 tt was evident from the character of this decision that King Charles in- 
 
200 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tended to assert his own right of government over New Hampshire, and 
 at the same time to confer the ownership of the soil upon the represent¬ 
 atives of Mason. Nor was the province long left in doubt as to the king’s 
 intentions. On the 24th of July, 1679, a decree was published by which 
 New Hampshire was separated from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and 
 organized as a distinct royal province. The excuse was that the claims 
 of the Masons against the farmers of New Hampshire would have to be 
 determined in colonial courts, and that colonial courts could not be estab¬ 
 lished without the organization of a separate colony. It was clearly fore¬ 
 seen that in such trials the courts of Massachusetts would always decide 
 against the Masons. The purpose of the king became still more apparent 
 when Robert Mason, himself the largest claimant of all, was allowed to 
 nominate a governor for the province: Edward Cranfield was selected for 
 that office. 
 
 The people of New Hampshire were greatly excited by the threatened 
 destruction of their liberties. Before Cranfield’s arrival the rugged saw¬ 
 yers and lumbermen of the Piscataqua had convened a general assembly 
 at Portsmouth. The first resolution which was passed by the represent¬ 
 atives showed the spirit of colonial resistance in full force. “ No act, im¬ 
 position, law or ordinance,” said the sturdy legislators, “ shall be valid 
 unless made by the assembly and approved by the people.” When the 
 indignant king heard of this resolution, he declared it to be both wicked 
 and absurd. It was not the first time that a monarch and his people had 
 disagreed. 
 
 In November of 1682, Cranfield dismissed the popular assembly. 
 Such a despotic act had never before been attempted in New England. 
 The excitement ran high; the governor was openly denounced, and his 
 claims for rents and forfeitures were stubbornly resisted. At Exeter the 
 sheriff was beaten with clubs. The farmers’ wives met the tax-gatherers 
 with pailfulls of hot water. At the village of Hampton, Cranfield’s 
 deputy was led out of town with a rope round his neck. When the 
 governor ordered out the militia, not a man obeyed the summons. It was 
 in the midst of these broils that Cranfield, unable to collect his rents and 
 vexed out of his wits, wrote to England begging for the privilege of going 
 home. The “unreasonable” people who were all the time caviling at his 
 commission and denying his authority were at length freed from his 
 presence. 
 
 An effort was now made to restore New Hampshire to the jurisdiction 
 of Massachusetts; but before this could be done the charter of the latter 
 province had been taken away and Edmund Andros appointed governor 
 af all New England. The colonies north of the Merrimac, seeing that 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 201 
 
 even Massachusetts had been brought to submission, offered no resistance 
 to Andros, but quietly yielded to his authority. Until the English revo¬ 
 lution of 1688, and the consequent downfall of Andros, New Hampshire 
 remained under the dominion of the royal governor. But when he was 
 seized and imprisoned by the citizens of Boston, the people of the northern 
 towns also rose in rebellion and reasserted their freedom. A general as- 
 sembly was convened at Portsmouth in the spring of 1690, and an ordi¬ 
 nance was at once passed reannexing New Hampshire to Massachusetts. 
 But in August of 1692 this action was annulled by the English govern¬ 
 ment, and the two provinces were a second time separated against the 
 protests of the people. In 1698, when the earl of Bellomont came out as 
 royal governor of New York, his commission was made to include both 
 Massachusetts and New Hampshire. For a period of forty-two years the 
 two provinces, though retaining their separate legislative assemblies, con¬ 
 tinued under the authority of a common executive. Not until 1741 was 
 a final separation effected between the colonies north and south of the 
 Merrimac. 
 
 Meanwhile, the heirs of Mason, embarrassed with delays and vexed 
 by opposing claimants, had sold to Samuel Allen, of London, their title 
 to New Hampshire. To him, in 1691, the old Masonian patent was 
 transferred. His s on-in-law, named Usher, a land speculator of Boston, 
 was appointed deputy governor. The new proprietor made a long and 
 futile effort to enforce his claim to the lands of the province, but was every¬ 
 where resisted. Lawsuits were begun in the colonial courts, but no 
 judgments could be obtained against the occupants of lands; all efforts to 
 drive the farmers into the payment of rents or the surrender of their 
 homes were unavailing. For many years the history of New Hampshire 
 contains little else than a record of strife and contention. Finally, Allen 
 died; and in 1715, after a struggle of a quarter of a century, his heirs 
 abandoned their claim in despair. A few years afterward one of the de¬ 
 scendants of Mason discovered that the deed which his kinsmen had made 
 to Allen was defective. The original Masonian patent was accordingly 
 revived, and a last effort was made to secure possession of the province, 
 but was all in vain. The colonial government had now grown strong 
 enough to defend the rights of its people, and the younger Masons were 
 obliged to abandon their pretensions. In the final adjustment of this 
 long-standing difficulty the colonial authorities allowed the validity of 
 the Masonian patent as to the unoccupied portions of the territory, and 
 the heirs made a formal surrender of their claims to all the rest. 
 
 Of all the New England colonies, New Hampshire suffered most 
 from the French and Indian Wars. Her settlements were feeble, and her 
 15 
 
202 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 territory most exposed to savage invasion. In the last year of King 
 Philip’s War the suffering along the frontier of the province was very 
 great. Again, in the wars of William, Anne and George, the villages of 
 the northern colony were visited with devastation and ruin. But in the 
 intervals of peace the spirits of the people revived, and the hardy settlers 
 returned to their wasted farms to begin anew the struggle of life. Out 
 of these conflicts and trials came that sturdy and resolute I'ace of pioneers 
 who bore such a heroic part in the greater contests of after years. 
 
 Such is the story of the planting, progress, and development of 
 New England. Hither had come, in the beginning, a people of sober 
 habits, frugal lives, and lofty purposes. Before their imagination was 
 one vision—the vision of freedom. And freedom to the men who laid 
 the foundations of civilization in New England meant the breaking off 
 of every species of thralldom. These people came to the New World 
 to stay. They voluntarily chose the wilderness with its forests, and 
 snows, and savages. For forests, and snows, and savages were better 
 than luxury with despotism. In Virginia as late as the middle of the 
 eighteenth century many of the planters still looked fondly across the 
 ocean and spoke of England as their “ home.” Not so with the peo¬ 
 ple whose hamlets were scattered from the Penobscot to the Housa- 
 tonic. With them the humble cabin in the frozen woods under the 
 desolate sky of winter was a cheerful and sunny “home”—if only 
 Freedom was written on the threshold. 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR MIDDLE COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 T HE colonial history of New Jersey properly begins with the found¬ 
 ing of Elizabethtown, in 1664. As early as 1618 a feeble trading 
 station had been established at Bergen, west of the Hudson; but forty 
 years elapsed before permanent dwellings were built in that neigh¬ 
 borhood. In 1623 the block-house, called Fort Nassau, was erected 
 at the mouth of Timber Creek, on the Delaware; after a few months’ 
 occupancy, May and his companions abandoned the place and returned 
 to New Amsterdam. Six years later the southern part of the present 
 State of New Jersey was granted to Godyn and Blomaert, two of the 
 Dutch patroons; but no settlement was made. In 1634 there was 
 not a single European living between Delaware Bay and the fortieth 
 degree of latitude. In 1651 a considerable district, including the site 
 of Elizabethtown, was purchased by Augustine Herman; but still no 
 colony was planted. Seven years afterwards a larger grant, embracing 
 the old trading house at Bergen, was made; and in 1663 a company 
 of Puritans, living on Long Island, obtained permission of Governor 
 Stuyvesant to settle on the banks of the Raritan; but no settlement 
 was effected until after the conquest. 
 
 All the territory of New Jersey was included in the grant made by 
 King Charles to his brother the duke of York. Two months before the - 
 conquest of New Netherland by the English, that portion of the duke’s 
 province lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, extending as far 
 north as forty-one degrees and forty minutes, was assigned by the proprietor 
 to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These noblemen were already 
 proprietors ot Carolina; but they had adhered to the king’s cause during 
 the civil war in England, and were now rewarded with a second Amer- 
 ican province. Almost immediately after the conquest another company 
 ot Puritans made application to Governor Nicolls, and received an exten¬ 
 sive grant of land on Newark Bay. The Indian titles were honorably 
 
 ( 203 ) 
 
204 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 purchased; in the following October a village was begun and named 
 Elizabethtown, in honor of Lady Carteret. 
 
 In August of 1665, Philip Carteret, son of Sir George, arrived as 
 governor of llie province. At first he was violently opposed by Nicolls 
 of New Yoi-k, who refused to believe that the duke had divided his terri¬ 
 tory. But Carteret was armed with a commission, and could not be pro 
 vented from taking possession of the new settlements below the Hudson 
 Elizabethtown was made the capital of the colony; other immigrants 
 arrived from Long Island and settled on the banks of the Passaic; New¬ 
 ark was founded; flourishing hamlets appeared on the shores of the bay 
 as far south as Sandy Hook. In honor of Sir George Carteret, who had 
 been governor of the Isle of Jersey, in the English Channel, his American 
 domain was named New Jersey. 
 
 Experience had taught the proprietors wisdom; they had learned 
 that freedom is essential to the prosperity of a colony, and that liberal 
 concessions to the people are better than great outlays of money. Berke¬ 
 ley and Carteret, though royalists themselves, provided for their new State 
 an excellent constitution. Person and property were put under the protec¬ 
 tion of law. The government was made to consist of a governor, a council 
 and a popular legislative assembly. There should be no taxation unless 
 levied by the representatives of the people. Difference of opinion should 
 be respected, and freedom of conscience guaranteed to every citizen. The 
 proprietors reserved to themselves only the right of annulling objection¬ 
 able acts of the assembly and of appointing the governor and colonial 
 judges. The lands of the province were distributed to the settlers for a 
 quit-rent of a half penny per acre, not to be paid until 1670. 
 
 In 1668 the first general assembly convened at Elizabethtown. 
 Nearly all the representatives were Puritans, and the laws and customs 
 of New England were thus early impressed on the legislation of the 
 colony. Affairs went well until 1670, when the half-penny quit-rents were 
 due to the proprietors. The colonists, in the mean time, had purchased 
 their lands of the Indians, and also of Governor Nicolls of New York, 
 who still claimed New Jersey as a part of his province. To the settlers, 
 therefore, it seemed that their titles to their farms were good without 
 further payment to Philip Carteret or anybody else. The collection of 
 the rents was accordingly resisted; and the colony became a scene first of 
 strife and then of revolution. In May of 1672 the colonial assembly 
 convened and deposed the governor from office. James Carteret, another 
 son of Sir George, was chosen governor, and Philip returned to England. 
 
 In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in retaking New York from the Eng¬ 
 lish. For a few months the old province of New Netherland, including 
 
XEW JERSEY. 
 
 205 
 
 the country as far south as the Delaware, was restored to Holland. Km 
 in the next year the whole territory was. re-ceded bv the state—general to 
 England. The duke of York now received from his brother, the king, 
 a second patent for the country between the Connecticut and the Delaware, 
 and at the same time confirmed his former grant of Yew Jersey to Berke¬ 
 ley and Carteret. Then, in utter disregard of the rights of the two pro¬ 
 prietors, the duke appointed Sir Edmund Andros as royal governor of 
 the whole province. Carteret determined to defend his claim against the 
 authority of Andros; but Lord Berkeley, disgusted with the duke’s vacil¬ 
 lation and dishonesty, sold his interest in Yew Jersey to John Te;m m .< 
 to be held in trust for Edward Byllinge. 
 
 In 1675, Philip Carteret returned to America and resumed tin 
 government of the province from which he had been expelled. Andros 
 opposed him in every act; claimed 
 Yew Jersey as a part of his own 
 dominions; kept the colony in an 
 uproar; compelled the ships which 
 came a-trading with the new settle¬ 
 ments to pay tribute at Yew York; 
 and finally arrested Carteret and 
 brought him to his own capital for 
 trial. Meanwhile, Byllinge became 
 embarrassed with debt, and was forced 
 to make an assignment of his property. 
 
 Gawen Laurie, Yicholas Lucas and 
 William Penn were appointed trus¬ 
 tees, and to them Byllinge’s interest 
 in Yew Jersey was assigned for the 
 benefit of his creditors. 
 
 The assignees were Quakers. 
 
 Here, then, was an opportunity to 
 establish another asylum for the 
 persecuted, and to found a common¬ 
 wealth of Friends. Penn and his 
 associates at once applied to Sir 
 George Carteret for a division of the 
 province. That nobleman was both 
 willing and anxious to enter into an 
 arrangement by which his own half 
 
 of the territory could be freed from all encumbrance. It was accordingly- 
 agreed to divide Yew Jersey so that Carteret’s district should be separated 
 
 EAST AND WEST JERSEY, 1677 . 
 
206 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the domain of the Quakers. After much discussion an agreement 
 was reached in the summer of 1676, and a line of division was drawn 
 through the province as follows: Beginning at the southern point of 
 land on the east side of Little Egg Harbor, and running north of north¬ 
 west to a point on the river Delaware in the latitude of forty-one degrees 
 and forty minutes. The territory lying east of this line remained to 
 Sir George as sole proprietor, and was named East Jersey ; while that 
 portion lying between the line and the Delaware was called West 
 Jersey, and passed under the exclusive control of Penn and his asso¬ 
 ciates as assignees of Byllinge. 
 
 Early in the following March the Quaker proprietors completed and 
 published a body of laws under the singular title of Concessions. But 
 the name was significant, for everything was conceded to the people. 
 This first simple code enacted by the Friends in America rivaled the 
 charter of Connecticut in the liberality and purity of its principles. The 
 authors of the instrument accompanied its publication with a general 
 letter addressed to the Quakers of England, recommending the province 
 and inviting immigration. 
 
 The invitation was not in vain. Before the end of the year a 
 colony of more than four hundred Friends arrived in the Delaware, and 
 found homes in West Jersey. Only one circumstance clouded the pros¬ 
 pects of the new commonwealth of peace. The agent of Andros, governor 
 of New York, was stationed at New Castle, on the western bank of the 
 Delaware, to command the entrance to the river. The Quaker ships 
 were obliged to pay customs before proceeding to their destination. A 
 powerful remonstrance was drawn up by the Friends and sent to Eng¬ 
 land. For once the duke of York listened to reason and agreed to sub¬ 
 mit his cause to the courts; and for once a decision was rendered in 
 accordance with right and justice. The eminent jurist Sir William 
 Jones decided that the duke had no legal right to collect duties and taxes 
 in the country of the Delaware. All claims to the territory and govern¬ 
 ment of West Jersey were accordingly withdrawn; and the Quaker col¬ 
 onists were left in the enjoyment of independence. The heirs of Sir 
 George Carteret were quick to see that the same decision would free their 
 half of the province from the jurisdiction of Andros. An effort was 
 accordingly made by the proprietors of East Jersey to secure a deed of 
 release from the duke of York. The petition was favorably entertained, 
 the deed issued and the whole territory between the Hudson and the 
 Delaware freed from foreign authority. 
 
 In November of 1681, Jennings, the deputy-governor of West 
 Jersey, convened the first general assembly of the province. The men 
 
NEW JERSEY. 
 
 207 
 
 who had so worried the aristocracy of England by wearing their hats in 
 the presence of great men, and by saying Thee and Thou, now met together 
 to make their own laws. The code was brief and simple. The doctrines 
 of the Concessions were reaffirmed. Men of all races and of all religions 
 were declared to be equal before the law. No superiority was conceded 
 to rank or title, to wealth or royal birth. Imprisonment for debt was 
 forbidden. The sale of ardent spirits to the Red men was prohibited. 
 Taxes should be voted by the representatives of the people. The lands 
 of the Indians should be acquired by honorable purchase. Finally, a 
 criminal—unless a murderer, a traitor or a thief—might be pardoned by 
 the person against whom the offence was committed. 
 
 In 1682, William Penn and eleven other Friends purchased of the 
 heirs of Carteret the province of East Jersey. Robert Barclay, an em¬ 
 inent Quaker of Aberdeen, in Scotland, and author of the book called 
 Barclay’s Apology, was appointed governor for life. The whole of New 
 Jersey was now under the authority of the Friends. The administration 
 of Barclay, which continued until his death, in 1690, was chiefly noted 
 for a large immigration of Scotch Quakers who left the governor’s native 
 country to find freedom in East Jersey. The persecuted Presbyterians of 
 Scotland came to the province in still greater numbers. 
 
 On the accession of James II., in 1685, the American colonies from 
 Maine to Delaware were consolidated, and Edmund Andros appointed 
 royal governor. His first year in America was spent in establishing his 
 authority at Boston, Providence and Hartford. Not until 1688 were 
 New York and the two Jerseys brought under his jurisdiction. The 
 short reign of King James was already at an end before Andros could 
 succeed in setting up a despotism on the ruin of colonial liberty. When 
 the news came of the abdication and flight of the English monarch, the 
 governor of New England could do nothing but surrender to the indig¬ 
 nant people whom he had wronged and insulted. His arrest and im¬ 
 prisonment was the signal for the restoration of popular government in all 
 the colonies over which he had ruled. 
 
 But the condition of New Jersey was deplorable. It was almost 
 impossible to tell to whom the jurisdiction of the territory rightfully be¬ 
 longed. So far as the eastern province was concerned, the representatives 
 of Carteret claimed it; the governor of New York claimed it; Penn and 
 his associates claimed it. As to the western province, the heirs of Byllinge 
 claimed it; Lucas, Laurie and Penn claimed it; the governor of New 
 York claimed it. Over all these pretensions stood the paramount claim 
 of the English king. From 1689 to 1692 there was no settled form of 
 government in the territory; and for ten years thereafter the colony was 
 
208 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vexed and distracted with the presence of more rulers than any one 
 province could accommodate. 
 
 At last self-interest solved the problem. The proprietors came to 
 see that a peaceable possession of the soil of the Jerseys was worth more 
 than the uncertain honors of government. A proposition was accordingly 
 made that all the claimants should surrender their rights of civil jurisdic¬ 
 tion to the English Crown, retaining only the ownership of the soil. The 
 measure was successfully carried out; and in April of 1702, all propri¬ 
 etary claims being waived in favor of the sovereign, the territory between 
 the Hudson and the Delaware became a royal province. 
 
 New Jersey was now attached to the government of Lord Corn- 
 bury of New York. The union of the two colonies, however, extended 
 only to the office of chief magistrate; each province retained its own legis¬ 
 lative assembly and a distinct territorial organization. This method of 
 government continued for thirty-six years, and was then terminated by 
 the action of the people. In 1728 the representatives of New Jersey sent 
 a petition to George II., praying for a separation of the two colonies ; but 
 the application was at first refused. Ten years later the petition was 
 renewed, and through the influence of Lewis Morris brought to a success¬ 
 ful issue. New Jersey was made independent, and Morris himself received 
 a commission as first royal governor of the separated province. 
 
 The people of New Jersey were but little disturbed by the succes¬ 
 sive Indian wars. The native tribes on this part of the American coast 
 were weak and timid. Had it not been for the cruelties of Kieft and the 
 wrongs of other governors of New York, the peace of the middle colonies 
 would never have been broken. The province of New Jersey is specially 
 interesting as being the point where the civilization of New England met 
 and blended with the civilization of the South. Here the institutions, 
 manners and laws of the Pilgrims were first modified by contact with the 
 less rigid habits and opinions of the people who came with Gosnold and 
 Smith. The di r ling line between East and West Jersey is also the 
 dividing line between the austere Puritans of Massachusetts and the 
 chivalrous cavaliers of Virginia. Happily, along this dividing line the 
 men of peace, the followers of Penn and Barclay, came and dwelt as if 
 to subdue ill-will and make a Union possible. 
 
PINN'8 COLONISTS ON THJI DHLiAWABJC. 
 
 
 
PENNS YL VANIA. 
 
 209 
 
 CHAPTER XX Y. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 T HE Quakers were greatly encouraged with the success of their col¬ 
 onies in West New Jersey. The prospect of establishing on the 
 banks of the Delaware a free State, founded on the principle of universal 
 brotherhood, kindled a new enthusiasm in the mind of William Penn. 
 For more than a quarter of a century the Friends had been buffeted with 
 shameful persecutions. Imprisonment, exile and proscription had been 
 their constant portion, but had not sufficed to abate their zeal or to 
 quench their hopes of the future. The lofty purpose and philanthropic 
 spirit of Penn urged him to find for his afflicted people an asylum of rest. 
 In June of 1680 he went boldly to King Charles, and petitioned for a 
 grant of territory and the privilege of founding a Quaker commonwealth 
 in the New World. 
 
 The petition was seconded by powerful friends in Parliament. 
 Lords North and Halifax and the earl of Sunderland favored the propo¬ 
 sition, and the duke of York remembered a pledge of assistance which he 
 had given to Penn’s father. On the 5th of March, 1681, a charter was 
 granted; the great seal of England, with the signature of Charles II., was 
 affixed; and William Penn became the proprietor of Pennsylvania. 
 The vast domain embraced under the new patent was bounded on the 
 east by the river Delaware, extended north and south over three degrees 
 of latitude, and westward through five degrees of longitude. Only the 
 three counties comprising the present State of Delaware were reserved for 
 the duke of York. 
 
 In consideration of this grant, Penn relinquished a claim of sixteen 
 thousand pounds sterling which the British government owed to his 
 father’s estate. He declared that his objects were to found a free com¬ 
 monwealth without respect to the color, race or religion of the inhabitants; 
 to subdue the natives with no other weapons than love and justice; to 
 establish a refuge for the people of his own faith; and to enlarge the 
 borders of the British empire. One of the first acts of the great propri¬ 
 etor was to address a letter to the Swedes who might be included within 
 
210 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the limits of his province, telling them to be of good cheer, to keep their 
 homes, make their own laws and fear no oppression. 
 
 Within a month from the date of his charter, Penn published to the 
 English nation a glowing account of his new country beyond the Del¬ 
 aware, praising the beauty of the scenery and salubrity of the climate, 
 promising freedom of conscience and equal rights, and inviting emigra¬ 
 tion. There was an immediate and hearty response. In the course of 
 the summer three shiploads of Quaker emigrants left England for the 
 land of promise. William Markham, agent of the proprietor, came as 
 leader of the company and deputy-governor of the province. He was 
 instructed by Penn to rule in accordance with law, to deal justly with all 
 men, and especially to make a league of friendship with the Indians. In 
 October of the same year the anxious proprietor sent a letter directly to 
 the natives of the territory, assuring them of his honest purposes and 
 brotherly affection. 
 
 The next care of Penn was to draw up a frame of government for 
 his province. Herein was his great temptation. He had almost ex¬ 
 hausted his father’s estate in aiding the persecuted Quakers. A stated 
 revenue would be very necessary in conducting his administration. His 
 proprietary rights under the charter were so ample that he might easily 
 reserve for himself large prerogatives and great emoluments in the govern¬ 
 ment. He had before him the option of being a consistent, honest 
 Quaker or a politic, wealthy governor. He chose like a man ; right 
 triumphed over riches. The constitution which he framed was liberal 
 almost to a fault; and the people were allowed to adopt or reject it as 
 they might deem proper. 
 
 In the mean time, the duke of York had been induced to surrender 
 his claim to the three reserved counties on the Delaware. The whole 
 country on the western bank of the bay and river, from the open ocean 
 below Cape Henlopen to the forty-third degree of north latitude, was now 
 under the dominion of Penn. The summer of 1682 was spent in 
 further preparation. The proprietor wrote a touching letter of farewell 
 to the Friends in England; gathered a large company of emigrants; em¬ 
 barked for America; and on the 27th of October landed at New Castle, 
 where the people were waiting to receive him. 
 
 William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia, was born on the 14th 
 of October, 1644. He was the oldest son of Vice-Admiral Sir William 
 Penn of the British navy. At the age of twelve he was sent to the 
 University of Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a student until 
 he was expelled on account of his religious opinions. Afterward he 
 traveled on the Continent; was again a student at Saumur : returned to 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 211 
 
 study law at London; went to Ireland; became a soldier; heard the 
 preaching of Loe and was converted to the Quaker faith. His disap¬ 
 pointed and angry 
 father drove him 
 out of doors, but 
 he was not to be 
 turned from his 
 course. He pub¬ 
 licly proclaimed 
 the doctrines of the 
 Friends; was ar¬ 
 rested and impris¬ 
 oned for nine 
 months in the Tow¬ 
 er of London. Be¬ 
 ing released, he re¬ 
 peated the offence, 
 and lay for half a 
 year in a dungeon 
 at Newgate. A 
 second time liber¬ 
 ated, but despair¬ 
 ing of toleration for 
 his people in Eng¬ 
 land, he cast his 
 
 gaze across the Atlantic. West Jersey was purchased ; but the boundary 
 was narrow, and the great-souled proprietor sought a grander and more 
 beautiful domain. His petition was heard with favor and the charter of' 
 Pennsylvania granted by King Charles. Colonists came teeming; and 
 now the Quaker king himself, without pomp or parade, without the dis¬ 
 charge of cannon or vainglorious ceremony, was come to New Castle to 
 found a government on the basis of fraternity and peace. It was fitting 
 that he should call the new republic a holy experiment. 
 
 As soon as the landing was effected, Penn delivered an affectionate 
 and cheerful address to the crowd of Swedes, Dutch and English who 
 came to greet him. His former pledges of a liberal and just government 
 were publicly renewed, and the people were exhorted to sobriety and 
 honesty. From New Castle the governor ascended the Delaware to Ches¬ 
 ter; passed the site of Philadelphia; visited the settlements of West New 
 Jersey; and thence traversed East Jersey to Long Island and New York. 
 After spending some time at the capital of his friend, the duke of York, 
 
 WILLIAM PENN. 
 
212 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and speaking words of cheer to the Quakers about Brooklyn, he returned 
 to his own province and began his duties as chief magistrate. 
 
 Markham, the deputy-governor, had been instructed to establish 
 fraternal relations with the Indians. Before Penn’s arrival treaties had 
 been made, lands purchased, and pledges of friendship given between the 
 Friends and the Red men. Now a great conference was appointed with the 
 native chiefs. All the sachems of the Lenni Lenapes and other neighbor¬ 
 ing tribes were invited to assemble. The council was held on the banks 
 of the Delaware under the open sky. Penn, accompanied by a few un¬ 
 armed friends, clad in the simple garb of the Quakers, came to the ap¬ 
 pointed spot and took his station under a venerable elm, now leafless; for 
 it was winter. The chieftains, also unarmed, sat, after the manner of 
 their race, in a semicircle on the ground. It was not Penn’s object to 
 purchase lands, to provide for the interests of trade or to make a formal 
 treaty, but rather to assure the untutored children of the woods of his 
 honest purposes and brotherly affection. Standing before them with 
 grave demeanor and speaking by an interpreter, he said : “ My Friends : 
 We have met on the broad pathway of good faith. We are all one flesh' 
 and blood. Being brethren, no advantage shall be taken on either side. 
 When disputes arise, we will settle them in council. Between us there 
 shall be nothing but openness and love.” The chiefs replied: “While 
 the rivers run and the sun shines we will live in peace with the children 
 of William Penn,” 
 
 No record was made of the treaty, for none was needed. Its terms 
 were written, not on decaying parchment, but on the living hearts of 
 men. No deed ol violence or injustice ever marred the sacred covenant. 
 The Indians vied with the Quakers in keeping unbroken the pledge of 
 perpetual peace. For more than seventy years during which the province 
 remained under the control of the Friends, not a single war-whoop was 
 heard within the borders of Pennsylvania. The Quaker hat and coat 
 proved to be a better defence for the wearer than coat-of-mail and 
 musket. 
 
 On the 4th of December, 1682, a general convention was held at 
 Chester. The object was to complete the territorial legislation—a work 
 which occupied three days. At the conclusion of the session, Penn , de¬ 
 livered an address to the assembly, and then hastened to the Chesapeake 
 to confer with Lord Baltimore about the boundaries of their respective 
 provinces. After a month’s absence he returned to Chester and busied 
 himself with drawing a map of his proposed capital. The beautiful neck 
 of land between the Schuylkill and the Delaware was selected and put- 
 chased of the Swedes. In February of 1683 the native chestnuts, wal- 
 
PENNS YL VANIA. 
 
 213 
 
 nuts and ashes were blazed to indicate the lines of the streets, and Phil¬ 
 adelphia—City of Brotherly Love— was founded. Within a 
 month a general assembly was in session at the new capital. The people 
 were eager that their Charter of Liberties, now to be framed, should be 
 dated at Philadelphia. The work of 
 legislation was begun and a form of 
 government adopted which was essen¬ 
 tially a representative democracy. The 
 officers were the governor, a 
 council consisting of a limited number 
 
 years, 
 
 , to be 
 
 annually elected. Penn conceded 
 everything to the people; but the 
 power of vetoing objectionable acts of 
 the council was left in his hands. 
 
 The growth of Philadelphia _ 
 
 was astonishing. In the summer of Philadelphia and vicinity. 
 
 1683 there were only three or four 
 
 houses. The ground-squirrels still lived in their burrows, and the wild 
 deer ran through the town without alarm. In 1685 the city contained 
 six hundred houses; the schoolmaster had come and the printing-press 
 had begun its work. In another year Philadelphia had outgrown New 
 York. Penn’s work of establishing a free State in America had been 
 well and nobly done. In August of 1684 he took an affectionate fare¬ 
 well of his flourishing colony, and sailed for England. Thomas Lloyd 
 was appointed as president during the absence of the proprietor, and five 
 commissioners, members of the provincial council, were chosen to assist 
 in the government. 
 
 Nothing occurred to disturb the peace of Pennsylvania until the 
 secession of Delaware in 1691. The three lower counties, which, ever 
 since the arrival of Penn, had been united on terms of equality with the 
 six counties of Pennsylvania, became dissatisfied with some acts of the 
 general assembly and insisted on a separation. The proprietor gave a 
 reluctant consent; Delaware withdrew from the union and received a 
 separate deputy-governor. Such was the condition of affairs after the 
 abdication of King James II. 
 
 William Penn was a friend and favorite of the Stuart kings. It 
 was from Charles II. that he had received the charter of Pennsylvania. 
 Now that the royal house was overthrown, he sympathized with the fallen 
 monarch and looked with coldness on the new sovereigns, William and 
 
 of riiembers chosen for three 
 and a larger popular assembly 
 
214 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mary. For some real or supposed adherence to the cause of the exiled 
 James II., Penn was several times arrested and imprisoned. In 1692 
 his proprietary rights were taken away, and by a royal commission the 
 government of Pennsylvania was transferred to Fletcher of New York. 
 In the following year Delaware shared the same fate; all the provinces 
 between Connecticut and Maryland were consolidated under Fletcher’s 
 authority. In the mean time, the suspicions against Penn’s loyalty were 
 found to be groundless, and he was restored to his rights as governor of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 In December of 1699, Penn again visited his American common¬ 
 wealth, now grown into a State. The prosperity of the province wife all 
 that could be desired; but the people were somewhat dissatisfied with the 
 forms of government. The lower counties were again embittered against 
 the acts of the assembly. In order to restore peace and harmony, the 
 benevolent proprietor drew up another constitution, more liberal than the 
 first, extending the powers of the people and omitting the objectionable 
 features of the former charter. But Delaware had fallen into chronic 
 discontent, and would not accept the new frame of government. In 1702 
 the general assemblies of the two provinces were convened apart; and in 
 the following year Delaware and Pennsylvania were finally separated. 
 But the rights of Penn as proprietor of the whole territory remained as 
 before, and a common governor continued to preside over both colonies. 
 
 In the winter of 1701, William Penn bade a final adieu to his 
 friends in America and returned to England. He left Pennsylvania 
 in a state of peace and prosperity. Though there was not a single fort 
 within her borders, the province had been secure against invasion. 
 With neither police nor militia, the people went abroad in safety. 
 With no difference in rank, no preference in matters of opinion, and 
 no proscription for religion’s sake, the colony flourished and waxed 
 strong. But the English ministers had now formed the design of 
 abolishing all the proprietary governments, with a view to the estab¬ 
 lishment of royal governments instead. The presence and influence 
 of Penn were especially required in England in order to prevent the 
 success of the ministerial scheme. After much controversy his rights 
 were recognized and secured against encroachment. In the mean 
 time, the affairs of Pennsylvania were administered by the deputy- 
 governors, Andrew Hamilton and John Evans. The latter, a worldly 
 sort of man, not very faithful to the principles of the Friends, greatly 
 troubled the province by purchasing warlike stores, building forts, 
 and attempting to organize a regiment of militia. The assembly en¬ 
 tered a strong protest against these proceedings, so irreconcilable with 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 215 
 
 the policy of the Quakers, and in 1708 Evans was removed from 
 office. After him Charles Gookin received a commission as dep- 
 uty-governor and entered upon his administration in 1709. Soon 
 afterwards Penn was well-nigh overwhelmed by the rascality of his 
 English agent. Ford, who first involved him in debt and then had 
 him imprisoned. From a shameful confinement of many months he 
 was finally released, and his old age was brightened by a gleam of 
 prosperity. But the end of his labors was at hand. In July of 1718 
 the magnanimous founder of Pennsylvania sank to his final rest. His 
 estates, vast and valuable, but much encumbered with debt, were be¬ 
 queathed to his three sons, John, Thomas and Richard, who thus be¬ 
 came proprietors of Pennsylvania. By them, or their deputies, the 
 province was governed until the American Revolution. In the year 
 1779 the entire claims of the Penn family to the soil and jurisdiction 
 of the State were purchased by the legislature of Pennsylvania for a 
 hundred and thirty thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 The colonial history of the State founded by William Penn and 
 the Quakers is one of special interest and pleasure. It is a narrative 
 that recounts the victories of peace and the triumph of the nobler 
 virtues over violence and wrong. It is doubtful whether the history 
 of any other colony in the world is touched with so many traits of 
 innocence and truth. When the nations grow mercenary and the 
 times seem full of fraud, the early annals of Pennsylvania may well 
 be recited as a perpetual protest against the seeming success of evil. 
 u I will found a free colony for all mankind,” were the words of 
 William Penn. How well his work was done shall be fitly told 
 when the bells of his capital city shall ring out the first glad notes 
 of American Independence. 
 
 16 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY. —Continued. 
 
 MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 C APTAIN JOHN SMITH was the first white man to explore the 
 Chesapeake and its tributaries. After him, in 1621, William Clay- 
 borne, a resolute and daring English surveyor, was sent out by the 
 London Company to make a map of the country about the head-waters 
 of the bay. By the second charter of Virginia the territory of that 
 province had been extended on the north to the forty-first parallel of 
 latitude. All of the present State of Maryland was included in this 
 enlargement, which also embraced the whole of Delaware and the greater 
 part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The ambition of Virginia was 
 greatly excited by the possession of this vast domain; to explore and 
 occupy it was an enterprise of the highest importance. 
 
 Clay borne was a member of the council of Virginia, and secretary 
 of state in that colony. In May of 1631 he received a royal commission 
 authorizing him to discover the sources of the Chesapeake Bay, to survc' 
 the country as far as the forty-first degree of latitude, to establish a trade 
 with the Indians, and to exercise the right of government over the com¬ 
 panions of his voyage. This commission was confirmed by Governor 
 Harvey of Virginia, and in the spring of the following year Clayborne 
 began his important and arduous work. The members of the London 
 Company were already gathering imaginary riches from the immense fur- 
 trade of the Potomac and the Susquehanna. 
 
 The enterprise of Clayborne was attended with success. A trading- 
 post was established on Kent Island, and another at the head of the bay, 
 in the vicinity of Havre de Grace. The many rivers that fall into the 
 Chesapeake were again explored and a trade opened with the natives. 
 The limits of A irginia were about to be extended to the borders of New 
 
 Netherland. But in the mean time, a train of circumstances had been 
 ( 216 ) 
 
MAH VLAND. 
 
 217 
 
 prepared in England by which the destiny of several American provinces 
 was completely changed. As in many other instances, religious perse¬ 
 cution again contributed to lay the foundation of a new State in the 
 wilderness. And Sir George Calvert, of 1 l orkshire, was the man who 
 was destined to become the founder. Born in 1580; educated at Oxford; 
 a man of much travel and vast experience; an ardent and devoted Cath¬ 
 olic; a friend of hu¬ 
 manity ; honored with 
 knighthood, and after¬ 
 ward with an Irish 
 peerage and the title 
 of Lord Baltimore, 
 —he now in middle 
 life turned aside from 
 the dignities of rank 
 and affluence to devote 
 the energies of his life 
 to the welfare of the 
 oppressed. For the 
 Catholics of England, 
 as well as the dissent¬ 
 ing Protestants, were 
 afflicted with many 
 and bitter persecu¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Lord Baltimore’s 
 first American enter- 
 lord BALTIMORE. prise was the planting 
 
 of a Catholic colony 
 
 in Newfoundland. King James, who was not unfriendly to the Roman 
 Church, had granted him a patent for the southern promontory of the 
 island; and here, in 1623, a refuge was established for distressed Cath¬ 
 olics. But in such a place no colony could be successful. The district 
 was narrow, cheerless, desolate. Profitable industry was impossible. 
 French ships hovered around the coast and captured the English fishing- 
 boats. It became evident that the settlement must be removed, and Lord 
 Baltimore wisely turned his attention to the sunny country of the Ches¬ 
 apeake. 
 
 In 1629 he made a visit to Virginia. The general assembly offered 
 him citizenship on condition that he would take an oath of allegiance; 
 but the oath was of such a sort as no honest Catholic could subscribe to. 
 
218 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In vain did Sir George plead for toleration ; the assembly was inexorable. 
 It was on the part of the Virginians a short-sighted and ruinous policy. 
 For the London Company had already been dissolved; the king might 
 therefore rightfully regrant that vast territory north of the Potomac 
 which by the terms of the second charter had been given to Virginia. 
 I/ord Baltimore left the narrow-minded legislators, returned to London, 
 himself drew up a charter for a new State on the Chesapeake, and easily 
 induced his friend, King Charles I., to sign it. The Virginians had 
 saved their religion and lost a province. \ 
 
 The territory embraced by th| new patent was bounded by the 
 ocean, by the fortieth parallel of latitude, by a line drawn due south from 
 that parallel to the most western fountain of the Potomac, by the river 
 itself from its source to the bay, and by a line running due east from the 
 mouth of the river to the Atlantic. The domain included the whole of 
 the present States of Maryland and Delaware and a large part of Penn¬ 
 sylvania and New Jersey. Here it was the purpose of the magnanimous 
 proprietor to establish an asylum for all the afflicted of his own faith, and 
 to plant a State on the broad basis of religious toleration and popular lib¬ 
 erty. The provisions of the charter were the most liberal and ample which 
 had ever received the sanction of the English government. Christianity 
 was declared to be the religion of the State, but no preference was given 
 to any sect or creed. The lives and property of the colonists were care¬ 
 fully guarded. Free trade was declared to be the law of the province, 
 and arbitrary taxation was forbidden. The rights of the proprietor ex¬ 
 tended only to the free appointment of the officers of his government. The 
 power of making and amending the laws was conceded to the freemen of 
 the colony or their representatives. 
 
 One calamity darkened the prospect. Before the liberal patent could 
 receive the seal of State Sir George Calvert died. His title and estates 
 descended to his son Cecil; and to him, on the 20th of June, 1632, the 
 charter which had been intended for his noble father was finally issued. 
 In honor of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France and 
 wife of Charles I., the name of Maryland was conferred on the new 
 province. Independence of Virginia was guaranteed in the constitution 
 of the colony, and no danger was to be anticipated from the feeble forces 
 of New Netherland. It only remained for the younger Lord Baltimore 
 to raise a company of emigrants and carry out his father’s benevolent 
 designs. The work went forward slowly, and it was not until November 
 of 1633 that a colony numbering two hundred persons could be collected. 
 Meanwhile, Cecil Calvert had abandoned the idea of coming in person to 
 America, and had appointed his brother Leonard to accompany the col- 
 
MARYLAND. 
 
 219 
 
 onists to their destination, and to act as deputy-governor of the new 
 province. 
 
 In March of the following year the immigrants arrived at Old 
 Point Comfort. Leonard Calvert bore a letter from King Charles to 
 Governor Harvey of Virginia, commanding him to receive the new¬ 
 comers with courtesy and favor. The order was complied with ; but the 
 Virginians could look only with intense jealousy on a movement which 
 must soon deprive them of the rich fur-trade of the Chesapeake. The 
 colonists proceeded up the bay and entered the Potomac. At the mouth 
 of Piscataway Creek, nearly opposite Mount Vernon, the pinnace was 
 moored, and a cross was set up on an island. On the present site of Fort 
 Washington there was an Indian village whose inhabitants came out to 
 meet the English. A conference was held, and the sachem of the nation 
 told Leonard Calvert in words of dubious meaning that he and his colony 
 might stay or go just as they pleased. Considering this answer as a 
 menace, and deeming it imprudent to plant his first settlement so far up 
 the river, Calvert again embarked with his companions, and dropped down 
 stream to the mouth of the St. Mary’s, within fifteen miles of the bay. 
 Ascending the estuary for about ten miles, he came to an Indian town. 
 The natives had been beaten in battle by the Susquehannas, and were on 
 the eve of migrating into the inferior. The village was already half 
 deserted. With the consent of the Red men, the English moved into the 
 vacant huts. The rest of the town was purchased, with the adjacent ter¬ 
 ritory, the Indians promising to give possession at the opening of the 
 spring. The name of St. Maby’s was given to this the oldest colony of 
 Maryland, and the name of the river was changed to St. George’s. 
 
 Calvert treated the natives with great liberality. The consequence 
 was that the settlers had peace and plenty. The Indian women taught 
 the wives of the English how to make corn-bread, and the friendly war¬ 
 riors instructed the colonists in the mysteries of hunting. Game was 
 abundant. The lands adjacent to the village were already under cultiva¬ 
 tion. The settlers had little to do but to plant their gardens and fields 
 and wait for the coming harvest. There was neither anxiety nor want. 
 The dream of Sir George Calvert was realized. Within six months the 
 colony of St. Mary’s had grown into greater prosperity than the settle¬ 
 ment at Jamestown had reached in as many years. Best of all, the pledge 
 of civil liberty and religious toleration was redeemed to the letter. Two 
 years before the founding of Rhode Island the Catholics of the Ches¬ 
 apeake had emancipated the human conscience, built an asylum for the 
 distressed, and laid the foundations of a free State. 
 
 Within less than a year after the founding of St. Mary’s the free- 
 
220 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 men were convened in a general assembly. In February of 1635 the 
 work of colonial legislation was first begun. The records of this and 
 several succeeding sessions were destroyed in the rebellion of 1645, 
 and not much is known concerning the character of the earliest laws. 
 But it is certain that the province was involved in difficulty For Clay- 
 borne still stood his ground on Kent Island, and openly resisted Lord 
 Baltimore’s authority. His settlement on the island was almost as strong 
 as the colony at St. Mary’s; and Clayborne, unscrupulous as to the 
 right, and confident in his power, resolved to appeal to arms. In 1637 
 a bloody skirmish occurred on the banks of the river Wicomico, on the 
 eastern shore of the bay. Several lives were lost, but the insurgents were 
 defeated. Calvert’s forces proceeded to Kent Island, overpowered the 
 settlement, and executed one or two persons who had participated in the 
 rebellion. 
 
 Clayborne, in the mean time, had escaped into Virginia. The 
 assembly of Maryland demanded the fugitive; but the governor refused, 
 and sent the prisoner to England for trial. The legislators of St. Mary’s 
 charged the absent criminal with murder and piracy, tried him, con¬ 
 demned him and confiscated his estates. Clayborne, who was safe in 
 England, appealed to the king. The cause was heard by a committee of 
 Parliament, and it was decided that the commission of Clayborne, which 
 was only a license to trade in the Chesapeake, had been annulled by the 
 dissolution of the London Company, and that the charter of Lord Balti¬ 
 more was valid against all opposing claimants. Clayborne, however, was 
 allowed to go at large. 
 
 In 1639 a regular representative government was established in 
 Maryland. Hitherto a system of popular democracy had prevailed in the 
 province; each freeman had been allowed a vote in determining the laws. 
 With the growth of the colony it was deemed expedient to substitute the 
 more convenient method of representation. When the delegates came 
 together, a declaration of rights was adopted, and the prerogative of the 
 proprietor more clearly defined. All the broad and liberal principles of 
 the colonial patent were reaffirmed. The powers of the assembly were 
 made coextensive with those of the House of Commons in England. 
 The rights of citizenship were declared to be identical with those of Eng¬ 
 lish subjects in the mother country. 
 
 The Indians of Maryland and Virginia had now grown jealous of 
 foreign encroachments. Vague rumors of the English Revolution had 
 been borne to the Red men, and they believed themselves able to expel 
 the intruders from the country. In 1642 hostilities were begnui on the 
 Potomac, and for two years the province was involved in war. But the 
 
MARYLAND. 
 
 221 
 
 settlements of Maryland were few and compact, and no great suffering 
 was occasioned by the onsets of the barbarians. In 1644 the savages 
 agreed to bury the hatchet and to renew the broken pledges of friendship. 
 Hardly, however, had the echo of Indian warfare died away, when the 
 colony was visited with a worse calamity by the return of its old enemy, 
 William Clayborne. 
 
 He came to find revenge, and found it. The king was now at 
 war with his subjects, and could give no aid to the proprietor of an 
 American province. Clayborne saw his opportunity, hurried to Mary¬ 
 land, and raised the standard of rebellion. Arriving in the province in 
 1644, he began to sow the seeds of sedition by telling the restless and 
 lawless spirits of the colony that they were wronged and oppressed by a 
 usurping government. Early in 1645 an insurrection broke out. Com¬ 
 panies of desperate men came together, and found in Clayborne a natural 
 leader. The government of Leonard Calvert was overthrown, and the 
 governor obliged to fly for his life. Escaping from the province, he found 
 refuge and protection with Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. Clayborne 
 seized the colonial records of Maryland, and destroyed them. One act of 
 violence followed another. The government was usurped, and for more 
 than a year the colony was under the dominion of the insurgents. Mean¬ 
 while, however, Governor Calvert collected his forces, returned to the 
 province, defeated the rebels, and in August of 1646 succeeded in restor¬ 
 ing his authority. It marks the mild and humane spirit of the Calverts 
 that those engaged in this unjustifiable insurrection were pardoned by a 
 general amnesty. 
 
 The acts of the provincial legislature in 1649 were of special im¬ 
 portance. It was enacted in broad terms that no person believing in the 
 fundamental doctrines of Christianity should, on account of his religious 
 opinions or practices, be in any wise distressed within the borders of 
 Maryland. It was declared a finable offence for citizens to apply to each 
 other the opprobrious names used in religious controversy. Freedom of 
 conscience was reiterated with a distinctness that could not be misunder¬ 
 stood. While Massachusetts was attempting by proscription to establish 
 Puritanism as the faith of New England, and while the Episcopalians of 
 Jamestown were endeavoring by exclusive legislation to make the Church 
 of England the Church of Virginia, Maryland was joining with Rhode 
 Island and Connecticut in proclaiming religious freedom. It sometimes 
 happened in those days that Protestants escaping from Protestants found 
 an asylum with the Catholic colonists of the Chesapeake. 
 
 In 1650 the legislative body of Maryland was divided into two 
 branches. The upper house consisted of the governor and members of 
 
222 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his council appointed by the proprietor. The lower house, or general 
 assembly, was composed of burgesses elected by the people of the province. 
 Again the rights of Lord Baltimore were carefully defined by provincial 
 law. An act was also passed declaring that no taxes should be levied 
 without the consent of the assembly. Such was the condition of affairs 
 in the colony when the commonwealth was established in England. Par¬ 
 liament was now the supreme power in the mother country, and it could 
 hardly be expected that Lord Baltimore’s charter would be allowed to 
 stand. 
 
 In 1651 parliamentary commissioners were appointed to come to 
 America and assume control of the colonies bordering on the Chesapeake. 
 Clayborne was a member of the body thus appointed. When the com¬ 
 missioners arrived in Maryland, Stone, the deputy of Lord Baltimore, 
 was deposed from office. A compromise was presently effected between 
 the adherents of the proprietor and the opposing faction; and in June of 
 the following year, Stone, with three members of his council, was per¬ 
 mitted to resume the government. In April of 1653 the Long Par¬ 
 liament, by whose authority the commissioners had been appointed, was 
 dissolved. Stone thereupon published a proclamation declaring that the 
 recent interference of Clayborne and his associates had been a rebellious 
 usurpation. Clayborne, enraged at this proclamation, collected’ a force in 
 Virginia, returned into Maryland, again drove Stone out of office, and 
 entrusted the government to ten commissioners appointed by himself. 
 
 The Puritan and republican party in Maryland had now grown 
 sufficiently strong to defy the proprietor and the Catholics. A Protestant 
 assembly was convened at Patuxent in October of 1654. The first act 
 was to acknowledge the supremacy of Cromwell; the next to disfranchise 
 the Catholics and to deprive them of the protection of the laws. The un¬ 
 grateful representatives seemed to forget that if Lord Baltimore had been 
 equally intolerant not one of them would have had even a residence 
 within the limits of Maryland. It would be difficult to find a more 
 odious piece of legislation than that of the assembly at Patuxent. Of 
 course the Catholic party would not submit to a code by which they were 
 virtually banished from their own province. 
 
 Civil war ensued. Governor Stone organized and armed the 
 militia, seized the records of the colony, and marched against the oppos¬ 
 ing forces. A decisive battle was fought just across the estuary from the 
 present site of Annapolis. The Catholics were defeated, with a loss of 
 fifty men in killed and wounded. Stone himself was taken prisoner, and 
 was only saved from death by the personal friendship of some of the in¬ 
 solent* Three of the Catholic leaders were tried by a court-martial 
 
 
I 
 
 • MARYLAND. 223 
 
 and executed. Cromwell paid but little attention to these atrocities, and 
 made no effort to sustain the government of Lord Baltimore. 
 
 In 1656 Josias Fendall, a weak and impetuous man, was sent out 
 by the proprietor as governor of the province. There was now a Cath¬ 
 olic insurrection with Fendall at the head. For two years the govern¬ 
 ment was divided, the Catholics exercising authority at St. Mary’s, and 
 the Protestants at Leonardstown. At length, in March of 1658, a com¬ 
 promise was effected; Fendall was acknowledged as governor, and the 
 acts of the recent Protestant assemblies were recognized as valid. A gen¬ 
 eral amnesty was published, and the colony was again at peace. 
 
 When the death of Cromwell was announced in Maryland, the 
 provincial authorities were much perplexed. One of four courses might 
 be pursued: Richard Cromwell might be recognized as protector; Charles 
 II. might be proclaimed as king; Lord Baltimore might be acknowledged 
 as hereditary proprietor; colonial independence might be declared. The 
 latter policy was adopted by the assembly. On the 12th of March, 1660, 
 the rights of Lord Baltimore were formally set aside; the provincial 
 council was dissolved, and the whole power of government was assumed 
 by the House of Burgesses. The act of independence was adopted just 
 one day before a similar resolution was passed by the general assembly of 
 Virginia. The population of Maryland had now reached ten thousand. 
 
 On the restoration of monarchy the rights of the Baltimores were 
 again recognized, and Philip Calvert was sent out as deputy-governor. In 
 the mean time, Fendall had resigned his trust as agent of the proprietor, 
 and had accepted an election by the people. He was now repaid for his 
 double-dealing with an arrest, a trial and a condemnation on a charge 
 of treason. Nothing saved his life but the clemency of Lord Baltimore, 
 who, with his customary magnanimity, proclaimed a general pardon. 
 
 Sir Cecil Calvert died in 1675, and his son Charles, a young man 
 who had inherited the virtues of the illustrious family, succeeded to the 
 estates and title of Baltimore. For sixteen years he exercised the rights 
 of proprietary governor of Maryland. The laws of the province were 
 carefully revised, and the liberal principles of the original charter re¬ 
 affirmed as the basis of the State. Only once during this period was the 
 happiness of the colony disturbed. When the news arrived of the abdi¬ 
 cation of King James II., the deputy of Lord Baltimore hesitated to 
 acknowledge the new sovereigns, William and Mary. An absurd rumor * 
 
 was spread abroad that the Catholics had leagued with the Indians for 
 the purpose of destroying the Protestants of Maryland in a general mas¬ 
 sacre. An opposing force was organized; and in 1689 the Catholic party 
 was compelled to surrender the government. For two years the Protest- 
 
224 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED' STATES. 
 
 ants held the province, and civil authority was exercised by a body called 
 the Convention of Associates. 
 
 On the 1st day of June, 1691, the government of Maryland was 
 revolutionized by the act of King William. The charter of Lord Balti¬ 
 more was arbitrarily taken away, and a royal governor appointed over the 
 province. Sir Lionel Copley received a commission, and assumed the 
 government in 1692. Every vestige of the old patent was swept away. 
 The Episcopal Church was established by law and supported by taxation. 
 Religious toleration was abolished and the government administered on 
 despotic principles. This condition of affairs continued until 1715, when 
 Queen Anne was induced to restore the heir of Lord Baltimore to the 
 rights of his ancestor. Maryland again became a proprietary government 
 under the authority of the Calverts, and so remained until the Revolu¬ 
 tionary war. 
 
 The early history of the colony planted by the first Lord Balti¬ 
 more on the shores of the Chesapeake is full of profitable instruction. In 
 no other American province were the essential vices of intolerance more 
 clearly manifested; in no other did the principle of religious freedom 
 shine with a brighter lustre. Nor will the thoughtful student fail to 
 observe how the severe dogmas of Catholicism were softened down when 
 brought into contact with the ennobling virtues of the Calverts, until over 
 river and bay and shore a mellow light was diffused like a halo shining 
 from the altars of the ancient Church. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 T HE first effort to colonize North Carolina was made by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. In 1630 an immense tract lying between the thirtieth and 
 the thirty-sixth parallels of latitude was granted by King Charles to Sir 
 Robert Heath. But neither the proprietor nor his successor, Lord Mal- 
 travers, succeeded in planting a colony. After a useless existence of 
 thirty-three years, the patent was revoked by the English sovereign. The 
 only effect of Sir Robert’s charter was to perpetuate the name of Carolina, 
 which had been given to the country by John Ribault in 1562. 
 
 In the year 1622 the country as fin.' south as the river Chowan was 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 225 
 
 explored by Pory, the secretary of Virginia. Twenty years later a com¬ 
 pany of Virginians obtained leave of the assembly to prosecute discovery 
 on the lower Roanoke and establish a trade with the natives. The first 
 actual settlement was made near the mouth of the Chowan about the year 
 1651. The country" was visited just afterward by Clayborne of Maryland, 
 and in 1661 a company of Puritans from New England passed down the 
 coast, entered the mouth of Cape Fear River, purchased lands of the 
 Indians and established a colony on Oldtown Creek, nearly two hundred 
 miles farther south than any other English settlement. In 1663 Lord 
 Clarendon, General Monk, who was now honored with the title of duke 
 of Albemarle, and six other noblemen, received at the hands of Charles 
 II. a patent for all the country between the thirty-sixth parallel and the 
 river St. John’s, in Florida. With this grant the colonial history of 
 North Carolina properly begins. 
 
 In the same year a civil government Avas organized by the settlers 
 on the Chowan. William Drummond Avas chosen governor, and the 
 name of Albemarle County Colony was gi\ r en to the district border¬ 
 ing on the sound. In 1665 it Avas found that the settlement Avas north 
 of the thirty-sixth parallel, and consequently beyond the limits of the 
 province. To remedy this defect the grant Avas extended on the north to 
 thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes, the present boundary of Virginia, 
 and AvestA\ r ard to the Pacific. - During the same year the little Puritan 
 colony on Cape Fear River Avas broken up by the Indians; but scarcely 
 had this been done when the site of the settlement, with thirty-two miles 
 square of the surrounding territory, was purchased by a company of 
 planters from Barbadoes. A neAv county named Clarendon Avas laid 
 out, and Sir John Yeamans elected governor of the colony. The pro¬ 
 prietors favored the settlement; immigration Avas rapid; and Avithin a year 
 eight hundred people had settled along the river. 
 
 The work of preparing a frame of government for the new province 
 was assigned to Sir Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury. The proprietors, 
 not Avithout reason, looked forward to the time Avhen a powerful nation 
 should arise Avithin the borders of their vast domain. To draft a suitable 
 constitution Avas deemed a Avork of the greatest importance. Shaftesbury 
 was a brilliant and versatile statesman who had entire confidence in his 
 abilities; but in order to give complete assurance of perfection in the 
 proposed statutes, the philosopher John Locke Avas employed by Sir 
 Ashley and his associates to prepare the constitution, The legislation of 
 the world furnishes no parallel for the pompous absurdity of Locke’s 
 performance. 
 
 From March until July of 1669 the philosopher Avorked away in 
 16 
 
•226 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the preparation of his Grand Model ; then the mighty instrument was 
 done, and signed. It contained a hundred and twenty articles, called the 
 “ Fundamental Constitutionsand this was but the beginning of the im¬ 
 perial scheme which was to stand like a colossus over the huts and pas- 
 • tures along the Cape Fear and Chowan Rivers. The empire of Carolina 
 was divided into vast districts of four hundred and eighty thousand acres 
 each. Political rights were made dependent upon hereditary wealth. 
 The offices were put beyond the reach of the people. There were two 
 grand orders of nobility. There were dukes, earls and marquises; 
 knights, lords and esquires; baronial courts, heraldic ceremony, and 
 every sort of feudal nonsense that the human imagination could conceive 
 of. And this was the magnificent constitution which a great statesman 
 and a wise philosopher had planned for the government of a few colonists 
 who lived on venison and potatoes and paid their debts with tobacco! 
 
 It was one thing to make the grand model, and another thing to get 
 it across the Atlantic. In this the proprietors never succeeded. All at¬ 
 tempts to establish the pompous scheme of government ended in necessary 
 failure. The settlers of Albemarle and Clarendon had meanwhile learned 
 to govern themselves after the simple manner of pioneers, and they could 
 but regard the model and its authors with disdainful contempt. After 
 twenty years of fruitless effort, Shaftesbury and his associates folded up 
 their grand constitution and concluded that an empire in the pine forests 
 of North Carolina was impossible. 
 
 The soil of Clarendon county was little better than a desert. For a 
 while a trade in staves and furs supplied a profitable industry; but when 
 this traffic was exhausted, the colonists began to remove to other settle¬ 
 ments. In 1671, Governor Yeamans was transferred to the colony which 
 had been founded in the previous year at the mouth of Ashley River, and 
 before the year 1690 the whole county of Clarendon was a second time 
 surrendered to the native tribes. The settlement north of Albemarle 
 Sound was more prosperous, but civil dissension greatly retarded the 
 development of the country. 
 
 For the proprietors were already busy trying to establish their big in¬ 
 stitutions in the feeble province. The humble commerce of the colony was 
 burdened with an odious duty. Every pound of the eight hundred hogs¬ 
 heads of tobacco annually produced was taxed a penny for the benefit of 
 the government. There were at this time less than four thousand people 
 in North Carolina, and yet the traffic of these poor settlers with New 
 England alone was so weighed down with duties as to yield an annual 
 revenue of twelve thousand dollars. Miller, the governor, was a harsh 
 and violent man. A gloomy opposition to the proprietary government 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 227 
 
 pervaded the colony; and when, in 1676, large numbers of refugees from 
 Virginia—patriots who had fought in Bacon’s rebellion—arrived in the 
 Chowan, the spirit of discontent was kindled into open resistance. 
 
 The arrival of a merchant-ship from Boston and an attempt to en¬ 
 force the revenue laws furnished the occasion and pretext of an insurrec¬ 
 tion. The vessel evaded the payment of duty, and was declared a smug¬ 
 gler. But the people flew to arms, seized the governor and six members 
 of his council, overturned the existing order of things and established a 
 new government of their own. John Culpepper, the leader of the insur¬ 
 gents, was chosen governor; other officers were elected by the people; and 
 in a few weeks the colony was as tranquil as if Locke’s grand model had 
 never been heard of. But in the next year, 1679, the imprisoned Mil¬ 
 ler and his associates escaped from confinement, and going to London 
 told a dolorous story about their wrongs and sufferings. The English 
 lords of trade took the matter in hai d, and it seemed that North Carolina 
 was doomed to punishment. 
 
 But the colonists were awake to their interests. Governor Cul¬ 
 pepper went boldly to England to defend himself and to justify the rebel¬ 
 lion. He was seized, indicted for high treason, tried and acquitted by a 
 jury of Englishmen. It marks a peculiar feature of this cause that the 
 sagacious earl of Shaftesbury came forward at the trial and spoke in de¬ 
 fence of the prisoner. But Lord Clarendon was so much vexed at the 
 acquittal of the rebellious governor that he sold his rights as proprietor to 
 the infamous Seth Sothel. This man in 1680 was sent out by his associ¬ 
 ates as governor of the province. In crossing the ocean he was captured 
 by a band of pirates, and for three years the colony was saved from his 
 evil presence. At last, in 1683, he arrived in Carolina and began his 
 work, which consisted in oppressing the people and defrauding the pro¬ 
 prietors. Cranfield of New Hampshire, Cornbury of New York and 
 Wingfield of Virginia were all respectable men in comparison with Sothel, 
 whose sordid passions have made him notorious as the worst colonial gov¬ 
 ernor that ever plundered an American province. After five years of 
 avaricious tyranny, the base, gold-gathering, justice-despising despot was 
 overthrown in an insurrection. *Finding himself a prisoner, and fearing 
 the wrath of the defrauded proprietors more than he feared the indigna¬ 
 tion of the outraged colonists, he begged to be tried by the assembly of 
 the province. The request was granted, and the culprit escaped with a 
 sentence of disfranchisement and a twelve months’ exile from North 
 Carolina. 
 
 Sothel was succeeded in the governorship by Ludwell, who arrived 
 in 1689. His administration of six years' duration was a period of peace 
 
228 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and contentment. The wrongs of his predecessor were corrected as far as 
 possible by a just and humane chief magistrate. In 1695 came Sir John 
 Archdale, another of the proprietors, the rival of Ludwell in prudence 
 and integrity. Then followed the tranquil administration of Governor 
 Henderson Walker; then, in 1704, the foolish attempt of Robert Daniel 
 to establish the Church of England. In the mean time, the colony had 
 grown strong in population and resources. The country south of the 
 Roanoke began to be dotted with farms and hamlets. Other settlers 
 came from Virginia and Maryland. Quakers came from New England 
 and the Delaware. A band of French Huguenots came in 1707. A 
 hundred families*of German refugees, buffeted with war and persecution, 
 left the banks of the Rhine to find a home on the banks of the Ncuse. 
 Peasants from Switzerland came and founded New Berne at the mouth 
 of the River Trent. 
 
 The Indians of North Carolina had gradually wasted away. Pes¬ 
 tilence and strong drink had reduced powerful tribes to a shadow. Some 
 nations were already extinct; others, out of thousands of strong-limbed 
 warriors, had only a dozen men remaining. The lands of the savages had 
 passed to the whites, sometimes by purchase, sometimes by fraud, often 
 by forcible occupation. The natives were jealous and revengeful, but 
 weak. Of all the mighty tribes that had inhabited the Carolinas in the 
 days of Sir Walter Raleigh, only the Corees and the Tuscaroras were 
 still formidable. The time had come when these unhappy nations, like 
 the rest of their race, were doomed to destruction. The conflict which 
 ended, and could only end, in the ruin of the Red men, began in the year 
 1711. 
 
 In September of this year, Lawson, the surveyor-general of North 
 Carolina, ascended the Neuse to explore and map the country. The In¬ 
 dians were alarmed at the threatened encroachment upon their 1 erritory. 
 A band of warriors took Lawson prisoner, led him before their council, 
 condemned him and burned him to death. On the night of the 22<1, com- 
 panies of savages rose out of tile woods, fell upon the scattered settlements 
 between the Roanoke and Pamlico Sound, and murdered a hundred and 
 thirty persons. Civil dissension prevented the colonial authorities from 
 adopting vigorous measures of defence. The protection of the people 
 and the punishment of the barbarians were left to the neighboring prov¬ 
 inces. Spottswood, governor of Virginia, made some unsuccessful efforts 
 to render assistance, and Colonel Barnwell came from South Carolina with 
 a company of militia and a body of friendly Cherokees, Creeks and Cataw- 
 bas. The savages were driven into their fort in the northern part of 
 Craven county, but could not be dislodged. While affairs were in this 
 
.NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 229 
 
 condition a treaty of peace was made; but Barnwell’s men, on their way 
 homeward, violated the compact, sacked an Indian village and made 
 slaves of the inhabitants. The war was at once renewed. 
 
 In September of the next year, while the conflict was yet unde¬ 
 cided, the yellow fever broke out in the country south of Pamlico Sound. 
 So dreadful were the ravages of the pestilence that the peninsula was 
 wellnigh swept of its inhabitants. Meanwhile, Colonel James Moore of 
 South Carolina had arrived, in command of a regiment of whites and In¬ 
 dians, and the Tuscaroras were pursued to their principal fort on Cotentnea 
 Creek, in Greene county. This place was besieged until the latter part of 
 March, 1713, and was then carried by assault. Eight hundred warriors 
 were taken prisoners. The power of the hostile nation was broken, but 
 the Tuscarora chieftains were divided in council; some were desirous of 
 peace, and some voted to continue the war. This difference of opinion 
 led to a division of the tribe. Those who wished for peace were permit¬ 
 ted to settle in a single community in the county of Hyde. Their hostile 
 brethren, seeing that further resistance would be hopeless, determined to 
 leave the country. In the month of June they abandoned their hunting- 
 grounds made sacred by the traditions of their fathers, marched across 
 Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, reached Northern New York, 
 joined their kinsmen, the Oneidas, and became the sixth nation of the 
 Iroquois confederacy. 
 
 Thus far the two C^rolinas had continued under a common gov¬ 
 ernment. In 1729 a final separation was effected between the provinces 
 north and south of Cape Fear River, and a royal governor appointed over 
 each. In spite of Locke’s grand model and the Tuscarora war, in spite 
 of the threatened Spanish invasion of 1744, the northern colony had greatly 
 prospered. The intellectual development of the people had not been as 
 rapid as the growth in numbers and in wealth. Little attention had beer 
 given to questions of religion. There was no minister in the province 
 until 1703. Two years later the first church was built. The first courts 
 house was erected in 1722, and the printing-press did not begin its work 
 until 1754. But the people were brave and patriotic. They loved their 
 country, and called it the Land of Summer. In the farmhouse and the 
 village, along the banks of the rivers and the borders of the primeval for¬ 
 ests, the spirit of liberty pervaded every breast. The love of freedom was 
 intense, and hostility to tyranny a universal passion. In the times of 
 Sothel it was said of the North Carolinans that they would not pay trib¬ 
 ute even to Ccesar. 
 
230 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 I N January of 1670 the proprietors of Carolina sent out a colony under 
 command of Joseph West and William Sayle. There was at this time 
 not a single European settlement between the mouth of Cape Fear River 
 and the St. John’s, in Florida. Here was a beautiful coast of nearly four 
 hundred miles ready to receive the beginnings of civilization. The new 
 emigrants, sailing by way of Barbadoes, steered far to the south, and 
 reached the mainland in the country of the Savannah. The vessels first 
 entered the harbor of Port Royal. It was now a hundred and eight years 
 since John Ribault, on an island in this same harbor, had set up a stone 
 engraved with the lilies of France; now the Englishman had come. 
 
 The ships were anchored near the site of Beaufort. But the colo¬ 
 nists were dissatisfied with the appearance of the country, and did not go 
 ashore. Sailing northward along the coast for forty miles, they next en¬ 
 tered the mouth of Ashley River, and landed where the first high land 
 appeared upon the southern bank. Here were laid the foundations of 
 Old Charleston, so named in honor of King Charles II. Of this, the 
 oldest town in South Carolina, no trace remains except the line of a ditch 
 which was digged around the fort; a cotton-field occupies the site of the 
 ancient settlement. 
 
 Sayle had been commissioned as governor and West as commercial 
 agent of the colony. The settlers had been furnished with a copy of 
 Locke’s big constitution, but they had no more use for it than for a dead 
 elephant. Instead of the grand model, a little government was organized 
 on the principles of common sense. Five councilors were elected by the 
 people, and five others appointed by the proprietors. Over this council 
 of ten the governor presided. Twenty delegates, composing a house of 
 representatives, were chosen by the colonists. Within two years the sys¬ 
 tem of popular government was firmly established in the province. Ex¬ 
 cept the prevalence of diseases peculiar to the southern climate, no calam¬ 
 ity darkened the prospects of the rising State. 
 
 In the beginning of 1671 Governor Sayle died, and West, by com* 
 mon consent, assumed the duties of the vacant office. After the lapse of 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 231 
 
 a few months, Sir John Yeamans, who had been governor of the northern 
 province and was now in Barbadoes, was commissioned by the proprie¬ 
 tors as chief magistrate of the southern colony. He brought with him to 
 Ashley River a large cargo of African slaves. From the beginning the 
 colonists had devoted themselves to planting; but the English laborers, 
 unused as yet to the climate, could hardly endure the excessive heats of the 
 jultry fields. To the Caribbee negroes, already accustomed to the burn¬ 
 ing sun of the tropics, the Carolina summer seemed temperate and pleasant. 
 Thus the labor of the black man was substituted for the labor of the white 
 man, and in less than two years from the founding of the colony the system 
 of slavery was firmly established. In this respect the history of South 
 Carolina is peculiar. Slavery had been introduced into all the American 
 colonies, but everywhere else the introduction had been effected by those 
 who were engaged in the slave-trade. In South Carolina alone was the 
 system adopted as a political and social experiment and with a view to the 
 regular establishment of a laboring class in the State. Governor Y eamans 
 was the first to accept this policy, which soon became the general policy 
 of the province. The importation of negroes went on so rapidly that in 
 a short time they outnumbered the whites as two to one. 
 
 Immigration from England did not lag. During the year 1671 a 
 system of cheap rents and liberal bounties was adopted by the proprietors, 
 and the country was rapidly filled with people. A tract of a hundred and 
 fifty acres was granted to every one who would either immigrate or im¬ 
 port a negro. Fertile lands were abundant. Wars and pestilence had 
 almost annihilated the native tribes; whole counties were almost without an 
 occupant. The disasters of one race had prepared the way for the coming 
 of another. Only a few years before this time New Netherland had been 
 conquered by the English. The Dutch were greatly dissatisfied with the 
 government which the duke of York had established over them, and 
 began to leave the country. The proprietors of Carolina sent several 
 ships to New York, loaded them with the industrious but discontented 
 people, and brought them without expense to Charleston. The unoccupied 
 lands west of Ashley River were divided among the Dutch, who formed 
 there a thriving settlement called Jamestown. The fame of the new 
 country reached Holland, and other emigrants left fatherland to join their 
 kinsmen in Carolina. Charles II., who rarely aided a colony, collected a 
 company of Protestant refugees from the South of Europe, and sent them 
 to Carolina to introduce the silk-worm and to begin the cultivation of the 
 grape. 
 
 In 1680 the present metropolis of South Carolina was founded. The 
 
 site of Old Charleston had been hastily and injudiciously selected. The 
 
 17 
 
232 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 delightful peninsula called Oyster Point, between Ashley and Cooper 
 .Rivers, was now chosen as the spot on which to build a city. The erec¬ 
 tion of thirty dwellings during the first summer gave proof of enterprise; 
 the name of Chakleston was a second time bestowed, and the village 
 immediately became the capital of the colony. The unhealthy climate 
 for a while retarded the progress of the new town, but the people were 
 full of life and enterprise; storehouses and wharves were built, and men 
 chant-ships soon began to throng the commodious harbor 
 
 Injustice provoked an Indian war. Some vagabond Nestoes, whose 
 only offence consisted in strolling through the plantations, were shot. 
 The tribe appealed to the government, and the proprietors showed a wil¬ 
 lingness to punish the -wrongdoers; but the pioneers were determined to 
 fight and the savages were naturally revengeful. Scenes of violence con¬ 
 tinued along the border, and hostilities began in earnest. In the prosecu¬ 
 tion of the war the colonists were actuated by a shameful spirit of avarice. 
 The object was not so much to punish or destroy the savages as to take 
 them prisoners. A bounty was offered for every captured Indian, and as 
 fast as the warriors were taken they were sold as slaves for the West In¬ 
 dies. The petty strife continued for a year, and was then concluded with 
 a treaty of peace. Commissioners were appointed, to whom all complaints 
 and disputes between the natives and the colonists should henceforth be 
 submitted. 
 
 South Carolina was favored with rapid immigration, and the immi¬ 
 grants were worthy to become the founders of a great State. The best 
 nations of Europe contributed to people the country between Cape Fear 
 and the Savannah. England continued to send her colonies. In 1683 
 Joseph Blake, a brother of the great English admiral, devoted his fortune 
 and the last years of his life to bringing a large company of dissenters 
 from Somersetshire to Charleston. In the same year an Irish colony 
 under Ferguson arrived at Ashley River, and met a hearty welcome. A 
 company of Scotch Presbyterians, ten families in all, led by the excellent 
 Lord Cardross, settled at Port Royal in 1684. The authorities of Charles¬ 
 ton claimed jurisdiction there, and the new immigrants reluctantly yielded 
 to the claim. Two years afterward a band of Spanish soldiers arrived 
 from St. Augustine, and the unhappy Scotch exiles were driven from their 
 homes. But intolerant France gave up more of her subjects than did all 
 the other nations. 
 
 As early as 1598 Henry IV., king of the French, had published a 
 celebrated proclamation, called the Edict of Nantes, by the terms of which 
 the Huguenots were protected in their rights of religious worship. Now, 
 after eighty-seven years of toleration, Louis XIV., blinded with bigotry 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 233 
 
 and passion and hoping to make Catholicism universal, revoked the kindly 
 edict, and exposed the Protestants of his kingdom to the long-suppressed 
 rage of their enemies. In order to enforce the decree of revocation the 
 French army was quartered in the towns of the Huguenots, the ports were 
 closed against emigration, and the borders were watched to prevent escape. 
 How foolish are the ways of despotism! In spite of every precaution, 
 five hundred thousand of the best people of France, preferring banishment 
 to religious thraldom, escaped from their country and fled, self-exiled, into 
 foreign lands. The Huguenots were scattered from the Baltic Sea to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and on the Western continent from Maine to Flor¬ 
 ida. But of all the American colonies, South Carolina received the great¬ 
 est number of French refugees within her borders. They were met by 
 the proprietors with a pledge of protection and a promise of citizenship; 
 but neither promise nor pledge was immediately fulfilled, for the colony 
 had not yet determined what should be its laws of naturalization. Both 
 the general assembly and the proprietors claimed the right of fixing the 
 conditions. Until that question could be decided the Huguenots were 
 kept in suspense, and were sometimes unkindly treated by the jealous 
 English settlers. Not until 1697 were all discriminations against the 
 French immigrants removed. 
 
 In 1686 came James Colleton as colonial governor. He began his 
 administration with a foolish attempt to establish the mammoth constitu¬ 
 tion of Locke and Shaftesbury. No wonder that the assembly resisted 
 his authority, and that the people were embittered against him. The rents 
 came due; payment was refused, and the colony was in a state of rebellion. 
 In order to divert attention from himself, Colleton published a proclama¬ 
 tion setting forth the danger of a pretended invasion by the Indians and 
 Spaniards. The militia was called out and the province declared under 
 martial law. It was all in vain. The people were only exasperated by 
 the arbitrary proceedings of the governor. Tidings came that James II. 
 had been driven from the throne of England. The popular assembly was 
 convened, and William and Mary were proclaimed as sovereigns. In 
 1690 a decree of impeachment was passed against Colleton, and he was 
 banished from the province. 
 
 The people of North Carolina had just performed a similar service 
 for Seth Sothel. Not satisfied with his previous success, he at once re¬ 
 paired to Charleston and assumed the government of the southern colony. 
 To Sothel’s other merits were added the qualifications of a first-rate dem¬ 
 agogue ; he induced the people to acquiesce in his usurpation and to sus¬ 
 tain his authority. But his avaricious disposition could not long be held 
 in check. The proprietors disclaimed his acts and after a turbulent rule 
 
234 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of two years, he and his government were overthrown. One bright page 
 redeems the record of his administration. In May of 1691 the first gen¬ 
 eral act of enfranchisement w r as passed in favor of the Huguenots. 
 
 Philip Ludwell, who had been collector of customs in Virginia, 
 and since 1689 governor of North Carolina, was now sent to establish 
 order in the southern province. He spent a year in a well-meant effort 
 to administer the government of the proprietors; but the people were 
 fixed in their antagonism to the constitution, and nothing could be accom¬ 
 plished. Ludwell gave up the hopeless task, withdrew from the prov¬ 
 ince, and returned to Virginia. South Carolina had fallen into a condi¬ 
 tion bordering on anarchy. 
 
 Nearly a quarter of a century had elapsed since Locke drafted the 
 grand model. At last the proprietors came to see that the establishment 
 of such a monstrous frame of government over an American colony was 
 impossible. Pride said that the constitution should stand, for the nobility 
 of England had declared it immortal. But self-interest and common 
 sense demanded its abrogation, and the demand prevailed. In April of 
 1693 the proprietors assembled and voted the boasted model out of exist¬ 
 ence. It was enacted at the same meeting that since the people of Caro¬ 
 lina preferred a simple charter government, their request be granted. 
 The magnificent paper empire of Shaftesbury was swept into oblivion. 
 
 Thomas Smith was now appointed governor, but was soon super¬ 
 seded by John Archdale, a distinguished and talented Quaker. Arriving 
 in 1695, he began an administration so just and wise that dissension ceased 
 and the colony entered upon a new career of prosperity. The quit-rents 
 on lands were remitted for four years. The people were given the option 
 of paying their taxes in money or in produce. The Indians were concili¬ 
 ated with kindness and protected against kidnappers. Some native Cath¬ 
 olics were*ransomed from slavery and sent to their homes in Florida, and 
 the Spanish governor reciprocated the deed with a friendly message. 
 When the old jealousy against the Huguenots asserted itself in the gen¬ 
 eral assembly, the benevolent influence of Archdale procured the passage 
 of a law by which all Christians, except the Catholics, w r ere fully enfran¬ 
 chised ; the ungenerous exception was made against the governor’s will. 
 It was a real misfortune to the colony when, in 1698, the good governor 
 was recalled to England. 
 
 James Moore was next commissioned as chief magistrate. The 
 first important act of his administration was a declaration of hostilities 
 against the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. Queen Anne’s War had 
 broken out. The Spaniards were in alliance with the French against the 
 English. By the antagonism of England and Spain, South Carolina and 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 235 
 
 Florida were brought into conflict. Yet a declaration of war was strong¬ 
 ly opposed in the assembly at Charleston, and was only passed by a 
 small majority. It was voted to raise and equip a force of twelve hun¬ 
 dred men, and to invade Florida by land and water. The summer of 
 1702 was spent in preparation, and in September the expeditions departed, 
 the land-forces led by Colonel Daniel and the fleet commanded by the 
 governor. 
 
 The English vessels sailed down the coast, entered the St. John’s 
 and blocked up the river. Daniel marched overland, reached St. Augus¬ 
 tine and captured the town. But the Spaniards withdrew without serious 
 loss into the castle, and bade defiance to the besiegers. Without artillery 
 it was evident that the place could not be taken. Colonel Daniel was 
 despatched with a sloop to Jamaica to procure cannons for the siege; but 
 before his return two Spanish men-of-war appeared at the mouth of the 
 St. John’s, and Governor Moore found himself blockaded. His courage 
 was not equal to the occasion. Abandoning his ships, he took to the 
 shore, and collecting his forces hastily retreated into Carolina. Daniel 
 returned and entered the St. John’s, but discovered the-danger in time to 
 make his escape. The governor’s retreat occasioned great dissatisfaction. 
 There were insinuations of cowardice and threats of impeachment, but 
 no formal action was taken against him. The only results of the unfor¬ 
 tunate expedition were debt and paper money. In order to meet the 
 heavy expenses of the war, the assembly was obliged to issue bills of 
 credit to the amount of six thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 Governor Moore retrieved his reputation by invading the Indian 
 nations south-west of the Savannah. In December of 1705 he left the 
 province- at the head of fifty volunteers and a thousand friendly natives. 
 White men had not been seen marching in these woods since the days of 
 De Soto. On the 14th of the month the invaders reached the fortified 
 town of Ayavalla, in the neighborhood of St. Mark’s. An attack was 
 made and the church set on fire. A Franciscan monk came out and 
 begged for mercy; but the place was carried by assault, and more than 
 two hundred prisoners were taken, only to be enslaved. On the next day 
 Moore’s forces met and defeated a large body of Indians and Spaniards. 
 Five important towns were carried in succession, and the English flag 
 was borne in triumph to the Gulf of Mexico. Communication between 
 the Spanish settlements of Florida and the French posts in Louisiana 
 was entirely cut off. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Church of England had been established by law 
 in South Carolina. In the first year of Johnston’s administration the 
 High Church party succeeded in getting a majority of one in the colonial 
 
236 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 assembly, and immediately passed an act disfranchising all the dissenters 
 in the province. An appeal was carried to the proprietors, only to be re¬ 
 jected with contempt. The dissenting party next laid their cause before 
 Parliament, and that body promptly voted that the act of disfranchisement 
 was contrary to the laws of England, and that the proprietors had for¬ 
 feited their charter. The queen’s ministers were authorized to declare the 
 intolerant law null and void. In November of the same year the colo¬ 
 nial legislature revoked its own act so far as the disfranchising clause was 
 concerned; but Episcopalianism continued to be the established faith of 
 the province. 
 
 The year 1706 was a stirring epoch in the history of South Caro¬ 
 lina. A French and Spanish fleet was sent from Havana to capture 
 Charleston and subdue the country. The orders were more easily given 
 than executed. The brave people of the capital flew to arms. Governor 
 Johnson and Colonel William Rliett inspired the volunteers with courage; 
 and when the hostile squadron anchored in the harbor, the city was ready 
 for a stubborn defence. Several times a landing was attempted, but the 
 invaders were everywhere repulsed. At last a French vessel succeeded in 
 getting to shore with eight hundred troops, but they were attacked with 
 fury and driven otf with a loss of three hundred in killed and prisoners. 
 The siege was at once abandoned; unaided by the proprietors, South Car¬ 
 olina had made a glorious defence. 
 
 In the spring of 1715 war broke out with the Yamassees. As 
 usual with their race, the Indians began hostilities with treachery. At 
 the very time when Captain Nairne was among them as a friendly ambas¬ 
 sador, the wily savages rose upon the frontier settlements and committed 
 an atrocious massacre. The people of Port Royal were alarmed just in 
 time to escape in a ship to Charleston. The desperate savages rushed on 
 to within a short distance of the capital. It seemed that the city would 
 be taken and the whole colony driven to destruction. But the brave 
 Charles Craven, governor of the province, rallied the militia of Colleton 
 district, and the blood-stained barbarians were driven back. A vigorous 
 pursuit began, and the savages were pressed to the banks of the Salke- 
 hatchie. Here a decisive battle was fought, and the Indians were com¬ 
 pletely routed. The Yamassees collected their shattered tribe and retired 
 into Florida, where they were received by the Spaniards as friends and 
 confederates. 
 
 In 1719 the government of South Carolina was revolutionized. 
 At the close of the war with the Yamassees the assembly petitioned the 
 proprietors to bear a portion of the expense. But the avaricious noble¬ 
 men refused, and would take no measuras for the future protection of the 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 237 
 
 colony. The people were greatly burdened with rents and taxes. The 
 lands were monopolized; ever} 7 act of the assembly which seemed for the 
 public good was vetoed by the proprietors. In the new election every 
 delegate was chosen by the popular party. The 21st of December was 
 training-day in Charleston. On that day James Moore, the new chief 
 magistrate elected by the people, was to be inaugurated. Governor John¬ 
 son forbade the military display and tried to prevent the inauguration; 
 but the militia collected in the public square, drums were beaten, flags 
 were flung out on the forts and shipping, and before nightfall the propri¬ 
 etary government of Carolina was overthrown. Governor Moore was 
 duly inaugurated in the name of King George I. A colonial agent was 
 at once sent to England; the cause of the colonists was heard, and the 
 ' forfeited charter of the proprietors abrogated by act of Parliament. 
 
 Francis Nicholson was now commissioned as governor. He had 
 already held the office of chief magistrate in New York, in Virginia, in 
 Maryland and in Nova Scotia. He began a successful administration in 
 South Carolina by concluding treaties of peace and commerce with the 
 Cherokees and the Creeks. But another and final change in colonial 
 affairs was now at hand. In 1729 seven of the eight proprietors of the 
 Carolinas sold their entire claims in the provinces to the king. Lord 
 Carteret, the eighth proprietor, would surrender nothing but his right of 
 jurisdiction, reserving his share in the soil. The sum paid by King 
 George for the two colonies was twenty-two thousand five hundred pounds 
 sterling. Royal governors were appointed, and the affairs of the province 
 were settled on a permanent basis, not to be disturbed for more than forty 
 years. 
 
 The people who colonized South Carolina were brave and chival¬ 
 rous. On the banks of the Santee, the Edisto and the Combahee were 
 gathered some of the best elements of the European nations. The Hu¬ 
 guenot, the Scotch Presbyterian, the English dissenter, the loyalist and 
 High Churchman, the Irish adventurer and the Dutch mechanic, com¬ 
 posed the powerful material out of which soon grew the beauty and re¬ 
 nown of the Palmetto State. Equally with the rugged Puritans of 
 the North, the South Carolinians were lovers of liberty. Without the 
 severe morality and formal manners of the Pilgrims, the people who were 
 once governed by the peaceful Arch dale and once led to war by the gallant 
 Craven became the leaders in courtly politeness and high-toned honor be¬ 
 tween man and man. In the coming struggle for freedom South Caro¬ 
 lina will bear a noble and distinguished part; the fame of the patriotic 
 Rhett will be perpetuated by Marion and Sumter. 
 
238 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 I'] EORGIA, the thirteenth American colony, was founded in a spirit 
 VX of pure benevolence. The laws of England permitted imprisonment 
 for debt. Thousands of English laborers, who through misfortune and 
 thoughtless contracts had become indebted to the rich, were annually ar¬ 
 rested and thrown into jail. There were desolate and starving families. 
 The miserable condition of the debtor class at last attracted the attention 
 of Parliament. In 1728 a commissioner was appointed, at his own request, 
 to look into the state of the poor, to visa the prisons of the kingdom, and 
 to report measures of relief. The work was accomplished, the jails were 
 opened, and the poor victims of debt returned to their homes. 
 
 The noble commissioner was not yet satisfied. For the liberated 
 prisoners and their friends were disheartened and disgraced in the country 
 of their birth. Was there no land beyond the sea where debt was not a 
 crime, and where poverty was no disgrace ? To provide a refuge for the 
 down-trodden poor of England and the distressed Protestants of other 
 countries, the commissioner now appealed to George II. for the privilege 
 of planting a colony in America. The petition was favorably heard, and 
 on the 9th of June, 1732, a royal charter was issued by which the terri¬ 
 tory between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, and westward from the 
 upper fountains of those rivers to the Pacific, was organized and granted 
 to a corporation for twenty-one years, to he held in trust for the poor. In 
 honor of the king, the new province received the name of Georgia. 
 But what was the name of that high-souled, unselfish commissioner of 
 Parliament ? 
 
 James Oglethorpe, the philanthropist. Born a loyalist, educated at 
 Oxford, a High Churchman, a cavalier, a soldier, a member of Parliament, 
 benevolent, generous, full of sympathy, far-sighted, brave as John Smith, 
 chivalrous as De Soto, Oglethorpe gave in middle life the full energies of 
 a vigorous body and a lofty mind to the work of building in the sunny 
 South an asylum for the oppressed of his own and other lands. The 
 magnanimity of the enterprise was heightened by the fact that he did not 
 believe in the equality of men, but only in the right and duty of the strong 
 to protect the weak and sympathize with the lowly. To Oglethorpe, as 
 
GEORGIA. 
 
 239 
 
 principal member of the corporation, the leadership of the first colony to 
 be planted on the banks of the Savannah, was naturally entrusted. 
 
 By the mid¬ 
 dle of November a 
 hundred and twen¬ 
 ty emigrants were 
 ready to sail for 
 the New World. 
 
 Oglethorpe, like 
 the elder Win- 
 throp, determined 
 to share the dan¬ 
 gers and hardships 
 of his colony. In 
 January of 1733 
 the company was 
 welcomed at 
 Charleston. Pass¬ 
 ing down the coast, 
 the vessels were 
 anchored for a 
 short time at Beau¬ 
 fort, while the gov¬ 
 ernor with a few 
 
 JAMES OGLETHORPE. 
 
 companions as¬ 
 cended the bound¬ 
 ary river of Georgia, and selected as the site of his settlement the high 
 bluff on which now stands the city of Savannah. Here, on the 1st day of 
 February, were laid the foundations of the oldest English town south of 
 the Savannah River. Broad streets were laid out; a public square was 
 reserved in each quarter; a beautiful village of tents and board houses, 
 built among the pine trees, appeared as the capital of a new common¬ 
 wealth where men were not imprisoned for debt. 
 
 Tomo-chichi, chief of the Yamacraws, came from his cabin, half a 
 mile distant, to see his brother Oglethorpe. There was a pleasant con¬ 
 ference. “ Here is a present for you,” said the red man to the white man. 
 The present was a buffalo robe painted on the inside with the head and 
 feathers of an eagle. “ The feathers are soft, and signify love; the buf¬ 
 falo skin is the emblem of protection. Therefore love us and protect u« ” 
 said the old chieftain. Such a plea could not be lost on a man like Ogle¬ 
 thorpe. Seeing the advantages of peace, he sent an invitation to the chiefs 
 
240 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the Muskhogees to meet him in a general council at his capital. The 
 conference was held on the 29th of May. Long King, the sachem of 
 Oconas, spoke for all the tribes of his nation. The English were wel¬ 
 comed to the country. Bundles of buckskins, and such other good gifts 
 as savage civilization could offer, were laid down plentifully at the feet 
 of the whites. The governor and his poor but generous colony responded 
 with valuable presents and words of faithful friendship. The fame of 
 Oglethorpe spread far and wide among the Red men. From the distant 
 mountains of Tennessee came the noted chief of the Cherokees to confer 
 with the humane and sweet-tempered governor of Georgia. 
 
 The councilors in England who managed the affairs of the new 
 State encouraged emigration with every liberal offer. Swiss peasants left 
 their mountains to find a home on the Savannah. The plaid cloak of the 
 Scotch Highlander was seen among the wigwams of the Muskhogees. 
 From distant Salzburg, afar on the borders of Austria, came a noble col¬ 
 ony of German Protestants, singing their way down the Rhine and across 
 the ocean. Oglethorpe met them at Charleston, bade them welcome, led 
 them to Savannah and thence through the woods to a point twenty miles 
 up the river, told them of English rights and the freedom of conscience, 
 and left them to found the village of Ebenezer. 
 
 In April of 1734, Governor Oglethorpe made a visit to England. 
 His friend Tomo-chichi went with him, and made the acquaintance of 
 King George. It was said in London that no colony was ever before 
 founded so wisely and well as Georgia. The councilors prohibited the 
 importation of rum. Traffic with the Indians—always a dangerous mat¬ 
 ter—was either interdicted or regulated by special license. When it came 
 to the question of labor, slavery was positively forbidden. It was said 
 that the introduction of slaves would be fatal to the interests of the Eng¬ 
 lish and German laborers for whom the colony had been founded. While 
 the governor was still abroad, the first company of Moravians, number¬ 
 ing nine, and led by the evangelist Spangenberg, arrived at Savannah. 
 
 In February of 1736, Oglethorpe himself came back with a new 
 colony of three hundred. Part of these were Moravians, and nearly all 
 were people of deep piety and fervent spirit. First among them—first 
 in zeal and first in the influence which he was destined to exert in after 
 times—was the celebrated John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. 
 Overflowing with religious enthusiasm, he came to Georgia, not as a poli¬ 
 tician, not as a minister merely, but as an apostle. To lead the people to 
 righteousness, to spread the gospel, to convert the Indians, and to intro¬ 
 duce a new type of religion characterized by few forms and much emo¬ 
 tion, these were the purposes that thronged his lofty fancy. He was 
 
GEORGIA. 
 
 241 
 
 doomed to much disappointment. The mixed people of the new province 
 could not be moulded to his will; and after a residence of less than two 
 years he left the colony with a troubled spirit. His brother, Charles 
 Wesley, came also as a secretary to Governor Oglethorpe; but Charles 
 was a poet, a timid and tender-hearted man who pined with homesickness 
 and gave way under discouragement. But when, in 1738, the famous 
 George Whitefield came, his robust and daring nature proved a match for 
 all the troubles of the wilderness. He preached with fiery eloquence. 
 To build an orphan-house at Savannah he went through all the colonies; 
 and those who heard his voice could hardly refuse him money. Think¬ 
 ing no longer of native land, he found a peaceful grave in New England. 
 
 Meanwhile, Oglethorpe was busy with the affairs of his growing 
 province. Anticipating war with Spain, he began to fortify. For the 
 Spaniards were in possession of Florida, and claimed the country as far 
 north as St. Helena Sound. All of Georgia was thus embraced in the 
 Spanish claim. But Oglethorpe had a charter for Georgia as far south 
 as the Altamaha, and he had secured by treaty with the Indians all the 
 territory between that river and the St. Mary’s. In 1736 he ascended 
 the Savannah and built a fort at Augusta. On the north bank of the 
 Altamaha, twelve miles from its mouth, Fort Darien was built. On 
 Cumberland Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary’s, a fortress was erected 
 and named Fort William. Proceeding down the coast with a company 
 of Highlanders, the daring governor reached the mouth of the St. John’s, 
 and on Amelia Island built still another fort, which he named St. George. 
 The river St. John’s was claimed from this time forth as the southern 
 boundary" of Georgia. To make his preparations complete, the governor 
 again visited England, and was commissioned as brigadier-general, with a 
 command extending over his own province and South Carolina. In Octo¬ 
 ber of 1737 he returned to Savannah, bringing with him a regiment of 
 six hundred men. Such were the vigorous measures adopted by Ogle¬ 
 thorpe in anticipation of a Spanish war. 
 
 The war came. It was that conflict known in American history as 
 
 King George’s War. England published her declaration of hostility 
 
 against Spain in the latter part of October, 1739. In the first week of 
 
 the following January" the impetuous Oglethorpe, at the head of the 
 
 Georgia militia, made a dash into Florida, and captured two fortified towns 
 
 of the Spaniards. His plans embraced the conquest of St. Augustine and 
 
 the entire extinction of Spanish authority north of the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Repairing to Charleston, he induced the assembly to support his measures. 
 
 By the first of May he found himself in command of six hundred regular 
 
 troops, four hundred volunteers and a body of Indian auxiliaries. With 
 16 
 
242 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this force he proceeded at once against St. Augustine. The place was 
 strongly fortified, and the Spanish commandant, Monteano, was a man of 
 ability and courage. The siege continued for five weeks, but ended in 
 disaster to the English. For a while the town was successfully block¬ 
 aded ; but some Spanish galleys, eluding the vigilance of Oglethorpe’s 
 
 squadron, brought a cargo of supplies 
 to the garrison. The Spaniards made 
 a sally, attacked a company of High¬ 
 landers, and dispersed them. Sickness 
 prevailed in the English camp. The 
 general himself was enfeebled with fever 
 and excitement, but he held on like a 
 hero. The troops of Carolir a, disheart¬ 
 ened and despairing of success, left their 
 camp and marched homeward. The 
 English vessels gathered up their crews, 
 abandoned the siege and returned to 
 Frederica. Oglethorpe, yielding only 
 to necessity, collected his men from the 
 trenches and withdrew into Georgia. 
 
 The Spaniards now determined 
 to carry the war northward and drive 
 the English beyond the Savannah. The 
 Combahee River should be made the 
 “ " iai i ■ northern boundary of Florida. Prep¬ 
 arations began on a vast scale. A pow¬ 
 erful fleet of thirty-six vessels, carrying more than three thousand troops, 
 was brought from Cuba, and anchored at St. Augustine. In June of 
 1742 the squadron passed up the coast to Cumberland Island, and at¬ 
 tempted the reduction of Fort William. But Oglethorpe by a daring 
 exploit reinforced the garrison, and then fell back to Frederica. The 
 Spanish vessels followed and came to anchor in the harbor of St. Simon’s. 
 From the southern point of the island to Frederica, Oglethorpe had cut a 
 road which at one place lay between a morass and a dense forest. Along 
 this path the Spaniards must pass to attack the town. The English gen¬ 
 eral had only eight hundred men and a few Indian allies. In order to 
 cope with superior numbers, Oglethorpe resorted to stratagem. 
 
 A Frenchman had deserted to the Spaniards. To him the English 
 general now wrote a letter as if to a spy. A Spanish prisoner in Ogle¬ 
 thorpe’s hands was liberated and bribed to deliver the letter to the de¬ 
 serter. The Frenchman was advised that two British fleets were coming 
 
 100120 W 
 
 COUNTRY OF THE SAVANNAH, 1740, 
 
SCENE IN ST. AUGUSTINE 
 
GEORGIA. 
 
 243 
 
 to America, one to aid Oglethorpe and the other to attack St. Augustine. 
 Let the Spaniards remain on the island but three days longer, and they 
 would be ruined. If the enemy did not make an immediate attack on 
 Frederica, his forces would be captured to a man. Oglethorpe knew very 
 well that the prisoner, instead of delivering this letter to the deserter, 
 would give it to the Spanish commander, and that the Spanish commander 
 could not possibly know whether the communication was the truth or a 
 fiction. This letter was delivered, and the astonished Frenchman was 
 arrested as a spy, but the Spaniards could not tell whether his denial was 
 true or false. There was a council of war in the Spanish camp. Ogle¬ 
 thorpe’s stratagem was suspected, but could not be proved. Three ships 
 had been seen at sea that day; perhaps these were the first vessels of the 
 approaching British fleets. The Spaniards were utterly perplexed; but 
 it was finally decided to take Oglethorpe’s advice, and make the attack 
 on Frederica. 
 
 The English general had foreseen that this course would be adopted. 
 He had accordingly advanced his small force from the town to the place 
 where the road passed between the swamp and the forest. Here an am¬ 
 buscade was formed, and the soldiers lay in wait for the approaching Span¬ 
 iards. On the 7th of July the enemy’s vanguard reached the narrow pass, 
 were fired on from the thicket and driven back in confusion. The main 
 body of the Spanish forces pressed on into the dangerous position where 
 superior numbers were of no advantage. The Highlanders of Oglethorpe’s 
 regiment fired with terrible effect from the oak woods by the roadside. 
 The Spaniards stood firm for a while, but were presently driven back with 
 a loss of two hundred men. Not without reason the name of Bloody 
 Marsh was given to this battle-field. Within less than a week the whole 
 Spanish force had re-embarked and sailed for Florida. On the way south¬ 
 ward the fleet made a second attack on Fort William. But Captain Stuart, 
 with a garrison of only fifty men, made a vigorous and successful defence. 
 The English watched the retreating ships beyond the mouth of the St. 
 John’s; before the last of July the great invasion was at an end. The 
 Spanish authorities of Cuba were greatly chagrined at the failure of the 
 expedition. The commander of the squadron was arrested, tried by a 
 court-martial and dismissed from the service. 
 
 The commonwealth of Georgia was now firmly established, and the 
 settlements had peace. In 1743, Oglethorpe bade a final adieu to the col¬ 
 ony to whose welfare he had given more than ten years of his life. He 
 had never owned a house nor possessed an acre of ground within the lim¬ 
 its of his own province. He now departed for England crowned with 
 blessings, and leaving behind him an untarnished fame. James Ogle- 
 
244 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thorpe lived to be nearly a hundred years old; benevolence, integrity and 
 honor were the virtues of his declining years. But the new State which 
 he had founded in the West was not always free from evils. 
 
 For the regulations which the councilors for Georgia had adopted 
 were but poorly suited to the wants of the colony. The settlers had not 
 been permitted to hold their lands in' fee simple. Agriculture had not 
 flourished. Commerce had not sprung up. The laws of property had 
 been so arranged that estates could descend only to the oldest sons of fam¬ 
 ilies. The colonists were poor, and charged their poverty to the fact that 
 slave-labor was forbidden in the province. This became the chief ques¬ 
 tion which agitated the people. The proprietary laws grew more and 
 more unpopular. The statute excluding slavery was not rigidly enforced, 
 and, indeed, could not be enforced, when the people had determined to 
 evade it. Whitefield himself pleaded for the abrogation of the law. 
 Slaves began to be hired, first for short terms of service, then for longer 
 periods, then for a hundred years, which was equivalent to an actual pur¬ 
 chase for life. Finally, cargoes of slaves were brought directly from 
 Africa, and the primitive free-labor system of Georgia was revolutionized. 
 Plantations were laid out below the Savannah, and cultivated, as those of 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Another and more important change was at hand. It became 
 evident that there could be no progress so long as the original char¬ 
 ter remained in force. However benevolent the impulse which had 
 called Georgia into being, the scheme of government had proved a 
 sham. The people were improvident, idle, inexperienced. More than 
 six hundred thousand dollars in parliamentary grants, besides private 
 contributions amounting to nearly ninety thousand dollars, had been 
 fruitlessly expended on the lagging province. In 1752 there were 
 only a few scattered plantations and three inconsiderable villages be¬ 
 low the Savannah. The white population amounted, at this time, to 
 seventeen hundred souls; and the blacks numbered about four hun¬ 
 dred. The industry of Georgia was at a stand-still. The extravagant 
 hopes which the colonial managers had entertained of wine, and silk, 
 and indigo, found no realization in the facts. The annual exports of 
 the colony amounted to less than four thousand dollars; and the pros¬ 
 pect for the future was as discouraging as the present condition was 
 gloomy. 
 
 At last, however, the new order of things was acknowledged by 
 the councilors of the province. They yielded to necessity. In June 
 of 1752, just twenty years from the granting of the charter, the trust¬ 
 ees made a formal surrender of their patent to the king. A royal 
 
GEORGIA. 
 
 245 
 
 government was established over the country south of the Savannah, 
 and the people were granted the privileges and freedom of English¬ 
 men. A constitution was drawn up by the British Board of Trade, 
 and Captain John Reynolds was commissioned as royal governor. In 
 October of 1754 he arrived at Savannah and began the work of reor¬ 
 ganization. For two years and a half he labored assiduously to ex¬ 
 tricate the affairs of Georgia from the confusion into which they had 
 fallen; and so successful was his work that at the end of this time 
 the population had reached six thousand. The southern boundary of 
 the province remained to be decided by the issue of the French and 
 Indian War. During the progress of that conflict Georgia was saved 
 from calamity by the prudent administration of Governor Ellis, who 
 secured from the powerful Creek confederacy a new treaty of peace. 
 A barrier was thus interposed between the colony and the hostile 
 nations of the West and North. In the year 1758 the province was 
 divided into eight parishes, and at the same time the Church of Eng¬ 
 land was established by law. Still, for a while, the progress of the 
 colony was not equal to the expectations of its founder. But before 
 the beginning of the Revolution, Georgia, though the feeblest of all 
 the Anglo-American provinces, had become a prosperous and growing 
 State. 
 
 Such is the story of the planting by our fathers of the Old Thir¬ 
 teen republics—such the record of their growth and prospects. From 
 the gloomy coast of Labrador, where, two hundred and fifty years be¬ 
 fore, John Cabot had set up the flag of England and arms of Henry 
 VII., to the sunny waters where Ponce de Leon, looking shoreward, 
 called his cavaliers to gaze on the Land of Flowers,—the dominion 
 of Great Britain had been established. Would that dominion last 
 forever? Would the other nations of Europe ever rally and regain 
 their lost ascendency on the Western continent? Would the ties of 
 kinship, the affinity of language, the bond of a common ancestry, 
 stretching from these sea-shore commonwealths across the Atlantic, 
 bind them in perpetual union with the mother Islands? Would these 
 isolated provinces in America—now so quick to take offence at each 
 other’s beliefs and actions, and so easily jealous of each other’s power 
 and fame—ever unite in a common cause ? ever join to do battle for 
 life and liberty ? ever become a Nation ? Such were the momentous 
 questions,,the problems of destiny, which hung above the colonies at 
 18 
 
246 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the middle of the eighteenth century — problems which the future 
 could not be long in solving. 
 
 The history of these American colonies from their first feeble be¬ 
 ginnings is full of interest and instruction. The people who laid the 
 foundations of civilization in the New World were nearly all refugees, 
 exiles, wanderers, pilgrims. They were urged across the ocean by a 
 common impulse, and that impulse was the desire to escape from some 
 form of oppression in tne Old World. Sometimes it was the oppres¬ 
 sion of the Church, sometimes of the State, sometimes of society. In 
 the wake of the emigrant ship there was always tyranny. Men loved 
 freedom; to find it they braved the perils of the deep, traversed the 
 solitary forests of Maine, built huts on the bleak shores of New Eng¬ 
 land, entered the Hudson, explored the Jerseys, found shelter in the 
 Chesapeake, met starvation and death on the banks of the James, were 
 buffeted by storms around the capes of Carolina, built towns by the 
 estuaries of the great rivers, made roads through the pine-woods, and 
 carried the dwellings of men to the very margin of the fever-haunted 
 swamps of the South. It is all one story—the story of the human race 
 seeking for liberty. 
 
MARQUETTE AND JOLIET DISCOVER THE MISSISSIPPI, 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 T HE time came when the American colonies began to act together 
 From the beginning they had been kept apart by prejudice, suspi¬ 
 cion and mutual jealousy. But the fathers were now dead, old antago¬ 
 nisms had passed away, a new generation had arisen with kindlier feel¬ 
 ings and more charitable sentiments. But it was not so much the growth 
 of a more liberal public opinion as it was the sense of a common danger 
 that at last led the colonists to make a united effort. The final struggle 
 between France and England for colonial supremacy in America was 
 at hand. Necessity compelled the English colonies to join in a com¬ 
 mon cause against a common foe. This is the conflict known as the 
 French and Indian War ; with this great event the separate histories 
 of the colonies are lost in the more general history of the nation. The 
 contest began in 1754, but the causes of the war had existed for. many 
 years. 
 
 The first and greatest, of these causes was the conflicting territorial 
 claims of the two nations. England had colonized the sea-coast; France 
 had colonized the interior of the continent. From Maine to Florida the 
 Atlantic shore was spread with English colonies; but there were no inland 
 settlements. The great towns were on the ocean’s edge. But the claims 
 of England reached far beyond her colonies. Based on the discoveries 
 of the Cabots, and not limited by actual occupation, those claims extended 
 westward to the Pacific. In making grants of territory the English 
 kings had always proceeded upon the theory that the voyage of Sebastian 
 Cabot had given to England a lawful right to the country from one ocean 
 to the other. Far different, however, were the claims of France; the 
 French had first colonized the valley of the St. Lawrence. Montreal, on* 
 
 ( 247 ) 
 
248 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the earliest settlements, is more than five hundred miles from the sea. 
 If the French colonies had been limited to the St. Lawrence and its trib¬ 
 utaries, there would have been little danger of a conflict about territorial 
 dominion. But in the latter half of the seventeenth century the French 
 began to push their way westward and southward; first, along the shores 
 of the great lakes, then to the head-waters of the Wabash, the Illinois; 
 the Wisconsin and the St. Croix, then down these streams to the Missis¬ 
 sippi, and then to the Gulf of Mexico. The purpose of the French, as 
 manifested in these movements, was no less than to divide the American 
 continent and to take the larger portion, to possess the land for France 
 and for Catholicism. For it was the work of the Jesuit missionaries. 
 So important and marvelous are those early movements of the French in 
 the valley of the Mississippi that a brief account of the leading explora¬ 
 tions may here be given. 
 
 The zealous Jesuits, purposing to extend the Catholic faith to all 
 lands and nations, set out fearlessly from the older settlements of the St. 
 Lawrence to explore the unknown West, and to convert the barbarous 
 races. In 1641, Charles Raymbault, the first of the French missionary 
 explorers, passed through the northern straits of Lake Huron and entered 
 Lake Superior. In the thirty years that followed, the Jesuits continued 
 their explorations with prodigious activity. Missions were established at 
 various points north of the lakes, and in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illi¬ 
 nois. In 1673, Joliet and Marquette passed from the head-waters of 
 Fox River over the watershed to the upper tributaries of the Wisconsin, 
 and thence down that river in a seven days’ voyage to the Mississippi. 
 For a full month the canoe of the daring adventurers carried them on 
 toward the sea. They passed the mouth of Arkansas River, and reached 
 the limit of their voyage at the thirty-third parallel of latitude. Turn¬ 
 ing their boat up stream, they entered the mouth of the Illinois and 
 returned by the site of Chicago into Lake Michigan, and thence to De¬ 
 troit. But it was not yet known whether the great river discharged its 
 flood of waters into the southern gulf or into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 It remained for Robert de la Salle, most illustrious of the French 
 explorers, to solve the problem. This courageous and daring man was 
 living at the outlet of Lake Ontario when the news of Marquette’s 
 voyage reached Canada. Fired with the passion of discovery, La Salle 
 built and launched the first ship above Niagara Falls. He sailed west¬ 
 ward through Lake Erie and Lake Huron, anchored in Green Bay, 
 crossed Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, ascended that 
 stream with a few companions, traversed the country to the upper Kanka¬ 
 kee, and dropped down with the current into the Illinois. Here disas- 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 249 
 
 ters overtook the expedition, and La Salle was obliged to return on foot 
 to Fort Frontenac, a distance of nearly a thousand miles. During his 
 absence, Father Hennepin, a member of the company, traversed Illinois, 
 and explored the Mississippi as high as the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 In 1681, La Salle returned to his station on the Illinois, bringing 
 men and supplies. A boat was built and launched, and early in the 
 following year the heroic adventurer, with a few companions, descended 
 the river to its junction with the Mississippi, and was borne by the 
 Father of Waters to the Gulf of Mexico. It was one of the greatest 
 exploits of modern times. The return voyage was successfully accom¬ 
 plished. La Salle reached Quebec, and immediately set sail for France. 
 The kingdom was greatly excited, and vast plans were made for coloniz¬ 
 ing the valley of the Mississippi. In July of 1684 four ships, bearing 
 two hundred and eighty emigrants, left France. Beaujeu commanded 
 the fleet, and La Salle was leader of the colony. The plan was to enter 
 the gulf, ascend the river, and plant settlements on its banks and tributa¬ 
 ries. But Beaujeu was a bad and headstrong captain, and against La 
 Salle’s entreaties the squadron was carried out of its course, beyond the 
 mouths of the Mississippi, and into the Bay of Matagorda. Here a 
 landing was effected, but the store-ship, with all its precious freightage, 
 was dashed to pieces in a storm. Nevertheless, a colony was established, 
 and Texas became a part of Louisiana. 
 
 La Salle made many unsuccessful efforts to rediscover the Missis¬ 
 sippi. One misfortune after another followed fast, but the leader’s reso¬ 
 lute spirit remained tranquil through all calamities. At last, with sixteen 
 companions, he set out to cross the continent to Canada. The march 
 began in January of 1687, and continued for sixty days. The wanderers 
 were already in the basin of the Colorado. Here, on the 20th of March, 
 while La Salle was at some distance from the camp, two conspirators of 
 the company, hiding in the prairie grass, took a deadly aim at the 
 famous explorer, and shot him dead in his tracks. Only seven of the 
 adventurers succeeded in reaching a French settlement on the Mis¬ 
 sissippi. 
 
 France was not slow to occupy the vast country revealed to her 
 by the activity of the Jesuits. As early as 1688 military posts had 
 been established at Frontenac, at Niagara, at the Straits of Mackinaw, 
 and on the Illinois River. Before the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 permanent settlements had been made by the French on the Maumee, at 
 Detroit, at the mouth of the river St. Joseph, at Green Bay, at Vincennes 
 on the Lower Wabash, on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Ivaskas- 
 kia, at Fort Rosalie, the present site of Natchez, and on the Gulf of 
 
250 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mexico at the head of the Bay of Biloxi. At this time the only outposts 
 of the English colonies were a small fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, 
 and a few scattered cabins in West Virginia. It only remained for 
 France to occupy the valley of Ohio, in order to confine the provinces of 
 Great Britain to the country east of the Alleghanies. To do this became 
 the sole ambition of the French, and to prevent it the stubborn purpose 
 of the English. 
 
 A second cause of war existed in the long-standing national animos¬ 
 ity of France and England. The two nations could hardly remain at 
 peace. The French and the English were of different races, languages 
 and laws. For more than two centuries France had been the leader of 
 the Catholic, and England of the Protestant, powers of Europe. Religious 
 prejudice intensified the natural jealousy of the two nations. Rivalry 
 prevailed on land and sea. When, at the close of the seventeenth century, 
 it was seen that the people of the English colonies outnumbered those of 
 Canada by nearly twenty to one, France was filled with envy. When, 
 by the enterprise of the Jesuit missionaries, the French began to dot the 
 basin of the Mississippi with fortresses, and to monopolize the fur-trade 
 of the Indians, England could not conceal her wrath. It was only a 
 question of time when this unreasonable jealousy would bring on a colo¬ 
 nial war. 
 
 The third and immediate cause of hostilities was a conflict between 
 the frontiersmen of the two nations in attempting to colonize the Ohio 
 valley. The year 1749 witnessed the beginning of difficulties. For 
 some time the strolling traders of Virginia and Pennsylvania had fre¬ 
 quented the Indian towns on the upper tributaries of the Ohio. Now the 
 traders of Canada began to visit the same villages, and to compete with 
 the English in the purchase of furs. Virginia, under her ancient char¬ 
 ters, claimed the whole country lying between her western borders and 
 the southern shores of Lake Erie. The French fur-gatherers in this dis¬ 
 trict were regarded as intruders not to be tolerated. In order to prevent 
 further encroachment, a number of prominent Virginians joined them¬ 
 selves together in a body called the Ohio Company, with a view to 
 the immediate occupation of the disputed territory. Robert Dinwiddie, 
 governor of the State, Lawrence and Augustus Washington, and Thomas 
 Lee, president of the Virginia council, were the leading members of the 
 corporation. In March of 1749 the company received from George II. 
 an extensive land-grant covering a tract of five hundred thousand acres, 
 to be located between the Kanawha and the Monongahela, or on the 
 northern bank of the Ohio. The conditions of the grant were that the 
 lands should be held free of rent for ten years, that within seven years a 
 
CAUSES . 
 
 251 
 
 colony of one hundred families should be established in the district, and 
 that the territory should be immediately selected. 
 
 But the French were equally active. Before the Ohio Company 
 could send out a colony, the governor of Canada despatched Bienville 
 with three hundred men to explore and occupy the valley of the Ohio. 
 The expedition was successful. Plates of lead bearing French inscrip¬ 
 tions were buried here and there on both banks of the river, the region was 
 explored as far west as the towns of the Miamis, the English traders were 
 expelled from the country, and a letter was written to Governor Hamil¬ 
 ton of Pennsylvania admonishing him to encroach no farther on the 
 territory of the king of France. This work occupied the summer and 
 fall of 1749. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had equipped an 
 exploring party, and placed it under command of Christopher Gist. In 
 November of 1750 he and his company reached the Ohio opposite the 
 mouth of Beaver Creek. Here the expedition crossed to the northern 
 side, tarried at Logstown, passed down the river through the several 
 Indian confederacies to the Great Miami, and thence to within fifteen 
 miles of the falls at Louisville. Returning on foot through Kentucky, 
 the explorers reached Virginia in the spring of 1751. 
 
 This expedition was followed by still more vigorous movements on 
 the part of the French. Descending from their headquarters at Presque 
 Isle, now Erie, on the southern shore of the lake, they built a fortress 
 called Le Boeuf, on French Creek, a tributary of the Alleghany. Pro¬ 
 ceeding down the stream to its junction with the river, they erected a 
 second fort, named Venango. From this point they advanced against a 
 British post on the Miami, broke up the settlement, made prisoners (A 
 the garrison and carried them to Canada. The king of the Miami con¬ 
 federacy, who had assisted the English in defending their outpost, was 
 inhumanly murdered by the Indian allies of the French. About the 
 same time the country south of the Ohio, between the Great Kanawha 
 and the Monongahela, was explored by Gist and a party of armed sur¬ 
 veyors, acting under orders of the company. In the summer of 1753 the 
 English opened a road from Will’s Creek through the mountains into the 
 Ohio valley, and a colony of eleven families was planted on the Youglii- 
 ogheny, just west of Laurel Hill. It was impossible that a conflict be¬ 
 tween the advancing settlements of the two nations could be much longer 
 averted. 
 
 The Indian nations were greatly alarmed at the threatening pros¬ 
 pect. Solemn councils were held among all the tribes, and the affairs of 
 the race were gravely discussed by the copper-colored orators. From the 
 first the Red men rather favored the English cause, but their allegiance 
 
252 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was wavering and uncertain. After the murder of the Miami chieftain 
 their hostility to the French became more decided. When, in the spring 
 of 1753, the news was borne to the council-fires on the Ohio that Du 
 Quesne, the governor of Canada, had despatched a company of twelve 
 hundred men to descend the Alleghany and colonize the country, the 
 jealousy of the natives was kindled into open resistance. The tribes 
 most concerned were the Delawares, the Shawnees, the Miamis and the 
 Mingoes. The chieftain of this confederacy, named Tanacharisson, was 
 called the Half-King from the fact that his Subjects, except the Miamis, 
 owed a kind of indefinite allegiance to the Iroquois or Six Nations. By 
 the authority of a great council held at Logstown the Half-King was now 
 sent to Erie to remonstrate with the French commandant against a further 
 invasion of the Indian country. “ The land is mine, and I will have it,” 
 replied the Frenchman, with derision and contempt. The insulted 
 sachem returned to his nation to lift the hatchet against the enemies of 
 his people. It was at this time that the chiefs of many tribes met Benja¬ 
 min Franklin at the town of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and formed a treaty 
 of alliance with the English. 
 
 Virginia was now thoroughly aroused. But before proceeding to 
 actual hostilities, Governor Dinwiddie determined to try the effect of a 
 final remonstrance with the French. A paper was accordingly drawn up 
 setting forth the nature and extent of the English claim to the valley of 
 the Ohio, and solemnly warning the authorities of France against further 
 intrusion into that region. It was necessary that this paper should be 
 carried to General St. Pierre, now stationed at Erie as commander of the 
 French forces in the West. Who should be chosen to bear the important 
 parchment to its far-off destination ? It was the most serious mission 
 ever yet undertaken in America. A young surveyor, named George 
 Washington, was called to perform the perilous duty. Him the 
 governor summoned from his home on the Potomac and commissioned as 
 ambassador, and to him was committed the message which was to be 
 borne from Williamsburg, on York River, through the untrodden wilder¬ 
 ness to Presque Isle, on the shore of Lake Erie. 
 
 On the last day of October, 1753, Washington set out on his long 
 journey. He was attended by four comrades besides an interpreter and 
 Christopher Gist, the guide. The party arrived without accident at the 
 mouth of Will’s Creek, the last important tributary of the Potomac on 
 the north. From this place Washington proceeded through the moun¬ 
 tains to the head-waters of the Youghiogheny, and thence down that 
 stream to the site of Pittsburg. The immense importance of this place, 
 lying at the confluence of the two great tributaries of the Ohio, and com- 
 
CA USES. 
 
 253 
 
 N Y O R K ^ 
 
 ro m - 
 
 FIRST SCENE OF THE FRENCH AND 
 INDIAN WAR, 1750. 
 
 manding them both, was at once perceived by the young ambassador, who 
 noted the spot as the site of a fortress. Washington was now conducted 
 across the Alleghany by the chief of 
 the Delawares, and thence twenty 
 miles down the river to Logstown. 
 
 Here a council was held with the 
 Indians, who renewed their pledges 
 of friendship and fidelity to the Eng¬ 
 lish. The emissaries of the French 
 were already in the country trying 
 in every conceivable way to entice 
 the Red men into an alliance; but 
 every proposal was rejected. In the 
 beginning of December, Washington 
 and his party moved northward to 
 the French post at Venango. The 
 officers of the fort took no pains to 
 conceal their purpose; the project of 
 Uniting Canada and Louisiana by 
 Way of the Ohio valley was openly avowed. 
 
 From Venango, Washington set out through the forest to Fort le 
 Boeuf on French Creek, fifty miles above its junction with the Alleghany. 
 This was the last stage in the journey. It was still fourteen miles to 
 Presque Isle; but St. Pierre, the French commander, had come down 
 from that place to superintend the fortifications at Le Boeuf. Here the 
 conference was held. Washington was received with great courtesy, 
 but the general of the French refused to enter into any discussion on the 
 rights of nations. He was acting, he said, under military instructions 
 given by the governor of New France. He had been commanded by his 
 superior officer to eject every Englishman from the valley of the Ohio, 
 and he meant to carry out his orders to the letter. A firm but courteous 
 reply was returned to Governor Dinwiddie’s message. France claimed 
 the country of the Ohio in virtue of discovery, exploration and occupa¬ 
 tion, and her claim should be made good by force of arms. 
 
 Washington was kindly dismissed, but not until he had noted with 
 keen anxiety the immense preparations which were making at Le Boeuf. 
 There lay a fleet of fifty birch-bark canoes and a hundred and seventy 
 boats of pine ready to descend the river to the site of Pittsburg. For the 
 French, as well as the English, had noted the importance of that spot, 
 and had determined to fortify it as soon as the ice should break in the 
 rivers. It was now the dead of winter. Washington returned to Ve- 
 
254 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 nango, and then, with Gist as his sole companion, left the river and 
 struck into the woods. It was one of the most solitary marches ever 
 made by man. There in the desolate wilderness was the future President 
 of the United States. Clad in the rohe of an Indian, with gun in hand 
 and knapsack strapped to his shoulders; struggling through interminable 
 snows; sleeping with frozen clothes on a bed of pine-brush; breaking 
 through the treacherous ice of rapid streams; guided by day by a pocket 
 compass, and at night by the North Star, seen at intervals through the 
 leafless trees; fired at by a prowling savage from his covert not fifteen 
 steps away; thrown from a raft into the rushing Alleghany ; escaping to 
 an island and lodging there until the river was frozen over; plunging 
 again into the forest; reaching Gist’s settlement and then the Potomac,— 
 the strong-limbed young ambassador came back without wound or scar to 
 the capital of Virginia. For his flesh was not made to be torn with 
 bullets or to be eaten by the wolves. The defiant despatch of St. Pierre 
 was laid before Governor Dinwiddie, and the first public service of Wash¬ 
 ington was accomplished. 
 
 In the mean time, the Ohio Company had not been idle. About 
 mid-winter a party of thirty-three men had been organized and placed 
 under command of Trent, with orders to proceed at once to the source of 
 the Ohio and erect a fort. The company must have been marching to its 
 destination when Washington returned to Virginia. It was not far from 
 the middle of March, 1754, when Trent’s party reached the confluence 
 of the Alleghany and the Monongahela, and built the first rude stockade 
 on the site of Pittsburg.* After all the threats and boasting of the 
 French, the English had beaten them and seized the key to the Ohio 
 valley. 
 
 But it was a short-lived triumph. As soon as the approaching 
 spring broke the ice-gorges in the Alleghany, the French fleet of boats, 
 already prepared at Venango, came sweeping down the river. It was in 
 vain for Trent with his handful of men to offer resistance. Washington 
 had now been commissioned as lieutenant-colonel, and was stationed at 
 Alexandria to enlist recruits for . the Ohio. A regiment of a hundred and 
 fifty men had been enrolled; but it was impossible to bring succor to 
 Trent in time to save the post. On the 17th of April the little band of 
 Englishmen at the head of the Ohio surrendered to the enemy and with¬ 
 drew from the country. The French immediately occupied the place, 
 felled the forest-trees, built barracks and laid the foundations of Fort 
 DU Quesne. To recapture this place by force of arms Colonel Wash¬ 
 ington set out from Will’s Creek in the early part of May, 1754. Nego- 
 * The accounts of this important event are very obscure and unsatisfactory. 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 365 
 
 uations had failed; remonstrance had been tried in vain; the possession 
 of the disputed territory was now to be determined by the harsher methods 
 
 of war. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 IT T ASHINGTON now found himself in command of a little army ot 
 ' ' Virginians. His commission was brief and easily understood : To 
 construct a fort at the source of the Ohio; to destroy whoever opposed 
 him in the work; to capture, kill or repel all who interrupted the progress 
 of the English settlements in that country. In the month of April the 
 young commander left Will’s Creek, but the march westward was slow 
 and toilsome. The men were obliged to drag their cannons. The roads 
 were miserable; rain fell in torrents on the tentless soldiers; rivers were 
 bridgeless; provisions insufficient. All the while the faithful Half-King 
 was urging Washington by repeated despatches to hasten to the rescue of 
 the Red men. 
 
 On the 26th of May the English regiment reached the Great 
 Meadows. Here Washington was informed that a company of French 
 was on the march to attack him. The enemy had been seen on the 
 Youghiogheny only a few miles distant. A stockade was immediately 
 erected, to which the commander gave the appropriate name of Fort 
 Necessity. Ascertaining from the scouts of the Half-King that the French 
 company in the neighborhood was only a scouting-party, Washington, 
 after conference with the Mingo chiefs, determined to strike the first blow. 
 Two Indians followed the trail of the French, and discovered their hiding- 
 place in a rocky ravine. The English advanced cautiously, intending to 
 surprise and capture the whole force; but the French were on the alert, 
 saw the approaching soldiers and flew to arms. Washington with 
 musket in hand was at the head of his company. “ Fire!” was the clear 
 command that rang through the forest, and the first volley of a great war 
 went flying on its mission of death. The engagement was brief and 
 decisive. Jumonville, the leader of the French, and ten of his party were 
 killed, and twenty-one were made prisoners. 
 
 A month of precious time was now lost in delays. While Washing¬ 
 ton at Fort Necessity waited in vain for reinforcements, the French at 
 
256 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Fort du Quesne were collecting in great numbers. One small company 
 of volunteers from South Carolina arrived at the English camp; but the 
 captain was an arrogant blockhead who, having a commission from the 
 king, undertook to supersede Washington. The latter, with the Vir¬ 
 ginians, spent the time of waiting in cutting a road for twenty miles 
 across the rough country in the direction of Fort du Quesne. The In¬ 
 dians were greatly discouraged at the dilatory conduct of the colonies, 
 and the strong war-parties which had been expected to join Washington 
 from the Muskingum and the Miami did not arrive. His whole effect¬ 
 ive force scarcely numbered four hundred. Learning that the French 
 general De Villiers was approaching with a large body of troops, besides 
 Indian auxiliaries, Washington deemed it prudent to fall back to Fort 
 Necessity. The Carolina captain, who had remained within the fortifica¬ 
 tions, had done nothing to strengthen the works, although there was the 
 greatest need. 
 
 The little fort stood in an open space, midway between two emi¬ 
 nences covered with trees. Scarcely were Washington’s forces safe within 
 the enclosure, when on the 3d of July the regiment of De Villiers, num¬ 
 bering six hundred, besides the savage allies, came in sight, and surrounded 
 the fort. The French stationed themselves on the eminence, about sixty 
 yards distant from the stockade. From this position they could fire down 
 upon the English with fatal effect. Many of the Indians climbed into 
 the tree-tops, where they were concealed by the thick foliage. For nine 
 hours, during a rain-storm, the assailants poured an incessant shower of 
 balls upon the heroic band in the fort. Thirty of Washington’s men 
 were killed, but his tranquil presence encouraged the rest, and the fire of 
 the French was returned with unabated vigor. At length De Villiers, fear¬ 
 ing that his ammunition would be exhausted, proposed a parley. Wash¬ 
 ington, seeing that it would be impossible to hold out much longer, ac¬ 
 cepted the honorable terms of capitulation which were offered by the 
 French general. On the 4th of July the English garrison, retaining all 
 its accoutrements, marched out of the little fort, so bravely defended, and 
 withdrew from the country. The whole valley of the Ohio remained in 
 undisturbed possession of the French. 
 
 Meanwhile, a congress of the American colonies had assembled at 
 Albany. The objects had in view, were twofold: first, to renew the 
 treaty with the Iroquois confederacy; and secondly, to stir up the colonial 
 authorities to some sort of concerted action against the French. The 
 Iroquois had wavered from the beginning of the war; the recent reverses 
 of the English had not strengthened the loyalty of the Red men. As to 
 the French aggressions, something must be done speedily, or the flag of 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 257 
 
 England could never be borne into the vast country west of the Alle- 
 ghanies. The congress was not wanting in abilities of the highest order. 
 No such venerable and dignified body of men had ever before assembled 
 on the American continent. There were Hutchinson of Massachusetts, 
 Hopkins of Rhode Island, Franklin of Pennsylvania, and others scarcely 
 less distinguished. After a few days’ consultation, the Iroquois, but half 
 satisfied, renewed their treaty and departed. The chieftains were anxious 
 and uneasy lest, through inactivity and want of union on the part of the 
 colonies, the Six Nations should be left to contend alone with the power 
 of France. 
 
 The convention next took up the important question of uniting the 
 colonies in a common government. On the 10th day of July, Benjamin 
 Franklin laid before the commissioners the draft of a federal constitu¬ 
 tion. His vast and comprehensive mind had realized the true condition 
 and wants of the country; the critical situation of the colonies demanded 
 a central government. How else could revenues be raised, an army be 
 organized and the common welfare be provided for? According to the 
 proposed plan of union, Philadelphia, a central city, was to be the cap¬ 
 ital. It was urged in behalf of this clause that the delegates of New 
 Hampshire and Georgia, the colonies most remote, could reach the seat 
 of government in fifteen or twenty days ! Slow-going old patriots! The 
 chief executive of the new confederation was to be a governor-general 
 appointed and supported by the king. The legislative authority was 
 vested in a congress composed of delegates to be chosen triennially by the 
 general assemblies of the respective provinces. Each colony should be 
 represented in proportion to its contributions to the general government, 
 but no colony should have less than two or more than seven represent¬ 
 atives in congress. With the governor was lodged the power of appoint¬ 
 ing all military officers and of vetoing objectionable laws. The appoint¬ 
 ment of civil officers, the raising of troops, the levying of taxes, the super¬ 
 intendence of Indian affairs, the regulation of commerce, and all the 
 general duties of government, belonged to congress. This body was to 
 convene once a year, to choose its own officers, and to remain in session 
 not longer than six weeks.* 
 
 Such was the constitution drafted by Franklin and adopted, not 
 without serious opposition, by the commissioners at Albany. It remained 
 for the colonies to ratify or reject the new scheme of government. Copies 
 of the proposed constitution were at once transmitted to the several colon¬ 
 ial capitals, and were everywhere received with disfavor; in Connecticut, 
 rejected ; in Massachusetts, opposed; in New York, adopted with indiffer¬ 
 ence. The chief objection urged against the instrument was the power of 
 
 17 k Rpf> Appendix C. 
 
258 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 veto given to the governor-general. Nor did the new constitution fare 
 better in the mother country. The English board of trade rejected it 
 with disdain, saying that the froward Americans were trying to make a 
 government of their own. Meanwhile, the French were strengthening 
 their works at Crown Point and Fort Niagara, and rejoicing over their 
 success in Western Pennsylvania. 
 
 But the honor of England, no less than the welfare of her colonies, 
 was at stake, and Parliament came to the rescue. It was determined to 
 send a British army to America, to accept the service of such provincial 
 troops as the colonies might furnish, and to protect the frontier against 
 the aggressions of France. As yet there had been no declaration of war. 
 The ministers of the two nations kept assuring each other of peaceable 
 intentions; but Louis XV. took care to send three thousand soldiers to 
 Canada, and the British government ordered General Edward Braddock 
 to proceed to America with two regiments of regulars. Early in 1755 
 the English armament arrived in the Chesapeake. On the 14th of April 
 Braddock met the governors of all the colonies in a convention at Alex¬ 
 andria. The condition of colonial affairs was fully discussed. It was 
 resolved, since peace existed, not to invade Canada, but to repel the 
 • French on the western and northern frontier. The plans of four cam¬ 
 paigns were accordingly submitted and ratified. Lawrence, the governor 
 of Nova Scotia, was to complete the conquest of that province according to 
 the English notion of boundaries. Johnson of New York was to enroll 
 a force of volunteers and Mohawks in British pay, and to capture the 
 French post at Crown Point. Shirley of Massachusetts was to equip a 
 regiment and drive the enemy from their fortress at Niagara. Last and 
 most important of all, Braddock himself as commander-in-chief was to 
 lead the main body of regulars against Fort du Quesne, retake that post 
 and expel the French from the Ohio valley. 
 
 In the latter part of April the British general set out on his march 
 from Alexandria to Will’s Creek. The name of the military post at the 
 mouth of this stream was now changed to Fort Cumberland. Braddock’s 
 army numbered fully two thousand men. They were nearly all veterans 
 who had seen service in the wars of Europe. A few provincial troops 
 had joined the expedition; two companies of volunteers, led by Colonel 
 Horatio Gates of New York, were among the number. Washington met 
 the army at Fort Cumberland, and became an aid-de-camp of Braddock. 
 The colonies would have assisted with large levies of recruits, had it not 
 been for the nature of the general’s authority. It was prescribed in his 
 commission that the provincial captains and colonels should have no rank 
 when serving in connection with the British army. So odious was this 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 259 
 
 regulation that Washington had set the example of withdrawing from the 
 service; patriotic motives and the wish of Virginia now induced him to 
 return and to accept a post of responsibility. 
 
 On the last day of May the march began from Fort Cumberland. 
 A select force of five hundred men was thrown forward to open the roads 
 in the direction of Fort du Quesne. Sir Peter Halket led the advance, 
 and Braddock followed with the main body. The army, marching in a 
 slender column, was extended for four miles along the narrow and broken 
 road It was in vain that Washington pointed out the danger of am¬ 
 buscades and suggested the employment of scouting-parties. Braddock 
 was self-willed, arrogant, proud; thoroughly skilled in the tactics of 
 European warfare, he could not bear to be advised by an inferior. The 
 sagacious Franklin had admonished him to move with caution; but he 
 only replied that it was impossible for savages to make any impression on 
 His Majesty’s regulars. Now, when Washington ventured to repeat the 
 advice, Braddock flew into a passion, strode up and down in his tent, and 
 said that it was high times when Colonel Buckskin could teach a British 
 general how to fight. 
 
 On the 19th of June, Braddock put himself at the head of twelve 
 hundred chosen troops and pressed forward more rapidly. Colonel Dun¬ 
 bar was left behind with the remainder of the army. On the 8th of July 
 the van reached the junction of the Youghiogheny and the Monongahela. 
 It was only twelve miles farther to Fort du Quesne, and the French gave 
 up the place as lost. On the next morning the English army advanced 
 along the Monongahela, and at noon crossed to the northern bank just 
 beyond the confluence of Turtle Creek. Still there was no sign of an 
 enemy. Colonel Thomas Gage was leading forward a detachment of three 
 hundred and fifty men. The road was but twelve feet wide; the country 
 uneven and woody There was a dense undergrowth on either hand; 
 rocks and ravines; a hill on the right and a dry hollow on the left. A 
 few guides were in the advance, and some feeble flanking-parties; in the 
 rear came the general with the main division of the army, the artillery 
 and the baggage. All at once a quick and heavy fire was heard in the 
 front. 
 
 France was not going to give up Fort du Quesne without a strug¬ 
 gle. For two months the place had been receiving reinforcements; still 
 the garrison was by no means able to cope with Braddock’s army. Even 
 the Indians realized the disparity of the contest. It was with great diffi¬ 
 culty that, on the night before the battle, the commandant of the fort 
 induced the savages to join in the enterprise of ambuscading the British. 
 At last a force of two hundred and thirty French, led by Beaujeu and 
 10 
 
260 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Dumas, aud a body of six hundred and thirty-seven Indians set out from 
 Du Quesne with a view to harass and annoy the English rather than to 
 face them in a serious battle. It was the purpose of the French, who 
 were entirely familiar with the ground, to lay an ambuscade at a favor¬ 
 able point seven miles distant from the fort. They were just reaching 
 the selected spot and settling into ambush when the flanking-parties of 
 the English came in sight. The French fired; the Indians yelled and 
 slunk into-their hiding-places, and the battle began. 
 
 If Gage had at once thrown forward his forces to the support of 
 
 the guards, the day could have been 
 saved; but he was confused and un¬ 
 decided. The flanking parties were 
 driven in, leaving their six-pounders 
 in the hands of the enemy. Gage’s 
 men wavered, and were mixed in the 
 thickset underwood with a regiment 
 which Braddock had pushed forward 
 to the rescue. The confusion became 
 greater, and there were symptoms of 
 a panic. The men fired constantly, 
 but could see no enemy. Every 
 volley from the hidden foe flew with 
 deadly certainty into the crowded 
 ranks of the English. The rash but 
 
 SCENE OE BRADBOCK’S DEFEAT, 1755. We t() ^ 
 
 rallied his men with the energy of despair; but it was all in vain. The 
 men stood huddled together like sheep, or fled in terror to the rear. The 
 forest was strewn with the dead; the savages, emboldened by their unex¬ 
 pected success, crept farther and farther along the flanks; and the battle 
 became a rout. Braddock had five horses shot under him ; his secretary 
 was killed; both his English aids were disabled; only Washington re¬ 
 mained to distribute orders. Out of eighty-two officers twenty-six were 
 killed and thirty-seven wounded. Of the privates seven hundred and 
 fourteen were dead or bleeding with wounds. At last the general re¬ 
 ceived a ball in his right side and sank fainting to the ground. “What 
 shall we do now, colonel ?” said he to Washington, who came to his assist¬ 
 ance. “ Retreat, sir—retreat by all means,” replied the young hero, upon 
 whom everything now depended. His own bosom had been for more 
 than two hours a special target for the savages. Two horses had fallen 
 under him, and four times his coat had been torn with balls. A Shawnee 
 chief singled him out and bade his warriors do the same; but their volleys 
 
FALL OF BRADDOCK, 
 
RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 261 
 
 Went by harmless. The retreat began at once, and the thirty Virginians, 
 who, with Washington, were all that remained alive, covered the flight of 
 the ruined army. The artillery, provisions, baggage and private papers 
 of the general were left on the field. 
 
 The losses of the French and Indians were slight, amounting to 
 three officers and thirty men killed, and as many others wounded. There 
 was no attempt made at pursuit. The savages fairly reveled in the spoils 
 of the battle-field. They had never known so rich a harvest of scalps 
 and booty. The tawny chiefs returned to Fort du Quesne clad in the 
 laced coats, military boots and cockades of the British officers. The 
 dying Braddock was borne in the train of the fugitives. Once he roused 
 himself to say, “ Who would have thought it?” and again, “ We shall 
 better know how to deal with them another time.” On the evening of 
 the fourth day he died, and was buried by the roadside a mile west of Fort 
 Necessity. When the fugitives reached Dunbar’s camp, the confusion was 
 greater than ever. Dunbar was a man of feeble capacity and no courage; 
 pretending to have the orders of the dying general, he proceeded to de¬ 
 stroy the remaining artillery, the heavy baggage, and all the public stores, 
 to the value of a hundred thousand pounds. Then followed a precipitate 
 retreat to Fort Cumberland, and then an abandonment of that place for 
 the safer precincts of Philadelphia. It was only the beginning of August, 
 yet Dunbar pleaded the necessity of finding winter quarters for his forces. 
 The great expedition of Braddock had ended in such a disaster as spread 
 sonsternation and gloom over all the colonies. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 B Y the treaty of Utrecht, made in 1713, the province of Acadia, or Nova 
 Scotia, was ceded by France to England. During the following fifty 
 years the colony remained under the dominion of Great Britain, and was 
 ruled by English officers. But the great majority of the .people were 
 French, and the English government amounted only to a military occu¬ 
 pation of the peninsula. The British colors, floating over Louisburg and 
 Annapolis, and the presence of British garrisons here and there, were the 
 only tokens that this, the oldest French colony in America, had passed 
 under the control of foreigners. 
 
262 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At the time of the cession the population amounted to about three 
 thousand; by the outbreak of the French and Indian War the number 
 had increased to more than sixteen thousand. Lawrence, the deputy- 
 governor of the province, pretended to fear an insurrection. When Brad- 
 dock and the colonial governors convened at Alexandria, it was urged 
 that something must be done to overawe the French and strengthen the 
 English authority in Acadia. The enterprise of reducing the French 
 peasants to complete humiliation was entrusted to Lawrence, who was 
 to be assisted by a British fleet under Colonel Monckton. On the 20th of 
 May, 1755, the squadron, with three thousand troops, sailed from Boston 
 for the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 The French had but two fortified posts in the province; both of 
 these were on the isthmus which divides Nova Scotia from New Bruns¬ 
 wick. The first and most important fortress, named Beau-Sej our, was sit¬ 
 uated near the mouth of Messagouche 
 Creek, at the head of Chignecto Bay. 
 The other fort, a mere stockade called 
 Gaspereau, was on the north side of 
 16 the isthmus, at Bay Verte. De Ver- 
 gor, the French commandant, had 
 no intimation of approaching danger 
 till the English fleet sailed fearlessly 
 into the bay and anchored before the 
 walls of Beau-Sejour. There was no 
 preparation for defence. On the 3d 
 « of June the English forces landed, 
 and on the next day forced their way 
 across the Messagouche. A vigorous 
 siege of four days followed. Fear and confusion reigned among the gar¬ 
 rison ; no successful resistance could be offered. On the 16th of the month 
 Beau-Sejour capitulated, received an English garrison and took the name 
 of Fort Cumberland. The feeble post at Gaspereau was taken a few days 
 afterward, and named Fort Monckton. Captain Rous was despatched with 
 four vessels to capture the fort at the mouth of the St. John’s; but before 
 the fleet could reach its destination, the French reduced the town to ashes 
 and escaped into the interior. In a campaign of less than a month, and 
 with a loss of only twenty men, the English had made themselves masters 
 of the whole country east of the St. Croix. 
 
 The war in Acadia was at an end; but what should be done with 
 the people? The French inhabitants still outnumbered the English 
 nearly three to one. Governor Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, in con- 
 
RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 263 
 
 ference with the chief justice of the province, settled upon the atrocious 
 measure of driving the people into banishment. The first movement was 
 to demand an oath of allegiance which was so framed that the French, as 
 honest Catholics, could not take it. The priests advised the peasants to 
 declare their loyalty, but refuse the oath, which was meant to ensnare their 
 souls. The next step on the part of the English was to accuse the Frencn 
 of treason, and to demand the surrender of all their firearms and boats. 
 To this measure the broken-hearted people also submitted. They even 
 offered to take the oath, but Lawrence declared that, having once refused, 
 they must now take the consequences. The British vessels were made 
 readv, and the work of forcible embarkation began. 
 
 The country about the isthmus was covered with peaceful hamlets. 
 
 THE EXILE OF THE ACADIANS.* 
 
 These were now laid waste, and the people driven into the larger towns on 
 the coast. Others were induced by artifice and treachery to put them¬ 
 selves into the power of the English. Wherever a sufficient number of 
 the French could be gotten together they were driven on shipboard. 
 They were allowed to take their wives and children and as much property 
 as would not be inconvenient on the vessels. The estates of the province 
 were confiscated, and what could not be appropriated was given to the 
 
 * Longfellow’s Evangeline is founded on this incident. 
 
264 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 flames. The wails of thousands of bleeding hearts were wafted to heaven 
 with the smoke of burning homes. At the village of Grand Pre four 
 hundred and eighteen unarmed men were called together and shut up in 
 a church. Then came the wives and children, the old men and the 
 mothers, the sick and the infirm, to share the common fate. The whole 
 company numbered more than nineteen hundred souls. The poor crea¬ 
 tures were driven down to the shore, forced into the boats at the point 
 of the bayonet, and carried to the vessels in the bay. As the moaning 
 fugitives cast a last look at their pleasant town, a column of black smoke 
 floating seaward told the story of desolation. More than three thousand 
 of the hapless Acadians were carried away by the British squadron and 
 scattered, helpless, half starved and dying, among the English colonies 
 The history of civilized nations furnishes no parallel to this wanton and 
 wicked destruction of an inoffensive colony. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 T HE third campaign planned by Braddock at Alexandria was to be 
 conducted by Governor Shirley of Massachusetts. The expedition 
 was to proceed from Albany to Oswego, and thence by water to the 
 mouth of the Niagara. It was known that Fort Niagara was an insig¬ 
 nificant post, depending for its defence upon a small ditch, a rotten 
 palisade and a feeble garrison. To capture this place, to obtain command 
 of the river, and to cut off the communications of the French by way of 
 the lakes, were the objects of the campaign. “ Fort du Quesne can hardly 
 detain me more than three or four days,” said Braddock to Shirley, “ and 
 then I will meet you at Niagara.” 
 
 In the early part of August, Shirley set out at the head of nearly 
 two thousand men. It was the last of the month before he reached 
 Oswego. Here the provincial forces had been ordered to assemble. Four 
 weeks were spent in preparing boats for embarkation. When everything 
 was in readiness, a storm arose; and when the storm abated, the winds blew 
 in the wrong direction. Then came another tempest and another delay ; 
 then sickness prevailed in the camp. With the beginning of October 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 2G5 
 
 Shirley declared the lake to be dangerous for navigation. The Indians 
 deserted the standard of a leader whose skill in war consisted in framing 
 excuses. The fact was that the general, while on the march to Oswego, 
 had learned of the destruction of Braddock’s army, and feared that a sim¬ 
 ilar fate might overtake his own. On the 24th of October the greater 
 part of the provincial forces, led by Shirley, marched homeward. Only 
 one result of any importance folloved from the campaign—the fort at 
 Oswego was well rebuilt and garrisoned with seven hundred men under 
 Mercer. 
 
 Far more important was the expedition entrusted to General Wil¬ 
 liam Johnson. The object had in view was to capture the enemy’s fort¬ 
 ress at Crown Point, and to drive the French from the shores of Lake 
 Champlain. Johnson’s army numbered three thousand four hundred 
 men, including a body of friendly Mohawks. The active work of the 
 campaign began early in August, when General Phineas Lyman, at the 
 head of the New England troops, proceeded to the Hudson above Albany, 
 and at a point just below where the river bends ab¬ 
 ruptly to the west built Fort Edward. Thither in 
 the last days of summer came the commanding general 
 with the main division. The watershed between the- 
 Hudson and Lake George is only twelve miles wide. 
 
 Johnson’s army marched across to the head of the lake 
 and laid out a commodious camp. A week was spent 
 in bringing forward the artillery and stores. The 
 soldiers were busy preparing boats for embarkation, 
 and the important matter of fortifying the camp was 
 wholly neglected. 
 
 In the mean time, Dieskau, the daring command¬ 
 ant at Crown Point, determined to anticipate the 
 movements of the English. With a force of fourteen 
 hundred French, Canadians and Indians he sailed up 
 Lake Champlain to South Bay. From this point he marched to the 
 upper springs of Wood Creek, intending to strike to the south, pass the 
 English army and capture Fort Edward before the alarm could be given. 
 But the news was carried to General Johnson; and a force of a thousand 
 men under command of Colonel Williams, accompanied by Hendrick, the 
 gray-haired chieftain of the Mohawks, with two hundred warriors, was 
 sent to the relief of the endangered fort. On the previous night Dieskau’s 
 guides had led him out of his course. On the morning of the 8th of 
 September the French general found himself and his army about four 
 miles north of Fort Edward, on the main road from the Hudson to Lake 
 
 ** F.o rt'A a 
 
 .TameYielcl 
 (J len^F.^Ua2/^San3y B 
 
 TrortEitt?! 
 
 vicinity op lake 
 GEORGE, 1755. 
 
266 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 George. Just at this time Colonel Williams’s regiment and the Mohawks 
 came in sight, marching toward the fort. Dieskau quickly formed an 
 ambush, and the English were entrapped; but the Indian allies of the 
 French showed themselves to their countrymen, and would not fire. The 
 Canadians and the French poured in a deadly volley; both Williams and 
 Hendrick fell dead, and the English were thrown into confusion. But 
 Colonel Whiting rallied the troops, returned the enemy’s fire, and re¬ 
 treated toward the lake. St. Pierre, one of the French generals, was 
 killed. 
 
 The noise of battle was heard in Johnson’s camp, and preparations 
 were made for a general engagement. There were no entrenchments, but 
 trees were hastily felled for breastworks, and the cannons were brought 
 into position. It was Dieskau’s plan to rush into the English camp 
 along with the fugitives whom he was driving before him; but the In¬ 
 dians, afraid of Johnson’s guns, would not join in the assault; the Bed 
 men retired to a hill at a safe distance. The Canadians were disheartened; 
 and the handful of French regulars made the onset almost unsupported. 
 It was the fiercest battle which had yet been fought on American soil. 
 For five hours the conflict w T as incessant. In the beginning of the engage¬ 
 ment Johnson received a slight wound and left the field; but the troops 
 of New England fought on without a commander. Nearly all of Dieskau’s 
 regulars were killed. At last the English troops leaped over the fallen 
 trees, charged across the field, and completed the rout. Three times 
 Dieskau was wounded, but he would not retire. His aids came to bear 
 him off; one was shot dead, and he forbade the others. He ordered his 
 servants to bring him his military dress, and then seated himself on the 
 stump of a tree. A renegade Frenchman belonging to the English army 
 rushed up to make him a prisoner. The wounded general felt for his 
 watch to tender it in token of surrender. The Frenchman, thinking that- 
 Dieskau w r as searching for a pistol, fired, and the brave commander fell, 
 mortally wounded. 
 
 The victory, though complete, was dearly purchased. Two hun¬ 
 dred and sixteen of the English were killed, and many others wounded. 
 General Johnson, who had done but little, was greatly praised; Parliament 
 made him a baronet for gaining a victory which the provincials gained 
 for him. Made wiser by the battle, he now constructed on the site of his 
 camp a substantial fort, and named it William Henry. The defences of 
 Fort Edward were strengthened with an additional garrison, and the 
 remainder of the troops returned to their homes. Meanwhile, the French 
 had reinforced Crown Point, and had seized and fortified Ticonderoga. 
 Such was the condition of affairs at the close of 1755. 
 
TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 267 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 A FTER the death of Braddock the chief command of the English 
 forces in America was given to Governor Shirley. But no regular 
 military organization had been effected; and the war was carried on in a 
 desultory manner. Braddock had ruined one army; Shirley had scat¬ 
 tered another. On Lake George, Johnson had achieved a marked suc¬ 
 cess. In the beginning of 1756, Washington at the head of the Vir¬ 
 ginian provincials repelled the French and Indians in the valley of the 
 Shenandoah. At the same time the Pennsylvania volunteers, choosing 
 Franklin for their colonel, marched to the banks of the Lehigh, built a 
 fort, and made a successful campaign. In the preceding December, 
 Shirley met the colonial governors at New York and planned the move¬ 
 ments for the following year. One expedition, proceeding by way of the 
 Kennebec, was to threaten Quebec. Forts Frontenac, Toronto and Niagara 
 were to be taken. Du Quesne, Detroit and Mackinaw, deprived of their 
 communications, must of course surrender. 
 
 In the mean time, after *much debate in Parliament, it was decided 
 to consolidate and put under one authority all the military forces in 
 America. The earl of Loudoun received Ihe appointment of commander- 
 in-chief. General Abercrombie was second in rank; and forty British 
 and German officers were commissioned to organize and discipline the 
 colonial army. In the last of April, 1756, Abercrombie, with two bat¬ 
 talions of regulars, sailed for New York. Lord Loudoun was to follow 
 with a fleet of transports, bearing the artillery, tents, ammunition and 
 equipage of the expedition. The commander waited a month for his 
 vessels, and then sailed without them. On the 15th of June a man-of- 
 war was despatched to America with a hundred thousand pounds to reim¬ 
 burse the colonies for the expenses of the previous campaigns. At the 
 same time the corps of British officers arrived at New York. Meanwhile, 
 on the 17th of May, Great Britain, after nearly two years of actual hos¬ 
 tilities, made an open declaration of war, which was followed by a similar 
 declaration on the part of France. 
 
 On the 25th of June, Abercrombie reached Albany. He began his 
 great campaign by surveying the town, digging a ditch and quartering 
 
268 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his soldiers with the citizens. In July, Lord Loudoun arrived and 
 assumed the command of the colonial army. The French, meanwhile, 
 profiting by these delays, organized a force of more than five thousand 
 men, crossed Lake Ontario and laid siege to Oswego. The marquis of 
 Montcalm, who had succeeded Dieskau as commander-in-chief, led the 
 expedition. At the mouth of Oswego River there were two forts; the 
 old block-house on the west and the new Fort Ontario on the east. The 
 latter was first attacked. Thirty pieces of cannon were brought to bear 
 on the fortress. After a brave defence of one day, the little garrison 
 abandoned the works and escaped to the old fort across the river. This 
 place was also invested by the French. For two days the English, num¬ 
 bering only fourteen hundred, held out against the besiegers, and then sur¬ 
 rendered. A vast amount of ammunition, small arms, accoutrements 
 and provisions fell to the captors. Six vessels of war, three hundred 
 boats, a hundred and twenty cannon and three chests of money were the 
 further fruits of a victory by which France gained the only important 
 outpost of England on the lakes. To please his Indian allies, Montcalm 
 ordered Oswego to be razed to the ground. 
 
 During this summer the Delawares, false to their treaty, rose in 
 Western Pennsylvania and almost ruined the country. More than a 
 thousand people were killed or carried into captivity. In August, Colonel 
 John Armstrong, at the head of three hundred volunteers, crossed the 
 Alleghanies, and after a twenty days’ march reached the Indian town of Kit- 
 taning, forty-five miles north-east from Pittsburg. Lying in concealment 
 until daydawn on the morning of September 8th, the English rose against 
 the savages, and after a desperate battle destroyed them almost to a man. 
 The village was burned and the spirit of the barbarians completely broken. 
 The Americans lost sixteen men. Colonel Armstrong and Captain Hugh 
 Mercer, afterward distinguished in the Revolution, were both severely 
 wounded. 
 
 Lord Loudoun continued at Albany. His forces were amply suffi¬ 
 cient to capture every stronghold of Canada in the space of six weeks. 
 Instead of marching boldly to the north, he whiled away the summer and 
 fall, talked about an attack from the Ifrench, digged ditches, slandered 
 the provincial officers and waited for winter. When the frosts came, he 
 made haste to distribute the colonial troops and to quarter the regulars on 
 the principal towns. The vigilant French, learning what sort of a general 
 they had to cope with, crowded Lake Champlain with boats, strengthened 
 Crown Point and completed a fort at Ticonderoga. With the exception 
 of Armstrong’s expedition against the Indians, the year 1756 closed with¬ 
 out a single substantial success on the part of the English. 
 
TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 269 
 
 And the year 1757 was equally disastrous. The campaign which 
 was planned by Loudoun was limited to the conquest of Louisburg. Ever 
 since the treaty of Utrecht the French had retained Cape Breton; and 
 the fortress at Louisburg had been made one of the strongest on the con¬ 
 tinent. On the 20th of June, Lord Loudoun sailed from New York with 
 an army of six thousand regulars. By the first of July he was at Hal¬ 
 ifax, where he was joined by Admiral Holbourn with a powerful fleet of 
 sixteen men-of-war. There were on board five thousand additional 
 troops fresh from the armies of England. Never was such a use made of 
 a splendid armament. Loudoun landed before Halifax, cleared off a mus¬ 
 tering plain, and set his officers to drilling regiments already skilled in 
 every manoeuvre of war. To heighten the absurdity, the fields about the 
 c,ity were planted with onions. For it was said that the men might take 
 the scurvy! By and by the news came that the French vessels in the 
 harbor of Louisburg outnumbered by one the ships of the English squad¬ 
 ron. To attack a force that seemed superior to his own was not a part of 
 Loudoun’s tactics. Ordering the fleet to go cruising around Cape Breton, 
 he immediately embarked with his army, and sailed for New York. 
 Arriving at this place, he proposed to his officers to fortify Long Island 
 in order to defend the continent against an enemy whom he outnumbered 
 four to one. 
 
 Meanwhile, the daring Montcalm had made a brilliant campaign in 
 the country of Lake George. With a force of six thousand French and 
 Canadians and seventeen hundred Indians he proceeded up the Sorel, 
 entered Lake Champlain, and reached Ticonderoga. The object of the 
 expedition was to capture and destroy Fort William Henry. The French 
 and the Iroquois, who had now abandoned the cause of the colonies, were 
 fired with enthusiasm. Dragging their artillery and boats across the 
 portage to Lake George, they re-embarked, and on the 3d of August laid 
 siege to the English fort. The place was defended by only five hundred 
 men under the brave Colonel Monro; but there were seventeen hundred 
 additional troops within supporting distance in the adjacent trenches. All 
 this while General Webb was at Fort Edward, but fourteen miles distant, 
 with an. army of more than four thousand British regulars. Instead of 
 advancing to the relief of Fort William Henry, Webb held a council to 
 determine if it were not better to retire to Albany, and sent a message to 
 Colonel Monro advising capitulation. 
 
 For six days the French pressed the siege with vigor. The ammu¬ 
 nition of the garrison was nearly exhausted ; half of the guns were burst; 
 nothing remained but to surrender. Honorable terms were granted. The 
 English, retaining their private effects, were released on a pledge not to 
 
270 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 re-enter the service for eighteen months. A safe escort was promised to 
 Fort Edward. On the 9th of August the French took possession of the 
 fortress. Unfortunately, the Indians procured a quantity of spirits from 
 the English camp. Maddened with intoxication, and in spite of the 
 utmost exertions of Montcalm and his officers, the savages fell upon the 
 prisoners and began a massacre. Thirty of the English were tomahawked 
 and many others dragged away into captivity. The retirement of the 
 garrison to Fort Edward became a panic and a rout. 
 
 Such had been the successes of France during the year that the 
 English had not a single hamlet or fortress remaining in the whole basin 
 of the St. Lawrence. Every cabin where English was spoken had been 
 swept out of the Ohio valley. At the close of the year 1757, France pos¬ 
 sessed twenty times as much American territory as England; and five 
 times as much as England and Spain together. Such had been the im¬ 
 becility of the English management in America that the flag of Great 
 Britain was brought into disgrace. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 a REAT was the discouragement in England. The duke of Newcastle 
 and his associates in the government were obliged to resign. A new 
 ministry was formed, at the head of which was placed that remarkable 
 man William Pitt, called the Great Commoner. The imbecile Lord 
 Loudoun was deposed from the American army. General Abercrombie 
 was appointed to succeed him; but the main reliance for success w r as 
 placed, not so much on the commander-in-chief, as on an efficient corps 
 of subordinate officers whom the wisdom of Pitt now directed to America. 
 Admiral Boscawen was put in command of the fleet, consisting of twenty- 
 two ships of the line and fifteen frigates. The able general Amherst was 
 to lead a division. Young Lord Howe, brave and amiable, was next in 
 rank to Abercrombie. The gallant James Wolfe led a brigade. General 
 Forbes held an important command; and Colonel Richard Montgomery 
 was at the head of a regiment. 
 
 Three campaigns were planned for 1758. Amherst, acting in con- 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 271 
 
 junction with the fleet, was to capture Louisburg. Lord Howe, under 
 the direction of the commander-in-chief, was to reduce Crown Point 
 and Ticonderoga. The recovery of the Ohio valley was entrusted to 
 General Forbes. On the 28th of May, Amherst, at the head of ten 
 thousand effective men, reached Halifax. In six days more the fleet was 
 anchored in Gabarus Bay. Wolfe put his division into boats, rowed 
 through the surf under fire of the French batteries, and gained the shore 
 without serious loss. The French dismantled their battery and retreated. 
 Wolfe next gained possession of the north-east harbor and planted heavy 
 guns on the cape near the lighthouse. From this position the island 
 battery of the French was soon silenced. Louisburg was fairly invested, 
 and the siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of July three 
 French vessels were burned in the harbor. Two days later, the Prudent, 
 a seventy-four gun ship, was fired and destroyed by the English boats. 
 The town was already a heap of ruins, and the walls of the fortress began 
 to crumble. For a whole week the French soldiers had no place where 
 they could rest in safety ; of their fifty-two cannon only twelve remained 
 in position. Further resistance was hopeless. On the 28th of July 
 Louisburg capitulated. Cape Breton and Prince Edward’s Island were sur¬ 
 rendered to Great Britain. The garrison, together with the marines, in 
 all nearly six thousand men, became prisoners of war and were sent to 
 England. Amherst after his great success abandoned Louisburg, and the 
 fleet took station at Halifax. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Abercrombie had not been idle. On the 5th of 
 July an army of fifteen thousand men, led by Lord Howe, reached Lake 
 George and embarked for Ticonderoga. With heavy guns and abundant 
 stores the expedition proceeded to the northern extremity of the lake and 
 landed on the western shore. The country about the French fortress was 
 very unfavorable for military operations. The English proceeded with 
 great difficulty, leaving their artillery behind. Lord Howe led the ad¬ 
 vance in person. On the morning of the 6th, when the English were 
 nearing the fort, they fell in with the picket line of the French, number¬ 
 ing no more than three hundred. A severe skirmish ensued; the French 
 were overwhelmed, but not until they had inflicted on the English a 
 terrible loss in the death of Lord Howe. The soldiers were stricken with 
 grief, and began a retreat to the landing. Abercrombie was in the rear, 
 but the soul of the expedition had departed. 
 
 On the morning of the 8th the English engineer reported falsely 
 that the fortifications of Ticonderoga were flimsy and trifling. Again the 
 army was put in motion; and when just beyond the reach of the French 
 guns, the divisions were arranged to carry the place by assault. For more 
 
272 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 than four hours column after column dashed with great bravery against 
 the breastworks of the enemy, which were found to be strong and well 
 constructed. The defence was made by nearly four thousand French 
 under Montcalm, who, with coat off in the hot July afternoon, was every¬ 
 where present encouraging his men. At six o’clock in the evening the 
 English were finally repulsed. The carnage was dreadful, the loss on the 
 side of the assailants amounting in killed and wounded to nineteen hun¬ 
 dred and sixteen. In no battle of the Revolution did the British have so 
 large a force engaged or meet so terrible a loss. 
 
 The English still outnumbered the French three to one; and they 
 might have easily returned with their artillery and captured the fort. But 
 Abercrombie was not the man to do it. He returned to Fort George, at 
 the head of the lake, and contented himself with sending a force of three 
 thousand men under Colonel Bradstreet against Fort Frontenac. This 
 fortress was situated on the present site of Kingston, at the outlet of Lake 
 Ontario. Marching through the country of the Indians who were still 
 friendly to the English, Bradstreet reached Oswego, embarked his forces, 
 crossed the lake and landed within a mile of Frontenac. The place was 
 feebly defended, and a siege of two days compelled a capitulation. The 
 fortress, so important to the French, was demolished. Forty-six cannon, 
 nine vessels of war and a vast quantity of stores were the fruits of the 
 victory. Except in the waste of life, Bradstreet’s success more than coun¬ 
 terbalanced the failure of the English at Ticonderoga. The French were 
 everywhere weakened and despairing. In Canada the crops had failed, 
 and there was almost a famine. “ Peace, peace, no matter with what 
 boundaries,” was the message which the brave Montcalm sent to the 
 French ministry. 
 
 Late in the summer, Forbes, at the head of nine thousand men, ad¬ 
 vanced from Philadelphia against Fort du Quesne. Washington led the 
 Virginia provincials, and Armstrong, who had so distinguished himself 
 at Kittaning, the Pennsylvanians. The main body moved slowly, clear¬ 
 ing a broad road and bridging the streams. Washington and the pro¬ 
 vincials were impatient. Major Grant, more rash than wise, pressed on 
 to within a few miles of Du Quesne. Attempting to lead the French 
 and Indians into an ambuscade, he was himself ambuscaded, and lost a 
 third of his forces. Slowly the main division approached the fort, which 
 was defended by no more than five hundred men. On the 24th of No¬ 
 vember, Washington with the advance was within ten miles of Du 
 Quesne. During that night the garrison took the alarm, burned the fort¬ 
 ress and floated down the Ohio. On the 25th the victorious army 
 marched over the ruined bastions, raised the English flag, and named 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 273 
 
 the place Pittsburg. The name of the great British minister was justly 
 written over “ the gateway of the West.” 
 
 General Amherst was now promoted to the chief command of the 
 American forces. Parliament cheerfully voted twelve million pounds 
 sterling to carry on the war. The colonies exerted themselves to the 
 utmost. By the beginning of summer, 1759, the British and colonial 
 forces numbered nearly fifty thousand men. The whole population of 
 Canada was only eighty-two thousand; and the entire French army 
 scarcely exceeded seven thousand. Nothing less than the conquest of all 
 Canada would satisfy Pitt’s ambition. Three campaigns were planned 
 for the year. General Prideaux was to conduct an expedition against 
 Niagara, capture the fortress and descend the lake to Montreal. Amherst 
 was to lead the main division against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 
 General Wolfe was to proceed up the St. Lawrence and finish the work 
 by capturing Quebec. 
 
 By way of Schenectady and Oswego, Prideaux led his forces to 
 Niagara. On the 10th of July the place was invested. The French 
 general D’Aubry collected from Detroit, Erie, Le Boeuf and Venango a 
 body of twelve hundred men, and marched to the relief of the fort. On 
 the 15th, by the accidental bursting of a mortar, General Prideaux was 
 killed. Sir William Johnson, succeeding to the command, disposed his 
 forces so as to intercept the approaching French. On the morning of the 
 24th, D’Aubry’s army came in sight. A bloody engagement ensued, in 
 which the French were completely routed, leaving their unnumbered 
 dead scattered for miles through the forest. On the next day Niagara 
 capitulated and received an English garrison. The French forces in the 
 town, to the number of six hundred, became prisoners of war. Commun¬ 
 ication between Canada and Louisiana was for ever broken. 
 
 At the same time Amherst was conquering on Lake Champlain. 
 With an army of more than eleven thousand men he proceeded against 
 Ticonderoga. On the 22d of July the English forces were disembarked 
 near the landing-place of Abercrombie. The French did not dare to 
 stand against them. There was a slight skirmish, and then the trenches 
 were deserted. Fort Carillon was given up. On the 26th the French 
 garrison, having partly destroyed the fortifications, abandoned Ticon¬ 
 deroga and retreated to Crown Point. Five days afterward they de¬ 
 serted this place also, and entrenched themselves on Isle-aux-Noix, in the 
 river Sorel. The whole country of Lake Champlain had been recovered 
 without a battle. 
 
 It remained for General Wolfe to achieve the final victory. As 
 soon as a tardy spring had cleared the St. Lawrence of ice, he began the 
 
 20 
 
274 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ascent of the river. His force consisted of nearly eight thousand men, 
 assisted by a fleet of forty-four vessels under command of Admiral Saun¬ 
 ders. On the 27th of June the armament arrived without accident at 
 the Isle of Orleans, four miles below Quebec. The English camp was 
 
 pitched at the upper end of the 
 island. Wolfe’s vessels gave him 
 immediate command of the river, 
 and the southern bank was unde¬ 
 fended. On the night of the 29th, 
 General Monckton was sent with four 
 battalions to seize Point Levi. The 
 movement was successful, and an 
 English battery was planted opposite 
 the city. From this position the 
 Lower Town was soon reduced to 
 ruins, and the Upper Town much 
 injured; but the fortress seemed im¬ 
 pregnable. The French, knowing 
 that it would be impossible to storm 
 the city from the river side, had drawn their line of entrenchment from the 
 northern bank of the St. Lawrence, reaching for five miles from the 
 Montmorenci to the St. Charles. , Here Montcalm with ten or twelve 
 thousand French and Canadians awaited the movements of his antagonist. 
 
 Wolfe was restless and anxious for battle. On the 9th of July he 
 crossed the north channel, and encamped with his army on the east bank 
 of the Montmorenci. It was determined in a council of war to hazard 
 an engagement. The Montmorenci was fordable when the tide ran out. 
 The attack was planned for July 31st, at the hour of low water. Generals 
 Townshend and Murray were ordered to ford the stream with their two 
 brigades, and at the same time Monckton’s regiments of regulars were to 
 cross the St. Lawrence from Point Levi and aid in the assault. The 
 signal was given, and the grenadiers of Murray and Townshend dashed 
 across the Montmorenci; but the boats of Monckton ran aground, and there 
 was considerable delay. The impatient grenadiers, without waiting for 
 orders or support, rushed forward against the French entrenchments, and 
 were driven back with great loss. Before the regulars could be formed 
 in line the battle was decided. Night was approaching; the tide rising; 
 a storm portended; and Wolfe, after losing nearly five hundred men, with¬ 
 drew to his camp. 
 
 Disappointment, exposure and fatigue threw the English general 
 into a violent fever, and for many days he was confined to his tent. A 
 
 VICINITY OF QUEBEC, 1759. 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 275 
 
 council ol officers was called, and the indomitable leader proposed a second 
 assault on the French lines. But the proposition was overruled, and it 
 was decided to ascend 
 the St. Lawrence, and 
 if possible gain pos¬ 
 session of the Plains 
 of Abraham, in the 
 rear of the city. The 
 camp on the Mont- 
 morenci was accord¬ 
 ingly broken up, and 
 on the 6th of Septem¬ 
 ber the troops and ar¬ 
 tillery were conveyed 
 to Point Levi. Keep¬ 
 ing the French excited 
 with appearances of 
 activity, Wolfe again 
 transferred his army to 
 a point several miles 
 up the river. He then 
 busied himself with a 
 careful examination of 
 the northern bank, in 
 
 GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. 
 
 the hope of finding 
 
 some path among the precipitous cliffs by which to gain the plains. On 
 the 11th he discovered the place called Wolfe’s Cove, and decided that 
 here it was possible to make the ascent. Montcalm, deceived by the 
 movements of the fleet, was still in the trenches below the city. 
 
 On the night of the 12th of September everything was in readi¬ 
 ness. The English silently entered their transports and dropped down 
 the river to the cove. With great difficulty the soldiers clambered up 
 the almost perpendicular precipice; the feeble Canadian guard on the 
 summit was dispersed; and in the gray dawn of morning Wolfe mar¬ 
 shaled his army for battle. Montcalm was in amazement when he heard 
 the news. “ They are now on the weak side of this unfortunate town,” 
 said he; “ and we must crush them before mid-day.” With great haste 
 the French were brought from the trenches and thrown between Quebec 
 and the advancing English. The battle began with an hour’s cannonade; 
 then Montcalm attempted to turn the English flank, but was beaten back. 
 The Canadians and Indians were routed. Then came the weakened bat- 
 
276 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 talions of the French ; but they were poorly disciplined; the ground was 
 uneven, and Montcalm’s lines advanced brokenly. The English reserved 
 their fire until the advancing columns were within forty yards, and then 
 discharged volley after volley. The French wavered and were in con¬ 
 fusion. Wolfe, leading the charge, was wounded in the wrist. Again 
 he was struck, but pressed on at the head of his grenadiers. Just at the 
 moment of victory a third ball pierced his breast, and he sank quivering 
 to the earth. “ They run, they run !” said the attendant who bent over 
 him. “ Who run ?” was the feeble response. “ The French are flying 
 everywhere,” replied the officer. “ Do they run already ? Then I die 
 happy,” said the expiring hero; and his spirit passed away amid the 
 smoke of battle. Monckton was dangerously wounded and borne from the 
 field. Montcalm, still attempting to rally his broken regiments, was 
 struck with a ball, and fell. “ Shall I survive ?” said he to his surgeon. 
 “ But a few hours at most,” replied the attendant. “ So much the better,” 
 replied the heroic Frenchman. “I shall not live to witness the surrender 
 of Quebec.” 
 
 Further defence of the Canadian stronghold was useless. Five 
 days after the battle the French authorities surrendered to General Town- 
 shend, and an English garrison took possession of the citadel. The year 
 1759 closed with the complete triumph of the English arms. In the 
 following spring France made a great effort to recover her losses. A severe 
 battle was fought a few miles west of Quebec, and the English were 
 driven into the city. But reinforcements came, and the French were 
 beaten back. On the 8th of September, in the same year, Montreal, the 
 last important post of France in the valley of the St. Lawrence, surren¬ 
 dered to General Amherst. Canada had passed under the dominion of 
 England. 
 
 In the spring of 1760 the Cherokees of Tennessee rose against the 
 English. Fort Loudoun, in the north-eastern extremity of the State, was 
 besieged by the Red men, and forced to capitulate. Honorable terms were 
 promised to the garrison ; but as soon as the surrender was made, the 
 savages fell upon their prisoners and massacred or dragged into captivity 
 the whole company. Colonels Montgomery and Grant were despatched 
 by General Amherst to chastise,the Indians. After a vigorous campaign 
 the savages were driven into the mountains and compelled to sue for 
 peace. 
 
 The conquest of Canada was the overthrow of the French power 
 in America. It remained, however, for the English authorities to 
 take actual possession of the immense territory bordering on the Great 
 Lakes. At the time of the capture of Montreal this vast domain was 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 277 
 
 held by feeble fortresses, scattered here and there, and garrisoned by- 
 detachments of French soldiers. The Marquis of Vaudreuil in sur¬ 
 rendering Montreal had stipulated that all the western forts under the 
 control of France should be given up to England. In the fall of 1760 
 Major Robert Rogers was accordingly despatched by General Amherst, 
 with a company of two hundred provincial rangers, to receive the sur¬ 
 render of the outposts. 
 
 By the last of November, Rogers, having ascended the St. Law¬ 
 rence and passed through Lakes Ontario and Erie, reached Detroit, 
 Over this, the most important of the French posts in the West, the 
 English flag was raised; Forts Miami on the southern shore of Lake 
 Michigan and Ouatanon on the Wabash were also given up without 
 resistance. Rogers then pressed on to take possession of Mackinaw, 
 Green Bay and St. Marie, but was turned back by the storms on Lake 
 Huron ; and it was not until the following summer that those remote 
 fortresses were garrisoned by detachments of British soldiers. 
 
 No sooner were the English in complete possession of the coun¬ 
 try than they began by neglect and ill-treatment to excite the dor¬ 
 mant passions of the Red men. During the progress of the war the 
 Indians had become completely subordinated by French influence; 
 and the English were hated with all the ferocity of the savage na¬ 
 ture. It was not long till there were mutterings of an outbreak. 
 The tribes could not be made to comprehend that Canada had been 
 finally taken from their friends, the French. They confidently ex¬ 
 pected the day when the king of France should send new armies and 
 expel the detested English. Infatuated with this belief, instigated 
 by the French themselves, and stung by many insults real and im¬ 
 aginary, the warriors began their usual atrocities on the frontiers. 
 In the summer of 1761, the Senecas conspired with the Wyandots to 
 capture Detroit by treachery, and massacre the garrison; and the plot 
 was barely thwarted by Colonel Campbell, the commandant. In the 
 following summer another attempt of a similar sort was discovered 
 and defeated. It was in this condition of affairs that the celebrated 
 Pontiac came forward and organized the most far-reaching and dan¬ 
 gerous conspiracy ever known among the Indian tribes of Anierica. 
 
 Pontiac was chief of the Ottawas, whose principal seat was the 
 district between Lakes Erie and Michigan. In the somewhat pro¬ 
 longed interval between the conquest of Canada and the treaty of 
 1763, this sagacious warrior, doubting the possibility of a peace be¬ 
 tween the rival nations, conceived the design of uniting all the Indian 
 tribes from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi in an overwhelming 
 
278 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Major Gladwyn, the commandant, and in parting with him manifested 
 unusual agitation and distress. She was seen to linger at the street 
 corner, and the sentinel summoned her to return to the major’s quar¬ 
 ters. There, after much persuasion and many assurances of protec¬ 
 tion, she yielded to his urgent inquiries into the cause of her grief 
 and revealed the plot. When Pontiac’s band on the following day 
 attempted to gain the fort by treachery, they found every soldier and 
 citizen under arms and ready to receive them. Then followed a 
 protracted siege, and the savage horde was finally driven off. But 
 
 confederacy, which should upon a given day strike all the English 
 forts upon the frontier a deadly blow, and sweep away in a common 
 ruin every English family west of the mountains. The plot was con¬ 
 structed with the White man’s skill and the Red man’s cunning. The 
 7th of May, 1763, was named as the day of destruction. But when 
 the time came the impatient savage tribes were unable to act in per¬ 
 fect concert, and ultimate failure was the consequence, though the 
 immediate result was terribly disastrous. 
 
 Pontiac reserved for himself the most difficult task of all—the 
 capture of Detroit. But in the hour of impending doom, woman’s 
 love interposed to save the garrison from butchery. An Indian girl 
 of the Ojibwa nation, came to the fort with a pair of moccasins for 
 
 THE REVELATION OF PONTIAC’S CONSPIRACY. 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 279 
 
 in all other quarters the attacks were attended with the most fatal 
 results. On the 16th of May Fort Sandusky was taken and burned, 
 and the garrison butchered by a band of Wyandots. A few days 
 later Fort St. Joseph suffered a similar fate at the hands of the Pot- 
 tawattamies. On the 29th of the month Fort Mackinaw was taken 
 and its defenders nearly all murdered by the Chippeways. One out¬ 
 post after another was captured and burned, until by the middle of 
 summer every English fort in the West, except Niagara, Fort Pitt 
 and Detroit, had fallen into the hands of the savages. But in the 
 mean time rumors of a treaty between France and England were 
 borne to the Bed men; and they, becoming alarmed at their own 
 atrocities, began to sue for peace. The confederacy crumbled into 
 nothing. Every tribe seemed as anxious to avoid the consequences 
 as it had been to take up the hatchet. Pontiac and his band of Ot- 
 tawas held out for two years longer; then, abandoned by his follow¬ 
 ers, he fled to the Illinois, among whom he was finally killed in a 
 drunken brawl at the Indian town of Cahokia, opposite St. Louis. 
 
 For three years after the fall of Montreal the war between 
 France and England lingered on the ocean. The English fleets were 
 everywhere victorious. On the 10th of February, 1763, a treaty of 
 peace was made at Paris. All the French possessions in North Amer¬ 
 ica eastward of the Mississippi from its source to the river Iberville, 
 and thence through Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, were surrendered to Great Britain. At the same time 
 Spain, with whom England had been at war, ceded East and West 
 Florida to the English Crown. As reciprocal with this provision 
 France was obliged to make a cession to Spain of all that vast terri¬ 
 tory west of the Mississippi, known as the Province of Louisiana. 
 By the sweeping provisions of this treaty the French king lost his 
 entire possessions in the New World. Thus closed the French and 
 Indian War, one of the most important in the history of mankind. 
 By this conflict it was decided that the decaying institutions of the 
 Middle Ages should not prevail in the West; and that the powerful 
 language, laws and liberties of the English race should be planted 
 for ever in the vast domains of the New World. 
 
280 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 B EFORE entering upon the stirring events of the Revolution, it 
 will be of interest to glance at the general condition of the 
 American Colonies. There were thirteen of them: four in New 
 England,—Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Xew Hamp¬ 
 shire; four Middle Colonies,—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva¬ 
 nia, Delaware; five Southern,—Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Georgia. All had grown and prospered. The ele¬ 
 ments of power were everywhere present. A willful, patriotic, and 
 vigorous race of democrats had taken possession of the New World. 
 Institutions unknown in Europe, peculiar to the West, made neces¬ 
 sary by the condition and surroundings of the colonies, had sprung 
 up and were taking deep root in American soil. 
 
 According to estimates made for the year 1760 the population 
 of the colonies amounted to a million six hundred and ninety-five 
 thousand souls. Of these about three hundred and ten thousand were 
 blacks. Massachusetts was at this period perhaps the strongest col¬ 
 ony, having more than two hundred thousand people of European 
 ancestry within her borders. True, Virginia was the most populous, 
 having an aggregate of two hundred and eighty-four thousand inhab¬ 
 itants, but of these one hundred and sixteen thousand were Africans, 
 slaves. Next in strength stood Pennsylvania with a population of 
 nearly two hundred thousand; next Connecticut with her hundred 
 and thirty thousand people; next Maryland with a hundred and four 
 thousand; then New York with eighty-five thousand; New Jersey not 
 quite as many; then South Carolina, and so through the feebler col¬ 
 onies to Georgia, in whose borders were less than five thousand in¬ 
 habitants, including the negroes. 
 
 By the middle of the eighteenth century the people of the Amer¬ 
 ican colonies had to a certain extent assumed a national character; but 
 they were still strongly marked with the peculiarities which their an¬ 
 cestors had brought from Europe. In New England, especially in Mas¬ 
 sachusetts and Connecticut, the principles and practices of Puritanism 
 still held universal sway. On the banks of the Hudson the language, 
 manners, and customs of Holland were almost as prevalent as they 
 
CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 281 
 
 had been a hundred years before. By the Delaware the Quakers 
 were gathered in such numbers as to control all legislation, and to 
 prevent serious innovations upon the simple methods of civil and 
 social organization introduced by Penn. On the northern bank of 
 the Potomac, the youth¬ 
 ful Frederick, the sixth 
 Lord Baltimore, a friv¬ 
 olous and dissolute gov¬ 
 ernor, ruled a people 
 who still conformed to 
 the order of things es¬ 
 tablished a hundred and 
 thirty years previously 
 by Sirs George and Ce¬ 
 cil Calvert. In Vir¬ 
 ginia, mother of States 
 and statesmen, the peo¬ 
 ple had all their old 
 peculiarities; a some¬ 
 what haughty demean¬ 
 or: pride of ancestry; 
 fondness for aristocratic 
 sports; hospitality; love 
 of freedom. The North 
 Carolinians were at this 
 epoch the same rugged 
 and insubordinate race 
 of hunters that they had 
 always been. The leg¬ 
 islative assembly, in its 
 controversies with Gov¬ 
 ernor Dobbs, manifested all the intractable stubbornness which char¬ 
 acterized that body in the days of Seth Sothel. In South Carolina 
 there was much prosperity and happiness. But there, too, popular 
 liberty had been enlarged by the constant encroachment of the leg¬ 
 islature upon the royal prerogative. The people, mostly of French 
 descent, were as hot-blooded and jealous of their rights as their an¬ 
 cestors had been in the times of the first immigrations. Of all the 
 American colonies Georgia had at this time least strength and spirit. 
 Under the system of government established at the first the common¬ 
 wealth had languished. Not until 1754, when Governor Reynolds 
 
 THE OLD THIRTEEN COLONIES. 
 
282 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 assumed control of the colony, did the affairs of the people on the 
 Savannah begin to flourish. Even afterwards, something of the 
 indigence and want of thrift which had marked the followers of 
 Oglethorpe still prevailed in Georgia. Nevertheless, after making 
 allowance for all these differences of colonial character, a consid¬ 
 erable degree of American unity had been attained; inter-colonial 
 relations were well established; and the people were far less antag¬ 
 onistic and sectional than they had been. 
 
 In matters of education New England took the lead. Her 
 system of free schools extended everywhere from the Hudson to the. 
 Penobscot. Every village furnished facilities for the acquirement of 
 knowledge. So complete and universal were the means of instruc¬ 
 tion that in the times preceding the Revolution there was not to be 
 found in all New England an adult , born in the country, who could 
 not read and write. Splendid achievement of Puritanism! In the 
 Middle Colonies education was not so general; but in Pennsylvania 
 there was much intelligent activity among the people. Especially in 
 Philadelphia did the illustrious Franklin scatter the light of learn¬ 
 ing. South of the Potomac educational facilities were irregular and 
 generally designed for the benefit of the wealthier classes. But in. 
 some localities the means of enlightenment were well provided; in¬ 
 stitutions of learning sprang up scarcely inferior to those of the East¬ 
 ern provinces, or even of Europe. Nor should the private schools of 
 the colonial times be forgotten. Many men—Scottish reformers, Irish 
 liberals, and French patriots—despising the bigotry and intolerance 
 of their countrymen, fled for refuge to the New World, and there by 
 the banks of the Housatonic, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Poto¬ 
 mac, the Ashley, and the Savannah, taught the lore of books and 
 the lesson of liberty to the rugged boys of the American wilderness. 
 Among the Southern colonies Virginia led the van in matters of edu¬ 
 cation ; while Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia lagged behind. 
 Previous to the Revolution nine colleges worthy of the name had 
 been established in the colonies. These were Harvard, William and 
 Mary, Yale, Princeton, King’s (now called Columbia), Brown, Queen’s 
 (afterwards called Rutgers), Dartmouth, and Hampden and Sydney. 
 In 1764 the first medical college was founded, at Philadelphia. 
 
 Of the printing-press, that other great agent and forerunner of 
 civilization, the work was already effective. As early as 1704 the 
 Boston Neics-Letter, first of periodicals in the New World, was pub¬ 
 lished in the city of the Puritans; but fifteen years elapsed before 
 another experiment of the same sort was made. In 1721 the New 
 England Courant , a little sheet devoted to free thought and the ex- 
 
CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 283 
 
 tinction of rascality, was established at Boston by the two Franklins 
 —James and Benjamin. In 1740 New York had but one period¬ 
 ical, Virginia one, and South Carolina one; and at the close of the 
 French and Indian War, there were no more than ten newspapers 
 published in the colonies. The chief obstacles to such publications 
 were the absence of great cities and the difficulty of communication 
 between distant sections of the country. Boston and Philadelphia 
 had each no more than eighteen thousand inhabitants; New York 
 but twelve thousand. In all Virginia there was not one important 
 town; while as far south as Georgia there was scarcely a considerable 
 village. To reach this widely scattered population with periodical 
 publications was quite impossible. Books were few, and of little 
 value. Some dry volumes of history, theology, and politics were the 
 only stock and store. On the latter subject the publications were 
 sometimes full of pith and spirit. But notwithstanding this barren¬ 
 ness of books and general poverty of the resources of knowledge, it 
 was no unusual thing to find at the foot of the Virginia mountains, 
 in the quiet precincts of Philadelphia, by the banks of the Hudson, 
 or in the valleys of New England, a man of great and solid learn¬ 
 ing. Such a man was Thomas Jefferson; such were Franklin, and 
 Livingston, and the Adamses—men of profound scholarship, bold in 
 thought, ready with the pen, skillful in argument; studious, witty, 
 and eloquent. 
 
 Nothing impeded the progress of the colonies more than the 
 want of thoroughfares and easy communication between the different 
 sections. No general system of post-offices or post-roads had as yet 
 been established; and the people were left in comparative or total 
 ignorance of passing events. No common sentiments could be ex¬ 
 pressed—no common enthusiasm be kindled in the country—by the 
 slow-going mails and packets. The sea-coast towns and cities found 
 a readier intercourse by means of small sloops plying the Atlantic; 
 but the inland districts were wholly cut off from such advantages. 
 Roads were slowly built from point to point, and lines of travel by 
 coach and wagon were gradually established. To the very beginning 
 of the Revolution the people lived apart, isolated and dependent upon 
 their own resources for life and enjoyment. When in 1766 an ex¬ 
 press wagon made the trip from New York to Philadelphia in two 
 days, it was considered a marvel of rapidity. Six years later the first 
 stage-coach began to run regularly between Boston and Providence.* 
 
 * It is remarkable to note bow tardily the attention of a people will be turned to the 
 building of roads. Thus, for instance, in so old a country as Scotland there were no 
 great thoroughfares constructed until after the Scotch Rebellion of 1745. 
 
284 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Before the Revolution the Americans were for the most part 
 an agricultural people. Within the tide-water line of Virginia the 
 lands were divided into estates, and the planters devoted themselves 
 almost exclusively to the cultivation of tobacco. Farther inland the 
 products were more various: wheat, maize, potatoes; upland cotton, 
 hemp, and flax. In the Carolinas and Georgia the rice crop was 
 most important; after that, indigo, cotton, and some silk; tar, tur¬ 
 pentine, and what the hunter and fisherman gathered from the woods 
 and streams. New York, Philadelphia and Boston were then as now 
 the great centers of trade; but commerce was carried on in a slow 
 and awkward manner, wholly unlike the rushing activity of more 
 recent times. Ship-building was one of the most important colonial 
 interests. In the year 1738 no less than forty-one sailing vessels, 
 with an average burden of a hundred and fifty tons, were built and 
 launched at the ship-yards of Boston. New England was the seat of 
 whatever manufacturing interest prevailed in the country. But all 
 enterprise in this direction was checked and impeded by the British 
 Board of Trade, whose stupid and arbitrary restrictions acted as a 
 damper on every kind of colonial thrift. No sooner would some 
 enterprising company of New England men begin the building of a 
 factory than this officious Board would interfere in such a way as to 
 make success impossible. So jealous was the English ministry of 
 American progress! If, previous to the Revolution, any colonial 
 manufacture was successfully established, it was done against the will 
 of Great Britain, and in spite of her mean and churlish opposition. 
 
 Such were the American colonies—such the people whose bud¬ 
 ding nationality was now to be exposed to the blasts of war. These 
 people, whose ancestors had been driven into exile by the exactions 
 of European governments and the bigotry of ecclesiastical power, had 
 become the rightful proprietors of the New World. They had fairly 
 won it from savage man and savage nature. They had subdued it 
 and built States within it. They owned it by all the claims of actual 
 possession; by toil and trial; by the ordeal of suffering; by peril, 
 privation, and hardship ; by the baptism of sorrow and the shedding 
 of blood. No wonder that patriotism was the child of such travail 
 and discipline! No wonder that the men who from mountain and 
 sky and river, from orchard and valley and forest, from the memo¬ 
 ries of the past, the aspirations of the present and the hopes of the 
 future, had drank in the spirit of Liberty until their souls were per¬ 
 vaded with her sublime essence,—were now ready when the iron heel 
 of oppression was set upon their cherished rights, to draw the vindic¬ 
 tive sword even agninst the venerable monarchy of England ' 
 
PART IV. 
 
 REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 
 
 A. D. 1775—1789. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 CA USES. 
 
 T HE war of American Independence was an event of vast moment, 
 affecting the destinies of all nations. The question decided by the 
 conflict was this: Whether the English colonies in America, becoming 
 sovereign, should govern themselves or be ruled as dependencies of a 
 European monarchy. The decision was rendered in favor of separation 
 and independence. The result has been the grandest and most promising 
 example of republican government in the history of the world. The 
 struggle was long and distressing, though not characterized by great 
 violence; the combatants were of the same race and spoke a common lan¬ 
 guage. It is of the first importance to understand the causes of the war. 
 
 The most general cause of the American Revolution was the eight 
 of aebitraey government, claimed by Great Britain and denied by 
 the colonies. So long as this claim was asserted by England only as a 
 theory, the conflict was postponed; when the English government began 
 to enforce the principle in practice, the colonies resisted. The question 
 began to be openly discussed about the time of the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, in 1748 ; and from that period until the beginning of hostilities, 
 in 1775, each year witnessed a renewal of the agitation. But there were 
 also many subordinate causes tending to bring on a conflict. 
 
 First of these was the influence of France , which was constantly 
 exerted so as to incite a spirit of resistance in the colonies. The French 
 king would never have agreed to the treaty of 1763—by which Canada 
 was ceded to Great Britain—had it not been with the hope of securing 
 American independence. It was the theory of France that by giving up 
 Canada on the north the English colonies would become so strong as to 
 renounce their allegiance to the crown. England feared such a result. 
 
 More than once it was proposed in Parliament to re-cede Canada to France 
 
 (285) 
 
286 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in order to check the growth of the American States. “ There, now V* 
 said a French statesman when the treaty of 1763 was signed; “ we have 
 arranged matters for an American rebellion in which England will lose 
 her empire in the West.” 
 
 Another cause leading to the Revolution was found in the natural 
 disposition and inherited character of the colonists. They were, for the 
 most part, republicans in politics and dissenters in religion. The people 
 of England were monarchists and High Churchmen. The colonists had 
 never seen a king. The Atlantic lay between them and the British min¬ 
 istry. Their dealings with the royal officers had been such as to engender 
 a dislike for monarchical institutions. The people of America had not 
 forgotten—could not well forget—the circumstances under which their 
 ancestors had come to the New World. For six generations the colonists 
 had managed their own affairs; and their methods of government were 
 necessarily republican. The experiences of the French and Indian War 
 had shown that Americans were fully able to defend themselves and their 
 country. 
 
 The growth of public opinion in the colonies tended to independence. 
 The more advanced thinkers came to believe that a complete separation 
 from England was not only possible, but desirable. As early as 1755, John 
 Adams, then a young school-teacher in Connecticut, wrote in his diary: 
 “ In another century all Europe will not be able to subdue us. The only 
 way to keep us from setting up for ourselves is to disunite us.” Such 
 opinions were at first expressed only in private, then by hints in pam¬ 
 phlets and newspapers, and at last publicly and everywhere. The mass 
 of the people, however, were slow to accept an idea which seemed so rad¬ 
 ical and dangerous. Not until the war had actually begun did the ma¬ 
 jority declare for independence. 
 
 Another cause of the conflict with the mother country was found in 
 the personal character of the Icing. George III., who ascended the Eng¬ 
 lish throne in 1760, was one of the worst monarchs of modern times# 
 His notions of government were altogether despotic. He was a stubborn, 
 stupid, thick-headed man in whose mind the notion of human rights was 
 entirely wanting. It was impossible for him to conceive of a magnan¬ 
 imous project or to appreciate the value of civil liberty. His reign of 
 sixty years was as odious as it was long. In the management of the 
 British empire he employed only those who were the narrow-minded 
 partisans of his own policy. His ministers were, for the most part, men 
 as incompetent and illiberal as himself With such a king and such a 
 ministry it was not likely that the descendants of the Pilgrims would get 
 on smoothly. 
 
CA USES. 
 
 287 
 
 The more immediate cause of the Revolution was the passage by 
 
 Parliament of a number of acts destructive of colonial liberty. These acts 
 
 were resisted by the colonies, and the attempt was made by Great Britain 
 
 to enforce them with the bayonet. The subject of this unjust legislation, 
 
 which extended over a period of twelve years just preceding the war, was 
 
 the question of taxation. It is a well-grounded principle of English 
 
 common law that the people, by their representatives in the House of 
 
 Commons, have the right of voting whatever taxes and customs are neces-= 
 
 sary for the support of the kingdom. The American colonists claimed 
 
 the full rights of Englishmen. With good reason it. was urged that the 
 
 general assemblies of colonies held the same relation to the American. 
 
 people as did the House of Commons to the people of England. The 
 
 English ministers replied that Parliament, and not the colonial assemblies, 
 
 was the proper body to vote taxes in any and all parts of the British 
 
 empire. But we are not represented in Parliament, was the answer of 
 
 the Americans; the House of Commons may therefore justly assess taxes 
 
 in England, but not in America. Many of the towns, boroughs and 
 
 shires in these British isles have no representatives in Parliament, and 
 
 yet the Parliament taxes them, replied the ministers, now driven to 
 
 sophistry. If any of yonr towns, boroughs and shires are not represented 
 
 in the House of Commons, they ought to be, was the American rejoinder; 
 
 and there the argument ended. Such were the essential points of the 
 
 controversy. It is now proper to notice the several parliamentary acts 
 
 which the colonies complained of and resisted. 
 
 The first of these was the Importation Act, passed in 1733. 
 
 This statute was itself a kind of supplement to the old Navigation Act 
 
 of 1651. Bv the terms of the newer law exorbitant duties were laid on 
 * 
 
 all the sugar, molasses and rum imported into the colonies. At first the 
 payment of these unreasonable customs was evaded by the merchants, 
 and then the statute was openly set at naught. In 1750 it was further 
 enacted that iron-works should not be erected in America. The man¬ 
 ufacture of steel was specially forbidden ; and the felling of pines, outside 
 of enclosures, was interdicted. All of these laws were disregarded and 
 denounced by the people of the colonies as being unjust and tyrannical. 
 In 1761 a strenuous effort was made by the ministry to enforce the Im¬ 
 portation Act. The colonial courts were authorized to issue to the king’s 
 officers a kind of search-warrants, called Writs of Assistance. Armed 
 with this authority, petty constables might enter any and every place, 
 searching for and seizing goods which were suspected of having evaded 
 the duty. At Salem and Boston the greatest excitement prevailed. The 
 application for the writs was resisted before the courts. James Otis, an 
 
288 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 able and temperate man, pleaded eloquently for colonial rights, and de¬ 
 nounced the parliamentary acts as unconstitutional. The address was a 
 masterly defence of the people, and produced a profound sensation through¬ 
 out the colonies. Already there were hints at resistance by force of arms. 
 
 In 1763, and again in the following year, the English ministers 
 undertook to enforce the law requiring the payment of duties on sugar 
 and molasses. The officers of the admiralty were authorized to seize and 
 confiscate all vessels engaged in the unlawful trade. Before the passage 
 of this act was known at Boston, a great town-meeting was held. Samuel 
 Adams was the orator. A powerful argument was produced showing 
 conclusively that under the British constitution taxation and representa¬ 
 tion were inseparable. Nevertheless, vessels from the English navy were 
 sent to hover around the American harbors. A great number of mer¬ 
 chantmen bearing cargoes of sugar and wine were seized; and the colonial 
 trade with the West Indies was almost destroyed. 
 
 The year 1764 witnessed the first formal declaration of the purpose 
 of Parliament to tax the colonies. Mr. Grenville was now prime minis¬ 
 ter. On the 10th of March a resolution was adopted by the House of 
 Commons declaring that it would be proper to charge certain stamp- 
 duties on the American colonies. It was announced that a bill embody¬ 
 ing this principle would be prepared by the ministers and presented at 
 the next session of Parliament. In the mean time, the news of the pro¬ 
 posed measure was borne to America. Universal excitement and indig¬ 
 nation prevailed in the colonies. Political meetings became the order of 
 the day. Orators were in great demand. The newspapers teemed with 
 arguments against the proposed enactment. Resolutions were passed by 
 the people of almost every town. Formal remonstrances were addressed 
 to the king and the two houses of Parliament. Agents were appointed 
 by the colonies and sent to London in the hope of preventing the passage 
 of the law. 
 
 A new turn was now given to the controversy. The French and 
 Indian War had just been concluded with a treaty of peace. Great 
 Britain had incurred a heavy debt. The ministers began to urge that the 
 expenses of the war ought to be borne by the colonies. The Americans 
 replied that England ought to defend her colonies, from motives of 
 humanity; ffiat in the prosecution of the war the colonists had aided 
 Great Britain as much as Great Britain had aided them; that the cession 
 of Canada had amply remunerated England for her losses; that it was 
 not the payment of money which the colonies dreaded, but the surrender 
 of their liberties. It was also added that in case of another war the 
 American States would try to fight their own battles. 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 289 
 
 Early in March of 1765, the English Parliament, no longer guided 
 by the counsels of Pitt, passed the celebrated Stamp Act. In the House 
 of Commons the measure received a majority of five to one. In the 
 House of Lords the vote was unanimous. At the time of the passage of 
 the act the king was in a fit of insanity, and could not sign the bill. On 
 the 22d of the month the royal assent was given by a board of commis¬ 
 sioners acting for the king. “ The sun of American liberty has set,” 
 wrote Benjamin Franklin to a friend at home. “Now we must light the 
 lamps of industry and economy.” “ Be assured,” said the friend, in reply, 
 “ that we shall light torches of another sort.” And the answer reflected 
 the sentiment of the whole country. 
 
 The provisions of the Stamp Act were briefly these: Every note, 
 bond, deed, mortgage, lease, license and legal document of whatever sort, 
 required in the colonies, should, after the 1st day of the following No¬ 
 vember, be executed on paper bearing an English stamp. This stamped 
 paper was to be furnished by the British government; and for each sheet 
 the colonists were required to pay a sum varying, according to the nature 
 of the document, from three pence to six pounds sterling. Every colonial 
 pamphlet, almanac and newspaper was required to be printed on paper 
 of the same sort, the value of the stamps in this case ranging from a half¬ 
 penny to four pence; every advertisement was taxed two shillings. No 
 contract should be of any binding force unless written on paper bearing 
 the royal stamp. 
 
 The news of the hateful act swept over America like a thunder¬ 
 cloud. The people were at first grief-stricken; then indignant; and then 
 wrathful. Crowds of excited men surged into the towns, and there were 
 some acts of violence. The muffled bells of Philadelphia and Boston 
 rung a funeral peal; and the people said it was the death-knell of liberty. 
 In New York a copy of the Stamp Act was carried through the streets 
 with a death’s-head nailed to it, and a placard bearing this inscription: 
 The Folly of England and the Ruin of America. The general 
 assemblies were at first slow to move; there were many loyalists among 
 the members; and the colonial governors held their offices by appointment 
 of the king. It was hazardous for a provincial legislator to say that an 
 act of the British Parliament was the act of tyrants. But the younger 
 representatives, hot-blooded as well as patriotic, did not hesitate to ex¬ 
 press their sentiments. In the Virginia House of Burgesses there was a 
 memorable scene. 
 
 Patrick Henry, the youngest member of the House, an uneducated 
 mountaineer recently chosen to represent Louisa county, waited for some 
 cider delegate to lead the burgesses in opposition to Parliament. But the 
 
 21 
 
290 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 older members hesitated or went home. Offended at this lukewarmness. 
 Henrv in his passionate way snatched a blank-leaf out of an old law¬ 
 book and hastily drew up a series of fiery resolutions, declaring that the 
 
 Virginians were Eng¬ 
 lishmen with English 
 rights; that the people 
 of Great Britain had 
 the exclusive privilege 
 of voting their own 
 taxes, and so had the 
 Americans; that the 
 colonists were not 
 bound to yield obedi¬ 
 ence to any law im¬ 
 posing taxation on 
 them; and that who¬ 
 ever said the contrary 
 was an enemy to the 
 country. The resolu¬ 
 tions were at once laid 
 before the house. 
 
 A violent de¬ 
 bate ensued, in which 
 the patriots had the 
 best of the argument. 
 
 PATRICK HENKY. ° 
 
 It was a moment of 
 intense interest. Tw t o 
 
 future Presidents of the United States were in the audience; Washington 
 occupied his seat as a delegate, and Thomas Jefferson, a young collegian, 
 stood just outside of the railing. The eloquent and audacious Henry 
 bore down all opposition. “ Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus,” 
 said the indignant orator; “ Charles I. had his Cromwell, and George 
 III.—” ‘‘Treason!” shouted the speaker. “Treason! treason!” exclaimed 
 the terrified loyalists, springing to their feet. “ —-And George III. may 
 profit by their example,” continued Henry; and then added as he took 
 his seat, “ If that be treason, make the most of it!” The resolutions were 
 put to the house and carried; but the majorities on some of the votes were 
 small, and the next day, when Henry was absent, the most violent par¬ 
 agraph was reconsidered and expunged: some of the members were 
 greatly frightened at their own audacity. But the resolutions in their 
 entire form had gone before the country as the formal “expression of the 
 
CA USES. 
 
 291 
 
 oldest American commonwealth, and the effect on the other colonies was 
 like the shock of a battery. 
 
 Similar resolutions were adopted by the assemblies of New York 
 and Massachusetts—in the latter State before the action of Virginia was 
 known. At Boston, James Otis successfully agitated the question of an 
 American Congress. It was proposed that each colony, acting without 
 leave of the king, should appoint delegates, who should meet in the fol¬ 
 lowing autumn and discuss the affairs of the nation. The proposition was 
 favorably received; nine of the colonies appointed delegates; and on the 
 7th of October the First Colonial Congress assembled at New York. 
 There were twenty-eight representatives: jl imethy Ruggles of Massachu¬ 
 setts was chosen president. After much discussion A Declaration of 
 Rights was adopted setting forth in unmistakable terms that the Amer¬ 
 ican colonists, as Englishmen, could not and would not consent to be 
 taxed but by their own representatives. Memorials were also prepared 
 and addressed to the two houses of Parliament. A manly petition, pro¬ 
 fessing loyalty and praying for a more just and humane policy toward 
 his American subjects, was directed to the king. 
 
 The 1st of November came. On that day the Stamp Act was to 
 take effect. During the summer great quantities of the stamped paper 
 had been prepared and sent to America. Ten boxes of it were seized by 
 the people of New York and openly destroyed. In Connecticut, the 
 stamp-officer was threatened with hanging. In Boston, houses were de¬ 
 stroyed and the stamps given to the winds and flames. Whole cargoes 
 of the obnoxious paper were reshipped to England; and every stamp- 
 officer in America was obliged to resign or leave the country. By the 
 1st of November there were scarcely stamps enough remaining to furnish 
 after times with specimens. The day was kept as a day of mourning. 
 The stores were closed; flags were hung at half mast; the bells were 
 tolled; effigies of the authors and abettors of the Stamp Act were borne 
 about in mockery, and then burned. The people of New Hampshire 
 formed a funeral procession and buried a coffin bearing the inscription of 
 Liberty. A cartoon was circulated hinting at union as the remedy for 
 existing evils. The picture represented a snake broken into sections. 
 Each joint was labeled with the initials of a colony; the head was marked 
 “ N. E.” for New England; and the title was Join or Die ! 
 
 At first, legal business was almost entirely suspended. The court¬ 
 houses were shut up. Society was at a standstill; not even a marriage 
 license could be legally issued. By and by, the people breathed more 
 freely ; the offices were opened, and business went on as before; but was 
 not transacted with stamped paper. It was at this juncture that the 
 
•292 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 patriotic society known as the Sons of Liberty was organized. The 
 members were pledged to oppose British tyranny to the utmost, and to 
 defend with their lives the freedom of the colonies. Equally important 
 was the action of the colonial merchants. The importers of New York, 
 Boston and Philadelphia entered into a solemn compact to purchase no 
 more goods of Great Britain until the Stamp Act should be repealed 
 And the people, applauding the action of their merchants, cheerfully de¬ 
 nied themselves of all imported luxuries. 
 
 Great was the wrath of the British government when the news of 
 these proceedings was borne across the ocean. But a large party of Eng¬ 
 lish tradesmen and manufacturers sided with the colonists. Better still, 
 some of the most eminent statesmen espoused the cause of America. Even 
 Lord Camden in the House of Lords spoke favorably of colonial rights. 
 Before the House of Commons Mr. Pitt delivered a powerful address. 
 “ You have,” said he, “no right to tax America. I rejoice that America 
 has resisted. Three millions of our fellow-subjects so lost to every sense 
 of virtue as tamely to give up their liberties would be fit instruments to 
 make slaves of the rest.” The new Whig prime minister, the marquis 
 of Bockingham, was also a friend of the colonies, and looked with dis¬ 
 favor on the legislation of his predecessor. On the 18th of March, 1766, 
 the Stamp Act was formally repealed. As a kind of balm to soothe the 
 wounded feelings of the Tories—as the adherents of Grenville were now 
 called—a supplemental resolution was added to the repeal declaring that 
 Parliament had the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 The joy both in England and America was unbounded. The 
 vessels in the river Thames were decked with flags, and the colonial 
 orators spoke to enthusiastic crowds gathered around bonfires. There was 
 a great calm in all the country; but it was only the lull before the com¬ 
 ing of a greater storm. A few months after the repeal of the Stamp Act 
 the ministry of Rockingham was dissolved and a new cabinet formed 
 under the leadership of Pitt, who was now made earl of Chatham. Un¬ 
 fortunately, however, the prime minister was for a long time confined by 
 sickness to his home in the country. During his absence, Mr. Towns- 
 hend, chancellor of the exchequer, in a moment of unparalleled folly, 
 brought forward a new scheme for taxing America. On the 29th of June, 
 1767, an act was passed imposing a duty on all the glass, paper, painters' 
 colors and tea which should thereafter be imported into the colonies. 
 At the same time a resolution was adopted suspending the powers of the 
 general assembly of New York until that body should vote certain sup¬ 
 plies for the royal troops stationed in the province. A more rash and 
 disastrous piece of legislation never was enacted. 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 293 
 
 All the smothered resentment of the colonies burst out anew. 
 Another agreement not to purchase British goods was immediately en¬ 
 tered into by the American merchants. The newspapers were tilled with 
 bitter denunciations of Parliament. Early in 1768 the assembly of Mas¬ 
 sachusetts adopted a circular calling upon the other colonies for assistance 
 in the effort to obtain redress of grievances. The ministers were enraged 
 and required the assembly in the king’s name to rescind their action, and 
 to express regret for that “ rash and hasty proceeding.” Instead of that, 
 the sturdy legislature reaffirmed the resolution by a nearly unanimous 
 vote. Thereupon Governor Bernard dissolved the assembly; but the 
 members would not disperse until they had prepared a list of charges 
 against the governor and requested the king to remove him. 
 
 In the month of June fuel was added to the flame. A sloop, 
 charged with attempting to evade the payment of duty, was seized by the 
 custom-house officers. The people rose in a mob; attacked the houses 
 of the officers, and obliged the occupants to seek shelter in Castle William, 
 at the entrance of the harbor. The governor now appealed to the min¬ 
 isters for help; and General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British 
 forces in America, was ordered to bring from Halifax a regiment of reg¬ 
 ulars and overawe the people. On the 1st of October the troops, seven 
 hundred strong, marched with fixed bayonets into the capital of Mas¬ 
 sachusetts. The people were maddened by this military invasion of their 
 city. When the governor required the selectmen of Boston to provide 
 quarters for the soldiers, he was met with an absolute refusal; and the 
 troops were quartered in the state-house. 
 
 In February of 1769, Parliament advanced another step toward 
 war. The people of Massachusetts were declared rebels, and the governor 
 was directed to arrest those deemed guilty of treason and send them to 
 England for trial. The general assembly met this additional outrage 
 with defiant resolutions. Scenes almost as violent as these were at the 
 same time enacted in Virginia and North Carolina. In the latter State 
 a popular insurrection was suppressed by Governor Tryon; the insur¬ 
 gents, escaping across the mountains, obtained lands of the Cherokees, and 
 became the founders of Tennessee. 
 
 Early in 1770 a serious affray occurred in New York. The 
 soldiers wantonly cut down a liberty pole which had stood for several 
 years in the park. A conflict ensued, in which the people came out best ; 
 another pole was erected in the northern part of the city. On the 5th 
 of March a more serious difficulty occurred in Boston. An altercation 
 had taken place between a party of citizens and the soldiers. A crowd 
 gathered, surrounded Captain Preston’s company of the city guard, hooted 
 
294 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at them, and dared them to fire. At length the exasperated soldiers dis¬ 
 charged a volley, killing three of the citizens and wounding several others. 
 This outrage, known as the Boston Massacre, created a profound sensa¬ 
 tion. The city was ablaze with excitement. Several thousand men 
 assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson came out, promising that 
 justice should be done and trying to appease the multitude. The brave 
 Samuel Adams spoke for the people. An immediate withdrawal of the 
 troops from the city was demanded, and the governor was obliged to 
 yield. Captain Preston and his company were arrested and tried for 
 murder. The prosecution was conducted with great spirit, and two of 
 the offenders were convicted of manslaughter. 
 
 On the very day of the Boston massacre, Lord North, who had 
 become prime minister, secured the passage by Parliament of an act re¬ 
 pealing all the duties on American imports except that on tea. The 
 exception was made only to show that the right of taxing the colonies 
 was not relinquished. The merchants of New York and Boston at once 
 relaxed their non-importation agreement except so far as it related to tea; 
 to that e-xtent the compact was retained; and the people voluntarily 
 pledged themselves to use no more tea until the duty should be uncon¬ 
 ditionally repealed. The antagonism toward the mother country was 
 abating somewhat, when in 1772 an act was passed by Parliament requir¬ 
 ing that the salaries of the governor and judges of Massachusetts should 
 be paid out of the colonial revenues without consent of the assembly. 
 That body retaliated by a declaration that the parliamentary statute was 
 a violation of the chartered rights of the people, and therefore void. 
 About the same time the Gaspee, a royal schooner which had been annoy¬ 
 ing the people of Providence, was boarded by a company of patriots and 
 burned. 
 
 In 1773 the ministers attempted to enforce the tea-tax by a strat¬ 
 agem. Owing to the duty, the price of tea in the American market had 
 been doubled. But there was no demand for the article; for the people 
 would not buy. As a consequence the warehouses of Great Britain were 
 stored with vast quantities of tea, awaiting shipment to America. Par¬ 
 liament now removed the export duty which had hitherto been charged 
 on tea shipped from England. The price was by so much lowered; and 
 the ministers persuaded themselves that, when the cheaper tea was offered 
 in America, the silly colonists would pay their own import duty without 
 suspicion or complaint. 
 
 To carry out this scheme English ships were loaded with tea for 
 the American market. Some of the vessels reached Charleston; the tea 
 was landed, but the people forbade its sale. The chests were stored in 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 295 
 
 mouldy cellars, and the contents ruined. At New York and Philadelphia 
 the ports were closed and the ships forbidden to enter. At Boston the 
 vessels entered the harbor. The tea had been consigned to Governor Hut¬ 
 chinson and his friends; and special precautions were taken to prevent a 
 failure of the enterprise. But the authorities stubbornly stood their 
 ground, and would not permit the tea to be landed. On the 16th of De« 
 cember the dispute was settled in a memorable manner. There was a great 
 town-meeting at which seven thousand people were assembled. Adams 
 and Quincy spoke to 
 the multitudes. Eve¬ 
 ning came on, and the 
 meeting was about to 
 adjourn, when a war- 
 whoop was heard, and 
 about fifty men dis¬ 
 guised as Indians pass¬ 
 ed the door of the Old 
 South Church. The 
 crowd followed to 
 Griffin’s wharf, where 
 the three t e a-s hips 
 were at anchor. Then 
 everything became 
 quiet. The disguised 
 men quickly boarded 
 the vessels, broke open 
 the three hundred and 
 forty chests of tea that 
 composed the cargoes, 
 and poured the con¬ 
 tents into the sea. samuel adams. 
 
 Such was the Boston Tea-Party. 
 
 Parliament made haste to find revenge. On the last day of March, 
 1774, the Boston Port Bill was passed. It was enacted that no 
 kind of merchandise should any longer be landed or shipped at the 
 wharves of Boston. The custom-house was removed to Salem, but the 
 people of that town refused the benefits which were proffered by the hand 
 of tyranny. The inhabitants of Marblehead tendered the free use of 
 their warehouses to the merchants of Boston. The assembly stood stoutly 
 by the cause of the people. When the news of the passage of the Port 
 Bill reached Virginia, the burgesses at once entered a protest on the 
 
296 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 journals of the house. When Governor Dunmore ordered the members 
 to their homes, they met in another place, and passed a recommendation 
 for a general congress of the colonies. On the 20th of May the vener¬ 
 ated charter of Massachusetts was annulled by act of Parliament. The 
 people were declared rebels; and the governor was ordered to send 
 abroad for trial all persons who should resist the royal officers. The 
 colonial assembly made answer by adopting a resolution that the powers 
 of language were not sufficient to express the impolicy, injustice, in¬ 
 humanity and cruelty of the acts of Parliament. 
 
 In September the Second Colonial Congress assembled at 
 Philadelphia. Eleven colonies were represented. It was unanimously 
 agreed to sustain Massachusetts in her conflict with a wicked ministry. 
 One address was sent to the king; another to the English nation; and 
 another to the people of Canada. Before adjournment a resolution was 
 adopted recommending the suspension of all commercial intercourse with 
 Great Britain until the wrongs of the colonies should be redressed. Par¬ 
 liament immediately retaliated by ordering General Gage, who had been 
 recently appointed governor of Massachusetts, to reduce the colonists by 
 force. A fleet and an army Qf ten thousand soldiers were sent to America 
 to aid in the work of subjugation. 
 
 In accordance with the governor’s orders, Boston Neck was seized 
 and fortified. The military stores in the arsenals at Cambridge and 
 Charlestown were conveyed to Boston; and the general assembly was 
 ordered to disband. Instead of doing so, the members resolved them¬ 
 selves into a provincial congress, and voted to equip an army of twelve 
 thousand men for the defence of the colony. There was no longer any 
 hope of a peaceable adjustment. The mighty arm of Great Britain was 
 stretched out to smite and crush the sons of the Pilgrims. The colonists 
 were few and feeble ; but they were men of iron wills who had made up 
 their minds to die for liberty. It was now the early spring of 1775, and 
 the day of battle was at hand. 
 
THE BEGINNING , 
 
 297 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE BEGINNING. 
 
 S soon as the intentions of General Gage were manifest, the people 
 
 -TA. of Boston, concealing their ammunition in cart-loads of rubbish, 
 conveyed it to Concord, sixteen miles away. Gage detected the move¬ 
 ment, and on the night of the 18th of April despatched a regiment of 
 eight hundred men to destroy the stores. Another purpose of the expe¬ 
 dition was to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were sup¬ 
 posed to be hidden at Lexington or Concord. The fact was that they 
 were not hidden anywhere, but were abroad encouraging the people. ' 
 The plan of the British general was made with great secrecy; but the 
 patriots were on the alert, and discovered the movement. 
 
 About midnight the regiment, under command of Colonel Smith 
 and Major Pitcairn, set out for Concord. The people of Boston, Charles¬ 
 town and Cambridge weire roused by the ringing of bells and the firing 
 of cannons. Two hours before, the vigilant Joseph Warren had de¬ 
 spatched William Dawes and Paul Revere to ride with all speed to Lex¬ 
 ington and to spread the alarm through the country. Against two o’clock 
 in the morning the minute-men were under arms; and a company of a 
 hundred and thirty had assembled on the common at Lexington. The 
 patriots loaded their guns and stood ready; but no enemy appeared, and 
 it was agreed to separate until the drum-beat should announce the hour 
 of danger. At five o’clock the British van, under command of Pitcairn, 
 came in sight. The provincials to the number of seventy reassembled ; 
 Captain Parker was their leader. Pitcairn rode up and exclaimed: 
 
 “ Disperse, ye villains! Throw down your arms, ye rebels, and dis¬ 
 perse !” The minute-men stood still; Pitcairn discharged his pistol at 
 them, and with a loud voice cried, “ Fire!” The first volley of the 
 Revolution whistled through the air, and sixteen of the patriots, nearly a 
 fourth of the whole number, fell dead or wounded. The rest fired a few 
 random shots, and then dispersed. 
 
 The British pressed on to Concord; but the inhabitants had re¬ 
 moved the greater part of the stores to a place of safety, and there was 
 but little destruction. Two cannons were spiked, some artillery carriages 
 
298 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 burned, and a small quantity of ammunition thrown into a mill-pond. 
 While the British were ransacking the town the minute-men began to 
 assemble from all quarters. Attempting to enter the village, the patriots 
 encountered a company of soldiers who were guarding the North Bridge, 
 over Concord River. Here the Americans, for the tirst time, fired under 
 orders of their officers, and here two British soldiers were killed. The 
 bridge was taken by the provincials, and the enemy began a retreat—first 
 into the town, and then through the town on the road to Lexington. 
 This was the signal for the minute-men to attack the foe from every side. 
 For six miles the battle was kept up along the road. Hidden behind 
 rocks, trees, fences and barns, the patriots poured a constant fire upon the 
 thinned ranks of the retreating enemy. Nothing but good discipline and 
 reinforcements which, under command of Lord Percy, met the fugitives 
 just below Lexington, saved the British from total rout and destruction. 
 The fight continued to the precincts of Charlestown, the militia becoming 
 more and more audacious in their charges. At one time it seemed that 
 the whole British force would be obliged to surrender. Such a result 
 was prevented only by the fear that the fleet would burn the city. The. 
 American loss in this the first battle of the war was forty-nine killed, 
 thirty-four wounded and five missing; that of the enemy was two hundred 
 and seventy-three—a greater loss than the English army sustained on the 
 Plains of Abraham. 
 
 The battle of Lexington fired the country. Within a few days an 
 army of twenty thousand men had gathered about Boston. A line of 
 entrenchments encompassing the city was drawn from Roxbury to Chel¬ 
 sea. To drive Gage and the British into the sea was the common talk 
 in that tumultuous camp. And the number constantly increased. John 
 Stark came down at the head of the New Hampshire militia. Israel 
 Putnam, with a leather waistcoat on, was helping some men to build a 
 stone wall on his farm when the news from Lexington came flying. 
 Hurrying to the nearest town, he found the militia already mustered. 
 Bidding- the men follow as soon as possible, he mounted a horse and rode 
 to Cambridge, a distance of a hundred miles, in eighteen hours. Rhode 
 Island sent her quota under the brave Nathaniel Greene. Benedict 
 Arnold came with the provincials of New Haven. Ethan Allen, of 
 Vermont, made war in the other direction. 
 
 This daring and eccentric man was chosen colonel by a company of 
 two hundred and seventy patriots who had assembled at Bennington. 
 Before the battle of Lexington, the legislature of Connecticut had pri¬ 
 vately voted a thousand dollars to encourage an expedition against Ticon- 
 deroga. To capture this important fortress, with its vast magazine of 
 
THE BEGINNING. 
 
 299 
 
 stores was the object of Allen and the audacious mountaineers of whom he 
 was the leader. Benedict Arnold left Cambridge, and joined the expe¬ 
 dition as a private. On the evening of the 9th of May, the force, whose 
 movements had not been discovered, reached the eastern shore of Lake 
 Champlain, opposite Ticonderoga. 
 
 Only a few boats could be procured; and when day broke on the 
 following morning, but eighty-three men had succeeded in crossing. With 
 this mere handful—for the rest could not be waited for—Allen, with 
 Arnold by his side, made a dash, and gained the gateway of the fort. 
 The sentinel was driven in, closely followed by the mountaineers, who set 
 up such a shout as few garrisons had ever heard. Allen’s men hastily 
 faced the barracks and stood ready to fire; he himself rushed to the 
 quarters of Delaplace, the commandant, and shouted for the incumbent to 
 get up. The startled official thrust out his head. “ Surrender this fort 
 instantly,” said Allen. “ By what authority ?” inquired the astounded 
 officer. “ In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Con¬ 
 gress !” * said Allen, flourishing his sword. Delaplace had no alternative. 
 The garrison, numbering forty-eight, were made prisoners and sent to 
 Connecticut. A fortress which had cost Great Britain eight million 
 pounds sterling was captured in ten minutes by a company of undiscip¬ 
 lined provincials. By this daring exploit a hundred and twenty cannon 
 and vast quantities of military stores fell into the hands of the Americans. 
 Two days afterward Crown Point was also taken without the loss of life. 
 
 On the 25th of May, Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne arrived 
 at Boston. They brought with them powerful reinforcements from Eng¬ 
 land and Ireland; the British army was augmented to more than ten thou¬ 
 sand men. Gage, becoming arrogant, issued a proclamation, branding 
 those in arms as rebels and traitors, offering pardon to all who would 
 submit, but excepting Samuel Adams and John Hancock; these two were 
 to suffer the penalty of treason—provided Gage could inflict it. It was now 
 rumored—and the rumor was well founded—that the British were about 
 to sally out of Boston with the purpose of burning the neighboring towns 
 and devastating the country. The Americans determined to anticipate 
 this movement by seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill, a height which 
 commanded the peninsula of Charlestown. 
 
 On the night of the 16th of June the brave Colonel Prescott, 
 grandfather of Prescott the historian, was sent with a thousand men to 
 occupy and entrench the hill. Marching by way of Charlestown Neck, 
 
 * This saying will appear especially amusing when it is remembered that the “Conti¬ 
 nental Congress ” referred to did not convene until about six hours after Ticonderoga was 
 captured. 
 
800 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the provincials came about eleven o’clock to the eminence which they 
 were instructed to fortify. Prescott and his engineer Grid ley, not liking 
 the position of Bunker Hill, proceeded down the peninsula seven hundred 
 yards to another height, afterward called Breed’s Hill. The latter was 
 within easy cannon range of Boston. On this summit a redoubt eight 
 rods square was planned by the engineer; and there, from midnight to 
 day-dawn, the men worked in silence. The British ships in the harboi 
 were so near that the Americans could hear the sentinels on deck repeat¬ 
 ing the night call, “ All is well.” The works were not yet completed 
 when morning revealed the new-made redoubt to the astonished British 
 of Boston. 
 
 “ We must carry those works immediately,” said General Gage to 
 his officers. For he saw that Prescott’s cannon now commanded the city. 
 
 As soon as it was light, the ships in 
 the harbor began to cannonade the 
 American position. The British bat¬ 
 teries on Copp’s Hill also opened a 
 heavy fire. But little damage was 
 done in this way; and the Americans 
 returned only an occasional shot; for 
 their supply of ammunition was very 
 limited. Just after noon a British 
 column of about three thousand vet¬ 
 erans, commanded by Generals Howe 
 and Pigot, landed at Morton’s Point. 
 The plan was to carry Breed’s Hill 
 by assault. The Americans num¬ 
 bered in all about fifteen hundred. They were worn out with toil and 
 hunger; but there was no quailing in the presence of the enemy. During 
 the cannonade Prescott climbed out of the defences and walked leisurely 
 around the parapet in full view of the British officers. Generals Putnam 
 and Warren volunteered as privates, and entered the trenches. At three 
 o’clock in the afternoon Howe ordered his column forward. At the same 
 time every gun in the fleet and batteries was turned upon the American 
 position. Charlestown was wantonly set on fire and four hundred build¬ 
 ings burned. Thousands of eager spectators climbed to the house-tops 
 in Boston and waited to behold the shock of battle. On came the British 
 in a stately and imposing column. 
 
 The Americans reserved their fire until the advancing line was 
 within a hundred and fifty feet. “Fire!” cried Prescott; and instantly 
 from breastwork and redoubt every gun was discharged. The front rank 
 
 SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF BUNKER 
 HILL, 1775. 
 
THE BEGINNING. 
 
 301 
 
 of the British melted away; there was a recoil, and fifteen minutes after¬ 
 ward a precipitate retreat. Beyond musket range Howe rallied his men 
 and led them to the second charge. Again the American fire was with¬ 
 held until the enemy was but a few rods distant. Then with steady aim 
 volley after volley was poured upon the charging column until it was 
 broken and a second time driven into flight. 
 
 The British officers were now desperate. The vessels of the fleet 
 changed position until the guns were brought to bear upon the inside of 
 the American works. For the third time the assaulting column was put 
 in motion. The British soldiers came on with fixed bayonets up the 
 hillside strewn with the dead and dying. The Americans had but three 
 or four rounds of ammunition remaining. These were expended on the 
 advancing enemy. Then there was a lull. The British clambered over 
 the ramparts. The provincials clubbed their guns and hurled stones at 
 the assailants. It was in vain; the heroic defenders of liberty were driven 
 out of their trenches at the point of the bayonet. Prescott lived through 
 the battle, but the brave Warren gave his life for freedom. The loss of 
 the British in this terrible engagement was a thousand and fifty-four in 
 killed and wounded. The Americans lost a hundred and fifteen killed, 
 three hundred and five w r ounded, and thirty-two prisoners. Prescott and 
 Putnam conducted the retreat by way of Charlestown Neck to Prospect 
 Hill, where a new line of entrenchments was formed which still com¬ 
 manded the entrance to Boston. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill rather inspired than discouraged the 
 colonists. It was seen that the British soldiers were not invincible. To 
 capture a few more hills would cost General Gage his whole army. The 
 enthusiasm of war spread throughout the country. The news was borne 
 rapidly to the South, and a spirit of determined opposition was every¬ 
 where aroused. The people began to speak of the United Colonies 
 of America. At Charlotte, North Carolina, the citizens ran together in 
 a hasty convention, and startled the country by making a declaration of 
 independence. The British ministers had little dreamed of raising such 
 a storm. 
 
 On the day of the capture of Ticonderoga the colonial Congress, 
 which had adjourned in the previous autumn, reassembled at Philadelphia, 
 Washington was there, and John Adams and Samuel Adams, Franklin 
 and Patrick Henry; Jefferson came soon afterward. A last appeal was 
 addressed to the king of England; and the infatuated monarch was plainly 
 told that the colonists had chosen war in preference to voluntary slavery. 
 Early in the session John Adams made a powerful address, in the course 
 of which he sketched the condition and wants of the country and of the 
 
302 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 army. The necessity of appointing a commander-in-chief and the qual¬ 
 ities requisite in that high officer were dwelt upon ; and then the speaker 
 concluded by putting in nomination George Washington of Virginia. As 
 soon as his name was mentioned, Washington 'arose and withdrew from 
 the hall. For a moment he was overpowered with a sense of the respon¬ 
 sibility which was about to be put upon him, and to his friend Patrick 
 Henry he said with tears in his eyes: “ I fear that this day will mark the 
 downfall of my reputation.” On the 15th of June the nomination was 
 unanimously confirmed by Congress; and the man who had saved the 
 wreck of Braddock’s army was called to build a nation. 
 
 George Washington, descended from the distinguished family 
 of the Wessyngtons in England, was born in Westmoreland county,. 
 Virginia, on the 11th of February (Old Style), 1732. At the age of 
 eleven he was left, by the death of his father, to the sole care of a talented 
 and affectionate mother. His education was limited to the common 
 branches of learning, extending only to geometry and trigonometry. Sur¬ 
 veying was his favorite study. In his boyhood he was passionately fond 
 of athletic sports and military exercises. As he grew to manhood he was 
 marked above all his companions for the dignity of his manners, the 
 soundness of his judgment and the excellence of his character. At the 
 age of sixteen he was sent by his uncle to survey a tract of land on the 
 South Potomac, and for three years his life was in the wilderness. On 
 reaching his majority he was already more spoken of than any other 
 young man in the colony. The important duties which he performed in 
 the service of the Ohio Company, the beginning of his military career 
 and his noted campaign with Braddock have already been narrated. After 
 the French and Indian War he was a member of the Virginia House of 
 Burgesses; was then chosen a member of the Continental Congress; and 
 was now called by that body to control the destinies of the unorganized 
 mass of men composing the American army. With great dignity lie 
 accepted the appointment, refused all compensation beyond his actual 
 expenses, set out with an escort by way of New York, and reach'ed Cam¬ 
 bridge fifteen days after the battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
 Washington’s duties and responsibilities were overwhelming. Con¬ 
 gress had voted to raise and equip twenty thousand men, but the means 
 of doing so were not furnished. The colonies had not yet broken their 
 allegiance to the British Crown. For six months Congress stood waiting 
 for the king’s answer to its address. The country was sound and patri¬ 
 otic; but its methods of action were irregular and uncertain. Washington 
 had a force of fourteen thousand five hundred men, but they were undis¬ 
 ciplined and insubordinate. The revenues and supplies of war were 
 
THE BEGINNING. 
 
 303 
 
 almost wholly wanting. At the time of the battle of Bunker Hill the whole 
 army had but twenty-seven half barrels of powder. The work of organ¬ 
 ization was at once begun. Four major-generals, one adjutant and eight 
 brigadiers were appointed. The army was arranged in three divisions. 
 The right wing, under General Ward, held Roxbury ; the left, commanded 
 by General Charles Lee, rested at Prospect Hill, near Charlestown Neck; 
 the centre, under the immediate direction of the commander-in-chief, lay 
 at Cambridge. Boston was regularly invested, and the siege was pressed 
 with constantly increasing vigor. 
 
 During the summer and autumn of 1775, the king’s authority was 
 overthrown in all the colonies. The royal governors either espoused the 
 cause of the people, were compelled to resign or were driven off in insur¬ 
 rections. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, seized the public powder. 
 Patrick Henry led the people, and demanded restitution. The governor 
 was overawed, and paid the value of the powder. Fearing further aggres¬ 
 sion, he went on board a man-of-war, proclaimed freedom to the slaves, 
 raised a force of loyalists, met the provincials at the village of Great 
 Bridge near Norfolk, and was defeated. Obliged to retire from the coun¬ 
 try, he gratified his vindictive disposition by burning Norfolk. 
 
 The American colonies looked to Canada for sympathy and aid. 
 It was believed that the Canadians would make common cause against 
 Great Britain. In order to encourage such a movement and to secure 
 possession of the Canadian government, an expedition was planned against 
 the towns on the St. Lawrence. Generals Schuyler and Montgomery 
 were placed in command of a division which was to proceed by way of 
 Lake Champlain and the river Sorel to St. John and Montreal. The 
 former fort was reached on the 10th of September, but the Americans, 
 finding the place too strong to be carried by assault, fell back twelve miles 
 to Isle-aux-Noix in the Sorel. This place General Schuyler fortified, 
 and then returned to Ticonderoga for reinforcements. Sickness detained 
 him there, and the whole command devolved on Montgomery. This 
 gallant officer returned to St. John and captured the fortress. Fort 
 Chambly, ten ft files farther north, was also taken. Montreal was next 
 invested, and on the 13th of November obliged to capitulate. 
 
 Leaving garrisons in the conquered towns, Montgomery proceeded 
 with his regiment, now reduced to three hundred men, against Quebec. 
 This stronghold was already threatened from another quarter. Late in 
 the autumn, Colonel Benedict Arnold set out with a thousand men from 
 Cambridge, passed up the Kennebec and urged his way through the wil¬ 
 derness to the Chaudiere, intending to descend that stream to Point Levi. 
 The march was one of untold hardship and suffering. As winter came 
 
304 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on tlie men were brought to the verge of starvation. The daring leader 
 pressed on in the hope of gathering supplies from some unguarded French 
 village. Before his return the famishing soldiers had killed and devoured 
 every dog that could be found. Then the brave fellows gnawed the roots 
 of trees and ate their moose-skin moccasins until Arnold’s return, when 
 the whole force proceeded to Quebec. Morgan, Greene and Meigs, all 
 three noted leaders of the Revolution, and Aaron Burr, one day to be¬ 
 come Vice-President of the United States, were in this company of suf¬ 
 fering heroes. 
 
 Arnold and his men, climbing to the Plains of Abraham, as Wolfe 
 had done sixteen years previously, offered battle. But the English gar¬ 
 rison of Quebec remained in their fortifications awaiting an assault which 
 the Americans were not strong enough to make. Conscious of his weak¬ 
 ness, Arnold withdrew his men to Point aux Trembles, twenty miles up 
 the river, and there awaited the approach of Montgomery. When the 
 latter arrived, he assumed command of the whole force, which did not 
 exceed nine hundred effective men. Quebec was defended by greatly 
 superior numbers, well fortified and warmly quartered. For three weeks, 
 with his handful of men, Montgomery besieged the town, and then, rely¬ 
 ing only on the courageous valor of his men, determined to stake every¬ 
 thing on an assault. 
 
 It was the last day of December, 1775. Before daybreak the little 
 army was divided into four columns. The first division, under Mont¬ 
 gomery, was to pass down the St. Lawrence and attack the Lower Town 
 in the neighborhood of the citadel. The second column, led by Arnold, 
 was to sweep around the city to the north, attack by way of the St. 
 Charles, and join Montgomery in order to storm the Prescott Gate. The 
 other two divisions were to remain in the rear of the Upper Town, making 
 .feigned attacks to draw the attention of the garrison. Montgomery’s 
 column reached the point from which the charge was to begin. A battery 
 lay just before, and it was thought that the gunners had not discovered 
 the assailants. “Men of New York,” said the brave Montgomery, “you 
 will not fear to follow where your general leads! Forward!” There 
 were masses of ice and clouds of blinding snow, and broken ground and 
 the cold gray light of morning. As the Americans were rushing forward, 
 all of a sudden the battery burst forth with a storm of grape-shot. At 
 the first discharge Montgomery and both of his aids fell dead. The 
 column was shattered. The men were heartbroken at the death of their 
 beloved general. They staggered a moment, then fell back, and returned 
 to Wolfe’s Cove, above the city. 
 
 Arnold, ignorant of what had happened, fought his way into the 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 305 
 
 Lower Town on the north. While leading the charge he was severely 
 wounded and borne to the rear. Captain Morgan, who succeeded him, 
 Jed his brave band farther and farther along the narrow and dangerous 
 streets until he was overwhelmed and compelled to surrender. Arnold 
 retired with his broken remnant to a point three miles above the city. 
 Reinforcements soon began to arrive; but the smallpox broke out in the 
 camp, and active operations could not be resumed. As soon as the ice dis¬ 
 appeared from the St. Lawrence, Quebec was strengthened by the arrival 
 of fresh troops from England. Governor Carleton now began offensive 
 movements; the Americans fell back from post to post, until, by the mid¬ 
 dle of the following June, Canada was entirely evacuated. 
 
 The worst calamity of the whole campaign was the death of Gen¬ 
 eral Richard Montgomery. He was one of the noblest of the many noble 
 men who gave their lives in the cause of American liberty. Born of an 
 illustrious Irish family, he became a soldier in his boyhood. He had 
 shared the toils and the triumph of Wolfe. To the enthusiasm of a warm 
 and affectionate nature he joined the highest order of military talents and 
 the virtues. of an exalted character. Even in England his death was 
 mentioned with sorrow. New York, his adopted State, claimed his body, 
 brought his remains to her own metropolis and buried them with tears. 
 To after times the Congress of the nation transmitted his fame by erecting 
 a noble monument. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 A T last came the king’s answer to the appeal of Congress. was 
 
 such an answer as George III. and his ministers always mad the 
 
 petitioners for human rights. The colonies were insulted and s ( ;ed; 
 their petition was treated with contempt. The king of England J not 
 know any such a body as the Continental Congress. The first tiling 
 necessary was to disband the army and to submit without conditions. 
 Then the monarch would settle all questions with each colony separately. 
 By this offensive and tyrannical answer the day of independence was 
 brought nearer. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Howe had succeeded Gage in command of the 
 
306 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 British troops in Boston. All winter long the city was besieged by 
 Washington. By the middle of February the American army had in¬ 
 creased to fourteen thousand men. The country became restless; and 
 Congress urged the commander-in-chief to press the enemy with greater 
 vigor. Washington, knowing the insufficiency of his supplies, and fear¬ 
 ing the consequences of rashness more than the charge of inactivity, nar¬ 
 rowed his lines, strengthened his works, and waited his opportunity. By 
 the first day of spring, 1776, he felt himself strong enough to risk an 
 assault; the officers of his staff thought otherwise, and a different plan 
 was adopted. 
 
 On the north, Boston was commanded by the peninsula of Charles¬ 
 town ; on the south, by Dorchester Heights. Since the battle of Bunker 
 Hill the former position had been held by the British; the latter was, as 
 yet, unoccupied. Washington now resolved to take advantage of the 
 
 enemy’s oversight, to seize the 
 Heights and drive Howe out of 
 Boston. A strong entrenching party 
 was prepared and put under com¬ 
 mand of General Thomas. For two 
 days the attention of the British was 
 drawn by a constant fire from the 
 American batteries. Then, on the 
 night of the 4th of March, the de¬ 
 tachment set out under cover of the 
 darkness, passed over Dorchester 
 Neck, and reached the Heights un¬ 
 perceived. Through the night the 
 Americans worked with an energy 
 rarely equaled. The British, dis¬ 
 tracted with the cannonade, noticed nothing unusual; and when morning 
 dawned, they could hardly trust their senses. There was a line of for¬ 
 midable entrenchments frowning upon' the city; cannon were mounted, 
 and the Americans in force. Howe saw at a glance that he must imme¬ 
 diately carry the threatening redoubts or himself abandon Boston. En¬ 
 raged at being outgeneraled, he ordered Lord Percy to select a column 
 of two thousand four hundred men and storm the American works before 
 nightfall. 
 
 Percy put his men in order and proceeded as far as Castle Island, 
 intending to make the assault in the afternoon. Washington visited the 
 trenches and exhorted his men. It was the anniversary of the Boston 
 Massacre, and the soldiers were eager to avenge the deaths of their coun- 
 
 SIEGE OP BOSTON, 1776. 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 307 
 
 try men. A battle was momentarily expected; but while Percy delayed, 
 a violent storm arose and rendered the harbor impassable. It continued 
 to blow for a whole day, and the attack could not be made. Before the 
 following morning the Americans had so strengthened and extended their 
 fortifications that all thoughts of an assault were abandoned. Howo 
 found himself reduced to the humiliating extremity of giving up the 
 capital of New England to the rebels. 
 
 After some days there was an informal agreement between Washing¬ 
 ton and the British general that the latter should be allowed to retire 
 from Boston unmolested on condition that the city should not be burned. 
 • On the 17th of March the arrangement was consummated, and the whole 
 British army went on board the fleet and sailed out of the harbor. Nearly 
 fifteen hundred loyalists, fearing the vengeance of the patriots, left their 
 homes and fortunes to escape with Howe. The American advance at 
 once entered the city. On the 20th, Washington made a formal entry at 
 the head of the triumphant army. The desolated town, escaping from 
 the calamities of a ten months’ siege, broke forth in exultation. The 
 exiled patriots returned by thousands to their homes. The country was 
 wild with delight. From all quarters came votes of thanks and messages 
 of encouragement. Congress ordered a gold medal to be struck in honor 
 of Washington, victorious over an enemy “ for the first time put to flight.” 
 
 The next care of the commander-in-chief was to strengthen the 
 defences of Boston. That done, he repaired with the main division of 
 the army to New York. It was not known to what part of the coast 
 Howe would direct his course; and Washington feared that his antagonist 
 might make a sudden descent in the neighborhood of Long Island. Gen¬ 
 eral Lee pressed forward with the Connecticut militia, and reached New 
 York just in time to baffle an attempt of Sir Henry Clinton, whose 
 fleet arrived off Sandy Hook and threatened the city. Clinton next 
 sailed southward, and on the 3d of May was joined by Sir Peter 
 Parker, in command of another fleet, and Lord Cornwallis with two thou¬ 
 sand five hundred men. The force was deemed sufficient for any enter¬ 
 prise, and it was determined to capture Charleston. 
 
 In the mean time, General Lee had reached the South, and was 
 watching the movements of Clinton. The Carolinians rose in arms and 
 flocked to Charleston. The city was fortified; and a fort, which com¬ 
 manded the entrance to the harbor, was built on Sullivan’s Island. On 
 the 4th of June the British squadron came in sight, and a strong detach¬ 
 ment was landed on Long Island, a short distance east of Fort Sullivan. 
 There was a delay until the 28th of the month; then the British fleet 
 began a furious bombardment of the fortress, which was commanded by 
 
308 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Colonel Moultrie. Three men-of-war, attempting to pass the fort, were 
 stranded. Clinton ordered a storming-party to wade the channel between 
 Long Island and Sullivan’s Island and carry the works by assault; but 
 the water was too deep to be forded, and Colonel Thompson, who was 
 stationed with a company of riflemen on the opposite bank, drove the 
 British back in confusion. For eight hours the vessels of the fleet poured 
 a tempest of balls upon the fort; but the walls, built of the spongy pal¬ 
 metto, were little injured. The four hundred militiamen who composed 
 the garrison fought like veterans. The republican flag was shot away 
 and thrown outside of the parapet; Sergeant Jasper leaped down from the 
 wall, recovered the flag and set it in its place again. The fire from the 
 fleet was returned with great spirit; and as evening drew on the British 
 were obliged to retire with a loss of more than two hundred men. Lord 
 Campbell, the royal governor of South Carolina, was killed, and Admiral 
 Parker was severely wounded. The loss of the garrison amounted in 
 killed and wounded to thirty-two. As soon as the British could repair 
 their shattered fleet they abandoned the siege and set sail for New York. 
 In honor of its brave defender the fort on Sullivan’s Island was named 
 Fort Moultrie. 
 
 During the summer Washington’s forces were augmented to about 
 twenty-seven thousand men; but the terms of enlistment were constantly 
 expiring; sickness prevailed in the camp; and the effective force was but 
 little more than half as great as the aggregate. On the other hand, Great 
 Britain was making the vastest preparations. By a treaty with some of 
 the petty German States, seventeen thousand Hessian mercenaries were 
 hired to fight against America. George III. was going to quell his re¬ 
 volted provinces by turning loose upon them a brutal foreign soldiery. 
 Twenty-five thousand additional English troops were levied; an immense 
 squadron was fitted out to aid in the reduction of the colonies, and a 
 million dollars were voted for the extraordinary expenses of the war 
 department. 
 
 By these measures the Americans were greatly exasperated. Until 
 now it had been hoped that the difficulty with the mother country could 
 be satisfactorily adjusted without breaking allegiance to the British Crown. 
 'The colonists had constantly claimed to be loyal subjects of Great Britain, 
 demanding only the rights and liberties of Englishmen. Now the case 
 seemed hopeless; and the sentiment of disloyalty spread with alarming 
 rapidity. The people urged the general assemblies, and the general 
 assemblies urged Congress, to a more decided assertion of sovereignty. 
 The legislature of Virginia led the way by advising in outspoken terms a 
 declaration of independence. Congress responded by recommending all 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 309 
 
 the colonies to adopt such governments as might best conduce to the hap¬ 
 piness and safety of the people. This action was taken early in May, and 
 in the course of the following month nearly all the provinces complied 
 with the recommendation. 
 
 Finally, on the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia 
 offered a resolution in Congress declaring that the United Colonies are, 
 and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are 
 absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown; and that all political 
 connection between them and Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved. 
 A long and exciting debate ensued. The sentiment of independence 
 gained ground; but there was still strong opposition to the movement. 
 After some days the final consideration of Lee’s resolution was postponed 
 until the 1st of July. On the 11th of June a committee, consisting of 
 five members, was appointed to prepare a more elaborate and formal dec¬ 
 laration. Mr. Lee had been called home by sickness; and his colleague, 
 Thomas Jefferson, was accordingly made chairman of the committee. The 
 other members were John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin 
 of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Robert R. Livingston 
 of New York. The special work of preparing the paper was allotted to 
 Jefferson and Adams; the latter deferred to the former, whose vigorous 
 style of writing specially fitted him for the task. The great document 
 was accordingly produced in Jefferson’s hand, with a few interlinings by 
 Adams and Franklin. 
 
 On the 1st of July, Lee’s resolution was taken up, and at the same 
 time the committee’s report was laid before Congress. On the next day 
 the original resolution was adopted. During the 3d, the formal declara¬ 
 tion was debated with great spirit, and it became evident that the work 
 of the committee would be accepted. The discussion was resumed on the 
 morning of the 4th, and at two o’clock on the afternoon of that memorable 
 day the Declaration of American Independence was adopted by 
 a unanimous vote. 
 
 All day long the old bellman of the State House had stood in the 
 steeple ready to sound the note of freedom to the city and the nation. The 
 hours went by ; the gray-haired veteran in the belfry grew discouraged, and 
 began to say : “ They will never do it—they will never do it.” Just then 
 the lad who had been stationed below ran out and exclaimed at the top of 
 his voice, “ Ring ! ring!” And the aged patriot did ring as he had never 
 rung before. The multitudes that thronged the streets caught the signal 
 and answered with shouts of exultation. Swift couriers bore the glad news 
 throughout the land. Everywhere the declaration was received with 
 enthusiastic applause. At Philadelphia the king’s arms were torn down 
 
310 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the court-house and burned in the street. At Williamsburg, 
 Charleston and Savannah there were bonfires and illuminations. At 
 Boston the declaration was read in Faneuil Hall, while the cannon from 
 Fort Hill and Dorchester shook the city of the Puritans. At New York 
 the populace pulled down the leaden statue of George III. and cast it into 
 bullets. Washington received the message with joy, and ordered the 
 declaration to be read at the head of each brigade. Former suffering and 
 future peril were alike forgotten in the general rejoicing. 
 
 The leading principles of the Declaration of Independence are 
 these: That all men are created equal; that all have a natural right to 
 liberty and the pursuit of happiness; that human governments are insti¬ 
 tuted for the sole purpose of securing the welfare of the people; that the 
 people have a natural right to alter their government whenever it becomes 
 destructive of liberty; that the government of George III. had become 
 destructive of liberty; that the despotism of the king and his ministers 
 could be shown by a long list of indisputable proofs—and the proofs are 
 given; that time and again the colonies had humbly petitioned for a 
 redress of grievances; that all their petitions had been spurned with 
 derision and contempt; that the king’s irrational tyranny over his Amer¬ 
 ican subjects was no longer endurable; that an appeal to the sword is pref¬ 
 erable to slavery; and that, therefore, the United Colonies of America are, 
 and of right ought to be, free and independent States. To the support 
 of this sublime declaration of principles the members of the Continental 
 Congress mutually pledged their lives, their fortunes and their sacred 
 honor. 
 
 On leaving Boston, General Howe sailed to Halifax. There he 
 remained until the middle of June, when he embarked his forces and 
 set sail for Sandy Hook. Early in July he landed a force of nine thou¬ 
 sand men on Staten Island. Thither Clinton came from the unsuccess¬ 
 ful siege of Charleston, and Admiral Howe, brother of General Howe, from 
 England. The whole British force, now gathered in the vicinity of New 
 York, amounted to fully thirty thousand men. Nearly half of them were 
 the hated Hessians whom the king of Great Britain had hired at thirty- 
 six dollars a head. Washington’s army was inferior in numbers, poolly 
 equipped and imperfectly disciplined. 
 
 There was some delay in military operations; for Lord Howe, the 
 admiral, had been instructed to tiy conciliatory measures with the Amer¬ 
 icans. First, he sent to the American camp an officer with a despatch 
 directed to George Washington, Esquire. Of course Washington refused 
 to receive a communication which did not recognize his official position. 
 In a short time Howe sent another message, addressed to George Wash- 
 
 0 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 311 
 
 ington, etc., etc., etc.; and the bearer, who was Howe’s adjutant-general, 
 insisted that and-so-forth might be translated General of the American 
 Army. Washington was the last man in the world to be caught with a 
 subterfuge; and the adjutant was sent away. It was already well known 
 that Howe’s authority extended only to granting pardons, and to unes¬ 
 sential matters about which the Americans were no longer concerned, 
 Washington therefore replied that since no offence had been committed 
 no pardon was required; that the colonies were now independent, and 
 would defend themselves against all aggression. 
 
 Baffled in his efforts, Lord Howe and his brother determined to 
 begin hostilities. On the 22d of August the British, to the number of 
 ten thousand, landed on the south-western coast of Long Island, near the 
 village of New Utrecht. The Americans, about eight thousand strong, 
 commanded by Generals Sullivan and Stirling, were posted in the vicinity 
 of Brooklyn. The advance of the British was planned with great skill. 
 From Gravesend, where Howe’s forces were landed, there were three 
 roads to Brooklyn; the British army was accordingly arranged in three 
 divisions. The first column, commanded by General Grant, was to ad¬ 
 vance by way of Utrecht and the Narrows. The second division, com¬ 
 posed of the Hessians, under command of General Heister, was to proceed 
 to Flatbush, and thence to Bedford and Brooklyn. The third and strong¬ 
 est column, led by Clinton and Cornwallis, was to make a circuit to the 
 right as far as Flatland, reach the 
 Jamaica road, and pass by way of 
 Bedford to the rear of the American 
 left wing. All of the movements 
 were executed with perfect ease and 
 fatal precision. 
 
 The advance from Gravesend 
 began on the morning of the 27th of 
 August. Grant’s division proceeded 
 as far as the hill now embraced in 
 Greenwood Cemetery, where he met 
 General Stirling with fifteen hundred 
 men; and the battle at once began. 
 
 But in this part of the field there was 
 no decisive result. Heister, in com¬ 
 mand of the British centre, advanced 
 
 beyond Flatbush, and engaged the main body of the Americans, under 
 General Sullivan. Here the battle began with a brisk cannonade, in 
 which the Hessians gained little or no ground until Sullivan was suddenly 
 
 BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND, 1776. 
 
312 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 alarmed by the noise of battle on his left and rear, and the battalions of 
 Clinton came rushing on the field. 
 
 For General Putnam, who had come over and taken command of 
 the entire force of the island, had, neglectful of Washington’s orders, 
 failed to guard the passes on the left of the American army. During the 
 previous night Clinton had ocoupied the heights above the Jamaica road, 
 and now his force came down, unopposed and unperceived, by way of 
 Bedford. Sullivan found himself surrounded, cut off, hemmed in between 
 the two divisions of Clinton and Heister. From that moment it was only 
 a question as to what part of the army could be saved from destruction. 
 The men fought desperately, and many broke through the closing lines of 
 the British. The rest were scattered, killed or taken prisoners. 
 
 Cornwallis’s division pressed on to cut off the retreat of Stirling. 
 At first the British were repulsed, and Stirling began his retreat toward 
 Brooklyn. At Gowanus Creek a number of his men were drowned and 
 many others captured; the rest reached the American lines in safety. 
 Before the battle was ended Washington arrived on the field, and his 
 soul was wrung with anguish at the sight. At first his army seemed 
 ruined; but his resolute and tranquil spirit rose above the disasters of the 
 battle. Generals Stirling, Sullivan and Woodhull were all prisoners in 
 the hands of the enemy. Nearly a thousand patriot soldiers were killed, 
 wounded or missing. It seemed an easy thing for Clinton and Howe to 
 press on and capture all the rest. Yet in a few hours Washington 
 brought together his shattered forces, reorganized his brigades and stood 
 ready for an assault in the trenches back of Brooklyn. 
 
 During the 28th, Howe, who was a sluggish, sensual man, ate 
 pudding and waited for a fitter day. On the 29th there was a heavy 
 fog over island and bay and river. Washington, clearly perceiving that 
 he could not hold his position, and that his army was in great peril, re¬ 
 solved to withdraw to New York. The enterprise was extremely hazard¬ 
 ous, requiring secrecy, courage and despatch. By eight o’clock on that 
 memorable night every boat and transport that could be obtained was 
 lying at the Brooklyn ferry. There, under cover of the darkness, the 
 embarkation began. Washington personally superintended every move¬ 
 ment. All night with muffled oars the boatmen rowed silently back and 
 forth, bearing the patriots to the northern side of the channel. At day¬ 
 light on the following morning, just as the last boatload was leaving the 
 wharf, the movement was discovered by the British. They rushed into 
 the American entrenchments, and found nothing there except a few worth¬ 
 less guns. After a severe battle which had cost him nearly four hundred 
 men, Howe had gained possession of Long Island—and nothing more. 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 313 
 
 General Greene, who was a competent judge, declared that Washington’s 
 retreat was the most masterly he ever read or heard of. 
 
 The defeat on Long Island was very disastrous to the American 
 cause. The army was dispirited. As fast as their terms of enlistment 
 expired the troops returned to their homes. Desertions became alarm¬ 
 ingly frequent; and it was only by constant exertion that Washington 
 kept his army from disbanding. To add to the peril, the British fleet 
 doubled Long Island and anchored within cannon-shot of New York. 
 Washington, knowing himself unable to defend the city, called a council 
 of war, and it was determined to retire to the Heights of Harlem. On 
 the 15th of September the British landed in force on the east side of 
 Manhattan Island, about three miles above New York. Thence they 
 extended their lines across the island to the Hudson, and took possession 
 of the city. It was in this juncture of affairs that Howe made overtures 
 of peace to Congress. General Sullivan was paroled and sent to Philadel¬ 
 phia as Howe’s agent; but Congress was in no mood to be conciliated. 
 Franklin, on behalf of that body, wrote Howe a letter, telling him many 
 unpalatable truths about what might henceforth be expected from the 
 American colonies. 
 
 On the next day after the British gained possession of New York, 
 there was a skirmish between the advance parties of the two armies north 
 of the city. The Americans gained a decided advantage, and the British 
 were driven back with a loss of a hundred men. On the American side 
 the loss included Colonel Knowlton and Major Leitch—two valuable 
 officers—and nearly fifty privates. On the night of the 20th of Septem¬ 
 ber a fire broke out in New York and destroyed nearly five hundred 
 buildings. On the 16th of October, while the Americans were still in 
 their entrenchments above the city, Howe embarked his forces, passed 
 into Long Island Sound and landed in the vicinity of Westchester. The 
 object was to get upon the American left flank and cut off communica¬ 
 tions with the Eastern States. Washington, ever on the alert, detected 
 the movement, put his army in motion and faced the British east of Har¬ 
 lem River. For some days the two generals manoeuvred, and on the 
 28th a battle was brought on at White Plains. Howe began the engage¬ 
 ment with a furious cannonade, which was answered with spirit. The 
 Americans were driven from one important position, but immediately re- 
 entrenched themselves in ^mother. Night came on; Howe waited for 
 reinforcements, and Washington withdrew to the heights of North Castle. 
 Howe remained for a few days at White Plains, and then returned to 
 New York. 
 
 Washington, apprehending that the British would now proceed 
 
314 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 against Philadelphia, crossed to the west bank of the Hudson and took 
 post with General Greene at Fort Lee. Four thousand men were left at 
 
 North Castle under command of General Lee. 
 Fort Washington, on Manhattan Island, five 
 miles north of the 
 
 thousand men under Colonel Magaw. This 
 fort 
 
 strength. The skill of its construction had 
 attracted the 
 
 to an acquaintance with the engineer, who 
 from that time forth, through the stormy vi¬ 
 cissitudes of nearly a quarter of a century, en¬ 
 joyed the unclouded confidence of his chief; 
 the engineer was Alexander Hamilton, 
 then a 
 
 attacked Fort Washington in overwhelming 
 scene of operations about force. The garrison made a stubborn defence. 
 
 • More than five hundred of the assailants were 
 
 killed or wounded. But valor could not prevail against superior num¬ 
 bers, and Magaw, after losing a hundred and fifty men, was obliged to 
 capitulate. The garrison, numbering more than two thousand, were made 
 prisoners of war and crowded into the foul jails of New York. Two 
 days after the surrender, Cornwallis crossed the Hudson with a body of 
 six thousand men and marched against Fort Lee. Seeing that a defence 
 would only end in worse disaster, Washington hastily withdrew across the 
 Hackensack. All the baggage and military stores collected in Fort Lee 
 fell into the hands of the British, who at once pressed forward after the 
 retreating Americans. Washington with his army, now reduced to three 
 thousand men, crossed the Passaic to Newark; but Cornwallis and Knyp- 
 hausen came hard after the fugitives. The patriots retreated to Elizabeth* 
 town, thence to New Brunswick, thence to Princeton, and finally to 
 Trenton on the Delaware. The British were all the time in close pursuit^ 
 and the music of their bands was frequently heard by the rearguard of 
 the American army. Nothing but the consummate skill of Washington 
 saved the remnant of his forces from destruction. Despair seemed settling 
 on the country like a pall. , 
 
 On the 8th of December, Washington crossed the Delaware. The 
 British essayed to do the same, but the American commander had secreted 
 or destroyed every boat within seventy miles. In order to effect his 
 passage, Cornwallis must build a bridge or wait for the freezing of the 
 
 stripling of but twenty years of age. 
 On the 16th of November the British 
 
 attention of Washington and led 
 
 was a place of great natural and artificial 
 
 city, was defended by three 
 
THE WORK OF 76 . 
 
 315 
 
 river. The latter course was chosen; and the British array was stationed 
 in detachments in various towns and villages east of the Delaware. Tren¬ 
 ton was held by a body of nearly two thousand Hessians under Colonel 
 Rahl. It was seen that as soon as the river should be frozen the British 
 would march unopposed into Philadelphia. Congress accordingly ad¬ 
 journed to Baltimore; and there, on the 20th of the month, a resolution 
 was adopted arming Washington with dictatorial powers to direct all the 
 operations of the war. 
 
 Meanwhile, the British fleet under command of Admiral Parker 
 had left New York for Narragansett Bay. On the same day that Wash¬ 
 ington crossed the Delaware the islands of Rhode Island, Prudence and 
 Conanicut were taken; and the American squadron under Commander 
 Hopkins was blockaded in Blackstone River. During his retreat across 
 New Jersey, Washington had sent repeated despatches to General Lee, in 
 command of the detachment at North Castle, to join the main army as 
 soon as possible. Lee was a proud, insubordinate man, and virtually 
 disobeyed his orders. Marching leisurely into New Jersey, he reached 
 Morristown. Here he tarried, and took up his quarters at an inn at 
 Basking Ridge. On the 13th of December, a squad of British cavalry 
 dashed up to the tavern, seized Lee and hurried him off to New York. 
 General Sullivan, who had recently been exchanged, now took command 
 of Lee’s division, and hastened to join Washington. Fifteen hundred 
 volunteers from Philadelphia and vicinity were added, making the entire 
 American force a little more than six thousand. 
 
 The tide of misfortune turned at last. Washington saw in the 
 disposition of the British forces an opportunity to strike a blow for his 
 disheartened country. The leaders of the enemy were off their guard. 
 They believed that the war was ended. Cornwallis obtained leave of 
 absence, left New Jersey under command of Grant, and made preparations 
 to return to England. The Hessians on the east side of the river were 
 spread out from Trenton to Burlington. Washington conceived the bold 
 design of crossing the Delaware and striking the detachment at Trenton 
 before a concentration of the enemy’s forces could be effected. The 
 American army was accordingly arranged in three divisions. The first, 
 under General Cadwallader, was to cross the river at Bristol and attack 
 the British at Burlington. General Ewing with his brigade was to pass 
 over a little below Trenton for the purpose of intercepting the retreat. 
 Washington himself, with Greene and Sullivan and twenty-four hundred 
 men, was to cross nine miles above Trenton, march down the river and 
 assault the town. The movement was planned with the utmost secrecy 
 —the preparations made with prudence and care. Christmas night was 
 
316 
 
 HISTORY OF TIIF UNITED STATES. 
 
 selected as the time; for it was known that the Hessians would spend the 
 day in drinking and carousals. 
 
 About the 20th of the month, the w r eather became very cold, and 
 by the evening of the 25th the Delaware was filled with floating ice. 
 Ewing and Cadwallader were both baffled in their efforts to cross the 
 river. Washington’s division succeeded in getting over, but the passage 
 was delayed till three o’clock in the morning. All hope of reaching 
 Trenton before daybreak was at an end; but Washington, believing that 
 the Hessians would sleep late after their revels, divided his army into two 
 columns and pressed forward. One division, led by Sullivan, passed 
 
 down the river to attack the town on the west; 
 the other, commanded by Washington and Greene, 
 made a circuit to the Princeton road. The move-* 
 ment was entirely successful. At eight o’clock 
 in the morning the American columns came rush¬ 
 ing into the village from both directions. The 
 astonished Hessians sprang from their quarters 
 and attempted to form in line. At the first onset 
 Colonel Rahl was mortally wounded. Forty or 
 fifty others fell before the volleys of the patriots. 
 For a few minutes there was confusion, and then 
 a cry for quarter. Nearly a thousand of the 
 dreaded Hessians threw down their arms and 
 begged for mercy. At the first alarm about six 
 hundred light horse and infantry had escaped 
 toward Bordentown. All the rest were made prisoners of war. Before 
 nightfall Washington, with his victorious men and the whole body of 
 captives, was safe on the other side of the Delaware. 
 
 The battle of Trenton roused the nation from despondency. Con¬ 
 fidence in the commander and hope in the ultimate success of the Amer¬ 
 ican cause were everywhere revived. The militia from the neighboring 
 provinces flocked to the general’s standard; and fourteen hundred sol¬ 
 diers, whose term of enlistment now expired, cheerfully re-entered the 
 service. It was at this time that Robert Morris of Philadelphia, the great 
 financier of the Revolution, came forward with his princely fortune to 
 the support of his distressed country. As to Cornwallis, he found it nec¬ 
 essary to postpone his visit to England and hasten back to New Jersey. 
 
 Three days after his victory, Washington again crossed the Del¬ 
 aware and took post at Trenton. Here all the American detachments in 
 the vicinity were ordered to assemble. To General Heath, in command 
 of the New England militia stationed at Peekskill, on the Hudson, Wash- 
 
 BATTLE OF TRENTON AND 
 PRINCETON, 1776-7. 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 317 
 
 ington sent orders to move into New Jersey. The British fell back from 
 their outposts on the Delaware and concentrated in great force at Prince¬ 
 ton. Cornwallis took command in person, and resolved to attack and 
 overwhelm Washington at Trenton. So closed the year. Ten days 
 previously, Howe only waited for the freezing of the Delaware before 
 taking up his quarters in Philadelphia. Now it was a question whether 
 he would be able to hold a single town in New Jersey. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 O N the 1st of January, 1777, Washington’s army at Trenton numbered 
 about five thousand men. On the next day Cornwallis approached 
 from Princeton with greatly superior forces. The British were exasper¬ 
 ated and the Americans resolute. During the afternoon there was severe 
 and constant skirmishing in the fields and along the roads to the east and 
 north of Trenton. As the columns of the enemy pressed on, Washington 
 abandoned the village and took up a stronger position on the south side 
 of Assanpink Creek. The British, attempting to force a passage, were 
 driven back; it was already sunset, and Cornwallis deferred the attack 
 till the morrow. 
 
 2. Washington’s position was critical in the extreme. To attempt to 
 recross the Delaware was hazardous. To retreat in any direction was to 
 lose all that he had gained by his recent victory. To be beaten in battle 
 was utter ruin. In the great emergency he called a council of war and 
 announced his determination to leave the camp by night, make a circuit 
 to the east, pass the British left flank and strike the detachment at Prince¬ 
 ton before his antagonist could discover or impede the movement. Orders 
 were immediately issued for the removal of the baggage to Burlington. 
 In order to deceive the enemy, the camp-fires along the Assanpink were 
 brightly kindled and a guard left to keep them burning through the night. 
 Then the army was put in motion by the circuitous route to Princeton. 
 Everything was done in silence, and the British sentries walked their 
 beats until the morning light showed them a deserted camp. Just then 
 the roar of the American cannon, thirteen miles away, gave Cornwallis 
 notice of how he had been outgeneraled. 
 
 At sunrise‘Washington was entering Princeton. At the same mo 
 
318 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ment the British regiments stationed there were marching out by the 
 Trenton road to reinforce Cornwallis. The Americans met them in the 
 edge of the village, and the battle at once began. The patriots, under 
 General Mercer, posted themselves behind a hedge, and were doing good 
 work with their muskets until the British charged bayonets. Then the 
 militia gave way in confusion, and Mercer, one of the bravest of the brave,, 
 received a mortal wound. But the Pennsylvania reserves and regulars 
 were at hand, led by the commander-in-chief. The valor of Washington 
 never shone with brighter lustre. He spurred among his flying men, who 
 rallied at his call. He rode between the hostile lines and reined his horse 
 within thirty yards of the enemy’s column. There he stood. From both 
 sides there came a crash of musketry. Washington’s aid drew his hat 
 over his eyes that he might not see the chieftain die. The wind tossed 
 up the smoke, and there, unhurt, was the sublime leader of the American 
 armies. The British were already broken and flying, with a loss of four 
 hundred and thirty men in killed, wounded and missing. The loss of 
 the Americans was small; but the gallant Mercer was greatly lamented. 
 
 Washington had intended to press on to Brunswick and destroy the 
 enemy’s magazines. His men, however, were too much exhausted for the 
 march. The legions of Cornwallis were already in hearing, and there 
 was no time for delay. Washington accordingly withdrew to the north, 
 and on the 5th of January took a strong position at Morristown. Corn¬ 
 wallis hastened to New Brunswick to protect his stores. In a short time 
 the whole of New Jersey north of Newark and Elizabethtown was recov¬ 
 ered by the patriots. In all parts of the State the militia rose in arms; 
 straggling parties of the British were cut off, and the outposts of the enemy 
 were kept in constant alarm. The Hessians, whose barbarous invasion 
 and brutal conduct had almost ruined the country, were the special objects 
 of patriot vengeance. Vexed by the perpetual assaults of partisan war¬ 
 fare, Cornwallis gradually contracted his lines, abandoning one post after 
 another, until his whole force was cooped up in New Brunswick and 
 Amboy. The boastful British army that was to have taken Philadelphia 
 now thought only of a safe return to New York. 
 
 In the early spring, General Howe despatched a fleet up the Hudson 
 to destroy the American stores at Peekskill. Macdougal, the command¬ 
 ant, finding himself too feeble to make a successful defence, blew up the 
 magazines and retreated. On the 13th of April Cornwallis marched a 
 division out of New Brunswick and surprised General Lincoln, who was 
 stationed at Boundbrook on the Raritan; but the latter made good his 
 retreat with a trifling loss. On the 25th of the same month, General 
 Tryon with a detachment of two thousand men landed on the north shore 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 319 
 
 of Long Island Sound, and proceeded against Danbury, Connecticut. 
 After destroying a large quantity of stores and burning the town the 
 British began a retreat to the coast. Immediately they were attacked on 
 flank and rear by the exasperated patriots, who, led by the aged Wooster 
 and the daring Arnold, made charge after charge on the retreating foe. 
 Before regaining their shipping the British lost more than two hundred 
 men; of the patriots about sixty were killed and wounded. The veteran 
 Wooster, now sixty-eight years of age, fell in this engagement. 
 
 A similar expedition, undertaken by the Americans, was more suc¬ 
 cessful. Colonel Meigs, of Connecticut, learning that the British were 
 collecting stores at Sag Harbor, near the eastern extremity of Long Island, 
 gathered two hundred militiamen, and determined to surprise the post. 
 On the night of the 22d of May he embarked his men in whale-boats, 
 crossed the Sound, and reached Sag Harbor just before daydawn on the 
 following morning. The British, numbering a hundred, were over¬ 
 powered ; only four of them escaped; five or six were killed, and the re¬ 
 maining ninety were made prisoners. A gun-ship, ten loaded transports 
 and a vast amount of stores were destroyed by the victorious patriots, who, 
 without the loss of a man, returned to Guilford with their captives. For 
 this gallant deed Colonel Meigs received an elegant sword from Congress. 
 
 Washington remained in his camp at Morristown until the latter 
 part of May. Cornwallis was still at New Brunswick, and it was neces¬ 
 sary that the American commander should watch the movements of his 
 antagonist. The patriot forces of the North were now concentrated on the 
 Hudson; and a large camp, under command of Arnold, was laid out on 
 the Delaware. Both divisions were within supporting distance of Wash¬ 
 ington, who now broke up his winter-quarters and took an advantageous 
 position at Boundbrook, only ten miles from the British camp. Howe 
 now crossed over from New York, reinforced Cornwallis and threatened 
 an attack upon the American lines; but Washington stood his ground, 
 and Howe pressed forward as far as Somerset Court-House, in the direc¬ 
 tion of the Delaware. The movement was only a feint intended to draw 
 Washington from his position ; but he was too wary to be deceived, and 
 the British fell back through New Brunswick to Amboy. The American 
 lines were now advanced as far as Quibbletown. While in this position, 
 Howe, on the night of the 25th of June, turned suddenly about and made 
 a furious attack on the American van; but Washington withdrew his 
 forces without serious loss and regained his position at Boundbrook. 
 Again the British retired to Amboy, and on the 30th of the month crossed 
 over to Staten Island. After more than six months of manoeuvring and 
 fighting the invading army was fairly driven out of New Jersey. 
 
320 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the 10th of July a brilliant exploit was performed in Rhode 
 Island. Colonel William Barton, of Providence, learning that Major- 
 General Prescott of the British army was quartered at a farm-house near 
 Newport, apart from his division, determined to capture him. On the 
 night of the 10th of July the daring colonel, with forty volunteers, em¬ 
 barked at Providence, dropped down the bay, and reached the island 
 near Prescott’s lodgings. The movement was not discovered. The 
 British sentinel was deceived with a plausible statement, and then threat¬ 
 ened with death if he did not remain quiet. The patriots rushed forward, 
 burst open Prescott’s door, seized him in bed, and hurried him, half clad, 
 to the boats. The alarm was raised; a squad of cavalry came charging 
 to the water’s edge; but the provincials were already paddling out of 
 sight with their prisoner. This lucky exploit gave the Americans an 
 officer of equal rank to exchange for General Lee. Colonel Barton was 
 rewarded with promotion and an elegant sword. 
 
 Meanwhile, Congress had returned to Philadelphia. The American 
 government was at this time essentially weak in its structure and ineffi¬ 
 cient in action. Nevertheless, there was much valuable legislation which 
 tended to strengthen the army and the nation. But the most auspicious 
 sign that gladdened the patriots was the unequivocal sympathy of the 
 French. From the beginning of the contest the people of France had 
 espoused the American cause. Now, after the lapse of two years, their 
 sympathy became more outspoken and enthusiastic. True, the French 
 government would do nothing openly which was calculated to provoke a 
 war with Great Britain. Outwardly the forms and sentiments of peace 
 were preserved between the two nations; but secretly the French rejoiced 
 at British misfortune and applauded the action of the colonies. Soon the 
 Americans came to understand that if money was required France would 
 lend it; if supplies were needed, France would furnish them; if arms 
 were to be purchased, France had arms to sell. During the year 1777 
 the French partisans of America managed to supply the colonies with 
 more than twenty thousand muskets and a thousand barrels of powder. 
 
 At last the republicans of France, displeased with the double-deal¬ 
 ing of their government, began to embark for America. Foremost of all 
 came the gallant young Marquis of La Fayette.* Though the king 
 withheld permission, though the British minister protested, though family ■ 
 and home and kindred beckoned the youthful nobleman to return, he left 
 all to fight the battle of freedom in another land. Fitting a vessel at his 
 own expense, he eluded the officers, and with the brave De Kalb and a 
 small company of followers reached Georgetown, South Carolina, in 
 
 * La Fayette’s name was Gilbert Mo tier. 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 321 
 
 April of 1777. He at once entered the patriot army as a volunteer, and 
 in the following July was commissioned as a major-general. Not yet 
 twenty years of age, he clung to Washington as son to father, and through 
 life their friendship was unclouded. 
 
 One of the most important events of the whole war was the cam¬ 
 paign of Lieutenant-General Burgoyne. This distinguished British officer 
 arrived at Quebec in March of 1777. Superseding Sir Guy Carleton in 
 command of the English forces in Canada, he spent the months of April 
 and May in organizing a powerful army for the invasion of New York. 
 By the beginning of June he had thoroughly equipped a force of ten thou¬ 
 sand men, of whom about seven thousand were British and Hessian vet¬ 
 erans; the rest were Canadians and Indians. The plan of the campaign 
 embraced a descent upon Albany by way of Lake Champlain, Lake 
 George and the Upper Hudson. From Albany it was Burgoyne’s pur¬ 
 pose to descend the river to New York and unite his forces with the main 
 division of the British army. By this means New England was to be cut 
 off from the Middle and Southern colonies and the whole country placed 
 at the mercy of Howe. That any successful resistance could be offered to 
 the progress of the invading army was little imagined. 
 
 On the 1st of June Burgoyne reached St. John’s, at the foot of 
 Lake Champlain, and on the 16th proceeded to Crown Point. This 
 place, which was undefended, was occupied by a British garrison; and 
 the main army swept on to Ticonderoga, which was at that time held by 
 three thousand men under General St. Clair. The British soon gained 
 possession of Mount Defiance, and planted a battery seven hundred feet 
 above the American works. Mount Hope was also seized and retreat by 
 way of Lake George cut off. St. Clair, seeing that resistance would be 
 hopeless, abandoned the fort on the night of the 5th of July, and escaped 
 with the garrison byway of Mount Independence and Wood Creek. The 
 British pressed after the fugitives, and overtook them at Ilubbardton. a 
 village in Vermont, seventeen miles from Ticonderoga. A sharp engage¬ 
 ment ensued, in which the Americans fought so obstinately as to check the 
 pursuit; and then continued their retreat to Fort Edward. On the fol¬ 
 lowing day the British reached Whitehall and captured a large quantity 
 of baggage, stores and provisions. 
 
 At this time the American army of the North was commanded by 
 General Schuyler, a man whose patriotism was greater than his abilities. 
 His headquarters were at Fort Edward, where he remained until after the 
 arrival of St. Clair. The garrison now numbered between four and five 
 thousand men; but this force was deemed inadequate to hold the place 
 against Burgoyne’s army. Schuyler therefore evacuated the post aud 
 23 
 
322 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 retreated down the Hudson as far as the islands at the mouth of the 
 Mohawk. Burgoyne came on by way of Fort Ann, which the Americans 
 had demolished, and thence through the woods over obstructed roads to 
 Fort Edward, where he arrived on the 30th of July. Fearing that his 
 supplies would be exhausted before he could reach Albany, the British . 
 general now made a halt, and despatched Colonel Baum with five hundred 
 men to seize the provincial stores at Bennington, Vermont. Colonel 
 John Stark rallied the New Hampshire militia, and on the 15th of 
 August met the British a short distance from the village. On the follow¬ 
 ing morning there was a furious battle, in which Baum’s force was fairly 
 annihilated. A battalion of Hessians, led by Breymann, arrived on the 
 field, only to be utterly routed by the Americans, who were reinforced by 
 the gallant colonel Warner. The British lost a hundred and forty in 
 killed and wounded, and nearly seven hundred prisoners. The whole 
 country was thrilled by the victory, and the patriots began to rally from 
 all quarters. 
 
 A few days after the battle of Bennington, Burgoyne received in¬ 
 telligence of a still greater reverse. At the beginning of the invasion a 
 large force of Canadians, Tories and Indians, commanded by General St. 
 Leger, had been sent by way of Oswego against Fort Schuyler, at the 
 head of navigation on the Mohawk. This important post was held by a 
 small garrison under Colonel Gansevoort. On the 3d of August St. Leger 
 invested the fort, and it seemed that a successful defence was impossible; 
 but the brave General Herkimer rallied the militia of the surrounding 
 country and advanced to the relief of the garrison. When nearing the 
 fort, the patriots fell into an Indian ambuscade, and a terrible hand-to- 
 hand conflict ensued in the woods. Herkimer was defeated with a loss 
 of a hundred and sixty men in killed, wounded and prisoners. The loss 
 of the savages was almost as great. Hardly had the conflict ended when 
 the garrison made a sally, carried everything before them, and then fell 
 back with trophies and prisoners. Already the impetuous and fearless 
 Arnold had volunteered to lead a detachment from the Hudson for the 
 relief of the fort. At his approach the savages plundered the British 
 camp and fled. St. Leger, dismayed at the treachery of the barbarians, 
 raised the siege and retreated. Fort Schuyler was saved and strengthened. 
 Such was the news that was borne to Burgoyne at Fort Edward. 
 
 The British general had now lost a month in procuring supplies 
 from Canada. Should he retreat? Ruin and disgrace were in that 
 direction. Should he go forward? More than nine thousand patriot 
 soldiers were in that direction. For General Lincoln had arrived with 
 the militia of New England; Washington had sent several detachments 
 
• OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 328 
 
 SCENE OF BURG^YNE’S 
 INVASION, 17 77. 
 
 from the regular army; Morgan had come with his famous riflemen. 
 Meanwhile, General Gates had superseded Schuyler in command of the 
 northern army. On the 8th of September the American headquarters 
 were advanced to Stillwater. At Bemis’s Heights, 
 a short distance north of this place, a strong 
 camp was laid out and fortified under direction 
 of the noted Polish engineer Thaddeus Kos¬ 
 ciusko. On the 14th of the month, Burgoyne 
 crossed the Hudson and took post at Saratoga. 
 
 Until the 18th he advanced his camp a mile each 
 day, when the two armies were face to face and 
 but two miles apart. On the afternoon of the 
 19th the advance parties of the British attacked 
 the American wings, and a general battle ensued, 
 continuing until nightfall. The conflict, though 
 severe, was indecisive; the Americans retired 
 within their lines, and the British slept under 
 arms on the field. To the patriots, whose num¬ 
 bers were constantly increasing, the result of the battle was equivalent 
 to a victory. 
 
 The condition of Burgoyne grew more and more critical. On all 
 sides the lines of Gates were closing around him. His supplies failed; 
 his soldiers were put on partial rations; his Canadian and Indian allies 
 deserted his standard. But the British general was courageous and 
 resolute; he strengthened his defences and flattered his men with the 
 hope that General Clinton, who now commanded the British army in 
 New York, would make a diversion in their favor. The latter did 
 ascend the river as far as Forts Clinton and Montgomery. Both these 
 forts, after an obstinate defence, were carried by assault. Colonel Vaughan, 
 was sent on with a thousand men as far as the town of Kingston, which 
 was burned • besides the destruction of stores and private property, nothing 
 further was accomplished, and the condition of Burgoyne became des¬ 
 perate. On the 7th of October he hazarded another battle, in which he 
 lost his bravest officers and nearly seven hundred privates. The conflict 
 was terrible, lasting from two o’clock in the afternoon till twilight. At 
 last Morgan’s riflemen singled out the brave General Fraser, who com¬ 
 manded the British right, and killed him. His disheartened men turned 
 and fled from the field. On the American side, Arnold, who had re¬ 
 signed his commission, rode at full speed to his old command, and, without 
 authority, became the inspiring genius of the battle. He charged like a 
 madman, drove the enemy before him, eluded Gates’s aid who was sent to- 
 
324 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 call him back, burst into the British camp and was severely wounded. 
 The Americans were completely victorious. 
 
 On the night after the battle Burgoyne led his shattered army to 
 a stronger position. The Americans immediately occupied the abandoned 
 camp, and then pressed after the fugitives; for the British were already 
 retreating. On the 9th of October Burgoyne reached Saratoga and 
 attempted to escape to Fort Edward. But Gates and Lincoln now com¬ 
 manded the river, and the proud Briton was hopelessly hemmed in. He 
 held out to the last extremity, and finally, when there were only three 
 days between his soldiers and starvation, was driven to surrender. On 
 the 17th of October terms of capitulation were agreed on, and the whole 
 army, numbering five thousand seven hundred and ninety-one, became 
 prisoners of war. Among the captives were six members of the British 
 Parliament. A splendid train of brass artillery consisting of forty-two 
 pieces, together with nearly five thousand muskets, and an immense 
 quantity of ammunition and stores, was the further fruit of the victory. 
 The valor of the patriots had fairly eclipsed the warlike renown of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 As soon as Burgoyne’s invasion was at an end, a large portion of 
 the victorious army of the North was despatched to the aid of Washing¬ 
 ton. For, in the mean time, a great campaign had been in progress in 
 the South ; and the patriots were sorely pressed. At the beginning of 
 July, Howe had abandoned New Jersey. On the 23d of the same month 
 he sailed with eighteen thousand men to attack Philadelphia by way of 
 the Delaware. Washington/suspecting the object of the expedition, broke 
 up his camp and marched rapidly southward. Off the capes of Virginia 
 Howe learned that the Americans had obstructed the Delaware, so as to 
 prevent the passage of his fleet. He therefore determined to enter the 
 Chesapeake, anchor at the head of the bay and make the attack by land. 
 As soon as Washington obtained information of the enemy’s plans, he 
 advanced his headquarters from Philadelphia to Wilmington, and there 
 the American army, numbering between eleven and twelve thousand 
 men, was concentrated. The forces of Howe were vastly superior in 
 numbers and equipments, but Washington hoped by selecting his ground 
 and acting on the defensive to beat back the invaders and save the 
 capital. 
 
 On the 25th of August, the British landed at Elk Biver, in Mary¬ 
 land, and nine days afterward began their march toward Philadelphia. 
 After a council of war and some changes in the arrangement of his forces, 
 Washington selected the left bank of the Brandywine as his line of de¬ 
 fence. The left wing of the American army was stationed at Chad’s Ford 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 325 
 
 to dispute the passage, while the right wing, under General Sullivan, was 
 extended for three miles up the river. On the 11th of September the 
 British reached the opposite bank and began battle. What seemed to be 
 their principal attack was made by the Hessians under Knyphausen at 
 the ford; and here Wayne’s division held the enemy in check. But the 
 onset of Knyphausen was only a feint to keep the Americans engaged 
 until a stronger column of the British, led by Cornwallis and Howe, could 
 march up the south bank of the Brandywine and cross at a point above 
 the American right. In this w T ay Sullivan, who was not on the alert, 
 allowed himself to be outflanked. Washington was misled by false in¬ 
 formation; the right wing, though the men under La Fayette and Stir¬ 
 ling fought with great courage, was crushed in by Cornwallis; and the 
 day was hopelessly lost. 
 
 During the night the defeated patriots retreated to Westchester. 
 Greene brought up the rear in good order; through his efforts and those 
 of the commander-in-chief the army was saved from destruction. The 
 loss of the Americans in killed, wounded and missing amounted to fully 
 a thousand men ; that of the British to five hundred and eighty-four. The 
 gallant La Fayette was severely wounded ; Count Pulaski, a brave Pole 
 who had espoused the patriot cause, so distinguished himself in this en¬ 
 gagement that Congress honored him with the rank of brigadier and gave 
 him command of the cavalry. On the day after the battle, Washington 
 continued his retreat to Philadelphia, and then took post at Germantown, 
 a few miles from the city. Undismayed by his reverse, he resolved to 
 risk another engagement. Accordingly, on the 15th of the month, he 
 recrossed the Schuylkill and marched toward the British camp. Twenty 
 miles below Philadelphia he met Howe at Warren’s Tavern. For a 
 while the two armies manoeuvred, the enemy gaining the better position; 
 then a spirited skirmish ensued, and a great battle was imminent. But 
 just as the conflict was beginning a violent tempest of wind and rain 
 swept over the field. The combatants were deluged, their cartridges 
 soaked, and fighting made impossible. On the next day Plowe marched 
 down the Schuylkill; Washington recrossed the river and confronted his 
 antagonist. Howe turned suddenly about and hurried up stream along 
 the right bank in the direction of Beading. Washington, fearing for his 
 stores, pressed forward up the left bank to Pottstown. But the move¬ 
 ment of the British westward was only feigned; again Howe wheeled, 
 marched rapidly to the ford above Norristown, crossed the river and 
 hastened to Philadelphia. On the 26th of September the city was entered 
 without opposition, and the main division of the British army encamped 
 at Germantown. 
 
326 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At the approach of Howe, Congress adjourned to Lancaster. On 
 the 27th of September the members met at that place, and again adjourned 
 to York, where they assembled on the 30th and continued to hold their 
 sessions until the British evacuated Philadelphia in the following summer. 
 Washington now made his camp on Skippack Creek, about twenty miles 
 from the city. As soon as Howe found himself safe in the “ rebel cap¬ 
 ital,” as he was pleased to call it, he despatched a large division of his 
 army to capture forts Mifflin and Mercer on-the Delaware. Germantown 
 was thus considerably weakened, and Washington resolved to attempt a 
 a surprise. The same plan of attack which had been so successful at 
 Trenton was again adopted. On the night of the 3d of October the 
 American army, arranged in several divisions, marched silently toward 
 Germantown. The roads were rough, and the different columns reached 
 the British outposts at irregular intervals. The morning was foggy, and 
 the movements of both armies were unsteady and confused. There was 
 much severe- fighting, and at one time it seemed that the British would be 
 overwhelmed; but they gained possession of a large stone house and 
 held it. A foolish attempt to dislodge them gave the enemy time to 
 rally. Some strong columns of Americans were kept out of the battle 
 by the inefficiency of their commanders; the tide turned against the 
 patriots, and the day was lost. Of the Americans a hundred and fifty- 
 two were killed, five hundred and twenty-one wounded, and about four 
 hundred missing. Howe reported the British loss at five hundred and 
 thirty-five. The retreat of the Americans was covered by Greene and 
 Pulaski. 
 
 On the 22d of October Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey side of 
 the Delaware, seven miles below Philadelphia, was assaulted by twelve 
 hundred Hessians under Count Donop. The garrison, though number¬ 
 ing but four hundred, made a brave and successful resistance. The 
 assault was like that at Bunker Hill. Count Donop received a mortal 
 wound, and nearly four hundred of his men fell before the American 
 entrenchments. At the same time the British fleet, assisted by a land- 
 force from Philadelphia, attacked Fort Mifflin on Mud Island, in the 
 Delaware. Here also the assailants met with an obstinate resistance. 
 The assault became-a siege, which lasted till the 15th of November. The 
 patriots held out against superior numbers until every gun was dismounted 
 and every palisade demolished. Then at midnight the ruined fortress 
 was set on fire, and the garrison escaped to Fort Mercer. To make a 
 second attack on this place Howe despatched two thousand men under 
 Cornwallis. Washington sent General Greene to succor the fortress; but 
 Cornwallis was strongly reinforced, and the American general would not 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77 . 
 
 327 
 
 hazard a battle. On the 20th of November Fort Mercer was abandoned 
 to the British; and thus General Howe obtained undisputed control of 
 the Delaware. 
 
 After the battle of Germantown Washington took up his head¬ 
 quarters at Whitemarsh, twelve miles from Philadelphia. Winter was 
 approaching, and the patriots began to suffer for food and clothing. 
 Howe, knowing the distressed condition of the Americans, determined to 
 surprise their camp. On the evening of the 2d of December he held a 
 council of war, and it was decided to march against Washington on the 
 following night. But Lydia Darrah, at whose house the council was 
 held, overheard the plan of the enemies of her country. On the follow¬ 
 ing morning she obtained a passport from Lord Howe, left the city on 
 pretence of going to mill, rode rapidly to the American lines, and sent 
 information of the impending attack to Washington. When, on the 
 morning of the 4th, the British approached Whitemarsh they found the 
 cannon mounted and the patriots standing in order of battle. The British 
 general manoeuvred for four days, and then marched back to Philadel¬ 
 phia. During the remainder of the winter the city was occupied by 
 nearly twenty thousand English and Hessian soldiers. There they 
 reveled and rioted. Everything that the magazines of Great Britain 
 could furnish was lavished upon the army of invaders who lay warmly 
 housed in the city of Penn. In the patriot camp there was a different 
 scene. 
 
 On the 11th of December Washington left his position at White- 
 marsh and went into winter-quarters at Valley Forge on the right bank 
 of the Schuylkill. The march thither occupied four days. Thousands 
 of the soldiers were without shoes, and 
 the frozen ground was marked with bloody 
 footprints. The sagacity of Washington 
 had pointed to a strong position for his 
 encampment. To the security of the 
 river and hills the additional security of 
 redoubts and entrenchments was added. 
 
 Log cabins were built for the soldiers, and 
 evervthing was done that could be done 
 to secure the comfort of the suffering pat¬ 
 riots. But it was a long and dreary winter; moaning and anguish were 
 heard in the camp, and the echo fell heavy on the soul of the commander. 
 These were the darkest days of Washington’s life. Congress in a mea¬ 
 sure abandoned him, the people withheld their sympathies. The brilliant 
 success of the army of the North was unjustly compared with the reverses 
 
 ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE, 
 
 1777-8. 
 
328 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the army of the South. Many men high in military and civil station 
 left the great leader unsupported in the hour of his grief; even Samuel 
 Adams, impatient under calamity, withdrew his confidence. There was 
 a miserable conspiracy headed by Gates, Conway and Mifflin. Washing¬ 
 ton was to be superseded, and Gates or Lee was to be made commander- 
 in-chief. But the alienation Avas only for a moment; the allegiance of 
 the army remained unshaken, and the nation’s confidence in the troubled 
 chieftain became stronger than ever. Still, at the close of 1777, the 
 patriot cause was obscured with clouds and misfortune. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 F OUR months before the declaration of independence, Silas Deane of 
 Connecticut Avas appointed commissioner to France. His business 
 at the French court Avas to act as the political and commercial agent of 
 the United Colonies. His first service Avas to make a secret arrangement 
 with Beaumarchais, a rich French merchant, by Avhich the latter was to 
 supply the Americans with the materials necessary for carrying on the war. 
 The king of France and his prime minister, Vergennes, winked at this 
 proceeding; but the agents of Great Britain Avere jealous and suspicious, 
 and it was not until the autumn of 1777 that a ship laden with two hun¬ 
 dred thousand dollars’ Avorth of arms, ammunition and specie could be 
 sent to America. In that ship came Baron Steuben, a veteran soldier and 
 disciplinarian from the army of Frederic the Great. Arriving at Ports¬ 
 mouth, the baron tarried a short time in NeAV England, and then repaired 
 to York, Avhere Congress Avas in session. From that body he received a 
 commission, and at once joined Washington at Valley Forge. His acces¬ 
 sion to the American army Avas an event of great importance. He re¬ 
 ceded the appointment of inspector-general; and from the day in Avhich 
 lie entered upon the discharge of his duties there Avas a marked improA T e- 
 ment in the condition and discipline of the soldiers. The American reg¬ 
 ulars were never again beaten Avhen confronted by the British in equal 
 numbers. 
 
 In November of 1776 Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin AA r ere 
 appointed by Congress to negotiate an open treaty of friendship and com- 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 329 
 
 merce with the French king. In the following month they reached Paris 
 and began their conferences with Vergennes. For a long time King 
 Louis and his minister were wary of the proposed alliance. They cor¬ 
 dially hated Great Britain, they rejoiced that the British empire was about 
 to be dismembered, they gave secret encouragement to the colonies to hold 
 out in their rebellion, they loaned money and shipped arms to America; 
 but an open alliance was equivalent to a war with England, and that the 
 French court dreaded. 
 
 Now it was that the genius of Dr. Franklin shone with a peculiar 
 lustre. At the gay court of Louis XVI. he stood as the representative 
 of his country. No nation ever had an ambassador of greater wisdom 
 and sagacity. His reputation for learning had preceded him; the dignity 
 of his demeanor and the simplicity of his manners added to his fame. 
 Whether as philosopher or diplomatist, no man in that great city of fashion 
 was the equal of the venerable American patriot. His wit and genial 
 humor made him admired ; his talents and courtesy commanded respect; 
 his patience and perseverance gave him final success. During the whole 
 of 1777 he remained at Paris and Versailles, availing himself of every 
 opportunity to promote the interests of his country. At last came the 
 news of Burgoyne’s surrender. A powerful British army had been sub¬ 
 dued by the colonists without aid from abroad. The success of the Amer¬ 
 ican arms and the prospect of commercial advantage decided the wavering 
 policy of the king, and in the beginning of winter he made an announce¬ 
 ment of his determination to accept an alliance with the colonies. On the 
 6th of February, 1778, a treaty was concluded ; France acknowledged the 
 independence of the United States and entered into relations of reciprocal 
 friendship with the new nation. It was further stipulated that in case 
 England should declare Avar against France, the Americans and the 
 French should make common cause, and that neither should subscribe to 
 a treaty of peace Avithout the concurrence of the other. In America the 
 neAvs of the neAV alliance Avas received Avith great rejoicing; in England, 
 Avith vindictive anger. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, the author of the first treaty betAveen the 
 United States and a foreign nation, Avas born in Boston on the 17th of 
 January, 1706. His father Avas a manufacturer of soap and candles. 
 To this humble vocation the young Benjamin Avas devoted bv his parents; 
 but the Avails of a candle-shop Avere too narroAV for his aspiring genius. 
 At the age of tAvelve he Avas apprenticed to his brother to learn the art of 
 printing ; but the brother beat him, and he ran off to NeAV York. There 
 he found no employment. In 1723 he repaired to Philadelphia, entered 
 a printing-office, and rose to distinction. He visited England ; returned; 
 
330 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 founded the first circulating library in America; became a man of science; 
 edited Poor Richard's Almanac; originated the American Philosophical 
 
 Society; discovered the 
 identity of electricity 
 and lightning; made 
 himself known in both 
 hemispheres; espoused 
 the cause of the pat¬ 
 riots ; and devoted the 
 unimpaired energies of 
 his old age to per¬ 
 fecting the American 
 Union. The name of 
 Franklin is one of the 
 brightest in the history 
 of any nation. 
 
 In May of 1778 
 Congress ratified the 
 treaty with Franee. A 
 month before this time 
 a French fleet, com¬ 
 manded by Count 
 d’Estaing, had been 
 despatched to Amer- 
 benjamin franklin. ica. The object was 
 
 to sail into the Del¬ 
 aware and blockade the British squadron at Philadelphia. Both France 
 and Great Britain understood full well that war was inevitable, and each 
 immediately prepared for the conflict. George III. now became willing 
 to treat with his American subjects. Lord North, the prime minister, 
 brought forward two bills in which everything that the colonists had 
 claimed was conceded. The bills were passed by Parliament, and the 
 king assented. Commissioners were sent to America; but Congress in¬ 
 formed them that nothing but an express acknowledgment of the inde¬ 
 pendence of the United States would now be accepted. Then the com¬ 
 missioners tried bribery and intrigue; and Congress would hold no further 
 conference with them. 
 
 From September of 1777 until the following June the British army 
 remained at Philadelphia. The fleet of Admiral Howe lay in the Del¬ 
 aware. In the spring of 1778, General Howe was superseded by Sir 
 Henry Clinton. When the rumor came that the fleet of D’Estaing was 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 331 
 
 approaching, the English admiral withdrew from the Delaware and sailed 
 for New York. Finally, on the 18th of June, the British army evacuated 
 Philadelphia and retreated across New Jersey. Washington occupied the 
 city, crossed the river, and followed the retreating foe. At Monmouth, 
 eighteen miles south-east of New Brunswick, the British were overtaken. 
 On the morning of the 28th General Lee was ordered to attack the enemy. 
 The first onset was made by the American cavalry under La Fayette; 
 but they were driven back by Cornwallis and Clinton. Lee, who had 
 opposed the battle, and was not anxious for victory, ordered his line to 
 fall back to a stronger position; but the troops mistook the order and 
 began a retreat, the British charging after them. Washington met the 
 fugitives, rallied them, administered a severe rebuke to Lee, and ordered 
 him to the rear. During the rest of the engagement the haughty officer, 
 half treacherous in his principles and practices, remained at a distance, 
 making satirical remarks about the battle. The fight continued till night¬ 
 fall; the advantage was with the Americans; and Washington, in hope 
 of a complete victory, anxiously waited for the morning. During the 
 night, however, Clinton sueceeded in withdrawing his forces from the 
 field, and thus escaped the peril of defeat. 
 
 The loss of the Americans in the battle of Monmouth was sixty- 
 seven killed and a hundred and sixty wounded. The British left nearly 
 three hundred dead on the field. On the day after the battle Washington 
 received an insulting letter from Lee demanding an apology for the lan¬ 
 guage which the commander-in-chief had used. Washington replied that 
 the language was warranted by the circumstances. This Lee answered 
 in a still more offensive manner, and was thereupon arrested, tried by a 
 court-martial, and dismissed from his command for twelve months. The 
 brave, rash man never re-entered the service, and did not live to see his 
 country’s independence. 
 
 The British land and naval forces were now concentrated at New 
 York. Washington followed, crossed the Hudson, and took up his head¬ 
 quarters at White Plains. On the 11th of July Count d’Estaing’s fleet 
 arrived off Sandy Hook and attempted to attack the British squadron in 
 the bay; but the bar at the entrance prevented the passage of the French 
 vessels. D’Estaing next sailed for Newport, Rhode Island, where the 
 British, commanded by General Pigot, were in strong force. At the same 
 time a division of the American army, led by General Sullivan, proceeded 
 to Providence to co-operate with the French fleet in the attack on New¬ 
 port. Greene and La Fayette came with reinforcements, and the whole 
 army took post at Tiverton. On the 9th of August Sullivan succeeded 
 in crossing the eastern passage of the ba}', and secured a favorable position 
 
832 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on the island. A joint attack by land and sea was planned for the fol¬ 
 lowing day. On that morning, however, the fleet of Lord Howe, who 
 had left New York in pursuit of the French, came in sight; and D’Estaing, 
 instead of beginning the bombardment of Newport, sailed out to give 
 battle to Howe. Just as the two squadrons were about to begin an en¬ 
 gagement a violent storm arose by which the fleets were parted and 
 greatly damaged. D’Estaing repaired to Boston, and Howe returned to 
 New York. 
 
 Sullivan laid siege to Newport; but when the French squadron 
 sailed away, he found it necessary to retreat. The British pursued the 
 Americans, and overtook them in the northern part of the island; a battle 
 ensued, and Pigot was repulsed with a loss of two hundred and sixty 
 men. On the following night Sullivan succeeded in reaching the main¬ 
 land ; and it was well that he did so; for on the next day General Clin¬ 
 ton arrived at Newport with a division of four thousand regulars. The 
 Americans saved themselves by hastily retiring from the neighborhood. 
 Clinton, having sent out a detachment under Colonel Grey to burn the 
 American shipping in Buzzard’s Bay, destroy the stores in New Bedford 
 and ravage Martha’s Vineyard, returned to New York. 
 
 The command of the British naval forces in America was now 
 transferred from Lord Howe to Admiral Byron. Sir Henry Clinton, 
 unable to accomplish anything in honorable warfare, descended to maraud¬ 
 ing and robbery. Early in October a band of incendiaries, led by Fer¬ 
 guson, burned the American ships at Little Egg Harbor. For several 
 miles inland the country was devastated, houses pillaged, barns burned, 
 patriots murdered. To the preceding July belongs the sad story of the 
 Wyoming massacre. Major John Butler, a tory of Niagara, raised a 
 company of sixteen hundred loyalists, Canadians and Indians, and marched 
 into the valley of Wyoming, county of Luzerne, Pennsylvania. The 
 settlement was defenceless. The fathers and brothers were away in the 
 patriot army. There were some feeble forts on the Susquehanna in the 
 neighborhood of Wilkesbarre, but they were useless without defenders. 
 On the approach of the tories and savages the few militia remaining in 
 the valley, together with the old men and boys, rallied for the defence of 
 their homes. A battle was fought, and the poor patriots were utterly 
 routed. The fugitives fled to the principal fort, which was crowded 
 with women and children. On came the murderous horde, and demanded 
 a surrender. Honorable terms were promised by Butler, and the garrison 
 capitulated. On the 5th of July the gates were opened, and the bar¬ 
 barians entered. Immediately they began to plunder, then to burn, and 
 then to use the hatchet and the scalping-knife. There is no authentic 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 333 
 
 record of the horrible atrocities that followed. The savages divided 
 into parties, scattered through the valley, plundered, robbed, burned, and 
 drove almost' every surviving family into the swamps or mountains. In 
 this way George III. would subdue the American colonies. 
 
 November witnessed a similar massacre at the village of Cherry 
 Valley, Otsego county, New York. This time the invaders were led by 
 Joseph Brant, the Mohawk sachem, and Walter Butler, a son of Major 
 John Butler. The people of Cherry Valley were driven from their 
 homes; every house in the village was burned; women and children were 
 tomahawked and scalped; and forty miserable sufferers dragged into cap¬ 
 tivity. To avenge these outrages an expedition was sent against the 
 savages on the Upper Susquehanna; and they in turn were made to feel 
 the terrors of war. In the preceding December the famous Major Clarke 
 had received from Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia, a commis¬ 
 sion to proceed against the Indians west of the Alleghanies. The expe¬ 
 dition left Pittsburg in the spring of 1778 ; descended to the mouth of the 
 Ohio; and on the 4th of the following July captured Kaskaskia. Other . 
 important posts were taken; and in August Vincennes was forced to 
 capitulate. 
 
 On the 3d of November Count d’Estaing's fleet sailed from Boston 
 for the West Indies. In December Admiral Byron, in command of the 
 British squadron, left New York to try the fortunes of war on the ocean. 
 A few days previously, Colonel Campbell, with a force of two thousand 
 men, was sent by General Clinton for the conquest of Georgia. On the 
 29th of December the expedition reached Savannah. The place was de¬ 
 fended by General Robert Howe with a regiment of five hundred and 
 fifty regulars, and three hundred militia. Notwithstanding the superior 
 numbers of the British, Howe determined to risk a battle; but the result 
 was disastrous. The Americans were routed and driven out of the city. 
 Escaping up the river, the defeated patriots crossed into South Carolina 
 and found refuge at Charleston. Such was the only real conquest made 
 by the British during the year 1778. It was now nearly four years since 
 the battle of Concord, and Great Britain had lost vastly more than she 
 had gained in her struggle with the colonies. The city of New York was 
 held by Clinton ; Newport was garrisoned by a division under Pigot; the 
 feeble capital of Georgia was conquered; all the rest remained to the 
 patriots. 
 
334 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER X L11. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF ’79. 
 
 T HE winter of 1778-79 was passed by the American army at Middle- 
 brook, New Jersey. With the opening of spring there was much 
 discouragement among the soldiers; for they were neither paid nor fed. 
 Only the personal influence of Washington and the patriotism of the 
 camp prevented a mutiny. Clinton opened the campaign with a number 
 of predatory incursions into the surrounding country. In February, 
 Tryon, the old tory governor of New York, a man so savage in his nature 
 that the Indians called him the Big Wolf, marched from Kingsbridge 
 with a body of fifteen hundred regulars and tories to destroy the salt- 
 . works at Horse Neck, Connecticut. General Putnam, who chanced to 
 be in that neighborhood, rallied the militia and made a brave defence. 
 The Americans planted some cannon on the brow of a hill and fought 
 with much spirit until they were outflanked by the British and obliged to 
 fly. It was here that General Putnam, pursued and about to be over¬ 
 taken by a party of dragoons, turned out of the road, spurred his horse 
 down a precipice and escaped.* Tryon destroyed the salt-works, plun¬ 
 dered and burned the village of West Greenwich and returned to Kings¬ 
 bridge. 
 
 In the latter part of May Clinton himself sailed with an armament 
 up the Hudson to Stony Point. This strong position, commanding the 
 river, had been chosen by Washington as the site of a fort; the Amer¬ 
 icans were engaged upon the unfinished works when Clinton’s squadron 
 came in sight. The feeble garrison, unable to resist the overwhelming 
 numbers of the enemy, escaped from the fortifications. On the 1st of 
 June the British entered, mounted cannon and began to bombard Ver- 
 planck’s Point, on the other side of the river. Here the patriots made a 
 brave resistance; but the British landed a strong force, surrounded the 
 fort and compelled a surrender. Both Verplanck’s and Stony Point were 
 strongly fortified and garrisoned by the enemy. About the same time 
 Virginia suffered from an incursion of the tories. A vast amount of 
 public and private property was destroyed ; and several towns, including 
 Norfolk and Portsmouth, were laid in ashes. 
 
 * After all, Putnam’s exploit was not so marvelous. In 1825 some of General La 
 Fayette’s dragoons rode down the same hill for sport. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF 79 . 
 
 335 
 
 In July the ferocious Tryon again distinguished himself. With a 
 force of twenty-six hundred Hessians and tories he sailed to New Haven, 
 captured the city and would have burned it but for fear of the gathering 
 militia. Having set East Haven on fire, the destroyers sailed down the 
 Sound to the beautiful town of Fairfield, which was given to the flames. 
 At Norwalk, while the village was burning and the terrified people flying 
 from their homes, Tryon, on a neighboring hill, sat in a rocking-chaii 
 and laughed heartily at the scene. It was not long until these dastardly 
 outrages were made to appear more dastardly by contrast with a heroic 
 exploit of the patriots. 
 
 Early in July General Wayne received orders to attempt the recap¬ 
 ture of Stony Point. On the 15th of the month he mustered a force of 
 light infantry at a convenient point on the Hudson and marched against 
 the seemingly impregnable fortress. The movement was not discovered 
 by the enemy. At eight o’clock in the evening Wayne halted a mile 
 from the fort and gave orders for the assault. A negro who had learned 
 . the countersign went with the advance; the British pickets were deceived, 
 caught and gagged. The Americans advanced in two columns, the first 
 led by Wayne, and the second by the gallant Frenchman, Colonel He 
 Fleury. Everything was done in silence. Muskets were unloaded and 
 bayonets fixed; not a gun was to be fired. The two divisions, attacking 
 from opposite sides, were to meet in the middle of the fort. The assault 
 was made a little after midnight. Within pistol-shot of the sentinels on 
 the height, the Americans w T ere discovered. There was the cry, To arms! 
 the rattle of drums, and then the roar of musketry and cannon. The 
 patriots never wavered. The ramparts were scaled; and the British, find¬ 
 ing themselves between two closing lines of bayonets, cried out for quar¬ 
 ter. Sixty-three of the enemy fell in the struggle; the remaining five 
 hundred and forty-three were made prisoners. Of the Americans only 
 fifteen were killed and eighty-three wounded. In the days that followed 
 the assault Wayne secured the ordnance and stores, valued at more than 
 a hundred and fifty thousand dollars, then destroyed the fort and marched 
 away. On the 20th a division of the British army, arriving at Stony 
 Point, found nothing but a desolated hill. In honor of his brave deed 
 Genera] Wayne received a gold medal from Congress. 
 
 Three days after the taking of Stony Point, Major Lee with a com¬ 
 pany of militia attacked the British garrison at Jersey City. Again the 
 assault was successful, the enemy losing nearly two hundred men. On 
 the 25th of the same month a fleet of thirty-seven vessels, which had 
 been equipped by Massachusetts, was sent against a British post recently 
 established at the mouth of the Penobscot. The enterprise, however,*was 
 
336 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 managed with little skill and less success. On the 13th of August, while 
 the American ships were still besieging the post, they were suddenly 
 attacked and destroyed by a British fleet. In the summer of this year 
 an army of four thousand six hundred men, commanded by Generals Sul¬ 
 livan and James Clinton, was sent against the Indians of the Upper Sus¬ 
 quehanna. The atrocities of Wyoming were now fully avenged, and the 
 savages driven to destruction. At Elmira, on the Tioga River, the In¬ 
 dians and tories had fortified themselves; but on the 29th of August they 
 were forced from their stronghold and utterly routed. The whole coun¬ 
 try between the Susquehanna and the Genesee was wasted by the patriots, 
 who, in the course of the campaign, destroyed forty Indian villages. In 
 the latter part of October Sir Henry Clinton, alarmed by the rumored 
 approach of the French fleet, withdrew the British forces from Rhode 
 Island. The retirement from Newport was made with so much haste that 
 the heavy guns and large quantities of stores were left behind. Such 
 were the leading military movements in the North. 
 
 Meanwhile, the war had continued in Georgia and South Carolina*, 
 and the patriots had met with many reverses. At the beginning of the 
 year Fort Sunbury, on St. Catherine’s Sound, was the only post held by 
 the Americans south of the Savannah. On the 9th of January this fort 
 was captured by a body of British troops from Florida, led by General 
 Prevost. This officer then joined his forces with those of Colonel Camp¬ 
 bell, who had just effected the conquest of Savannah, and assumed com¬ 
 mand of the British army in the South. A force of two thousand reg¬ 
 ulars and loyalists, commanded by Campbell, was at once despatched 
 against Augusta; for there the republican legislature had assembled after 
 the fall of Savannah. On the 29th of January the British reached their 
 destination, and Augusta fell a prey to the invaders. For a while the 
 whole of Georgia was prostrated before the king’s soldiery. 
 
 In the mean time, the tories of Western Carolina had risen in arms 
 and were advancing to join the forces of Campbell at Augusta. While 
 marching thither they were attacked and defeated in a canebrake by 
 the patriots under Captain Anderson. On the 14th of February the tories 
 were again overtaken in the country west of Broad River. Colonel 
 Pickens, at the head of the Carolina militia, fell upon them with such 
 fury that the whole force was annihilated. Colonel Boyd, the tory leader, 
 and seventy of his men were killed. Seventy-five others were captured, 
 tried for treason and condemned to death ;*but only five of the ringleaders 
 were hanged. On receiving intelligence of what had happened, Campbell 
 hastily evacuated Augusta and retreated toward Savannah. The western 
 half of Georgia was recovered more quickly than it had been lost. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF 79 . 
 
 837 
 
 While the British were retreating down the river, General Lincoln, 
 who now commanded the American forces in the South, sent General 
 Ashe with a division of two thousand men to intercept the enemy. On 
 the 25th of February the Americans crossed the Savannah and pursued 
 Campbell as far as Brier Creek, forty-five miles below Augusta. The 
 bridge over this stream had been destroyed by the retreating British, and 
 the patriots came to a halt. While they were delayed General Prevost 
 marched with a strong force from Savannah, crossed Brier Creek above 
 the American position, and completely surrounded General Ashe’s com¬ 
 mand. A battle was fought on the 3d of March; the Americans, after 
 losing more than three hundred men in killed, wounded and prisoners, 
 were totally routed and driven into the swamps and river. The rem¬ 
 nants of Ashe’s army rejoined General Lincoln at Perrysburg. The shock 
 of this defeat again prostrated Georgia, and a royal government was 
 established over the State. 
 
 But the Carolinians rallied with great vigor. Within a month Gen¬ 
 eral Lincoln was again in the field with a force of more than five thou¬ 
 sand men. Still hoping to reconquer Georgia, he advanced up the left 
 bank of the river in the direction of Augusta; but at the same time Gen¬ 
 eral Prevost crossed the Savannah and marched against Charleston. On 
 the 12th of May he summoned the city to surrender, but General Moultrie, 
 who commanded the patriots, was in no humor to do it, Prevost made 
 preparations for a siege; but learning that General Lincoln had turned 
 back to attack him, he made a hasty retreat. The Americans pursued, 
 overtook the enemy at Stono Feny, ten miles west of Charleston, made 
 an imprudent attack and were repulsed with considerable loss. Before 
 retiring from the State, Prevost succeeded in establishing a post at Beau¬ 
 fort, and then fell back to Savannah. From June until September 
 military operations were almost wholly suspended. 
 
 And now came Count d’Estaing with his fleet from the West Indies 
 to Carolina to co-operate with General Lincoln in the reduction of 
 Savannah. Prevost was alarmed, and concentrated his forces for the 
 defence of the city. The storm-winds of the equinox were approaching, 
 and D’Estaing stipulated with the Americans that his fleet should not be 
 long detained on that coast devoid of harbors. On the 12th of September 
 the French, numbering six thousand, effected a landing, and advanced to 
 the siege. Eleven days elapsed before the slow-moving General Lincoln 
 arrived with his forces. Meanwhile, on the 16th of the month, D’Estaing 
 had demanded a surrender; but Prevost, who asked a day for consulta¬ 
 tion and used it in strengthening his works and in receiving reinforce¬ 
 ments from Beaufort, answered with a message of defiance. After Lin- 
 24 
 
338 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 coin’s arrival the siege was prosecuted with great vigor. The city was 
 bombarded wellnigh to destruction; the people were driven into the 
 cellars, and dared not venture forth on peril of their lives. But the 
 British defences remained unshaken. At last the impatient D’Estaing 
 notified Lincoln that the city must be stormed or the siege abandoned. 
 The former course was preferred. On the 8th of October a conference 
 was held, and it was determined to make the assault at daylight on the 
 following morning. 
 
 Accordingly, an hour before sunrise the allies advanced against the 
 redoubts of the British. The attack was made irregularly, but with great 
 vehemence; the defence, with desperate determination. The struggle 
 around the ramparts was brief but furious. At one time it seemed that 
 the works would be carried. The French and the patriots mounted the 
 parapet and planted the flags of Carolina and France. But the emblems 
 of victory, with those who bore them, were hurled into the dust. Here 
 the brave Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort Moultrie, fell to rise no more. 
 After an hour of the most gallant fighting, the allied columns were shat¬ 
 tered and driven back with fearful losses. D’Estaing was twice wounded. 
 The noble Pulaski was struck with a grape-shot and borne dying from the 
 field. The repulse was complete, humiliating, disastrous. D’Estaing re¬ 
 tired with his men on board the fleet and sailed for France. Lincoln 
 with the remnants of his army retreated to Charleston. 
 
 While the siege of Savannah was progressing, the American arms 
 were made famous on the ocean. On the 23d of September Paul Jones, 
 cruising off the coast of Scotland with a flotilla of French and American 
 vessels, fell in with a fleet of British merchantmen, convoyed by two 
 men-of-war. The battle that ensued was bloody beyond precedent in 
 naval warfare. For an hour and a half the Serapis, a British frigate of 
 forty-four guns, engaged the Poor Richard* within musket-shot. Then 
 the vessels, both in a sinking condition, were run alongside and lashed 
 together. The marines fought with the fury of madmen until the Serapis 
 struck her colors. Jones hastily transferred his men to the conquered 
 ship, and the Poor Richard went down. The remaining British vessel 
 was also attacked and captured. So desperate was the engagement that of 
 the three hundred and seventy-five men on board the fleet of Jones three 
 hundred were either killed or wounded. 
 
 So closed the year 1779. The colonies were not yet free. The 
 French alliance, which had promised so much, had brought but little 
 benefit. The credit of Congress had sunk almost to nothing; the national 
 treasury was bankrupt. The patriots of the army were poorly fed, and 
 
 * So named in honor of Dr. Franklin’s almanac. 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON. 
 
 339 
 
 paid only with unkept promises. The disposition of Great Britain was 
 best illustrated in the measures adopted by Parliament for the campaigns 
 of the ensuing year. The levies made by the House of Commons were 
 eighty-five thousand marines and thirty-five thousand additional troops ; 
 while the extraordinary expenses of the War Department were set at 
 twenty million pounds sterling. 
 
 CHAPTER X LI II. 
 
 REVERSES AND TREASON. 
 
 D URING the year 1780 military operations at the North were, for the 
 most part, suspended. Twice did the British under Knyphausen 
 advance from New York into New Jersey; and twice they were driven 
 back. Early in July Admiral De Ternay arrived at Newport with a 
 French squadron and six thousand land-troops under Count Rocham- 
 beau. The Americans were greatly elated at the coming of their allies; 
 but Washington’s army was in so destitute a condition that active co¬ 
 operation was impracticable. In September the commander-in-chief held 
 a conference with Rochambeau, and the plans of future campaigns were in 
 part determined. 
 
 In the South there was much activity, and the patriots suffered many 
 reverses. South Carolina was completely overrun with the invading 
 armies. On the 11th of February Admiral Arbuthnot, in command of a 
 British squadron, anchored before Charleston. Sir Henry Clinton and a 
 division of five thousand men from the army in New York were on board 
 the fleet. The plan of the campaign was to subjugate the whole South, 
 beginning with Charleston. The city was defended by fourteen hundred 
 men, under General Lincoln, who began his preparations by fortifying 
 the neck of the peninsula. The British effected a landing a few miles 
 below the harbor, advanced up the right bank of Ashley River, and 
 crossed to the north of the city. A month was spent by Clinton in mak¬ 
 ing cautious approaches toward the American entrenchments. On the 
 7th of April General Lincoln was reinforced by seven hundred veterans 
 from Virginia. Two days afterward Admiral Arbuthnot, favored by the 
 wind and tide, succeeded in passing Fort Moultrie with his fleet, and 
 anchored within cannon-shot of the city. A summons to surrender was 
 
340 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 answered by Lincoln with the assurance that Charleston would be 
 defended to the last extremity. 
 
 A siege was at once begun, and prosecuted with great vigor. Desir¬ 
 ing to keep a way open for retreat, Lincoln sent a body of three hundred 
 
 men under General Huger to scour the country 
 north of Cooper River and rally the militia. 
 Apprised of this movement, Tarleton with a 
 legion of British cavalry stole upon Huger’s 
 forces at Monk’s Corner, thirty miles north of 
 Charleston,, routed and dispersed the whole com¬ 
 pany. The city was now fairly hemmed in, and 
 the thunder of two hundred cannon shook the 
 beleaguered ramparts. From the beginning the 
 defence had been hopeless, and every day the 
 condition of the town became more desperate. 
 Finally the fortifications were beaten down, and Clinton made ready to 
 storm the American works; not till then did Lincoln and the civil 
 authorities, dreading the havoc of an assault, agree to capitulate. On the 
 12th of May the principal city of the South w r as given up to the British 
 and the men who had so bravely defended it became prisoners of war. 
 
 A few days before the surrender Tarleton, who was ranging the 
 country to the north and west, surprised and dispersed a body of militia 
 who had gathered on the Santee. After the capture of the city, three 
 expeditions were directed into different sections of the State. The Amer¬ 
 ican post at Ninety-Six, a hundred and fifty miles north-west of the cap¬ 
 ital, was seized. A second detachment of the British invaded the country 
 bordering on the Savannah. Cornwallis with the principal division 
 marched to the north-east, crossed the Santee and captured Georgetown, 
 near the mouth of the Great Pedee. Here he learned that Colonel Buford, 
 with a body of five hundred patriots, who had left North Carolina for 
 the relief of Charleston, was now retreating through the district north of 
 Camden. Tarleton with seven hundred cavalry pressed rapidly across 
 the country, overtook the Americans on the Waxhaw, a tributary of the 
 Catawba, surprised them, and, while negotiations for a surrender were 
 pending, charged upon and massacred nearly the whole company. For 
 this atrocious deed Cornwallis commended Tarleton to the special favor 
 of the British Parliament. 
 
 By such means the authority of Great Britain was re-established 
 over South Carolina. As soon as the work was done, Clinton and 
 Arbuthnot, with about half of the British army, sailed for New York. 
 Cornwallis was left with the remainder to hold the conquered territory; 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON. 
 
 341 
 
 for it was the territory , and not the people, who were conquered. In this 
 condition of a hairs, two daring patriot leaders arose to rescue the repub¬ 
 lican cause. These men, ever afterward famous, were Thomas Sumter 
 and Francis Marion. Under their leadership the militia in the central 
 and western portions of the State, especially on the upper tributaries of 
 Broad River, were rallied, armed and mounted. An audacious partisan 
 warfare was begun, and exposed detachments of the British army were 
 swept off as though an enemy had fallen on them from the skies. At 
 Rocky Mount, on the Wateree, Colonel Sumter burst upon a party of 
 dragoons, who barely saved themselves. On the 6th of August he attacked 
 a large detachment of regulars and tories at Hanging Rock, in Lancaster 
 county, defeated them and retreated. It was in this battle that young 
 Andrew Jackson began his career as a soldier. 
 
 The exploits of Sumter were even surpassed by those of Marion. 
 His .company consisted at first of twenty men and boys, white and black, 
 half clad and poorly armed. But the number constantly increased, and 
 the “ Ragged Regiment” soon became a terror to the enemy. Every 
 British outpost was in peril. There was no telling when or where the 
 sword of the fearless leader would fall. From the swamps at midnight he 
 and his men would suddenly dart upon the encampments of the enemy, 
 sweeping everything before them. When the British expected Marion 
 in front, he would assail the rearguard with the utmost fury, and then dis¬ 
 appear ; when they thought him hovering on their flank, he was a hun¬ 
 dred miles away. During the whole summer and autumn of 1780 he 
 swept around Cornwallis’s positions, cutting his lines of communication 
 and making incessant onsets with an audacity as destructive as it was pro¬ 
 voking. In the midst of this wild and lawless warfare, Marion preserved 
 an unblemished reputation. Fifteen years afterward, when he lay on his 
 deathbed, he declared that he had never intentionally wronged any man ; 
 and it was truthfully written on his monument that he lived without fear 
 and died without reproach. 
 
 After the fall of Charleston, General Gates was appointed to com¬ 
 mand in the South. With a strong force of regulars and such militia as 
 would join his standard, he advanced across North Carolina, and at the 
 beginning of August reached the southern boundary of the State. Lord 
 Rawdon, who commanded the British posts in the northern parts of South 
 Carolina, called in his detachments and concentrated his forces at Camden. 
 Hither came also Cornwallis with reinforcements from Charleston and 
 Georgetown. The Americans moved forward and took post at Clermont, 
 thirteen miles north-west from Camden. Bv a singular coincidence Corn¬ 
 wallis and Gates each formed the design of surprising his antagonist in 
 
342 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 * 
 
 the night. Accordingly, on the evening of the 15th of August, Gates set 
 out for Camden, and at the same time Cornwallis moved toward Cler¬ 
 mont. About daydawn the two armies met midway on Sander's Creek. 
 
 Both generals were surprised, 
 but both made immediate 
 preparations for battle. As 
 soon as it was light the con- 
 flict began. Steadiness and 
 courage in all parts of the 
 field would have given the 
 victory to the Americans, but 
 at the first onset the Virginia 
 and Carolina militia broke 
 line, threw their arms away 
 and fled. For a while the 
 Continentals of Marvland 
 
 J 
 
 and Delaware sustained the 
 battle with great bravery, but 
 at length they were outflank¬ 
 ed by Webster’s cavalry and 
 driven back. The American 
 officers made heroic efforts to 
 save the day, but all in vain ; the retreat became a rout. Baron de Kalb, 
 the friend of La Fayette and fellow-sufferer with Washington at Valley 
 Forge, remained on the field trying to rally his men until he was wounded 
 eleven times and fell in the agony of death. More than a thousand of the 
 Americans were killed, wounded or captured. The shattered remnants 
 continued the retreat to Charlotte, North Carolina, eighty miles distant. 
 The military reputation of Gates, which never had any solid foundation, 
 was blown away like chaff, and he was superseded by General Greene, 
 who, after Washington, was the best officer of the Revolution. 
 
 Cormvallis was again master of South Carolina. A few days after 
 the battle of Sander’s Creek, Sumter’s corps was overtaken by Tarleton 
 at Fishing Creek, thirty miles north-west from Camden, and completely 
 routed. Only Marion and his troopers remained to harass the victorious 
 enemy. The triumph of the British was marked by cruelty and oppres¬ 
 sion. Cornwallis visited the patriots with merciless severity, and the 
 ruined State crouched at the feet of the conqueror. On the 8th of Sep¬ 
 tember the British advanced from Camden into North Carolina, and on 
 the 25th reached Charlotte, the Americans having retreated to Salisbury. 
 While this movement was in progress, Colonel Ferguson, with a force of 
 
 SCENE OP OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH, 1780 , 81 . 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON 
 
 343 
 
 eleven hundred regulars and tories, was sent into the country west of the 
 Catawba to overawe the patriots and encourage the loyalists to take up 
 arms. On the 7th of October, while Ferguson and his men were en¬ 
 camped on the top of King’s Mountain, they were suddenly attacked by 
 a thousand riflemen led by Colonel Campbell. The camp was surrounded; 
 a desperate battle of an hour and a half ensued; Ferguson was slain, and 
 three hundred of his men were killed or w r ounded; the remaining eight 
 hundred threw down their arms and begged for quarter. On the morn¬ 
 ing after the battle ten of the leading tory prisoners were condemned by a 
 court-martial and hanged. During the remaining two months of the year 
 there were no military movements of importance. Georgia and South 
 Carolina were in the power of the British, and North Carolina was invaded. 
 
 Meanwhile, the financial credit of the nation was sinking to the 
 lowest ebb. Congress, having no silver and gold with which to meet the 
 accumulating expenses of the war, had resorted to paper money. At first 
 the expedient was successful, and the continental bills were received at 
 par; but as one issue followed another, the value of the notes rapidly 
 diminished, until, by the middle of 1780, they were not worth two cents 
 to the dollar. To aggravate the evil, the emissaries of Great Britain 
 executed counterfeits of the congressional money and sowed the spurious 
 bills broadcast over the land. Business was paralyzed for the want of a 
 currency, and the distress became extreme; but Robert Morris and a few 
 other wealthy patriots came forward with their private fortunes and saved 
 the suffering colonies from ruin. The mothers of America also lent a 
 helping hand; and the patriot camp was gladdened with many a contribu¬ 
 tion of food and clothing which woman’s sacrificing care had provided. 
 
 In the midst of the general gloom the country was shocked by the 
 rumor that Benedict Arnold had turned traitor. And the news, though 
 hardly credible, was true. The jrave, rash man, who, on behalf of the 
 patriot cause, had suffered untold hardships and shed his blood on more 
 fields than one, had blotted the record of his heroism with a deed of 
 treason. After the battle of Bemis’s Height, in the fall of 1777, Arnold 
 was promoted by Congress to the rank of major-general. Being disabled 
 by nis wound, he was made commandant of Philadelphia after the evac¬ 
 uation of the city by the British. Here he married the daughter of a 
 loyalist, and living in the old mansion of William Penn entered upon a 
 career of luxury and extravagance which soon overwhelmed him with 
 debt and bankruptcy. In order to keep up his magnificence, he began a 
 system of frauds on the commissary department of the army. His bear¬ 
 ing toward the citizens was that of a military despot; the people groaned 
 under his tyranny, and charges were preferred against him by Congress. 
 
344 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The cause was finally heard by a court-martial in December of 1779. 
 Arnold was convicted on two of the charges, and, by the order of the 
 court, was mildly reprimanded by Washington. 
 
 Professing unbounded patriotism, and seeming to forget the dis¬ 
 grace which his misconduct had brought upon him, Arnold applied for 
 and obtained command of the important fortress of West Point on the 
 Hudson. On the last day of July, 1780, he reached the camp and 
 assumed control of the most valuable arsenal and depot of stores in Amer¬ 
 ica. He had already formed the treasonable design of surrendering the 
 fort into the hands of the enemy. For months he had kept up a secret 
 correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, and now the scheme ripened, on 
 Arnold’s part, into an open proposition to betray his country for gold. 
 It was agreed that on a certain day the British fleet should ascend the 
 Hudson, that the garrison should be divided and scattered, and the fort¬ 
 ress given up without a struggle. 
 
 On the 21st of September Sir Henry Clinton sent Major John 
 Andre up the river to hold a personal conference with Arnold and make 
 
 the final arrangements for the surrender. 
 Andre, through whom the correspondence 
 between Arnold and Clinton had been car¬ 
 ried on, was a former acquaintance of Ar¬ 
 nold’s wife, and now held the post of adju* 
 tant-general in the British army. He went 
 to the conference, not as a spy, but wearing 
 full uniform; and it was agreed that the 
 meeting should be held outside of the Ameri¬ 
 can lines. About midnight of the 21st he 
 went ashore from the Vulture, a sloop of 
 war, and met Arnold in a thicket on the 
 west bank of the river, two miles below 
 Haverstraw. Daydawn approached, and 
 the conspirators were obliged to hide 
 themselves. In doing so they entered the 
 American lines; Arnold gave the password, and Andre, disguising him¬ 
 self, assumed the character of a spy. 
 
 During the next day the traitor and his victim remained concealed 
 at the house of a tory named Smith. Here the awful business was com¬ 
 pleted. Arnold was to surrender West Point, its garrisons and stores, 
 and to receive for his treachery ten thousand pounds and a commission as 
 brigadier in the British army. All preliminaries being settled, papers, 
 containing a full description of West Point, its defences and the best 
 
THE END. 
 
 345 
 
 method of attack were made out and given to Andre, who secreted the 
 dangerous documents in his stockings. During that day an American 
 battery drove the Vulture from its moorings in the river; and at night¬ 
 fall Andrb was obliged to cross to the other side and proceed by land 
 toward New York. He passed the American outposts in safety; but at 
 Tarrytown, twenty-five miles from the city, he was suddenly confronted 
 by three militiamen * who stripped him, found his papers, and delivered 
 him to Colonel Jameson at North Castle. Through that officer’s amazing 
 stupidity Arnold was at once notified that John Anderson —that being 
 the assumed name of Andre—had been taken with his passport and some 
 papers “of a very dangerous tendency.” Arnold, on hearing the news, 
 fled to the river and escaped on board the Vulture. Andre was tried by 
 a court-martial at Tappan, and condemned to death. On the 2d of Oc¬ 
 tober he was led to the gallows, and, unuer the stern code of war, was 
 hanged. Though dying the death of a felon, he met his doom like a 
 brave man, and after times have commiserated his sad fate. Arnold 
 received his pay. 
 
 In the dark days of December there came a ray of light from 
 Europe. For several years Holland had secretly favored the Americans; 
 now she began negotiations for a commercial treaty similar to that already 
 existing between France and the United States. Great Britain discovered 
 the purposes of the Dutch government; there were angry remonstrances, 
 and then, on the 20th of December, an open declaration of war. Thus 
 the Netherlands were added to the enemies of England; it seemed that 
 George III. and his ministers would have enough to do without farther 
 efforts to enforce a stamp-act or levy a tax on tea. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV 
 THE END. 
 
 "ClOR the Americans the year 1781 opened gloomily. The condition 
 T of the army was desperate—no food, no pay, no clothing. Even the 
 influence of Washington was not sufficient to quiet the growing discontent 
 of the soldiery. On the first day of January the whole Pennsylvania 
 line, numbering nearly two thousand, mutinied, left their camp at Morris- 
 
 * John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac van Wart. Congress afterward rewarded 
 them with silver medals and pensions for life. 
 
346 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 town and marched toward Philadelphia. General Wayne, after trying hi 
 vain to prevent the insurrection, went with his men, still hoping to con¬ 
 trol them. At Princeton they were met by two emissaries from Sir Henry 
 Clinton, and were tempted with offers of money, clothing and release from 
 military service if they would desert the American standard. The mu¬ 
 tinous patriots made answer by seizing the British agents and delivering 
 them to General Wayne to be hanged as spies. For this deed the com¬ 
 missioners of Congress, who now arrived, offered the insurgents a large 
 reward, but the reward was indignantly refused. Washington, knowing 
 how shamefully the army had been neglected by Congress, was not un¬ 
 willing that the mutiny should take its own course. The congressional 
 agents were therefore left to adjust the difficulty with the rebellious 
 troops. But the breach was easily healed; a few liberal concessions on 
 the part of the government sufficed to quiet the mutiny. 
 
 About the middle of the same month the New Jersey brigade, sta¬ 
 tioned at Pompton, revolted. This movement Washington quelled by 
 force. General Robert Howe marched to the camp with five hundred 
 regulars and compelled twelve of the principal mutineers to execute the 
 two leaders of the revolt. From that day order was completely restored. 
 These insurrections had a good rather than a bad effect; Congress was 
 thoroughly alarmed, and immediate provisions were made for the bettei 
 support of the army. An agent was sent to France to obtain a furthei 
 loan of money. Robert Morris was appointed secretary of finance; the 
 Bank of North America was organized; and although the outstanding 
 debts of the United States could not be paid, yet all future obligations were 
 promptly met, for Morris and his friends pledged their private fortunes 
 to sustain the credit of the government. 
 
 In the North military movements were begun by Arnold. On 
 arriving at New York the traitor had received the promised commission, 
 and was now a brigadier-general in the British army. In the preceding 
 November, Washington and Major Henry Lee formed a plan to capture 
 him. Sergeant John Champe undertook the daring enterprise, deserted 
 to the enemy, entered New York, joined Arnold’s company, and with two 
 assistants concerted measures to abducr him from the city and convey him 
 to the American camp. But Arn Id suddenly moved his quarters, and 
 the plan was defeated. A month afterward he was given command of a 
 fleet and a land-force of sixteen hundred men, and on the 16th of Decem¬ 
 ber left New York to make a descent on the coasts of Virginia. 
 
 Early in January the traitor entered James River and began war on 
 his countrymen. His proceedings were marked with much ferocity, but 
 not with the daring which characterized his former exploits. In the 
 
THE END. 
 
 O I -► 
 
 o4< 
 
 vicinity of Richmond a vast quantity of public and private property was 
 destroyed. The country along the river was devastated; and when there 
 was nothing left to excite his cupidity or gratify his revenge, Arnold took 
 up his headquarters in Portsmouth, a few miles south of Hampton Roads. 
 Again Washington planned his capture. The French fleet, anchored at 
 Newport, was ordered to sail for Virginia to co-operate with La Fayette, 
 
 who was sent in the direction of Portsmouth with a detachment of twelve 
 
 ♦ 
 
 hundred men. But Admiral Arbuthnot, being apprised of the movement, 
 
 » 
 
 sailed from New York and drove the French squadron back to Rhode 
 Island. La Fayette, deprived of the expected aid, was forced to abandon 
 the undertaking, and Arnold again escaped. 
 
 About the middle of April General Phillips arrived at Portsmouth 
 with a force of two thousand British regulars. Joining his troops with 
 those of Arnold, he assumed command of the whole, and again the fertile 
 districts of Lower Virginia were ravaged with fire and sword. Early in 
 May, Phillips died, and for seven days Arnold held the supreme com¬ 
 mand of the British forces in Virginia. That was the height of his trea¬ 
 sonable glory. On the 20th of the month Lord Cornwallis arrived at 
 Petersburg and ordered him to begone. Returning to New York, he 
 received from Clinton a second detachment, entered the Sound, landed at 
 New London, in his native State, and captured the town. Fort Griswold, 
 which was defended by Colonel Ledyard with a hundred and fifty militia¬ 
 men, was carried by storm. When Ledyard surrendered, the British 
 officer who received his sword stabbed him to death; it was the signal 
 for a massacre of the garrison, seventy-three of whom were murdered in 
 cold blood; of the remainder, thirty were wounded and the rest made 
 prisoners. With this bloody and ignominious deed the name of Arnold 
 disappears from American history. 
 
 Meanwhile, some of the most stirring events of the war had occurred 
 at the South. At the close of the preceding year General Greene had 
 taken command of the American army—which was only the shadow of 
 an army—at Charlotte, North Carolina. Cornwallis had fallen back in 
 the direction of Camden. Greene with great energy reorganized his 
 forces and divided them into an eastern and a western division; the com¬ 
 mand of the latter was given to General Morgan. In the first days of 
 January this gallant officer was sent into the Spartanburg district of South 
 Carolina to repress the tories and encourage the patriot militia. His suc¬ 
 cess was such as to exasperate Cornwallis, who immediately despatched 
 Colonel Tarleton with his famous cavalry legion to destroy Morgan’s 
 forces or drive them out of the State. The Americans, apprised of Tarle- 
 ton’s approach, took a favorable position at the Cowpens, where, on the 
 
348 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 17th of January, they were attacked by the British, eleven hundred strong. 
 Tarleton, confident of success, made the onset with impetuosity; but Mor¬ 
 gan’s men sustained the shock with firmness, and, when the enemy’s re¬ 
 serves were called into action, either held their ground or retired in good 
 order. At the crisis of the battle the American cavalry, commanded by 
 Colonel William Washington, made a furious charge and scattered tlie 
 British dragoons like chaff before them. The rout was complete—the vic¬ 
 tory decisive. Washington and Tarleton had a personal encounter on the 
 field, and the latter fled with a sword-gash in his hand. His corps was 
 annihilated; ten British officers and ninety privates were killed, and five 
 hundred and twenty-three were captured. Two pieces of artillery, eight 
 hundred muskets and two flags were among the trophies of the battle. 
 
 When Cornwallis, who was encamped with his army thirty miles 
 down the Catawba, heard of the disaster to his arms, he made a rapid 
 march up the river to reach the fords in Morgan’s rear. But Greene, 
 who had also heard the news, hastened to the camp of Morgan, took com¬ 
 mand in person and began a hasty retreat. At the same time he sent 
 word to General Huger, who commanded the eastern division, to fall 
 back toward Charlotte, where it was proposed to form a junction of the 
 two wings of the army. Un the 28th of January Morgan’s division 
 reached the Catawba and crossed to the northern bank, with prisoners, 
 spoils and baggage. Within two hours the British van arrived at the 
 ford; but it was already sunset, and Cornwallis concluded to wait for the 
 morning; then he would cross and win an easy victory. During the 
 night the clouds opened and poured down torrents; in the morning the 
 river was swollen to a flood. It was many days before the British forced 
 their way across, dispersing the militia on the opposite bank. And now 
 began a second race, this time for the fords of the Yadkin. 
 
 The distance was sixty miles and the roads wretched. In two days 
 the Americans reached the river. The crossing was nearly effected, when 
 the British appeared in sight, attacked the rearguard and captured a few 
 wagons; nothing else was injured. That night the Yadkin was made 
 impassable by rains in the mountains, and Cornwallis was again delayed; 
 Greene pressed forward to Guilford Court-House, where he arrived on the 
 7th of February. The British marched up the Yadkin to the shallow 
 ford at Huntsville, where, on the 9th of the month, they succeeded in 
 crossing. The lines of retreat and pursuit were now parallel, and the two 
 armies were less than twenty-five miles apart. A third time the race 
 began, and again the Americans won it. On the 13th, Greene, with the 
 main division, crossed the Dan into Virginia, and on the following day 
 the American rearguard entered the boats and was safe. The British van 
 
THE END. 
 
 849 
 
 was already in sight and the whole army but a few miles distant. Nevei 
 was a retreat more skillfully conducted. Cornwallis, mortified at his 
 repeated failures, abandoned the pursuit and retired with his army to 
 Hillsborough. 
 
 Once in Virginia, Greene was rapidly reinforced. After a few day? 
 of recruiting and rest he felt himself strong enough to begin offensive 
 movements. On the 22d of February he recrossed the Dan into North 
 Carolina. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had despatched Tarleton with a body 
 of cavalry into the region between the Haw and Deep Divers to encourage 
 the tories. Being informed of this movement, Greene sent Colonel Lee 
 iuto the same district. Three hundred loyalists, already under arms, 
 were marching to join Tarleton. On the route they were intercepted by 
 the American cavalry, whom, supposing them to be British, they saluted 
 with a shout of “ Long live the king!” Colonel Lee and his men quietly 
 surrounded the unsuspecting tories, fell upon them as a band of traitors, 
 and killed or captured the entire company. 
 
 By the addition of the Virginia militia Greene’s army now num¬ 
 bered four thousand four hundred men. Determining to avoid battle no 
 longer, he marched to Guilford Court-House, took a strong position and 
 awaited his antagonist. Cornwallis, accepting the challenge, at once 
 moved forward to the attack. On the 15th of March the two armies met 
 on Greene’s chosen ground, and a severe but indecisive battle was fought. 
 The forces of Greene were superior in numbers, and those of Cornwallis in 
 discipline. If the American militia had stood firm, the result would not 
 have been doubtful; but the raw recruits behaved badly, broke line and 
 fled. Confusion ensued; the Americans fought hard, but were eventually 
 driven from the field and forced to retreat for several miles. In killed 
 and wounded the British loss was greatest; but large bodies of the militia 
 returned to their homes, reducing Greene’s army to less than three thou¬ 
 sand. Nevertheless, to the British the result was equivalent to a defeat. 
 
 Cornwallis now boasted, made big proclamations, and then re¬ 
 treated. On the 7th of April he reached the sea-coast at Wilmington 
 and immediately thereafter proceeded to Virginia. How he arrived at 
 Petersburg, superseded Arnold and sent him out of the State has already 
 been narrated. The British forces in the Carolinas remained under com¬ 
 mand of Lord Rawdon, who was posted with a strong division at Cam¬ 
 den. With him General Greene, after the departure of Cornwallis, was 
 left to contend. The American army was accordingly advanced into 
 South Carolina. A detachment was sent against Fort Watson, on the 
 east bank of the Santee, and the place was obliged to surrender. Greene 
 marched with the main body to Hobkirk’s Hill, a short distance north of 
 
350 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Camden, posted his men in a strong position and awaited the movements 
 of Rawdon. What that officer would do was not long a question of doubt. 
 On the 25th of April he moved from Camden with his entire force and 
 attacked the American camp. For once General Greene came near being 
 surprised; but his men were swiftly formed for battle; Rawdon’s column 
 was badly arranged; and for a while it seemed that the entire British 
 force would be slain or captured. Just at the critical moment, however, 
 some valuable American officers who commanded in the centre were 
 killed; their regiments, becoming confused, fell back; Rawdon saw his 
 advantage, pressed forward, broke the centre, captured the hill, and won 
 the day. The Americans retired from the field, but saved their artillery 
 and bore away the wounded. Again the genius of Greene made defeat 
 seem little less than victory. 
 
 On the 10th of May Lord Rawdon evacuated Camden and retired 
 to Eutaw Springs, sixty-five miles above the mouth of the Santee. The 
 British posts at Granby, Orangeburg, Fort Mott and Augusta *?11 suc¬ 
 cessively into the hands of the patriots. By the 5th of June only Eutaw 
 Springs, Charleston and Ninety-Six remained in possession of the enemy. 
 The latter place wa's already besieged by General Greene, who, after the 
 battle of Hobkirk’s Hill, advanced to Fort Granby, and thence to Ninety- 
 Six. For twenty-seven days the siege was pressed with vigor. The 
 supply of water was cut off from the fort, and the garrison could not 
 have held out more than two days longer; but Lord Rawdon was 
 rapidly approaching with a force of two thousand men; and the Ameri¬ 
 cans, after an unsuccessful assault, were obliged, on the 18th of June, to 
 raise the siege and retreat. Rawdon pursued, but Greene escaped, as 
 usual, and the British, abandoning Ninety-Six, fell back to Orangeburg. 
 Greene, with ceaseless activity, followed the retreating enemy, and would, 
 but for their strength, have assaulted Rawdon’s works. Deeming the 
 position impregnable, the American general recrossed the Santee and took 
 his station on the highlands in Sumter district. Here, in the healthful 
 air of the hill-country, he passed the sickly months of summer. 
 
 Sumter, Lee and Marion were constantly abroad, traversing the 
 country in all directions, cutting off supplies from the enemy, breaking 
 his lines of communication and smiting the tories right and left. Lord 
 Rawdon now resigned the command of the British forces to Colonel Stuart 
 and went to Charleston. While there he became a principal actor in one 
 of the most shameful scenes of the Revolution. Colonel Isaac Hayne, an 
 eminent patriot who had formerly taken an oath of allegiance to the king, 
 was caught in command of a troop of American cavalry. He was at once 
 taken to Charleston, arraigned before Colonel Balfour, the commandant. 
 
THE END. 
 
 351 
 
 hurried through the mockery of a trial and condemned to death. Raw- 
 don gave his sanction, and on the 31st of July Colonel Hayne was hanged. 
 Just men in Europe joined with the patriots of America in denouncing the 
 act as worthy of barbarism. 
 
 On the 22d of August General Greene left the heights of the Santee 
 and marched toward Orangeburg. The British decamped at his approach 
 and took post at Eutaw Springs, forty miles below. The Americans 
 pressed after them and overtook them on the 8th of September. One 
 if the fiercest battles 
 if the war ensued; and 
 General Greene was 
 denied a decisive vic¬ 
 tory only by the bad 
 conduct of some of his 
 men, who, before the 
 field was fairly won, 
 abandoned themselves 
 to eating and drink¬ 
 ing in the enemy’s 
 camp. Stuart rallied 
 his troops, returned to 
 the charge and regain- 
 ed his position. 
 
 Greene, after losing 
 five hundred and fifty- 
 five men, gave over 
 the struggle. The 
 British lost in killed 
 and wounded nearly 
 seven hundred, and 
 more than five hun- 
 
 SENERAL GREENE. 
 
 Ired prisoners. On 
 
 ■ he day after the battle Stuart hastily retreated to Monk’s Corner; Greene 
 followed with his army, and after two months of manoeuvring and de¬ 
 sultory warfare the British were driven into Charleston. In the mean 
 time, General St. Clair had cleared North Carolina by forcing the enemy 
 to evacuate Wilmington. In the whole country south of Virginia only 
 Charleston and Savannah remained under dominion of the king’s army; 
 
 the latter city was evacuated by the British on the 11th of July, and the 
 former on the 14th of December, 1782. Such was the close of the Revo¬ 
 lution in the Cared mas and Georgia. 
 
852 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 But the final scene was to be enacted in Virginia. There, in the 
 last days of April, 1781, Cornwallis took command of the British army 
 and began to ravage the country on both banks of the James. In the 
 course of the following two months property, public and private, was 
 destroyed to the value of fifteen million dollars. La Fayette, to whom 
 the defence of the State had been entrusted, was unable to meet Corn 
 •.vallis in the field, but watched his movements with sleepless vigilance 
 While the British were in the vicinity of Richmond a detachment under 
 Tarleton proceeded as far west as Charlottesville, where the Virginia 
 legislature was in session. The town was taken, the country devastated, 
 and seven members of the assembly made prisoners. Governor Jefferson 
 escaped only by riding into the mountains. 
 
 When there was little left to destroy, Cornwallis marched down 
 the north bank of the James to Green Springs, eight miles above the site 
 of Jamestown. He had received orders from Sir Henry Clinton to de¬ 
 scend the river and take such a position on the coast as would keep the 
 army within supporting distance of New York; for Clinton was very 
 apprehensive that Washington and the French would attack him. La 
 Fayette hovered upon the rear of Cornwallis; and on the 6th of July, 
 when it was supposed that the main body of the enemy had crossed the 
 James, General Wayne, who led the American advance, suddenly attacked 
 the whole British army. Cornwallis was so surprised by the audacious 
 onset that when Wayne, seeing his mistake, made a hasty retreat, no pur¬ 
 suit was attempted. The loss of the two armies was equal, being a hun¬ 
 dred and twenty on each side. After the passage of James River, the 
 British marched to Portsmouth, where Arnold had had his headquarters 
 in the previous spring There Cornwallis would have fortified himself; 
 but the orders of Clinton were otherwise; and in the first days of August 
 the army was again embarked and conveyed to Yorktown, on the southern 
 bank of York River, a few miles above the mouth. 
 
 La Fayette quickly advanced into the peninsula and took post but 
 eight miles distant from the British. From this position he sent urgent 
 despatches to Washington, beseeching him to come to Virginia and aid in 
 striking the enemy a fatal blow. A powerful French armament, com¬ 
 manded by Count de Grasse, was hourly expected in the Chesapeake, 
 and La Fayette saw at a glance that if a fleet could be anchored in the 
 mouth of York River, cutting off retreat, the doom of Cornwallis would 
 be sealed. During the months of July and August, Washington, from 
 his camp on the Hudson, looked wistfully to the South. But all the while 
 Clinton was kept in feverish alarm by false despatches, written for the 
 purpose of falling into his hands. These intercepted messages indicated 
 
THE END. 
 
 353 
 
 that the Americans and French would immediately begin the siege of 
 New York; and for that Clinton made ready. When, in the last days 
 of August, he was informed that Washington had broken up his camp 
 and was already marching with his whole army toward Virginia, the 
 British general would not believe it, but went on preparing for a siege. 
 Washington pressed rapidly forward, paused two days at Mount Vernon, 
 where he had not been for six years, and met La Fayette at Williams¬ 
 burg. Meanwhile, on the 30th of August, the French fleet, numbering 
 twenty-eight ships of the line, with nearly four thousand troops on board, 
 had reached the Chesapeake and safely anchored in the mouth of York 
 River. Cornwallis, with the British army, was blockaded both by sea 
 and land. 
 
 To add still further to the strength of the allies, Count de Barras, 
 who commanded the French flotilla at Newport, sailed into the Chesa¬ 
 peake with eight ships of the 
 line and ten transports, bear¬ 
 ing cannon for the siege. On 
 the 5th of September the 
 English admiral Graves ap¬ 
 peared in the bay, and a naval 
 battle‘ensued, in which the 
 British ships were so roughly 
 handled that they returned 
 to New York. On the 28th 
 of September the allied 
 armies, superior in numbers 
 and confident of success, en¬ 
 camped around York town. 
 
 The story of the siege is brief. 
 
 Tarleton, who occupied Glou¬ 
 cester Point, on the other side 
 of the river, made one spirited sally, but was driven back with severe 
 loss. On the night of the 6th of October the trenches were opened at the 
 distance of six hundred yards from the British works. The cannonade 
 was constant and effective. On the 11th of the month the allies drew 
 their second parallel within three hundred yards of Cornwallis’s redoubts. 
 On the night of the 14th the enemy’s outer works were carried by storm. 
 At daydawn of the 16th the British made a sortie, only to be hurled back 
 into their entrenchments. On the next day Cornwallis proposed a sur¬ 
 render; on the 18th terms of capitulation were drawn up and signed; 
 and at two o’clock in the afternoon of the 19th Major-General O’Hara— 
 
 SIEGE OF YORKTOWN, OCTOBER, 1781 . 
 
354 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITE!) STATES. 
 
 for Cornwallis, feigning sickness, remained in his tent—led the whole 
 British army from the trenches into an open field, where, in the presence 
 cf the allied ranks of France and America, seven thousand two hundred 
 and forty-seven English and Hessian soldiers laid down their arms, de¬ 
 livered their standards, and became prisoners of war. Eight hundred 
 and forty sailors were also surrendered. Seventy-five brass and thirty- 
 one iron guns were taken, together with all the accoutrements of the 
 army. 
 
 By a swift courier the news was borne to Congress. On the even¬ 
 ing of the 23d the messenger rode into Philadelphia. When the sentinels 
 of the city called the hour of ten that night, they added, “ and Cornwallis 
 is take7i.” On the morrow Congress assembled, and before that august 
 body the despatch of Washington was read. The members, exulting and 
 weeping for gladness, went in concourse with the citizens to the Dutch 
 Lutheran church and turned the afternoon into a thanksgiving. The note 
 of rejoicing sounded through the length and breadth of the land; for it 
 was seen that the dominion of the Briton in America was for ever broken. 
 
 After the surrender the conquered army was marched under guard 
 to the barracks of Lancaster. Washington, with the victorious Americans 
 and French, returned to the camps of New Jersey and the Hudson. On 
 the Continent of Europe the news was received with every demonstration 
 of gladness. In England the king and his ministers heard the tidings 
 with mortification and rage; but the English people were either secretly 
 pleased or openly rejoiced. During the fall and winter the ministerial 
 majority in Parliament fell off rapidly; and on the 20th of March, 1782, 
 Lord North and his friends, unable longer to conduct the government, 
 resigned their offices. A new ministry was immediately formed, favor¬ 
 able to America, favorable to freedom, favorable to peace. In the begin¬ 
 ning of May the command of the British forces in the United States was 
 transferred from Clinton to Sir Guy Carleton, a man friendly to American 
 interests. The hostile demonstrations of the enemy, now confined to New 
 York and Charleston, ceased; and Washington made no efforts to dis¬ 
 lodge the foe, for the war had really ended. 
 
 In the summer of 1782 Richard Oswald was sent by Parliament 
 to Paris. The object of his mission was to confer with Franklin and 
 Jay, the ambassadors of the United States, in regard to the terms of 
 peace. Before the discussions were ended, John Adams, arriving from 
 Amsterdam, and Henry Laurens from London, entered into the negotia¬ 
 tions. On the 30th of November preliminary articles of peace were 
 agreed to and signed on the part of Great Britain by Oswald, and on be¬ 
 half of the United States by Franklin, Adams, Jay and Laurens. In 
 
THE END. 
 
 355 
 
 the following April the terms were ratified by Congress; but it was 
 not until the 3d of September, 1783, that a final treaty was effected be¬ 
 tween all the nations that had been at war. On that day the ambassadors 
 of Holland, Spain, England, France and the United States, in a solemn 
 conference at Paris, agreed to and signed the articles of a permanent 
 peace. 
 
 The terms of the Treaty of 1783 were briefly these: A full 
 and complete recognition of the independence of the United States; the 
 recession by Great Britain of Florida to Spain; the surrender of all the 
 remaining territory east of the Mississippi and south of the great lakes to 
 the United States; the free navigation of the Mississippi and the lakes 
 by American vessels; the concession of mutual rights in the Newfound¬ 
 land fisheries; and the retention by Great Britain of Canada and Nova 
 Scotia, with the exclusive control of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 Early in August Sir Guy Carleton received instructions to evacuate 
 New York city. Three months were spent in making arrangements for 
 this important event. Finally, on the 25th of November, everything 
 was in readiness; the British army was embarked on board the fleet; the 
 sails were spread; the ships stood out to sea; dwindled to white specks 
 on the horizon; disappeared. The Briton was gone. After the struggles 
 and sacrifices of an eight years’ war the patriots had achieved the inde¬ 
 pendence of their country. The United States of America took an equal 
 station among the nations of the earth. 
 
 Nine days after Carleton’s departure there was a most affecting 
 scene in the city. Washington assembled his officers and bade them a 
 final adieu. When they were met, the chieftain spoke a few affectionate 
 words to his comrades, who came forward in turn and with tears and 
 sobs which the veterans no longer cared to conceal bade him farewell. 
 Washington then walked to Whitehall, followed by a vast concourse of 
 citizens and soldiers, and thence departed to Annapolis, where Congress 
 was in session. On his way he paused at Philadelphia and made to the 
 proper officers a report of his expenses during the war. The account was 
 in his own handwriting, and covered a total expenditure of seventy-four 
 thousand four hundred and eighty-five dollars—all correct to a cent. 
 The route of the chief from Paulus’s Hook to Annapolis was a continuous 
 triumph. The people by hundreds and thousands flocked to the villages 
 and roadsides to see him pass; gray-headed statesmen to speak words of 
 praise; young men to shout with enthusiasm; maidens to strew his way 
 with flowers. 
 
 On the 23d of December Washington was introduced to Congress. 
 To that body of patriotic sages he delivered an address full of feeling, 
 
356 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 wisdom and modesty. Then with that dignity which always marked his 
 conduct he surrendered his commission as commander-in-chief of the 
 American army. General Mifflin, the president of Congress, responded 
 in an eloquent manner, and then the hero retired to his home at Mount 
 Vernon. The man whom, the year before, some disaffected soldiers were 
 going to make king of America, now, by his own act, became a citizen 
 yf the Republic. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV- 
 CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 
 
 PVURING the progress of the Revolution the civil government of the 
 J-A United States was in a deplorable condition. Nothing but the im¬ 
 minent peril of the country had, in the first place, led to the calling of a 
 Continental Congress. And when that body assembled, it had no method 
 of proceeding, no constitution, no power of efficient action. The two 
 great wants of the country were money to carry on the Avar and a central 
 authority to direct the war: the former of these was never met; and 
 Washington was made to supply the latter. Whenever Congress would 
 move in the direction of a firmer government, division would spring up, 
 and action would be checked by the remonstrance of jealous colonies. 
 Nevertheless, the more far-seeing statesmen of the times labored constantly 
 to create substantial political institutions. 
 
 Foremost of all those who worked for better government was Ben¬ 
 jamin Franklin. As early as the times of the French and Indian War 
 he began to agitate the question of a permanent union of the colonies. 
 During the troubled years just preceding the Revolution he brooded over 
 his cherished project, and in 1775 laid before Congress the plan of a per¬ 
 petual confederation of the States. But the attention of that body was 
 wholly occupied with the stirring events of the day, and Franklin’s 
 measure received but little notice. Congress, without any real authority, 
 began to conduct the government, and its legislation was generally ac¬ 
 cepted by the States. Still, the central authority was only an authority 
 by sufferance, and was liable at any time to be annulled by the caprice 
 of State legislatures. 
 
 Under such a system thinking men grew restless. On the 11th of 
 June, 1776, a committee was appointed by Congress to prepare a plan 
 
CONFEDERATION AND UNION 
 
 357 
 
 of confederation. After a month the work was completed and laid before 
 the house. Another month was spent in fruitless debates, and then the 
 question was laid over till the following spring. In April of 1777 the 
 discussion was resumed, and continued through the summer. Meanwhile, 
 the power of Great Britain being overthrown, the States had all adopted 
 republican governments, and the sentiment of national union had made 
 considerable headway. Finally, on the 15th of November, a vote was 
 taken in Congress, and the articles of confederation reported by the com¬ 
 mittee were adopted. The next step was to transmit the articles to the 
 several State legislatures for ratification. The time thus occupied ex¬ 
 tended to the following June, and then the new frame of government was 
 returned to Congress with many amendments. These having been con¬ 
 sidered and the most serious objections removed, the articles were signed 
 by the delegates of eight States on the 9th of July, 1778. Later in the 
 same month the representatives of Georgia and North Carolina affixed 
 their signatures. In November the delegates of New Jersey, and in the 
 following February those of Delaware, signed the compact. Maryland 
 held aloof; and it was not until March of 1781 that the consent of that 
 commonwealth could be obtained. Thus the Revolution was nearly 
 ended before the new system was finally ratified. 
 
 The government of the United States under the articles of con¬ 
 federation was a democratic republic. It presented itself under the form 
 of a Loose Union of Independent Commonwealths —a con¬ 
 federacy of sovereign States. The executive and legislative powers of 
 the general government were vested in Congress—a body composed of 
 not less than two nor more than seven representatives from each State. 
 But Congress could exercise no other than delegated powers; the sover¬ 
 eignty was reserved to the States. The most important of the exclusive 
 privileges of Congress were the right of making war and peace, the regu¬ 
 lation of foreign intercourse, the power to receive and send ambassadors, 
 the control of the coinage of money, the settlement of disputed boundaries 
 and the care of the public domain. There was no chief magistrate of the 
 Republic; and no general judiciary was provided * for. The consent of 
 nine States was necessary to complete an act of legislation. In voting 
 each State cast a single ballot. The union of the States was declared to 
 be perpetual. 
 
 On the day of the ratification of the articles by Maryland the old 
 Congress adjourned, and on the following morning reassembled under the 
 new form of government. From the very first the inadequacy of that 
 government was manifest. To begin with, it contradicted the doctrines 
 of the Declaration of Independence. Congress had but a shadow of 
 
358 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 authority, and that shadow, instead of proceeding from the people 
 emanated from States which were declared to be sovereign and inde¬ 
 pendent. The first great duty of the new government was to provide 
 for the payment of the war debt, which had now reached the sum of 
 thirty-eight million dollars. Congress could only recommend to the 
 several States the levying of a sufficient tax to meet the indebtedness. 
 Some of the States made the required levy; others were dilatory; others 
 refused. At the very outset the government was balked and thwarted. 
 The serious troubles that attended the disbanding of the army were trace¬ 
 able rather to the inability than to the indisposition of Congress to pay tilt 
 soldiers. The princely fortune of Robert Morris was exhausted and him¬ 
 self brought to poverty in a vain effort to sustain the credit of the govern¬ 
 ment. For three years after the treaty of peace public affairs were in a 
 condition bordering on chaos. The imperiled state of the Republic was 
 viewed with alarm by the sagacious patriots who had carried the Revolu¬ 
 tion to a successful issue. It was seen that unless the articles of confedera¬ 
 tion could be replaced with a better system the nation would go to ruin. 
 
 The project of remodeling the government originated at Mount 
 Vernon. In 1785, Washington, in conference with a company of states¬ 
 men at his home, advised the calling of a convention to meet at Annapolis 
 in the following year. The proposition was received with favor; and in 
 September of 1786 the representatives of five States assembled. The 
 question of a tariff on imports was discussed; and then the attention of 
 the delegates was turned to a revision of the articles of confederation. 
 Since only a minority of the States were represented in the conference, it 
 was resolved to adjourn until May of the following year, and all the 
 States were urgently requested to send representatives at that time. 
 Congress also invited the several legislatures to appoint delegates to the 
 proposed convention. All of the States except Rhode Island responded 
 to the call; and on the second Monday in May, 1787, the representatives 
 assembled at Philadelphia. Washington, who was a delegate from Vir¬ 
 ginia, was chosen president of the convention. A desultory discussion 
 followed until the 29th of the month, when Edmund Randolph intro¬ 
 duced a resolution to set aside the articles of confederation and adopt a 
 new constitution. There was further debate ; and then a committee was 
 appointed to revise the articles. Early in September the work was done; 
 the report of the committee was adopted; and that report was the Con¬ 
 stitution of the United States.* At the same time it was resolved 
 to send copies of the new instrument to the several legislatures for ratifi¬ 
 cation or rejection. 
 
 * The Constitution was written by Gouvemeur Morris, of Pennsylvania. 
 
CONFEDERATION AND UNION 
 
 359 
 
 While the constitutional convention was in session at Philadel¬ 
 phia the last colonial Congress was sitting in New York. The latter 
 body was in a feeble and distracted condition. Only eight States 
 were represented. It was evident that the old Confederation, under 
 which the colonies had won their freedom, was tottering to its fall 
 Nevertheless, before the 
 adjournment of Con¬ 
 gress, a measure was suc¬ 
 cessfully carried through 
 which was only second in 
 importance to the forma¬ 
 tion of the constitution. 
 
 This was the organiza¬ 
 tion of the North¬ 
 western Territory. 
 
 As a preliminary meas¬ 
 ure this vast domain was 
 ceded to the United 
 States by Virginia, New 
 York, Massachusetts, 
 and Connecticut. For 
 the government of the 
 territory an ordinance, 
 drawn up by Mr. Jeffer¬ 
 son, was adopted on the 
 13th of July, 1787. General Arthur St. Clair, then president of Congress, 
 received the appointment of military governor, and in the summer of 
 the following year began his duties with headquarters at Marietta. 
 By the terms of the ordinance it was stipulated that not less than 
 three nor more than five States should be formed out of the great 
 territory thus brought under the dominion of civilization; that the 
 States when organized should be admitted on terms of equality with 
 the original members of the confederation, and that slavery should be 
 prohibited. Out of this noble domain the five great States of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin were destined in after 
 times to be formed and added to the Union. 
 
 On the question of adopting the Constitution the people were 
 divided. It was the first great political agitation in the country. 
 Those who favored the new frame of government were called Fed¬ 
 eralists; those who opposed, Anti-Federalists or Republicans. 
 The leaders of the former party were Washington, Jay, Madison, and 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 
 
360 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hamilton, the latter statesman throwing the whole force of his genius 
 and learning into the controversy. In those able papers called the Fed¬ 
 eralist he and Madison successfully answered every objection of the 
 anti-Federal party. Hamilton was the first and perhaps the greatest 
 expounder of constitutional liberty in America. To him the Republic 
 owes a debt of perpetual gratitude for having established on a firm and 
 enduring basis the true principles of free government. 
 
 Under the Constitution of the United States the powers of gov¬ 
 ernment are arranged under three heads— Legislative, Executive, 
 and Judicial. The legislative power is vested in Congress—a body 
 composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The members 
 of the Senate are chosen by the legislatures of the several States, and 
 serve for a period of six years. Each State is represented by two Sen¬ 
 ators. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by 
 the people of the respective States; and each State is entitled to a num¬ 
 ber of representatives proportionate to the population of that State. 
 The members of this branch a*e chosen for a term of two years. Con¬ 
 gress is the law-making power of the nation; and all legislative ques¬ 
 tions of a general character are the appropriate subjects of congress¬ 
 ional action. 
 
 The executive power of the United States is vested in a Pres¬ 
 ident, who is chosen for a period of four years by a body of men 
 called the electoral college. The electors composing the college are 
 chosen by the people of the several States; and each State is entitled 
 to a number of electors equal to the number of its representatives and 
 senators in Congress. The duty of the President is to enforce the laws 
 of Congress in accordance with the Constitution. He is commander- 
 in-chief of the armies and navies of the United States. Over the 
 legislation of Congress he has the power of veto; but a two-thirds con¬ 
 gressional majority may pass a law without the President’s consent. 
 He has the right of appointing cabinet officers and foreign ministers; 
 but all of his appointments must be approved by the Senate. The 
 treaty-making power is also lodged with the President; but here again 
 the concurrence of the Senate is necessary. In case of the death, resig¬ 
 nation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President becomes chief 
 magistrate; otherwise his duties are limited to presiding over the Senate. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States is vested in a supreme 
 court and in inferior courts established by Congress. The highest 
 judicial officer is the chief-justice. All the judges of the supreme and 
 inferior courts hold their offices during life or good behavior. The 
 jurisdiction of these courts extends to all causes arising under the 
 
CONFEDERATION AND UNION 
 
 361 
 
 Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States. The right of 
 trial by jury is granted in all cases except the impeachment of public 
 officers. Treason against the United States consists only in levying 
 war against them, or in giving aid and comfort to their enemies. 
 
 The Constitution further provides that full faith shall be given 
 in all the States to the records of every State; that the citizens of any 
 State shall be entitled to the privileges of citizens in all the States; 
 that new territories may be organized and new States admitted into 
 the Union; that to every State shall be guaranteed a republican form 
 of government; and that the Constitution may be altered or amended 
 whenever the same is proposed by a two-thirds majority of both houses 
 of Congress, and ratified by three-fourths of the legislatures of the sev¬ 
 eral States. In accordance with this last provision fifteen amendments 
 have been made to the Constitution. The most important of these are 
 the articles which guarantee religious freedom; change the method of 
 electing President and Vice-President; abolish slavery; and forbid 
 the abridgment of suffrage on account of race or color.* 
 
 Such was the Constitution adopted, after much debate, for the 
 government of the American people. Would the people ratify it? or 
 had the work been done in vain? The little State of Delaware was 
 first to answer the question. In her convention on the 3d of Decem¬ 
 ber, 1787, the voice of the commonwealth was unanimously recorded 
 in favor of the new Constitution. Ten days later Pennsylvania gave 
 her decision by a vote of forty-six to twenty-three in favor of ratifi¬ 
 cation. On the 19th of December New Jersey added her approval 
 by a unanimous vote; and on the 2d of the following month Georgia 
 did the same. On the 9th of January the Connecticut convention 
 followed, with a vote of a hundred and twenty-eight to forty, in favor 
 of adoption. In Massachusetts the battle was hard fought and barely 
 won. A ballot, taken on the 6th of February, resulted in ratification 
 by the close vote of a hundred and eighty-seven to a hundred and 
 sixty-eight. This really decided the contest. On the 28th of April 
 Maryland rendered her decision by the strong vote of sixty-three to 
 twelve. Next came the ratification of South Carolina by a vote of a 
 hundred and forty-nine to seventy-three. In the New Hampshire 
 convention there was a hard struggle, but the vote for adoption finally 
 stood fifty-seven to forty-six, June 21st, 1788. This was the ninth 
 State, and the work was done. For, by its own terms, the new gov¬ 
 ernment was to go into operation when nine States should ratify. The 
 great commonwealth of Virginia still hesitated. Washington and 
 
 * See Appendix F. 
 
362 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Madison were for the Constitution; but Jefferson and Henry were 
 opposed. Not until the 25th of June did her convention declare for 
 adoption, and then only by a vote of eighty-nine to seventy-nine. 
 It was now clear that the new government would be organized, 
 and this fact was brought to bear as a powerful argument in favor of 
 adoption by the convention at Poughkeepsie. The hope that New 
 York city would be the seat of the Federal government also acted as 
 a motive, and a motion to ratify was finally carried, July 27th, 1788. 
 Only Rhode Island and North Carolina persisted in their refusal. But 
 in the latter State a new convention was called, and on the 13th of 
 November, 1789, the Constitution was formally adopted. As to Rhode 
 Island, her pertinacity was in inverse ratio to her importance. At 
 length Providence and Newport seceded from the commonwealth; the 
 question of dividing the teritory between Massachusetts and Connecti¬ 
 cut was raised, and the refractory member at last yielded by adopting 
 the Constitution, May 29th, 1790. Then, for the first time, the Eng¬ 
 lish-speaking race in the New World was united under a common gov¬ 
 ernment—strong enough for safety, liberal enough for freedom. 
 
 In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and a reso¬ 
 lution of Congress, the first Wednesday of January, 1789, was named 
 as the time for the election of a chief magistrate. The people had but 
 one voice as to the man who should be honored with that trust. Early 
 in April the ballots of the electors were counted in the presence of 
 Congress, and George Washington was unanimously chosen President 
 and John Adams Vice-President of the United States. On the 14th 
 of the month Washington received notification of his election, and 
 departed for New York. His route thither was a constant triumph. 
 Maryland welcomed him at Georgetown. Philadelphia by her execu¬ 
 tive council, the trustees of her university, and the officers of the Cin¬ 
 cinnati, did him honor. How did the people of Trenton exult in the 
 presence of the hero who twelve years before had fought their battle! 
 There over the bridge of the Assanpink they built a triumphal arch, 
 and girls in white ran before, singing and strewing the way with flow¬ 
 ers. At Elizabethtown he was met by the principal officers of the gov¬ 
 ernment and welcomed to the capital where he was to become the first 
 chief magistrate of a free and grateful people. With this auspicious 
 event the period of revolution and confederation ends, and the era of 
 nationality in the New Republic is ushered in. Long and glorious be 
 the history of that Republic, bought with the blood of patriots, and 
 consecrated in the sorrows of our fathers! 
 
PART V. 
 
 NATIONAL PERIOD. 
 
 A. D. 1789—1882. 
 
 CHAPTER XLYI. 
 
 WASHING TON’S ADMINISTRATION, 1789-1797. 
 
 O N the 30th of April, 1789, Washington was dulv inaugurated first 
 President of the United States. The new government was to have 
 gone into operation on 
 the 4th of March, but 
 the event was con¬ 
 siderably delayed. 
 
 The inaugural cere- 
 ' mony was performed 
 on the balcony of the 
 old City Hall, on the 
 present site of the 
 Custom-House, in 
 Wall street. Chancel¬ 
 lor Livingston of New 
 York administered the 
 oath of office. The 
 streets and house-tops 
 were thronged with 
 people; flags flutter¬ 
 ed ; cannon boomed 
 from the Battery. As 
 Soon as the public cere- 
 monv was ended, 
 
 Washington retired to 
 the Senate chamber 
 and delivered his in¬ 
 augural address. The 
 already been effected. 
 
 organization of the two houses of Congress had 
 
 ( 363 ) 
 
'364 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The new government was embarrassed with many difficulties. The 
 opponents of the Constitution were not yet silenced, and from the begin¬ 
 ning they caviled at the measures of the administration. By the treaty 
 of 1783 the free navigation of the Mississippi had been guaranteed. Now 
 the jealous Spaniards of New Orleans hindered the passage of American 
 ships. The people of the West looked to the great river as the natural 
 outlet of their commerce; they must be protected in their rights. On 
 many parts of the frontier the malignant Red men were still at war with 
 the settlers. As to financial credit, the United States had none. In the 
 very beginning of his arduous duties Washington was prostrated with 
 sickness, and the business of government was for many weeks delayed. 
 
 Not until September • were the first important measures adopted. 
 On the 10th of that month an act was passed by Congress instituting a 
 department of foreign affairs, a treasury department and a department of 
 war. As members of his cabinet Washington nominated Jefferson, Knox 
 and Hamilton; the first as secretary of foreign affairs; the second, of war; 
 and the third, of the treasury. In accordance with the provisions of the 
 Constitution, a supreme court was also organized, John Jay receiving the 
 appointment of first chief-justice. With him were joined as associate 
 justices John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsyl¬ 
 vania, William Cushing of Massachusetts, John Blair of Virginia, 
 nd James Iredell of North Carolina. Edmund Randolph was chosen 
 attorney-general. Many constitutional amendments were now brought 
 forward, and ten of them adopted. By this action on the part of 
 Congress, the objections of North Carolina and Rhode Island were 
 removed and both States ratified the Constitution, the former in No¬ 
 vember of 1789 and the latter in the following May. 
 
 On the 29th of September, 1789, Congress adjourned until the 
 following January, and Washington availed himself of the opportu¬ 
 nity thus offered to make a tour of the Eastern States. Accompanied 
 by his secretaries, he set out in his carriage from New York on the 
 15th of October, and nine days afterward reached Boston. At every 
 point on the route the affection of the people, and especially of the 
 Revolutionary veterans, burst out in unbounded enthusiasm. On 
 reaching Boston the President was welcomed by Governor John 
 Hancock and the selectmen of the city. No pains were spared that 
 could add to the comfort and pleasure of the new nation’s chief mag¬ 
 istrate. After remaining a week among the scenes associated with 
 his first command of the American army, he proceeded to Portsmouth 
 and thence returned with improved health and peace of mind by way 
 ©f Hartford to New York. 
 
/ 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 365 
 
 In the first months of his administration Washington was much 
 vexed about questions of ceremony and etiquette. How should he 
 appear in public ? How often ? What kind of entertainment should 
 he give? Who should be invited? What title should he bear? And 
 in what manner be introduced? In these matters there was no pre¬ 
 cedent to guide him; for who had ever held such a station before? 
 He must not, on the one hand, demean himself like a king, surrounded 
 with peers and courtiers, nor, on the other hand, must he degrade his 
 high office by such blunt democratical ceremonies as would render 
 himself ridiculous and the Presidency contemptible. In his embar¬ 
 rassment Washington sought the advice of Adams, Jefferson, Hamilton, 
 and others in regard to a suitable etiquette and ceremonial for the 
 Republican court. Adams in answer would have much ceremony; 
 Jefferson, none at all. The latter said: “ I hope that the terms Excel¬ 
 lency, Honor, Worship, Esquire, and even Mr. shall shortly and 
 forever disappear from among us.” Hamilton’s reply favored a mod¬ 
 erate and simple formality; and this view was adopted by Washington 
 as most consistent with the new frame of government. In the mean¬ 
 time Congress had declared that the chief magistrate should have no 
 title other than that of his office; namely, President of the United 
 States. So with ceremonies few and simple the order of affairs in the 
 presidential office was established. 
 
 The national debt, however, was the greatest and most threat¬ 
 ening question; but the genius of Hamilton triumphed over every 
 difficulty. The indebtedness of the United States, including the 
 revolutionary expenses of the several States, amounted to nearly 
 eighty millions of dollars. Hamilton adopted a broad and honest 
 policy. His plan, which was laid before Congress at the beginning 
 of the second session, proposed that the debt of the United States 
 due to American citizens, as well as the war debt of the individual 
 States, should be assumed by the general government, and that all 
 should be fully paid. By this measure the credit of the country was 
 vastly improved, even before actual payment was begun. As a 
 means of augmenting the revenues of the government a duty was 
 laid on the tonnage of merchant-ships, with a discrimination in favor 
 of American vessels; and customs were levied on all imported arti¬ 
 cles. Hamilton’s financial schemes were violently opposed; but his 
 policy prevailed, and the credit of the government was soon firmly 
 established. 
 
 The proposition to assume the debts of the States had been coupled 
 with another to fix the seat of government. After much discussion it was 
 
366 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 agreed to establish the capital for ten years at Philadelphia, and afterward 
 at some suitable locality on the Potomac. The next important measure 
 was the organization of the territory south-west of the Ohio. In the 
 autumn of 1790 a-war broke out with the Miami Indians. Port Wash¬ 
 ington, on the present site of Cincinnati, had been established as the 
 capital of the North-western Territory; and General St. Clair had re¬ 
 ceived the appointment as governor. The Indians had fairly relinquished 
 their rights to the surrounding country; but other tribes came forward with 
 pretended claims, and went to war to recover their lost possessions. At 
 the close of September, General Harmar, with fourteen hundred troops, 
 set out from Fort Washington to chastise the hostile Miamis. After de¬ 
 stroying several villages and wasting the country as far as the Maumee, 
 he divided his army into detachments. Colonel Hardin, who commanded 
 the Kentucky volunteers, was ambuscaded and his forces routed at a vil¬ 
 lage eleven miles from Fort Wayne; and on the 21st of October the 
 main division was defeated with great loss at the Maumee Ford. Gen¬ 
 eral Harmar was obliged to abandon the Indian country and retreat to 
 Fort Washington. 
 
 In the beginning of 1791 an act was passed by Congress establish¬ 
 ing the Bank of the United States. The measure originated with 
 the secretary of the treasury, and was violently opposed by Jefferson and 
 the anti-federal party. About the same time Vermont, which had been 
 an independent territory since 1777, adopted the Constitution, and on the 
 18th of February was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth State. 
 The claim of New York to the jurisdiction of the province had been pur¬ 
 chased, two years previously, for thirty thousand dollars. The first census 
 of the United States, completed for the year 1790, showed that the popu¬ 
 lation of the country had increased to three million nine hundred and 
 twenty-nine thousand souls. 
 
 After the defeat of Harmar the government adopted more vigorous 
 measures for the repression of Indian hostilities. On the 6th of Septem¬ 
 ber, 1791, General St. Clair, with an army of two thousand men, set out 
 from Fort Washington to break the power of the Miami confederacy. 
 On the night of November 3d he reached a point nearly ahundred miles 
 north of Fort Washington, and encamped on one of the upper tribu¬ 
 taries of the Wabash, in what is now the south-west angle of Mercer 
 county, Ohio. On the following morning at sunrise his camp was sud¬ 
 denly assailed by more than two thousand warriors, led by Little Turtle 
 and several American renegades who had joined the Indians. After a 
 terrible battle of three hours’ duration, St. Clair was completely defeated 
 with a loss of fully half his men. The fugitive militia retreated pre- 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 367 
 
 cipitately to Fort Washington, where they arrived four days after the 
 battle. The news of the disaster spread gloom and sorrow throughout 
 the land. When the tidings reached Philadelphia the government 
 was for a while in consternation. For once the benignant spirit of 
 Washington gave way to wrath. “Here” said he in a tempest of 
 indignation ,—“ here, in this very room, I took leave of General St. 
 Clair. I wished him success and honor. I said to him, ‘You have 
 careful instructions from the secretary of war, and I myself will add 
 one word —beware of a surprise. You know how the Indians fight us. 
 Beware of a surprise!’ He went off with that, my last warning, 
 ringing in his ears. And yet he has suffered that army to be cut to 
 pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked by a surprise,—the very thing 
 I guarded him against! How can he answer to his country ? The 
 blood of the slain is upon him,—the curse of widows and orphans! ” 
 Mr. Lear, the secretary, in whose presence this storm of wrath burst 
 forth, sat speechless. Presently Washington grew silent. “What I 
 have uttered must not go beyond this room,” said he in a manner of 
 great seriousness. Another pause of several minutes ensued, and then 
 he continued in a low and solemn tone: “ I looked at the despatches 
 hastily and did not note all the particulars. General St. Clair shall 
 have justice. I will receive him without displeasure ,—lie shall have 
 full justice.” Notwithstanding his exculpation by a committee of Con¬ 
 gress, poor St. Clair, overwhelmed with censures and reproaches, 
 resigned his command and was superseded by General Wayne, whom 
 the people had named Mad Anthony. 
 
 The population of the Territory of Kentucky had now reached 
 seventy-three thousand. Only seventeen years before, Daniel Boone, 
 the hardy hunter of North Carolina, had settled with his companions 
 at Boonesborough. Harrodsburg and Lexington were founded about 
 the same time. During the Devolution the pioneers were constantly 
 beset by the savages. After the expedition of General Clarke, in 
 1779, the frontier was more secure; and in the years following the 
 treaty thousands of immigrants came annually. In the mean time, 
 Virginia had relinquished her claim to the territory; and on the 1st 
 of June, 1792, Kentucky was admitted into the Union. At the presi¬ 
 dential election, held in the autumn of the same year, Washington w r as 
 again unanimously chosen; as Vice-President, John Adams was also 
 re-elected. 
 
 During Washington’s second administration the country was 
 greatly troubled in its relations with foreign governments. Europe 
 was in an uproar. The French Revolution of 1789 was still running 
 
368 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 its dreadful course. After three years of unparalleled excesses, the Ja¬ 
 cobins of France had beheaded the king and abolished the monarchy. 
 Citizen Genet was sent by the new French republic as minister to the 
 United States. On his arrival at Charleston, and on his way to Phil¬ 
 adelphia, he was greeted with unbounded enthusiasm. Taking advan¬ 
 tage of his popularity, the ambassador began to abuse his authority, 
 fitted out privateers to prey on the commerce of Great Britain, planned 
 expeditions against Louisiana, and, although the President had already 
 issued a proclamation of neutrality, demanded an alliance with the 
 government. Washington and the cabinet firmly refused; and the au¬ 
 dacious minister threatened to appeal to the people. In this outrageous 
 conduct he was sustained and encouraged by the anti-Federal party, 
 and for a while the government was endangered. But Washington 
 stood unmoved, declared the course of the French minister an insult 
 to the sovereignty of the United States, and demanded his recall. The 
 republican authorities of France heeded the demand, and Genet was 
 superseded by M. Fouchet. 
 
 The President was also much embarrassed by dissensions in his cab¬ 
 inet. From the beginning of his first official term the secretaries of 
 state and the treasury had maintained towards each other an attitude 
 of constant hostility. They had gradually become the heads of rival 
 parties in the government. Hamilton’s financial .measures were at¬ 
 tacked with vehement animosity by Jefferson; and the policy of the 
 latter in his relations and duties as secretary of foreign affairs was the 
 subject of much bitter criticism from the former’s scathing pen. The 
 breach between the rivals grew wider and wider. Washington’s influ¬ 
 ence was barely sufficient to prevent the breaking up of his cabinet. 
 So great were the abilities and so valuable the experience of the two 
 secretaries that the services of neither could be spared without serious 
 detriment to the government. Both officers were patriots, and both 
 had insisted on Washington’s reelection to the Presidency. After that 
 event, however, Jefferson, in January of 1794, resigned his office and 
 retired to private life at Monticello. A year later Hamilton also re¬ 
 tired from the cabinet and was succeeded by Oliver Wolcott of Con¬ 
 necticut. 
 
 During the summer and autumn of 1794 the country was much 
 disturbed by a difficulty in Western Pennsylvania known as the whisky 
 insurrection. Hoping to improve the revenues of the government, Con¬ 
 gress had, three years previously, imposed a tax on all ardent spirits dis¬ 
 tilled in the United States. While Genet was at Philadelphia, he and 
 his partisans incited the people of the distilling regions to resist the tax- 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 369 
 
 collectors. The disaffected rose in arms. Washington issued two proc¬ 
 lamations, warning the insurgents to disperse; but instead of obeying, 
 they fired upon and captured the officers of the government. The Presi¬ 
 dent then ordered General Henry Lee to enter the rebellious district with 
 a sufficient force to restore order and enforce the law. When the troops 
 reached the scene of the disturbance, the rioters had already scattered. 
 The insurrection was a political rather than a social outbreak : the anti- 
 Federalists were in a majority in the distilling region, and the whisky-tax 
 was a measure of the Federal party. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Wayne had broken the Miami confederacy. 
 In the fall of 1793 he entered the Indian country with a force of three 
 thousand men. Reaching the scene of St. Clair’s defeat, he built a 
 stockade named Fort Recovery, and then pressed on to the junction of 
 the Au Glaize and the Maumee, in Williams county, Ohio. Here he 
 built and garrisoned Fort Defiance Descending the Maumee to the 
 rapids, he sent proposals of peace to the Indians, who were in council but 
 a few miles distant. Little Turtle, more wise than the other chiefs, 
 would have made a treaty; but the majority were for battle. On the 
 20th of August Wayne marched against the savages, overtook them 
 where the present town of Waynesfield stands, and routed them with ter¬ 
 rible losses. The relentless general then compelled the humbled chief¬ 
 tains to purchase peace by ceding to the United States all the territory 
 east of a line drawn from Fort Recovery to the mouth of the Great 
 Miami River. This was the last service of General Wayne. Re¬ 
 maining for a while in the Indian country, he embarked on Lake 
 Erie to return to Philadelphia. In December of 1796 he died on 
 board the vessel, and was buried at Presque Isle. 
 
 The conduct of Great Britain toward the United States became as 
 arrogant as that of France was impudent. In November of 1793 George 
 III. issued secret instructions to British privateers to seize all neutral 
 vessels that might be found trading in the French West Indies. The 
 United States had no notification of this high-handed measure; and 
 American commerce to the value of many millions of dollars was swept 
 from the sea by a process differing in nothing from highway robbery. 
 But for the temperate spirit of the government the country would have 
 been at once plunged into war. Prudence prevailed over passion; and 
 in May of 1794 Chief-Justice Jay was sent as envoy extraordinary to 
 demand redress of the British government. Contrary to expectation, 
 his mission was successful; and in the following November an honor¬ 
 able treaty was concluded. The terms of settlement, however, were 
 exceedingly distasteful to the partisans of France in America, and they 
 2 ft 
 
370 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 determined to prevent its ratification. Every argument and motive 
 which ingenuity or prejudice could supply was eagerly paraded before 
 the people to excite their discontent. Public meetings were held and 
 excited orators harangued the multitudes. In New York a copy of 
 the treaty was burned before the governor’s mansion. In Philadel¬ 
 phia there was a similar proceeding; and the whole country was in 
 an uproar. Washington, however, believing the treaty to be just in 
 its main provisions, and earnestly desiring that war might be avoided, 
 favored ratification. The majority in the Senate remained unmoved, 
 and finally in the latter part of June, 1795, the terms of settlement 
 were duly ratified, and signed by the President. It was specified in 
 the treaty that Great Britain should make ample reparation for the 
 injuries done by her privateers, and surrender to the United States 
 certain Western posts which until now had been held by English gar¬ 
 risons. Thus was the threatened war averted. 
 
 In October of 1795 the boundary between the United States and 
 Louisiana was settled by a treaty with Spain. The latter country at the 
 same time guaranteed to the Americans the free navigation of the Mis¬ 
 sissippi. Less honorable was the treaty made with the kingdom of 
 Algiers. For a long time Algerine pirates had infested the Mediter¬ 
 ranean, preying upon the commerce of civilized nations; and those 
 nations, in order to purchase exemption from such ravages, had adopted 
 the ruinous policy of paying the dey of Algiers an annual tribute. In 
 consideration of the tribute the dey agreed that his pirate ships should 
 confine themselves to the Mediterranean, and should not attack the vessels 
 of such nations as made the payment. Now, however, with the purpose 
 of injuring France, Great Britain winked at an agreement with the dey 
 by which the Algerine sea-robbers were turned loose on the Atlantic. 
 By their depredations American commerce suffered greatly; and the 
 government of the United States was obliged to purchase safety by 
 paying the shameful tribute. 
 
 In the summer of 1796, Tennessee, the third new State, was 
 organized and admitted into the Union. Six years previously North 
 Carolina had surrendered her claims to the territorv, which at that time 
 contained a population of thirty-five thousand; and within five years the 
 number was more than doubled. The first inhabitants of Tennessee were 
 of that hardy race of pioneers to whom the perils of the wilderness are as 
 nothing provided the wilderness is free. By the addition of the two 
 States south-west of the Ohio more than eighty-three thousand square 
 miles of territory were brought under the dominion of civilization. 
 
 Nothing in history is more surprising than the ascendency which 
 
WASHING TON’S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 371 
 
 Washington, unto the end of his official career, continued to exercise 
 over the minds of his countrymen. In the House of Representatives, 
 during the last two sessions, there had been a clear majority against 
 him and his policy; and yet the House continued its support of his 
 measures. Even the provisions necessary to carry into effect the hated 
 treaty with Great Britain were made by that body, though the vote 
 was close. So powerful were the President’s views in determining 
 the actions of the people that Jefferson, writing to Monroe at Paris, 
 said: “Congress has adjourned. You will see by their proceedings 
 the truth of what I always told you, namely, that one man outweighs 
 them all in influence over the people, who support his judgment against 
 their own and that of their representatives. Republicanism resigns the 
 Vessel to its pilot.” 
 
 Washington was solicited to become a candidate for a third elec¬ 
 tion to the presidency; but he would not. His resolution had already 
 been made to end his public career. With the Father of his Country 
 the evening of life drew on, and rest was necessary. Accordingly, in 
 September of 1796, he issued to the people of the United States his 
 Farewell Address — a document crowded with precepts of political 
 wisdom, prudent counsels, and chastened patriotism.* As soon as the 
 President’s determination was made known the political parties mar¬ 
 shaled their forces and put forward their champions, John Adams ap¬ 
 pearing as the candidate of the Federal, and Thomas Jefferson of the 
 anti-Federal party. Antagonism to the Constitution, which had thus 
 far been the chief question between the parties, now gave place to 
 another issue — whether it was the true policy of the United States to 
 enter into intimate relations with the republic of France. The anti- 
 Federalists said, Yes ! that all republics have a common end, and that 
 Great Britain was the enemy of them all. The Federalists said, Not 
 that the American republic must mark out an independent course 
 among the nations, and avoid all foreign alliances. On that issue Mr. 
 Adams was elected, but Mr. Jefferson, having the next highest num¬ 
 ber of votes, became Vice-President; for according to the old provis¬ 
 ion of the Constitution, the person who stood second on the list was 
 declared the second officer in the government. 
 
 * See Appendix G. 
 
372 
 
 HISTORY O'F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 ADAMS’S ADMINISTRATION, 1797-1801. 
 
 J OHN ADAMS, second President of the United States, was born in 
 the town of Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19th, 1735. He was a 
 great-grandson of that Henry Adams who, emigrating from Great Brit¬ 
 ain in 1640, founded in America a family made famous by many illus¬ 
 trious names. Eight 
 sons of the elder 
 Adams settled around 
 Massachusetts Bay, 
 the grandfather of the 
 President in that part 
 of Braintree after¬ 
 wards called Quincy. 
 The father of John 
 Adams was a Puritan 
 deacon, a selectman 
 of the town, a farmer 
 of small means, and a 
 shoemaker. The son 
 received a classical ed¬ 
 ucation, being gradu¬ 
 ated at the age of 
 twenty from Harvard 
 College. For a while 
 he taught school, but 
 finding that vocation 
 to be, as he expressed 
 it, a school of affliction, he turned his attention to the study of law. In 
 this profession he soon became eminent, removed to Boston, engaged 
 with great zeal in the controversy with the mother country, and was 
 quickly recognize^ as an able leader of public opinion. From this 
 time forth his services were in constant demand both in his native 
 State and in the several colonial Congresses. He was a member of 
 the celebrated committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Inde¬ 
 pendence, and in the debates on that instrument was its chief defender. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS. 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 373 
 
 During the last years of the Revolution he served his country as 
 ambassador to France, Holland, and Great Britain, being the first 
 minister to that country after the recognition of American independ¬ 
 ence. From this important station he returned in 1788, and was soon 
 afterwards elected Vice-President under the new frame of government. 
 After serving in this office for eight years, he was chosen as the suc¬ 
 cessor of Washington. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1797, President Adams was inaugurated. 
 From the beginning his administration was embarrassed by a power¬ 
 ful and well-organized opposition. Aclet, the French minister, made 
 inflammatory appeals to the people, and urged the government to 
 conclude a league with France against Great Britain. When the 
 President and Congress stood firmly on the doctrine of neutrality, 
 the French Directory grew insolent, and began to demand an alli¬ 
 ance. The treaty which Mr. Jay had concluded with England was 
 especially complained of by the partisans of France. On the 10th 
 of March the Directory issued instructions to French men-of-war to 
 assail the commerce of the United States. Soon afterward Mr. Pinck¬ 
 ney, the American minister, was ordered to leave the territory of 
 France. 
 
 These proceedings were equivalent to a declaration of war. The 
 President convened Congress in extrabrdinary session, and measures 
 were devised for repelling the aggressions of the French. Elbridge 
 Gerry and John Marshall were directed to join Mr. Pinckney in a. 
 final effort for a peaceable adjustment of the difficulties. But the 
 effort was fruitless. The Directory of France refused to receive the 
 ambassadors except upon condition that they would pledge the pay¬ 
 ment into the French treasury of a quarter of a million of dollars, 
 Pinckney answered with the declaration that the United States had 
 millions for defence , but not a cent for tribute. The envoys were then 
 ordered to leave the country; but Gerry, who was an anti-Federalist, 
 was permitted to remain. These events occupied the summer and fall 
 of 1797. 
 
 In the beginning of the next year an act was passed by Con¬ 
 gress completing the organization of the army. Washington was called 
 from the retirement of his old age and appointed commander-in-chief. 
 Hamilton was chosen first major-general. A navy of six frigates, be¬ 
 sides privateers, had been provided for at the session of the previous 
 year; and a national loan had been authorized. The patriotism of 
 the people was thoroughly aroused; the treaties with France were de¬ 
 clared void, and vigorous preparations were made for the impending 
 
374 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 war. The American frigates put to sea, and in the summer and fall 
 of 1799 did a'ood service for the commerce of the country. Commo- 
 do re Truxtun, in the ship Constellation, won distinguished honors. On 
 the 9th of'February, while cruising in the West Indies, he attacked 
 the Insurgent, a French man-of-war carrying forty guns and more than 
 four hundred seamen. A desperate engagement ensued; and Truxtun, 
 though inferior in cannons and men, gained a complete victory. A 
 year later he overtook another frigate, called the Vengeance, and after 
 a five hours’ battle in the night would have captured his antagonist 
 but for a storm and the darkness. These events added greatly to the 
 renown of the American flag. 
 
 The organization of the provisional army was soon completed. 
 The commander-in-chief repaired to Philadelphia and remained five 
 weeks with Generals Hamilton and Pinckney, superintending the 
 work. Such measures were taken as were deemed adequate to the 
 defence of the nation, and then Washington retired to Mount Ver¬ 
 non, leaving the greater part of the responsibility to be borne by 
 Hamilton. The news of these warlike proceedings was soon carried 
 to France, and the shrewd Talleyrand, minister of foreign affairs for 
 the French republic, seeing that his dismissal of Mr. Monroe and 
 General Pinckney had given mortal offence to the American people, 
 managed to signify to Vans Murray, ambassador of the United States 
 to Holland, that if President Adams would send another minister to 
 Paris he would be cordially received. Murray immediately transmit¬ 
 ted this hint to the President, who caugnt eagerly at this opportunity 
 to extricate the country from apprehended war. On the 18th of Feb¬ 
 ruary he transmitted a message to the Senate nominating Mr. Murray 
 himself as minister plenipotentiary to the French republic. The nom¬ 
 ination was confirmed, and the ambassador was authorized to proceed at 
 once to France. It was also agreed by the Senate that two other per¬ 
 sons should be added to the embassy; and Oliver Ellsworth and Will¬ 
 iam R. Davie were accordingly commissioned to proceed to Amsterdam 
 and join Murray in his important mission to the French capital. 
 
 Meanwhile, Napoleon Bonaparte had overthrown the Directory _ 
 of France and made himself first consul of the republic. More wise 
 and politic than his associates in the government, he immediately 
 sought peace with the the United States. For he saw clearly enough 
 that the impending war would, if prosecuted, inevitably result in an 
 alliance between America and England—a thing most unfavorable to 
 the interests of France. He was also confident that peaceful overtures 
 on his part would be met with favor. The three American ambassa- 
 
ADAMS’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 375 . 
 
 dors—Murray, Ellsworth and Davie—reached Paris, after many delays, 
 in the beginning of March, 1800. Negotiations were at once opened, 
 and, in the following September, were happily terminated with a treaty 
 of peace. In all his relations with the United States Napoleon acted the 
 part of a consistent and honorable ruler. 
 
 Before the war-cloud was scattered America was called to mourn 
 the loss of Washington. On the 14th of December, 1799, after an illness 
 of only a day, the venerated chieftain passed from among the living. All 
 hearts were touched with sorrow. The people put on the garb of mourn¬ 
 ing. Congress went in funeral procession to the German Lutheran church, 
 where General Henry Lee, the personal friend of Washington, delivered 
 a touching and eloquent oration. Throughout the civilized world the 
 memory of the great dead was honored with appropriate ceremonies. To 
 the legions of France the event was announced by Bonaparte, who paid 
 a beautiful tribute to the virtues of “ the warrior, the legislator and the 
 citizen without reproach.” As the body of Washington was laid in the 
 sepulchre, the voice of partisan malignity that had not hesitated to assail 
 his name was hushed into everlasting silence; and the world with un¬ 
 covered head agreed with Lord Byron in declaring the illustrious dead to 
 have been among warriors, statesmen and patriots 
 
 “ -The first, the last, the best, 
 
 The Cincinnatus of the West.” 
 
 The administration of Adams and the eighteenth century drew to a 
 close together. In spite of domestic dissensions and foreign alarms, the 
 new republic was growing strong and influential. The census of 1800 
 showed that the population of the country, including the black men, had 
 increased to over five millions. The seventy-five post-offices reported by 
 the census of 1790 had been multiplied to nine hundred and three; the 
 exports of the United States had grown from twenty millions to nearly 
 seventy-one millions of dollars. The permanency of the Constitution as 
 the supreme law of the land was now cheerfully recognized. In Decem¬ 
 ber of 1800 Congress for the first time assembled in Washington city, the 
 new capital of the nation. Virginia and Maryland had ceded to the 
 United States the District of Columbia, a tract ten miles square lying on 
 both sides of the Potomac; but the part given by Virginia was afterward 
 re-ceded to that State. The city which was designed as the seat of govern¬ 
 ment was laid out in 1792; and in 1800 the population numbered be¬ 
 tween eight and nine thousand. 
 
 With prudent management and unanimity the Federal party might 
 have retained control of the government. But there were dissensions in 
 
376 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mr. Adams’s cabinet. Much of'the recent legislation of Congress had 
 been unwise and unpopular. The alien law, by which the President was 
 authorized to send out of the country any foreigners whose presence 
 should be considered prejudicial to the interests of the United States, was 
 specially odious. The sedition law, which punished with fine and im¬ 
 prisonment the freedom of speech and of the press when directed abusively 
 against the government, was denounced by the opposition as an act of 
 tyranny. Partisan excitement ran high. Mr. Adams and Mr. Charles 
 0. Pinckney were put forward as the candidates of the Federalists, and 
 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr of the Republicans or Democrats. The 
 latter were triumphant. In the electoral college Jefferson and Burr each 
 received seventy-three votes; Adams, sixty-five; and Pinckney, sixty-four. 
 In order to decide between the Democratic candidates, the election was re¬ 
 ferred to the House of Representatives. After thirty-five ballotings, the 
 choice fell on Jefferson; and Burr, who was now second on the list, was 
 declared Vice-President. After controlling the government for twelve 
 years, the Federal party passed from power, never to be restored. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S01-1809. 
 
 T HOMAS JEFFERSON was born in the county of Albemarle, 
 Virginia, on the 2d of April, 1743. Of his ancestry, history has 
 preserved no record other than the name of his father, Colonel Peter 
 Jefferson, a man noted for native abilities and force of character. The 
 son found excellent advantages of early training in the private school 
 of an exiled Scottish clergyman, and afterwards completed his educa¬ 
 tion at William and Mary College. He then entered upon the study 
 of law, and soon rose to distinction. Like his predecessor in the pres¬ 
 idential office, he became in his early manhood deeply absorbed in the 
 controversy with the mother country, and by his radical views in the 
 House of Burgesses contributed much to fix forever the sentiments of 
 that body against the arbitrary measures of the English ministry. 
 
 From the councils of his native State Jefferson was soon called 
 to the councils of the nation. His coming was anxiously awaited in 
 the famous Congress of 1776; for his fame as a thinker and a demo- 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 377 
 
 crat had preceded him. To his pen and brain the almost exclusive 
 authorship ot the great Declaration must be awarded. During the 
 struggles of the Revolution he was among the most distinguished and 
 uncompromising of the patriot leaders. After the war was over, he 
 was sent abroad with 
 Adams and Franklin 
 to negotiate treaties 
 of amity and com¬ 
 merce with the Eu¬ 
 ropean nations, and 
 was then appointed 
 minister plenipoten¬ 
 tiary of the new 
 Republic to France. 
 
 From this high trust 
 he was recalled to 
 become secretary of 
 state under Wash¬ 
 ington; in 1796 was 
 elected Vice - Presi - 
 dent, and in 1800 
 President of the 
 United States. The 
 American decimal 
 system of coinage, 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
 the statute for relig¬ 
 ious freedom, the Declaration of Independence, the University of 
 Virginia, and the presidency of the Union are the immutable foun¬ 
 dations of his fame. 
 
 At the beginning of his administration Mr. Jefferson transferred 
 the chief offices of the government to members of the Democratic 
 party. This policy had in some measure been adopted by his prede¬ 
 cessor; but the principle was now made universal. Such action was 
 justified by the adhe'rents of the President on the ground that the 
 affairs of a republic will be best administered when the officers hold 
 the same political sentiments. One of the first acts of Congress was 
 to abolish the system of internal revenues. The unpopular laws against 
 foreigners and the freedom of the press were also repealed. But the 
 territorial legislation of Jefferson’s first term was most important of 
 all. 
 
 In the year 1800 a line was drawn through the North-west 
 
378 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Territory from the mouth of the Great Miami River to Fort Recovery, 
 and thence to Canada. Two years afterward the country east of this 
 line was erected into the State of Ohio and admitted into the Union. 
 The portion west of the line, embracing the present States of Indi¬ 
 ana, Illinois, Wisconsin and a part of Michigan, was organized under 
 the name of the Indiana Territory. Vincennes was the capital; 
 and General William Henry Harrison received the appointment of 
 governor. About the same time the organization of the Mississippi 
 Territory, extending from the western limits of Georgia to the great 
 river, was completed. Thus another grand and fertile district of a 
 hundred thousand square miles was reclaimed from barbarism. 
 
 More important still was the purchase of Louisiana. In 1800 
 Napoleon had compelled Spain to make a secret cession of this vast 
 territory to France. The First Consul then prepared to send an army 
 to New Orleans for the purpose of establishing his authority. But 
 the government of the United States remonstrated against such a pro¬ 
 ceeding; France was threatened with multiplied wars at home; and 
 Bonaparte, seeing the difficulty of maintaining a colonial empire at so 
 great a distance, authorized his minister to dispose of Louisiana by 
 sale. The President appointed Mr. Livingston and James Monroe 
 to negotiate the purchase. On the 30th of April, 1803, the terms of 
 transfer were agreed on by the agents of the two nations; and for the 
 sum of eleven million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, Louisi- 
 ana was ceded to the United States.* In another convention, which 
 was signed on the same day, it was agreed that the government of 
 the United States should assume the payment of certain debts due 
 from France to American citizens; but the sum thus assumed should 
 not, inclusive of interest, exceed three million seven hundred and fifty 
 thousand dollars. Thus did the vast domain west of the Mississippi, 
 embracing an area of more than a million square miles, pass under 
 the dominion of the United States. 
 
 Four nations—France, the United States, Great Britain, and 
 Spain — were concerned in determining the boundaries of the ceded 
 territory. In regard to the eastern limit, all were agreed that it 
 should be the Mississippi from its source to the thirty-first parallel 
 of latitude. On the south-east the boundary claimed by the United 
 States, Great Britain, and France, was the thirty-first parallel from 
 the Mississippi to the Appalachicola, and down that river to the Gulf. 
 
 * Bonaparte accepted in payment six per cent, bonds of the United States, payable 
 fifteen years after date. He also agreed not to sell the bonds at such a price as would 
 degrade the credit of the American government. 
 
INAUGURATION OF THE TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT AT MARIETTA, OHIO. 
 
JEFFERSON’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 379 
 
 From this line, however, Spain dissented, claiming the Iberville and 
 Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain as the true limit between Louisi¬ 
 ana and her possessions in West Florida; but she was obliged, after 
 fruitlessly protesting, to yield to the decision of her rivals. On the 
 south, by the consent of all, the boundary was the Gulf of Mexico as 
 far west as the mouth of the Sabine. The south-western limit was 
 established along the last named river as far as the thirty-first paral¬ 
 lel; thence due north to Red River; up that stream to the one-hun¬ 
 dredth meridian from Greenwich; thence north again to the Arkan¬ 
 sas ; thence with that river to the mountains; and thence north with 
 the mountain chain to the forty-second parallel of latitude. Thus far 
 all four of the nations were agreed. But the United 'States, Great 
 Britain, and France—again coinciding—claimed the extension of the 
 boundary along the forty-second parallel to the Pacific Ocean; and to 
 this extension Spain, for several years, refused her assent; but in the 
 treaty of 1819 her objections were formally withdrawn. In fixing the 
 northern boundary only the United States and‘Great Britain were 
 concerned; and the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods 
 to the Pacific was established as the international line.* 
 
 The purchase of Louisiana was the greatest event of Jefferson’s 
 administration. Out of the southern portion of the new acquisition 
 the Territory of Orleans was organized, with the same limits as 
 the present State of Louisiana; the rest of the vast tract coutinued 
 to be called the Territory of Louisiana. The possession of the 
 Mississippi was no longer a matter of dispute. Very justly did Mr. 
 Livingston say to the French minister as they arose from signing the 
 treaty: “We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our 
 whole lives.” 
 
 Two years previous to these events John Marshall had been 
 nominated and confirmed as chief-justice of the United States. His 
 appointment marks an epoch in the history of the country. In the 
 colonial times the English constitution and common law had pre- 
 
 *See Map VII. The discussion of the boundaries of Louisiana is thus fully given 
 because of the many statements, needlessly contradictory, which have been made on 
 the subject. Between the years 1803 and 1819 there was some ground for controversy, 
 but since the latter date none whatever—except as to the northern line. For all the 
 facts tending to elucidate the subject, see American State Papers; topics: Treaty of 
 Paris, 1763; Definitive Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, 1783 ; Text 
 of the Louisiana Cession, 1803; Boundary Conventions between the United States and 
 Great Britain, 1818 and 1846; Treaty of Washington, 1819. See also Walker’s Statis¬ 
 tical Atlas of the United States; subject: Areas and Political Divisions, pp. 2 and 3; and 
 the American Cyclopcedid; article: Louisiana. 
 
380 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vailed in America, and judicial decisions were based exclusively on 
 precedents established in English courts. When, in 1789, the new 
 republic was organized, it became necessary to modify to a certain 
 extent the principles of jurisprudence and to adapt them to the al¬ 
 tered theory of gov¬ 
 ernment. In some 
 measure this great 
 work was undertak¬ 
 en by Chief-Justice 
 Jay; but he was a 
 great statesman ra¬ 
 ther than a great 
 judge. It remained 
 for Chief-Justice 
 Marshall to estab¬ 
 lish on a firm and 
 enduring basis the 
 noble structure of 
 American law. For 
 thirty-five years he 
 remained in his high 
 office, bequeathing 
 to after times a great 
 number of valuable 
 decisions, in which 
 the principles of the 
 jurisprudence of the United States are set forth with unvarying clear¬ 
 ness and invincible logic. 
 
 The Mediterranean pirates still annoyed American merchantmen. 
 All of the Barbary States—as the Moorish kingdoms of Northern Af¬ 
 rica are called—had adopted the plan of extorting annual tributes 
 from the European nations. The emperors of Morocco, Algiers and 
 Tripoli became especially arrogant. In 1803 the government of the 
 United States despatched Commodore Preble to the Mediterranean to 
 protect American commerce and punish the hostile powers. The ar¬ 
 mament proceeded first against Morocco; but the frigate Philadelphia , 
 commanded by Captain Bainbridge, was sent directly to Tripoli. When 
 nearing his destination, Bainbridge gave chase to a pirate which fled 
 for safety to the batteries of the harbor. The Philadelphia, in close 
 pursuit, ran upon a reef of rocks near the shore, became unmanage¬ 
 able, and was captured by the Tripolitans. The crew and officers 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE MARSHALL. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 381 
 
 were taken; the latter were treated with some respect, but the former 
 were enslaved. The emperor Yusef and his barbarous subjects were 
 greatly elated at their unexpected success. 
 
 In the following February Captain Decatur recaptured the Phil¬ 
 adelphia in a marvelous manner. Sailing from Sicily in a small ves¬ 
 sel called the Intrepid, he came at nightfall in sight of the harbor of 
 Tripoli, where the Philadelphia was moored. The Intrepid, being a 
 Moorish ship which the American fleet had captured, was either un¬ 
 seen or unsuspected by the Tripolitans. As darkness settled on the 
 sea, Decatur steered his course into the harbor, slipped alongside of 
 the Philadelphia, lashed the two ships together, sprang on deck with 
 his daring crew of only seventy-four men, and killed or drove over¬ 
 board every Moor on the vessel. In a moment the frigate Avas fired, 
 for it Avas the purpose to destroy her; then Decatur and his men, es¬ 
 caping from the flames, returned to the Intrepid and sailed out of the 
 harbor amid a storm of balls from the Tripolitan batteries. Not a 
 man of Decatur’s gallant band Avas lost, and only four Avere Avounded. 
 
 In the last of July, 1804, Commodore Preble arrived Avith his 
 fleet at Tripoli and began a blockade and siege Avhich lasted till the 
 following spring. The toAvn Avas frequently bombarded, and several 
 Moorish vessels Avere destroyed; but not even the pounding of Amer¬ 
 ican cannon-balls Avas sufficient to bring Yusef to terms. In the mean¬ 
 time, hoAvever, it Avas ascertained that the services of Hamet, Yusef’s 
 elder brother, the deposed sovereign of Tripoli, might be secured to 
 aid in reducing the barbarians to submission. Hamet was at this time 
 in Upper Egypt, commanding an army of Mamelukes in a Avar against 
 the Turks. To him General William Eaton, the American consul at 
 Tunis, Avas despatched Avith proposals of an alliance against the usurp¬ 
 ing Yusef. Hamet eagerly accepted the overture, and furnished Gen¬ 
 eral Eaton Avith a fine body of Arab cavalry and seventy Greek soldiers. 
 With this force the American commander set out from Alexandria on 
 the 5th of March, 1805. He traversed the Desert of Barca for a thou¬ 
 sand miles, and on the 25th of April reached Derne, one of Yusef’s 
 eastern sea-ports. Yusef himself Avas already approaching Avith an 
 army; and General Eaton found it necessary to storm the town. A 
 division of the American fleet arrived in the harbor at the fortunate 
 moment and aided in the Avork. The place Avas gallantly carried. 
 The assaulting column Avas made up of Arab cavalry, Greek infantry, 
 Tripolitan rebels, and American sailors serving on land! The Stars 
 and Stripes ne\ 7 er before or since Avaved over so motley an assem¬ 
 blage! Yusef, alarmed at the dangers which menaced him by sea 
 
382 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and land, made hasty overtures for peace. His offers were accepted by Mr. 
 Lear, the American consul-general for the Barbary States; and a treaty 
 was concluded on the 4th of June, 1805.* For several years thereafter 
 the flag of the United States was respected in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In the summer of 1804 the country was shocked by the intelligence 
 that Vice-President Burr had killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. As 
 the first term of Mr. Jefferson drew to a close, Burr foresaw that the 
 President would be renominated, and that he himself would not be re¬ 
 nominated. Still, he had his eye on the presidency, and was determined 
 not to be baffled. He therefore, while holding the office of Vice-Presi¬ 
 dent, became a candidate for governor of New York. From that posi¬ 
 tion he would pass to the presidency at the close of Jefferson’s second 
 term. But Hamilton’s powerful influence in New York prevented Burr’s 
 election; and his presidential ambition received a stunning blow. From 
 that day he determined to kill the man whom he pretended to regard as 
 the destroyer of his hopes. He accordingly sought a quarrel with Hamil¬ 
 ton; challenged him; met him at Weehawken, opposite New York, on 
 the morning of the 11th of July, and deliberately murdered him; for 
 Hamilton had tried to avoid the challenge, and when face to face with 
 his antagonist refused to fire. Thus under the savage and abominable 
 custom of dueling the brightest intellect in America was put out in 
 darkness. ' 
 
 In the autumn of 1804 Jefferson was re-elected President. For 
 Vice-President George Clinton of New York was chosen in place of 
 Burr. In the following year that part of the North-western Territory 
 called Wayne county was organized under a separate territorial govern¬ 
 ment with the name of Michigan. In the same spring, Captains Lewis 
 and Clarke, acting under orders of the President, set out from the falls 
 of the Missouri River with a party of thirty-five soldiers and hunters to 
 cross the Rocky Mountains and explore Oregon. Not until November 
 did they reach their destination. For two years, through forests of gigantic 
 pines, along the banks of unknown rivers and down to the shores of the 
 Pacific, did they continue their explorations. After wandering among 
 unheard-of tribes of barbarians, encountering grizzly bears more ferocious 
 than Bengal tigers, escaping perils by forest and flood, and traversing a 
 route of six thousand miles, the hardy adventurers, with the loss of but 
 one man, returned to civilization, bringing new ideas of the vast domains 
 of the West. 
 
 * It is a matter of astonishment that Lear agreed to pay Yusef sixty thousand dollars 
 for the liberation of American slaves: their liberation ought to have been cffnpeBed — 
 and might have been if Lear had said so. 
 
JEFFERSON’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 383 
 
 After the death of Hamilton, Burr fled from popular indignation 
 and sought refuge in the South. At the opening of the next session of 
 Congress he returned to the capital, and presided over the Senate until 
 the expiration of his term of office. Then he delivered his valedictory, 
 went to the West, and, after traveling through several States, took up his 
 residence with an Irish exile named Harman Blannerhassett, who had 
 laid out an estate and built a splendid mansion on an island in the Ohio, 
 just below the mouth of the Muskingum. Here Burr made a wicked 
 and treasonable scheme against the peace and happiness of the country. 
 His plan was to raise a sufficient military force, invade Mexico, wrest that 
 country from the Spaniards, detach the Western and Southern States from 
 the Union, make himself dictator of a South-western empire, and perhaps 
 subvert the government of the United States. For two years he labored 
 to perfect his plans. But his purposes were suspected. In accordance 
 with a proclamation of the President, the military preparations at Blan- 
 nerhassett’s Island were broken up; and in February of 1807 Burr him¬ 
 self was arrested in Alabama and taken to Richmond to be tried on a 
 charge of treason. Chief-Justice Marshall presided at the trial, and Burr 
 conducted his own defence. The verdict was, “ Not guilty, for want of 
 sufficient proof.” But his escape was so narrow that under an assumed 
 name he fled from the country. Returning a few years afterward, he re¬ 
 sumed the practice of law in New York, lived to extreme old age, and 
 died alone in abject poverty. 
 
 During Jefferson’s second administration the country was con¬ 
 stantly agitated by the aggressions of the British navy on American com¬ 
 merce. England and France were engaged in deadly and continuous war. 
 In order to cripple the resources of their enemy, the British authorities 
 struck blow after blow against the trade between France and foreign 
 nations; and Napoleon retaliated with equal energy and vindictiveness 
 against the commerce of Great Britain. The measures adopted by the 
 two powers took the form of blockade—that is, the surrounding of each 
 other’s ports with men-of-war to prevent the ingress and egress of neutral 
 ships. By such means the commerce of the United States, which had 
 grown vast and valuable while the European nations were fighting, was 
 greatly injured and distressed. 
 
 In May of 1806 England declared the whole coast of France from 
 Brest to the Elbe to be in a state of blockade. Neutral nations had no 
 warning. Many American vessels, approaching the French ports, were 
 seized and condemned as prizes; all this, too, while the harbors of France 
 were not actually, but only declared to be, blockaded. In the following 
 November Bonaparte issued a decree blockading the British isles. Again 
 27 
 
384 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the unsuspecting merchantmen of the United States were subjected to 
 seizure, this time by the cruisers of France. In January of the next 
 year the government of Great Britain retaliated by an act prohibiting 
 the French coasting-trade. Every one of these measures was in fla¬ 
 grant violations of the laws of nations. The belligerent powers had 
 no right to take such steps toward each other; as to neutral States, 
 their rights were utterly disregarded; and the nation that suffered 
 most was the United States. 
 
 In addition to these causes of complaint an old crime against 
 international law had, in the mean time, been revived by the Eng¬ 
 lish government, to the great distress of American commerce. At the 
 outbreak of the French and Indian War George II. had issued an edict 
 forbidding the vessels of neutral nations to trade with the colonies of 
 France or the provinces of any other country with which Great Brit¬ 
 ain might be at war. The offences committed under the authority of 
 this arbitrary decree, which was known as the Rule of 1756, had 
 been greatly injurious to the commerce of the colonies, and during 
 Washington’s administration had occasioned many complaints and re¬ 
 monstrances. But in June of 1801, in a treaty between Great Britain 
 and Russia, the former government assented to such a modification of 
 the Rule as rendered it comparatively harmless. The effect of this 
 modification was exceedingly beneficial to neutral nations, especially 
 to America. Between the years 1803 and 1806 the foreign carrying- 
 trade of the United States was increased nearly fivefold, while that of 
 England fell off* in a nearly corresponding ratio. Vexed and morti¬ 
 fied at this result, and caring little for justice if the supremacy of the 
 British merchant-marine could be maintained, the ministry, in the 
 summer of 1805, revived the old edict in full force, and impudently 
 asserted that it was a part of the laic of nations ! The result, as had 
 been clearly foreseen by the English lords of trade who contrived the 
 measure, was that American merchantmen trading largely with the 
 dependencies of France and Spain, were driven from the ocean, and 
 the commerce of the United States shrank suddenly into insignifi¬ 
 cance. 
 
 Finally Great Britain aggravated her injustice by a still more 
 arrogant and unwarrantable procedure. The English theory of citi¬ 
 zenship is, that whoever is born in England remains through life a 
 subject of the British Empire. The privilege of an Englishman to 
 expatriate himself—that is, the right to go abroad, to throw off* his 
 allegiance to the British crown, and to assume the obligations of citi¬ 
 zenship in another nation—is absolutely denied. Under this iron rule 
 of “ once an Englishman, always an Englishman,” the British cruisers 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 385 
 
 were from time to time authorized to search American vessels and to 
 take therefrom all persons suspected of being subjects of Great Brit¬ 
 ain. One of the chief objects had in view in this iniquitous business, 
 was to prevent the Emigration of the Irish to the United States. The 
 impulsive sons of the Emerald Isle, hearing of the free institutions and 
 boundless prospects of America, were flocking hither in great num¬ 
 bers, and something must be done to stop the movement. George III. 
 and his advisers therefore marshaled forth their despotic theory of cit¬ 
 izenship and set it up like a death’s-head at every port of the British 
 Isl es. Inasmuch as every Irishman or Scotchman who ventured on 
 board an American vessel would expose himself to the peril of seizure 
 and impressment, it was, with good reason, believed that not many 
 would take the fearful risk. And the apprehensions of the emigrants 
 were well founded; for all those who had the misfortune to be over¬ 
 taken at sea were, without inquiry, impressed as marines in the Eng¬ 
 lish navy. To crowd the decks of their men-of-war with unwilling 
 recruits, torn from home and friends, was the end which the British 
 king and ministry were willing to reach at whatever sacrifice of na¬ 
 tional honor. Finally to these general wrongs was added a special act 
 of violence which kindled the indignation of the Americans to the 
 highest pitch. 
 
 On the 22d of June, 1807, a frigate, named the Chesapeake which 
 had just sailed out of the bay of the same name, was approached by a 
 British man-of-war, called the Leopard. The frigate was hailed; Brit¬ 
 ish officers came on board as friends, and then, to the astonishment of 
 Commodore Barron, who .commanded the Chesapeake , made a demand, 
 to search the vessel for deserters. The demand was indignantly re¬ 
 fused and the ship cleared for action. But before the guns could be 
 gotten in readiness, the Leopard poured in several destructive broad¬ 
 sides and compelled a surrender. Four men were taken from the- 
 captured ship, three of whom proved to be American citizens; the 
 fourth, who was an actual deserter, was tried by the British naval 
 officers and hanged. The government of Great Britain disavowed 
 the outrage of the Leopard , and promised reparation; but the prom¬ 
 ise was never fulfilled. 
 
 The President at once issued a proclamation forbidding British 
 ships of war to enter the harbors of the United States. Still, there 
 was no reparation; and on the 21st of December Congress passed the 
 celebrated Embargo Act. By its provisions all American vessels 
 were detained in the ports of the United States. The object was, by 
 cutting off commercial intercourse with France and Great Britain, to 
 compel them to recognize the rights of American neutrality. But the- 
 
386 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 measure was of little avail; and after fourteen months the embargo 
 act was repealed.* Meanwhile, in November of 1808, the British 
 government outdid all previous proceedings by issuing an “ order in 
 council,” prohibiting all trade with France and her allies. And Napo¬ 
 leon, not to be outdone, issued his famous “Milan decree,” forbidding 
 all commerce with England and her colonies. Between these outra¬ 
 geous acts of foreign nations and the American embargo, the com¬ 
 merce of the United States was well-nigh crushed out of existence. 
 
 While the country was distracted with these troubles Robert Ful¬ 
 ton was building the first steamboat. This event exercised a vast 
 
 influence on the fu¬ 
 ture development of 
 the nation. It was 
 of the first impor¬ 
 tance to the people 
 of the inland States 
 that their great riv¬ 
 ers should be enliv¬ 
 ened with rapid and 
 regular navigation. 
 This, without the ap¬ 
 plication of steam, 
 was impossible; and 
 this Fulton success¬ 
 fully accomplished. 
 Indeed, the steam¬ 
 boat was the harbin¬ 
 ger of a new era in 
 civilization. Fulton 
 robekt fulton. was an Irishman by 
 
 descent and a Penn¬ 
 sylvanian by birth. His education was meagre and imperfect. In 
 his boyhood he became a painter of miniatures at Philadelphia. His 
 friends sent him to London to receive instruction from Benjamin 
 West; but Ids tastes led him to the useful rather than to the fine 
 arts. From London he went to Paris, where he became acquainted 
 with Chancellor Livingston; and there he conceived the project of 
 applying steam to the purposes of navigation. Returning to New 
 T ork, lie began the construction of a steamboat in East River. When 
 
 The embargo act was the subject of much ridicule. The opponents of the measure 
 spelling the word backward, called it the 0 Grab me act. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 387 
 
 the ungainly craft was completed and brought around to the Jersey 
 side of the city, Fulton invited his friends to go on board and enjoy 
 a trip to Albany. It was the 2d of September, 1807. The incredu¬ 
 lous crowds stood staring on the shore. The word was given, and the 
 boat did not move. Fulton went below. Again the word was given, 
 and this time the boat moved. On the next day the happy company 
 reached Albany. For many years this first rude steamer, called the 
 Clermont , plied the Hudson. The old methods of river navigation 
 were revolutionized. 
 
 But the inventive genius of Fulton was by no means satisfied 
 with the great achievement. For years his thoughts had been busy 
 with another project which was considered by himself of greater value 
 and importance to the future interests of mankind than the steamboat. 
 His object was to produce some kind of an engine, so destructive to 
 ships as to banish naval warfare by making it possible for any one to 
 destroy the most formidable vessels which could be constructed. Finally 
 his plans were matured, and the result was the invention of that sub¬ 
 marine bomb, called the Torpedo, which has played so important a 
 part in the bay and river battles of modern times. This terrible ma¬ 
 chine is as distinctly and certainly the fruit of Fulton’s brain as is 
 steam navigation itself; but the result has hardly met the expectations 
 of the inventor. As early as 1804, having completed the invention at 
 Paris, he offered it successively to the governments of France, Hol¬ 
 land, and Great Britain; but neither nation would accept the patron¬ 
 age of so dangerous an engine. In England a public demonstration 
 of its destructive effects was given in the presence of British states¬ 
 men and men of science.* On the 15th of October, in Walmer Roads, 
 within sight of the residence of William Pitt, the Danish brig Doro¬ 
 thea, which had been given by the government for that purpose, was 
 blown to atoms on the first trial. But, although the success of the 
 torpedo was manifest, the English ministry refused to accept the in¬ 
 vention on the ground that Great Britain, already mistress of the seas, 
 did not need torpedoes, and that their use by other nations would de¬ 
 stroy her supremacy. Logic of habitual selfishness! In 1807, and 
 again in 1810, Fulton offered his invention to the United States, and 
 in the latter year received an appropriation of five thousand dollars 
 for further experiments. Such was the terror inspired by the torpedo 
 that, although it was not very successfully used in the Avar that ensued, 
 the British cruisers Avere notably shy of the American coast, and many 
 a sea-port town Avas saA T ed from destruction. 
 
 * Colonel Congreve, inventor of the “ Congreve Rocket,” was present on the occasion. 
 
388 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Jefferson’s administration drew to a close. The territorial area 
 of the United States had been vastly extended. Burr’s wicked and 
 dangerous conspiracy had come to naught. Pioneers were pouring 
 into the valley of the Mississippi. Explorers had crossed the mount¬ 
 ains of the great West. The woods by the river-shores resounded 
 with the cry of steam. But the foreign relations of the United States 
 were troubled and gloomy. There were forebodings of war. The 
 President, following the example of Washington, declined a third 
 election, and was succeeded in his high office by James Madison of 
 Virginia. For Vice-President George Clinton was re-elected. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 MADISONS ADMINISTRATION, AND WAR OF 1812\ 
 
 J AMES MADISON, fourth President of the United States, was born 
 at King George, Virginia, on the 16th of March, 1751. He was 
 educated first in a private school and afterwards at Princeton College, 
 where he was graduated at the age of twenty. Devoting himself to 
 the profession of the law, he found time for extensive reading and a 
 profound study of morals, metaphysics, and polite literature. From 
 these pursuits^ so congenial to his disposition, his sterling patriotism 
 called him to take an active part in the struggles of the Revolution. 
 In the councils of his own State and afterwards in the Continental 
 Congress his influence was marked and powerful. But of all the pa¬ 
 triot leaders Madison had the calmest and least aggressive spirit. Not 
 by oratory and vehemence of passion, but by philosophy and cogent 
 argument, did he mould the opinions of his fellow-men. It was he 
 who, in 1786, secured the passage by the legislature of Virginia of 
 the resolution, suggested by Washington, calling for a convention of 
 the States at Annapolis—a work which resulted in the formation of 
 the Federal Constitution. Afterwards, with Hamilton and Jay, he 
 defended that great instrument in the Federalist; but with the new 
 division of parties, his views underwent a change and he joined him¬ 
 self with the Jeffersonian school of statesmen. For eight years he 
 held the office of secretary of state; and on the 4th of March, 1809, 
 was inaugurated as Jefferson’s successor in the presidency. He owed 
 his election to the Democratic party, whose sympathy with France 
 and hostility to the policy of Great Britain were well known. Three 
 
31 AI) ISO N’ S AD MIN 1STR A TION. 
 
 389 
 
 days before the new administration came into power, the embargo act 
 was repealed by Congress; but another measure was adopted instead, 
 called the non-intercourse act. By its terms American merchantmen 
 were allowed to go abroad, but were forbidden to trade with Great Brit¬ 
 ain. Mr. Erskine, the 
 British minister, now 
 gave notice that by 
 the 10th of June the 
 “ orders in council,” 
 so far as they affect¬ 
 ed the United States, 
 should be repealed. 
 
 But the British gov¬ 
 ernment disavowed 
 the act of its agent; 
 and the orders stood 
 as before. 
 
 In the following 
 spring the emperor 
 of the French issued 
 a decree authoriz¬ 
 ing the seizure of all 
 American vessels 
 that might approach 
 the ports of France 
 or other harbors held by his troops. But in November of the same 
 year the hostile decree was reversed, and all restrictions on the com-, 
 merce of the United States were removed. If Great Britain had acted 
 with equal liberality and justfce, there would have been no further 
 complaint. But that government, with peculiar obstinacy, adhered to 
 its former measures, and sent ships of war to hover around the Amer¬ 
 ican ports and enforce the odious orders issued in the previous years. 
 
 * It was only a question of time when such insolence would lead to re¬ 
 taliation and war. 
 
 The affairs of the two nations were fast approaching a crisis. It 
 became more and more apparent that the wrongs perpetrated by Great 
 Britain against the United States would have to be corrected by force 
 of arms. That England, after such a career of arrogance, would now 
 make reparation for the outrages committed by her navy was no longer 
 to be hoped for. The ministry of that same George III. with whom 
 the colonies had struggled in the Revolution still directed the affaire 
 
 JAMES MADISON. 
 
390 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the kingdom; from him, now grown old and insane, nothing was 
 to be expected. The government of the United States had fallen 
 completely under control of the party which sympathized with France, 
 while the Federal party, from its leaning toward British interests and 
 institutions, grew weaker year by year. The American people, smart¬ 
 ing under the insults of Great Britain, had adopted the motto of Free 
 Trade and Sailors’ Bights, and for that motto they had made up 
 their minds to fight. The elections, held between 1808 and 1811, 
 showed conclusively the drift of public opinion; the sentiment of the 
 country was that war was preferable to further humiliation and dis¬ 
 grace. 
 
 In the spring of 1810 the third census of the United States was 
 completed. The population had increased to seven million two hun¬ 
 dred and forty thousand souls. The States now numbered seventeen, 
 and several new Territories were preparing for admission into the 
 Union. The resources of the nation were abundant; its institutions 
 deeply rooted and flourishing. But with the rapid march of civilization 
 westward the jealousy of the Red man was aroused, and Indiana Ter¬ 
 ritory was afflicted with an Indian war. 
 
 The Shawnees were the leading tribe in the country between the 
 Ohio and the Wabash. Their chief was the famous Tecumtha, a brave 
 and sagacious warrior; and with him was joined his brother Elkswa- 
 tawa, called the Prophet. The former was a man of real genius; the 
 latter, a vile impostor who pretended to have revelations from the 
 spirit-world. But they both worked together in a common cause; and 
 their plan was to unite all the nations of the North-west Territory in 
 ,a final effort to beat back the whites. When, therefore, in September 
 of 1809, Governor Harrison met the chiefs of several tribes at Fort 
 Wayne, and honorably purchased the* Indian titles to three million 
 acres of land, Tecumtha refused to sign the treaty, and threatened 
 death to those who did. In the year that followed he visited the 
 nations as far south as Tennessee and exhorted them to lay aside their 
 sectional jealousies, in the hope of saving their hunting-grounds. 
 
 Governor Harrison from Vincennes, the capital of the Territory, 
 remonstrated with Tecumtha and the Prophet, held several conferences 
 with them, and warned them of what would follow from their proceed¬ 
 ings. Still, the leaders insisted that they would have back the lands 
 which had been ceded by the treaty of Fort Wayne. The governor 
 stood firm, sent for a few companies of soldiers and mustered the mi¬ 
 litia of the Territory. The Indians began to prowl through the Wa¬ 
 bash Valley, murdering and stealing. In order to secure the country 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 391 
 
 and enforce the terms of the treaty, Harrison advanced up the river 
 to Terra Haute, built a fort which received his own name, passed on 
 to Montezuma, where another block-house was built, and then hastened 
 toward the town of the Prophet, at the mouth of the Tippecanoe. 
 When within a few miles of his destination, Harrison was met by In¬ 
 dian ambassadors, who asked for the appointment of a conference on 
 the following day. Their request was granted; and the American 
 army encamped for the night. The place selected was a piece of high 
 ground covered with oaks. Burnet Creek skirted the encampment on 
 the west. Beyond that, as well as to the east of the oak grove, were 
 prairie marsh-lands covered with tall grass. Before daybreak on the 
 following morning, 7th of November, 1811, the treacherous savages, 
 numbering seven hundred, crept through the marshes, surrounded 
 Harrison’s position and burst upon the camp like demons. But the 
 American militia were under arms in a moment, and fighting in the 
 darkness, held the Indians in check until daylight, and then routed 
 them in several vigorous charges. On the next day the Americans 
 burned the Prophet’s town and soon afterward returned victorious to 
 Vincennes. Tecumtha was in the South at the time of the battle; 
 when he returned and found his people scattered and subdued, he re¬ 
 paired to Canada and joined the standard of the British. 
 
 Meanwhile, the powers of Great Britain and the United States 
 Aad come into conflict on the ocean. On the 16th of May Commo¬ 
 dore Rodgers, cruising in the American frigate President , hailed a 
 vessel off the coast of Virginia. Instead of a polite answer, to his 
 salutation, he received a cannon-ball in the mainmast. Other shots fol¬ 
 lowed, and Rodgers responded with a broadside, silencing the enemy’s 
 guns. In the morning — for it was already dark — the hostile ship 
 was found to be the British sloop-of-war Little Belt. The vessel had 
 been severely though justly punished by the President, having eleven 
 men killed and twenty-one wounded. The event produced great ex¬ 
 citement throughout the country. 
 
 On the 4th of November, 1811, the twelfth Congress of the 
 United States assembled. In the body were many men of marked 
 ability and patriotism. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina now took 
 his seat as a member of the House of Representatives. Henry Clay, 
 already distinguished as a statesman, was chosen speaker. From the 
 first it was seen that war was inevitable. It was impossible for the 
 United States, knowing that more than six thousand American citi¬ 
 zens had been impressed into the British navy, to endure, without dis¬ 
 honor, further injury and insolence. Still, many hoped for peace; and 
 
392 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 the winter passed without decisive measures. The President himself 
 had no disposition and little capacity for war; and his various mes¬ 
 sages to Congress were marked as the productions of a ruler over-cau¬ 
 tious and timid. But not so with the fiery leaders of the Democracy 
 who supported the President’s administration; and notwithstanding 
 the opposition of the Federalists, the war-spirit fired the popular heart. 
 
 In the mean time a transaction was brought to light which cre¬ 
 ated intense excitement and roused the indignation of the whole 
 country. On the night of the 2d of February, 1812, an Irishman, 
 named John Henry, now a naturalized citizen of the United States, 
 called at the President’s mansion and revealed to him the astounding- 
 fact that the ministry of Great Britain, cooperating with Sir James 
 Craig, governor of Canada, had been engaged for some years in a trea¬ 
 sonable scheme to destroy the American Union! Henry bore a letter 
 from Governor Gerry of Massachusetts, and all the documents neces¬ 
 sary to prove the truth of his statements. As early as 1808 the atten¬ 
 tion of the Canadian governor had been called to certain published 
 articles written by Henry against republican governments; and the 
 latter was summoned to Montreal. From him Cram learned of the 
 
 o 
 
 intense hostility of the Federal party to the administration and of the 
 great distress of New England on account of the Embargo and other 
 restrictions on commerce. These facts were communicated to the 
 British ministry, and Sir James promised Henry an annual salary of 
 five thousand dollars to return to Boston and become the secret agent 
 of England and Canada. 
 
 The purpose of the conspirators was to aggravate the popular dis¬ 
 content of New England until the Eastern States should be induced 
 to secede from the Union and join themselves with Canada. But 
 with the repeal of the Embargo and the subsidence of political excite¬ 
 ment, Henry found the depravity of his business only equaled by its 
 unprofitableness. The people of Massachusetts were in no humor to 
 be led into a rebellion. Sir James Craig died, and Henry, unsuc¬ 
 cessful and unpaid, went, in 1811, to London and presented his claim 
 for thirty thousand pounds to the English ministers. By them he was 
 well received; but the payment of thirty thousand pounds for services 
 which had resulted in nothing was reckoned a serious matter; and 
 Henry was sent back to get whatever remuneration he could from Sir 
 George Prevost, the successor of Craig in the governorship of Canada. 
 Enraged at his treatment, the spy, instead of returning to Montreal, 
 sailed to Boston, and going thence to Washington divulged the whole 
 conspiracy to the President, surrendered his correspondence with 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 393 
 
 Craig, and received therefor fifty thousand dollars out of the secret 
 service fund of the United States. The disclosure of this perfidious 
 business contributed greatly to consolidate public sentiment against 
 Great Britain and to strengthen the hands of the war party in ■ the 
 government. 
 
 On the 4th of April, 1812, an act was passed by Congress laying 
 an embargo for ninety days on all British vessels within the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the United States. But Great Britain would not recede from 
 her hostile attitude. One of the ministers declared that it was “ an 
 ancient and well-established right” of His Majesty’s government to 
 impress British seamen on board of neutral vessels. Before the final 
 decision of England was known, Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was, 
 on the 8th of April, admitted into the Union. The area of the new 
 commonwealth was more than forty-one thousand square miles; and 
 her population, according to the census of 1810, had reached seventy- 
 seven thousand. 
 
 On the 4th of June a resolution declaring war against Great 
 Britain was passed by the House of Representatives. On the 17th of 
 the same month the bill received the sanction of the Senate; and two 
 days afterward the President issued his proclamation of war. Vigor¬ 
 ous preparations for the impending conflict were made by Congress. 
 It was ordered to raise twenty-five thousand regular troops and fifty 
 thousand volunteers. At the same time the several States were re¬ 
 quested to call out a hundred thousand militia for the defence of the 
 coasts and harbors. A national loan of eleven million dollars was au¬ 
 thorized. Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts was chosen first major- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 Great Britain was already prepared for the conflict. Her armies 
 in Europe were immense and thoroughly equipped. Napoleon just at 
 this time began his famous invasion of Russia, and the allied nations 
 of Western Europe were for a while relieved of their apprehensions. 
 The British navy amounted to no less than a thousand and thirty-six 
 vessels. Of these there were two hundred and fifty-four ships-of-tlie- 
 line, not one of which carried less than seventy-four guns of large 
 caliber. At various stations on the American coast there were eighty- 
 five war-vessels bearing the English flag, and ready for immediate ac¬ 
 tion. Lake Ontario was commanded by four British brigs carrying an 
 aggregate of sixty guns. The Canadian armies of England amounted 
 to seven thousand five hundred regulars and forty thousand militia. 
 Back of all these forces and armaments stood the seemingly inexhaust¬ 
 ible British treasury, with the ambitious young Lord Castlereagh and 
 
394 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his associate ministers to disburse it. As to George III., old age and 
 incurable insanity had at last prevailed to displace him from the throne 
 and to make the Prince Regent, George IV., the actual sovereign. In 
 all that appertained to preparation and readiness for the conflict the 
 
 United States bore no comparison to the pow¬ 
 erful foe. 
 
 The first movement of the war was made 
 by General William Hull, governor of Michi¬ 
 gan Territory. A force of twelve hundred Ohio 
 volunteers, together with three hundred regu¬ 
 lars, was organized at Dayton for the purpose 
 of overawing the Indians on the north-western 
 frontier. Hull was also authorized, should cir¬ 
 cumstances warrant such a course, to invade and 
 conquer Canada. The march began on the 1st 
 of June; and it was a full month before the 
 6cene of hull’s campaign, army, toiling through more than two hundred 
 
 miles of forests, reached the western extremity 
 of Lake Erie. Arriving at the Maumee, Hull despatched his baggage, 
 stores and official papers in a boat to Detroit. But the British forces 
 posted at Malden had already been informed of the declaration of 
 hostilities; and Hull’s boat with every thing on board was captured. 
 Nevertheless, the American army pressed on to Detroit, where early 
 in July the general received despatches informing him of the dec¬ 
 laration of Avar, and directing him to proceed with the invasion of 
 Canada. On the 12th of the month he crossed the Detroit River to 
 SandAvich Avith the avowed purpose of capturing Malden. And this 
 might easily have been accomplished had not the inefficiency of the 
 general checked the enthusiasm of the army. 
 
 Meanwhile, the neAvs came that the American post at Mackinaw 
 had been surprised and captured by the British. This intelligence fur¬ 
 nished Hull a good excuse for recrossing the river to Detroit. Here 
 he received intelligence that Major Brush, sent fonvard by Governor 
 Meigs of Ohio, Avas approaching Avith reinforcements and supplies. 
 Major Van Horne Avas accordingly despatched Avith a body of troops 
 to meet Brush at the River Raisin and conduct him safely to Detroit. 
 But Tecumtha, assisted by some British troops, had cut the lines of 
 communication and laid an ambush for Van Horne’s forces in the 
 neigborhood of BroAvnstoAvn. The scheme Avas successful; Van Horne 
 ran into the trap and Avas severely defeated. Any kind of energetic 
 movement on Hull’s part Avould have retrieved the disaster; but en- 
 
MADISON'S AI)MIN 1STR A T10N. 
 
 395 
 
 ergy was altogether wanting; and when, three days later, Colonel Mil¬ 
 ler with another detachment attacked and routed the savages with great 
 loss, he was hastily recalled to Detroit. The officers and men lost all 
 faith in the commander, and there were symptoms of a mutiny. 
 
 In the mean time, General Brock, the governor of Upper Can¬ 
 ada, arrived at Malden and took command of the British forces. Act¬ 
 ing in conjunction with Tecumtha, he crossed the river, and on the 
 16th of August advanced to the siege of Detroit. The Americans in 
 their trenches outside of the fort were eager for battle, and stood with 
 lighted matches awaiting the order to fire. When the British were 
 within five hundred yards, to the amazement of both armies Hull 
 hoisted a white flag over the fort. There was a brief parley and then 
 a surrender, perhaps the most shameful in the history of the United 
 States. Not only the army in Detroit, but all the forces under Hull’s 
 command, became prisoners of war. The whole of Michigan Territory 
 was surrendered to the British. At the capitulation the American offi¬ 
 cers in rage and despair stamped the ground, broke their swords and 
 tore off their epaulets. The whole country was humiliated at the dis¬ 
 graceful business. The government gave thirty British prisoners in 
 exchange for Hull, and he was brought before a court-martial charged 
 with treason, cowardice and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was 
 convicted on the last two charges, and sentenced to be shot; but the 
 President, having compassion on one who had served the country in 
 the Revolution, pardoned him. After all the discussions that have 
 been had on Hull and his campaign, the best that can be said pf him 
 is that he was a patriot and a coward. 
 
 About the time of the fall of Detroit, Fort Dearborn, on the 
 present site of Chicago, was invested by an army of Indians. The 
 garrison was feeble, and the commandant proposed a surrender on 
 condition that his men should retire without molestation. This was 
 agreed to; but the savages, finding that the garrison had destroyed 
 the whisky that was in the fort, fell upon the retreating soldiers, killed 
 some of them, and distributed the rest as captives. On the day after 
 the capitnlation Fort Dearborn was burned to the ground. 
 
 These losses, however, were more than compensated by the brill¬ 
 iant achievements of the young American navy. From the first it 
 became apparent that the war was destined to be a conflict on the sea- 
 coast and the ocean. The United States would act for the most part 
 on the defensive, and Great Britain would rely chiefly upon her navy. 
 The condition of both nations was such as to provoke this sort of war¬ 
 fare. On the one side was the British armament superior to any other 
 
396 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ' « 
 
 iu the world, and on the other an exposed sea-coast, a few fortresses, 
 and a navy of almost insignificant proportions. From the beginning, 
 the policy of the American government had been distinctly declared 
 against a standing army and a regular fleet. It was held that a citizen 
 soldiery and an extemporized flotilla would be sufficient for every 
 emergency. A large military establishment, said the defenders of the 
 American system, is enormously expensive and a constant menace to 
 civil liberty. After the Revolution, especially during the administra¬ 
 tion of Jefferson, the military spirit was discouraged and the defenses 
 of the country fell into decay. In 1808 the whole coast of Maine 
 was defended only by Fort Sumner, at Portland. New Hampshire had 
 but one fortress, a half ruined block-house at Portsmouth. On the 
 coast of Massachusetts four fortifications — one at Cape Ann, one at 
 Salem, one at Marblehead, and Fort Independence in Boston Harbor 
 furnished the only security against attack. In the neighborhood of 
 Newport, Rhode Island, there were six works, some of importance, 
 others insignificant. New London, Connecticut, was defended by Fort 
 Trumbull, a block-house of considerable strength but in bad repair. 
 On Governor’s Island, in New York Harbor, stood Fort Jay, which, 
 together with the Battery at the south end of Manhattan and some 
 slight fortifications on Ellis’s and Bedloe’s Islands, furnished a toler¬ 
 able protection. The whole coast of New Jersey lay open to invasion. 
 On Mud Island in the Delaware, a short distance below Philadelphia, 
 stood the formidable Fort Mifflin, an old British fort of the Revolu¬ 
 tion. Not less in strength and importance was Fort McHenry on the 
 Patapsco, commanding the approach to Baltimore. Annapolis was 
 defended by Fort Severn, then only a group of breast-works. Nor¬ 
 folk, Virginia, relied for protection on a fort of the same name and 
 another work, called Fort Nelson, on the opposite side of Elizabeth 
 River. In Charleston Harbor stood Fort Johnson on James’s Island, 
 Fort Pinckney in front of the city, and Fort Moultrie of Revolutionary 
 fame. Upon these scattered fortifications and the terror inspired by 
 Fulton’s torpedoes the Americans must depend for the defense of a 
 coast-line reaching from Passamaquoddy to the St. Mary’s. 
 
 Such was the attitude and relative strength of the two nations. 
 Great, therefore, was the astonishment of the world when the American 
 sailors, not waiting to be attacked, went forth without a tremor to 
 smite the mistress of the seas. And greater the admiration when a 
 series of brilliant victories declared for the flag of the Republic. 
 During the summer of 1812 the navy of the United States won a just 
 and lasting renown. On the 19th of August the frigate Constitution , 
 
MADISON’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 397 
 
 commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, overtook the British ship-of-war 
 Guerriere , off the coast of Massachusetts. Captain Dacres, who com¬ 
 manded the British vessel, had been boasting of his prowess and send¬ 
 ing challenges to American vessels to come out and fight; now there 
 was an opportunity to exhibit his valor. The vessels manoeuvred for 
 a while, the Constitution closing with her antagonist, until at half-pistol 
 shot she poured in a terrible broadside, sweeping the decks of the 
 Guerriere and deciding the contest. Dacres, after losing fifteen men 
 killed and sixty-three wounded, struck his colors and surrendered bis 
 shattered vessel as a prize. The American loss was seven killed and 
 an equal number wounded. On the following morning the Guerriere, 
 being unmanageable, was blown up; and Hull returned to port with 
 his prisoners and spoils. 
 
 On the 18th of October the American sloop-of-war Wasp, of 
 eighteen guns, under command of Captain Jones, fell in with a fleet 
 of British merchantmen off the coast of Virginia. The squadron was 
 under convoy of the brig Frolic, of twenty-two guns, commanded by 
 Captain Whinyates, who put his vessel between the merchantmen and 
 the Wasp, and prepared for battle. A terrible engagement ensued, 
 lasting for three-quarters of an hour. Both ships became nearly help¬ 
 less; but the Wasp closed with her foe and delivered a final broadside 
 which completely cleared the deck. The American crew then boarded 
 Hie Frolic and struck the British flag; for not a seaman was left above 
 deck to perform that service. Scarcely had the smoke of the conflict 
 cleared away when the Poictiers, a British seventy-four gun ship, bore 
 down upon the scene, captured the Wasp and retook the wreck of the 
 Frolic. But the fame of Captain Jones’s victory was not dimmed by 
 the catastrophe. 
 
 Seven days afterward, Commodore Decatur, commanding the 
 frigate United States, of forty-four guns, attacked the British frigate 
 Macedonia, of forty-nine guns. The battle was fought a short distance 
 west of the Canary Islands. After a two hours’ engagement, in which 
 the United States was but little injured, the Macedonia surrendered, 
 with a loss in killed and wounded of more than a hundred men. On 
 the 12th of December the ship Essex, commanded by Captain Porter, 
 captured the Nocton, a British packet, having on board fifty-five thou¬ 
 sand dollars in specie. More important still was the capture of the 
 frigate Java by the Constitution, now under command of Commodore 
 Bainbridge. On the 29th of December the two vessels met off San 
 Salvador, on the coast of Brazil. A furious battle ensued, continuing 
 for two hours. Every mast was torn from the British ship, and her 
 
398 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 hull was burst with round shot. The deck was made slippery with the 
 blood of more than two hundred killed and wounded seamen. The 
 vessel was reduced to a wreck before her flag was struck; then the 
 crew and passengers, numbering upward of four hundred, were trans¬ 
 ferred to the Constitution, and the hull of the Java was burned at sea. 
 The news of these successive victories roused the enthusiasm of the 
 people to the highest pitch. In the course of the year two hundred 
 and fifty British ships, carrying three thousand sailors, and cargoes of 
 immense value, were captured by the American cruisers. Filled with 
 exultation, the people of the United States saw in these naval tri¬ 
 umphs the omens of complete overthrow to the arrogant dominion of 
 Britain on $he seas. The nations of Europe heard in astonishment. 
 France was well pleased; for in these humiliations of her great enemy 
 she witnessed the fulfillment of Napoleon’s prophecy when, at the 
 cession of Louisiana, he exclaimed with delight: “ There! I have this 
 day given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later hum¬ 
 ble her pride!” For a while the English themselves were well-nigh 
 paralyzed. The British newspapers burst forth raging and declared 
 that the time-honored flag of England had been disgraced “by a piece 
 of striped bunting flying at the mast-heads of a few fir-built frigates, 
 manned by a handful of * * * * and outlaws!” And the com¬ 
 
 ment, though stated in unpleasant language, was true! 
 
 During the summer and autumn of 1812 military operations 
 were active, but not decisive, on the Niagara frontier. The troops 
 in that quarter, consisting of the New York militia, a few regulars, 
 and recruits from other States, were commanded by General Stephen 
 Van Rensselaer. The first movement of the Americans was made 
 against Queenstown, on the Canada side of the river. On the 13th 
 of October a thousand men were embarked in boats and landed on 
 the western shore. They were resisted at the water’s edge, and 
 Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, the leader, was wounded. The 
 subordinate officers led the charge, and the British batteries on the 
 heights of Queenstown were carried. The enemy’s forces were ral¬ 
 lied, however, by General Brock, and returning to the charge, were 
 a second time repulsed. General Brock fell mortally wounded. The 
 Americans began to entrench themselves, and orders were sent across 
 the river for the remaining division, twelve hundred strong, to has¬ 
 ten to the rescue. But the American militia on the eastern shore de¬ 
 clared that they were there to defend the United States, and not to 
 invade Canada. There they stood all afternoon, while their comrades 
 at Queenstown were surrounded by the British, who came with strong 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 393 
 
 reinforcements from Fort George. The Americans bravely defended 
 themselves until they had lost a hundred and sixty men in killed and 
 wounded, and were then obliged to surrender. General Van Rensse¬ 
 laer, disgusted at the conduct of the New York militia, resigned his 
 command, and was succeeded by General 
 Alexander Smyth of Virginia. 
 
 This officer began his career as com¬ 
 mander by issuing two proclamations that 
 would have put to shame the bulletins of 
 Bonaparte or Caesar. He declared that in 
 a few days his standards should be planted 
 in the strongholds of Canada. After cross¬ 
 ing Niagara and conquering the British do¬ 
 minions, he would annex them to the United 
 States! His predecessors in command of the 
 army had been popular men, but wholly des¬ 
 titute of skill or experience in the art of war! 
 
 The soldiers of the “Army of the Center,” as 
 he called the militia under his authority, had 
 now a general who would lead them to cer¬ 
 tain victory! Every man who performed a 
 gallant action should have his name immortalized in the annals of his 
 country! And so on for quantity and style. 
 
 In the mean time the Americans, numbering between four and 
 five thousand, had been rallied at Black Rock, a few miles north 
 of Buffalo. From this point, on the 28th of November, a company 
 was sent across to the Canada shore; but instead of following with 
 a stronger detachment, General Smyth ordered the advance party to 
 return. A few days afterward another crossing was planned, and the 
 Americans were already embarked, when they were commanded to 
 return to winter quarters. The militia became mutinous. Smyth was 
 charged with cowardice and disloyalty, and after three months was 
 deposed from his command. Thus ended the military operations of 
 1812. In the autumn Madison was re-elected President; the choice 
 for Vice-President fell on Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. In the 
 debates at the opening of Congress the policy of the administration 
 was strongly condemned by the opponents of the war; but vigorous 
 measures were adopted for strengthening the army and navy. 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 MILKS 4 
 
 8 
 
 Vi IB 
 
 THE NIAGARA FRONTIER, 1812 . 
 
CHAPTER L. 
 
 WAR OF 1812.—CONTINUED. 
 
 I N the beginning of 1813 the American army was organized in three 
 divisions: the Army of the North, commanded by General 
 Wade Hampton, to operate in the country of Lake Champlain; the 
 Army of the Centre, under direction of the commander-in-chief, to 
 resume offensive movements on the Niagara frontier and Lake Ontario; 
 the Army of the West, under command of General Winchester, 
 who was soon superseded by General Harrison. Early in January the 
 latter division, made up of various detachments of militia from the 
 Western States, moved toward the head of Lake Erie to regain the 
 ground lost by Hull in the previous summer. On the 10th of the month 
 the American advance, composed of eight hundred men under Winchester, 
 reached the rapids of the Maumee. A body of British and Indians was 
 posted at Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, thirty miles from Winchester’s 
 camp. A detachment of Americans pressed forward, attacked the enemy, 
 captured the town, encamped there, and on the 20th of the month were 
 joined by Winchester with the main division. 
 
 Two days afterward the Americans were suddenly assaulted by a 
 force of a thousand five hundred British and Indians under command of 
 General Proctor. A severe battle was fought, each party losing nearly 
 three hundred men. The British were checked, and for a while the issue 
 was doubtful; but General Winchester, having been taken by the enemy, 
 advised his forces to capitulate under a pledge of protection given by 
 Proctor and his subordinates. As soon as the surrender was made the 
 British general set off at a rapid rate to return to Malden. The American 
 wounded were left to the mercy of the savages, who at once began their 
 work with tomahawk and scalping-knife and torch. The two houses 
 into which most of the wounded had been crowded were fired, while the 
 painted barbarians stood around and hurled back into the flames whoever 
 attempted to escape. The rest of the prisoners were dragged away through 
 untold sufferings to Detroit, where they were ransomed at an enormous 
 price. This shameful campaign has fixed on the name of Proctor the 
 indelible stain of infamy. 
 
 General Harrison, on hearing the fate of Winchester’s division, fell 
 back from the Maumee, but soon returned and built Fort Meigs. Here 
 
WAR OF 12 . 
 
 401 
 
 he remained until the 1st of May, when he was besieged by a force of two 
 thousand British and savages, led by Proctor and Tecumtha. Meanwhile, 
 General Clay with twelve hundred Kentuckians advanced to the relief of 
 the fort. The besiegers were attacked in turn, and at the same time the 
 besieged made a successful sally. But for the mistake of Colonel Dudley, 
 who allowed his detachment to be cut off and captured, the British would 
 have been completely routed. Again the American prisoners were treated 
 with savage cruelty until Tecumtha, not Proctor, interfered to save them. 
 In a few days the Indians deserted in large numbers, and Proctor, be¬ 
 coming alarmed, abandoned the siege, and on the 9th of May retreated to 
 Malden. 
 
 For nearly three months active operations were suspended. In the 
 latter part of July, Proctor and Tecumtha with a force of nearly four 
 thousand men returned to Fort Meigs, now commanded by General Clay. 
 For several days the British general beat about the American position, 
 attempting to draw out the garrison. Failing in that, he filed off with 
 about half his forces and attacked Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky. 
 This place was defended by a hundred and sixty men under command of 
 Colonel Croghan, a stripling but twenty-one years of age. But he ex¬ 
 hibited the skill and bravery of a veteran. To the enemy’s summons, 
 accompanied with a threat of massacre in case of refusal, he answered that 
 the fort should be held as long as there was a man left alive within it. 
 For a while the British cannonaded the ramparts without much effect, 
 and on the 2d of August advanced to carry the place by storm. Croghan 
 filled his only gun with slugs and grape-shot, and masked it in such a 
 position as to rake the ditch from end to end. The British, believing the 
 fort to be silenced, crowded into the fatal trench, and were swept away 
 almost to a man. The repulse was complete. Proctor, fearing the ap¬ 
 proach of Harrison, raised the siege and returned to Malden. 
 
 At this time the waters of Lake Erie were commanded by a British 
 squadron of six vessels carrying sixty-three guns. It was seen that a suc¬ 
 cessful invasion of Canada could only be made by first gaining control of 
 the lake. This serious undertaking was imposed on Commodore Oliver 
 H. Perry of Rhode Island—a young man not twenty-eight years old who 
 had never been in a naval battle. His antagonist, Commodore Barclay, 
 was a veteran from the sea-service of Europe. With indefatigable energy 
 Perry directed the construction of nine ships, carrying fifty-four guns, and 
 was soon afloat on the lake. On the 10th of September the two fleets met 
 a short distance north-west of Put-in Bay. Careful directions had been 
 given by both commanders for the impending battle; both were resolved 
 
 on victory. The fight was begun by the American squadron, Perry’s 
 26 
 
402 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 flag-ship, the Lawrence, leading the attack. His principal antagonist was 
 the Detroit, under the immediate command of Barclay. The British guns, 
 being longer, had the wider range, and were better served. The Lawrence 
 was ruined; nearly all the cannon were dismounted, masts torn away, 
 sailors killed. 
 
 Between the other ships the battle was proceeding in a desultory 
 way without much damage; but Barclay’s flag-ship was almost as nearly 
 wrecked as the Lawrence. Perceiving with quick eye how the battle stood, 
 the dauntless Perry, himself unhurt, put on his uniform, seized his ban¬ 
 ner, got overboard into an open boat, passed within pistol-shot of the 
 enemy’s ships, a storm of balls flying around him, and transferred his flag 
 to the Niagara. A shout went up from the American fleet; it was the 
 signal of victory. With the powerful Niagara still uninjured by the 
 battle, Perry bore down upon the enemy’s line, drove right through 
 the midst, discharging terrible broadsides right and left. In fifteen 
 minutes the work was done; the British fleet was helpless. Perry with 
 a touch of pride returned to the bloody deck of the Lawrence, and there 
 received the surrender. And then he sent to General Harrison this 
 famous despatch: “We have met the enemy, and they are ours—two 
 ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop.” 
 
 This victory gave the Americans full control of Lake Erie. Both 
 Proctor and Harrison awaited the result. If Barclay should win, Proctor 
 would invade Ohio; if Perry should prove victorious, Harrison would 
 conquer Canada. For the Americans the way was now opened. On the 
 27th of September Harrison’s army was embarked at Sandusky Bay and 
 landed near Malden. The disheartened British retreated to Sandwich, 
 the Americans following hard after. From the latter place Proctor con¬ 
 tinued his retreat to the river Thames, and there faced about to fight. 
 The battle-field was well chosen by the British, whose lines extended 
 from the river to a swamp. Here, on the 5th of October, they were 
 attacked by the Americans led by Harrison and General Shelby, governor 
 of Kentucky. In the beginning of the battle, Proctor, being a coward, 
 ran. The British regulars sustained the attack with firmness, and were 
 only broken when furiously charged by the Kentuckians under Colonel 
 Richard M. Johnson. When that part of the field was won, the Ameri¬ 
 cans wheeled against the Indians, who, to the number of fifteen hundred, 
 lay hidden in the swamp to the west. Here the battle raged fiercely. 
 Tecumtha had staked all on the issue. For a while his war-whoop 
 sounded above the din of the conflict. Presently his voice was heard no 
 longer, for the great chieftain had fallen. At the same time Colonel 
 Johnson was borne away severely wounded. The savages, appalled by 
 
WAR OF ’ 12 . 
 
 403 
 
 the death of their leader, fled in despair. The victory was complete. So 
 ended the campaign in the West. The Indian confederacy was broken 
 to pieces. All that Hull had lost was regained. Michigan was recovered. 
 Ohio no longer feared invasion. Perry swept Lake Erie with his fleet. 
 Canada was prostrated before the victorious army of Harrison. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Creeks of Alabama, kinsmen of the Shawnees, had 
 taken up arms. In the latter part of August, Fort Mims, forty miles 
 north of Mobile, was surprised by the savages, who appeased their thirst 
 for blood with the murder of nearly four hundred people; not a woman 
 or child was spared, and but few of the men in the fort escaped. The 
 news of the massacre spread consternation throughout the Southwest. 
 The governors of Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi Territory made 
 immediate preparations for invading the country of the Creeks. The 
 Tennesseeans, under command of General Jackson, were first to the res¬ 
 cue. A detachment of nine hundred men, led 
 by General Coffee, reached the Indian town 
 of Tallushatchee, attacked it, burned it, left 
 not an Indian alive. On the 8th of Novem- 
 - ber a battle was fought at Talladega, east of 
 the Coosa, and the savages were defeated with 
 severe losses. In the latter part of the same 
 month another fight occurred at Autosse, on 
 the south bank of the Tallapoosa, and again 
 the Indians were routed. 
 
 During the winter Jackson’s troops, un¬ 
 provided and starving, became mutinous and 
 were going home. But the general set the 
 example of living on acorns ; then rode before 
 the rebellious line and threatened with death the first mutineer who 
 stirred. And no man stirred. On the 22d of January, 1814, the battle 
 of Emucfau was fought on the west bank of the Tallapoosa. The valor 
 of the Tennesseeans again gave them the victory. At Tohopeka, called 
 by the whites the Horseshoe Bend, the Creeks made their final stand. 
 Here the Tallapoosa winds westward and northward, enclosing a large 
 tract of land in the form of a peninsula with a narrow neck. This posi¬ 
 tion the Indians had fortified with more than their usual skill. The 
 whites, led by General Coffee, surrounded the place, so as to prevent 
 escape by crossing the river. On the 27th of March, the main body 
 of whites under General Jackson stormed the breastworks and drove 
 the Indians into the bend. There, huddled together without the pos¬ 
 sibility of escape, a thousand Creek warriors, with the women and 
 
 SCENE OF THE CREEK WAR, 
 1813 - 14 . 
 
404 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 children of the tribe, met their doom. The desperate Red men asked 
 no quarter, and none was given. The few chiefs who were still abroad 
 sent in their submission; the spirit of the nation was completely 
 broken. 
 
 On the 25th of April, 1813, General Dearborn, commanding the 
 (Army of the Centre, embarked his forces at Sackett’s Harbor, near the 
 eastern extremity of Lake Ontario. The object of the expedition was to 
 capture Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. Here was the most im¬ 
 portant depot of supplies in British America. The American fleet under 
 Commodore Chauncey had already obtained the mastery of the lake, so 
 that Dearborn’s passage was unopposed. On the 27th of the month a 
 force of seventeen hundred men, commanded by General Pike, was 
 landed within two miles of Toronto. At the water’s edge they were 
 met by the British. The Americans drove the enemy for a mile and 
 a half, stormed a battery, and rushed forward to carry the main de¬ 
 fences. At that moment the British magazine blew up with terrific 
 violence. Tliq assaulting column was covered with the debris of the 
 explosion. Two hundred men were killed or wounded. General Pike 
 was fatally injured, but lived long enough to hear the shout of vic¬ 
 tory; for the Americans, first shocked and then maddened by the 
 calamity, made a furious charge and. drove the British out of the town. 
 General Sheaffe with a body of regulars escaped; the rest were taken 
 prisoners. Property to the value of a half million dollars was secured 
 to the victors. 
 
 While this movement was taking place the enemy made a descent 
 on Sackett’s Harbor. By the withdrawal of the American forces that 
 post had been left exposed. The British succeeded in destroying a quan¬ 
 tity of stores; but General Brown rallied the militia, and drove back the 
 assailants with considerable loss. Meanwhile, the victorious troops at 
 Toronto had re-embarked and crossed the lake to the mouth of the 
 Niagara. On the 27th of May the Americans, led by Generals Chandler 
 and Winder, crossed the river and stormed Fort George, on the Canada 
 shore. The British hastily destroyed their posts along the Niagara and 
 retreated to Burlington Bay, at the western extremity of the lake. The 
 Americans, pursuing them thither, were attacked in the night, but suc¬ 
 ceeded in repulsing the enemy with loss. 
 
 During the months of summer military operations on the frontier 
 were suspended. After the battle of the Thames, General Harrison had 
 transferred his forces to Buffalo, and then resigned his commission. On 
 account of old age and ill health General Dearborn also withdrew from 
 the service, and was succeeded by General Wilkinson. The next cam- 
 
WAR OF 12 . 
 
 405 
 
 paign, which was planned by General Armstrong, secretary of war, em¬ 
 braced the conquest of Montreal. For this purpose the Army of the 
 Centre, under Wilkinson, was ordered to join the Army of the North at 
 some convenient point on the St. Lawrence. The enterprise was attended 
 with many difficulties and not a few delays. Not until the 5th of Novem¬ 
 ber did a force of seven thousand men, embarking from the mouth of 
 French Creek, twenty miles north of Sackett’s Harbor, sail down the St. 
 Lawrence for the conquest of Montreal. Parties of British, Canadians 
 and Indians, gathering on the northern bank of the river, constantly im¬ 
 peded the progress of the expedition. General Brown was landed with a 
 considerable force to disperse these bands or drive the enemy into the 
 interior. On the 11th of the month a severe battle was fought at a 
 place called Chrysler’s Field. Neither party gained a victory, but the 
 advantage remained with the British. The Americans, having lost 
 nearly three hundred men in the fight, passed down the river to St. 
 Regis, on the southern shore, where the forces of General Hampton 
 were expected from PJattsburg to form a junction with Wilkinson’s 
 command. But Hampton did not stir ; and the project of attacking 
 Montreal had to be abandoned. The Americans then went into winter 
 quarters at Fort Covington, at the fork of Salmon River, nine miles 
 from St. Regis. 
 
 In the mean time, the British on the Niagara frontier rallied and 
 advanced against Fort George. General McClure, the commandant, 
 abandoned the place on the approach of the enemy, but before retreating 
 burned the Canadian town of Newark. It cost the people of Northern 
 New York dearly; for the British and Indians crossed the river, cap¬ 
 tured Fort Niagara, and fired the villages of Youngstown, Lewiston and 
 Manchester. On next to the last day of the year Black Rock and Buffalo 
 were laid in ashes. 
 
 In the sea-fights of 1813 victory generally declared for the British. 
 During the year both nations wasted much blood and treasure on the 
 ocean. Off the coast of Demarara, on the 24th of February, the sloop- 
 of-war Hornet , commanded by Captain James Lawrence, fell in with the 
 British brig Peacock. The ships were equally matched. A terrible battle 
 of fifteen minutes ensued, and the Peacock , already sinking, struck her 
 colors. While the Americans were trying to transfer the conquered crew 
 the ocean yawned and the brig sank out of sight. Nine British sailora 
 Mid three of Lawrence’s men were sucked down in the whirlpool. 
 
 On returning to Boston the command of the Chesapeake —one of 
 the best frigates in the American navy—was given to Lawrence, and 
 again he put to sea. Before sailing he received a challenge from Captain 
 
406 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Broke, of the British frigate Shannon, to come out and fight him. Law¬ 
 rence ought not to have accepted the banter; for his equipments were 
 incomplete and his crew ill assorted, sick and half mutinous. But he was 
 young, and the favorite of the nation; fired with applause, he went un¬ 
 hesitatingly to meet his foe. Eastward from Cape Ann the two vessels 
 met on the first day of June. The battle was obstinate, brief, dreadful. 
 In a short time every officer who could direct the movements of the 
 Chesapeake was either killed or wounded. The brave young Lawrence 
 was struck with a musket-ball, and fell dying on the bloody deck. 
 As they bore him down the hatchway he gave in feeble voice his last 
 heroic order—ever afterward the motto of the American sailor—“ Don’t 
 give up the ship !” The British were already leaping on deck, and 
 the flag of England was hoisted over the shattered vessel. Both 
 ships were charnel-houses; but the Shannon was still able to tow her 
 prize into the harbor of Halifax. There the bodies of Lawrence and 
 Ludlow, second in command, were tenderly and honorably buried by the 
 British. , 
 
 The next important naval battle was fought on the 14th of August 
 between the American brig Argus and the British Pelican. The former 
 vessel had made a daring cruise about the coasts of England, capturing 
 more than twenty ships. Herself overtaken by the Pelican, she was 
 obliged, after a severe conflict, to surrender. On the 5th of September 
 another British brig, the Boxer , cruising off the coast of Maine, was over¬ 
 hauled and captured by the American Enterprise, commanded by Captain 
 Burrows. The fight raged for three-quarters of an hour, when the Boxer 
 surrendered. Captain Blyth, the British commander, was killed; and 
 the gallant Burrows received a mortal wound. The bodies of both 
 officers were taken to Portland and buried side by side with military 
 honors. All summer long Captain Porter in the frigate Essex cruised in 
 the South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. For five months he was the 
 terror of British merchantmen in those broad waters. On the 28th of 
 the following March, while the Essex was lying in the harbor of Val¬ 
 paraiso, she was beset, contrary to the law of nations, by two powerful 
 British vessels, the Phoebe and the Cherub. The Essex had been crippled 
 by a storm, and was anchored in neutral waters; in that condition Captain 
 Porter fought his two antagonists until nearly all of his men were killed 
 or wounded; then struck his colors and surrendered. Notwithstanding 
 the losses sustained by the American navy, privateers continued to scour 
 the ocean and capture British vessels. 
 
 From honorable warfare the naval officers of England stooped to 
 marauding along the sea-shore. Early in the year a squadron entered 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF 14 
 
 407 
 
 Delaware Bay and anchored before Lewistown. A requisition on the in¬ 
 habitants to supply the fleet with provisions was met with a brave refusal. 
 A threat to burn the town was answered with a message of defiance. A 
 bombardment of twenty-four hours’ duration followed; the houses were 
 much injured, and the people fled, carrying their property to places of 
 safety. Other British men-of-war entered the Chesapeake and burned 
 several villages on the shores of the bay. At the town of Hampton, just 
 above the Roads, the soldiers and marines perpetrated such outrages as 
 covered their memory with shame. Commodore Hardy, to whom the 
 blockade of the New England harbors had been assigned, behaved with 
 more humanity; even the Americans recognized and praised his honor¬ 
 able conduct. The year 1813 closed without decisive results. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 THE CAMPAIGNS OF ’H. 
 
 I N the spring of 1814 another invasion of Canada was planned. The 
 Niagara frontier was the scene of operations; but there was much 
 delay in bringing the scattered detachments of General Wilkinson’s army 
 into proper position. Not until the 3d of July did Generals Scott and 
 Ripley, at the head of three thousand men, cross the Niagara from Black 
 Rock to Fort Erie. This post, garrisoned by two hundred British, was 
 surrendered without a battle. On the following day the Americans ad¬ 
 vanced down the river-bank in the direction of Chippewa village. Before 
 reaching that “place, however, they were met by the British army, led by 
 General Riall. On the evening of the 5th a severe battle was fought on 
 the plain just south of Chippewa River. The Americans, led on by 
 Generals Scott and Ripley and the gallant Major Jessup, won the day; 
 but their loss amounted to three hundred and thirty-eight men. The 
 British veterans, after more than five hundred of their number had fallen, 
 were driven into their entrenchments. 
 
 General Riall retreated first to Queenstown and afterward to Bur¬ 
 lington Heights. General Scott, commanding the American right, was 
 detached to watch the movements of the enemy. On the evening of the 
 25th of July he found himself suddenly confronted by Riall’s army, 
 strongly posted on the high grounds in sight of Niagara Falls. Here 
 
408 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was fought the hardest battle of the war. A man less courageous and 
 self-confident than Scott would have retreated; but with extraordinary 
 daring he held his own until reinforced by the other divisions of the 
 army. The British reserves were also rapidly brought into action. 
 Twilight faded into darkness, and still the battle was undecided. A de¬ 
 tachment of Americans, getting upon the British rear, captured General 
 Riall and his entire statf. Still the contest raged. The key to the 
 enemy’s position was a high ground crowned with a battery. Calling 
 Colonel James Miller to his side and pointing to the hill, General Brown 
 said, “ Colonel, take your regiment and storm that battery.” “ I’ll try, 
 sir,” was the answer of the gallant officer; and he did take it, and held 
 it against three desperate assaults of the British. In the last charge 
 General Drummond, who led, was wounded, and the royal army, num¬ 
 bering fully five thousand, was driven from the field witli a loss of eight 
 hundred and seventy-eight men. The Americans engaged in the battle 
 numbered about four thousand; their loss in killed, wounded and miss¬ 
 ing was more than eight hundred. 
 
 After this battle of Niagara, or Lundy’s Lane, as it is sometimes 
 called, General Ripley took command of the American forces; for Generals 
 Brown and Scott were both wounded. It was deemed prudent to fall 
 back to Fort Erie. To that place General Gaines crossed over from 
 Buffalo, and being the senior officer, assumed command of the army. 
 Very soon General Drummond received reinforcements, moved forward, 
 and on the 4th of August invested Fort Erie. The siege continued for 
 ten days, and then the British attempted to storm the works, but were 
 driven back with severe losses. But the enemy was reinforced and the 
 siege resumed. A regular and destructive bombardment was kept up by 
 the British, and was answered by the Americans with equal energy. On 
 the 28th of August General Gaines was injured by the explosion of a 
 shell and obliged to relinquish his command. General Brown, though 
 still suffering from the wound received at Niagara, was again called to 
 direct the defences of the fort. On the 17th of September a sortie was 
 ordered, and the advanced works of the British were gallantly carried. 
 At the same time news arrived that the American general Izard was ap¬ 
 proaching from Plattsburg with strong reinforcements. Alarmed at the 
 threatening aspect of affairs, the British raised the siege and retreated to 
 Fort George. On the 5th of November Fort Erie was evacuated and 
 destroyed by the Americans, who then recrossed the Niagara and went 
 into winter quarters at Black Rock and Buffalo. So ended the war in 
 the country between Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
 
 The w inter of 1813-14 w r as passed by the Army of the North at 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF ’14. 
 
 409 
 
 French Mills, afterward called Fort Covington. In the latter part of 
 February General Wilkinson advanced his forces to Plattsburg, and in 
 the following month began an invasion of Canada. At La Colie, on the 
 west bank of the Sorel, he encountered a force of the enemy, made an im¬ 
 prudent attack and was defeated. Falling back to Plattsburg, he was 
 superseded by General Izard. How that officer marched to the relief of 
 General Brown at Fort Erie has already been narrated. The remaining 
 division of the northern army, fifteen hundred strong, was left under com¬ 
 mand of General Macomb at Plattsburg. At this time the American 
 flotilla on Lake Champlain was commanded by Commodore MacDonough. 
 For the purpose of destroying this fleet and obtaining control of the lake, 
 the British general Prevost advanced into Northern New York at the 
 head of fourteen thousand men, and at the same time ordered Commodore 
 Downie to ascend the Sorel with his fleet. 
 
 The invading army reached Plattsburg without opposition. Com¬ 
 modore MacDonough’s squadron lay in the bay. On the 6th of Septem¬ 
 ber General Macomb retired with his small but courageous army to the 
 south bank of the Saranac, which skirted the village. On came the 
 British, entered the town, and attempted to cross the river, but were 
 driven back. For four days they renewed their efforts; the Americans 
 had torn up the bridges, and a passage could not be effected. The British 
 fleet was now ready for action, and a general battle by land and water 
 was planned for the 11th. Prevost’s army, arranged in three columns, 
 was to sweep across the Saranac and carry Macomb’s position, while 
 Downie’s powerful flotilla was to bear down on MacDonough. The 
 naval battle began first, and was obstinately fought for two hours and a 
 half. At the end of that time Downie and many of his officers had been 
 killed; the heavier British vessels were disabled and obliged to strike 
 their colors. The smaller ships escaped; for the American brigs were 
 so badly crippled that pursuit could not be made. Nevertheless, the 
 victory on the lake was complete and glorious. The news was carried 
 ashore, where the Americans were bravely contesting the passage of the 
 river against overwhelming numbers. At one ford the British column 
 succeeded in crossing; but the tidings from the lake fired the militia with 
 ardor; they made a rush, and the enemy was driven back. Prevost, after 
 losing nearly two thousand five hundred men and squandering two and a 
 half million dollars in a fruitless campaign, retired precipitately to Canada. 
 The ministry of England, made wise by the disasters of this invasion, 
 began to devise measures looking to peace. 
 
 In the country of the Chesapeake the scenes of the previous year 
 were renewed by the British. Late in the summer Admiral Cochrane 
 
410 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 arrived off the coast of Virginia with an armament of twenty-one vessels. 
 General Ross with an army of four thousand veterans, treed from service 
 in Europe, came with the fleet. The American squadron, commanded 
 by Commodore Barney, was unable to oppose so powerful a force. The 
 enemy’s flotilla entered the Chesapeake with the purpose of attacking 
 Washington and Baltimore. The larger division of the British fleet 
 sailed into the Patuxent, and on the 19th of August the forces of General 
 Ross were landed at the town of Benedict. Commodore Barney was 
 obliged to blow up his vessels and take to the shore. From Benedict the 
 British advanced against Washington. At Bladensburg, six miles north¬ 
 east of the capital, they were met, on the 24th of the month, by the 
 militia and the marines under Barney. Here a battle was fought. The 
 undisciplined militia behaved badly. Barney’s seamen were overpowered 
 by the British, and himself taken prisoner. The news of the defeat was 
 rapidly borne to Washington. The President, the cabinet officers and 
 the people betook themselves to flight, and Ross marched unopposed into 
 the city. He had been ordered by his superiors to use the torch, and the 
 work of destruction was accordingly begun. All the public buildings ex¬ 
 cept the Patent Office were burned. The beautiful but unfinished Capitol 
 and the President’s house were left a mass of blackened ruins. Many 
 private edifices were also destroyed; but General Ross, himself a humane 
 man, did less than he was ordered to do.* 
 
 Five days after the capture of Washington, a portion of the British' 
 fleet, ascending the Potomac, reached Alexandria. The inhabitants of 
 that town, in order to avoid the fate of the capital, purchased the forbear¬ 
 ance of the enemy by the surrender of twenty-one ships, sixteen thousand 
 barrels of flour and a thousand hogsheads of tobacco. Baltimore redeemed 
 herself more bravely. Against that city, after the capture of Washington, 
 General Ross proceeded with his army and fleet. Meanwhile, the militia, 
 to the number of ten thousand, had gathered under command of General 
 Samuel Smith, a Revolutionary veteran. On the 12th of September the 
 British were landed at North Point, at the mouth of the Patapsco; and 
 the fleet began the ascent of the river. The land-forces, after marching 
 about halfway to Baltimore, were met by the Americans under General 
 Strieker. A skirmish ensued in which General Ross was killed; but 
 Colonel Brooks assumed command of the invading army, and the march 
 continued. When approaching the city, the British came upon the Amer¬ 
 ican lines and were brought to a halt by a severe cannonade. General 
 
 * An excuse for this outrageous barbarism was found in the previous conduct of the 
 Americans, who, at Toronto and other places on the Canadian frontier, had behaved buS 
 little better. 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF T4. 
 
 411 
 
 Strieker, however, ordered hie men to fall back to a second line of 
 defences, from which they gave the enemy a permanent check. 
 
 Meanwhile, the British squadron had ascended the Patapsco and 
 begun the bombardment of Fort McHenry, at the entrance to the har¬ 
 bor. From sunrise of the 13th until after midnight the guns of the 
 fleet poured a tempest of shot and shells upon the fortress.* At the 
 end of that time the soldiers of the garrison were as full of spirit and 
 the works as strong as at the beginning. It was plain that the Brit¬ 
 ish had undertaken more than they could accomplish. Disheartened 
 and baffled, they ceased to fire. The land-forces retired from before 
 the American entrenchments and re-embarked. The siege of Balti¬ 
 more was at an end. 
 
 During the summer of 1814 two expeditions were made against 
 the British and Indians of the North-west. In May a force of two 
 hundred men ascended the Mississippi from St. Louis and took post 
 at Prairie du Chien, a short distance above the mouth of the Wiscon¬ 
 sin. The object was to overawe the hostile Winnebagoes and Chip- 
 pewas by establishing an outpost in their territory. But before the 
 fort was well begun a force of six hundred Canadians and Indians in¬ 
 vested the place, and on the 17th of July compelled the detachment 
 to surrender. The more important expedition was directed against 
 the British fortress and depot of stores at Mackinaw. A regiment 
 of six hundred men, commanded by Colonel Croghan, famous for his 
 heroism at Sandusky, marched northward in midsummer from De¬ 
 troit. Some vessels of Perry’s fleet accompanied the land forces as a 
 convoy; but the movement was slow, and Mackinaw was not reached 
 until the 4th of August. Finding the defences of the place too high 
 and strong to be injured by his guns Croghan ordered an assault, 
 which was made with spirit, but repulsed. The enterprise was then 
 abandoned, with no further injury to the British than the destruc¬ 
 tion of some supplies and shipping in Georgian Bay. 
 
 New England did not escape the ravages of war. On the 9th 
 and 10th of August the village of Stonington, in the south-eastern 
 corner of Connecticut, was bombarded by Commodore Hardy; but 
 the British, attempting to land, were beaten back by the militia. 
 The fisheries of the New England coast were for the most part bro¬ 
 ken up. The salt-works at Cape Cod escaped only by the payment 
 of heavy ransoms. All the principal harbors from Maine to Dela- 
 
 * During the night of the bombardment Francis S. Key, detained on board a British 
 ship and watching the American flag over Fort McHenry—seen at intervals by the glare 
 of rockets and the flash of cannon—composed The Star-spangled Banner. 
 
412 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ware were under a rigorous blockade, and the foreign commerce of 
 the Eastern States was totally destroyed. The beacons in the light¬ 
 houses were allowed to burn out, and a general gloom settled over 
 the country. 
 
 From the beginning many of the people of New England had 
 opposed the war. Their interests centred in ships and factories; the 
 former were captured at sea, and the latter came to a stand-still. 
 Industry was paralyzed. The members of the Federal party cried out 
 against the continuance of the contest. The legislature of Massachu¬ 
 setts advised the calling of a convention. The other Eastern States 
 responded to the call; and on the 14th of December the delegates 
 assembled at Hartford. The objects of the convention were not very 
 clearly expressed; but opposition to the war and the policy of the 
 administration was the leading principle. _ The leaders of the Dem¬ 
 ocratic party, who supported the war-policy of the government, did 
 not hesitate to say that the purposes of the assembly were disloyal 
 and treasonable. Be that as it may, the convention ruined the Fed¬ 
 eral party. After remaining in session with closed doors for nearly 
 three weeks, the delegates published an address more moderate and 
 just than had been expected; and then adjourned. But little hope 
 of political preferment remained for those who participated in the 
 Hartford convention. 
 
 During the progress of the war the Spanish authorities of Flor¬ 
 ida sympathized with the British. In the month of August a de¬ 
 tachment of the enemy’s fleet was allowed by the commandant of 
 Pensacola to use that post for the purpose of fitting out an expedition 
 against Fort Bowyer, commanding the entrance to the bay of Mobile, 
 On the 15th of September the latter post was attacked, but the assail¬ 
 ants were driven off. General Jackson, who at that time commanded 
 the American forces in the South, remonstrated with the Spaniards 
 against this violation of neutrality, but received no satisfaction. Jack- 
 son, whose way it was to mete out summarv justice to offenders, marched 
 a force against Pensacola, stormed the town and drove the British out 
 of Florida. This was the beginning of the last campaign of the war. 
 
 After the taking of Pensacola, General Jackson returned to his 
 headquarters at Mobile. There he learned that the British were mak¬ 
 ing formidable preparations for the conquest of Louisiana. Repairing 
 at once to New Orleans, he assumed control of the city, declared mar¬ 
 tial law, mustered the militia, and adopted the most vigorous meas¬ 
 ures for repelling the invasion. From La Fitte, chief of a band of 
 smugglers in the Bay of Barataria, he obtained information of the 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 14 . 
 
 413 
 
 enemy’s plans. The British army, numbering twelve thousand, came 
 in a fleet of fifty vessels from Jamaica. Sir Edward Packenham, broth¬ 
 er-in-law of the duke of Wellington, was commander of the invading 
 forces. On the 10th of December the squadron entered the outlet of 
 Lake Borgne, sixty miles north-east of New Orleans. Four days af¬ 
 terward a flotilla of gun-boats which had been placed to guard the 
 lake was captured by the British, but not until a severe loss had been 
 inflicted on the enemy. 
 
 On the 22d of the month Packenham’s advance reached the 
 Mississippi nine miles below the city. A detachment was sent to the 
 western bank of the river, but this operation was checked by a counter 
 movement on the part of the Americans. On the night of the 23d 
 General Jackson sent a schooner down the Mississippi to bombard the 
 British camp, while at the same time he and General Coffee advanced 
 with two thousand Tennessee riflemen to attack Packenham’s camp 
 in front. After a bloody assault Jackson was obliged to retire, the 
 enemy losing most in the engagement. On the following day Jackson 
 fell back and took a strong position along the canal, four miles below 
 the city. Packenham advanced, and on the 28th cannonaded the 
 American position with but little effect. On New Year’s day the 
 attack was renewed. The heavy guns of the British had now been 
 brought into position; but the Americans easily held their ground, and 
 the enemy was again driven back. Packenham now made arrange¬ 
 ments to lead his whole army in a grand assault on the American lines. 
 
 Jackson was ready. Earthworks had been constructed, and a 
 long line of cotton-bales and sand-bags thrown up for protection. On 
 the morning of the memorable 8th of January the British moved for¬ 
 ward. They went to a terrible fate. The battle began with the light 
 of early morning, and was ended before nine o’clock. Packenham 
 hurled column after column against the American position, and col¬ 
 umn after column was smitten with irretrievable ruin. Jackson’s men, 
 behind their breastworks, were almost entirely secure from the enemy’s 
 fire, while every discharge of the Tennessee and Kentucky rifles told 
 with awful effect on the exposed veterans of England. Packenham, 
 trying to rally his men, was killed; General Gibbs, second in com¬ 
 mand, was mortally wounded. General Keene fell disabled; only 
 General Lambert was left to call the shattered fragments of the army 
 from the field. Never was there in a great battle such disparity of 
 losses. Of the British fully seven hundred were killed, fourteen hun¬ 
 dred wounded, and five hundred taken prisoners. The American loss 
 amounted to eight killed, and thirteen wounded. 
 
414 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 After the battle Jackson granted a truce for the burial of the 
 British dead. That done, General Lambert recalled the detachment 
 from the west bank jf the river and retired with his ruined army into 
 Lake Borgne. At Fort Bowyer he received the news of peace. 
 Jackson marched into New Orleans with his victorious army, and was 
 received with unbounded enthusiasm. Such, so far as operations by 
 land w T ere concerned, was the close of the war. On the ocean hostili¬ 
 ties lingered until spring. On the 20th of February the American 
 frigate Constitution , cruising off Cape St. Vincent, caught sight of two 
 hostile vessels, gave chase, and after a severe fight captured them. 
 They proved to be British brigs — the Cyane, of thirty-six guns, and 
 the Levant, of eighteen. On the 23d of March the American Hornet, 
 commanded by Captain Biddle, ended the conflict by capturing the 
 British Penguin off the coast of Brazil. 
 
 Already a treaty of peace had been made and ratified. Both na¬ 
 tions had long desired such a result. In the summer of 1814 Amer¬ 
 ican commissioners were sent to Ghent, in Belgium, and were there 
 met by Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn and William Adams, ambas¬ 
 sadors of Great Britain. The agents of the United States were John 
 Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell and 
 Albert Gallatin. Several months were spent in negotiations; and on 
 the 24th of December, 1814, a treaty was agreed to and signed. In 
 England the news was received with deep satisfaction; in the United 
 States, with a delight bordering on madness. Before the terms of 
 settlement could be known, the people broke forth in universal jubilee. 
 Nobody stopped to inquire whether the treaty was good or bad, hon¬ 
 orable or dishonorable. The Federalists found abundant reason for 
 rejoicing that a war which they had persistently opposed as impolitic 
 and unjust, Avas at an end. The Democrats sent up a double huzza, 
 shouting first for Jackson’s victory and afterward for peace. Nor 
 could the country well be blamed for rejoicing that a conflict which 
 had cost the United States a thousand six hundred and eighty-three 
 vessels and more than eighteen thousand sailors, was ended. The 
 war-cloud rolled away like an incubus from the public mind. The 
 long blockaded, half-rotten shipping of New England was decked with 
 flags and streamers, and in one day the dock-yards were ringing with 
 the sound of saw and hammer. On the 18th of February the treaty 
 was ratified by the Senate of the United States, and peace was publicly 
 proclaimed. It was in the interim between the conclusion of the treaty 
 and the reception of the news in the United States that the battle of New 
 Orleans was fought. A telegraph would have saved all that bloodshed. 
 
 There never was a more absurd treaty than that of Ghent. Its 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF T4. 
 
 415 
 
 only significance was that Great Britain and the United States, having 
 been at war, agreed to be at peace. Not one of the distinctive issues 
 to decide which the war had been undertaken was settled or even men¬ 
 tioned. Of the impressment of American seamen not a word was said. 
 The wrongs done to the commerce of the United States were not re¬ 
 ferred to. The rights of neutral nations were left as undetermined as 
 before. Of “ free trade and sailors’ rights,” which had been the battle- 
 cry of the American navy, no mention was made. The principal articles 
 of the compact were devoted to the settlement of unimportant bounda • 
 ries and the possession of some petty islands in the Bay of Passama- 
 quoddy. There is little doubt, however, that at the time of the treaty' 
 Great Britain gave the United States a private assurance that impress¬ 
 ment and the other wrongs complained of by the Americans should be 
 practiced no more. For the space of sixty years vessels bearing the flag 
 of the United States have been secure from such insults as caused the war 
 of 1812. Another advantage gained by America was the recognition of 
 her naval power. It was no longer doubtful that American sailors were 
 the peers in valor and patriotism of any seamen in the world. It was 
 no small triumph for the Republic that her flag should henceforth be 
 honored on every ocean. 
 
 At the close of the conflict the country was burdened with a 
 debt of a hundred million dollars. The monetary affairs of the na¬ 
 tion were in a deplorable condition. The charter of the Bank of the 
 United States expired in 1811, and in the following years the other 
 banks of the country were obliged to suspend specie payment. The 
 people were thus deprived of the currency necessary for the transac¬ 
 tion of business. Domestic commerce was paralyzed by the want of 
 money', and foreign trade destroyed by the enemy’s fleet. In the year 
 after the close of the war a bill was passed by Congress to recharter 
 the Bank of the United States. The measure being objectionable, the 
 President interposed his veto; but in the following session the bill 
 was again passed in an amended form. The capital was fixed at thir¬ 
 ty-five million dollars. The central banking-house was established at 
 Philadelphia, and branches were authorized at various other cities. 
 On the 4th of March, 1817, the new financial institution went into 
 operation; and the business and credit of the country were thereby 
 greatly' improved. Meanwhile, the United States had been engaged 
 in a foreign war. 
 
 During the conflict with Great Britain the Algerine pirates re 
 aewed their depredations on American commerce. As soon as the treaty 
 of Ghent was concluded the government of the United States ordered 
 Commodore Decatur, commanding a fleet of nine vessels, to proceed to 
 
416 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 fixe Mediterranean and chastise the Barbary sea-robbers into submission. 
 On the 17th of June, Decatur, cruising near Gibraltar, fell in with the 
 Principal frigate of the Algerine squadron, and after a severe fight of 
 twenty minutes compelled the Moorish ship to surrender. Thirty ot the 
 piratical crew, including the admiral, were killed, and more than four 
 hundred taken prisoners. On the 19th Decatur captured another frigate, 
 bearing twenty guns and a hundred and eight men. A few days after¬ 
 ward he sailed into the Bay of Algiers, and dictated to the humbled and 
 terrified dey the terms of a treaty. The Moorish emperor was obliged to 
 release his American prisoners without ransom, to relinquish all claims to 
 tribute, and to give a pledge that his ships should trouble American mer¬ 
 chantmen no more. Decatur next sailed against Tunis and Tripoli, com¬ 
 pelled both of these states to give pledges of good conduct, and to pay 
 large sums for former violations of international law. From that day 
 until the present the Barbary powers have had a wholesome dread of the 
 American flag. 
 
 The close of Madison’s troubled administration was signalized by 
 the admission of Indiana—the smallest of the Western States—into the 
 Union. The new* commonwealth, admitted in December, 1816, came 
 with an area of nearly thirty-four thousand square miles, and a popula¬ 
 tion of ninety-eight thousand. About the same time was founded the 
 Colonization Society of the United States. Many of the most distin¬ 
 guished men in America became members of the association, the object 
 of which was to provide somewhere in the world a refuge for free persons 
 of color. Liberia, on the western coast of Africa, was finally selected as 
 the seat of the proposed colony. A republican form of government was 
 established there, and immigrants arrived in sufficient numbers to found 
 a flourishing negro State. The capital was named Monrovia, in honor of 
 James Monroe, who, in the fall of 1816, was elected as Madison’s suc¬ 
 cessor in the presidency. At the same time Daniel D. Tompkins of New 
 York was chosen Vice-President. 
 
 CHAPTER L11. 
 
 MONROE’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 I N its political principles the new administration was Democratic. The 
 policy of Madison was adopted by his successor. But the stormv 
 times of Madison gave place to many years of almost unbroken peace 
 The new President was a native of Virginia; a man of great talents anr' 
 
MONROE'S A I)M I NIST IIA T10N. 
 
 417 
 
 accomplishments. He had been a Revolutionary soldier, a member of 
 the House of Representatives; a senator; governor of Virginia; envoy 
 to France; minister to England; secretary of state under Madison. The 
 members of the new cabinet were—John Quincy Adams, secretary of state ; 
 William H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury; John C. Calhoun, secre¬ 
 tary of war; William Wirt, attorney-general. The animosities and party 
 strifes of the previous years were in a measure forgotten. Statesmen of ail 
 parties devoted their energies to the payment of the national debt. It was 
 a herculean task; but commerce revived; the government was economic¬ 
 ally administered; population increased; wealth flowed in; and in a few 
 years the debt was honestly paid. 
 
 In the first summer of Monroe’s administration the attention of 
 the United States was directed to the little kingdom of ITayti in the 
 northern part of St. Domingo. Christophe, the sovereign of the 
 country, was anxious to secure from America a recognition of Hay- 
 tian independence; for he feared that Louis XVIII., the restored 
 Bourbon king of France, would reclaim Flayti as a part of the French 
 empire. The President met the overtures of Christophe with favor, and 
 an agent was sent out in the frigate Congress to conclude a treaty of 
 commerce with the kingdom. But the Haytian authorities refused to 
 negotiate with an agent who was not regularly accredited as a minister 
 to an independent state; and the mission resulted in failure and dis¬ 
 appointment. 
 
 In September of the same year an important treaty was con¬ 
 cluded with the Indian nations of what was formerly the Northwestern 
 Territory. The tribes mostly concerned were the Wyandots, Dela¬ 
 wares, Senecas, and Shawnees; but the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Pot- 
 tawattamies were also interested in the treaty. The subject discussed 
 was the cession, by purchase and otherwise, of various tracts of land, 
 mostly in Ohio. The Indian title to about four millions of acres, em¬ 
 bracing the valley of the Maumee, was extinguished by the payment 
 to the tribes concerned of fourteen thousand dollars in cash. Besides 
 this, the Delawares were to receive an annuity of five hundred dollars; 
 while to the Wyandots, Senecas, Shawnees and Ottawas was guaran¬ 
 teed the payment of ten thousand dollars annually forever. The 
 Chippewas and Pottawattamies received an annuity of three thousand 
 three hundred dollars for fifteen years. A reservation of certain tracts, 
 amounting in the aggregate to about three hundred thousand acres, 
 was made by the Red men with the approval of the government. For 
 it was believed that the Indians, living in small districts surrounded 
 with American farms and villages, would abandon barbarism for the 
 
 27 
 
418 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 habits of civilized life. But the sequel proved that the men of the 
 woods had no aptitude for such a change. 
 
 In December of 1817 the western portion of Mississippi Terri¬ 
 tory was organized as the State of Mississippi and admitted into the 
 Union. The new State contained an area of forty-seven thousand 
 square miles, and a population of sixty-five thousand souls. At the 
 same time the attention of the government was called to a nest of 
 buccaneers who had established themselves on Amelia Island, off the 
 north-eastern coast of Florida. One Gregor McGregor, acting under 
 a commission from the revolutionarv authorities of New Granada and 
 Venezuela, had put himself at the head of a band of adventurers, 
 gathered mostly from Charleston and Savannah, and fortified the island 
 as a rendezvous of slave-traders and South American privateers. It 
 was thought by the audacious rascals that the well-known sympathy 
 of the United States for the Spanish American republics south of the 
 Isthmus of Darien would protect them from attack. They accord¬ 
 ingly proclaimed a blockade of St. Augustine and proceeded With their 
 business as though there was no civilized power in the world. But 
 the Federal government took a different view or the matter. An 
 armament was sent against the pirates, and the lawless establishment 
 was broken up. Another rendezvous of the same sort, on the island 
 of Galveston, off the coast o J Texas, was also suppressed. 
 
 In the first year of Monroe’s administration the question of inter¬ 
 nal improvements began to be much agitated. The territorial vastness 
 of the country made it necessary to devise suitable means of communi¬ 
 cation between the distant parts. Without railroads and canals it was 
 evident that the products of the great interior could never reach a 
 market. Had Congress a right to vote money to make the needed 
 improvements? Jefferson and Madison had both answered the ques¬ 
 tion in the negative. Monroe held similar views; and a majority of 
 Congress voted against the proposed appropriations. In one instance, 
 however, a bill was passed appropriating the means necessary for the 
 construction of a national road across the Alleghanies, from Cumber¬ 
 land to Wheeling. The question of internal improvements was then 
 referred to the several States; and New York took the lead by con¬ 
 structing a splendid canal from Buffalo > Albany, a distance of three 
 hundred and sixty-three miles. The cost of this important work was 
 more than seven and a half million dollars, and the eight years of 
 Monroe’s administration were occupied in completing it. 
 
 In the latter part of 1817 the Seminole Indians on the frontiers of 
 Georgia and Alabama became hostile. Some bad negroes and treacher- 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 419 
 
 ous Creeks joined the savages in their depredations. General Gaines, 
 commandant of a post on Flint River, was sent into the Seminole 
 country, but after destroying a few villages his forces were found in¬ 
 adequate to conquer the Red men. General Jackson was then ordered 
 to collect fr m the adjacent States a sufficient army and reduce the 
 Seminoles to submission. Instead f * Rowing his directions, that 
 stern and s 1 willed man mustered a thousand riflemen from West 
 Tennessee, and in the spring of 1818 overran the hostile country with 
 little opposition. The Indians were a " aid to fight the man whom 
 they had named the Big Knife. 
 
 While engaged in this expedition against the Seminoles, Jackson 
 entered Florida and took possession of the Spanish post at St. Mark’s. 
 He deemed it necessary to do so in order to succeed in suppressing 
 the savages. The Spanish troops stationed at St. Mark’s were removed 
 to Pensacola; and two Englishmen, named Arbuthnot and Ambrister, 
 who fell into Jackson’s hands, were charged with inciting the Semi¬ 
 noles to insurrection, tried by a court-martial, and hanged. Jackson 
 then advanced against Pensacola, captured the town, besieged and took 
 the fortress of Barancas, at the entrance to the bay, and sent the Span¬ 
 ish authorities to Havana. These summary proceedings excited much 
 comment throughout the country. The enemies of General Jackson 
 condemned him in unmeasured terms; but the President and Con¬ 
 gress justified his deeds. A resolution of censure, introduced into the 
 House of Representatives, was voted down by a large majority. The 
 king of Spain complained much; but his complaint was unheeded. 
 Seeing that the defence of such a province would cost more than it 
 was worth, the Spanish monarch then proposed to cede the territory 
 to the United States. For this purpose negotiations were opened at 
 Washington City; and on the 22d of February, 1819, a treaty was 
 concluded by which East and West Florida and the outlying islands 
 were surrendered to the American government. In consideration of 
 the cession the United States agreed to relinquish all claim to the ter¬ 
 ritory of Texas and to pay to American citizens, for depredations com¬ 
 mitted by Spanish vessels, a sum not exceeding five million dollars. 
 By the same treaty the eastern boundary of Mexico was fixed at the 
 River Sabine. 
 
 The year 1819 was noted for a great financial crisis—the first of 
 many that have occurred to disturb and distress the country. With 
 the reorganization of the Bank of he United States in 1817, the im¬ 
 proved facilities for credit gave rise to many extravagant speculations, 
 generally conceived in dishonesty and carried on by fraud. The great 
 
420 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 branch bank at Baltimore was especially infested by a band of unscru¬ 
 pulous speculators who succeeded, in connivance with the officers, in 
 withdrawing from the institution fully two millions of dollars beyond 
 its securities. President Cheves, however, of the superior Board of 
 Directors, adopted a policy which exposed the prevailing rascality, 
 and by putting an end to the system of unlimited credits, gradually 
 restored the business of the country to a firmer basis. But, for the 
 time being, financial affairs were thrown into confusion; and the 
 Bank of the United States itself was barely saved from suspension 
 and bankruptcy. 
 
 Monroe’s administration was noted for the great number of new 
 members which were added to the Union. In 1818, Illinois, the 
 twenty-first State, embracing an area of more than fifty-five thousand 
 square miles, was organized and admitted. The population of the 
 new commonwealth was forty-seven thousand. In December of the 
 following year Alabama was added, with a population of a hundred 
 and twenty-five thousand, and an area of nearly fifty-one thousand 
 square miles. About the same time Arkansas Territory was organ¬ 
 ized out of the southern portion of the Territory of Missouri. Early 
 in 1820 the province of Maine, which had been under the jurisdic- 
 d let ion of Massachusetts since 1652, was separated from that govern¬ 
 ment and admitted into the Union. At the time of admission the 
 population of the new State had reached two hundred and ninety- 
 eight thousand; and its territory embraced nearly thirty-two thou¬ 
 sand square miles. In August of 1821 the great State of Missouri, 
 with an area of sixty-seven thousand square miles, and a population 
 of seventy-four thousand, was admitted as the twenty-fourth member 
 of the Union; but the admission was attended with a political agita¬ 
 tion so violent as to threaten the peace of the country. 
 
 The bill to organize Missouri as a territory was brought forward 
 in February of 1819. The institution of slavery had already been 
 planted there, and the question was raised in Congress whether the 
 new State should be admitted with the existing system of labor, or 
 whether by congressional action slave-holding should be prohibited. 
 On motion of James Tallmadge of New York a clause was inserted in 
 the territorial bill forbidding any further introduction of slaves into 
 Missouri and granting freedom to all slave-children on reaching the 
 age of twenty-five. The bill as thus amended became the organic 
 law of the territory. A few days afterwards when Arkansas was 
 presented for territorial organization, John W. Taylor of New York 
 moved the insertion of a clause similar to that in the Missouri bill ; 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 421 
 
 but the proposed amendment was voted down after a hot debate. 
 Taylor then made a motion that hereafter, in the organization of ter¬ 
 ritories out of the Louisiana purchase, slavery should be interdicted 
 in all that part north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty 
 minutes. This proposition was also lost after a very excited discus¬ 
 sion. Meanwhile, Tallmadge’s amendment to the Missouri bill was 
 defeated in the Senate, and as a consequence both the new territories 
 were organized without restrictions in the matter of slavery. 
 
 When the bill to admit Missouri as a State was finally, in Jan¬ 
 uary of 1820, brought before Congress, the measure was opposed by 
 those who had desired the exclusion of slavery. But at that time the 
 new Free State of Maine was asking for admission into the Union; 
 and those who favored slavery in Missouri determined to exclude 
 Maine unless Missouri should also be admitted. After another angry 
 debate, which lasted till the 16th of February, the bill coupling the 
 two new States together was actually passed; and then Senator Thomas 
 of Illinois made a motion that henceforth and forever slavery should 
 be excluded from all that part of the Louisiana cession—Missouri 
 excepted—lying north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty 
 minutes. Such was the celebrated Missouri Compromise, one of the 
 most important acts of American legislation—a measure chiefly sup¬ 
 ported by the genius, and carried through Congress by the persistent 
 efforts, of Henry Clay. The principal conditions of the plan were 
 these: first , the admission of Missouri as a slave-holding State; sec¬ 
 ondly, the division of the rest of the Louisiana purchase by the par¬ 
 allel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes; thirdly, the admission 
 of new States, to be formed out of the territory south of that line, with 
 or without slavery, as the people might determine; fourthly, the pro¬ 
 hibition of slavery in all the new States to be organized out of terri¬ 
 tory north of the dividing-line. By this compromise the slavery agi¬ 
 tation was allayed until 1849. 
 
 Meanwhile, the country had measurably recovered from the 
 effects of the late war. With peace and plenty the resources of the 
 nation were rapidly augmented. Toward the close of his term the 
 President’s administration grew into high favor with the people; and 
 in the fall of 1820 he was re-elected with great unanimity. As Vice- 
 President, Mr. Tompkins was also chosen for a second term. Scarcely 
 had the excitement over the admission of Missouri subsided when the 
 attention of the government was called to an alarming system of 
 piracy which had sprung up in the West Indies. Early in 1822 the 
 American frigate Congress, accompanied with eight smaller vessels. 
 
422 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ■was sent thither; and in the course of the year more than twenty 
 piratical ships were captured. In the following summer Commodore 
 Porter was despatched with a larger fleet to cruise about Cuba and 
 the neighboring islands. Such was his vigilance that the retreats of 
 the sea-robbers were completely broken up; not a pirate was left 
 afloat. 
 
 At this time the countries of South America were disturbed 
 with many revolutions. From the days of Pizarro these states had 
 been dependencies of European monarchies. Now they declared their 
 independence, and struggled to maintain it by force of arms. The 
 people of the United States, having achieved their own liberty, nat¬ 
 urally sympathized with the patriots of the South. Mr. Clay urged 
 upon the government the duty of giving official recognition to the 
 South American republics. At last his views prevailed; and in March 
 of 1822 a bill was passed by Congress recognizing the new states as 
 sovereign nations. In the following year this action was followed up 
 by the President with a vigorous message, in which he declared that 
 for the future the American continents were not to he considered as sub¬ 
 jects for colonization by any European power. This famous declara¬ 
 tion constitutes what has ever since been known in the politics and 
 diplomacy of the United States as the Monroe Doctrine —a doc¬ 
 trine by which the entire Western hemisphere is consecrated to free 
 institutions. 
 
 Great was the joy of the American people in the summer of 
 1824. The venerated La Fayette, now aged and gray, returned once 
 more to visit the land for whose freedom he had shed his blood. The 
 honored patriots who had fought by his side came forth to greet him. 
 The younger heroes crowded around him. In every city, and on 
 every battle-field which he visited, he was surrounded by a throng of 
 shouting freemen. His journey through the country was a triumph. 
 It was a solemn and sacred moment when he stood alone by the grave 
 of Washington. Over the dust of the great dead the patriot of 
 France paid the homage of his tears. In September of 1825 he bade 
 a final adieu to the people who had made him their guest, and then 
 sailed for his native land. At his departure, the frigate Brandy¬ 
 wine —a name significant for him —was prepared to bear him away. 
 While Liberty remains to cheer the West, the name of La Fayette 
 shall be hallowed. 
 
 Before the departure of the illustrious Frenchman another pres¬ 
 idential election had been held. It was a time of great excitement 
 and much division of sentiment. Four candidates were presented for 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 422 
 
 the suffrages of the people. There was an appearance of sectionalism 
 in the canvass. John Quincy Adams was put forward as the candi¬ 
 date of the East; 
 
 William H. Craw¬ 
 ford of Georgia as 
 the choice of the 
 South; Henry Clay 
 and Andrew Jack- 
 son as the favorites 
 of the West. Nei¬ 
 ther candidate re¬ 
 ceived a majority of 
 the electoral votes, 
 and for the second 
 time in the history 
 of the government 
 the choice of Presi¬ 
 dent was referred to 
 the House of Rep¬ 
 resentatives. By 
 that body Mr. Ad¬ 
 ams was duly elec¬ 
 ted. For Vice- 
 President, John C. LA FAYETm 
 
 Calhoun of South Carolina had been chosen by the electoral college. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 ADAMS’S ADMINISTRATION, 1825-1829. 
 
 T HE new President was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1825. 
 
 He was a man of the highest attainments in literature and states¬ 
 manship. At the age of eleven years he accompanied his father) John 
 Adams, to Europe. At Paris and Amsterdam and St. Petersburg the 
 son continued his studies, and at the same time became acquainted 
 with the manners and politics of the Old World. The vast opportu¬ 
 nities of his youth were improved to the fullest extent. In his riper 
 years he served his country as ambassador to the Netherlands, Fartu- 
 
424 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gal, Prussia, Russia and England. Such were his abilities in the field 
 of diplomacy as to elicit from Washington the extraordinary praise of 
 being the ablest minister of which America could boast. His life, from 
 1794 till 1817, was devoted almost wholly to diplomatical services at 
 the‘various European capitals. At that critical period when the rela¬ 
 tions of the United States with foreign nations were as yet not well 
 established, his genius secured the adoption of treaty after treaty in 
 which the interests of his country were guarded with patriotic vigi¬ 
 lance. In 1806 he was honored with the professorship of Rhetoric 
 and Belles-Lettres at Harvard College of which he was an alumnus. 
 He had also held the office of United States senator from Massachu¬ 
 setts; and on the accession of Monroe to the presidency was chosen 
 secretary of state. To the presidential chair he brought the wisdom 
 of mature years, great experience and unusual ability. 
 
 The new administration was an epoch of peace and prosperity in 
 the country; but the spirit of party manifested itself with much vio¬ 
 lence. The adherents of General Jackson and Mr. Crawford united 
 in opposition to the policy of the President; and there was a want of 
 unanimity between the different departments of the government. In 
 the Senate the political friends of Mr. Adams were in a minority, 
 and their majority in the lower House only lasted for one session. 
 In his inaugural address the President strongly advocated the doc¬ 
 trine of internal improvements; but the adverse views of Congress 
 prevented his recommendations from being adopted. 
 
 For a quarter of a century a difficulty had existed between the 
 government of the United States and Georgia in respect to the lands 
 held in that State by the Creek Indians. When, in 1802, Georgia 
 relinquished her claim to Mississippi Territory, the general govern¬ 
 ment agreed to purchase and surrender to the State all the Creek 
 lands lying within her own borders. This pledge on the part of the 
 United States had never been fulfilled, and Georgia complained of 
 bad faith. The difficulty became alarming;* but finally, in March of 
 1826, a treaty was concluded between the Creek chiefs and the Pres¬ 
 ident, by which a cession of all their lands in Georgia was obtained. 
 At the same time the Creeks agreed to remove to a new home beyond 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1826—-just fifty years to a day after the Dec¬ 
 laration of Independence—the venerable John Adams, second Presi¬ 
 dent of the United States, and his successor, Thomas Jefferson, both 
 died. Both had lifted their voices for freedom in the early and per¬ 
 ilous days of the Revolution. One had written and both had signed 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 425 
 
 the great Declaration. Both had lived to see their country’s independ 
 ence. Both had served that country in its highest official station. Both 
 had reached extreme old age: Adams was ninety; Jefferson, eighty- 
 two. Now, while the cannon were booming for the fiftieth birthday 
 of the nation, the gray and honored patriots passed, almost at the same 
 hour, from among the living. 
 
 In the following September, William Morgan, a resident of 
 Western New York, having threatened to publish the secrets of 
 the Masonic fraternity, of which he was a member, suddenly disap¬ 
 peared from his home, and was never heard of afterward. The Ma¬ 
 sons fell under the suspicion of having abducted and murdered him. 
 A great clamor was raised against them in New York, and the ex¬ 
 citement extended to other parts of the country. The issue between 
 the Masons and their enemies became a political one, and many emi¬ 
 nent men were embroiled in the controversy. For several years the 
 anti-Masonic party exercised a considerable influence in the elections 
 of the country. De Witt Clinton, one of the most prominent and 
 valuable statesmen of New York, had to suffer much, in loss of repu¬ 
 tation, from his membership in the order. His last days were clouded 
 with the odium which for the time being attached to the Masonic 
 name. 
 
 In the congressional debates of 1828 the question of the tariff 
 was much discussed. By a tariff is understood a duty levied on im¬ 
 ported goods. The object of the same is twofold: first, to produce a 
 revenue for the government; and secondly, to raise the price of the 
 article on which the duty is laid, in order that the domestic manu¬ 
 facturer of the thing taxed may be able to compete with the foreign 
 producer. When the duty is levied for the latter purpose, it is called 
 a protective tariff. Whether it is sound policy for a nation to have 
 protective duties is a question which has been much debated in all 
 civilized countries. Mr. Adams and his friends decided in favor of 
 a tariff; and in 1828 the duties on fabrics made of wool, cotton, linen 
 and silk, and those on articles manufactured of iron, lead, etc., were 
 much increased. The object of such legislation was to stimulate the 
 manufacturing interests of the country. The question of the tariff 
 has always been a sectional issue. The people of the Eastern and 
 Middle States, where factories abound, have favored protective du¬ 
 ties; while in the agricultural regions of the South and West such 
 duties have been opposed. 
 
 The administration of John Quincy Adams was the beginning 
 of a new epoch in the history of the United States. The Revolution- 
 
426 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ary sages had gradually fallen out of the ranks of leadership; and the 
 influences of the Revolution were not any longer distinctly felt in the 
 decision of national questions. Even the war of 1812, with its bitter 
 party antagonisms, its defeats and victories, and its absurd ending, was 
 fading out of memory. New dispositions and tastes arose among the 
 people; new issues confronted the public; new methods prevailed in 
 the halls of legislation. Old party lines could no longer be traced; 
 old party names were reduced to a jargon. Already the United States 
 had surpassed in growth and development the sanguine expectations 
 of the fathers. But the conflicting opinions and interests of the na¬ 
 tion, reflected in the stormy debates of Congress, gave cause for con¬ 
 stant anxiety and alarm. *’■ '&• 
 
 With the fall of 1828 came anotiie^^^sMential 1 election. The 
 contest was specially exciting. Mr. Adapts, sftppprted by Mr. Clay, 
 the secretary of state, was put forward for re-elchtjon. In accordance 
 with an understanding which had existed for several years, General 
 Jackson appeared as the candidate of the opposition. In the previ¬ 
 ous election Jackson had received more electoral votes than Adams; 
 but disregarding the popular preference, the House of Representa¬ 
 tives had chosen the latter. Now the people were determined to 
 have their way; and Jackson was triumphantly elected, receiving a 
 hundred and seventy-eight electoral votes against eighty-three for 
 his opponent. As soon as the election was over, the excitement— 
 as usual in such cases—abated; and the thoughts of the people were 
 turned to other subjects. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 JACKSONS ADMINISTRATION, 1829-1887. 
 
 • ' ,.w 
 
 T HE new President was a native of North Carolina, born on the 
 Waxhaw, March 15th, 1767. His belligerent nature broke out in 
 boyhood, and his mother’s plan of devoting him to the ministry was 
 hopelessly defeated. At the age of thirteen he was under arms and 
 witnessed Sumter’s defeat at Hanging Rock. He was captured by the 
 British, maltreated, and left to die of smallpox; but his mother se¬ 
 cured his release from prison and his life was saved. After the Revo¬ 
 lution he began the study of law, and at the age of twenty-one went 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 42? 
 
 to Nashville. In 1796 he was elected to the House of Representatives 
 from the new State of Tennessee. Here his turbulent and willful dis¬ 
 position manifested itself in full force. During the next year he was 
 promoted to the Senate, where he remained a year, without making a 
 speech o r casting a 
 vote. He then . re¬ 
 signed his seat and 
 returned home. His 
 subsequent career is a 
 part of the history of 
 the country, more par¬ 
 ticularly of the South¬ 
 west with which sec¬ 
 tion his name was 
 identified. He came 
 to the presidential of¬ 
 fice as a military hero. 
 
 But he was more than 
 that: a man of great 
 native powers and in- 
 flexible honesty. 
 
 His talents were 
 strong but u n p o 1 - 
 ished; his integrity 
 unassailable; his will 
 like iron. He was 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON. 
 
 one of those men 
 
 for whom no toils are too arduous, no responsibility too great. His 
 personal character was strongly impressed upon his administration. 
 Believing that the public affairs would be best conducted by such 
 means, he removed nearly seven hundred office-holders, and appointed 
 in their stead his own’ political friends. In defence of such a course 
 the precedent established by Mr. Jefferson was pleaded. 
 
 In his first annual message the President took strong grounds 
 against rechartering the Bank of the United States. Believing that 
 institution to be both inexpedient and unconstitutional, he recom¬ 
 mended that the old charter should be allowed to expire by its own 
 limitation in 1836. But the influence of the bank, with its many 
 branches, was very great; and in 1832 a bill to recharter was brought 
 before Congress and passed. To this measure the President opposed 
 his veto; and since a two-thirds majority in favor of the bill could not 
 
428 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be secured, the proposition to grant a new charter failed, and the bank 
 ceased by the original limitation. 
 
 It was in the early part of Jackson’s administration that the 
 partisan elements of the country, which for some years had been 
 whirling about in a chaotic condition, was resolved into the two great 
 factions of Whig and Democratic — a form which remained as the es« 
 stablished order in politics for a quarter of a century. The old Fed¬ 
 eral party, under whose auspices the government was organized, had 
 lost control of national affairs on the retirement of John Adams from 
 the presidency. Still the party lingered, opposed the war of 1812, and 
 became odious from its connection with the Hartford Convention. In 
 1820 only enough of the old organization remained to be severely 
 handled in the great debates on the Missouri Compromise. Then fol¬ 
 lowed, during Monroe’s second term, what is known in American po¬ 
 litical history as the Era of Good Feeling. Partisanship seemed 
 ready to expire. On the other side, the line of political descent had 
 begun with the anti-Federalists who after opposing the National consti¬ 
 tution and the administrative policy of Washington and Adams, became 
 under the name of Republicans the champions of France as against 
 Great Britain. But this name was soon exchanged for that of Demo¬ 
 crats; and under that title the party came into power with the admin¬ 
 istration of Jefferson. Then followed the administrations of Madison, 
 Monroe, and John Quincy Adams under the same political banner. 
 But in the case of Adams the new forces were already at work, When 
 Jackson became President his arbitrary measures alarmed the country 
 and drove all the elements of the opposition into a compact phalanx 
 under the leadership of Clay and Webster. To this new party organi¬ 
 zation the name of Whig was given — a name taken from the old 
 Scotch Covenanters and English republicans of the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury, worn by the patriots of the American Revolution to distinguish 
 them from the Tories, and now adopted as the permanent title of the 
 opponents of Jeffersonian Democracy. 
 
 The reopening of the tariff question occasioned great excitement 
 in Congress and throughout the country. In the session of 1831-32 
 additional duties were levied upon manufactured goods imported from 
 abroad. By this act the manufacturing districts were again favored 
 at the expense of the agricultural States. South Carolina was spe¬ 
 cially offended. A great convention of her people was held, and it 
 was resolved that the tariff-law of Congress was unconstitutional, and 
 therefore null and void. Open resistance was threatened in case the 
 officers of the government should attempt to collect the revenues in 
 
JA CNSON'S AI) MINIS TEA TION. 
 
 429 
 
 the harbor of Charleston. In the United States Senate the right of a 
 State, under certain circumstances, to nullify an act of Congress was 
 boldly proclaimed. On that issue occurred the famous debate be¬ 
 tween the eloquent Colonel Hayne, senator from South Carolina, and 
 Daniel Webster 
 of Massachusetts, per¬ 
 haps the greatest mas¬ 
 ter of American ora¬ 
 tory. The former ap¬ 
 peared as the cham¬ 
 pion of State rights, 
 and the latter as the 
 advocate of constitu¬ 
 tional supremacy. 
 
 But the question 
 was not decided by 
 debate. The Presi¬ 
 dent took the matter 
 in hand and issued a 
 proclamation denying 
 the right of any State 
 to nullify the laws of 
 Congress. But Mr. 
 
 Calhoun, the Vice- daniel webster. 
 
 President, resigned his 
 
 office to accept a seat in the Senate, where he might better defend 
 the doctrines of his State. The President, having warned the people 
 of South Carolina against pursuing those doctrines further, ordered a 
 body of troops under General Scott to proceed to Charleston, and also 
 sent thither a man-of-war. At this display of force the leaders of the 
 nullifying party quailed and receded from their position. Bloodshed 
 was happily a voided; and in the following spring the excitement was 
 allayed by a compromise. Mr. Clay brought forward and secured the 
 passage of a bill providing for a gradual reduction of the duties 
 complained of until, at the end of ten years, they should reach the 
 standard demanded by the South. 
 
 In the spring of 1832 the Sac, Fox and Winnebago Indians of 
 Wisconsin Territory began a war. They were incited and led by the 
 famous chief Black Hawk, who, like many great sachems before him, 
 believed in the possibility of an Indian confederacy sufficiently pow¬ 
 erful to beat back the whites. The lands of the Sacs and Foxes 
 
430 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lying in the Rock River country of Illinois, had been purchased by 
 the government twenty-five years previously. The Indians, however, 
 remained in the ceded territory, since there was no occasion for im¬ 
 mediate occupation by the whites. When at last, after a quarter of a 
 century, the Indians were required to give possession, they caviled at 
 the old treaty, and refused to comply. The government insisted that 
 the Red men should fulfill their contract, and hostilities began on the 
 frontier. The governor of Illinois called out the militia, and General 
 Scott was sent with nine companies of artillery to Chicago. At that 
 place his force was overtaken with the cholera, and he was prevented 
 from co-operating with the troops of General Atkinson. The latter, 
 however, waged a vigorous campaign against the Indians, defeated 
 them in several actions, and made Black Hawk prisoner. The cap¬ 
 tive chieftain was taken to Washington and the great cities of the 
 East, where his understanding was opened as to the power of the 
 nation.against which he had been foolish enough to lift his hatchet. 
 Returning to his own people, he advised them that resistance was 
 hopeless. The warriors then abandoned the disputed lands and re¬ 
 tired into Iowa. 
 
 Difficulties also arose with the Cherokees of Georgia. These 
 were the most civilized and humane of all the Indian nations. They 
 had adopted the manners of the whites. They had pleasant farms, 
 goodly towns, schools, printing-presses, a written code of laws. The 
 government of the United States had given to Georgia a pledge to 
 purchase the Cherokee lands for the benefit of the State. The pledge 
 was not fulfilled; the authorities of Georgia grew tired of waiting 
 for the removal of the Indians; and the legislature passed a statute by 
 which the government of the Red men was abrogated and the laws of 
 the State extended over the Indian domain. With singular illiberal¬ 
 ly, it Avas at the same time enacted that the Cherokees and Creeks 
 should not have the use of the State courts or the protection of the laws. 
 This code, however, Avas declared unconstitutional by the supreme court 
 of the United States. The Indians then appealed to the President for 
 help; but he refused to interpose betAveen them and the laAvs of Geor¬ 
 gia. He also recommended the remoA 7 al of the Cherokees to lands be¬ 
 yond the Mississippi; and Avith this end in vieAv, the Indian Terri¬ 
 tory was organized in the year 1834. The Indians yielded Avith great 
 reluctance. More than five million dollars were paid them for their 
 lands; but still they clung to their homes. At last General Scott 
 Avas ordered to remove them to the neAv territory, using force if 
 necessary to accomplish the work. The years 1837-38 were oc- 
 
LAND OF THE SEMINOLES 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 431 
 
 eupied with the final transfer of the Cherokees to their homes in 
 the West. 
 
 More serious still was the conflict with the Seminoles of Florida. 
 The trouble arose from an attempt on the part of the government to 
 remove the tribe to a new domain beyond the Mississippi Hostili¬ 
 ties began in 1835. and continued for four years. The chief of the 
 Seminoles was Osceola, a half-breed of great talents and audacity. He 
 and Micanopy, another chieftain, denied the validity of a former treaty 
 by which the Seminole lands had been ceded to the government. So 
 haughty was the bearing of Osceola that General Thompson, the agent 
 of the government in Florida, arrested him and put him in irons. 
 The red warrior dissembled his purpose, gave his assent to the old 
 treaty, and was liberated. As might have been foreseen, he immedi¬ 
 ately entered into a conspiracy to slaughter the whites and devastate 
 the country. 
 
 At this time the interior of Florida was held by General Clinch, 
 who had his headquarters at FortDrane, seventy-five miles south-west 
 from St. Augustine. The post was considered in danger; and Majoi 
 Hade with a hundred and seventeen men was despatched from Fort 
 Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, to reinforce General Clinch. After 
 mardhing about half the distance, Hade’s forces fell into an ambus¬ 
 cade, and were all massacred except one man who was left alive un¬ 
 der a heap of the dead. On the same day Osceola, with a band of 
 warriors, prowling around Fort King, on the Ocklawaha, surrounded 
 a storehouse where General Thompson was dining with a company of 
 friends. The savages poured in a murderous fire, and then rushed 
 forward and scalped the dead before the garrison of the fort, only 
 two hundred and fifty yards away, could bring assistance. General 
 Thompson’s body was pierced by fifteen balls; and four of his nine 
 companions were killed. 
 
 On the 31st of Hecember General Clinch fought a battle with 
 the Indians on the banks of the Withlacoochie. The savages were 
 repulsed, but Clinch thought it prudent to retreat to Fort Hrane. In 
 the following February General Scott took command of the American 
 forces in Florida. On the 29th of the same month General Gaines, 
 who was advancing from the West with a force of a thousand men 
 for the relief of Fort Hrane, was attacked near the battle-field where 
 Clinch had fought. The Seminoles made a furious onset, but were 
 repulsed with severe losses. In May some straggling Creeks who 
 still remained in the country began hostilities; but they were soon 
 subdued and compelled to seek their reservation beyond the Missis- 
 
432 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sippi. In October of 1836 Governor Call of Florida marched with 
 a force of two thousand men against the Indians of the interior. A 
 division of his army overtook the enemy in the Wahoo Swamp, a 
 short distance from the scene of Dade’s massacre. A battle ensued, 
 and the Indians were driven into the Everglades with considerable 
 losses. Soon afterward another engagement was fought on nearly the 
 same ground; and again the savages were beaten, though not deci¬ 
 sively. The remainder of the history of the Seminole War belongs 
 to the following administration. 
 
 In the mean time the President had given a final quietus to 
 the Bank of the United States. After vetoing the bill to recharter 
 that institution, he conceived that the surplus funds whieh had accu¬ 
 mulated in its vaults would be better distributed among the States. 
 He had no warrant of law for such a step; but believing himself to 
 be in the right, he did not hesitate to take the responsibility. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, in October of 1833, he ordered the accumulated funds of 
 the great bank, amounting to about ten million dollars, to be distri¬ 
 buted among certain State banks designated for that purpose. This 
 action on the part of the President was denounced by the opposition 
 as a measure of incalculable mischief—unwarranted, arbitrary, dan¬ 
 gerous. In the Senate a powerful coalition, headed by Calhoun, Clay, 
 and Webster, was formed against the President; and the new officers, 
 who had been appointed to carry out his measures, were rejected. A 
 resolution censuring his conduct was then introduced and carried; but 
 a similar proposition failed in the House of Representatives. For a 
 while there was a general cry of indignation, and it seemed that the 
 administration would be overwhelmed; but the President, ever as 
 fearless as he was self-willed and stubborn, held on his course, un¬ 
 moved by the clamor. The resolution of censure stood upon the jour¬ 
 nal of the Senate for four years and was then expunged from the 
 record through the influence of Senator Thomas H. Benton of Mis¬ 
 souri. The financial panic of 1836-7, following soon after the 
 removal of the funds, was attributed by the opponents of the admin¬ 
 istration to the President’s arbitrary action and the prospective.des¬ 
 truction of the national bank. To these strictures the adherents of 
 his own party replied that the financial distress of the country was 
 attributable to the bank itself, which was declared to be an institution 
 too powerful and despotic to exist in a free government. The Presi¬ 
 dent was but little concerned with the excitement: he had just en¬ 
 tered on his second term, with Martin Van Buren for Vice-President 
 instead of Mr. Calhoun. 
 
 In 1834 the strong will of the chief magistrate was brought into 
 
THE NEW PATENT-OFFICE AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 \ 
 
 THE GENERAL POST-OFFICE AT WASHINGTON 
 

 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
JA CKSON’t ADMINISTRA TIOK 
 
 435 
 
 conflict with France. The American government held an old claim 
 against that country for damages done to the commerce of the United 
 States in the wars'of Napoleon. In 1831 the French king had agreed 
 to pay five million dollars for the alleged injuries; but the dilatory 
 government of France postponed and neglected the payment until 
 the President, becoming wrathful, recommended to Congress to make 
 reprisals on French commerce, and at the same time directed the 
 American minister at Paris to demand his passports and come home. 
 These measures had the desired effect, and the indemnity was promptly 
 paid. The government of Portugal was brought to terms in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 The country, though flourishing, was not without calamities. 
 Several eminent statesmen fell by the hand of death. On the 4th of 
 July, 1831, ex-President Monroe passed away. Like Jefferson and 
 Adams, he sank to rest amid the rejoicings of the national anniver¬ 
 sary. In the following year Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last 
 surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, died at the age 
 of ninety-six. A short time afterward Philip Freneau, the poet of 
 the Revolution, departed from the land of the living. The patriot 
 bard had reached the age of eighty. On the 24th of June, 1833, John 
 Randolph of Roanoke died in Philadelphia. He was a man admired 
 for his talents, dreaded for his wit and sarcasm, and respected for his 
 integrity as a statesman. In 1835 Chief-Justice Marshall breathed 
 his last, at the age of fourscore years; and in the next year ex-Pres¬ 
 ident Madison, worn with the toils of eighty-five years, passed away. 
 To these losses of life must be added two great disasters to property. 
 On the 16th of December, 1835, a fire broke out in the lower part 
 of New York City and laid thirty acres of buildings in ashes. Five 
 hundred and twenty-nine houses and property valued at eighteen 
 million dollars were consumed. Just one year afterward the Patent 
 Office and Post-Office at Washington were destroyed in the same 
 manner. But upon the ruins of these valuable buildings, more noble 
 and imposing structures were soon erected. 
 
 Jackson’s administration was signalized by the addition of two 
 new States. In June of 1836 Arkansas was admitted, with an area 
 of fifty-two thousand square miles, and a population of seventy thou¬ 
 sand. In January of the following year Michigan Territory was 
 organized as a State and added to the Union. The new common- 
 wealth brought a population of a hundred and fifty-seven thousand, 
 and an area of fifty-six thousand square miles. The administration 
 was already within tw r o months of its close. The President, follow¬ 
 ing the example of Washington, issued a patriotic farewell address. 
 
436 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The dangers of discord and sectionalism among the States were set 
 forth with all the masculine energy of the Jacksonian dialect. The 
 people of the United States were again solemnly warned, as they had 
 been by the Father of his Country, against the baleful influence of 
 demagogues. The horrors of disunion were portrayed in the strong¬ 
 est colors; and people of every rank and section were exhorted to 
 maintain and defend the American Union as they would the last 
 fortress of human liberty. This was the last of those remarkable 
 public papers contributed by Andrew Jackson to the history of his 
 country. Already, in the autumn of the previous year, Martin Van 
 Buren had been elected President. The opposing candidate was Gen¬ 
 eral Harrison of Ohio, who received the support of the new Whig 
 party. As to the vice-presidency, no one secured a majority in the 
 electoral college, and the choice devolved on the Senate. By thai 
 body Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was duly elected. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 VAN BUREN’S ADMINISTRATION\ 1837-1841. 
 
 M ARTIN VAN BUREN, eighth President of the United States, 
 was born at Kinderhook, New York, on the 5th of December, 
 1782. After receiving a limited education he became a student of 
 law, and before reaching his majority was recognized as an influential 
 democratic politician. In his thirtieth year he Avas elected to the 
 Senate of his native State; and six years afterwards, by supplanting 
 De Witt Clinton, became the recognized leader of the Democracy in 
 New York. In 1821, and again in 1827, he was chosen United States 
 Senator; but in the folloAving year he resigned his office to accept the 
 governorship of his native State. He also, in 1831, resigned his 
 place as secretary of State in the first cabinet of President Jackson, 
 and Avas appointed minister to England. But Avhen, in December of 
 the same year, his nomination was submitted to the Senate the influence 
 of Vice-President Calhoun assisted by the Whig leaders, Clay and 
 Webster, procured the rejection of the appointment. Mr. Van Buren 
 returned from his unfulfilled mission ; became the candidate for the 
 vice-presidency, and Avas elected in the fall of 1832. Four years 
 later he A\ T as called by the voice of the poA\ T erful party to Avhich he be¬ 
 longed, to succeed General Jackson in the highest office of the nation. 
 
VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 ,| 0 - 
 •±i>( 
 
 One of the first duties of the new administration was to finish the 
 Seminole War. In the beginning of 1837 the command of the army in 
 Florida was transferred from General Scott to General Jessup. In the 
 following fall Osceola came to the American camp with a flag of truce; 
 but he was suspected of treachery, seized, and sent a prisoner to Fort 
 Moultrie, where he died in 1838. The Seminoles, though disheartened 
 by the loss of their chief, continued the war. In December Colonel 
 Zachary Taylor, with a force of over a thousand men, marched into the 
 Everglades of Florida, determined to fight the savages in their lairs. 
 After unparalleled sufferings he overtook them, on Christmas day, near 
 Lake Okeechobee. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were de¬ 
 feated, but not until a hundred and thirty-nine of the whites had fallen. 
 For more than a year Taylor continued to hunt the Red men through the 
 swamps. In 1839 the chiefs sent in their submission and signed a treaty; 
 but their removal to the West was made with much reluctance and delay. 
 
 In the first year of Van Buren’s administration the country was afflicted 
 with a monetary panic of the most serious character. The preceding years 
 had been a time of great prosperity. The national debt was entirely liqui¬ 
 dated, and a surplus of nearly forty million dollars had accumulated in 
 the treasury of the United States. By act of Congress this vast sum had 
 been distributed among the several States. Owing to the abundance of 
 money, speculations of al 1 sorts grew rife. The credit system pervaded every 
 department of business. The banks of the country were suddenly multi¬ 
 plied to nearly seven hundred. Vast issues of irredeemable paper money 
 stimulated the speculative spirit and increased the opportunities for fraud. 
 
 The bills of these unsound banks were receivable at the land-offices; 
 and settlers and speculators made a rush to secure the public lands while 
 money was plentiful. Seeing that in receiving such an unsound currency 
 in exchange for the national domain the government was likely to be 
 defrauded out of millions, President Jackson had issued an order called 
 tiie Specie Circular, by which the land-agents were directed hence¬ 
 forth to receive nothing but coin in payment for the lands. The effects 
 of this circular came upon the nation in the first year of Van Buren’s 
 administration. The interests of the government had been secured by 
 Jackson’s vigilance; but the business of the country was prostrated by 
 the shock. The banks suspended specie payment. Mercantile houses 
 failed; and disaster swept through every avenue of trade. During the 
 months of March and April, 1837, the failures in New York and New 
 Orleans amounted to about a hundred and fifty million dollars. A com¬ 
 mittee of business men from the former city besought the President to 
 rescind the specie circular and to call a special session of Congress. The 
 
438 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 former request was refused and the latter complied with; but not until 
 the executive was driven by the distresses of the country. 
 
 When Congress convened in the following September, several measures 
 of relief were brought forward. A bill authorizing the issue of treasury 
 notes, not to exceed ten millions of dollars, was passed as a temporary ex¬ 
 pedient. More important by far was the measure proposed by the Presi¬ 
 dent and brought before Congress under the name of the Independent 
 Treasury Bill. By the provisions of this remarkable project the 
 public funds of the nation were to be kept on deposit in a treasury to be 
 established for that special purpose. It w r as argued by Mr. Van Buren 
 and his friends that the surplus money of the country would drift into 
 the independent treasury and lodge there; and that by this means the 
 speculative mania would be effectually checked; for extensive speculations 
 could not be carried on without an abundant currency. It was in the 
 nature of the President’s plan to separate the business of the United States 
 from the general business of the country. 
 
 The independent treasury bill was passed by the Senate, but de¬ 
 feated in the House of Representatives. But in the following regular 
 session of Congress the bill was again brought forward and adopted. In 
 the mean time, the business of the country had in a measure revived. 
 During the year 1838 most of the banks resumed specie payments. 
 Commercial affairs assumed their wonted aspect; but trade was less 
 vigorous than before. Enterprises of all kinds languished, and the people 
 were greatly disheartened. Discontent prevailed ; and the administration 
 w r as blamed with everything. 
 
 In the latter part of 1837 there was an insurrection in Canada. A 
 portion of the people, dissatisfied with the British government, broke out 
 in revolt and attempted to establish their independence. The insurgents 
 found much sympathy and encouragement in the United States, especially 
 in New York. From that State a party of seven hundred men, taking 
 arms, seized and fortified Navy Island, in the Niagara River. The 
 loyalists of Canada attempted to capture the place, and failed. They suc¬ 
 ceeded, however, in firing the Caroline, the supply-ship of the adven¬ 
 turers, cut her moorings, and sent the burning vessel over Niagara Falls. 
 These events created considerable excitement, and the peaceful relations 
 of the United States and Great Britain were endangered. But the Presi¬ 
 dent issued a proclamation of neutrality, forbidding interference with the 
 affairs of Canada; and General Wool was sent to the Niagara frontier 
 with a sufficient force to quell the disturbance and punish the disturbers. 
 The New York insurgents on Navy Island were obliged to surrender, 
 and order was soon restored. 
 
VAN BURENS ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 439 
 
 Hardly had the excitement attendant upon the Canadian troubles 
 subsided, before the question was raised as to Van Buren’s successor 
 in the presidency. The canvass began early and in a very bitter 
 spirit. The measures of the administration had been of such a nature 
 as to call forth the fiercest political controversy. The Whigs, ani¬ 
 mated with the hope of victory, met in national convention on the 4th 
 of December, 1839, and again nominated General Harrison as their 
 leader in the coming contest. On the Democratic side Mr. Van Buren 
 had no competitor; but the unanimity of his party could hardly com¬ 
 pensate for his misfortunes and blunders. The canvass was the most 
 exciting in the political history of the country. The President was 
 blamed with every thing. The financial distress was laid at his door. 
 Extravagance, bribery, corruption — every thing bad was charged upon 
 him. Men of business advertised to pay six dollars a barrel for flour 
 if Harrison should be elected; three dollars a barrel if Van Buren 
 should be successful. The Whig orators tossed about the luckless ad¬ 
 ministration through all the figures and forms of speech; and the 
 President himself was shot at with every sort of dart that partisan wit 
 and malice could invent. The enthusiasm in the ranks of the oppo¬ 
 sition rose higher and higher; and the result was the defeat of the 
 Democrats in every State except Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Missouri, 
 New Hampshire, Virginia, and South Carolina. The electoral votes 
 of these States — numbering sixty — were given to Van Buren; and 
 the remainder, amounting to two hundred and thirty-four, were cast 
 for General Harrison. After controlling the destinies of the govern¬ 
 ment for nearly forty years, the Democratic party was temporarily 
 routed. For Vice-President, John Tyler of Virginia was chosen. 
 
 In the last year of Van Buren’s administration was completed the 
 sixth census of the United States. The tables were, as usual, replete 
 with the evidences of growth and progress. The national revenues 
 for the year 1840 amounted to nearly twenty millions of dollars. Dur¬ 
 ing the last ten years the center of population had moved westward 
 along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude from the South Fork of 
 the Potomac to Clarksburg, West Virginia — a distance of fifty-five 
 miles. The area of the United States now actually inhabited, amounted 
 to eight hundred and seven thousand square miles, being an increase 
 in ten years of twenty-seven and six-tenths per cent. The frontier 
 line, circumscribing the population, passed through Michigan, Wiscon¬ 
 sin, Iowa, and the western borders of Missouri, Arkansas, and Loui¬ 
 siana— a distance of three thousand three hundred miles. The popu¬ 
 lation had reached the aggregate of seventeen million souls, being an 
 
440 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 increase since 1830 of more than six millions. It was found from the 
 tables that eleven-twelfths of the people lived outside of the larger 
 cities and towns, showing the strong preponderance of the agricultural 
 over the manufacturing and commercial interest. One of the most 
 interesting lessons of the census was found in the fact that the wonderful 
 growth of the United States was in extent and area, and not in accu¬ 
 mulation — in the spread of civilization rather than in intensity. For, 
 since 1830, the average population of the country had not increased 
 by so much as one person to the square mile! 
 
 The administration of Van Buren has generally been reckoned 
 as unsuccessful and inglorious. But he and his times were unfortu¬ 
 nate rather than bad. He was the victim of all the evils which fol¬ 
 lowed hard upon the relaxation of the Jacksonian methods of govern¬ 
 ment. He had neither the will nor the disposition to rule as his 
 predecessor had done; nor were the people and their representatives 
 any longer in the humor to suffer that sort of government. The pe¬ 
 riod was unheroic: it was the ebb-tide between the belligerent excite¬ 
 ments of 1832 and the war with Mexico; The financial panic added 
 opprobrium to the popular estimate of imbecility in the government. 
 “The administration of Van Buren,” said a bitter satirist, “is like 
 a parenthesis: it may be read in a low tone of voice or altogether 
 omitted without injuring the sense!” But the satire lacked one essen¬ 
 tial quality — truth. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER , 18*1-1848. 
 
 T HE new President was a Virginian by birth, and the adopted son 
 of Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution. He was a grad¬ 
 uate of Hampden-Sidney College, and afterward a student of medicine. 
 Attracted by the military life, he entered the army of St. Clair; was 
 rapidly promoted; became lieutenant-governor and then governor of 
 Indiana Territory, which office he filled with great ability. His mil¬ 
 itary career in the North-west has already been narrated. He was 
 inaugurated President on the 4th of March, 1841, and began his 
 duties by issuing a call for a special session of Congress to consider 
 u sundry important matters connected with the finances of the coun¬ 
 try.” An able cabinet was organized, at the head of which was Dan- 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 441 
 
 iel Webster as secretary of state. Everything promised well for the 
 new Whig administration ; but before Congress could convene, the 
 venerable President, bending under the weight of sixty-eight years, 
 fell sick, and died just one month after his inauguration. It was 
 the first time that such a calamity had befallen the American peo¬ 
 ple. Profound and universal grief was manifested at the sad event. 
 On the 6th of April Mr. Tyler took the oath of office, and became 
 President of the United States. 
 
 He was a statesman of considerable distinction; a native of Vir¬ 
 ginia ; a graduate of William and Mary College. At an early age he 
 left the profession of law to enter public life; was chosen a member 
 of Congress; and in 1825 was elected governor of Virginia. From 
 that position he was sent to the Senate of the United States; and now 
 at the age of fifty-one was called to the presidency. He had been 
 put upon the ticket with General Harrison through motives of expe¬ 
 diency ; for although a Whig in political principles, he was known to 
 be hostile to the United States Bank. And this hostility was soon to be 
 manifested in a remarkable manner. 
 
 The special session of Congress continued from May till Septem¬ 
 ber. One of the first measures proposed and carried was the repeal 
 of the independent treasury bill. A general bankrupt law was then 
 brought forward and passed, by which a great number of insolvent 
 business men were relieved from the disabilities of debt. The next 
 measure—a favorite scheme of the Whigs—was the rechartering of 
 the bank of the United States. The old charter had expired in 1836 ; 
 but the bank had continued in operation under the authority of the 
 State of Pennsylvania. Now a bill to recharter was brought forward 
 and passed. The President interposed his veto. Again the bill was 
 presented, in a modified form, and received the assent of both Houses, 
 only to be rejected by the executive. By this action a final rupture 
 was produced between the President and the party which had elected 
 him. The indignant Whigs, baffled by a want of a two-thirds major¬ 
 ity in Congress, turned upon him with storms of invective. All the 
 members of the cabinet except Mr. Webster resigned; and he retained 
 his place only because of a pending difficulty with Great Britain. 
 
 The difficulty was in the nature of a dispute about the north¬ 
 eastern boundary of the United States. The territorial limit of the 
 country in that direction, not having been clearly defined by the treaty 
 of 1783, had been one of the points under discussion by the commis¬ 
 sioners at Ghent in 1814. But like other matters presented for adju¬ 
 dication before that polite and easily satisfied congress, the boundary 
 
442 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 question had been postponed rather than settled. It was then agreeJ, 
 however, to refer the establishment of the entire line between the 
 United States and Canada to the decision of three commissioners to be 
 jointly constituted by the two governments. The first of these bodies 
 accomplished its work successfully by awarding to the United States 
 the islands in the Bay of Passamaquoddy. The third commission 
 also performed its duty by establishing the true boundary line from 
 the intersection of the forty-fifth parallel of latitude with the River 
 St. Lawrence to the western point of Lake Huron. To the second 
 commission was assigned the more difficult task of settling the bound¬ 
 ary from the Atlantic to the St. Lawrence; and this work they failed 
 to accomplish. For nearly twenty-five years the limit of the United 
 States on the northeast remained in controversy; and at times the dif¬ 
 ficulty became so serious as to endanger the peace of the two nations. 
 Finally the whole matter at issue was referred to Lord Ashburton, 
 acting on the part of Great Britain, and Mr. Webster, the American 
 Secretary of State. After an able discussion of all the points in dis¬ 
 pute, the boundary was definitely established as follows: From the 
 mouth of the River St. Croix ascending that stream to its western 
 fountain; from that fountain due north to the St. John’s; thence with 
 that river to its source on the watershed between the Atlantic and 
 the St. Lawrence; thence in a southwesterly direction along the crest 
 of the highlands to the northwestern source of the Connecticut; and 
 down that stream to and along the forty-fifth parallel to the St. Law¬ 
 rence. The work of the commissioners extended also to the estab¬ 
 lishment of the boundary from the western point of Lake Huron 
 through Lake Superior to the northwestern extremity of the Lake of 
 Woods, thence — confirming the treaty of October, 1818,— southward 
 to the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, and thence with that parallel to 
 the Rocky Mountains. This important settlement, known as the Web¬ 
 ster-Ashburton Treaty, was completed on the 9th of August, 1842, 
 and was ratified by the. Senate on the 20th of the same month. 
 
 In the next year the country was vexed with a domestic trouble. 
 For nearly two centuries tjie government of Rhode Island had been 
 administered under a charter granted by Charles, II.' By the terms 
 of that ancient instrument the right of suffrage was restricted to those 
 who held a certain amount of property. There were other clauses re¬ 
 pugnant to the spirit of republicanism; and a proposition was made 
 to change the constitution of the State. On that issue the people of 
 Rhode Island were nearly unanimous; but in respect to the maimer 
 of abrogating the old charter there was a serious division. One fac- 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 443 
 
 tion, called the “ law and order party/’ proceeding in accordance with 
 the former constitution, chose Samuel W. King as governor. The 
 other faction, called the “suffrage party,” acting in an irregular way, 
 elected Thomas W. Dorr. In May of 1842 both parties met and or¬ 
 ganized their rival governments. 
 
 The “ law and order party ” now undertook to suppress the faction 
 of Dorr. The latter resisted and made an attempt to capture the 
 State arsenal. But the militia, under the direction of King’s officers, 
 drove the assailants away. A month later the adherents of Dorr again 
 appeared in arms, but were dispersed by the troops of the United 
 States. Dorr fled from Rhode Island; returned soon afterward, was 
 caught, tried for treason, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for 
 life. He was then offered pardon on condition of taking an oath of 
 allegiance. This he stubbornly refused to do; and in June of 1845 
 obtained his liberty without conditions. 
 
 The year 1842 was noted for the completion of the Bunker 
 Hill Monument. No enterprise of a similar character had, in the 
 whole history of the country, called forth so much patriotic enthusiasm. 
 The foundation of the noble struc¬ 
 ture was laid on the 17th of June, 
 
 1825, the corner-stone being put into 
 its place by the venerable La Fay¬ 
 ette. Daniel Webster, then young 
 in years and fame, delivered the ora¬ 
 tion of the day, while two hundred 
 Revolutionary veterans — forty of 
 them survivors of the battle fought 
 on that hill-crest just fifty years be¬ 
 fore— gathered with the throng to 
 hear him. But the work of erection 
 went on slowly. More than a hun¬ 
 dred and fifty thousand dollars were 
 expended, and seventeen years 
 elapsed before the grand shaft—com¬ 
 memorative of the heroes living 1 and 
 dead — was finished. At last the 
 work was done, and the mighty column of Quincy granite, thirty-one 
 feet square at the base and two hundred and twenty-one feet in height, 
 stood out sublimely against the clouds and sky. It was deemed fit¬ 
 ting, however, to postpone the dedication until the next anniversary 
 of the battle; and preparations were made accordingly. On the 17tn 
 
 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. 
 
444 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of June, 1843, an immense multitude of people — including most of 
 the Revolutionary soldiers who had not yet fallen — gathered from all 
 parts of the Republic to witness the imposing ceremony. Mr. Web¬ 
 ster, now full of years and honors, was chosen to deliver the address of 
 dedication — a duty which he performed in a manner so touching and 
 eloquent as to add new luster to his fame as an orator. The celebra¬ 
 tion was concluded with a public dinner given in Faneuil Hall, the 
 cradle of American liberty. 
 
 In the latter part of Tyler’s administration the State of New 
 York was the scene of a serious social disturbance. Until the year 
 1840 the descendants of Van Rensselaer, one of the old Dutch pa- 
 troons of New Netherland, had held a claim on certain lands in the 
 counties of Rensselaer, Columbia and Delaware. In liquidation of 
 this claim they had continued to receive from the farmers certain 
 trifling rents. At last the farmers grew tired of the payment, and 
 rebelled. From 1840 until 1844 the question was frequently dis¬ 
 cussed in the New York legislature; but no satisfactory settlement 
 was reached. In the latter year the anti-rent party became so bold 
 as to coat with tar and feathers those of their fellow-tenants who 
 made the payments. Officers were sent to apprehend the rioters; 
 and them they killed. Time and again the authorities of the State 
 were invoked to quell the disturbers; and the question in dispute has 
 never been permanently settled. 
 
 Of a different sort was the difficulty with the Mormons, who now 
 began to play a part in the history of the country. Under the leader¬ 
 ship of their prophet, Joseph Smith, they made their first important set¬ 
 tlement in Jackson county, Missouri. Here their numbers increased to 
 fully fifteen hundred; and they began to say that the great West was 
 to be their inheritance. Not liking their neighbors or their practices, 
 the people of Missouri determined to be rid of them. As soon as op¬ 
 portunity offered, the militia was called out, and the Mormons were 
 obliged to leave the St^te. In the spring of 1839 they crossed the 
 Mississippi into Illinois, and on a high bluff overlooking the river 
 laid out a city which ^hey called Nauvoo, meaning the Beautiful. 
 Here they built a splendid temple. Other Mormons from different 
 parts of the Union and from Europe came to join the community, 
 until the number was swelled to ten thousand. Again popular sus¬ 
 picion was aroused against them. Under the administration of Smith, 
 laws were enacted contrary to the statute of Illinois. The people 
 charged the Mormons with the commission of certain thefts and mur¬ 
 ders ; and it was believed that the courts in the neighborhood of Nau¬ 
 voo would be powerless to convict the criminals. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 445 
 
 In the midst of much excitement Smith and his brother were ar¬ 
 rested, taken to Carthage, and lodged in jail. On the 27th of June, 1844, 
 a mob gathered, broke open the jail doors and killed the prisoners. Dur¬ 
 ing the rest of the summer there were many scenes of violence. In 1845 
 the charter of Nauvoo was annulled by the legislature of Illinois. Most 
 of the Mormons gave up in despair and resolved to exile themselves be¬ 
 yond the limits of civilization. In 1846 they began their march to the 
 far West. In September Nauvoo was cannonaded for three days, and the 
 remnant of inhabitants driven to join their companions at Council Bluffs. 
 Thence they dragged themselves wearily westward; crossed the Rocky 
 Mountains; reached the basin of the Great Salt Lake, and founded Utah 
 Territory. 
 
 Meanwhile, a great agitation had arisen in the country in regard to 
 the republic of Texas. From 1821 to 1836 this vast territory lying be¬ 
 tween Louisiana and Mexico, had been a province of the latter country. 
 For a long time it had been the policy of Spain and Mexico to keep 
 Texas uninhabited, in order that the vigorous race of Americans might 
 not encroach on the Mexican borders. At last, however, a large land- 
 grant was made to Moses Austin of Connecticut, on condition that he 
 would settle three hundred American families within the limits of his do¬ 
 main. Afterward the grant was confirmed to his son Stephen, with the 
 privilege of establishing five hundred additional families of immigrants. 
 Thus the foundation of Texas was laid by people of the English race. 
 
 Owing to the oppressive policy adopted by Mexico, the Texans, 
 in the year 1835, raised the standard of rebellion. Many adventurers 
 and some heroes from the.United States flocked to their aid. In the 
 first battle, fought at Gonzales, a thousand Mexicans were defeated by 
 a Texan force numbering five hundred. On the 6th of March, 1836, 
 a Texan fort, called the Alamo, was surrounded by a Mexican army 
 of eight thousand, commanded by President Santa Anna. The feeble 
 garrison was overpowered and massacred under circumstances of great 
 atrocity. The daring David Crocket, an ex-congressman of Tennessee, 
 and a famous hunter, was one of the victims of the butchery. In the 
 next month was fought the decisive battle of San Jacinto, which gave 
 to Texas her freedom. The independence of the new State was ao* 
 knowledged by the United States, Great Britain and France. 
 
 As soon as the people of Texas had thrown off the Mexican yoke 
 they asked to be admitted into the Union. At first the proposition 
 was declined by President Van Buren, who feared a war with Mex¬ 
 ico. In the last year of Tyler’s administration the question of annex¬ 
 ation was again agitated. The population of Texas had increased to 
 
 more than two hundred thousand souls. The territory embraced an 
 
 31 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 area of two hundred and thirty-seven thousand square miles—a do¬ 
 main more than five times as large as the State of Pennsylvania. It 
 was liive annexing an empire. The proposition to admit Texas into 
 the Union was the great question on which the people divided in 
 
 the presidential elec¬ 
 tion of 1844. The 
 annexation was fa¬ 
 vored by the Demo¬ 
 crats and opposed by 
 the Whigs. The 
 parties were equally 
 matched in strength; 
 and the contest sur¬ 
 passed in excitement 
 anything which had 
 been known in Amer¬ 
 ican politics. James 
 K. Polk of Tennessee 
 was put forward as 
 the Democratic can¬ 
 didate, while the 
 Whigs chose their 
 favorite leader, Hen- 
 . professor morse. r y Clay. The former 
 
 was elected, and the 
 
 hope of the latter to reach the presidency was forever eclipsed. For 
 Vice-President, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was chosen. 
 
 The convention by which Mr. Polk was nominated was held at 
 Baltimore. On the 29th of May, 1844, the news of the nomination was 
 sent to Washington by the Magnetic Telegraph. It was the first 
 despatch ever so transmitted; and the event marks an era in the his¬ 
 tory of civilization. The inventor of the telegraph, which has proved 
 so great a blessing to mankind, was Professor Samuel F. B. Morse 
 of Massachusetts. The magnetic principle on which the invention 
 depends had been known since 1774; but Professor Morse was the first 
 to apply that principle for the benefit of men. He began his experi¬ 
 ments in 1832: and five years afterward succeeded in obtaining a 
 patent on his invention. Then followed another long delay; and it 
 was not until the last day of the session in 1843 that he procured 
 from Congress an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars. With 
 that appropriation was constructed between Baltimore and Wash* 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 447 
 
 ington the tirst telegraphic line in the world. Perhaps no other 
 invention has exercised a more beneficent influence on the welfare 
 and l^ppiness of the human race. 
 
 When Congress convened in December of 1844, the proposition 
 to admit Texas into the Union was formally brought forward. Dur¬ 
 ing the winter the question was frequently debated; and on the 1st 
 of March—only three days before Tyler’s retirement from the presi¬ 
 dency—the bill of annexation was adopted. The President imme- 
 liately gave his assent; and the Lone Star took its place in the 
 constellation of the States. On the day before the inauguration of 
 Mr. Polk bills for the admission of Florida and Iowa were also 
 signed; but the latter State—the twenty-ninth member of the Amer¬ 
 ican Union—was not formally admitted until the following year. 
 
 CHAPTER LYII. 
 
 POLK’S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE MEXICAN WAR, 1845-1849. 
 
 P RESIDENT POLK was a native of North Carolina. In boyhood 
 he removed with his father to Tennessee; entered the legislature 
 of the State; and was then elected to Congress, where he served as 
 member or speaker for fourteen years. In 1839 he was chosen gov¬ 
 ernor of Tennessee, and from that position was called, at the early 
 age of forty-nine, to the presidential chair. At the head of the new 
 cabinet was placed James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. It was an of¬ 
 fice requiring high abilities; for the threatening question with Mexico 
 came at once to a crisis. As soon as the resolution to annex Texas 
 was adopted by Congress, Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washing¬ 
 ton, demanded his passports and left the country. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1845, the Texan legislature ratified the act 
 of annexation ; and the union was completed. Knowing the warlike 
 determination of Mexico, the authorities of Texas sent an immediate 
 and urgent request to the President to despatch an army for their pro¬ 
 tection. Accordingly, General Zachary Taylor was ordered to march 
 from Camp Jessup, in Western Louisiana, and occupy Texas. The 
 real question at issue between that State and Mexico was concerning 
 boundaries. The foundation of the difficulty had been laid as early as 
 
448 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Mexican revolution of 1821. By that event Mexico had achieved 
 her independence of Spain, and in rearranging her civil administra¬ 
 tion had united Coahuila and Texas — the two frontier States east of 
 the Rio Grande — under one provincial government. Such was the 
 condition of affairs at the time of the Texan rebellion of 1836. Texas, 
 being successful in her struggle with Mexico, naturally claimed that 
 her own independence carried with it the independence of Coahuila, 
 and that, therefore, the territory of the latter province became an in¬ 
 tegral part of the new Texan republic. This theory the joint legis¬ 
 lature of Texas and Coahuila made haste to put into statutory form 
 by a resolution of December 19th, 1836. Mexico, however, insisted 
 that Texas only, and not Coahuila, had revolted against her authority, 
 and that, therefore, the latter province, was still rightfully a part of 
 the Mexican dominions, Thus it came to pass that Texas — now a 
 State in the American Union—claimed the Rio Grande as her west¬ 
 ern limit, while Mexico was de¬ 
 termined to have the Nueces as 
 the separating line. The ter¬ 
 ritory between. the two rivers 
 was in dispute. The govern¬ 
 ment of the United States made 
 a proposal to settle the contro¬ 
 versy by negotiation, but the 
 authorities of Mexico scornfully 
 refused. This refusal was con¬ 
 strued by the Americans as a 
 virtual acknowledgment that 
 the Mexicans were in the 
 wrong, and that the Rio Grande 
 might justly be claimed as the 
 boundary. Instructions were 
 accordingly sent to General 
 Taylor to advance his army as 
 near to that river as circum¬ 
 stances would warrant. Under these orders he moved forward to Cor¬ 
 pus Christi, at the mouth of the 1 Nueces, established a camp, and by 
 the beginning of November, 1845, had concentrated a force of between 
 four and five thousand men. 
 
 In the following January General Taylor was ordered to advance 
 to the Rio Grande. It was known that the Mexican government had 
 resolved not to receive the American ambassador sent thither to ne- 
 
roLICS ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 449 
 
 gotiate a settlement. It had also transpired that an army of Mexicans 
 was gathering in the northern part of the country for the invasion of 
 Texas, or, at any rate, for the occupation of the 
 disputed territory. On the 8th of March the 
 American army began the advance from Corpus 
 Christi to Point Isabel, on the gulf. At that 
 place General Taylor established a depot of sup¬ 
 plies, and then pressed forward to the Rio 
 Grande. Arriving at the river a few miles 
 above the mouth, he took his station opposite 
 Matamoras and hastily erected a fortress, after¬ 
 ward named Fort Brown. 
 
 On the 26th of April, General Arista, who 
 had arrived at Matamoras on the previous day and assumed com¬ 
 mand of the Mexican forces on the frontier, notified General Tay¬ 
 lor that hostilities had begun. On the same day a company of Amer¬ 
 ican dragoons, commanded by Captain Thornton, was attacked by a 
 body of Mexicans, east of the Rio Grande , and after losing sixteen 
 men in killed and wounded, was obliged to surrender. This was the 
 first bloodshed of the war. At the same time large bodies of Mexi¬ 
 cans— marauders, infantry, and cavalry — crossed the Rio Grande be¬ 
 low Fort Brown and threatened the American lines of communication. 
 General Taylor, alarmed lest the Mexicans should make a circuit and 
 capture the stores at Point Isabel, hastened to that place and strength¬ 
 ened the defences. The fort opposite Matamoras was left under the 
 command of Major Brown with a garrison of three hundred men. The 
 withdrawal of the American general with the greater part of his forces 
 was witnessed by the Mexicans in Matamoras, who, mistaking the 
 movement for a retreat inspired by fear, were in great jubilation. 
 The Republican Monitor, a Mexican newspaper of Matamoras, pub¬ 
 lished on the following day a flaming editorial, declaring that the 
 cowardly invaders of Mexico had fled like a gang of poltroons to the 
 sea-coast and were using every exertion to get out of the country be¬ 
 fore the thunderbolt of Mexican vengeance should smite them. Ar¬ 
 ista himself was confident that the Americans, becoming alarmed at 
 their exposed position, had shrunk from the conflict and that it was only 
 necessary for him to bombard Fort Brown in order to end the war. 
 
 As soon as his supplies at Point Isabel were deemed secure, 
 General Taylor set out with a provision-train and an army of more 
 than two thousand men to return to Fort Brown. Meanwhile, the 
 Mexicans to the number of six thousand had crossed the Rio Grande 
 
 29 
 
 m i lk-* ^ini 400 .inn 
 
 SCENE OF TAYLOR’S CAMPAIGN, 
 1846 - 47 . 
 
450 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and taken a strong position at Palo Alto, directly in Taylor’s route. At 
 noon on the 8th of May the Americans fame in sight and immediately 
 joined battle. After a severe engagement of five hours’ duration the 
 Mexicans were driven from the field, with the loss of a hundred men. 
 The American artillery was served with signal effect; while the fighting 
 of the enemy was clumsy and ineffectual. Only four Americans were 
 killed and forty wounded; but among the former was the gallant and 
 much-lamented Major Ringgold of the artillery. 
 
 On the following day General Taylor resumed his march in the 
 direction of Fort Brown. When within three miles of that place, he 
 again came upon the Mexicans, who had rallied in full force to dispute 
 his advance. They had selected for their second battle-field a place 
 called Resaca de la Palma. Here an old river-bed, dry and overgrown 
 with cactus, crossed the road leading to the fort. The enemy’s artillery 
 was well posted and better served than on the previous day. The Ameri¬ 
 can lines were severely galled until the brave Captain May with his regi¬ 
 ment of dragoons charged through a storm of grape-shot, rode over the 
 Mexican batteries, sabred the gunners, and captured La Vega, the com¬ 
 manding general. The Mexicans, abandoning their guns and flinging 
 away their accoutrements, fled in a general rout. Before nightfall they 
 had put the Rio Grande between themselves and the invincible Americans. 
 On reaching Fort Brown, General Taylor found that during his absence 
 the place had been constantly bombarded by the guns of Matamoras. 
 But a brave defence had been made, which cost, with other losses and 
 suffering, the life of Major Brown, the commandant. Such was the be¬ 
 ginning of a war in which Mexico experienced a long list of humiliating 
 defeats. 
 
 When the news of the battles on the Rio Grande was borne through 
 the Union, the war spirit was everywhere aroused. Party dissensions 
 were hushed into silence. The President, in a message to Congress, noti¬ 
 fied that body that the lawless soldiery of Mexico had shed the blood of 
 American citizens on American soil. On th« 11th of May, 1846, Con¬ 
 gress promptly responded with a declaration that war already existed by 
 the act of the Mexican government. The President was authorized to 
 accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and ten million dollars 
 were placed at his disposal. War meetings were held in all parts of the 
 country, and within a few weeks nearly three hundred thousand men 
 rushed forward to enter the ranks. A grand invasion of Mexico was 
 planned by General Scott. The American forces were organized in three 
 divisions: the Army of the West, under General Kearney, to cross 
 the Rocky Mountains and conquer the northern Mexican provinces; 
 
POLK’S A D MINIS Til A TION. 
 
 451 
 
 the Army of the Centre, under General Scott as commander-in 
 chief, to march from the gulf' coast into the heart of the enemy’s country 
 the Army of Occupation, commanded by General Taylor, to subdin 
 and hold the districts on the Rio Grande. 
 
 The work of mustering the American troops was entrusted to Gen.' 
 eral Wool. By the middle of summer he succeeded in despatching to 
 General Taylor a force of nine thousand men. He then established his 
 camp at San Antonio, Texas, and from that point prepared the gathering 
 recruits for the field. Meanwhile, Taylor had resumed active operations 
 on the Rio Grande. Ten days after the battle of Resaca de la Palma he 
 crossed from Fort Brown and captured Matamoras. Soon afterward he 
 began his march up the right bank of the river and into the interior. 
 The Mexicans, grown wary of their antagonist, fell back and took post at 
 the fortified town of Monterey. To capture that place was the next object 
 of the campaign; but the American army was feeble in numbers, and 
 General Taylor was obliged to tarry near the Rio Grande until the latter 
 part of August. By that time reinforcements had arrived, increasing his 
 numbers to six thousand six hundred. With this force the march against 
 Monterey was begun; and on the 19th of September the town, defended 
 by fully ten thousand troops, under command of Ampudia, was reached 
 and invested. 
 
 The siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of the month 
 several assaults were made, in which the Americans, led by General 
 Worth, carried the fortified heights in the rear of the town. In that part 
 of the defences only the bishop’s palace—a strong building of stone—re¬ 
 mained ; and this was taken by storm on the following day. On the 
 morning of the 23d the city was successfully assaulted in front by Gen¬ 
 erals Quitman and Butler. In the face of a tremendous cannonade and 
 an incessant tempest of musket-balls discharged from the house-tops and 
 alleys, the American storming-parties charged resistlessly into the town. 
 They reached the Grand Plaza, or public square. They hoisted the vic¬ 
 torious flag of the Union. They turned upon the buildings where the 
 Mexicans were concealed; broke open the doors; charged up dark stair¬ 
 ways to the flat roofs of the houses; and drove the terrified enemy to an 
 ignominious surrender. The honors of war were granted to Ampudia, 
 who evacuated the city and retired toward the capital. The storming of 
 Monterey was a signal victory, gained against great superiority of num¬ 
 bers and advantage of position. 
 
 After the capitulation General Taylor received notice that overtures 
 of peace were about to be made by the Mexican government. He there¬ 
 fore agreed to an armistice of eight weeks, during which time neither party 
 
452 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 should renew hostilities. In reality the Mexicans had no thought of 
 peace. They employed the whole interval in warlike preparations. The 
 famous general Santa Anna was called home from his exile at Havana 
 to take the presidency of the country. In the course of the autumn a 
 Mexican army of twenty thousand men was raised and sent into the field. 
 In the mean time, the armistice had expired; and General Taylor, acting 
 under orders of the War Department, again moved forward. On the 15th 
 of November, the town of Saltillo, seventy miles south-west from Mon¬ 
 terey, was captured by the American advance under General Worth. In 
 the following month, Victoria, a city in the province of Tamaulipas, was 
 taken by the command of General Patterson. To that place General 
 Butler advanced from Monterey on the march against Tampico, on the 
 river Panuco. At Victoria, however, he learned that Tampico had 
 already capitulated to Captain Conner, commander of an American 
 flotilla. Meanwhile, General Wool, advancing with strong reinforce¬ 
 ments from San Antonio, entered Mexico, and took a position within sup¬ 
 porting distance of Monterey. It was at this juncture that General Scott 
 arrived and assumed the command of the American forces. 
 
 The Army of the West had not been idle. In June of 1846 
 General Kearney set out from Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, for 
 the conquest of New Mexico and California. After a long and wearisome 
 march he reached Santa Fe, and on the 18 th of August captured and gar¬ 
 risoned the city. The whole of New Mexico submitted without further 
 resistance. With a body of four hundred dragoons Kearney then con¬ 
 tinued his march toward the Pacific coast. At the distance of three hun¬ 
 dred miles from Santa Fe he was met by the famous Kit Carson, who 
 brought intelligence from the far West that California had already been 
 subdued. Kearney accordingly sent back three-fourths of his forces, and 
 with a party of only a hundred men made his way to the Pacific. On 
 that far-off coast stirring events had happened. 
 
 For four years Colonel John C. Fremont had been exploring the 
 country west of the Rocky Mountains. He had hoisted the American 
 flag on the highest peak of the great range, and then directed his route by 
 Salt Lake to Oregon. Turning southward into California, he received 
 despatches informing him of the impending war with Mexico. Deter¬ 
 mined to strike a blow for his country, he urged the people of California, 
 many of whom were Americans, to declare their independence. The 
 hardy frontiersmen of the Sacramento valley flocked to his standard ; and 
 a campaign was at once begun to overthrow the Mexican authority. In 
 several petty engagements the Americans were victorious over greatly 
 superior numbers. Meanwhile, Commodore Sloat, commanding an 
 
FREMONT ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 453 
 
 American fleet, had captured the town of Monterey, on the coast, eighty 
 miles south of San Francisco. A few days afterward Commodore Stock- 
 ton took command of the Pacific squadron and made himself master of 
 San Diego. Hearing of these events, Fremont raised the flag of the 
 United States instead of the flag of California, and joined the naval com¬ 
 manders in a successful movement against Los Angelos, which was taken 
 without opposition. Before the end of summer the whole of the vast 
 province was subdued. In November General Kearney arrived with his 
 company and joined Fremont and Stockton. About a month later the 
 Mexicans rose in rebellion, but were defeated on the 8th of January, 
 1847, in the decisive battle of San Gabriel, by which the authority of the 
 United States was completely established. A country large enough for 
 an empire had been conquered by a handful of resolute men. 
 
 In the mean time, Colonel Doniphan, who had been left by Kear¬ 
 ney in command of New Mexico, had made one of the most brilliant 
 movements of the war. With a body of seven hundred fearless men he 
 began a march through the enemy’s country from Santa Fe to Saltillo, a 
 distance of more than eight hundred miles. Reaching the Rio Grande on 
 Christmas day, he fought and gained the battle of Bracito; then, crossing 
 the river, captured El Paso, and in two months pressed his way to within 
 twenty miles of Chihuahua. On the banks of Sacramento Creek he met 
 the Mexicans in overwhelming numbers, and on the 28th of February 
 completely routed them. He then marched unopposed into Chihuahua— 
 a city of more than forty thousand inhabitants—and finally reached the 
 division of General Wool in safety. 
 
 As soon as General Scott arrived in Mexico he ordered a large pan 
 of the Army of Occupation to join him on the gulf for the conquest of the 
 capital. By the withdrawal of these troops from the divisions of Taylor 
 and Wool these officers were left in a very exposed and critical condition ; 
 for Santa Anna was rapidly advancing against them with an army of 
 twenty thousand men. To resist this tremendous array General Taylor 
 was able to concentrate at Saltillo a force numbering not more than six 
 thousand; and after putting sufficient garrisons in that town and Mon¬ 
 terey, his effective forces amounted to but four thousand eight hundred. 
 With this small but resolute army he marched boldly out to meet the 
 Mexican host. A favorable battle-ground was chosen at Buena Vista, 
 four miles south of Saltillo. Here Taylor posted his troops and awaited 
 the enemy. 
 
 On the 22d of February the Mexicans, twenty thousand strong, 
 came pouring through the gorges and over the hills from the direction of 
 San Luis Potosi. Santa Anna demanded a surrender, and was met with 
 
454 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 defiance. On the morning of the 23d the battle began with an effort to out¬ 
 flank the American position on the right; but the attempt was thwarted by 
 the troops of Illinois. A heavy column was then thrown against the centre, 
 only to be shattered and driven back by Captain Washington’s artillery. 
 The Mexicans next fell in great force upon the American left flank, where 
 the second regiment of Indianians, acting under a mistaken order, gave 
 way, putting the army in great peril. But the troops of Mississippi and 
 Kentucky were rallied to the breach; the men of Illinois and Indiana 
 came bravely to the support; and again the enemy was hurled back. 
 In the crisis of the battle the Mexicans made a furious and final charge 
 upon Captain Bragg’s battery; but the gunners stood at their posts un¬ 
 daunted, and the columns of lancers were scattered with terrible volleys 
 of grape-shot. A charge of American cavalry, though made at the sacri¬ 
 fice of many lives, added to the discomfiture of the foe. Against tremen¬ 
 dous odds the field was fairly won. On the night after the battle the 
 Mexicans, having lost nearly two thousand men, made a precipitate re¬ 
 treat. The American loss was also severe, amounting, in killed, wounded 
 and missing, to seven hundred and forty-six. This was the last of General 
 Taylor’s battles. He soon afterward returned to the United States, where 
 he was received with great enthusiasm. 
 
 On the 9th of March, 1847, General Scott began the last campaign 
 of the war. With a force of twelve thousand men he landed to the south 
 
 of Vera Cruz, and in three days the 
 investment of the city was completed. 
 Trenches were opened at the distance 
 of eight hundred yards; and on the 
 morning of the 22d the cannonade 
 was begun. On the water side Vera 
 Cruz was defended by the celebrated 
 castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, erected 
 by Spain in the early part of the sev¬ 
 enteenth century, at the cost of four 
 million dollars. For four days an 
 incessant storm of shot and shell from the fleet of Commodore Conner and 
 the land-batteries of Scott was poured upon the doomed castle and town. 
 Life and property were swept into a common ruin. An assault was 
 already planned, when the humbled authorities of the city proposed ca¬ 
 pitulation. On the night of the 27th terms of surrender were signed, and 
 two days afterward the American flag floated over Vera Cruz. 
 
 The route from the gulf to the capital was now open. On the 8th 
 of April General Twiggs, in command of the American advance, set out 
 
 SCENE OF SCOTT’S CAMPAIGN, 1847. 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 455 
 
 on the road to Jalapa. The main division, led by General Scott in per¬ 
 son, followed immediately. For several days there was no serious oppo¬ 
 sition; but on the 12th of the month Twiggs came upon Santa Anna, 
 who, with an army of fifteen thousand men, had taken possession of the 
 heights and rocky pass of Cerro Gordo. The position, though seemingly 
 impregnable, must be carried, or further advance was impossible. On the 
 morning of the 18th the American army was arranged for an assault which, 
 according to all the rules of war, promised only disaster and ruin. But to 
 the troops of the United States nothing now seemed too arduous, no deed too 
 full of peril. Before noonday every position of the Mexicans had been suc¬ 
 cessfully stormed and themselves driven into a precipitate rout. Nearly 
 three thousand prisoners were taken, together with forty-three pieces of 
 bronze artillery, five thousand muskets and accoutrements enough to 
 supply an army. The American loss amounted to four hundred and 
 thirty-one, that of the enemy to fully a thousand. Santa Anna escaped 
 with his life, but left behind his private papers and wooden leg. 
 
 On the next day the victorious army entered Jalapa. On the 22d 
 the strong castle of Perote, crowning a peak of the Cordilleras, was taken 
 without resistance. Here another park of artillery and a vast amount of 
 warlike stores fell into the hands of the Americans. Turning southward, 
 General Scott next led his army against the ancient and sacred city of 
 Puebla. Though inhabited by eighty thousand people, no defence was 
 made or attempted. The handful of invaders marched unopposed through 
 the gates, and on the 15th of May took up their quarters in the city. 
 The American army was now reduced to five thousand men, and General 
 Scott was obliged to pause until reinforcements could be brought forward 
 from Vera Cruz. Negotiations were again opened in the hope of peace; 
 but the Mexican authorities, stubborn and foolhardy as at the beginning, 
 preferred to fight it out. 
 
 By the 7th of August General Scott had received reinforcements, 
 swelling his numbers to nearly eleven thousand. Leaving a small garvi- 
 son in Puebla, he again began his march upon the capital. The route 
 now lay over the summit of the Cordilleras. At the passes of the moun¬ 
 tains resistance had been expected; but the advance was unopposed, and 
 the army swept through to look down on the Valley of Mexico. 
 Never before had the American soldiery beheld such a scene. Clear to 
 the horizon stretched a most living landscape of green fields, villages and 
 lakes—a picture too beautiful to be torn with the dread enginery of war. 
 
 The army pressed on to Ayotla, only fifteen miles from the capital. 
 Thus far General Scott had followed the great national road from Vera 
 Cruz to Mexico; but now, owing to the many fortifications and danger- 
 
456 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ous passes in front, it was deemed advisable to change the route. From 
 Ayotla, therefore, the army wheeled to the south, around Lake Chaleo, 
 and thence westward to San Augustine. From this place it was but ten 
 miles to the capital. The city could be approached only by causeways 
 leading across marshes and the beds of bygone lakes. At the ends of 
 these causeways were massive gates strongly defended. To the left of 
 the line of march were the almost inaccessible positions of Contreras, San 
 Antonio and Molino del Rey. Directly in front, beyond the marshes and 
 closer to the city, were the powerful defences of Churubusco and Chapul- 
 tepee, the latter a castle of great strength. These various positions were 
 held by Santa Anna with a force of more than thirty thousand Mexicans. 
 That General Scott, with an army not one-third as great in numbers, 
 could take the city seemed an impossibility. But he was resolved to 
 do it. 
 
 On the 19th of August the divisions of Generals Pillow and Twiggs 
 were ordered to storm the Mexican position at Contreras. About night¬ 
 fall the line of communications between that place and Santa Anna’s re¬ 
 serves was cut, and in the darkness of the following midnight an assault¬ 
 ing column, led by General Persifer F. Smith, moved against the enemy’s 
 camp. The attack was made at sunrise, and in seventeen minutes six 
 thousand Mexicans, commanded by General Valencia, were driven in 
 utter rout from their fortifications. The American storming-party num¬ 
 bered less than four thousand. This was the first victory of that mem¬ 
 orable 20th of August. A few hours afterward General Worth advanced 
 against San Antonio, compelled an evacuation and routed the flying gar¬ 
 rison. This was the second victory. Almost at the same time General 
 Pillow led a column against one of the heights of Churubusco where the 
 enemy had concentrated in great force. After a terrible assault the posi¬ 
 tion was carried and the Mexicans scattered like chaff*. This was the 
 third triumph. The division of General Twiggs added a fourth victory 
 by storming and holding another height of Churubusco, while the fifth 
 and last was achieved by Generals Shields and Pierce, who defeated 
 Santa Anna, coming to reinforce his garrisons. The whole Mexican army 
 was hurled back upon the remaining fortification of Chapultepec. 
 
 On the morning after the battles the Mexican authorities sent out 
 a proposition to negotiate. It was only a ruse to gain time, for the terms 
 proposed by them were such as conquerors would have dictated to the 
 vanquished. General Scott, who did not consider his army vanquished, 
 rejected the proposals with scorn, rested his men until the 7th of Septem* 
 ber, and then renewed hostilities. On the next morning General Worth 
 was ordered to take Molino del Rey and Casa de Mata, the western do* 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 457 
 
 lences of Chapultepec. These positions were held by fourteen thousand 
 Mexicans; but the Americans, after losing a fourth of their number in the 
 desperate onset, were again victorious. The guns were next brought to 
 bear on Chapultepec itself, and on the 13th of the month that frowning 
 citadel was carried by storm. Through the San Cosme and Belen gates 
 the conquering army swept resistlessly, and at nightfall the soldiers of the 
 Union were in the suburbs of Mexico. 
 
 In the darkness of that night Santa Anna and the officers of the 
 government fled from 
 the city; but not un¬ 
 til they had turned 
 loose two thousand 
 convicts to fire upon 
 the American army. 
 
 On the following 
 morning, before day- 
 dawn, forth came a 
 deputation from the 
 city to beg for mercy.' 
 
 This time the messen¬ 
 gers were in earnest; 
 but General Scott, 
 weary of trifling, 
 turned them away 
 with contempt. “ For- 
 ward!” was the order 
 that rang along the 
 American lines at sun¬ 
 rise. The war-worn 
 regiments swept into 
 the beautiful streets of general winfield scott. j 
 
 the famous city, and 
 
 at seven o’clock the flag of the United States floated over the halls of the 
 Montezumas. So ended one of the most brilliant campaigns known in 
 modern history. 
 
 On leaving his conquered capital Santa Anna, with his usual 
 treachery, turned about to attack the American hospitals at Puebla. 
 Here about eighteen hundred sick men had been left in charge of Colonel 
 Childs. For several days a gallant resistance was made by the feeble 
 garrison, until General Lane, on his march to the capital, fell upon the 
 besiegers and scattered them. It was the closing stroke of the war—a 
 
458 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 contest in which the Americans, few in number and in a far-distant 
 densely-peopled country, had gained every victory. 
 
 The military power of Mexico was now completely broken. Santa 
 Anna was a fugitive. It only remained to determine the conditions of 
 peace. In the winter of 1847-48 American ambassadors met the Mexican 
 Congress, in session at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and on the 2d of February a 
 treaty was concluded between the two nations. The compact was ratified 
 by both governments, and on the 4th of the following July President Polk 
 made a proclamation of peace. B v the terms of settlement the boundary¬ 
 line between Mexico and the United States was fixed as follows: The 
 Rio Grande from its mouth to the southern limit of New Mexico; thence 
 westward along the southern and northward along the western boundary 
 of that territory to the river Gila; thence down that river to the Colo¬ 
 rado ; thence westward to the Pacific. The whole of New Mexico and 
 Upper California was relinquished to the United States. Mexico guar¬ 
 anteed the free navigation of the Gulf of California, and the river Colo¬ 
 rado from its mouth to the confluence of the Gila. In consideration of 
 these territorial acquisitions and privileges the United States agreed to 
 surrender all places held by military occupation in Mexico, to pay into 
 the treasury of that country fifteen million dollars, and to assume all debts 
 flue from the Mexican government to American citizens, said debts not to 
 exceed three million five hundred thousand dollars. Thus at last was the 
 territory of the United States spread out in one broad belt from ocean to 
 ocean. 
 
 In the mean time the troublesome and alarming question of the 
 Oregon Boundary was finally disposed of. For more than a quarter 
 of a century the territorial limit of the United States on the northwest 
 had been a matter of controversy between the Federal government 
 and Great Britain. By the terms of the convention of 1818 the in¬ 
 ternational line had been carried westward from the northwestern ex¬ 
 tremity of the Lake of the Woods along the forty-ninth parallel to 
 the crest of the Rocky Mountains; but from that point to the Pacific 
 no agreement could be reached. As early as 1807, and again in 1818 
 and 1826, the United States had formally claimed the parallel of fifty- 
 four degrees and forty minutes; but this boundary Great Britain refused 
 to accept. By a convention, held in August of 1827, it was agreed by 
 the representatives of the two powers that the territory lying between 
 the forty-ninth parallel — which, according to the English theory, was 
 the true international line — and the parallel of fifty-four degrees and 
 forty minutes should remain open indefinitely and impartially for the 
 joint occupancy of British and American citizens. By this action th< 
 
POLK’S ADMINISTRA TIOK 
 
 459 
 
 difficulty was postponed for sixteen years; but thoughtful statesmen 
 of both nations became alarmed that a question of such magnitude 
 should remain unsettled, and negotiations were renewed. In 1843 
 the minister resident of the United States in London again proposed 
 the parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes, but the proposition 
 was rejected. In the next year the British ambassador at Washington 
 again suggested the forty-ninth degree of latitude as the true bound¬ 
 ary; but to this the government of the United States refused to ac¬ 
 cede. Then came the war with Mexico and with it the prospective 
 extension of territory on the southwest. The views of the adminis¬ 
 tration in regard to the northwestern boundary became less stringent; 
 and finally, in a convention of the two powers held on the 15th of 
 June, 1846, the question was definitely settled by a treaty. Every 
 point of the long-standing controversy was decided in favor of Great 
 Britain. The forty-ninth parallel was established as the international 
 boundary from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to the middle of 
 the channel which separates the continent from Vancouver’s Island; 
 thence southerly through the middle of said channel and of Fuca’s 
 Straits to the Pacific. Vancouver’s Island itself was awarded to Great 
 Britain; and the free navigation of the Columbia River was guaran¬ 
 teed to the Hudson Bay Company and other British subjects on the 
 same conditions as those imposed on citizens of the United States. 
 The treaty was by no means so favorable as might have been expected, 
 and by many it was denounced as actually dishonorable to the Fed¬ 
 eral government. It is certain that better terms might have been de¬ 
 manded and obtained.* 
 
 A few days after the signing of the treaty of peace with Mexico 
 an event occurred in California which spread excitement through the 
 civilized world. A laborer, employed by Captain Sutter to cut a mill- 
 race on the American fork of the Sacramento River, discovered some 
 pieces of gold in the sand where he was digging. With further search 
 other particles were found. The news spread as if borne on the wind. 
 From all quarters adventurers came flocking. Other explorations led 
 to further revelations of the precious metal. For a while there seemed 
 no end to the discoveries. Straggling gold-hunters sometimes picked 
 up in a few hours the value of five hundred dollars. The intelligence 
 went flying through the States to the Atlantic, and then to the ends 
 
 *Such was the indignation of the opponents of this treaty — especially of the leaders 
 of the Whig party — that the political battle-cry of “ Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” became 
 almost as popular a motto as u Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights” had been in the War 
 of 1812 . 
 
 32 
 
In April of 1846, Congress passed an act organizing the Smith¬ 
 sonian Institution at Washington City. Twenty-two years previ¬ 
 ously an eminent English chemist and philanthropist named James 
 Smithson* had died at Genoa, bequeathing on certain conditions a 
 large sum of money to the United States. In the fall of 1838, by 
 the death of Smithson’s nephew, the proceeds of the estate, amount¬ 
 ing to five hundred and fifteen thousand dollars, were secured by the 
 
 * Until after his graduation at Oxford in 1786, this remarkable man was known by 
 the name of James Lewis Made. Afterward, of his own accord, he chose the name of 
 his reputed father, Hugh Smithson, duke of Northumberland. 
 
 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
 
 460 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the world. Men thousands of miles away were crazed with excite¬ 
 ment. Workshops were shut up, business houses abandoned, fertile 
 farms left tenantless, offices deserted. Though the overland routes to 
 California were scarcely yet discovered, thousands of our eager adven¬ 
 turers started on the long, long journey. Before the end of 1850 San 
 Francisco had grown from a miserable village of huts to a city of 
 fifteen thousand inhabitants. By the close of 1852 the territory had 
 a population of more than a quarter of a million. The importance 
 of the gold mines of California, whose richness is not yet exhausted, 
 can hardly be overestimated. 
 
OVERLAND TO CALIFORNIA, 1849. (Pass: of the Sierras.) 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 461 
 
 agent of the national government and deposited in the mint. It had 
 been provided in the will that the bequest should be used for the 
 establishment at Washington of an institution for the increase and dif¬ 
 fusion of knowledge among men. To carry out the great design of the 
 testator a plan of organization, prepared by John Quincy Adams, was 
 laid before Congress and after some modifications adopted. 
 
 In the act of establishment it was provided that the institution 
 contemplated by Mr. Smithson should be named in his honor “ The 
 Smithsonian Institution”; that the same should be under the imme¬ 
 diate control of a Board of Regents composed of the President, Vice- 
 President, judges of the Supreme Court, and other principal officers 
 of the government; that the entire Smithsonian fund, amounting with 
 accrued interest to six hundred and fifty-five thousand dollars, should 
 be loaned forever to the United States at six per cent.; that out of the 
 proceeds, together with congressional appropriations and private gifts, 
 buildings should be provided suitable to contain a museum of nat¬ 
 ural history, a cabinet of minerals, a chemical laboratory, a gallery 
 of art, and a library. Professor Joseph Henry of Princeton College 
 was chosen secretary of the institution, and the plan of organization 
 was speedily and successfully carried out. The result has been the 
 establishment in the United States of one of the most beneficent in¬ 
 stitutions known in the history of mankind. The Smithsonian Con¬ 
 tributions to Knoivledge already amount to eighteen volumes quarto; 
 and the future is destined to yield still richer results in widening the 
 boundaries of human thought and increasing the happiness of men. 
 
 In the first summer of President Polk*’s administration the coun¬ 
 try was called to mourn the death of General Jackson. The veteran 
 warrior and statesman lived to the age of seventy-eight, and died at 
 his home, called the Hermitage, in Tennessee. On the 23d of Feb¬ 
 ruary, 1848, ex-President John Quincy Adams died at the city of 
 Washington. At the time of his decease he was a member of the 
 House of Representatives. He was struck with paralysis in the very 
 seat from which he had so many times electrified the nation with his 
 eloquence. 
 
 In 1848 Wisconsin, the last of the five great States formed from 
 the North-western Territory, was admitted into the Union. The new 
 commonwealth came with a population of two hundred and fifty thou¬ 
 sand and an area of nearly fifty-four thousand square miles. By estab¬ 
 lishing the St. Croix instead of the Mississippi as the western boundary 
 of the State, Wisconsin lost a considerable district rightfully belonging 
 to her territory. 
 
462 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Near the close of Polk’s administration an important addition 
 was made to the President’s cabinet by the establishment of the De¬ 
 partment of the Interior. To the three original departments of 
 the government, as organized during the administration of Washing¬ 
 ton, had already been added the offices of Postmaster-General and 
 Secretary of the Navy. The Attorney-General had also come to be 
 recognized as a regular member of the cabinet. With the growth 
 and development of the nation it was found that the duties belong¬ 
 ing to the departments of state and the treasury had become so man¬ 
 ifold as to require the establishment of a separate office. A certain 
 part of these duties were accordingly detached, and the new “ Home 
 Department”—afterwards called Department of the Interior — was 
 constituted by act of Congress. In the beginning of the next admin¬ 
 istration the new secretaryship was assigned to General Thomas Ewing 
 of Ohio. 
 
 Another presidential election was at hand. Three well-known 
 candidates were presented for the suffrages of the people. General 
 Lewis Cass of Michigan was nominated by the Democrats, and Gen¬ 
 eral Zachary Taylor by the Whigs. As the candidate of the new 
 Free-Soil party, ex-President Martin Van Buren was put forward. 
 The rise of this new party was traceable to a question concerning the 
 territory acquired by the Mexican War. In 1846 David Wilmot of 
 Pennsylvania brought before Congress a bill to 'prohibit slavery in all 
 the territory which might be secured by treaty with Mexico. The 
 bill was defeated; but the advocates of the measure, which was called 
 the Wilmot Proviso, formed themselves into a party, and in June 
 of 1848 nominated Mr. Van Buren for the presidency. The real 
 contest, however, lay between Generals Cass and Taylor. The posi¬ 
 tion of the two leading parties on the question of slavery in the new 
 territories was as yet not clearly defined, and the election was left to 
 turn on the personal popularity of the candidates. The memory of 
 his recent victories in Mexico made General Taylor the favorite with 
 the people, and he was elected by a large majority. As Vice-Presi¬ 
 dent, Millard Fillmore of New York was chosen. So closed the agi¬ 
 tated but not inglorious administration of President Polk. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 463 
 
 CHAPTER LV III. 
 
 AD MINIS TR A TIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE, 1849-1853. 
 
 T HE new President was a Virginian by birth, a Kentuckian by breed¬ 
 ing, a soldier by profession. In 1808 he left the farm to accept a 
 commission in the army. During the war of 1812 he distinguished him¬ 
 self in the North-west, especially in defending Fort Harrison against the 
 Red men. In the 
 Seminole War he bore 
 a conspicuous part, but 
 earned his greatest re¬ 
 nown in Mexico. His 
 reputation, though 
 strictly military, was 
 enviable, and his cha¬ 
 racter above reproach. 
 
 His administration be¬ 
 gan with a violent agi¬ 
 tation on the question 
 of slavery in the terri¬ 
 tories; California, the 
 El Dorado of the West, 
 was the origin of the 
 dispute. 
 
 In his first mes¬ 
 sage President Taylor 
 expressed his sympa¬ 
 thy with the Califor¬ 
 nians, and advised 
 them to form a State president taylor. 
 
 government prepara¬ 
 tory to admission into the Union. The advice was promptly accepted. 
 A convention of delegates was held at Monterey in September of 1849. 
 A constitution prohibiting slavey was framed, submitted to the people, 
 und adopted with but little opposition. Peter H. Burnet was elected 
 governor of the Territory; members of a general assembly were chosen; 
 and on the 20th of December, 1849, the new government was organized 
 
464 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EXITED STATES. 
 
 at San Jose. At the same time a petition in the usual form was for¬ 
 warded to Congress asking for the admission of California as a State. 
 
 The presentation of the petition was the signal for a bitter contro¬ 
 versy. As in the case of the admission of Missouri, the members of Con¬ 
 gress, and to a great extent the people, were sectionally divided. But 
 now the position of the parties was reversed; the proposition to admit the 
 new State was favored by the representatives of the North and opposed 
 by those of the South. The ground of the opposition was that with the 
 extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific the right to in¬ 
 troduce slavery into California was guaranteed by the general government, 
 and that therefore the proposed constitution of the State ought to be re¬ 
 jected. The reply of the North was that the argument could apply only 
 to a part of the new State, that the Missouri Compromise had respect only 
 to the Louisiana purchase, and that the people of California had framed 
 their constitution in their own way. Such was the issue; and the debates 
 grew more and more violent, until the stability of the Union was seriously 
 endangered. 
 
 Other exciting questions added fuel to the controversy. Texas 
 claimed New Mexico as a part of her territory, and the claim was resisted 
 by the people of Santa Fe, who desired a separate government. The peo¬ 
 ple of the South complained bitterly that fugitive slaves, escaping from 
 their masters, were aided and encouraged in the North. The opponents 
 of slavery demanded the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of 
 Columbia. Along the whole line of controversy there was a spirit of 
 suspicion, recrimination and anger. 
 
 The illustrious Henry Clay appeared as a peacemaker. In the 
 spring of 1850 he was appointed chairman of a committee of thirteen, to 
 whom all the questions under discussion were referred. On the 9th of 
 May he brought forward, as a compromise covering all the points in dis¬ 
 pute, the Omnibus Bill, of which the provisions were as follows: First, 
 the admission of California as a free State; second , the formation of new 
 States, not exceeding four in number, out of the territory of Texas, said 
 States to permit or exclude slavery as the people should determine; third, 
 the organization of territorial governments for New Mexico and Utah, 
 without conditions on the question of slavery; fourth , the establishment 
 of the present boundary between Texas and New Mexico, and the pay¬ 
 ment to the former for surrendering the latter the sum of ten million dol¬ 
 lars from the national treasury; ffth, the enactment of a more rigorous 
 law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; sixth, the abolition of the slave- 
 trade in the District of Columbia. 
 
 When the Omnibus Bill was laid before Congress, the debates began 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF AJS'D FILLMORE. 
 
 465 
 
 anew, and seemed likely to be interminable. While the discussion was at 
 its height and the issue still undecided, President Taylor fell sick, and 
 died on the 9th of July, 1850. In accordance with the provisions of the 
 constitution, Mr. Fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered upon 
 the duties of the presidency. A new cabinet was formed, with Daniel 
 Webster at the head as secretary of state. Notwithstanding the death of 
 the chief magistrate, the government moved on without disturbance. 
 
 The compromise proposed by Mr. Clay and sustained by his elo¬ 
 quence was at length 
 approved by Congress. 
 
 On the 18th of Sep¬ 
 tember the last clause 
 was adopted, and the 
 whole received the im¬ 
 mediate sanction of the 
 President. T h e ex¬ 
 citement in the coun¬ 
 try rapidly abated, and 
 the distracting contro¬ 
 versy seemed at an end. 
 
 Such was the last, and 
 perhaps the greatest, 
 of those pacific mea¬ 
 sures originated and 
 carried through Con¬ 
 gress by the genius 
 of Henry Clay. He 
 shortly afterward bade 
 adieu to the Senate, 
 and sought at his be¬ 
 
 loved Ashland a brief henry clay. 
 
 rest from the arduous 
 cares of public life. 
 
 The passage of the Omnibus Bill brought a political quiet; but 
 the moral convictions of very few men were altered by its provisions. 
 Public opinion remained as before: in the North, a general, indefinite, 
 but growing hostility to slavery; in the South, a fixed and resolute 
 purpose to defend and extend that institution. To the I lesidentp 
 whose party was in the ascendency in most of the Free States, the 
 measure was fatal; for although his cabinet had advised him to sigq 
 the bill, the Whigs were at heart opposed to the fugitive slave law. 
 
 30 
 
466 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and when he gave his assent they turned coldly from him. In the 
 Whig National convention, two years afterwards, although the policy 
 of the President was approved and the compromise measures ratified 
 by a vote of two hundred and twenty-seven against sixty, not twenty 
 Northern votes could be obtained for his renomination. Thus do 
 political parties punish their leaders for hesitating to espouse a prin¬ 
 ciple which the parties themselves are afraid to avow. 
 
 The year 1850 was marked by a lawless attempt on the part of 
 some American adventurers to gain possession of Cuba. It was 
 thought that the people of that island were anxious to throw off the 
 Spanish yoke and to annex themselves to the United States. In order 
 to encourage such a movement, General Lopez organized an expedi¬ 
 tion in the South, and on the 19th of May, 1850, effected a landing 
 at Cardenas, a port of Cuba. But there was no uprising in his -favor; 
 neither Cubans nor Spanish soldiers joined his standard, and he was 
 obliged to seek safety by returning to Florida. Renewing the attempt 
 in the following year, he and his band of four hundred and eighty 
 men were attacked, defeated and captured by an overwhelming force 
 of Spaniards. Lopez and the ringleaders were taken to Havana, 
 tried, condemned and executed. 
 
 The first annual message of the President was a document of 
 great ability. Among the many important measures pressed upon the 
 attention of Congress were the following: a system of cheap and uni¬ 
 form postage; the establishment, in connection with the Department 
 of the Interior, of a Bureau of Agriculture; liberal appropriations for 
 the improvement of rivers and harbors; the building of a national 
 asylum for disabled and destitute seamen; a permanent tariff with 
 specific duties on imports and discrimination in favor of American 
 manufactures; the opening of communication between the Mississippi 
 and the Pacific coast; a settlement of the land difficulties in Califor¬ 
 nia; an act for the retirement of supernumerary officers of the army 
 and navy; and a board of commissioners to adjust the claims of pri¬ 
 vate citizens against the government of the United States. Only two 
 of these important recommendations—the asylum for sailors and the 
 settlement of the land claims in California—were carried into effect. 
 For the President’s party were in a minority in Congress; and the 
 majority refused or neglected to approve his measures. 
 
 In 1852 a serious trouble arose with England. By the terms 
 of former treaties the coast-fisheries of Newfoundland belonged ex¬ 
 clusively to Great Britain. But outside of a line drawn three miles 
 from the shore American fisherman enjoyed equal rights and privi- 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 467 
 
 leges. Now the dispute arose as to whether the line should be drawn 
 from one headland to another so as to give all the bays and inlets to 
 England, or whether it should be made to conform to the irregulari¬ 
 ties of the coast. Under the latter construction American fishing- 
 vessels would have equal claims in the bays and harbors; but this 
 privilege was denied by Great Britain, and the quarrel rose to such a 
 height that both nations sent men-of-war to the contested waters. But 
 reason triumphed over passion, and in 1804 the difficulty was happily 
 settled by negotiation; the right to take fish in any of the bays of 
 the British possessions was conceded to American fishermen. 
 
 During the summer of 1852 the celebrated Hungarian patriot 
 Louis Kossuth made the tour of the United States. Austria and 
 Russia had united against his native land and overthrown her liber¬ 
 ties. He came to plead the cause of Hungary before the American 
 people, and to obtain such aid as might be privately furnished to his 
 oppressed countrymen. Every-where he was received with expres¬ 
 sions of sympathy and good-will. His mission was successful, though 
 the long-established policy of the United States forbade the govern¬ 
 ment to interfere on behalf of the Hungarian patriots. 
 
 About this time the attention of the American people was di¬ 
 rected in a special manner to explorations in the Arctic Ocean. In 
 1845 Sir John Franklin, one of the bravest of English seamen, went 
 on a voyage of discovery to the extreme North. He believed in the 
 possibility of passing through an open polar sea into the Pacific. 
 Years went by, and no tidings came from the daring sailor. It was 
 only known that he had passed the country of Esquimaux. Other 
 expeditions were despatched in search, but returned without success. 
 Henry Grinnell, a wealthy merchant of New York, fitted out several 
 vessels at his own expense, put them under command of Lieutenant 
 De Haven, and sent them to the North; but in vain. The govern¬ 
 ment came to Mr. Grinnell’s aid. In 1853 a new Arctic squadron 
 was equipped; the command of which was given to Dr. Elisha Kent 
 Kane; but the expedition, though rich in scientific results, returned 
 without the discovery of Franklin. 
 
 During the administrations of Taylor and Fillmore the country 
 was called to mourn the loss of many distinguished men. On the 31st 
 of March, 1850, Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina passed 
 away. His death was much lamented, especially in his own State, to 
 whose interests he had devoted the energies of his life. His earnest¬ 
 ness and zeal and powers of debate have placed him in the front rank 
 ©f American orators. At the age of sixty-eight he fell from his place 
 
468 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 like a scarred oak of the forest never to rise again. Then followed 
 the death of the President; and then, on the 28th of June, 1852, 
 Henry Clay, having fought his last battle, sank to rest. On the 24th 
 of the following October the illustrious Daniel Webster died at his 
 
 home at Marshfield, 
 Massachusetts. The 
 place of secretary of 
 State, made vacant 
 by his death, was 
 conferred on Edward 
 Everett. 
 
 In Europe the 
 news of Lopez’s ri¬ 
 diculous invasion of 
 Cuba created great 
 excitement. Not¬ 
 withstanding a dis¬ 
 tinct disavowal of 
 the whole proceeding 
 on the part of the 
 Federal government, 
 notwithstanding the 
 immediate dismissal 
 of the officer at New 
 Orleans who had al¬ 
 lowed the expedition 
 of Lopez to escape 
 from that port,—the governments of Great Britain and France affec¬ 
 ted to believe that the covert aim and purpose of the United States 
 was to acquire Cuba by conquest. Acting upon this presumption the 
 British and French ministers proposed to the American government 
 to enter into a Tripartite Treaty —so called—in which each of the con¬ 
 tracting nations was to disclaim then and forever all intention of pos¬ 
 sessing Cuba. To this proposal Mr. Everett replied in one of the 
 most masterly State papers on record. Great Britain and France were 
 informed that the annexation of Cuba was regarded by the United 
 States as a measure hazardous and impolitic; that entire good faith 
 would be kept with Spain and with all nations; but that the Federal 
 government did not recognize in any European power the right to 
 meddle with affairs purely American, and that, in accordance with 
 the doctrine set forth by President Monroe, any such interference 
 
 JOHN C. CALHOUN. 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 469 
 
 would be resented as an affront to the sovereignty of the United 
 States. 
 
 As Fillmore’s administration drew to a close the political parties 
 again marshaled their forces. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 
 appeared as the candidate of the Democratic party, and General Win¬ 
 field Scott as the choice of the Whigs. The question at issue before 
 the country was the Compromise Act of 1850. But the parties, in¬ 
 stead of being divided, were for once agreed as to the wisdom of that 
 measure. Both the Whig and Democratic platforms stoutly reaffirmed 
 the justice of the Omnibus Bill, by which the dissensions of the coun¬ 
 try had been quieted. A third party arose, however, whose members, 
 both Whigs and Democrats, doubted the wisdom of the compromise 
 of 1850, and declared that all the Territories of the United States 
 ought to be free. John P. Hale of New Hampshire was put forward 
 as the candidate of this Free Soil party. Mr. Pierce was elected by a 
 large majority, and William R. King of Alabama was chosen Vice- 
 President. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION, 1853-1857. 
 
 rnHE new chief magistrate was a native of New Hampshire, a graduate 
 -L of Bowdoin College, a lawyer, a politician, a general in the Mexican 
 War, a statesman of considerable abilities. Mr. King, the Vice-Presi¬ 
 dent, had for a long time represented Alabama in the Senate of the United 
 States. On account of failing health he was sojourning in the island of 
 Cuba at the time of the inauguration, and there he received the oath of 
 office. Growing still more feeble, he returned to his own State, where 
 he died on the 18th of April, 1853. As secretary of state under the new 
 administration William L. Marcy of New York was chosen. 
 
 In the summer of 1853 the first corps of engineers was sent out by 
 the government to explore the route for a Pacific Railroad. The 
 enterprise was at first regarded as visionary, then believed in as possible, 
 and finally undertaken and accomplished. In the same year that marked 
 the beginning of the project the disputed boundary between New Mexico 
 and Chihuahua was satisfactorily settled. The maps on which the former 
 treaties with Mexico had been based were found to be erroneous. Santa 
 
470 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Anna, who had again become president of the Mexican republic, at¬ 
 tempted to take advantage of the error, and sent an army to occupy 
 the territory between the true and the false boundary. This action 
 was resisted by the authorities of New Mexico and the United States, 
 and a second Mexican war seemed imminent. The difficulty was ad¬ 
 justed, however, by the purchase of the doubtful claim of Mexico. 
 This transaction, known as the Gadsden Purchase, led to the erec¬ 
 tion of the new Territory of Arizona. 
 
 The first year of Pierce’s administration was signalized by the 
 opening of intercourse between the United States and the great em¬ 
 pire of Japan. Hitherto the Japanese ports had been closed against 
 the vessels of Christian nations. In order to remove this foolish and 
 injurious restriction Commodore Perry, a son of Oliver H. Perry of 
 the war of 1812, sailed with his squadron into the Bay of Yeddo. 
 When warned to depart, he explained to the Japanese officers the sin¬ 
 cere desire of the United States to enter into a commercial treaty with 
 the emperor. After much delay and hesitancy consent was obtained to 
 hold an interview with that august personage. Accordingly, on the 
 14th of July, the commodore with his officers obtained an audience 
 with the dusky monarch of the East, and presented a letter from the 
 President of the United States. Still the government of Japan was 
 wary of accepting the proposition, and it was not until the spring of 
 1854 that a treaty could be concluded. The privileges of commerce 
 were thus conceded to American merchant vessels, and two ports of 
 entry were designated for their use. 
 
 On the very day of Commodore Perry’s introduction to the em¬ 
 peror of Japan the Crystal Palace was opened in the city of New York 
 for the second World’s Fair. The palace itself was a marvel in ar¬ 
 chitecture, being built exclusively of iron and glass. Thousands of 
 specimens of the arts and manufactures of all civilized nations were 
 put on exhibition within the spacious building. The enterprise and 
 inventive genius of the whole country were quickened into a new 
 life by the beautiful and instructive display. International exhibitions 
 are among the happiest fruits of an enlightened age. 
 
 During the administration of Pierce the country was frequently 
 disturbed by the filibustering expeditions of General William Walker 
 into Central America. This audacious and unscrupulous adventurer 
 began his operations in 1853 by escaping with a band of followers 
 from the port of San Francisco and making a descent on La Paz in 
 Lower California. In the spring of 1854 he marched overland with a 
 hundred men and raised the standard of revolt in the state of Sonora, 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 471 
 
 but the company was dispersed and himself made prisoner. In May 
 of the same year he was tried by the authorities of San Francisco and 
 acquitted. But not satisfied with his previous experience, he again 
 raised a band of sixty-two followers and proceeded to Central America. 
 Being joined by a regiment of natives he fought and gained a battle 
 at Rivas, on the 29th of June, 1855. In a second battle at Virgin 
 Bay he was also successful. Fighting continued until the following 
 summer when his influence had become so powerful that he was 
 elected president of Nicaraugua. Then came a change in his fortunes. 
 A great insurrection ensued; and the other Central American states, 
 assisted by the Vanderbilt steam-ship company, whose rights he had 
 violated, combined against him and on the 1st of May, 1857, he was 
 again made prisoner. But in a short time he was foot-loose at New 
 Orleans, where he organized a third company of adventurers — men 
 who had everything to gain and nothing to lose — and on the 25th of 
 November succeeded in reaching Punta Arenas, Nicaraugua. 
 
 Within less than a month, however, he was again obliged to sur¬ 
 render to Commodore Paulding of the United States navy. For a 
 while the great filibuster was a prisoner at New York; but getting his 
 liberty, he continued his scheming, and in June of 1860 a third time 
 reached Central America at the head of a considerable force. This 
 time the descent was made at Truxillo, Honduras. But the president 
 of that state, assisted by a British man-of-war, soon overpowered and 
 captured the whole band. On the 3d of September Walker was tried 
 by a court-martial at Truxillo, condemned, and shot. The courage 
 with which he met his fate has half redeemed his forfeited fame and 
 left after times in doubt whether he shall be called fanatic or hero.* 
 
 To this period also belongs the history of what is known in 
 American diplomacy as the Martin Koszta Affair. Martin Koszta 
 was a leader in the Hungarian revolt against Austria, in 1849. After 
 the rebellion was suppressed he fled to Turkey whence he was demanded 
 by the Austrian government as a refugee and traitor. The Turkish 
 authorities, however, refused to give him up but agreed that he should 
 be sent into exile to some foreign land never to return. Koszta chose 
 the United States as his asylum, came hither, and took out partial but 
 not complete papers of naturalization. In 1854 he returned to Tur¬ 
 key, contrary — as it was alleged — to his former promise. At the city 
 of Smyrna he received a passport from the American consul residing 
 there, and went ashore. But the Austrian consul at Smyrna, hearing 
 
 *It will be observed that the narrative of Walker’s exploits and end, extends nearlj 
 to the conclusion of Buchanan’s administration. 
 
472 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 of Koszta’s arrival and having no power to arrest him on shore, induced 
 some bandits to seize him and throw him into the water of the bay 
 where a boat in waiting picked him up and carried him on board an 
 Austrian frigate. The American officials immediately demanded his 
 release, which was refused. Thereupon Captain Duncan Ingraham, 
 commanding the American sloop of war St. Louis, loaded his guns, 
 pointed them at the Austrian vessel, and was about to make hot work, 
 when it was agreed by all parties that Koszta should be put in charge 
 of the French government until his nationality should be decided. In 
 this condition of affairs the question was given over for discussion to 
 Baron Hiilseman—the Austrian minister at Washington—and William 
 L. Marcy, the American secretary of state. The correspondence was 
 one of the ablest on record and extended, before its termination, to 
 almost every question affecting naturalization and citizenship, and in¬ 
 deed to many other important topics of international law. Mr. Marcy 
 was completely triumphant in his argument and Koszta was remanded 
 to the United States. Of so much importance is the life of one man , 
 when it involves the great question of human rights. 
 
 In the years 1853-54, the peaceable relations of the United 
 States and Spain were again endangered by Cuban difficulties. Presi¬ 
 dent Pierce believed that owing to the financial embarrassment of the 
 Spanish government, Cuba might now be purchased at a reasonable 
 price and annexed to the United States. The delicate business of ne¬ 
 gotiating was intrusted at first to Mr. Soule, the American ministei 
 at Madrid. But afterwards James Buchanan and John Y. Mason were 
 added to the mission. A convention of the ambassadors of the vari¬ 
 ous governments concerned was held at Ostend, and an important in¬ 
 strument was there drawn up — chiefly by Mr. Buchanan — known as 
 the Ostend Manifesto. The document was chiefly devoted to an 
 elaborate statement of the arguments in favor of the purchase and an¬ 
 nexation of Cuba by the United States, as a measure of sound wisdom 
 to both the Spanish and American governments. But nothing of prac¬ 
 tical importance resulted from the embassy or the manifesto. 
 
 And now the great domain lying west of Minnesota, Iowa and 
 Missouri was to be organized i. to territorial governments. Already 
 into these vast regions the tide of immigration was pouring, and it be¬ 
 came necessary to provide for the future. In January of 1854, Sen¬ 
 ator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois brought before the Senate of tha 
 United States a proposition to organize the territories of Kansas and 
 Nebraska. In the bill reported for this purpose a clause Avas inserted 
 providing that the people of the two Territories, in forming theii con- 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 473 
 
 etitutions, should decide for themselves whether the new States snoula be 
 free or slaveholding. This was a virtual repeal of the Missouri Com¬ 
 promise, for both the new territories lay north of the parallel of 
 thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes. Thus by a single stroke the 
 old settlement of the slavery question was to be undone. From Jan¬ 
 uary until May, Mr. Douglas’s report, known as the Kansas-Ne- 
 BRASKA Bill, was debated in Congress. All the bitter sectional 
 antagonisms of the past were aroused in full force. The bill was 
 violently opposed by a majority of the representatives from the East 
 and North; but the minority, uniting with the congressmen of the 
 South, enabled Douglas to carry his measure through Congress, and 
 in May of 1854 the bill received the sanction of the President. 
 
 Kansas itself now became a battle-field for the contending par¬ 
 ties. Whether the new State should admit slavery now depended upon 
 the vote of the people. Wherefore both factions made a rush for the 
 territory in order to secure a majority. Kansas was soon filled with 
 an agitated mass of people, thousands of whom had been sent thither 
 to vote. An election held in November of 1854 resulted in the choice 
 of a pro-slavery delegate to Congress, and in the general territorial 
 election of the following year the same party was triumphant. The 
 State Legislature thus chosen assembled at Lecompton, organized the 
 government and framed a constitution permitting slavery. The Free 
 Soil party, declaring the general election to have been illegal on ac¬ 
 count of fraudulent voting, assembled in convention at Topeka, framed 
 a constitution excluding slavery, and organized a rival government. 
 Civil war broke out between the factions. From the autumn of 1855 
 until the following summer the Territory was the scene of constant 
 turmoil and violence. On the 3d of September the President ap¬ 
 pointed John W. Geary of Pennsylvania military governor of Kansas, 
 with full powers to restore order and punish lawlessness. On his ar¬ 
 rival the hostile parties were quieted and peace restored. But the 
 agitation in the Territory had already extended to all parts of the 
 Union, and became the issue on which the people divided in the presi¬ 
 dential election of 1856. 
 
 The parties made ready for the contest. James Buchanan of 
 Pennsylvania v r as nominated as the Democratic candidate. By plant¬ 
 ing himself on a platform of principles in which the doctrines of the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill were distinctly reaffirmed, he was able to secure 
 heavy vote both North and South. For many Northern Democrats, 
 /hough opposed to slavery, held firmly to the opinion that the people 
 of every Territory ought to have the right to decide the question for 
 
474 
 
 BISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 themselves. As the candidate of the Free Soil or People’s party, 
 John C. Fremont of California was brought forward. The exclusion 
 of slavery from all the Territories of the United States by congres- 
 sional action was the distinctive principle of the Free Soil platform. 
 Meanwhile, an American or Know-Nothing party had arisen in the 
 country, the leaders of which, anxious to ignore the slavery question 
 and to restrict foreign influences in the nation, nominated Millard Fill¬ 
 more for the presidency. But the slavery question could not be put 
 aside; on that issue the people were really divided. A large majority 
 decided in favor of Mr. Buchanan for the presidency, while the choice 
 for the vice-presidency fell on John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 1857-1861. 
 
 J AMES BUCHANAN was a native of Pennsylvania, born on the 
 13th of April, 1791, educated for the profession of law. In 1831 
 he was appointed minister to Russia, was afterward elected to the 
 Senate of the United States, and from that position was called to the 
 office of secretary of state under President Polk. In 1853 he received 
 the appointment of minister to Great Britain, and resided at London 
 until his nomination for the presidency. As secretary of state in the 
 new cabinet, General Lewis Cass of Michigan was chosen. 
 
 A few days after the inauguration of the new chief magistrate, 
 the Supreme Court of the United States delivered the celebrated opin¬ 
 ion known in American history as the Dred Scott Decision. Dred 
 Scott, a negro, had been held as a slave by Dr. Emerson of Missouri, 
 a surgeon in the United States army. On the removal of Emerson to 
 Rock Island, Illinois, and afterwards, in 1836, to Fort Snelling, Min¬ 
 nesota, Scott was taken along; and at the latter place he and a negro 
 woman, who had been bought by the surgeon, were married. Two 
 children \yere born of the marriage, and then the whole family were 
 taken back to St. Louis and sold. Dred thereupon brought suit for 
 his freedom. The cause was heard in the circuit and supreme courts 
 of Missouri, and, in May of 1854, was appealed to the Supreme Court 
 of the United States. After a delay of nearly three years a decision 
 was finally reached in March of 1857. Chief-Justice Taney, speaking 
 
B UCHANAN'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 475 
 
 for the court, decided that negroes, whether free or slave, were not cit¬ 
 izens of the United States, and that they could not become such by any 
 process known to the Constitution; that under the laws of the United 
 States a negro could neither sue nor be sued, and that therefore the 
 court had no jurisdiction of Dred Scott’s cause; that a slave was to 
 be regarded in the light of a personal chattel, and that he might be 
 removed from place to place by his owner as any other piece of prop¬ 
 erty; that the Constitution gave to every slave-holder the right of re¬ 
 moving to or through any State or Territory with his slaves, and of 
 returning at his will with them to a State where slavery was recog¬ 
 nized by law; and that therefore the Missouri Compromise of 1820, 
 as well as the compromise measures of 1850, was unconstitutional and 
 void. In these opinions six of the associate justices of the supreme 
 bench—Wayne, Nelson, Grier, Daniel, Campbell, and Catron—con¬ 
 curred; while two associates—Judges McLean and Curtis—dissented. 
 The decision of the majority, which was accepted as the opinion of 
 the court, gave great satisfaction to the ultra slave-holding sentiment 
 of the South, but excited in the North thousands of indignant com¬ 
 ments and much bitter opposition. 
 
 In the first year of Buchanan’s administration there was a Mor¬ 
 mon rebellion in Utah. The difficulty arose from an attempt to ex¬ 
 tend the judicial system of the United States over the Territory. Thus 
 far Brigham Young, the Mormon governor, had had his own way of 
 administering justice. The community of Mormons was organized on 
 a plan very different from that existing in other Territories, and many 
 usages had grown up in Utah which were repugnant to the laws of 
 the country. When, therefore, a Federal judge was sent to preside 
 in the Territory, he was resisted, insulted and driven violently from 
 the seat of justice. The other officials of the Federal government 
 were also expelled, and the Territory became the scene of a reign 
 of terror. The Mormons, however, attempted a justification of their 
 conduct on the ground that the character of the United States offi¬ 
 cers had been so low and vicious as to command no respect. But 
 the excuse was deemed insufficient, and Brigham Young was super¬ 
 seded in the'governorship by Alfred Gumming, superintendent of 
 Indian affairs on the Upper Missouri. Judge Delana Eckels of In¬ 
 diana was appointed chief-justice of the Territory; and an army of 
 two thousand five hundred men was organized and despatched to 
 Utah to put down lawlessness by force. 
 
 But Young and the Mormon elders were in no humor to give 
 up their authority without a struggle. The approaching American 
 
476 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 army was denounced as a horde of barbarians, and preparations were 
 made for resistance. In September of 1857 the national forces reached 
 the Territory; and on the 6th of October a company of Mormon ran¬ 
 gers made good the threats of Young by attacking and destroying 
 most of the supply trains of the army. Winter came on, and the 
 Federal forces, under command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, 
 were obliged to find quarters on Black’s Fork, near Fort Bridges. 
 Meanwhile, however, the President had despatched Thomas L. Kane 
 of Pennsylvania with conciliatory letters to the Mormons. Going by 
 way of California, he reached Utah in the spring of 1858, and in a 
 short time succeeded in bringing about a good understanding between 
 Governor Cumming and the insurgents. In the latter part of May, 
 Governor Powell of Kentucky and Major McCulloch of Texas ar¬ 
 rived at the quarters of the army, bearing from the President a proc¬ 
 lamation of pardon to all who would submit to the national authority. 
 The passions of the Mormons had by this time somewhat subsided 
 and they accepted the overture. In the fall of 1858 the army pro¬ 
 ceeded to Salt Lake City, but was soon afterwards quartered at Camp 
 Floyd, forty miles distant. The Federal forces remained at this place 
 until order was entirely restored, and in May of 1860 were withdrawn 
 from the Territory. 
 
 Early in 1858 an American vessel, while innocently exploring 
 the Paraguay Biver, in South America, was fired on by a jealous gar¬ 
 rison. When reparation for the insult was demanded, none was given, 
 and the government of the United States was obliged to send out a 
 fleet to obtain satisfaction. A commissioner was sent with the squad¬ 
 ron who was empowered to offer liberal terms of settlement for the 
 injury. The authorities of Paraguay quailed before the American 
 flag, and suitable apologies were made for the wrong which had been 
 committed. 
 
 The 5th of August, 1858, was a memorable day in the history 
 of the world. On that day was completed the laying of the first 
 telegraphic cable across the Atlantic Ocean. The successful ac¬ 
 complishment of-this great work was due in a large measure to the 
 energy and genius of Cyrus W. Field, a wealthy merchant of New 
 York. The cable, one thousand six hundred and forty miles in 
 length, was stretched from Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, to Valentia 
 Bay, Ireland. Telegraphic communication was thus established be¬ 
 tween the Old World and the New, and the fraternal greetings of 
 peaceful nations were for the first time transmitted through the 
 depths of the sea. 
 
B V CHAN AN ’S ADMINISTllA TION. 
 
 477 
 
 In 1858 Minnesota was added to the Union. The area of the new 
 State was a little more than eighty-one thousand square miles, and its 
 population at the date of admission a hundred and fifty thousand souls. 
 In the next year Ore¬ 
 gon, the thirty-third 
 State, was admitted, 
 with a population of 
 forty-eight thousand, 
 and an area of eighty 
 thousand square miles. 
 
 On the 4th of the pre¬ 
 ceding March General 
 Sam Houston of Texas 
 bade adieu to the Sen¬ 
 ate of the United 
 States and retired to 
 private life. His ca¬ 
 reer had been marked 
 by the strangest vicis¬ 
 situdes. He was a 
 Virginian by birth, 
 but his youth was 
 hardened among the 
 mountains of Tennes¬ 
 see. He gained a mil¬ 
 itary fame in the Sem- general sam Houston. 
 
 in ole War, then rose 
 
 to political distinction, and was elected governor of his adopted State. 
 Overshadowed with a domestic calamity, he suddenly resigned his office, 
 left his home, and exiled himself among the Cherokees, by whom he was 
 made a chief. Afterward he went to Texas, joined the patriots, and be¬ 
 came a leading spirit in the struggle for independence. It was he who 
 commanded in the decisive battle of San Jacinto; he who became first 
 president of Texas, and also her first representative in the Senate of the 
 United States. Through all the misfortunes, dangers and trials of his 
 life his character stood like adamant. 
 
 In the fall of 1859 the people of the United States were called 
 to mourn the death of Washington Irving, the Prince of Amer¬ 
 ican Letters. For full fifty years the powers of his sublime genina 
 had been unremittingly devoted to the great work of creating for his 
 native land a literature that should adorn and glorify his own and 
 
478 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 after ages. On both sides of the Atlantic, in every civilized country, 
 his name had become familiar as a household word. He it was, first 
 of all, who wrung from the reluctant and proscriptive reviews of 
 
 England and Scot¬ 
 land an acknowledg ¬ 
 ment of the power 
 and originality of 
 Amercan genius. The 
 literature of the New 
 World was no longer 
 a scoff and a by-word 
 when Murray, the 
 bookseller of London, 
 was obliged to pay 
 for the manuscript of 
 “ Bracebridge Hall ” 
 —which he had not 
 yet seen—the sum of 
 a thousand guineas. 
 Except Sir Walter 
 Scott and Lord Byron 
 no other author of 
 Irving’s times re¬ 
 ceived such a munifi¬ 
 cent reward for his labor—no other was so much praised and loved. 
 Whether as humorist or writer of prose fiction, historian or biogra¬ 
 pher, his name ranks among the noblest and brightest of the world. 
 When the petty revolutions of society and the bloody conflicts of the 
 battle field are forgotten, the monument which the affections of his 
 countrymen have reared to the memory of the illustrious Irving shall 
 stand unshaken and untarnished, transmitting to all after times the 
 record of his virtues and achievements. 
 
 From the beginning the new administration had stormy times. 
 The slavery question continued to vex the nation. The Ered Scott 
 Decision, to which the President had looked as a measure calculated 
 to allay the excitement, had only added fuel to the flame. In some 
 of the Free States the opposition rose so high that Personal Lib¬ 
 erty Bills were passed, the object of which was to defeat the exe¬ 
 cution of the Fugitive Slave law. In the fall of 1859 the excitement 
 was still further increased by the mad attempt of John Brown of 
 Kansas to excite a general insurrection among the slaves. With a 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
B UCHANAN'S ADMINISTRA T10N. 
 
 47<J 
 
 party of twenty-one men as daring as himself, he made a sudden de¬ 
 scent on the United States arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, captured the 
 place, and held his ground for nearly two days. The national troops 
 and the militia of Virginia were called out in order to suppress the 
 revolt. Thirteen of Brown’s men were killed, two made their escape, 
 and the rest were captured. The leader and his six companions were 
 given over to the authorities of Virginia, tried, condemned and 
 hanged. In Kansas the old controversy still continued, but the Free 
 Soil party gained ground so rapidly as to make it certain that slavery 
 would be interdicted from the State. All these facts and events 
 tended to widen the breach between the people of the North and the 
 South. Such was the alarming condition of affairs when the time 
 arrived for holding the nineteenth presidential election. 
 
 The canvass was one of intense excitement. Four candidates 
 were presented. The choice of the People’s party—now called Re¬ 
 publican—was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The platform of prin¬ 
 ciples adopted by this party again declared opposition to the extension 
 of slavery to be the vital issue. In the month of April the Democratic 
 convention assembled at Charleston. The delegates were divided on 
 the question of slavery, and after much debating the party was dis¬ 
 rupted. The Southern delegates, unable to obtain a distinct expres¬ 
 sion of their views in the platform of principles, and seeing that the 
 Northern wing was determined to nominate Mr. Douglas—the great 
 defender of popular sovereignty—withdrew from the convention. The 
 rest continued in session, balloted for a while for a candidate, and on 
 the 3d of May adjourned to Baltimore, where the delegates, reassem¬ 
 bling on the 18th of June, chose Douglas as their standard-bearer in 
 the approaching canvass. The seceding delegates adjourned first to 
 Richmond, and afterwards to Baltimore, where they met on the 28th 
 of June and nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The 
 American party — now known as Constitutional Unionists — chose 
 John Bell of Tennessee as their candidate. The contest resulted in 
 the election of Mr. Lincoln. He received the electoral votes of all 
 the Northern States except those of New Jersey, which were divided 
 between himself and his two opponents. The support of tlie South¬ 
 ern States was for the most part given to Breckinridge. The States 
 of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee cast their ballots, thirty-nine 
 in number, for Mr. Bell. Mr. Douglas received a large popular but 
 small electoral vote, his supporters being scattered through all the 
 States without the concentration necessary to carry any. Thus after 
 controlling the destinies of the Republic for sixty years, with only 
 
480 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the temporary overthrow of 1840, the Democratic party was broken 
 into fragments and driven from the field. 
 
 The result of the election had been anticipated. The leaders of the 
 South had openly declared that the choice of Lincoln would be regarded 
 as a just cause for the dissolution of the Union. The Republicans of the 
 populous North crowded to the polls, and their favorite was chosen. As 
 to the government, it was under the control of the Douglas Democracy; 
 but a majority of the cabinet and a large number of senators and repre¬ 
 sentatives in Congress were supporters of Mr. Breckinridge and the advo¬ 
 cates of disunion as a justifiable measure. It was now evident that with 
 the incoming of the new administration all the departments of the govern¬ 
 ment would pass under the control of the Republican party. The times 
 were full of passion, animosity and rashness. It was seen that disunion 
 was now possible, and that the possibility would shortly be removed. The 
 attitude of the President favored the measure. He was not himself a 
 disunionist. He denied the right of a State to secede; but at the same 
 time he declared himself not armed with the constitutional power neces¬ 
 sary to prevent secession by force. The interval, therefore, between the 
 presidential election in November of 1860 and the inauguration of the 
 following spring was seized by the leaders of the South as the opportune 
 moment for dissolving the Union. 
 
 The actual work of secession began in South Carolina. On the 
 17th of December, 1860, a convention assembled at Charleston, and after 
 three days of deliberation passed a resolution that the union hitherto 
 existing between South Carolina and the other States, under the name of 
 the United States of America, was dissolved. It was a step of fearful 
 importance. The action was contagious. The sentiment of disunion 
 spread with great rapidity. The cotton-growing States were almost 
 unanimous in support of the measure. By the 1st of February, 1861, 
 six other States—Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and 
 Texas—had passed ordinances of secession and withdrawn from the 
 Union. Nearly all of the senators and representatives of those States, 
 following the.action of their constituents, resigned their seats in Congress 
 and gave themselves to the disunion cause. 
 
 In the secession conventions there was but little opposition to the 
 movement. In some instances a considerable minority vote was cast. A 
 few of the speakers boldly denounced disunion as bad in principle and 
 ruinous in its results. The course of Alexander H. Stephens, afterward 
 Vice- President of the Confederate States, was peculiar. In the con¬ 
 vention of Georgia he undertook the task of preventing the secession of 
 his State. He delivered a long and powerful oration in which he de» 
 
B UCHA NAN’S AD MINIS TEA TION. 
 
 481 
 
 fended the theory of secession, advocated the doctrine of State sove¬ 
 reignty, declared his intention of abiding by the decision of the conven¬ 
 tion, but at the same 
 time spoke against se¬ 
 cession, on the ground 
 that the measure was 
 impolitic, unwise, dis¬ 
 astrous. Not a few 
 prominent men at the 
 Sou th held similar 
 views; but the oppo¬ 
 site opinion prevailed, 
 and secession was ac¬ 
 complished. 
 
 On the 4th of 
 February, 1861, dele¬ 
 gates from six of the 
 seceded States assem¬ 
 bled at Montgomery, 
 
 Alabama, and formed 
 a n e w government, 
 under the name of 
 The Confederate 
 States of America. 
 
 On the 8tll of the ALEXANDER h. Stephens. 
 
 month the government 
 
 was organized by the election of Jefferson Davit of Mississippi as provis¬ 
 ional President, and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. On the 
 same day of the meeting of the Confederate Congress, at Montgomery, a 
 peace conference assembled at Washington. Delegates from twenty-one 
 States were present; certain amendments to the Constitution were pro¬ 
 posed and laid before Congress for adoption, but that body gave little heed 
 to the measures suggested, and the conference adjourned without practical 
 results. 
 
 The country seemed on the verge of ruin. The national govern¬ 
 ment was for the time being paralyzed. The army was stationed in de¬ 
 tachments on remote frontiers. The fleet was scattered in distant seas. 
 The President was distracted with hesitancv and the adverse counsels of 
 his friends. With the exception of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 
 Charleston Harbor, Fort Pickens near Pensacola, and Fortress Monroe in 
 the Chesapeake, all the important posts in the seceded States had been 
 
 31 
 
482 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 seized by the Confederate authorities, even before the organization of their 
 government. All this while the local warfare in Kansas had continued; 
 but the Free State party had at last gained the ascendency, and the early 
 admission of the new commonwealth, with two additional Republican 
 senators, was foreseen. Early in January the President made a feeble 
 attempt to reinforce and provision the garrison of Fort Sumter. The 
 steamer Star of the West was sent with men and supplies, but in approach¬ 
 ing the harbor of Charleston was fired on by a Confederate battery and 
 compelled to return. Thus in gloom and grief, and the upheavals of 
 revolution, the administration of Buchanan drew to a close. Such was 
 the dreadful condition of affairs that it was deemed prudent for the new 
 President to approach the capital without recognition. For the first time 
 in the history of the nation the chief magistrate of the republic slipped 
 into Washington city by night. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 LINCOLN’S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE CIVIL WAR, 1861 - 1865 . 
 
 A BRAHAM LINCOLN, sixteenth President of the United States, 
 was a native of Kentucky, born in the county of Larue, on the 
 12th of February, 1809. His ancestors had emigrated thither from 
 Rockingham County, Virginia: both father and mother were Virgin¬ 
 ians by birth. The childhood of the future President was passed in 
 utter obscurity. In 1816 his father removed to Spencer County, In¬ 
 diana—just then admitted into the Union—and built a cabin in the 
 woods near the present village of Gentryville. Here was the scene 
 of Lincoln’s boyhood—a constant struggle with poverty, hardship, and 
 toil. At the age of sixteen we find him managing a ferry across tlie 
 Ohio, at the mouth of Anderson Creek—a service for which he was 
 paid six dollars per month. In his youth he received in the aggregate 
 about one year of schooling, which was all he ever had in the way of 
 education. In the year of his majority he removed with his father’s 
 family to the north fork of the Sangamon, ten miles west of Decatur, 
 Illinois. Here another log-house was built and a small farm cleared 
 
LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 483 
 
 and fenced ; and here Abraham Lincoln began for himself the hard 
 battle of life. 
 
 The uncleared forest, the unbroken soil, 
 
 The iron bark that turns the lumberer’s axe, 
 
 The rapid that o’erbears the boatman’s toil, 
 
 The prairie, hiding the mazed wanderer’s tracks, 
 
 The ambushed Indian, and the prowling bear ;— 
 
 Such were the needs that helped his youth to train— 
 Rough culture !—but such trees large fruit may bear, 
 
 If but their stocks be of right girth and grain 1 
 
 After serving as a flatboatman on the Mississippi, Lincoln re¬ 
 turned to New Salem, twenty miles from Springfield, and became 
 a clerk in a country 
 store. Then, as cap¬ 
 tain of a company of 
 volunteers, he served 
 in the Black Hawk 
 war. From 1833 to 
 1836 he was engaged 
 in merchandising, but 
 a dissolute partner 
 brought him to bank¬ 
 ruptcy. Turning his 
 attention to the prac¬ 
 tice of the law, for 
 which profession 
 he had always had a 
 liking, he gradually 
 gained the attention 
 of his fellow-men and 
 soon rose to distinc¬ 
 tion. His peculiar 
 power—manifested at 
 all periods of his life— 
 of seizing the most difficult thought and presenting it in such quaint 
 and homely phrase as to make the truth appreciable by all men, made 
 him a natural leader of the people. As candidate for the office of 
 United States senator from Illinois he first revealed to the nation, in 
 his great debates with Senator Douglas, the full scope and originality 
 of his genius. Now, at the age of fiftv-two, he found laid upon him 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
484 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 such a burden of care and responsibility as had not been borne by 
 any ruler of modern times. On the occasion of his inauguration he 
 delivered a long and thoughtful address, declaring his fixed purpose 
 to uphold the Constitution, enforce the laws, and preserve the integ¬ 
 rity of the Union. 
 
 The new cabinet was organized with William H. Seward of New 
 York as secretary of state. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was chosen sec¬ 
 retary of the treasury, and Simon Cameron secretary of war; but he, 
 in the following January, was succeeded in office by Edwin M. Stan¬ 
 ton. The secretaryship of the navy was conferred on Gideon Welles. 
 In his inaugural address and first official papers the President indi¬ 
 cated the policy of the new administration by declaring his purpose 
 to repossess the forts, arsenals and public property which had been 
 seized by the Confederate authorities. It was with this purpose that 
 the first military preparations were made. In the mean time, on the 
 12th of March, an effort was made by commissioners of the seceded 
 States to obtain from the national government a recognition of their 
 independence; but the negotiations were unsuccessful. Then followed 
 a second attempt on the part of the government to reinforce the gar¬ 
 rison of Fort Sumter; and with that came the beginning of actual 
 hostilities. 
 
 The defences of Charleston Harbor were held by Major Robert 
 Anderson. His entire force amounted to seventy-nine men. Owing 
 to the weakness of his garrison, he deemed it prudent to evacuate 
 Fort Moultrie and retire to Sumter. Meanwhile, Confederate volun¬ 
 teers had flocked to the city, and powerful batteries had been built 
 about the harbor. When it became known that the Federal gov¬ 
 ernment would reinforce the forts, the authorities of the Confederate 
 States determined to anticipate the movement by compelling Ander¬ 
 son to surrender. Accordingly, on the 11th of April, General P. T. 
 Beauregard, commandant of Charleston, sent a flag to Fort Sumter, 
 demanding an evacuation. Major Anderson replied that he should 
 hold the fortress and defend his flag. On the following morning, 
 at half-past four o’clock, the first gun was fired from a Confederate 
 battery. A terrific bombardment of thirty-four hours’ duration fol¬ 
 lowed ; the fort was reduced to ruins, set on fire, and obliged to ca¬ 
 pitulate. The honors of war were granted to Anderson and his men, 
 who had made a brave and obstinate resistance. Although the can¬ 
 nonade had been long continued and severe, no lives were lost either 
 in the fort or on the shore. Thus the defences of Charleston Harbor 
 were secured by the Confederates. 
 
LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 485 
 
 The news of this startling event went through the country like a 
 flame of fire. There had been some expectation of violence, but the 
 actual shock came like a clap of thunder. The people of the towns 
 poured into the streets and the country folk flocked to the villages 
 to gather the tidings and to comment on the coming conflict. Gray¬ 
 haired men talked gravely of the deed that was done, and prophesied 
 of its consequences. Public opinion in both the North and the South 
 was rapidly consolidated. Three days after the fall of Sumter Presi¬ 
 dent Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve 
 three months in the overthrow of the secession movement. Two days 
 later Virginia seceded from the Union. On May 6th Arkansas followed 
 the example, and then North Carolina on the 20th of the same month. 
 In Tennessee—especially in East Tennessee—there was a powerful op¬ 
 position to disunion, and it was not until the 8th of June that a secession 
 ordinance could be passed. In Missouri, as will presentlv be seen, the 
 movement resulted in civil war, while in Kentucky the authorities issued 
 a proclamation of neutrality. The people of Maryland were divided 
 into hostile parties, the disunion sentiment being largely prevalent 
 
 On the 19th of April, when the first regiments of Massachusetts 
 volunteers were passing through Baltimore on their way to Washington, 
 they were fired upon by the citizens, and three men killed. This was the 
 first bloodshed of the war. On the day before this event a body of Con¬ 
 federate soldiers advanced against the armory of the United States at 
 Harper’s Ferry. The officer in command hastily destroyed a portion of 
 the vast magazine collected there, and then escaped into Pennsylvania. 
 On the 20th of the month another company of Virginians assailed the 
 great navy yard at Norfolk. The officers commanding fired the build¬ 
 ings and ships, spiked the cannon and withdrew their forces. Most of 
 the guns and many of the vessels were afterward recovered by the Con¬ 
 federates, the property thus captured amounting to fully ten millions of 
 dollars. So rapidly was Virginia filled with volunteers and troops from 
 the South that, for a while, Washington city was in danger of being 
 taken. But the capital was soon secured from mediate danger; and 
 on the 3d of May the President issued another call lor soldiers. This 
 time the number was set at eighty-three thousand, and the term of service 
 at three years or during the war. Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott 
 was made commander-in-chief. As many war ships as could be provided 
 were sent to blockade the Southern ports. On every side were heard the 
 notes of preparation. In the seceded States there was boundless and in¬ 
 cessant activity. Already the Southern Congress had adjourned from 
 Montgomery, to meet on the 20th of July at Richmond, which was 
 
486 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 chosen as the capital of the Confederacy. To that place had already 
 come Mr. Davis and the officers of his cabinet, for the purpose of direct¬ 
 ing the affairs of the government and the army. So stood the antag¬ 
 onistic powers in the beginning of June, 1861. It was now evident to 
 all men (how slow they had been to believe it!) that a great war, perhaps 
 the greatest in modern times, was impending over the nation. It is 
 appropriate to look briefly into the Causes of the approaching conflict. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 CA USES. 
 
 T HE first and most general cause of the civil war in the United States 
 was the different construction -put upon the national Constitution by the 
 people of the North and the South. A difference of opinion had always 
 existed as to how that instrument was to be understood. The question 
 at issue was as to the relation between the States and the general govern¬ 
 ment. One party held that under the Constitution the Union of the 
 States is indissoluble; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in the 
 central government; that the States are subordinate; that the acts of 
 Congress, until they are repealed or pronounced unconstitutional by the 
 supreme court, are binding on the States; that the highest allegiance of 
 the citizen is due to the general government, and not to his own State; 
 and that all attempts at nullification and disunion are in their nature dis¬ 
 loyal and treasonable. The other party held that the national Constitu¬ 
 tion is a compact between sovereign States; that for certain reasons the 
 Union may be dissolved; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in 
 the individual States, and not in the central government; that Congress 
 can exercise no other than delegated powers; that a State feeling ag¬ 
 grieved may annul an act of Congress; that the highest allegiance of the 
 citizen is due to his own State, and afterward to the general government; 
 and that acts of nullification and disunion are justifiable, revolutionary 
 and honorable. 
 
 Here was an issue in its consequences the most fearful that ever 
 disturbed a nation. It struck right into the vitals of the government. 
 
LINCOLN’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 487 
 
 It threatened with each renewal of the agitation to undo the whole civil 
 structure of the United States. For a long time the parties who disputed 
 about the meaning of the Constitution were scattered in various sections. 
 In the earlier history of the country the doctrine of State sovereignty was 
 most advocated in New England. With the rise of the tariff question 
 the position of parties changed. Since the tariff—a congressional mea¬ 
 sure—favored the Eastern States at the expense of the South, it came to 
 pass naturally that the people of New England passed over to the advo¬ 
 cacy of national sovereignty, while the people of the South took up the 
 doctrine of State rights. Thus it happened that as early as 1831 the right 
 of nullifying an act of Congress was openly advocated in South Carolina, 
 and thus also it happened that the belief in State sovereignty became more 
 prevalent in the South than in the North. These facts tended powerfully 
 to produce sectional parties and to bring them into conflict. 
 
 A second general cause of the civil war was the different system of 
 labor in the North and in the South. In the former section the laborers 
 were freemen, citizens, voters; in the latter, bondmen, property, slaves. 
 In the South the theory was that the capital of a country should own the 
 labor; in the North that both labor and capital are free. In the begin¬ 
 ning all the colonies had been slaveholding. In the Eastern and Middle 
 States the system of slave-labor was gradually abolished, being unprofit¬ 
 able. In the five great States formed out of the North-western Territory 
 slavery was excluded by the original compact under which that Territory 
 was organized. Thus there came to be a dividing line drawn through 
 the Union east and west. It was evident, therefore, that whenever the 
 question of slavery was agitated a sectional division would arise between 
 the parties, and that disunion and war would be threatened. The danger 
 arising from this source was increased and the discord between the sections 
 aggravated by several subordinate causes. 
 
 The first of these was the invention of the Cotton Gin. In 
 1793, Eli Whitney, a young collegian of Massachusetts, went to Georgia, 
 and resided with the family of Mrs. Greene, widow of General Greene, 
 of the Revolution. While there his attention was directed to the tedious 
 and difficult process of picking cotton by hand—that is, separating the 
 seed from the fibre. So slow was the process that the production of up¬ 
 land cotton was nearly profitless. The industry of the cotton-growing 
 States was paralyzed by the tediousness of preparing the product for the 
 market. Mr. Whitney undertook to remove the difficulty, and succeeded 
 in inventing a gin which astonished the beholder by the rapidity and 
 excellence of its work. From being profitless, cotton became the most 
 profitable of all the staples. The industry of the South was revolution- 
 
488 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ized. Before the civil war it was estimated that Whitney’s gin had 
 added a thousand millions of dollars to the revenues of the Southern 
 States. The American crop had grown to be seven-eighths of all the 
 cotton produced in the world. Just in proportion to the increased profit¬ 
 ableness of cotton slave-labor became important, slaves valuable and the 
 system of slavery a fixed and deep-rooted institution. 
 
 From this time onward there was constant danger that the slavery 
 question would so embitter the politics and legislation of the country as 
 to bring about disunion. The danger of such a result was fully mani¬ 
 fested in the Missouri Agitation of 1820-21. Threats of dissolving 
 the Union were freely made in both the North and the South—in the 
 North, because of the proposed enlargement of the domain of slavery; in 
 the South, because of the proposed rejection of Missouri as a slave-holding 
 State. When the Missouri Compromise was enacted, it was the hope of 
 Mr. Clay and his fellow-statesmen to save the Union by removing for ever 
 the slavery question from the politics of the country. In that they suc¬ 
 ceeded for a while. 
 
 Next came the Nullification Acts of South Carolina. And 
 these, too, turned upon the institution of slavery and the profitableness of 
 cotton. The Southern States had become cotton-producing; the Eastern 
 States had given themselves to manufacturing. The tariff measures 
 favored manufactures at the expense of producers. Mr. Calhoun and his 
 friends proposed to remedy the evil complained of by annulling the laws 
 of Congress. His measures failed; but another compromise was found 
 necessary in order to allay the animosities which had been awakened. 
 
 The Annexation of Texas, with the consequent enlargement of 
 the domain of slavery, led to a renewal of the agitation. Those who 
 opposed the Mexican War did so, not so much because of the injustice of 
 the conflict as because of the fact that thereby slavery would be extended. 
 Then, at the close of the war, came another enormous acquisition of 
 territory. Whether the same should be made into free or slave-holding 
 States was the question next agitated. This controversy led to the passage 
 of the Omnibus Bill, by which again for a brief period the excitement 
 was allayed. 
 
 In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska bill was passed. Thereby the 
 Missouri Compromise was repealed and the whole question opened anew. 
 Meanwhile, the character and the civilization of the Northern and the 
 Southern people had become quite different. In population and wealth 
 the North had far outgrown the South. In the struggle for territorial 
 dominion the North had gained a considerable advantage. In 1860 the 
 division of the Democratic party made certain the election of Mr. Lincoln 
 
LINCOLN’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 489 
 
 by the votes of the Northern States. The people of the South were 
 exasperated at the choice of a chief-magistrate whom they regarded as 
 indifferent to their welfare and hostile to their interests. 
 
 v j The third general cause of the civil war was the want of intercourse 
 between the people of the North and the South. The great railroads and 
 thoroughfares ran east and west. Emigration flowed from the East to the 
 West. Between the North and the South there was little travel or inter¬ 
 change of opinion. From want of acquaintance the people, without in¬ 
 tending it, became estranged, jealous, suspicious. They misjudged each 
 other’s motives. They misrepresented each other’s beliefs and purposes. 
 They suspected each other of dishonesty and ill-will. Before the out¬ 
 break of the war the people of the two sections looked upon each other 
 almost in the light of different nationalities. 
 
 A fourth cause was found in the publication of sectional books. Dur¬ 
 ing the twenty years preceding the war many works were published, both 
 in the North and the South, whose popularity depended wholly on the 
 animosity existing between the two sections. Such books were generally 
 filled with ridicule and falsehood. The manners and customs, language 
 and beliefs, of one section were held up to the contempt and scorn of the 
 people of the other section. The minds of all classes, especially of the 
 young, were thus prejudiced and poisoned. In the North the belief was 
 fostered that the South was given up to inhumanity, ignorance and bar¬ 
 barism, while in the South the opinion prevailed that the Northern people 
 were a selfish race of mean, cold-blooded Yankees. 
 
 11. The evil influence of demagogues may be cited as the fifth general 
 cause of the war. It is the misfortune of republican governments that 
 they many times fill under the leadership of bad men. In the United 
 States the demagogue has enjoyed special opportunities for mischief, and 
 the people have suffered in proportion. From 1850 to 1860 American 
 statesmanship and patriotism were at a low ebb. Many ambitious and 
 scheming men had come to the front, taken control of the political parties 
 and proclaimed themselves the leaders of public opinion. Their purposes 
 were wholly selfish. The welfare and peace of the country were put aside 
 as of no value. In order to gain power and keep it many unprincipled 
 men in the South were anxious to destroy the Union, while the dema¬ 
 gogues of the North were willing to abuse the Union in order to accom¬ 
 plish their own bad purposes. Such, in brief, were the causes which led 
 to the civil war, one of the most terrible conflicts of modern times. 
 
 84 
 
490 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LX III. 
 
 FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 O N the 24th of May the Union army crossed the Potomac from Wash¬ 
 ington city to Alexandria. At this time Fortress Monroe, at the 
 mouth of James River, was held by twelve thousand men, under command 
 of General B. F. Butler. At Bethel Church, in the immediate vicin¬ 
 ity,was stationed a detachment of Con¬ 
 federates commanded by General Ma- 
 gruder. On the 10th of June a body 
 of Union troops was sent to dislodge 
 them, but was repulsed with consider¬ 
 able loss. Meanwhile the conquest of 
 West Virginia had been undertaken 
 by General George B. M’Clellan. 
 
 In the last days of May General T. 
 A. Morris moved forward from Parkers¬ 
 burg to Grafton with a force of Ohio and 
 Indiana troops, and on the 3d of June 
 came upon the Confederates stationed at 
 scene OF operations in west Philippi. After a brief engagement the 
 
 I ederals were successful; the Confede¬ 
 rates retreated toward the mountains. General McClellan now arrived, 
 took command in person, and on the 11th of July gained a victory at Rich 
 Mountain. General Garnett, the Confederate commander, fell back with 
 his forces to Garrick’s Ford, on Cheat River, made a stand, was again de¬ 
 feated and himself killed in the battle. On the 10th of August General 
 Floyd, commanding a detachment of Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, on 
 Gauley River, was attacked by General Rosecrans and obliged to retreat. 
 On the 14th of September a division of Confederates under General Rob¬ 
 ert E. Lee was beaten in an engagement at Cheat Mountain—an action 
 which completed the restoration of Federal authority in West Virginia. 
 In the mean time, other movements of vast importance had taken place. 
 
 In the beginning of June General Robert Patterson marched from 
 Chambersburg with the intention of recapturing Harper’s Ferry. On 
 the 11th of the month a division of the army commanded by Colonel 
 
FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 491 
 
 Lewis Wallace made a sudden and successful onset upon a detachment 
 of Confederates stationed at Romney. Patterson then crossed the Poto¬ 
 mac with the main body, entered the Shenandoah Valley, and pressed 
 back the Confederate forces to Winchester. Thus far there had been 
 only petty engagements, skirmishes and marching. The time had now 
 come when the first great battle of the war was to be fought. 
 
 After the Union successes in West Virginia the main body of the 
 Confederates, under command of General Beauregard, was concentrated 
 at Manassas Junction, on the Orange Railroad, twenty-seven miles west 
 of Alexandria. Another large force, commanded by General Joseph E. 
 Johnston, was within supporting distance in the Shenandoah Valley. The 
 Union army at Alexandria was commanded by General Irwin McDowell, 
 while General Patterson was stationed in front of Johnston to watch his 
 movements and prevent his forming 
 a junction with Beauregard. On the 
 16th of July the national army moved 
 forward. Two days afterward an 
 unimportant engagement took place 
 between Centreville and Bull Run. 
 
 The Unionists then pressed on, and on 
 the morning of the 21st came upon 
 the Confederate army, strongly posted 
 between Bull Run and Manassas 
 Junction. A general battle ensued, 
 continuing with great severity until 
 noonday. At that hour the advan¬ 
 tage was with McDowell, and it 
 seemed not unlikely that the Confed¬ 
 erates would suffer a complete defeat. 
 
 But in the crisis of the battle General Johnston arrived with nearly six 
 thousand fresh troops from the Shenandoah Valley. The tide of victory 
 turned immediately, and in a short time McDowell’s whole army was 
 hurled back in utter rout and confusion. A ruinous panic spread through 
 the defeated host. Soldiers and citizens, regulars and volunteers, horsemen 
 and footmen, rolled back in a disorganized mass into the defences of 
 Washington. The Union loss in killed, wounded and prisoners amounted 
 to two thousand nine hundred and fifty-two; that of the Confederates to 
 two thousand and fifty. 
 
 Great was the humiliation of the North, and greater the rejoicing of 
 the South. For a while the Federal government was more concerned about 
 its own safety than about the conquest of Richmond. In that city, on the 
 
492 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 day before the battle, the new Confederate government was organized. In 
 the Southern Congress and cabinet were many men of distinguished abil¬ 
 ities. Jefferson Davis, the President, was a far-sighted man, of wide expe¬ 
 rience in the affairs of state, and considerable reputation as a soldier. He 
 had led the troops of Mississippi in the Mexican War, had served in both 
 houses of the national Congress, and as a member of President Pierce’s 
 cabinet. His talents, decision of character and ardent advocacy of State 
 
 rights had made him a 
 natural leader of the 
 South. 
 
 The next milita¬ 
 ry movements were 
 made in Missouri. 
 That commonwealth, 
 though slaveholding, 
 still retained its place 
 in the Union.. A con¬ 
 vention, called by 
 Governor Jackson in 
 accordance with an act 
 of the legislature, had 
 in the previous March 
 refused to pass an or¬ 
 dinance of secession. 
 The disunionists, how¬ 
 ever, were numerous 
 and powerful; the 
 governor favored their 
 cause, and the State 
 Jefferson davis. became a battle-field 
 
 for the contend ing 
 
 parties. Both Federal and Confederate camps were organized, and hos¬ 
 tilities began in several places. By capturing the United States arsenal 
 at Liberty, in Clay county, the Confederates obtained a considerable sup¬ 
 ply of arms and ammunition. By the formation of Camp Jackson, near 
 St. Louis, the arsenal in that city was also endangered; but by the vigi¬ 
 lance of Captain Nathaniel Lyon the arms and stores were sent up the 
 river to Alton, and thence to Springfield. Camp Jackson was soon after¬ 
 ward broken up by the exertions of the same officer. 
 
 The lead-mines in the south-west part of the State became an object 
 of great importance to the Confederates, who, in order to secure them, 
 
493 
 
 FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 f 
 
 hurried up large bodies of troops from Arkansas and Texas. On the 
 17th of June Lyon encountered Governor Jackson with a Confeder¬ 
 ate force at Booneville, and gained a decided advantage. On the 5th 
 of July the Unionists, led by Colonel Franz Sigel, were again success¬ 
 ful in a severe engagement with the governor at Carthage. On the 
 10th of August the hardest battle thus far fought in the West oc¬ 
 curred at Wilson’s Creek, a short distance south of Springfield. Gen¬ 
 eral Lyon made a daring but rash attack on a much superior force 
 of Confederates under command of Generals McCullough and Price. 
 The Federals at first gained the field against heavy odds, but Gen¬ 
 eral Lyon was killed, and his men retreated under direction of Sigel. 
 
 General Price now 
 pressed northward across the 
 State to Lexington, on the 
 Missouri Liver. This place 
 was defended by a force of 
 Federals two thousand six 
 hundred strong, commanded 
 by Colonel Mulligan. A 
 stubborn defence was made 
 by the garrison, but Mulligan 
 was soon obliged to capitulate. 
 
 Price then turned southward, 
 and on the 16th of October 
 Lexington was retaken by 
 the Federals. General John 
 C. Fremont, who had been 
 appointed to the command of 
 the Union forces in Missouri, followed the Confederates as far as Spring- 
 field, and was on the eve of making an attack, when he was superseded 
 by General Hunter. The latter, after retreating to St. Louis, was in turn 
 superseded by General Halleck on the 18th of November. It was now 
 Price’s turn to fall back toward Arkansas. The only remaining move¬ 
 ment of importance was at Belmont, on the Mississippi. 
 
 The Confederate general Polk, acting under orders of his govern¬ 
 ment, had, notwithstanding that State’s neutrality, entered Kentucky with 
 an army, and had captured the town of Columbus. Batteries planted here 
 commanded the Mississippi. The Confederates gathered in force at Bel¬ 
 mont, on the opposite bank. In order to dislodge them Colonel Ulys¬ 
 ses S. Grant, with a brigade of three thousand Illinois troops, was sent by 
 way of Cairo into Missouri. On the 7th of November he made a vigor- 
 
494 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ©us and successful attack on the Confederate camp; but General Polk 
 sent reinforcements across the river, the guns of Columbus were brought 
 to bear on the Union position, and Grant was obliged to retreat. 
 
 The rout at Bull Run had the effect to quicken the energies of the 
 North, and troops were rapidly hurried to Washington. The aged Gen¬ 
 eral Scott, unable to bear the burden resting upon him, retired from active 
 duty, and General McClellan was called from West Virginia to take com¬ 
 mand of the Army of the Potomac. By the middle of October his forces 
 had increased to a hundred and fifty thousand men. On the 21st of that 
 month a brigade, numbering nearly two thousand, was thrown across the 
 Potomac at Ball’s Bluff. Without proper support or means of retreat, 
 the Federals were attacked by a strong force of Confederates under Gen¬ 
 eral Evans, driven to the river, their leader, Colonel Baker, killed, and 
 the whole force routed with terrible loss. Fully eight hundred of Baker’s 
 men were killed, wounded or taken prisoners. 
 
 During the summer of 1861 the Federal government sent to sea 
 several important naval expeditions. One of these, commanded by Com¬ 
 modore Stringham and General Butler, proceeded to the North Carolina 
 coast, and on the 29th of August captured the forts at. Hatteras Inlet. 
 On the 7th of November a second armament, under command of Com¬ 
 modore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman, entered the harbor of 
 Port Royal, and captured Forts Walker and Beauregard. Hilton Head, 
 a point most advantageous for military operations against Charleston and 
 Savannah, thus fell into the power of the Federals. Around the whole 
 coast the blockade became so rigorous that commerce and communication 
 between the Confederate States and foreign nations were almost wholly 
 cut off. In this juncture of affairs a difficulty arose which brought the 
 United States and Great Britain to the very verge of war. 
 
 The Confederate government had appointed James M. Mason and 
 John Slidell, formerly senators of the United States, to go abroad as am¬ 
 bassadors from the Confederate States to Franee and England. The envoys 
 went on board a blockade runner, and escaping from Charleston Harbor, 
 reached Havana in safety. At that port they took passage on the British 
 mail steamer Trent , and sailed for Europe. On the 8th of November 
 the vessel was overtaken by the United States frigate San Jacinto, com¬ 
 manded by Captain Wilkes. The Trent was hailed and boarded; the 
 two ambassadors and their secretaries were seized, transferred to the San 
 Jacinto, carried to Boston, and imprisoned. The Trent proceeded on her 
 way to England ; the story of the insult to the British flag was told, and 
 the whole kingdom burst out in a blaze of wrath. 
 
 At first the people of the United States loudly applauded Captain 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 62 . 
 
 495 
 
 Wilkes, and the government was disposed to defend his action. Had 
 such a course been taken, war would have been inevitable. The country 
 was saved from the 
 peril by the adroit and 
 far-reaching diploma¬ 
 cy of William H. Sew¬ 
 ard, the secretary of 
 state. When Great 
 Britain demanded rep¬ 
 aration for the insult 
 and the immediate lib¬ 
 eration of the prison¬ 
 ers, he replied in a 
 mild, cautious and very 
 able paper. It was con¬ 
 ceded that the seizure 
 of Mason and Slidell 
 was not justifiable ac¬ 
 cording to the law of 
 nations. A suitable 
 apology was made for 
 the wrong done, the 
 Confederate ambassa¬ 
 dors were liberated, 
 put on board a vessel william h. seward. 
 
 and sent to their des¬ 
 tination. This action of the secretary was both just and politic. The 
 peril of war went by, and Great Britain was committed to a policy in 
 regard to the rights of neutral flags which she had hitherto denied and 
 which the United States had always contended for. So ended the first 
 year of the civil war. 
 
 CHAPTER LX IV. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF ' 62 . 
 
 T HE Federal forces now numbered about four hundred and fifty thou¬ 
 sand men. Of these nearly two hundred thousand, under command 
 ©f General McClellan, were encamped in the vicinity of Washington. 
 Another army, commanded by General Buell, was stationed at Louisville* 
 
496 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Kentucky, and it was in this department that the first military move¬ 
 ments of the year were made. On the 9th of January Colonel Humphrey 
 Marshall, commanding a force of Confederates on Big Sandy River, in 
 Eastern Kentucky, was attacked and defeated by a body of Unionists, led 
 by Colonel Garfield. Ten days later another and more important battle 
 was fought at Mill Spring, in the same section of the State. The Con¬ 
 federates were commanded by Generals Crittenden and Zollicoffer, and 
 the Federals by General George H. Thomas. After a hot engagement, 
 in which both sides lost heavily, the Confederates suffered a defeat which 
 was rendered more severe by the loss of Zollicoffer, who fell in the battle. 
 
 The next operations were on the Tennessee and the Cumberland. 
 The former river was commanded at the southern border of Kentucky by 
 Fort Henry, and the latter by the more important Fort Donelson, ten 
 miles south of the Tennessee line. At the beginning of the year the cap¬ 
 ture of both these places was planned by General Halleck. Early in 
 February Commodore Foote was sent up the Tennessee with a flotilla of 
 gunboats, and at the same time General Grant was ordered to move for¬ 
 ward and co-operate in an attack on Fort Henry. Before the land-forces 
 were well into position the flotilla compelled the evacuation of the fort, 
 the Confederates escaping to Donelson. Eighty-three prisoners and a 
 large amount of stores were captured. 
 
 The Federal gunboats now dropped down the Tennessee, took on 
 supplies at Cairo, and then ascended the Cumberland. Grant pressed on 
 from Fort Henry, and afe soon as the flotilla arrived began the siege of 
 Fort Donelson. The defences were strong, and well manned by more 
 than ten thousand Confederates, under General Buckner. Grant’s entire 
 force numbered nearly thirty thousand. On the 14th of February the 
 gunboats were driven back with considerable loss, Commodore Foote 
 being among the wounded. On the next day the garrison, hoping to 
 break through Grant’s lines, made a sally, but met a severe repulse. On 
 the 16th Buckner was obliged to surrender. His army of ten thousand 
 men became prisoners of war, and all the magazines, stores and guns of 
 the fort fell into the hands of the Federals. It was the first decided vic¬ 
 tory which had been won bv the national arms. The immediate result 
 of the capture was the evacuation of Kentucky and the capital of Tennes¬ 
 see by the Confederates. 
 
 After his success at Fort Donelson General Grant ascended the Ten¬ 
 nessee as far as Pittsburg Landing. In the beginning of April a camp 
 was established at Shiloh Church, a short distance from the river; and 
 here, on the morning of the 6th, the Union army was suddenly attacked 
 by the Confederates, led by Generals Albert S. Johnston and Beauregard. 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 62 . 
 
 497 
 
 The onset was at first successful. All day long the battle raged with tre¬ 
 mendous slaughter on both sides. The Federals were forced back to the 
 river, and but for the protection of the gunboats would have been driven 
 to destruction. Night fell on the scene with the conflict undecided : but 
 in this desperate crisis General Buell arrived from Nashville with strong 
 reinforcements. On the following morning General Grant assumed the 
 offensive. General Johnston had been killed in the battle, and Beaure¬ 
 gard, on whom the command devolved, was obliged to retreat to Corinth. 
 The losses in killed, wounded and missing in this dreadful conflict were 
 more than ten thousand on each side. There had never before been such 
 a harvest of death in the New World. 
 
 Events of importance were also taking place on the Mississippi. 
 When the Confederates evacuated Columbus, Kentucky, they proceeded 
 to Island Number Ten, a few miles below, and built strong fortifications 
 commanding the river. On the western shore was the town of New Mad¬ 
 rid, which was held by a Confederate force from Missouri. Against 
 this place General Pope advanced with a body of Western troops, while 
 Commodore Foote descended the Mississippi with his flotilla to attack 
 the forts on the island. Pope was entirely successful in his movement, 
 and gained possession of New Madrid. The land-forces then co-operated 
 with the gunboats, and for twenty-three days Island Number Ten was 
 vigorously bombarded. On the 7th of April, when the Confederates 
 could hold out no longer, they attempted to escape; but Pope had cut off 
 retreat, and the entire garrison, numbering about five thousand, was cap¬ 
 tured. The Mississippi Avas thus opened as far down as Memphis, and 
 that city was taken by the fleet of Commodore Davis on the 6th of the 
 folloAving June. 
 
 In the beginning of the year General Curtis had pushed forward 
 through Missouri, entered Arkansas and taken position at Pea Ridge, 
 among the mountains in the north-western angle of the State. Here he 
 was attacked on the 6th of March by an army of more than twenty thou¬ 
 sand Confederates and Indians, under command of Generals McCulloch, 
 McIntosh and Pike. After a hard-fought battle, which lasted for two 
 days, the Federals Avere victorious. McCulloch and McIntosh were both 
 killed and their men obliged to retreat toAvard Texas; but the Union 
 losses Avere most seA 7 ere, and the battle Avas barren of results. 
 
 On the next day after the conflict at Pea Ridge an event occurred 
 at Fortress Monroe Avhich came near changing the character of naval 
 warfare. Captain John Ericsson of New York had invented and built a 
 peculiar Avar-\ r essel with a single round tower of iron exposed above the 
 ■water-line. Meamvhile, the Confederates had raised the United States 
 
498 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 frigate Merrimac, one of the sunken ships at the Norfolk navy yard, and 
 had plated the sides with an impenetrable mail of iron. This done, the 
 vessel was sent to attack the Union fleet at Fortress Monroe. Reaching 
 that place on the 8th of March, the Merrimac, now called the Virginia , 
 began the work of destruction, and before sunset two valuable vessels, the 
 Cumberland and the Congress, were sent to the bottom. During the night, 
 however, Ericsson’s strange ship, called the Monitor, arrived from New 
 York, and on the following morning the two iron-clad monsters turned 
 their terrible enginery upon each other. After fighting for five hours, 
 the Virginia was obliged to give up the contest and to return badly dam¬ 
 aged to Norfolk. Such was the excitement produced by this novel sea- 
 fight that for a while the whole energies of the navy department were 
 devoted to building monitors. 
 
 Early in 1862 a strong land and naval force, commanded by Gen¬ 
 eral Ambrose E. Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, was sent 
 against the Confederate garrison of Roanoke Island. On the 8th of Feb¬ 
 ruary the squadron reached its destination; the fortifications on the island 
 were attacked and carried, and the garrisons, nearly three thousand strong, 
 taken prisoners. Burnside next proceeded against Newbern, North Car¬ 
 olina, and on the 14th of March captured the city after four hours of 
 severe fighting. Proceeding southward, he reached the harbor of Beau¬ 
 fort, carried Fort Macon, at the entrance, and on the 25th of April took 
 possession of the town. 
 
 On the 11th of the same month Fort Pulaski, commanding the 
 mouth of the Savannah River, surrendered to General Gillmore. By 
 this important capture the chief emporium of Georgia was effectually 
 blockaded. But these reverses of the Confederates were trifling in com¬ 
 parison with that which they sustained in the loss of the city of New 
 Orleans. Early in April a powerful squadron, commanded by General 
 Butler and Admiral Farragut, entered the Mississippi and proceeded as 
 •far as Forts Jackson and St. Philip, thirty miles above the gulf. The 
 guns of these forts, standing on opposite shores, completely commanded 
 the river, and obstructions had been placed in the channel. The forty- 
 five vessels comprising the Federal fleet were brought into position, 
 and a furious bombardment of the forts was begun. From the 18th to 
 the 24th of April the fight continued without cessation. At the end of 
 that time the forts were but little injured, and Farragut undertook the 
 hazardous enterprise of running past the batteries. In this he succeeded, 
 breaking the chain across the river and overpowering the Confederate 
 fleet above the obstructions. On the next day he reached New Orleans * 
 with a portion of his fleet, and took possession of the city. General But- 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 62 . 
 
 499 
 
 ler became commandant, and the fortifications were manned with fifteen 
 thousand Federal soldiers. Three days afterward Forts Jackson and St. 
 Philip surrendered to Admiral Porter, who had remained below and 
 prosecuted the siege. The control of the Lower Mississippi and the me¬ 
 tropolis of the South was thus recovered by the Federal government. 
 
 The Confederates were not going to give up Kentucky without a 
 struggle. From East Tennessee they invaded the State in two strong 
 divisions, the one led by General Kirby Smith and the other by General 
 Bragg. On the 30th of August Smith’s army reached Richmond, at¬ 
 tacked a force of Federals stationed there, and routed them with heavy 
 losses. Lexington was taken, and then Frankfort ; and Cincinnati was 
 saved from capture only by the extraordinary exertions of General Wal¬ 
 lace. Meanwhile, the army of General Bragg had advanced from Chatta¬ 
 nooga to Mumfordsville, where, on the 17th of September, he captured a 
 Federal division of four thousand five hundred men. From this point 
 the Confederate general pressed on toward Louisville, and would have 
 taken the city but for a forced march of General Buell from Tennessee. 
 The latter arrived with his army only one day ahead of Bragg, but that 
 one day gave the Unionists the advantage, and the Confederates were 
 turned back. From the North came reinforcements for Buell’s army, 
 swelling his numbers to a hundred thousand. In the beginning of Octo¬ 
 ber he again took the field, the Confederates slowly retiring to Perryville. 
 At this place, on the 8th of October, Bragg was overtaken, and a severe 
 but indecisive battle was fought. The retreat was then continued to East 
 Tennessee, the Confederates sweeping out of Kentucky a train of four 
 thousand wagons laden with the spoils of the campaign. 
 
 In September there were some stirring events in Mississippi. On 
 the 19th of the month a hard battle was fought at Iuka between a Fed¬ 
 eral army, commanded by Generals Rosecrans and Grant, and a Confed¬ 
 erate force, under General Price. The latter was defeated, losing, in addi¬ 
 tion to his killed and wounded, nearly a thousand prisoners. General 
 Rosecrans now took post at Corinth with twenty thousand men, while 
 General Grant, with the remainder of the Federal forces, proceeded to 
 Jackson, Tennessee. Perceiving this division of the army, the Confede¬ 
 rate generals Van Dorn and Price turned about to recapture Corinth. 
 Advancing for that purpose, they came on the 3d of October upon the 
 Federal defences. Another obstinately contested battle ensued, which 
 ended, after two days’ fighting and heavy losses on both sides, in the re¬ 
 pulse of the Confederates. 
 
 In the mean time, General Grant had removed his headquarters 
 from Jackson to La Grange. His purpose was to co-operate with Gen- 
 
500 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eral Sherman, then at Memphis, in an effort to capture Vicksburg. The 
 movement promised to be successful, but on the 20th of December Gene¬ 
 ral Van Dorn succeeded in cutting Grant’s line of supplies at Holly 
 Springs, and obliged him to retreat. On the same day General Sherman, 
 with a powerful armament, dropped down the river from Memphis. 
 
 Proceeding as far as the Yazoo, he 
 effected a landing, and on the 29th 
 of the month made an unsuccessful 
 attack on the Confederates at Chick¬ 
 asaw Bayou. The assault was ex¬ 
 ceedingly disastrous to the Federals, 
 who lost in killed, wounded and pris¬ 
 oners more than three thousand men. 
 The enterprise was at once aban¬ 
 doned, and the defeated army re¬ 
 turned to the fleet of gunboats in 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 The closing conflict of this 
 year’s operations in the West was 
 the great battle of Murfreesborougli. 
 After his successful defence of Cor¬ 
 inth General Rosecrans was trans¬ 
 ferred to the command of the Army 
 of the Cumberland. Late in the fall 
 he made his headquarters at Nash¬ 
 ville, and there collected a powerful 
 army. Meanwhile, General Brae's:, 
 
 BATTLE OF MURFREESBOROUGH, DEC. 31ST, 1862. * , 7 ^ 007 
 
 on his retirement from Kentucky, 
 had thrown his forces into Murfreesborougli. Thus the two generals 
 found themselves face to face, and but thirty miles apart. Late in 
 December Rosecrans moved forward to attack his antagonist, and on the 
 evening of the 30th came upon the Confederates strongly posted on 
 Stone’s River, a short distance north-west of Murfreesborougli. During 
 the night preparations were made on both sides for the impending 
 battle. The plan of attack adopted by the Federal commander contem¬ 
 plated the massing of his forces on the left in such numbers as to crush 
 the Confederate right wing under Breckinridge before assistance could 
 be brought from the west side of the river. Bragg’s plan of battle was 
 the exact counterpart of that adopted by Rosecrans. Before daylight 
 the Confederate# were heavily massed under Hardee on the left; and 
 in the early morning the battle began by a furious and unexpected 
 
CAMPAIGN OF ’ 62 . 
 
 501 
 
 charge on McCook who commanded the right wing of the Federals. 
 McCook’s outcry for help was at first unheeded by Rosecrans, who did 
 not realize the real nature of the Confederate onset. After a terrible 
 struggle which lasted until noonday the Union right was shattered to 
 fragments and driven from the field. The brunt of the battle now fell 
 upon General Thomas, who commanded the 
 Federal right center; and he, too, after des¬ 
 perate fighting, was obliged to fall back to 
 a new position. Here, however, he rallied 
 his forces and held his ground until Gen¬ 
 eral Rosecrans readjusted his whole line of 
 battle. While this work was going on, the 
 Confederates were barely prevented from a 
 complete and overwhelming triumph by the 
 almost unparalleled heroism of the division 
 of General William B. Hazen. With only 
 thirteen hundred men he stayed the oncom¬ 
 ing tide of victorious assailants until the 
 Federal lines were completely restored. At 
 nightfall more than seven thousand Union 
 soldiers were missing from the ranks. . 
 
 But General Rosecrans, though de¬ 
 feated, was by no means disposed to abandon battle of murfreesborough, jan. 
 the contest. During the night after the bat¬ 
 tle, a council of war was held and complete preparations were made for 
 renewing the struggle on the morrow. On New Year’s morning Gen¬ 
 eral Bragg found his antagonist strongly posted, with shortened lines, 
 and manifest disposition for battle. The Confederate commander 
 grew cautious; and the day was spent in indecisive skirmishing and 
 artillery firing at long range. Early on the morning of the 2d, the 
 conflict broke out afresh on the east side of Stone’s River, and for 
 some hours there was terrific cannonading in that quarter. At three 
 o’clock in the afternoon the Confederates were massed against the 
 Union left, and the Nationals were driven across the river by the 
 shock. But at this juncture the Federal artillery, advantageously 
 posted on the hills west of the stream, opened a murderous fire 
 on the assailing columns. At the same time, the discomfited 
 Federals, rallying to the charge, turned upon their pursuers and 
 in one tremendous onset drove them from the field with the slaugh¬ 
 ter of thousands. General Bragg had lost the prize. During the 
 night he withdrew his broken and exhausted columns through 
 
502 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Murfreesborough and retreated in the direction of Tullahoma. The 
 
 Union loss in the two battles was a thousand five hundred and thirty- 
 
 •/ 
 
 three killed, seven thousand two hundred and forty-five wounded, and 
 nearly three thousand prisoners; that of the Confederates amounted 
 in killed, wounded, and prisoners to between ten and eleven thou¬ 
 sand men. 
 
 In Virginia the campaigns of 1862 were even more grand and 
 destructive than those in the West. The first stirring scenes of the 
 year were enacted in the Shenandoah Valley. Desiring to occupy 
 this important district, the Federal government sent forward a strong 
 division under General Banks, who pressed his way southward, and in 
 the last days of March occupied the town of Harrisonburg. In order 
 to counteract this movement, the gallant Stonewall Jackson was sent 
 with a force of twenty thousand men to pass the Blue Ridge and cut 
 off Banks’s retreat. At Front Royal, on the Shenandoah, just before 
 the gap in the Mountains, the Confederates fell upon a body of 
 Federals, routed them, captured their guns and all the military stores 
 in the town. Banks succeeded, however, in passing with his main 
 division to Strasburg. There he learned of the disaster at Front 
 Royal, and immediately began his retreat down the valley. Jackson 
 pursued him hotly, and it was only by the utmost exertions that the 
 Federals gained the northern bank of the Potomac. 
 
 The Confederate leader, though completely victorious, now found 
 himself in great peril. For General Fremont, at the head of a strong 
 force of fresh troops, had been sent into the valley to intercept the re¬ 
 treat of the Confederates. It was now Jackson’s time to save his 
 army. With the utmost celerity he sped up the valley, and succeeded 
 in reaching Cross Keys before Fremont could attack him. Even 
 then the battle was so little decisive that Jackson pressed on to Port 
 Republic, attacked the division of General Shields, defeated it, and 
 then retired from the scene of his brilliant campaign to join in the 
 defense of Richmond. 
 
 On the 10th of March the grand army of the Potomac, num¬ 
 bering nearly two hundred thousand men, under command of General 
 McClellan, set out from the camps about Washington to capture the 
 Confederate capital. The advance proceeded as far as Manassas Junc¬ 
 tion, the Confederates falling back and forming a new line of defences 
 on the Rappahannock. At this stage of the campaign McClellan, 
 changing his plan, embarked a hundred and twenty thousand of his 
 men for Fortress Monroe, intending from that point to march up the 
 peninsula between the James and the York. By the 4th of April the 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 62 . 
 
 503 
 
 transfer of troops was completed, and the Union army left Fortress 
 Monroe for Yorktown. This place was garrisoned by ten thousand 
 Confederates under General Magruder; and yet with so small a force 
 McClellan’s advance was delayed for a whole month. When at last, 
 on the 4th of May, Yorktown was taken by siege, the Federal army 
 pressed forward to Williamsburg, 
 where the Confederates made a 
 stand, but were defeated with se¬ 
 vere losses. Four days afterward, 
 in an engagement at West Point, 
 at the confluence of the Matta- 
 pony and Pamunkey, the Confed¬ 
 erates were again overpowered and 
 driven back. The way to Rich¬ 
 mond was now open as far as the 
 Chickahominy, ten miles north 
 of the city. The Union army 
 reached that stream without fur¬ 
 ther resistance, and crossed at 
 Bottom’s Bridge. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Wool, 
 the commandant of Fortress Mon¬ 
 roe, had not been idle. On the 
 10th of May he led an expedition 
 against Norfolk and captured the 
 town; for the Confederate garri¬ 
 son had been withdrawn to aid in the defence of Richmond. On the 
 next day the celebrated iron-clad Virginia was blown up to save her 
 from capture by the Federals. The James River was thus opened for 
 the ingress of national transports laden with supplies for the Army 
 of the Potomac. That army, now advanced toward Richmond, and 
 when but seven miles from the city was attacked on the 31st of May by 
 the Confederates at a place called Fair Oaks or Seven Pines. Here 
 for a part of two days the battle raged with great fury. At last the 
 Confederates were driven back; but McClellan’s victory was by no 
 means decisive. The Confederate loss was largest, amounting to 
 nearly eight thousand in killed and wounded; that of the Feder¬ 
 als was more than five thousand. Among the severely wounded was 
 General Joseph E. Johnston, the commander-in-chief of the Con¬ 
 federates. Two days after the battle his place was filled by the 
 appointment of General Robert E. Lee, a man of military genius, 
 
 SCENE OF CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA, MARYLAND 
 AND PENNSYLVANIA, 1862. 
 
504 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 who, until its final downfall, remained the chief stay of the Confed¬ 
 eracy. 
 
 In the lull that followed the battle of Fair Oaks, McClellan 
 formed the design of changing his base of supplies from the White 
 House, on the Pamunkev, to,some suitable point on the James. The 
 
 movement was one 
 of the utmost haz¬ 
 ard, and before it 
 was fairly begun 
 General Lee, on 
 the 25th of June, 
 swooped down on 
 the right wing of 
 the Union army at 
 Oak Grove, and a 
 hard - fought battle 
 ensued without de¬ 
 cisive results. On 
 the next day an¬ 
 other dreadful en¬ 
 gagement occurred 
 a t Mechanicsville, 
 and this time the 
 Federals won the 
 field. But on the 
 following morning 
 
 GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. ° 0 
 
 Lee renewed the 
 
 struggle at Gaines’s Mill, and came out victorious. On the 28th there 
 was but little fighting. On the 29th McClellan’s retreating army was 
 twice attacked—in the morning at Savage’s Station and in the afternoon 
 in the White Oak Swamp—but the divisions defending the rearguard 
 kept the Confederates at bay. On the 30th was fought the desperate 
 but indecisive battle of Glendale or Frazier’s Farm. On that night 
 the Federal army reached Malvern Hill, on the north bank of the 
 James, twelve miles below Richmond. Although this position was 
 protected by the Federal gunboats in the river, General Lee deter¬ 
 mined to carry the place by storm. Accordingly, on the morning of 
 the 1st of July the whole Confederate army rushed forward to the as¬ 
 sault. All day long the furious struggle for the possession of the high 
 grounds continued. Not until nine o’clock at night did Lee’s shat¬ 
 tered columns fall back exhausted. For seven days the terrific roar 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’ 62 -. 
 
 505 
 
 VICINITY OF RICHMOND, 1862. 
 
 of battle had been heard almost without cessation. No such dreadful 
 scenes had ever before been enacted on the American continent. 
 
 Although victorious on Malvern Hill, General McClellan, instead 
 of advancing at once on Richmond, chose a less hazardous movement, 
 and on the 2d of July retired with his army to Harrison’s Landing, 
 a few miles down the river. The 
 great campaign was really at an 
 end. The Federal army had lost 
 more than fifteen thousand men, 
 and the capture of Richmond, the 
 great object for which the expedi¬ 
 tion had been undertaken, seemed 
 further off than ever. The losses 
 of the Confederates had been heav¬ 
 ier than those of the Union army, 
 but all the moral effect of a great 
 victory remained with the exultant 
 South. 
 
 General Lee, perceiving that 
 Richmond was no longer endan¬ 
 gered, immediately formed the de¬ 
 sign of invading Maryland and capturing the Federal capital. The 
 Union troops between Richmond and Washington, numbering in the 
 aggregate about fifty thousand, were under command of General John 
 Pope. They were scattered in detachments from Fredericksburg to 
 Winchester and Harper’s Ferry. Lee moved northward about the 
 middle of August, and on the 20th of the month Pope, concentrating 
 his forces as rapidly as possible, put the Rappahannock between his 
 army and the advancing Confederates. Meanwhile General Banks, 
 while attempting to form a junction with Pope, was attacked by Stone¬ 
 wall Jackson at Cedar Mountain, where nothing but desperate fighting 
 saved the Federals from complete rout. 
 
 No sooner had Pope gotten his forces well in hand than Jackson 
 shot by with his division on a flank movement, reached Manassas 
 Junction, and made large captures of men and stores. Pope with great 
 audacity threw his army between the two divisions of the Confederates, 
 hoping to crush Jackson before Lee could come to the rescue. On 
 August 28th and 29th there was terrible but undecisive fighting at 
 Manassas Junction, the old Bull Run battle-ground, and Centreville. 
 At one time it seemed that Lee’s army would be completely defeated; 
 
 but Pope’s reinforcements were purposely delayed by General Porter, 
 85 
 
506 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 4 
 
 and on the 31st of the month the Confederates bore down on the 
 Union army at Chantilly, fought all day, and won a victory. Gen¬ 
 erals Stevens and Kearney were among the thousands of brave men 
 who fell in this battle. On that night Pope withdrew his shattered 
 columns as rapidly as possible, and found safety within the defences 
 of Washington. His wish to be relieved of his command was imme¬ 
 diately complied with; his forces, known as the Army of Virginia, 
 were consolidated with the Army of the Potomac, which had now 
 been recalled from the peninsula below Richmond; and General Mc¬ 
 Clellan was placed in supreme command of all the divisions about 
 Washington. 
 
 General Leo prosecuted his invasion of Maryland. Passing up 
 the right bank of the Potomac, he crossed to Point of Rocks, and on 
 the 6th of September captured Frederick. On the 10th Hagerstown 
 was taken, and on the 15th a division of the Confederate army, led 
 by Stonewall Jackson came upon Harper’s Ferry and frightened Colo¬ 
 nel Miles into surrender by which the garrison, nearly twelve thou¬ 
 sand strong, became prisoners of war. On the previous day there was 
 a hard-fought engagement at South Mountain, in which the Federals, 
 led by Hatch and Doubleday, were victorious. McClellan’s whole 
 army was now in the immediate rear of Lee, who, on the night of the 
 14th, fell back to Antietam Creek, and took a strong position in the 
 vicinity of Sharpsburg. On the morning of the 15th there was some 
 sharp but desultory fighting between the Union and Confederate cav¬ 
 alry. During the afternoon the Federal advance, coming in on the 
 Sharpsburg road from Keedysville, received the opening salutes of the 
 Confederate guns on the Antietam. But nightfall came without a se¬ 
 rious conflict. On the following morning there was great activity of 
 preparation in both armies. Later in the day the corps of General 
 Hooker, who commanded on the Federal right, was thrown across the 
 stream which separated the combatants and brought into a favorable 
 position for action. In this quarter of the field the Confederate left 
 under General Hood was assaulted and driven back a half mile in the 
 direction of Sharpsburg. The rest of the day was spent in an irregu¬ 
 lar cannonade. During the night General Mansfield’s corps crossed 
 the Antietam on the north bridge and joined Hooker. 
 
 On the morning of the 17th both commanders had their armies 
 well into position, the Federals being strongest in numbers and the 
 Confederates having the advantage of an unfordable stream in their 
 front. It was of the first importance that General McClellan should 
 gain and hold the four stone bridges by which only his forces could 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’t>2. 
 
 507 
 
 be thrown to the other side. General Burnside, who was ordered to 
 take the lower bridge, cross over, and attack the division of A. P. 
 Hill, encountered unexpected delays and was greatly retarded in his 
 movements. On the right, Hooker renewed the battle at sunrise, and 
 until late in the afternoon the conflict raged with almost unabated 
 fury. Here fell the 
 veteran General Mans¬ 
 field and thousands of 
 his comrades. Mean¬ 
 while, Burnside had 
 forced the lower cross- 
 i n g and carried the 
 battle far up in the di¬ 
 rection of Sharpsburg. 
 
 But the Confederates 
 being reinforced from 
 other parts of the field 
 made a rally, and the 
 Federals were driven 
 back nearly to the An- 
 tietam. It was only by 
 terrible fighting that 
 General Burnside suc¬ 
 ceeded in holding his 
 position on the Avest 
 bank of the stream. 
 
 But on the approach 
 of darkness the great¬ 
 er part of the Union 
 army had gained a safe 
 lodgment between the 
 creek and Sharpsburg. 
 
 Xe\ T ertheless, the Confederate forces occupied nearly the same ground 
 as in the morning; and it seemed that the final struggle was reserved 
 for the morrow. On that day, however, General McClellan acted on 
 the defensive. Two strong divisions of reinforcements, under Generals 
 Humphreys and Couch, arrived, and it was resolved to renew the at¬ 
 tack on the following morning. But in the mean time, General Lee 
 had taken advantage of the delay, withdrawn his shattered legions from 
 their position, and recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. The great 
 conflict which had cost each army more than ten thousand men had 
 
608 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ended in a drawn battle in which there is little to be praised except 
 the heroism of the soldiery. To the Confederates, however, the result 
 was almost as disastrous as defeat. The promised uprising of the 
 people of Maryland in behalf of the Confederate cause did not occur 
 and General Lee was obliged to give up a fruitless and hopeiess in¬ 
 vasion which, in the short space of a month, had cost him nearly 
 
 thirty thousand men. On the 
 other side, the expectations 
 which had been inspired by 
 the movements and despatch¬ 
 es of the L T nion commander 
 previous to the battle had been 
 sorely disappointed. 
 
 On the 26th of October, 
 General McClellan, following 
 the retreating Confederates, 
 again entered Virginia, and 
 reached Recto rtown. It was 
 the purpose of the Federal 
 government that the Army 
 of the Potomac should, be¬ 
 fore the approach of winter, 
 be thrown forward in a sec¬ 
 ond attempt against Rich- 
 
 mu.es 10 20 .‘10 40 SO 60 70 75 i mi tt T 
 
 --- - —— - ' --- mond. Ihe Union command- 
 
 THE PROPOSKD BOUT^FROM WASHINGTON TO RICH- ^ preferred fa adv anCe 
 
 by the route which he had 
 taken the previous spring, making his base of supplies at West Point 
 on the Pamunkey. But this plan was open to the objection that Wash¬ 
 ington city would thereby be again uncovered and exposed to a coun¬ 
 ter movement on the part of the Confederates. Yielding to the pro¬ 
 test of the President and his cabinet, McClellan altered his plans and 
 chose Alexandria on the Potomac as his base of operations. From 
 this point it was proposed to advance on the Confederate capital bv 
 way of the Orange Railroad through Culpepper to Gordonsville, and 
 thence by the Virginia Central to its junction with the line reaching 
 from Fredericksburg to Richmond. The month of October was 
 wasted with delays, and November was well begun before the Federal 
 general with his army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, an¬ 
 nounced himself ready for the forward movement. On the 7th of 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ’62. 
 
 509 
 
 the month, just as the Union commander was about to begin the cam¬ 
 paign, he was superseded and his command transferred to General 
 Burnside. Bight or wrong, the President at last reached the decision 
 that General McClellan was a man over-cautious and slow—too pru¬ 
 dent and too much absorbed in preliminaries to lead the armies of 
 the Kepublic to victory. 
 
 General Burnside immediately changed the plan of the proposed 
 campaign. It was decided to form a new base of supplies at the 
 mouth of Acquia Creek, fifty-five miles below Washington and from 
 that point to force a way by battle southward through Fredericks¬ 
 burg. But again movements were much delayed, and that, too, when 
 everything depended on celerity. The pontoons, which were neces¬ 
 sary for the crossing of the Rappahannock, were not forthcoming, 
 and a fortnight was lost in preparations. General Lee found abun¬ 
 dant time to gather his legions and occupy the heights in the vicinity 
 of Fredericksburg. It was not a part of his plan to dispute the pas¬ 
 sage of the river but to allow the Federals to cross over and then 
 beat them back from his entrenchments. On the 11th of December 
 the Union army was brought into position on the east bank of the 
 Rappahannock. The divisions lay from the village of Falmouth to 
 a point opposite the mouth of the Massaponax, about three miles be¬ 
 low. In front of the corps of General Franklin, who commanded 
 the Federal left wing, the pontoons were successfully laid and the 
 crossing of the river was effected without serious opposition. But 
 opposite Fredericksburg, where the divisions of Generals Sumner and 
 Hooker, who held the Union center and right, were to cross, the work 
 of laying the bridges was hindered by the Confederate sharpshooters 
 lying concealed in the town. General Burnside ordered the Federal 
 guns to be turned in that direction, and in a short time Fredericks¬ 
 burg was battered and burned into ruins. Some Union regiments 
 were next ferried over in boats, and the Confederate picket lines were 
 driven back to the heights. The bridges were completed, and by 
 nightfall of the 12th the army had been transferred to the western 
 eide of the river. 
 
 On the morning of the 13th the battle began on the left where 
 Franklin’s division encountered the corps of Stonewall Jackson. A 
 gallant charge was made by General Meade and a gap was made in 
 the Confederate lines; but no reinforcements were sent forward; the 
 Confederates rallied, and the Federals were driven back with a loss 
 of three thousand seven hundred men. Jackson’s loss was almost as 
 
510 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 great, and in this part of the field neither side might claim a decisive 
 victory. Not so in the center and on the right. Here a portion cf 
 General Sumner’s men were ordered forward against the Confederates 
 securely and impregnably posted on Marye’s Hill. They were mowed 
 down by thousands and hurled back in disdain, while the defenders 
 of the heights hardly lost a man. Time and again the assault was 
 recklessly renewed. A part of Hooker’s gallant troops, led by Gen¬ 
 eral Humphreys, came forward; charged with unloaded guns ; and iu 
 fifteen minutes one-half of the four thousand brave fellows went dowi 
 in death. Night came and ended the useless carnage. General Burn¬ 
 side would have renewed the battle ; but his division commanders 
 finally dissuaded him and on the night of the 15th the Federal arm\ 
 was silently withdrawn across the Rappahannock. The Union losse.- 
 in this terrible conflict amounted to a thousand five hundred killed 
 nine thousand one hundred wounded, and sixteen hundred and fifty 
 prisoners and missing. The Confederates lost in killed five hundred 
 and ninety-five, four thousand and sixty-one wounded, and six hun¬ 
 dred and fifty-three missing and prisoners. Of all the important 
 movements of the war only that of Fredericksburg was undertaken 
 with no probability of success. Under the plan of the battle—if 
 plan it might be called, nothing could be reasonably expected but 
 repulse, rout, and ruin. Thus in gloom and disaster to the Federal 
 cause ended the great campaign of 1862. 
 
 CHAPTER LXY. 
 
 THE WORK OF ’ 63 . 
 
 T HE war had now grown to enormous proportions. The Con federal' 
 States were draining every resource of men and means in order to 
 support their armies. The superior energies of the North, though by no 
 means exhausted, were greatly taxed. In the previous year, on the day 
 after the battle of Malvern Hill, President Lincoln had issued a call for 
 three hundred thousand additional troops. During the exciting days of 
 Pope’s retreat from the Rappahannock he sent forth another call for three 
 
THE WORK OF ’63. 
 
 oil 
 
 hundred thousand, and to that was added a requisition for a draft of three 
 hundred thousand more. Most of these enormous demands were promptly 
 met, and it became evident that in respect to resources the Federal gov¬ 
 ernment was vastly superior to the Confederacy. 
 
 On the 1st day of January, 1863, the President issued one of the 
 most important documents of modern times: The Emancipation 
 Proclamation.* The war had been begun with no well-defined inten¬ 
 tion on the part of the government to free the slaves of the South. But 
 the President and the Republican party looked with disfavor on the in¬ 
 stitution of slavery; during the progress of the war the sentiment of 
 abolition had grown with great rapidity in the North; and when at last 
 it became a military necessity to strike a blow at the labor-system of the 
 Southern States, the step was taken with but little hesitancy or oppo¬ 
 sition. Thus, after an existence of two hundred and forty-four years, the 
 institution of African slavery in the United States was swept away. 
 
 The military movements of the new year began on the Mississippi 
 After his defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, General Sherman laid a plan for 
 the capture of Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas River. In the first days 
 of January an expedition set out for that purpose, the land-forces being 
 commanded by General McClernand, and the flotilla by Admiral Porter. 
 Entering the Arkansas, the Union forces reached their destination on the 
 10th of the month, fought a hard battle with the Confederates, gained a 
 victory, and on the next day received the surrender of the post with 
 nearly five thousand prisoners. After this success the expedition returned 
 to the vicinity of Vicksburg, in order to co-operate with General Grant 
 in a second effort to capture that stronghold of the Confederacy. 
 
 Again the Union forces were collected at Memphis, and embarked 
 on the Mississippi. A landing was effected at the Yazoo; but the cap¬ 
 ture of the city from that direction was decided to be impracticable. The 
 first three months of the year were spent by General Grant in beating 
 about the bayous, swamps and hills around Vicksburg, in the hope of 
 getting a position in the rear of the town. A canal was cut across a 
 bend in the river with a view to turning the channel of the Mississippi 
 and opening a passage for the gunboats. But a flood in the river washed 
 the works away, and the enterprise ended in failure. Then another 
 canal was begun, only to be abandoned. Finally, in the first days of 
 April, it was determined at all hazards to run the fleet past the Vicksburg 
 batteries. Accordingly, on the night of the 16th, the boats were made 
 ready and silently dropped down the river. All of a sudden the guns 
 burst forth with terrible discharges of shot and shell, pelting the passing 
 
 *See Appendix H. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 <312 
 
 steamers; but they went by with comparatively little damage, and found 
 a safe position below the city. 
 
 . Elated with the successful pas¬ 
 sage of his fleet, General Grant 
 now marched his land-forces down 
 the right bank of the Mississippi 
 and formed a junction with the 
 squadron. On the 30th of April 
 he crossed the river at Bruinsburg, 
 and on the following day fought 
 and defeated the Confederates at 
 Port Gibson. The evacuation of 
 Grand Gulf, at the mouth of the 
 Big Black River, followed imme- 
 vicksburg and vicinity, 1863 . diately after wfwd. The Union army 
 
 now swept around to the rear of Vicksburg. On the morning of 
 the 12 th a strong Confederate force was encountered at Raymond, and 
 after a severe engagement was repulsed. Pressing on toward Jackson, 
 the capital of Mississippi, General Grant’s right wing, under Sherman and 
 McPherson, met the advance of General Johnston’s division coming to 
 reinforce the garrison of Vicksburg. Here, on the 14th of the month, 
 a decisive battle was fought; the Confederates were beaten, and the city 
 of Jackson captured. The communications of Vicksburg were now cut 
 off, and General Pemberton was obliged to repel the Federals or suffer a 
 siege. Sallying forth with the greater part of his forces, he met the Union 
 army on the 16th at Champion Hills, on Baker’s Creek. In the battle 
 that followed, as well as in a conflict at the Black River Bridge on the 
 17th, Grant was again victorious, and Pemberton retired with his dis¬ 
 heartened troops within the defences of Vicksburg. 
 
 The investment of the city was rapidly completed. Believing that 
 the Confederate works could be carried by storm, General Grant, on the 
 19th of May, ordered an assault, which resulted in a repulse with terrible 
 losses. Three days afterward the attempt was renewed, but the assailants 
 were again hurled back with a still greater destruction of life. The 
 Union loss in these two unsuccessful assaults amounted to nearly three 
 thousand men. Finding that Vicksburg could not be taken by storm, 
 General Grant began a regular siege, and pressed it with ever-increasing 
 severity. Admiral Porter got his gunboats into position and bombarded 
 the unfortunate town incessantly. Reinforcements swelled the Union 
 ranks. On the other hand, the garrison of the city was in a starving con¬ 
 dition. Still, Pemberton held out for more than a month ; and it was 
 
THE WORK OF ’63. 
 
 513 
 
 not until the 4th of July that he was driven to surrender. By the act 
 of capitulation the defenders of Vicksburg, numbering nearly thirty 
 thousand, became prisoners of war. Thousands of small-arms, hundreds 
 of cannon, vast quantities of ammunition and warlike stores were the 
 fruits of this great Union victory, by which the national government 
 gained more and the Confederacy lost more than in any previous struggle 
 of the war. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Banks, who had superseded General Butler in 
 eommand of the department of the gulf, had been conducting a vigor¬ 
 ous campaign on the Lower Mississippi. Early in January, from his 
 headquarters at Baton Rouge, he advanced into Louisiana, reached Brash- 
 ear City, and shortly afterward gained a victory over a Confederate force 
 at a place called Bayou Teche. Returning to the Mississippi, he moved 
 northward to Port Hudson, invested the place and began a siege. The 
 beleaguered garrison, under General Gardner, made a brave defence; and 
 it was not until the 8th of July, when the news of the fall of Vicksburg 
 was borne to Port Hudson, that the commandant, with his force of more 
 than six thousand men, was obliged to capitulate. By this important 
 surrender the control of the Mississippi throughout its whole length was 
 recovered by the National government. 
 
 During the progress of the war cavalry raids became more and more 
 frequent. Of this nature was Stonewall Jackson’s campaign down the 
 Shenandoah valley in the summer of 1862. Later in the same year, just 
 after the battle of Antietam, the Confederate General Stuart, with a troop 
 of eighteen hundred cavalrymen, made a dash into Pennsylvania, reached 
 Chambersburg, captured the town, made a complete circuit of the Army 
 of the Potomac, and returned in safety to Virginia. Just before the in¬ 
 vestment of Vicksburg, Colonel Benjamin Grierson, of the Sixth Illinois 
 Cavalry, struck out with his command from La Grange, Tennessee, en¬ 
 tered Mississippi, traversed the State to the east of Jackson, cut the rail¬ 
 roads, destroyed property, and after a rapid course of more than eight 
 hundred miles gained the river at Baton Rouge. By these raids the 
 border country of both sections was kept in perpetual agitation and alarm. 
 
 For a while after the battle of Murfreesborough Rosecrans re¬ 
 mained inactive. Late in the spring Colonel Streight’s command went 
 on a raid into Georgia, met the division of the Confederate general 
 Forrest, was surrounded and captured. In the latter part of June, Rose¬ 
 crans bv a series of flank movements succeeded in crowding General Bragg 
 out of Tennessee into Georgia. The union general followed his antago¬ 
 nist and took post at Chattanooga, on the left bank of the Tennessee. 
 During the summer months General Bragg was heavily reinforced by 
 
 S3 
 
514 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Johnston from Mississippi, and Longstreet from Virginia. On the 19th 
 of September he turned upon the Federal army at Chickamauga Creek, 
 in the north-west angle of Georgia. During this day a hard battle 
 was fought, but night fell on the scene with the victory undecided. 
 During the night the Confederates were reinforced by the arrival of 
 General Longstreet, who was stationed with his division on the left 
 
 wing of Bragg’s army. The 
 right was given to General 
 Polk, while the center was 
 held by Ewell and Johnston. 
 The Federal left wing was 
 c o m m ande d b y General 
 Thomas, the center by Crit- 
 tenden, and the right by Mc¬ 
 Cook. The plan of the Con¬ 
 federate commander was t$ 
 crush the Union line, force 
 his way through a gap in 
 Missionary Eidge, capture 
 Eossville and Chattanooga, 
 and annihilate Rosecrans’s 
 army. The battle began at 
 half past eight o’clock on 
 the morning of the 20th, 
 the Confederates moving on 
 in powerful masses, and 
 the Federals holding their 
 ground with unflinching courage. After the conflict had continued 
 for some hours, the national battle-line was opened by General Wood, 
 acting under mistaken orders. The Confederate general, seeing his 
 advantage, thrust forward a heavy column into the gap, cut the Union 
 army in two, and drove the shattered right wing in utter rout from 
 the field. General Thomas, with a desperate firmness hardly equaled 
 in the annals of war, held the left until nightfall, and then, under 
 cover of darkness, withdrew into Chattanooga, where the defeated 
 army of Rosecrans had already found shelter. The LTiion losses in 
 this dreadful battle amounted in killed, wounded and missing to 
 nearly nineteen thousand, and the Confederate loss was even more 
 appalling. 
 
 General Bragg at once pressed forward to besiege Chattanooga. 
 The Federal lines of communication were cut off, and for a while the 
 army of Rosecrans was in danger of being annihilated. But General 
 
 BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA, SEPT. 19, 20, 1863. 
 
TEE WORK OF 63. 
 
 515 
 
 Hooker arrived with two corps from the Army of the Potomac, opened 
 the Tennessee River, and brought relief to the besieged. At the same 
 time General Grant, being promoted to the chief command of the 
 Western armies, assumed the direction of affairs at Chattanooga. Gen¬ 
 eral Sherman also arrived with his division, so strengthening the Army 
 of the Cumber¬ 
 land that offen¬ 
 sive operations 
 were at once 
 renewed. The 
 left wing of 
 the Confederate 
 army now rest¬ 
 ed on Look¬ 
 out Mountain, 
 and the right 
 o n Missionary 
 Ridge. A po¬ 
 sition seemingly 
 more impregna¬ 
 ble could hard¬ 
 ly be conceived 
 
 of. General 
 
 / 
 
 Bragg was not 
 only confident 
 of his ability to 
 hold his 1 ines 
 against any ad¬ 
 vance of the Federals but even contemplated the storming of Chatta¬ 
 nooga. On the 20th of November he gave notice to General Grant to 
 remove all non-combatants as the town was about to be bombarded; 
 but no attention was paid to the despatch. On the 23d General Hooker 
 threw his corps across the river below Chattanooga and gained a foot¬ 
 ing at the mouth of Lookout Creek facing the mountain. From this 
 position the assault was made on the following morning. Hooker was 
 supported by the divisions of Generals Geary and Osterhaus, and the 
 remainder of the Union army was kept in a state of activity in order 
 to prevent the reinforcement of Lookout from Missionary Ridge. A 
 dense fog hung like a hood over the mountain, effectually concealing 
 the movements of the Federals. The charge began between eight and 
 nine o’clock, and in the space of two hours the ranges of Confederate 
 rifle-pits among the foot-hills had been successfully carried. It had 
 
 LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND MISSIONARY RIDGE, NOY. 23-25, 1863. 
 
516 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 been General Hooker’s purpose to pause when this work should be 
 accomplished, but the enthusiasm of his army rose to such a pitch as 
 to suggest the still greater achievement of carrying the whole Confed¬ 
 erate position. Taking advantage of the fog and the spirit of his 
 soldiers Hooker again gave the command to charge; and up the almost 
 inaccessible slopes of the mountain the troops sprang forward with re¬ 
 sistless energy. It was such a scene of dauntless heroism as has rarely 
 been portrayed in the records of battle. The charging columns, strug¬ 
 gling against the obstacles of nature and facing the murderous fire of 
 the Confederate guns, could not be checked. The Union flag was 
 carried to the top; and before two o’clock in the afternoon Lookout 
 Mountain, with its cloud-capped summit overlooking the town and 
 river, was swarming with Federal soldiers. The routed Confederates 
 retreated down the eastern slope and across the intervening hills and 
 valleys in the direction of Missionary Ridge. 
 
 The second great conflict was reserved for the morrow. During 
 the night of the 24th General Bragg concentrated his forces and made 
 preparations to defend his position to the last. On the following 
 morning Hooker’s victorious troops poured down from Lookout, 
 crossed the Chattanooga, and renewed the battle at the southwestern 
 extremity of Missionary Ridge. General Sherman had already built 
 pontoon bridges over the Tennessee and Chickamauga, thrown his 
 corps across those streams, and gained a lodgment on the northeastern 
 declivity of the Ridge. General Thomas, commanding the Union 
 center, lay with his impatient soldiers, on the southern and eastern 
 slopes of Orchard Knob, awaiting the result of Sherman’s and Hooker’s 
 onsets. At two o’clock in the afternoon orders were given by Gen¬ 
 eral Grant for an assault along the whole line. And the command 
 was instantly obeyed. The thrilling scene of Lookout Mountain was 
 again enacted. The Federal soldiers charged to the summit of Mis¬ 
 sionary Ridge and the Confederates were driven into a disastrous rout. 
 During the night General Bragg withdrew his shattered columns and 
 retreated in the direction of Ringgold, Georgia. The Federal losses 
 in the two great battles amounted to seven hundred and fifty-seven 
 killed, four thousand five hundred and twenty-nine wounded, and three 
 hundred and thirty missing; the loss of the Confederates in killed, 
 wounded and prisoners reached considerably beyond ten thousand. 
 The results of the conflict were so decisive as to put an end to the 
 war in Tennessee until it was renewed by Hood at Franklin and 
 Nashville in the winter of 1864. 
 
 In the mean time, General Burnside was making an effort to hold 
 East Tennessee. On the 1st of September he arrived with his command 
 
THE WORK OF ’63. 
 
 517 
 
 at Knoxville, where he was received by the people with lively satisfac¬ 
 tion. After the battle of Chickamauga, General Longstreet was sent into 
 East Tennessee to counteract the movements of the Unionists. On his 
 march to Knoxville he overtook and captured several small detachments 
 of Federal troops, then invested the town and began a siege. On the 
 29th of November the Confederates made an attempt to carry Knoxville 
 by storm, but were repulsed with heavy losses. After the retreat of Bragg 
 from Chattanooga, General Sherman marched to the relief of Burnside; 
 but before he could reach Knoxville, Longstreet raised the siege and re¬ 
 treated into Virginia. 
 
 In the early part of 1863 the Confederates, led by Generals Mar- 
 maduke and Price, resumed activity in Arkansas and Southern Missouri. 
 On the 8th of January they made an attack on Springfield, but were re¬ 
 pulsed with considerable losses. Three days afterward, at the town of 
 Hartsville, a battle was fought with a similar result. On the 26th of 
 April, General Marmaduke attacked the post at Cape Girardeau, on the 
 Mississippi, but the garrison succeeded in driving the Confederates away. 
 On the day of the surrender of Vicksburg the Confederate general 
 Holmes, with a force of nearly eight thousand men, made an attack 
 on Helena, Arkansas, but was repulsed with a loss of one-fifth of his 
 men. On the 13th of August the town of Lawrence, Kansas, was 
 sacked and burned, and a hundred and forty persons killed by a band 
 of desperate fellows led by a chieftain called Quantrell. On the 10th 
 of September the Federal general Steele reached Little Rock, the 
 capital of Arkansas, captured the city and restored the national authority 
 in the State. 
 
 To the summer of this year belongs the story of General John 
 Morgan’s great raid through Kentucky into Indiana and Ohio. His 
 starting-point was Sparta, Tennessee; the number of his forces three 
 thousand. Pushing northward through Kentucky, he gathered strength, 
 reached the Ohio at Brandenburg, crossed into Indiana, and began his 
 march to the north and east. He was resisted at Corydon and other 
 points by bodies of home-guards, and hotly pursued by a force under 
 General Hobson. Morgan crossed into Ohio at Harrison, made a circuit 
 to the north of Cincinnati, and attempted to recross the river. But the 
 Ohio was now guarded by gunboats, and the raiders were driven back. 
 With numbers constantly diminishing the Confederate leader pressed on, 
 fighting and flying, until he came near the town of New Lisbon, where 
 he was surrounded and captured by the brigade of General Shackelford. 
 For nearly four months Morgan was held as a prisoner; then mak¬ 
 ing his escape, he fled to Kentucky, and finally reached Richmond. 
 
 The year 1863 was marked by some movements of importance on 
 
518 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UFIT ED STATES. 
 
 the sea-coast. On the 1st of January General Marmaduke, by a brilliant 
 exploit, captured Galveston, Texas. By this means the Confederates se¬ 
 cured a port of entry, of which they were greatly in need in the South¬ 
 west. On the 7th of April Admiral Dupont, with a powerful fleet of iron¬ 
 clads, made an attempt to capture Charleston, but the squadron was driven 
 back much damaged, in the last days of June the siege of the city was 
 begun anew by a strong land-force, under command of General Q. A. 
 Gillmore, assisted by the fleet under Admiral Dahlgren. The Federal 
 army first effected a lodgment on Folly Island, and soon afterward on 
 the south end of Morris Island, where batteries were planted bearing upon 
 Fort Sumter in the channel and Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg at the 
 northern extremity of the island. After the bombardment had continued 
 for some time, General Gillmore, on the 18th of July, made an attempt 
 to carry Fort Wagner by assault, but was repulsed with a loss of more 
 than fifteen hundred men. The siege then progressed until the night of 
 the 6 th of September, when the Confederates evacuated the fort and Bat¬ 
 tery Gregg, and retired to Charleston. Gillmore thus obtained a position 
 within four miles of the city, and brought his guns to bear on the wharves 
 and buildings of the lower town. Meanwhile, the walls of Fort Sumter 
 on the side next to Morris Island had been pounded into powder by the 
 land-batteries and guns of the monitors. The harbor and city, however, 
 still remained under control of the Confederates, the only gain of the 
 Federals being the establishment of a blockade so complete as to seal up 
 the port of Charleston. 
 
 During the spring and summer of 1863 the Army of the Potomac 
 was engaged in several desperate conflicts. After his fatal repulse at 
 Fredericksburg General Burnside was superseded by General Joseph 
 Hooker, who, in the latter part of April, moved forward with his army in 
 full force, crossed the Rappahannock and the Rapidan, and reached 
 Chancellorsville. Here, on the evening of the 2d of May, he was at¬ 
 tacked by the veteran Army of Northern Virginia, led by Lee and Jack- 
 son. The latter general, with extraordinary daring, put himself at the 
 head of a division of twenty-five thousand men, filed off from the battle¬ 
 field, outflanked the Union army, burst like a thunder-cloud upon the 
 right wing, and swept everything to destruction. But it was the last of 
 Stonewall’s battles. As night came on, with ruin impending over the 
 Federal army, the brave Confederate leader, riding through the gather¬ 
 ing darkness, received a volley from his own lines, and fell mortally 
 wounded. He lingered a week, and died at Guinea Station, leaving a 
 gap in the Confederate ranks which no other man could fill. 
 
 On the morning of the 3d the battle was furiously renewed. Gen¬ 
 eral Sedgwick, attempting to reinforce Hooker from Fredericksburg, was 
 
THE WORK OF ’63. 
 
 519 
 
 defeated and driven across the Rappahannock. The main army was 
 crowded between Chancellorsville and the river, where it remained in the 
 utmost peril until the evening of the 5th, when General Hooker succeeded 
 in withdrawing his forces to the northern bank. The Union losses in 
 these terrible battles amounted in killed, wounded and prisoners to about 
 seventeen thousand; that of the Confederates was less by five thousand. 
 Taken altogether, the campaign was the most disastrous of any in which 
 the Federal army had yet been engaged. 
 
 The defeat of General Hooker was to some extent mitigated by the 
 successful cavalry raid of General Stoneman. On the 29th of April he 
 ■rossed the Rappahannock with a body of ten thousand men, tore up the 
 Virginia Central Railroad, dashed on to the Chickahominy, cut General 
 Lee’s communications, 
 swept around within 
 a few miles of Rich¬ 
 mond, and on the 8th 
 of May recrossed the 
 Rappahannock in 
 safety. At the same 
 time, General Peck, 
 the Federal command¬ 
 ant of Suffolk, on the 
 Nansemond, was suc¬ 
 cessfully resisting a 
 siege conducted by 
 General Longstreet. 
 
 The Confederates re¬ 
 treated from before the 
 town on the very day 
 of the Union disaster 
 at Chancellorsville. 
 
 Elated with his 
 success on the Rappa¬ 
 hannock, General Lee 
 determined to carry stonewall, jackson.* 
 
 the war into Mary¬ 
 land and Pennsylvania. In the first week of June he moved forward 
 
 ‘‘■'The true name of this remarkable man was Thomas Jonathan Jackson. In the be¬ 
 ginning of the battle of Bull Run, when the Confederates in one part of the field were 
 routed and flying, General Bee, pointing to an immovable column of men, cried out, 
 “Here is Jackson, standing like a stone wall!” From that day the man at the head of 
 .Rat column was called Stonewall Jackson. 
 
520 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 with his whole army, crossed the Potomac, and captured Hagerstown. 
 On the 22d of June the invaders entered Chambersburg, and then 
 pressed on through Carlisle to within a few miles of Harrisburg. 
 The militia of Pennsylvania was called out, and volunteers came 
 pouring in from other States. General Hooker, at the head of the 
 Army of the Potomac, pushed forward to strike his antagonist. It 
 
 was evident that 
 a great and deci¬ 
 sive battle was at 
 hand. General 
 Lee, abandoning 
 his purpose of 
 invasion, rapidly 
 concentrated his 
 forces near Get¬ 
 tysburg, the cap¬ 
 ital of Adams 
 County, Penn¬ 
 sylvania. On the 
 very eve of bat¬ 
 tle the command 
 of the Union ar¬ 
 my was transfer¬ 
 red from General 
 Hooker to Gen¬ 
 eral George G. 
 Meade, who has¬ 
 tily advanced his 
 forces through 
 the hill - country 
 in the direction 
 of Gettysburg. 
 After more than 
 
 two years of indecisive warfare it seemed that the fate of the Amer¬ 
 ican Republic was to be staked on the issue of a single battle. On 
 the morning of the 1st of July the Union advance, led by Generals 
 Reynolds and Buford, while moving westward from Gettysburg, en¬ 
 countered the Confederate division of General Hill, coming up on the 
 road from Hagerstown; and the struggle began. In the afternoon 
 6trong reinforcements were received and a severe battle was fought 
 for the possession of Seminary Ridge. In this initial conflict the 
 
 BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG, JULY 1, 2, 3, 1863. 
 
THE WORK OF ’63. 
 
 521 
 
 Confederates were victorious, driving the Union line from its posi¬ 
 tion, through the village, and back to the high grounds southward. 
 Here at nightfall a stand was made, and a new battle-line was formed 
 reaching from an eminence called Round Top, where the left wing 
 rested, around the crest of the ridges to Cemetery Hill, where the 
 center was posted, and thence to Wolf Hill on Rook Creek. To 
 this position, well-chosen and strong, the whole Union army, ex¬ 
 cept Sedgwick’s corps, was hurried forward during the night. The 
 Confederate forces were all brought into position on Seminary Ridge 
 and the high grounds to the left of Rock Creek, forming a semi¬ 
 circle about five miles long. The cavalry of both armies hung upon 
 the flanks, doing effective service but hardly participating in the 
 main conflict of the center. 
 
 On the morning of July 2d, the corps of General Longstreet on 
 the Confederate right moved forward impetuously and attacked the 
 Union left under Sickles. The struggle in this part of the field was 
 for the possession of Great and Little Round Top; and after terrible 
 fighting, which lasted until six o’clock in the evening, these strong 
 positions remained in the hands of the Federals. In the center a 
 similar conflict, lasting for the greater part of the day, ensued for the 
 possession of Cemetery Hill. Here, too, notwithstanding the desper¬ 
 ate assaults of the Confederates, the integrity of the National line waB 
 preserved till nightfall. On the right the Confederate onset was more 
 successful, and the Union right under General Slocum was somewhat 
 shattered. But at ten o’clock at night, when the fighting ceased, it 
 was found that the position of the two armies had not been materially 
 changed by a conflict which had left forty thousand dead and wounded 
 men on the field of battle. 
 
 Under cover of the darkness both generals made arrangements 
 to renew the struggle on the morrow, but when morning came both 
 were loath to begin. For each felt that this day’s action must be de¬ 
 cisive. General Meade had some advantage in the fact that Lee, in 
 in order to continue his invasion, must carry the Union position or 
 retreat. The whole forenoon of the 3d was spent in preparations. 
 At midday there was a lull. Then burst forth the fiercest cannonade 
 ever known on the American continent. Until after two o’clock the 
 hills were shaken with the thunders of more than two hundred heavy 
 guns. The Confederate artillerymen concentrated their fire on the 
 Union center at Cemetery Hill which became a scene of indescribable 
 uproar and death. Then came the crisis. The cannonade ceased. 
 A Confederate column, nearly three miles long, headed by the Vir- 
 
£22 
 
 HISTORY OR THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ginians under General Pickett, made a final and desperate charge on 
 the Union centre. But the onset was in vain, and the brave men who 
 made it were mowed down with terrible slaughter. The victory remained 
 with the national army, and Lee was obliged to turn back with his shat¬ 
 tered legions to the Potomac. The entire Confederate loss in this the 
 greatest battle of the war was nearly thirty thousand; that of the Fede- 
 rals in killed, wounded and missing, twenty-three thousand a hundred 
 and eighty-six. General Lee withdrew his forces into Virginia, and the 
 Union army resumed its old position on the Potomac and the Rappahan¬ 
 nock. Such were the more important military movements of 1863. 
 
 During this year the administration of President Lincoln was beset 
 with many difficulties. The war-debt of the nation was piling up moun¬ 
 tains high. The last calls for volunteers had not been fully met. The 
 anti-war party of the North had grown more bold, and openly denounced 
 the measures of the government. On the 3d of March the Consckip- 
 tion Act was passed by Congress, and two months afterward the Presi¬ 
 dent ordered a general draft of three hundred thousand men. All able- 
 bodied citizens between the ages of twenty and forty-five years were 
 subject to the requisition. The measure was bitterly denounced by the 
 opponents of the war, and in many places the draft-officers were forcibly 
 resisted. On the 13th of July, in the city of New York, a vast mob rose 
 in arms, demolished the buildings which were occupied by the provost 
 marshals, burned the colored orphan asylum, attacked the police, and 
 killed about a hundred people, most of whom were negroes. For three 
 days the authorities of the city were set at defiance. On the second 
 day of the reign of terror Governor Seymour arrived and addressed 
 the mob in a mild-mannered way, promising that the draft should be 
 suspended, and advising the rioters to disperse; but they gave little 
 heed to his mellow admonition, and went on with the work of de¬ 
 struction. General Wool, commander of the military district of New 
 York, then took the matter in hand; but the troops at his disposal 
 were at first unable to overawe the insurgents. Some volunteer regi¬ 
 ments, however, came trooping home from Gettysburg; the Metropol¬ 
 itan police companies were compactly organized; and the combined 
 forces soon crushed the insurrection with a strong hand. After the 
 fall of Vicksburg and the retreat of Lee from Pennsylvania, there 
 were fewer acts of domestic violence. Nevertheless, the anti-war 
 spirit in some parts of the North ran so high that on the 19th of 
 August President Lincoln issued a proclamation suspending the priv¬ 
 ileges of the writ of habeas corpus throughout the Union. 
 
 As a means of procuring soldiers the draft amounted to nothing; 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 523 
 
 only about fifty thousand men were thus directly obtained. But volun¬ 
 teering was greatly quickened by the measure, and the employment of 
 substitutes soon filled the ranks of the army. Such, however, were the 
 terrible losses by battle and disease and the expiration of enlistments 
 that in October the President issued another call for three hundred thou¬ 
 sand men. At the same time it was provided that any delinquency in 
 meeting the demand would be supplied by a draft in the following Janu¬ 
 ary. By these active measures the columns of the Union army were made 
 more powerful than ever. In the armies of the South, on the other hand, 
 there were already symptoms of exhaustion, and the most rigorous con¬ 
 scription was necessary to fill the thinned but still courageous ranks of 
 the Confederacy. It was on the 20th of June in this year that West Vir¬ 
 ginia, separated from the Old Dominion, was organized and admitted as 
 the thirty-fifth State of the Union. • 
 
 CHAPTER LX VI. 
 
 THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 A S in the previous year, the military movements of 1864 began in the 
 West. In the beginning of February General Sherman left Vicks¬ 
 burg with the purpose of destroying the railroad connections of Eastern 
 Mississippi. Marching toward Alabama, he reached Meridian on the 
 15th of the month. Here, where the railroad from Mobile to Corinth 
 intersects the line from Vicksburg to Montgomery, the tracks were torn 
 up for a distance of a hundred and fifty miles. Bridges were burned, 
 locomotives and cars destroyed, vast quantities of cotton and corn given 
 to the flames. At Meridian General Sherman expected the arrival of a 
 strong force of Federal cavalry which had been sent out from Memphis, 
 under command of General Smith. The latter advanced into Mississippi, 
 but was met, a hundred miles north of Meridian, by the cavalry of For¬ 
 rest, and driven back to Memphis. Disappointed of the expected junc¬ 
 tion of his forces, General Sherman retraced his course to Vicksburg. 
 Forrest continued his raid northward, entered Tennessee, and on the 24th 
 of March captured Union City. Pressing on, he reached Paducah, Ken¬ 
 tucky, made an assault on Fort Anderson, in the suburbs of the town, but 
 was repulsed with a loss of three hundred men. Turning back into Ten¬ 
 nessee, he came upon Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, seventy miles 
 above Memphis. The place was defended by five hundred and sixty 
 
524 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 soldiers, about half of whom were negroes. Forrest, having gained 
 the outer defences, demanded a surrender, but was refused. He 
 then ordered an assault, and carried the fort by storm. 
 
 To the spring of 1864 belongs the story of ^he Red River Expe¬ 
 dition, conducted by General Banks. The object had in view was the 
 capture of Shreveport, the seat of the Confederate government of Louisi¬ 
 ana. A strong land-force was to march up Red River, supported by a 
 fleet of gunboats, under command of Admiral Porter. The army was 
 composed of three divisions: the first, from Vicksburg, numbering ten 
 thousand, commanded by General Smith; the second, from New Orleans, 
 led by General Banks in person; the third, from Little Rock, under com¬ 
 mand of General Steele. In the beginning of March Smith’s division 
 moved forward to Red River, and was joined by Porter with the fleet. 
 On the 14th of the same month the advance reached Fort de Russy, 
 which was taken by assault. The Confederates retreated up the river to 
 Alexandria, and on the 16th that city was occupied by the Federals. 
 Three days afterward Natchitoches was captured; but here the road 
 turned from the river, and further co-operation between the gunboats 
 and the army was impossible. The flotilla proceeded up stream toward 
 Shreveport, and the land-forces whirled off in a circuit to the left. 
 
 On the 8th of April, when the advanced brigades were approach¬ 
 ing the town of Mansfield, they were suddenly attacked by the Confede¬ 
 rates in full force and advantageously posted. After a short and bloody 
 engagement, the Federals were completely routed. The victors made a 
 vigorous pursuit as far as Pleasant Hill, where they were met on the 
 next day by the main body of the Union army. The battle was renewed 
 with great spirit, and the Federals were barely saved from ruin by the 
 hard fighting of the division of General Smith, who covered the retreat 
 to the river. Nearly three thousand men, twenty pieces of artillery and 
 the supply-trains of the Federal army were lost in these disastrous bat¬ 
 tles. With great difficulty the flotilla descended the river from the direc¬ 
 tion of Shreveport; for the Confederates had now planted batteries on the 
 banks. When the Federals had retreated as far as Alexandria, they were 
 again brought to a standstill; the river had fallen to so low a stage that 
 the gunboats could not pass the rapids. The squadron was finally saved 
 from its peril by the skill of Colonel Bailey of Wisconsin, who constructed 
 a dam across the river, raising the v r ater so that the vessels could be 
 floated over. The whole expedition returned as rapidly as possible to 
 the Mississippi. General Steele had, in the mean time, made an advance 
 from Little Rock to aid in the reduction of Shreveport; but learning of 
 the Federal defeats, he withdrew after several severe engagements. To the 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 525 
 
 national government the Red River expedition was a source of much 
 shame and mortification. General Banks was relieved of his command, 
 and General Canby was appointed to succeed him. 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1864, General Grant was appointed com¬ 
 mander-in-chief of all the armies of the United States. The high grade 
 of lieutenant-general was revived by act of Congress, and conferred upon 
 him. No less than seven hundred thousand Union soldiers were now to 
 move at his command. The first month after his appointment was spent 
 in planning the great campaigns of the year. These were two in num¬ 
 ber. The Army of the Potomac, under command of Meade and the gen¬ 
 eral-in-chief, was to ad¬ 
 vance upon Richmond, 
 still defended by the 
 Army of Northern Vir¬ 
 ginia, under Lee. Gen¬ 
 eral Sherman, command¬ 
 ing the army at Chatta¬ 
 nooga, now numbering 
 a hundred thousand men, 
 was to march against 
 Atlanta, which Avas de¬ 
 fended by the Confed¬ 
 erates, under General 
 
 - SHEltMAN'S CAMPAIGN, 1864. 
 
 Johnston, lo these two 
 
 great movements all other military operations were to be subordinate. 
 
 On the 7th of May General Sherman moved forward from Chatta¬ 
 nooga. At Dalton he Avas confronted by the Confederate army, sixty thou¬ 
 sand strong. After some manoeuvri ng and fighting, he succeeded in turning 
 Johnston’s flank, and obliged him to fall back to Resaca. After tAvo hard 
 battles on the 14th and 15th of May, this place was also carried, and the 
 Confederates retreated by Avay of Calhoun and Kingston to Dallas. 
 Here, on the 28th, Johnston made a second stand, entrenched himself 
 and fought, but Avas again outnumbered, outflanked, and compelled to 
 fall back to Lost Mountain. From this position he Avas forced on the 
 17th of June, after three days of desultory fighting. The next stand of 
 the Confederates A\ r as made on the Great and Little Kenesaw Mountains. 
 From this line on the 22d of June the division of General Hood made a 
 fierce attack upon the Union centre, but Avas repulsed Avith heavy losses. 
 Five days afterward General Sherman attempted to carry the Great Ken- 
 esaAv by storm. The assault Avas made Avith great audacity, but ended in 
 a dreadful repulse and a loss of three thousand men. Sherman, undis- 
 
526 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mayed by his reverse, resumed his former tactics, outflanked his antago¬ 
 nist, and on the 3d of July compelled him to retreat across the Chatta¬ 
 hoochee. By the 10th of the month the whole Confederate army had 
 retired within the defences of Atlanta. 
 
 This stronghold of the Confederacy was at once besieged. Here 
 were the great machine-shops, foundries, car-works and depots of supplies 
 upon the possession of which so much depended. At the very beginning 
 of the siege the cautious and skillful General Johnston was superseded by 
 the rash but daring General J. B. Hood. It was the policy of the latter 
 to fight at whatever hazard. On the 20th, 22d and 28th of July he made 
 three desperate assaults on the Union lines around Atlanta, but was re¬ 
 pulsed with dreadful losses in each engagement. It was in the beginning 
 of the second of these battles that the brave General James B. McPherson, 
 the pride of the Union army, was killed while reconnoitring the Con¬ 
 federate lines. In the three conflicts the Confederates lost more men 
 than Johnston had lost in all his masterlyretreating and fighting between 
 Chattanooga and Atlanta. For more than a month the siege was pressed 
 with great vigor. At last, by an incautious movement, Hood separated 
 his army; Sherman thrust a column between the two divisions; and the 
 immediate evacuation of Atlanta followed. On the 2d of September the 
 Union army marched into the captured city. Since leaving Chattanooga 
 General Sherman had lost fully thirty thousand men ; and the Confederate 
 losses were even greater. 
 
 By retiring from Atlanta Hood saved his army. It was now his 
 policy to strike northward into Tennessee, and thus compel Sherman to 
 evacuate Georgia. But the latter had no notion of losing his vantage- 
 ground ; and after following Hood north of the Chattahoochee, he turned 
 back to Atlanta. The Confederate general now swept up through Northern 
 Alabama, crossed the Tennessee at Florence and advanced on Nashville. 
 Meanwhile, General Thomas, with the Army of the Cumberland, had 
 'been detached from Sherman’s army at Atlanta and sent northward to 
 confront Hood in Tennessee. General Schofield, who commanded the 
 Federal forces in the southern part of the State, fell back before the Con¬ 
 federates and took post at Franklin, eighteen miles south of Nashville. 
 Here, on the 30th of November, he was attacked by Hood’s legions, and 
 after a hard-fought battle held them in check till nightfall, when he 
 escaped across the river and retreated within the defences of Nashville. 
 At this place all of General Thomas’s forces were rapidly concentrated. 
 A line of entrenchments was drawn around the city on the south. Hood 
 came on, confident of victory, and prepared to begin the siege bv block¬ 
 ading the Cumberland; but before the work was fairly begun", General 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 527 
 
 Thomas, on the loth of December, moved from his works, fell upon the 
 Confederate army, and routed it with a loss, in killed, wounded and 
 prisoners, of more than 
 twenty-five thousand 
 men. For many days 
 of freezing weather 
 Hood’s shattered col¬ 
 umns were pursued, 
 until at last they found 
 refuge in Alabama. 
 
 The Confederate army 
 was ruined, and the 
 rash general who had 
 led it to destruction 
 was relieved of his 
 command. 
 
 On the 14th of 
 November General 
 Sherman burned At¬ 
 lanta and began his 
 famous March to 
 the Sea. His army 
 of veterans numbered 
 sixtv thousand 
 
 men. 
 
 Believing that Hood’s 
 
 GENERAL THOMAS. 
 
 army would be de¬ 
 stroyed in Tennessee, and knowing that no Confederate force could with¬ 
 stand him in front, he cut his communications with the North, abandoned 
 his base of supplies, and struck out boldly for the sea-coast, more than 
 two hundred and fifty miles away. * As had been foreseen, the Confed¬ 
 erates could offer no successful resistance. The Union army swept on 
 through Macon and Milledgeville; reached the Ogcechee and crossed in 
 safety; captured Gibson and Waynesborough; and on the 10th of De¬ 
 cember arrived in the vicinity of Savannah. On the 13th Fort McAllister, 
 below the city, was carried by storm by the division of General Hazen. 
 On the night of the 20th General Hardee, the Confederate commandant, 
 escaped from Savannah with fifteen thousand men and retreated to 
 Charleston. On the following morning the national advance entered, 
 and on the 22d General Sherman made his headquarters in the city. On 
 his march from Atlanta he had lost only five hundred and sixty-seven men. 
 
 The month of January, 1865, was spent by the Union army at 
 
628 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Savannah. On the 1st of February General Sherman, having garri¬ 
 soned the city, began his march against Columbia, the capital of South 
 Carolina. To the Confederates the further progress of the invasion 
 through the swamps and morasses of the State had seemed impossible. 
 
 Now that the veteran 
 legions were again 
 in motion, alarm 
 and terror pervaded 
 the country. Gov¬ 
 ernor Magarth had 
 already summoned 
 to the field every 
 white man in the 
 State between the 
 ages of sixteen and 
 sixty; but the requi¬ 
 sition was compar¬ 
 atively ineffectual. 
 Nevertheless, the 
 Confederates formed 
 a line of defence 
 along the Salkhatch- 
 ie and prepared to 
 dispute Sherman’s 
 marc h northward. 
 It was all in vain. 
 general sherman. The passages of the 
 
 river were forced, 
 
 and on the 11th of the month the Confederate lines of communica¬ 
 tion between Charleston and Augusta were cut off. On the next day 
 Orangeburg was taken by the Seventeenth Corps. On the 14th the 
 fords and bridges of the Congaree were carried and the State road 
 opened in the direction of Columbia. The several divisions pressed 
 rapidly forward; bridges were thrown across the Broad and Saluda 
 Rivers, and the capital lay at the mercy of the conquerors. On the 
 morning of the 17th Mayor Goodwyn and a committee of the com¬ 
 mon council came out in carriages and the city was formally sur¬ 
 rendered. 
 
 As soon as it became certain that Columbia must fall into the 
 hands of the Federals, General Hardee, the commandant of Charles¬ 
 ton, determined to abandon that city also, and to join Generals Beau- 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 529 
 
 regard and Johnston in North Carolina. Accordingly, on the day of 
 the capture of the capital, guards were detailed to destroy all the ware¬ 
 houses, stores of cotton, and depots of supplies in Charleston. The 
 torch was applied, the flames raged, and consternation spread through¬ 
 out the city. The great depot of the Northwestern Railway, where a 
 large quantity of powder was stored, caught fire, blew up with terrific 
 violence, and buried two hundred people in the ruins. Not until four 
 squares in the best part of the city were laid in ashes was the confla¬ 
 gration checked. During the same night General Hardee with his 
 fourteen thousand troops escaped from desolate Charleston and made 
 his way northward. On the morning of the 18th the news was borne 
 to the National forces on James’s and Morris Islands. During the 
 forenoon the Stars and Stripes were again raised over Forts Sumter, 
 Ripley, and Pinckney. Mayor Macbeth surrendered the city to a 
 company which was sent up from Morris Island. The work of saving 
 whatever might be rescued from the flames was at once begun, the 
 citizens and the Federal soldiers working together. By strenuous ex¬ 
 ertions the principal arsenal was saved; a depot of rice was also pre¬ 
 served and its contents distributed to the poor. Colonel Stewart L. 
 Woodford of the One Hundred and Twenty-seventh New York was 
 appointed military governor; and relations, more friendly than might 
 have been expected, were soon established between the soldiery and 
 the citizens. 
 
 After destroying the arsenals, machine shops, and founderies of 
 Columbia General Sherman immediately renewed his march north¬ 
 ward in the direction of Charlotte, North Carolina. The army swept 
 on without opposition as far as Winnsboro, where a junction was ef¬ 
 fected with the Twentieth Corps under Slocum. Crossing the Great Pe- 
 dee at Cheraw, the Union commander pressed on towards Fayetteville 
 where he arrived without serious hindrance, and on the 11th of March 
 took possession of the town. Three days before the campaign had 
 been rendered exciting by a dashing fight between Hampton’s and 
 Kilpatrick’s cavalry. The former officer was defending the rear of 
 Hardee’s column on the retreat from Charleston when the latter, re¬ 
 solving to intercept him, cut through the Confederate lines. But 
 - early the next morning Kilpatrick was surprised in his quarters, at¬ 
 tacked, and routed, himself barely escaping on foot into a swamp. 
 Here, however, he suddenly rallied his forces, turned on the Confed¬ 
 erates and scattered them in a brilliant charge. Hampton, not less 
 resolute than his antagonist, now made a rally and returned to the 
 
 bnset. But Kilpatrick held his ground until he was reinforced by s. 
 
 34 
 
530 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 division of the Twentieth Corps under General Mitchell, when the 
 Confederates were finally driven back. The Union cavalry then pro¬ 
 ceeded without further molestation to Fayetteville where Sherman’s 
 forces were concentrated on the 11th of March. 
 
 General Johnston had now been recalled to the command of the 
 Confederate forces, and the advance of the Union forces began to be 
 seriously opposed. At Averasborough, on Cape Fear River, a short 
 distance north of Fayetteville, General Hardee made a stand, but was 
 repulsed with considerable loss. When, on the 19th of March, Gen¬ 
 eral Sherman was incautiously approaching Bentonsville, he was sud¬ 
 denly attacked by the ever-vigilant Johnston, and for a while the 
 Union army, after all its marches and victories, was in danger of des¬ 
 truction. But the tremendous fighting of General Jefferson C. Davis’s 
 division saved the day, and on the 21st Sherman entered Goldsborough 
 unopposed. Here he was reinforced by a strong column from New- 
 bern under General Schofield, and another from Wilmington com¬ 
 manded by General Terry. The Federal army now turned to the 
 north-west, and on the 13th of April entered Raleigh. This was the 
 end of the great march; and here, thirteen days after his arrival, Gen¬ 
 eral Sherman received the surrender of Johnston’s army. 
 
 While these great and decisive events were taking place in the 
 Carolinas, the famous cavalry raid of General Stoneman was in pro¬ 
 gress. About the middle of March he set out from Knoxville with a 
 force of six thousand men, crossed the mountains, captured Wilkes- 
 boro, and forced his way across the Yadkin at Jonesville. It had 
 been the original purpose of the raid that Stoneman should make a 
 diversion in favor of Sherman by striking into the western districts 
 of South Carolina; but that commander, by the celerity of his move¬ 
 ments, had already reached Goldsboro in the North State, and was in 
 no need of help. Stoneman’s movement therefore became an inde¬ 
 pendent expedition, the general object being the destruction of public 
 property, the capture of Confederate stores, and the tearing up of 
 railroads. Turning to the north, the troopers traversed the western 
 end of North Carolina and entered Carroll county, Virginia. At 
 Wytheville the railroad was torn up, and then the whole line was de¬ 
 stroyed from the bridge over New River to within four miles of Lynch¬ 
 burg. Christiansburg was captured and the track of the railway ob¬ 
 literated for ninety miles. Turning first to Jacksonville and then 
 southward, the expedition next struck and destroyed the North Caro¬ 
 lina Railroad between Danville and Greensboro. The track in the 
 direction of Salisbury was also torn up, and the factories at Salem 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 531 
 
 burned. The Union prisoners at Salisbury were removed by the 
 ■Confederates in time to prevent their liberation; but the town was 
 •captured and a vast store of ammunition, arms, provision, clothing, and 
 -cotton fell into the hands of the raiders. Finally, on the 19th of April, 
 -a. division under Major Moderwell reached the great bridge where the 
 South Carolina Rail¬ 
 road crosses the Ca¬ 
 tawba River. This 
 magnificent struct¬ 
 ure, eleven hundred 
 ;and fifty feet in 
 length, was set on 
 fire and completely 
 destroyed. After a 
 fight with F e r g u - 
 ■son’s Confederate 
 •cavalry, the Feder- 
 als turned back to 
 Dallas, where all the 
 -divisions were con¬ 
 centrated, — and the 
 raid was at an end. 
 
 During the progress 
 -of the expedition 
 six thousand prison¬ 
 ers, forty-si x pieces 
 of artillery, and im- admiral farragut. 
 
 mense quantities of 
 
 small arms had fallen into the hands of Stoneman’s men : the amount 
 of property destroyed and the damage otherwise done to the tottering 
 Confederacy could not be estimated. 
 
 Meanwhile, events of even greater importance had occurred on 
 the gulf and the Atlantic coast. In the beginning ol August, 1864, 
 Admiral Farragut bore down with a powerful squadron upon the de¬ 
 fences of Mobile. The entrance to the harbor of this city was com¬ 
 manded on the left by Fort Gaines, and on the right by bort Morgan. 
 The harbor itself was defended by a Confederate fleet and the monster 
 iron-clad ram Tennessee. On the 5th of August Farragut prepared 
 for battle and ran past the forts into the harbor. In order to direct 
 the movements of his vessels, the brave old admiral mounted to the 
 maintop of his flag-ship, the Hartford, lashed himself to the rigging, 
 
532 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and from that high perch gave his commands during the battle. One 
 of the Union ships struck a torpedo and went to the bottom. The 
 rest attacked and dispersed the Confederate squadron; but just as the 
 bay seemed won the terrible Tennessee came down at full speed to 
 strike and sink the Hartford. The latter avoided the blow; and then 
 followed one of the fiercest conflicts of the war. The Union iron-clads 
 closed around their black antagonist and battered her with their beaks 
 and fifteen-inch bolts of iron until she surrendered. Two days after¬ 
 ward Fort Gaines was taken; and on the 23d of 'the month Fort 
 Morgan was obliged to capitulate. The port of Mobile was effectually 
 sealed up. 
 
 Not less important to the Union cause was the capture of Fort 
 Fisher. This powerful fortress commanded the entrance to Cape Fear 
 River and Wilmington—the last sea-port held by the Confederates. In 
 
 December Admiral Porter was sent with the most powerful American 
 squadron ever afloat to besiege and take the fort. General Butler, with 
 a land-force of six thousand five hundred men, accompanied the expedi¬ 
 tion. On the 24th of the month the bombardment began, and the troops- 
 were sent ashore with orders to carry the works by storm. When Gen¬ 
 eral Weitzel, who led the column, came near enough to the fort to recon¬ 
 noitre, he decided that an assault could only end with the destruction of 
 his army. General Butler held the same opinion, and the enterprise was- 
 abandoned. Admiral Porter remained before Fort Fisher with his fleet,, 
 and General Butler returned with the land-forces to Fortress Monroe- 
 Early in January the same troops were sent back to Wilmington, under 
 command of General Terry. The siege was at once renewed by the army 
 and the fleet, and on the 15th of the month Fort Fisher was taken by 
 storm. 
 
 In the previous October the control of Albemarle Sound had been 
 secured by a daring exploit of Lieutenant Cushing of the Federal navy. 
 These waters were commanded by a tremendous iron ram called the Albe¬ 
 marle. In order to destroy the dreaded vessel a number of daring volun¬ 
 teers, led by Cushing, embarked in a small steamer, and on the night of 
 the 27th of October entered the Roanoke. The ram was discovered lying- 
 at the harbor of Plymouth. Cautiously approaching, the lieutenant with 
 his own hands sank a terrible torpedo under the Confederate ship, ex¬ 
 ploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The adventure cost the lives or cap¬ 
 ture of all of Cushing’s party except himself and one other, who escaped.. 
 A few days afterward the town of Plymouth was taken by the Federal*. 
 
 During the progress of the war the commerce of the United States 
 had suffered dreadfully from the attacks of Confederate cruisers. As- 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 53a 
 
 «arly as 1861 the Southern Congress had granted commissions to priva¬ 
 teers ; but neutral nations would not allow such vessels to bring prizes 
 into their ports, and the Privateering Act was of little direct benefit to 
 the Confederacy. But the commerce of the United States was greatly 
 injured. The first Confederate ship sent out was the Savannah , which 
 was captured on the same day that she escaped from Charleston. In June 
 -of 1861 the Sumter, commanded by Captain Semmes, ran the blockade at 
 New Orleans, and for seven months did fearful work with the Union 
 merchantmen. But in February of 1862 Semmes was chased into the 
 harbor of Gibraltar, where he was obliged to sell his vessel and discharge 
 his crew. In the previous October the Nashville ran out from Charles¬ 
 ton, went to England, and returned with a cargo worth three millions of 
 dollars. In March of 1863 she was sunk by a Union iron-clad in the 
 mouth of the Savannah River. 
 
 The ports of the Southern States were now so closely blockaded 
 that war-vessels could no longer be sent abroad. In this emergency the 
 'Confederates turned to the ship-yards of Great Britain, and from that 
 vantage-ground began to build and equip their cruisers. In spite of the 
 remonstrances of the United States, the British government connived at 
 this proceeding; and here was laid the foundation of a difficulty which 
 afterward cost the treasury of England fifteen millions of dollars. In the 
 harbor of Liverpool the Florida was fitted out; and going to sea in the 
 summer of 1862, she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay. Escaping 
 in the following January, she destroyed fifteen merchantmen, was cap¬ 
 tured in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil, and brought into Hampton Roads, 
 where an accidental collision sent her to the bottom. The Georgia, the 
 Olustee, the Shenandoah and the Chickamauga, all built at the ship-yards 
 of Glasgow, Scotland, escaped to sea and made great havoc with the mer¬ 
 chant-ships of the United States. At the capture of Fort Fisher the 
 Chickamauga and another cruiser called the Tallahassee were blown up 
 by the Confederates. The Georgia was captured in 1863, and the Shen¬ 
 andoah continued abroad until the close of the war. 
 
 Most destructive of all the Confederate vessels was the famous 
 Alabama, built at Liverpool. Her commander was Captain Raphael 
 Semmes, the same who had cruised in the Sumter. A majority of the 
 crew of the Alabama were British subjects; her armament was entirely 
 British; and whenever occasion required, the British flag was carried. 
 In her whole career, involving the destruction of sixty-six vessels and a 
 loss of ten million dollars to the merchant service of the United States, 
 she never entered a Confederate port, but continued abroad, capturing 
 and burning. Early in the summer of 1864 Semmes entered the harbor 
 
534 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Cherbourg, France, and was there discovered by Captain Winslow 7 
 commander of the steamer Kearsarge. The French government gave 
 the Confederate captain orders to leave the port, and on the 19th of 
 June he went out to give his antagonist battle. Seven miles from, 
 the shore the two ships closed for the death-struggle; and after a 
 desperate battle of an hour’s duration, the Alabama was shattered 
 and sunk. Semmes and a part of his officers and crew were picked 
 up by the English yacht Deerhound and carried to Southampton. 
 
 After the great battle of Gettysburg, the Confederate army under 
 General Lee was withdrawn into the Shenandoah valley. The Union 
 cavalry, led by General Gregg, pressed after him and at Shepherds- 
 town gained some advantage over the division of Fitzhugh Lee. 
 Meade himself, at the head of the Army of the Potomac, entered Vir¬ 
 ginia near Berlin and moved southward through Lovettsville to War- 
 renton. The Blue Ridge was again interposed between the two armies.. 
 It was the policy of the Union commander to preoccupy and hold the 
 passes of the mountains and to strike his antagonist a fatal blow when 
 he should attempt to return to Richmond. But Lee’s movements 
 were marked with his usual caution and sagacity. Making a feint of 
 crowding his army through Manassas Gap, he succeeded in drawing 
 thither the bulk of the Federal forces, and then by a rapid march 
 southward gained Front Royal and Chester Gap, swept through the 
 pass, and reached Culpepper in safety. General Meade, disappointed 
 in his expectations of a battle, advanced his army and took up a po¬ 
 sition on the Rappahannock. 
 
 In the lull that ensued from July till September of 1863, both 
 generals were much weakened by the withdrawal of large numbers of 
 their troops to take part in the struggles of the Southwest. From 
 Lee’s army Longstreet’s whole corps had been detached for the aid of 
 Bragg who was hard pressed by Rosecrans, in Tennessee. General 
 Meade, learning of the weakened condition of his foe, crossed the 
 Rappahannock, pressed him back to the south bank of the Rapidan 
 and himself occupied Culpepper. Soon, however, Howard’s and Slo¬ 
 cum’s corps were withdrawn from the Army of the Potomac, and 
 Meade was in turn obliged to. act on the defensive. But his ranks 
 were soon filled with reinforcements and the middle of October found 
 him planning a forward movement. Lee, however, had already as¬ 
 sumed the offensive and by skillful manoeuvers had again thrown his 
 army on the Union flank. Then began the old race for the Potomac, 
 and in that the Federals were successful, reaching Bristow Station and 
 taking up a strong position on the Heights of Centreville. Lee in 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 535 
 
 turn fell back and the two great armies at last came to rest for the 
 winter, the one at Culpepper and the other on the Upper Rappahan¬ 
 nock. 
 
 In the following spring no movements of importance occurred 
 until the beginning of the campaign of the Army of the Potomac, 
 now commanded by Generals 
 Grant and Meade; and this, 
 which may well be consider¬ 
 ed as one of the great cam¬ 
 paigns of history, has been 
 reserved for the closing nar¬ 
 
 rative of the war. .On the 
 night of the 3d of May, 1864, 
 the national camp at Culpep¬ 
 per was broken up, and the 
 march on Richmond was 
 begun. In three successive 
 summers the Union army 
 had been beaten back from 
 that metropolis of the Confed¬ 
 eracy. Now a hundred and 
 forty thousand men, led by 
 the lieutenant-general, were 
 to begin the final struggle 
 with the veterans of Lee. 
 
 On the first day of the ad¬ 
 vance Grant crossed the Rap- 
 idan and entered the Wilder¬ 
 ness, a country of oak woods and thickets west of Chancellorsville. 
 He was immediately confronted and attacked by the Confederate 
 army. During the 5th, 6th and 7th of the month the fighting con¬ 
 tinued incessantly with terrible losses on both sides; but the results 
 were indecisive. Lee retired within his intrenchments, and Grant 
 made a flank movement on the left in the direction of Spottsylvania 
 Court-house. Here followed, from the morning of the 9th till the 
 night of the 12th, one of the bloodiest struggles of the war. The 
 Federals gained some ground and captured the division of General 
 Stewart ; but the losses of Lee, who fought on the defensive, were less 
 dreadful than those of his antagonist. 
 
 After the battle of Spottsylvania, Grant again moved to the left, 
 crossed the Pamunkey to Hanovertown, and came to a place called 
 
536 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cold Harbor, twelve miles north-east of Richmond. Here, on the 1st 
 of June, he attacked the Confederates, strongly posted, but was re¬ 
 pulsed with heavy losses. On the morning of the 3d the assault was 
 renewed, and in the brief space of half an hour nearly ten thousand 
 Union soldiers fell dead or wounded before the Confederate entrench¬ 
 ments. The repulse of the Federals was complete, but they held their 
 lines as firmly as ever. Since the beginning of the campaign the 
 losses of the Army of the Potomac, including the- corps of Burnside, 
 had reached the enormous aggregate of sixty thousand. During the 
 same period the Confederates had lost in killed, wounded and pris¬ 
 oners about thirty-five thousand men. 
 
 General Grant now changed his base to James River with a view 
 to the capture of Petersburg and the conquest of Richmond from the 
 south-east. General Butler had already moved with a strong division 
 from Fortress Monroe, and on the 5th of May had taken Bermuda Hun¬ 
 dred and City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. Advancing 
 against Petersburg, he was met on the 16th by the corps of General 
 Beauregard and driven back to his position at Bermuda Hundred, where 
 he was obliged to entrench himself and act on the defensive. Here, on 
 the 15th of June, he was joined by General Grant’s whole army, and the 
 combined forces moved against Petersburg. On the 17th and 18th sev¬ 
 eral assaults were made on the Confederate entrenchments, but the works 
 _ could not be carried. Lee’s army was hurried within the defences, and 
 in the latter part of June Petersburg was regularly besieged. 
 
 Meanwhile, movements of great importance were taking place in 
 the Shenandoah valley. When General Grant moved forward from the 
 Rapidan, he sent General Sigel up the valley with a force of eight thou¬ 
 sand men. While the latter was advancing southward he was met at 
 New Market, fifty miles above Winchester, by an army of Confederate 
 cavalry, under General Breckinridge. On the 15th of May Sigel was 
 attacked and routed, and the command of his flying forces was transferred 
 to General Hunter. Deeming the valley cleared, Breckinridge returned 
 to Richmond, whereupon Hunter faced about, marched toward Lynchburg, 
 came upon the Confederates at Piedmont, and gained a signal victory. 
 From this place he advanced with his own forces and the cavalry troops 
 of General Averill against Lynchburg; but finding that he had run into 
 peril, he was obliged to retreat across the mountains into West Virginia. 
 By this movement the valley of the Shenandoah was again exposed to an 
 invasion by the Confederates. 
 
 In the hope of compelling Grant to raise the siege of Petersburg, 
 Lee immediately despatched General Early with orders to cross the Blue 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 537 
 
 Ridge, sweep down the valley, invade Maryland and threaten Washing¬ 
 ton city. With a force of twenty thousand men Early began his move¬ 
 ment northward, and on the 5th of July crossed the Potomac. On the 
 9th he met the division of General Wallace on the Monocacy, and de¬ 
 feated him with serious losses. But the check given to the Confederates 
 by the battle saved Washington and Baltimore from capture. After 
 dashing up within gunshot of these cities, Early ordered a retreat, and 
 on the 12th his forces recrossed the Potomac with vast quantities of 
 plunder. 
 
 General Wright, who was sent in pursuit of Early’s army, fol¬ 
 lowed him as far as Winchester, and there, on the 24th of July, defeated 
 a portion of his forces. But Early wheeled upon his antagonist, and the 
 Union troops were in turn driven across the Potomac. Following up his 
 advantage, the Confederate general next invaded Pennsylvania, burned 
 Chambersburg, and returned into the valley laden with spoils. Seeing 
 the necessity of putting an end to these devastating raids, General Grant 
 in the beginning of August appointed General Philip H. Sheridan to the 
 command of the consolidated army on the Upper Potomac. The troops 
 thus placed at Sheridan’s disposal numbered nearly forty thousand, and 
 with these he at once moved up the valley. On the 19th of September 
 he came upon Early’s army at Winchester, attacked and routed him in a 
 hard-fought battle. On the 22d he overtook the defeated army at Fish¬ 
 er’s Hill, assaulted Early in his entrenchments, and gained another com¬ 
 plete victory. 
 
 In accordance with orders given by the commander-in-chief, Sher¬ 
 idan now turned about to ravage the valley. The ruinous work was fear¬ 
 fully well done; and what with torch and axe and sword, there was noth¬ 
 ing left between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies worth fighting for. 
 Maddened by this destruction and stung by his defeats, the veteran Early 
 rallied his shattered forces, gathered reinforcements, and again entered 
 the valley. Sheridan had posted his army in a strong position on Cedar 
 Creek, a short distance from Strasburg, and feeling secure, had gone to 
 Washington. On the morning of the 19th of October Early cautiously 
 approached the Union camp, surprised it, burst in, carried the position, 
 captured the artillery, and sent the routed troops flying in confusion to-* 
 ward Winchester. The Confederates pursued as far as Middletown, and 
 there, believing the victory complete, paused to eat and rest. On the 
 previous night Sheridan had returned to Winchester, and was now com¬ 
 ing to rejoin his army. On his way he heard the sound of battle, rode 
 twelve miles at full speed, met the panic-struck fugitives, rallied them 
 .with a word, turned upon the astonished Confederates, and gained one 
 87 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 538 
 
 of the most signal victories of the war. Early’s army was disorganized 
 and rained. Such was the end of the strife in the valley of the Shenan¬ 
 doah. 
 
 All fall and winter long, General Grant pressed the siege of Peters¬ 
 burg with varying success. On the 30th of July a mine was exploded 
 under one of the forts. An assaulting column sprang forward to carry 
 the works, gained some of the defences, but was finally repulsed with 
 heavy losses. On the 18th of August a division of the Union army 
 seized the Weldon Railroad and held it against several desperate assaults, 
 in which each army lost thousands of men. On the 28th of September 
 Battery Harrison, on the right bank of the James, was stormed by the 
 Federals, and on the next day General Paine’s brigade of colored soldiers 
 carried a powerful redoubt on Spring Hill. On the 27th of October 
 there was a hard-fought battle on the Boydton road, south of Petersburg; 
 and then the army went into quarters for the winter. 
 
 Late in February the struggle began anew. On the 27th of the 
 month General Sheridan, who had moved from the Shenandoah, gained a 
 victory over the forces of General Early at Waynesborough, and then joined 
 the commander-in-chief at Petersburg. On the 1st of April a severe 
 battle was fought at Five Forks, on the Southside Railroad, in which the 
 Confederates were defeated with a loss of six thousand prisoners. On 
 the next day Grant ordered a general assault on the lines of Petersburg, 
 and the works were carried. On that night the army of General Lee and 
 the members of the Confederate government fled from Richmond; and on 
 the following morning that city, as well as Petersburg, was entered by the 
 Federal army. The warehouses of the ill-fated Confederate capital were 
 fired by the retreating soldiers, and the better part of the city was reduced 
 to ruins. 
 
 The strife lasted but a few days longer. General Lee retreated 
 as rapidly as possible to the south-west, hoping to join the army of 
 General Johnston from Carolina. The Confederates, flying from Pe¬ 
 tersburg, joined those on the retreat from Richmond at Amelia Court 
 House. To this place General Lee had ordered his supply-trains; 
 but the officer having the same in charge, had foolishly mistaken his 
 orders and driven the train on in the direction of Danville. Nearly one- 
 half of the Confederate army, now growing hopeless, had to be dis¬ 
 persed to gather supplies by foraging. The 4th and 5th of April— 
 days precious to the sinking heart of Lee—were consumed with the 
 delay. The victorious Federals were pressing on in full pursuit; and 
 on the morning of the 6th nearly the whole Union army was at Jet- 
 fcersville, on the Danville railroad, ready to strike the Confederates at 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 539 
 
 Amelia. Sheridan pressed on by the left flank in the direction of 
 Deatonsville. Ord came up with his division by way of the South 
 Side Railroad to Burke’s Station. Lee fell back to the west from 
 Amelia Court House and reached Deatonsville where a severe battle 
 was fought, in which Ewell’s division six thousand strong was over¬ 
 whelmed and captured by Sheridan. The main army of the Confed¬ 
 erates, however, gained the Appomattox at Farmville, crossed to the 
 northern bank, and burned the bridges. Lee now endeavored to in¬ 
 terpose the river as a barrier between himself and his relentless pur¬ 
 suers ; but it was all in vain. Hoping against hope, he made a des¬ 
 
 perate effort to hold the line of the Lynchburg Railroad, but the vig¬ 
 ilant Sheridan was there before him. On the 7th of April a slight 
 success in battle gave a momentary encouragement to the exhausted 
 army; but the flame of hope was blown out as soon as kindled. On 
 that day General Grant, now at Farmville, addressed a note to the 
 Confederate commander expressing a desire that the further effusion 
 of blood might be saved by the surrender of the Confederate army. 
 To this General Lee replied by declaring his desire for peace but add¬ 
 ing that the occasion for the surrender of the Army of Northern 
 Virginia had not arrived. On the morning of the 9th, however, 
 when it became known that the left wing of the Union army had se¬ 
 cured the line of the Lynchburg Railroad—when the wreck of Long- 
 street’s veterans, attempting to continue the retreat, were confronted 
 and driven back by Sheridan—then the iron-souled Confederate leader, 
 seeing the utter uselessness of a further struggle, sent General Grant 
 a note asking for a meeting preliminary to a surrender. The Union 
 commander immediately complied with the request. At two o’clock 
 in the afternoon of Palm Sunday, the 9th of April, 1865, the two 
 
540 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 great generals met each other in the parlor of William McLean at 
 Appomattox Court House. There the terms of surrender were dis¬ 
 cussed and settled. It was agreed that General Grant should put his 
 proposition in the form of a military note to which General Lee 
 should return a formal answer. The Union commander accordingly 
 drew up and presented the following memorandum: 
 
 Appomattox Court House, Va., April 9, I 860 . 
 
 General: In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the 8th inst¬ 
 ant, I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia on the fol¬ 
 lowing terms, to-wit: Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate; one 
 copy to be given to an officer to be designated by me, the other to be retained by such 
 other officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual 
 paroles not to take up arms against, the Government of the United States until properly 
 exchanged; and each company or regimental commander to sign a like parole for the 
 men of their commands. The arms, artillery, and public property, to be parked, and 
 stacked, and turned over to the officers appointed by me to receive them. This will not 
 embrace the side-arms of the officers nor their private horses or baggage. This done, 
 each officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by 
 United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force 
 
 where they reside. ___ T 
 
 U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant-General. 
 
 To this memorandum General Lee responded as follows: 
 
 Head-Quarters, Army of Northern Virginia, April 9, 1865. 
 
 General: I received your letter of this date, containing the terms of the surren¬ 
 der of the Army ot Northern Virginia, as proposed by you. As they are substantially 
 the same as those expressed in your letter of the 8th instant, they are accepted. 1 
 will proceed to designate the proper officers to carry the stipulations into effect. 
 
 R. E. LEE, General. 
 
 Thus the work was done! How the army of General Johnston 
 was surrendered at Raleigh a few days later has already been nar¬ 
 rated. After four dreadful years of bloodshed, devastation, and sorrow, 
 the Civil War in the United States was at an end. 
 
 The Federal authority was rapidly extended over the Southern 
 States. After the surrender of Lee and Johnston, there was no further 
 hope of reorganizing the Confederacy. Mr. Davis and his cabinet escaped 
 to Danville, and there for a few days kept up the forms of government. 
 From that place they fled into -North Carolina and were scattered. The 
 ex-President with a few friends continued his flight through South Caro¬ 
 lina into Georgia, and encamped near the village of Irwinsville, where, on 
 the 10th of May, lie was captured by General Wilson’s cavalry. He was 
 conveyed as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, and kept in confinement until 
 May of 1867, when he was taken to Richmond to be tried on a charge of 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 541 
 
 treason. He was admitted to bail; and his cause, after remaining untried 
 for a year and a half, was finally dismissed. 
 
 At the presidential election in the autumn preceding the downfall 
 of the Confederacy, Mr. Lincoln was chosen for a second term. As Vice- 
 President, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was elected in place of Mr. 
 Hamlin. The opposing candidates, supported by the Democratic party, 
 were General George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton of Ohio. 
 Mr. Lincoln’s majority was very heavy, General McClellan carrying only 
 the States of Kentucky, Delaware and New Jersey. In the summer pre¬ 
 ceding the election the people of Nevada framed a constitution, in accord¬ 
 ance with an act of Congress, and on the 31st of October the new common¬ 
 wealth was proclaimed as the thirty-sixth State of the Union. The gold 
 and silver mines of Nevada were developed with such rapidity that they 
 soon surpassed those of California in their yield of the precious metals. 
 
 At the outbreak of the civil war the financial credit of the United 
 
 States had sunk to a very low ebb. By the organization of the army and 
 
 navy the expenses of the government were at once swelled to an enormous 
 
 aggregate. The price of gold and silver advanced so rapidly that the 
 
 redemption of bank-notes in coin soon became impossible; and on the 
 
 30th of December, 1861, the banks of New York, and afterward those of 
 
 the whole country, suspended specie payments. Mr. Chase, the secretary 
 
 of the treasury, first sought relief by issuing Treasury Notes, receivable 
 
 as money and bearing seven and three-tenths per cent, interest. This 
 
 expedient was temporarily successful, but by the beginning of 1862 the 
 
 expenses of the government had risen to more than a million of dollars 
 
 dailv. 
 
 •/ 
 
 To meet these tremendous demands other measures had to be 
 adopted. Congress accordingly made haste to provide an Internal 
 Bevenue. This was made up from two general sources: first, a tax on 
 manufactures , incomes and salaries; second, a stamp-duty on all legal 
 documents. The next measure was the issuance by the treasury of a 
 hundred and fifty millons of dollars in non-interest-bearing Legal 
 Tender Notes of the United States, to be used as money. These are 
 the notes called Greenbacks. The third great measure adopted by the 
 government was the sale of United States Bonds. These were made 
 redeemable at any time after five and under twenty years from date, and 
 were from that fact called Five-Twenties. The interest upon them was 
 fixed at six per cent., payable semi-annually in gold. Another important 
 series of bonds, called Ten-Forties , was afterward issued, being redeem¬ 
 able by the government at any time between ten and forty years from 
 date. In the next place, Congress passed an act providing for the estab- 
 
542 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lishment of National Banks. The private banks of the country had 
 been obliged to suspend operations, and the people were greatly distressed 
 for want of money. To meet this demand it was provided that new 
 banks might be established, using national bonds, instead of gold and 
 silver, as a basis of their circulation. The currency of these banks was 
 furnished and the redemption of the same guaranteed by the treasury of 
 the United States. By these measures the means for prosecuting the war 
 were provided. At the end of the conflict the national debt had reached 
 the astounding sum of nearly three thousand millions of dollars. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1865, President Lincoln was inaugurated for 
 his second term. A month afterward the military power of the Confed¬ 
 eracy was broken. Three days after the evacuation of Richmond by Lee’s 
 army the President visited that city, conferred with the authorities, and then 
 returned to Washington. On the evening of the 14th of April he attended 
 Ford’s theatre with his wife and a party of friends. As the play drew near 
 its close a disreputable actor, named John Wilkes Booth, stole unnoticed 
 into the President’s box, leveled a pistol at his head, and shot him through 
 the brain. Mr. Lincoln fell forward in his seat, was borne from the 
 building, lingered in an unconscious state until the following morning, and 
 died. It was the greatest tragedy of modern times—the most wicked 
 atrocious and diabolical murder known in American history. The assassin 
 leaped out of the box upon the stage, escaped into the darkness, and fled. 
 At the same hour another murderer, named Lewis Payne Powell, burst 
 into the bed-chamber of Secretary Seward, sprang upon the conch of the 
 sick man, stabbed him nigh unto death, and made his escape into the 
 night. The city was wild with alarm and excitement. It was clear that 
 a plot had been made to assassinate the leading members of the govern¬ 
 ment. Troops of cavalry and the police of Washington departed in all 
 directions to hunt down the conspirators. On the 26th of April Booth 
 was found concealed in a barn south of Fredericksburg. Refusing to 
 surrender, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett, and then dragged 
 forth from the burning building to die. Powell was caught, convicted 
 and hanged. His fellow-conspirators, David E. Herrold and Geo. A. 
 Atzerott, together with Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, at whose house the plot 
 was formed, were also condemned and executed. Michael O’Laugh- 
 lin, Dr. Samuel A. Mudd, and Samuel Arnold were sentenced to im¬ 
 prisonment for life, and Edward Spangler for a term of six years. 
 
 So ended in darkness, but not in shame, the career of Abraham 
 Lincoln. He was one of the most remarkable men of any age or country 
 —a man in whom the qualities of genius and common sense were strangely 
 mingled. He was prudent, far-sighted and resolute; thoughtful, calm 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 54$ 
 
 and just; patient, tender-hearted and great. The manner of his 
 death consecrated his memory. From city to city, in one vast funeral 
 procession, the mourning people followed his remains to their last 
 resting-place at Springfield. From all nations rose the voice of sym¬ 
 pathy and shame—sympathy for his death, shame for the dark crime 
 that caused it. 
 
 He had been born a destined work to do, 
 
 And lived to do it; four long-suffering years— 
 
 Ill-fate, ill-feeling, ill-report lived through— 
 
 And then he heard the hisses change to cheers, 
 
 The taunts to tribute, the abuse to praise 
 
 And took them both with his unwavering mood; 
 
 But as he came on light from darkest days, 
 
 And seemed to touch the goal from where he stood, 
 
 A felon hand, between that goal and him, 
 
 Beached from behind his head, a trigger prest, 
 
 And those perplexed and patient eyes were dim, 
 Those gaunt long-laboring limbs were laid to rest! 
 
 The words of mercy were upon his lips, 
 
 Forgiveness in his heart and. on his pen, 
 
 When this vile murderer brought swift eclipse 
 To thoughts of peace on earth, good-will to men. 
 
 The Old World and the New, from sea to sea, 
 
 Utter one voice of sympathy and shame! 
 
 Sore heart, so stopped when it at last beat free, 
 
 Sad life, cut short just as its triumph came! 
 
 A deed accurst! Strokes have been struck before 
 By the assassin’s hand, whereof men doubt 
 
 If more of horror or disgrace they bore; 
 
 But thy foul crime, like Cain’s stands darkly out! 
 
 Vile hand ! that branded murder on a strife, 
 
 What e’er its grounds, stoutly and nobly striven, 
 
 And with the martyr’s crown crownest a life 
 With much to praise, little to be forgiven 1 * 
 
 * These verses are from the London Punch of May 6th, 1865. For years that paper 
 had caricatured Mr. Lincoln and ridiculed the National government; but now that 
 the deed was done, the British heart reacted and spoke out for humanity. 
 
544 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 JOHNSON’S ADMINISTRATION, 1865-1869. 
 
 O N the day after the assassination of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson 
 took the oath of office, and became President of the United States. 
 He was a native of North Carolina, born in Raleigh, on the 29th of 
 .December, 1808. With no advantages of education, he passed his boy¬ 
 hood in poverty and neglect. In 1826 he removed with his mother to 
 Tennessee and settled at Greenville. Here he was married to an in¬ 
 telligent lady who taught him to write and cipher. Here by dint of 
 native talent, force of will, and strength of character, he first earned 
 the applause of his fellow-men. Here, through toil and hardship, he 
 rose to distinction, and after holding minor offices was elected to Con¬ 
 gress. As a member of the United States Senate in 1860-61 he op¬ 
 posed secession with all his zeal, even after the legislature had declared 
 Tennessee out of the Union. On the 4th of March, 1862, he was ap¬ 
 pointed military governor of that State, and entered upon his duties at 
 Nashville. He began his administration and carried out his measures 
 with all the vigor and vehemence of his nature. There was no quail¬ 
 ing or spirit of compromise. His life was many times in peril; but he 
 fed on danger and grew strong under the onsets of his enemies. He 
 held the office of governor until 1864, when he was nominated for the 
 vice-presidency in place of Mr. Hamlin. Now, by the tragic death 
 of the President, he was suddenly called to assume the responsibili¬ 
 ties of chief magistrate. In his first congressional message he fore¬ 
 shadowed a policy of great severity towards the civil and military 
 leaders of the overthrown Confederacy. 
 
 On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress adopted an amendment to 
 the Constitution by which slavery was abolished and forbidden in all the 
 States and Territories of the Union. By the 18th of the following De¬ 
 cember the amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of twenty- 
 seven States, and was duly proclaimed as a part of the Constitution. The 
 emancipation proclamation had been issued as a military measure; now 
 the doctrines and results of that instrument were recognized and incor¬ 
 porated in the fundamental law of the land. 
 
 On the 29th of May the Amnesty Proclamation was issued by 
 President Johnson. By its provisions a general pardon was extended to 
 all persons—except those specified in certain classes—who had participated 
 in the organization and defence of the Confederacy. The condition of the 
 pardon was that those receiving it should take an oath of allegiance to the 
 
JOHNSON’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 545 
 
 Owlted States. The excepted persons might also be pardoned on 
 special application to the President. During the summer of 1865 
 the great armies were disbanded, and the victors and vanquished re¬ 
 turned to their homes to resume the work of peace. 
 
 The finances of the nation were in an alarming condition. The war- 
 debt went on increasing until the beginning of 1866, and it was only by 
 the most herculean exertions that national bankruptcy could be warded 
 off. The yearly interest on the debt had grown to a hundred and thirty- 
 three million dollars in gold. The expenses of the government had 
 reached the aggregate of two hundred millions of dollars annually. But 
 the augmented revenues of the nation proved sufficient to meet these 
 enormous outlays, and at last the debt began to be slowly diminished. 
 On the 5th of December, 1865, a resolution was passed in the House of 
 Representatives pledging the faith of the United States to the full pay¬ 
 ment of the national indebtedness, both principal and interest. 
 
 During the civil war the emperor Napoleon III. interfered in the 
 affairs of Mexico, and succeeded, by overawing the people with a French 
 army, in setting up an empire. In the early part of 1864 the crown of 
 Mexico was conferred on Maximilian, the archduke of Austria, who 
 established his government and sustained it with French and Austrian 
 soldiers. But the Mexican president Juarez headed a revolution against 
 the usurping emperor; the government of the United States rebuked 
 France for having violated the Monroe doctrine; Napoleon, becoming 
 alarmed, withdrew his army; and Maximilian was overthrown. Flying 
 from Mexico to Queretaro, he was there besieged and taken prisoner. 
 On the 13th of June, 1867, he was tried by court-martial and condemned 
 to be shot; and six days afterward the sentence was carried into execu¬ 
 tion. The scheme of Napoleon, who had hoped to profit by the civil war 
 and gain a foothold in the New World, was thus justly brought to shame 
 and contempt. 
 
 After a few weeks of successful operation the first Atlantic telegraph, 
 laid bv Mr. Field in 1858, had ceased to work. The friends of the enter- 
 prise were greatly disheartened. Not so with Mr. Field, who continued 
 both in Europe and America to advocate the claims of his measure and to 
 plead for assistance. He made fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and 
 finally secured sufficient capital to begin the laying of a second cable. 
 The work began from the coast of Ireland in the summer of 1865. When 
 the steamer Gi'eat Eastern had proceeded more than twelve hundred miles 
 on her way to America, the cable parted and was lost. Mr. Field held on 
 to his enterprise. Six millions of dollars had been spent in unsuccessful 
 attempts, but still he persevered. In July of 1866 a third cable, two 
 thousand miles in length, was coiled in the Great Eastern, and again the 
 
546 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vessel started on her way. This time the work was completely suc¬ 
 cessful. After twelve years of unremitting effort Mr. Field received 
 a gold medal from the Congress of his country, and the plaudits of 
 all civilized nations. 
 
 By an act of Congress, passed on the 1st of November, 1864, 
 the Postal Money-Order System was established in the United 
 States. The design of the measure was to secure a safe and conven¬ 
 ient method of transferring small sums of money through the mails. 
 The money-order is divided into two parts — the order proper and the 
 advice. From the order, which is received and transmitted by the 
 purchaser, the name of the payee is omitted. In the advice, which is 
 sent by the post-master of the issuing office to the post-master of the 
 paying office, the name of the payee is inserted. The advice and the 
 order receive the same stamp and number, and being transmitted sep¬ 
 arately, constitute an almost perfect check against loss, robbery, and 
 fraud. The largest sum which may be transmitted in one order is 
 fifty dollars, though larger amounts may be sent in separate orders. 
 The amount charged for issuing is trifling, varying with the value of 
 the order, and the security is perhaps as great as human sagacity can 
 provide. Notwithstanding the invaluable benefits of the system, it 
 was at first received with little favor. In 1870 there were two thou¬ 
 sand and seventy-six post-offices from which money-orders were issued. 
 During that year the orders numbered a million six hundred and sev¬ 
 enty-one thousand two hundred and fifty-three; and the amount trans¬ 
 mitted was above thirty-four millions of dollars. On the 1st of October, 
 1875, the number of money-offices in operation was three thousand six 
 hundred and ninety-six; the number of orders issued during the fiscal 
 year ending on the 30th of June amounted to five millions six thou¬ 
 sand three hundred and twenty-three; the amount of money sent to 
 more than seventy-seven millions of dollars. Of all the orders issued 
 during that year only twenty-seven were paid to persons not entitled 
 to receive them. Such have been the advantages of the system as to 
 require its extension to foreign lands. Postal conventions have al¬ 
 ready been held and arrangements completed for the exchange of 
 money-orders with Switzerland, Great Britain and Ireland and Ger¬ 
 many. The requirements of civilization will no doubt soon demand 
 a similar compact with every enlightened nation. 
 
 The administration of President Johnson is noted as the time when 
 the Territories of the United States assumed their final form. The vast 
 domains west of the Mississippi were now reduced to proper limits and 
 organized with a view to early admission into the Union as States. A 
 
JOHNSON’S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 547 
 
 large part of the work was accomplished during the administration of 
 President Lincoln. In March of 1861 the Territory of Dakota, with an 
 area of a hundred and fifty thousand square miles, was detached from 
 Nebraska on the north, and given a distinct territorial organization. In 
 February of 1863 Arizona, with an area of a hundred and thirteen thou¬ 
 sand square miles, was separated from New Mexico .on the west and 
 organized as an independent Territory. On the 3d of March in the same 
 year Idaho was organized out of portions of Dakota, Nebraska and Wash¬ 
 ington Territories; and on the 26th of May, 1864, Montana, with an area 
 of a hundred and forty-six thousand square miles, was cut off from the 
 eastern part of Idaho. By this measure the area of the latter Territory 
 w r as reduced to eighty-six thousand square miles. On the 1st of March, 
 1867, the Territory of Nebraska, reduced to its present area of seventy- 
 six thousand miles, was admitted into the Union as the thirty-seventh 
 State. Finally, on the 25th of July, 1868, the Territory of Wyoming, 
 with an area of ninety-eight thousand square miles, was organized out of 
 portions of Dakota, Idaho and Utah. Thus were the Territories of the 
 great West reduced to their present limits. 
 
 The year 1867 was signalized by the Purchase of Alaska. 
 Two years previously the territory had been explored by a corps of 
 scientific men with a view of establishing telegraphic communication with 
 Asia by way of Behring Strait. The report of the exploration showed 
 that Alaska was by no means the worthless country it had been supposed 
 to be. It was found that the coast-fisheries were of very great value, and 
 that the forests of white pine and yellow cedar were among the finest in 
 the world. Negotiations for the purchase of the peninsula were at once 
 opened, and on the 30th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded by which, 
 for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars, Russia ceded 
 Alaska to the United States. The territory thus added to the domains 
 of the Republic embraced an area of five hundred and eighty thousand 
 square miles, and a population of twenty-nine thousand souls. 
 
 Very soon after his accession to the chief magistracy a serious dis¬ 
 agreement arose between the President and Congress. The difficulty 
 grew out of the great question of reorganizing the Southern States. The 
 particular point in dispute was as to the relation which those States had 
 sustained to the Federal Union during the civil war. The President held 
 that the ordinances of secession were in their very nature null and void, 
 and that therefore the seceded States had never been out of the Union. 
 The majority in Congress held that the acts of secession were illegal and 
 unconstitutional, but that the seceded States had been by those acts 
 
548 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 actually detached from the Union, and that special legislation and special 
 guarantees were necessary in order to restore them to their former rela¬ 
 tions under the government. Such was the real foundation of the diffi¬ 
 culty by which the question of reconstructing the Southern States was so 
 seriously embarrassed. 
 
 In the summer of 1865 measures of reconstruction were begun by 
 the President in accordance with his own views. On the 9th of May a 
 proclamation was issued for the restoration of Virginia to the Union. 
 Twenty days afterward another proclamation w r as issued establishing a 
 provisional government over South Carolina; and at brief intervals 
 similar measures were adopted in respect to the other States of the late 
 Confederacy. On the 24th of June all restrictions on trade and inter¬ 
 course with the Southern States were removed by proclamation of the 
 President. On the 7th of the following September a second amnesty 
 proclamation was issued, by which all persons who had upheld the Con¬ 
 federate cause—excepting the leaders—were unconditionally pardoned. 
 Meanwhile, the State of Tennessee had been reorganized, and in 1866 
 was restored to its place in the Union. Meanwhile, the national Con¬ 
 gress was pursuing its own line of policy in regard to the reconstruc¬ 
 tion of the Southern States. During the session of 1865-66, a com¬ 
 mittee of fifteen was appointed by that body to whom all matters 
 appertaining to the reorganization of the States of the overthrown 
 Confederacy should be referred. Soon afterwards the celebrated Civil. 
 Rights Bill was passed, the object of which was to secure to the 
 freedmen of the South the full exercise of citizenship. The measure 
 was opposed and vetoed by the President, but was immediately re¬ 
 passed by a two-thirds congressional majority. On the occasion of the 
 celebration of Washington’s birthday at the Capital, the bill was se¬ 
 verely denounced by the President in a speech delivered in front of 
 the executive mansion; and the position assumed by Congress was de¬ 
 clared to be a new rebellion against the government of the United 
 States. In subsequent speeches and messages the same sentiment was 
 reiterated, and the attitude of the executive and legislative departments 
 became constantly more unfriendly. 
 
 In the summer of 1866 a call was issued for a national conven¬ 
 tion to be held in Philadelphia on the 14th of August. The objects 
 had in view were not very clearly defined; but it was understood that 
 the general condition of the country would be considered, measures 
 of national policy discussed, and all the political elements, in opposi¬ 
 tion to the majority in Congress be consolidated into a new political 
 party, with which the President’s name would be associated in leader- 
 
JOHNSON’S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 549 
 
 ship. At the appointed time delegates from all the States and terri¬ 
 tories were present; many members of the Republican party took part 
 in the movement, and the convention was not lacking in enthusiasm. 
 Still, the meeting exercised but very little permanent influence on the 
 affairs of the country. 
 
 Soon afterwards the President made another effort to rally pub¬ 
 lic opinion in favor of his policy. In the latter part of August he 
 set out from Washington, accompanied by Secretaries Seward, Welles, 
 and Randall, General Grant, Admiral Farragut, and other prominent 
 officials, to make a tour of the Northern States. The ostensible ob¬ 
 ject had in view was that the President should be present at the laying 
 of the corner stone of a monument to Senator Douglas at Chicago. 
 Departing from the Capital, the presidential party passed through Phil¬ 
 adelphia, New York, and Albany, and after taking part in the cere¬ 
 monies at Chicago, returned by way of St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louis¬ 
 ville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. At all the principal towns and cities 
 through which he passed, the President spoke freely to the crowds in 
 defence of his own policy and in denunciation of that of Congress. 
 The whole journey was a scene of intense excitement and partisan ani¬ 
 mosity. The general effect of the President’s course was disastrous 
 to him and his political adherents; for in the elections of the follow¬ 
 ing autumn the measures of Congress were sustained and the members 
 reelected by increased popular majorities. Nevertheless, the result of 
 the election had very little effect in altering the President’s views or 
 softening his feelings towards the legislative department of the gov¬ 
 ernment. 
 
 By degrees the affairs of the administration grew critical. When 
 Congress convened in December of 1866 the policy of the President 
 was severely condemned. The congressional committee, appointed at 
 the session of the previous year, now brought forward a report em¬ 
 bodying a full plan of reorganizing the Southern States. After much 
 discussion the measures proposed by the committee were adopted by 
 Congress, and the work of reconstruction was begun. As the first 
 condition for the readmission of a State into the Union it was enacted 
 that the people of the same, by their legislative assembly or other¬ 
 wise, should ratify the fourteenth amendment to the constitution which 
 declared the citizenship of all persons born or naturalized in the 
 United States. In furtherance of this policy Congress, at the same 
 session, passed an act requiring that in the national territories the 
 elective franchise should be granted without distinction of race or 
 color, before such territories should be admitted into the Union. A 
 
550 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 similar measure was adopted in respect to the District of Columbia, 
 forbidding the further restriction of the right of suffrage to white 
 men. To all of these acts President Johnson opposed his veto; but 
 in every case his objection was overcome by the two-thirds majority 
 in Congress. 
 
 Concerning the reorganization of the Southern States, the real 
 question at issue was as to whether a civil or a military method of re¬ 
 construction ought to be adopted. From the beginning, the President 
 had urged the superiority of the civil process. But in Congress the 
 opposite opinion prevailed, and the views of the majority were rather 
 intensified by the hostility of the executive. On the 2d of March, 
 1867, an act was passed by which the ten seceded States were divided 
 into five military districts, each district to be under the control of a 
 governor appointed by the President. After appointing the comman¬ 
 ders required by this law, the chief magistrate asked the opinion of 
 Mr. Stanbery, his attorney-general, as to the validity of the con¬ 
 gressional measures of reconstruction. An answer was returned that 
 most of the acts were null and void; and the President accordingly 
 issued to the military commanders an order which measurably nulli¬ 
 fied the whole proceeding. But Congress passed a supplemental act 
 declaring the meaning of the previous law, and the process of reor¬ 
 ganization was continued under the congressional plan. The work, 
 howevei’, was greatly retarded by the distracted counsels of the gov¬ 
 ernment and the chaotic condition of affairs in the South. But in dub 
 time the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, 
 North Carolina, and South Carolina were reconstructed, and in the 
 months of June and July, 1868, readmitted into the Union. In every 
 case, however, the readmission was effected against the protest, and 
 over the veto of the President. 
 
 In the mean time, a difficulty had arisen in the President’s cabinet 
 which led to his impeachment. On the 21st of February, 1868, he noti¬ 
 fied Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war, of his dismissal from office. 
 The act was regarded by Congress as a usurpation of authority and a 
 violation of law on the part of the President. The reconstruction diffi¬ 
 culties had already broken off all friendly relations between the two 
 Houses and the executive. Accordingly, on the 3d of March, articles of 
 impeachment were agreed to by the House of Representatives, in ac¬ 
 cordance with the forms of the Constitution, and the cause was im¬ 
 mediately remanded to the Senate for trial Proceedings began 
 before that body on the 23d of March and continued until the 26th 
 of May, when the President was acquitted. But his escape was 
 
551 
 
 JOHNSON’S AVMINISTRA TION. 
 
 very narrow; a two-thirds majority was required to convict, and 
 but one vote was wanting. Chief-Justice Salmon P. Chase, one of the 
 most eminent of American statesmen and jurists, presided over this 
 remarkable trial. 
 
 The time for 
 holding another presi¬ 
 dential election was 
 already at hand. 
 
 General Ulysses S. 
 
 Grant was nomina¬ 
 ted by the Republi¬ 
 cans, and Horatio 
 
 Seymour of New 
 York by the Demo¬ 
 crats. The canvass 
 was attended with 
 great excitement. 
 
 The people were still 
 agitated by the recent 
 strife through which 
 the nation had passed, 
 and the questions 
 most discussed by the 
 political speakers were 
 those arising out of 
 (he uvil war. The 
 
 principles advocated by the majority in Congress furnished the basis of 
 the Republican platform of 1868, and on that platform General Grant 
 was chosen by a very large electoral majority. The votes of twenty- 
 six States, amounting, in the aggregate, to two hundred and fourteen 
 ballots, were cast in his favor, while his competitor received only 
 the eighty votes of the remaining eleven States. Of the popular vote, 
 however, Mr. Seymour obtained two million seven hundred and three 
 thousand six hundred, against three million thirteen thousand one 
 hundred and eighty-eight given to General Grant. At the same elec¬ 
 tion, the choice for the vice-presidency fell on Schuyler Colfax of 
 Indiana. 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE CHASE. 
 
562 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER L X A r 111. 
 
 GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION, 1S69-1S77. 
 
 U LYSSES S. GRANT, eighteenth President of the United States, is 
 a native of Ohio, born at Point Pleasant, in that State, April 27th, 
 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the United States Military 
 Academy at West Point, and was graduated in 1843. He served with 
 
 distinction and was 
 promoted for gallantry 
 in the Mexican war; 
 but his first national 
 reputation was won by 
 the capture of Forts 
 Henry and Donel- 
 son in 1862. From, 
 that time he rapidly 
 rose in rank, and in 
 March, 1864, received 
 the appointment of 
 lieutenant-general and 
 commander-i n-c h i e f 
 of the Union army. 
 Plis subsequent career 
 at the head of that 
 army has already been 
 narrated. At the 
 close of the war his 
 reputation, though 
 strictly military, was 
 president grant. very great; and his 
 
 being involved in 
 
 the imbroglio between President Johnson and Congress rather height¬ 
 ened than diminished the estimation in which he was held by the 
 people of the North. Before the Republican convention, held at 
 Chicago on the 21st of May, 1868, he had no competitor, and was 
 unanimously nominated on the first ballot. On "the day following his 
 inauguration as President, he sent in to the Senate the following 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 553 
 
 nominations for cabinet officers: For secretary of state, Elihu B. 
 Washburne of Illinois; for secretary of the treasury, Alexander T. 
 Stewart of New York; for secretary of the interior, Jacob D. Cox of 
 Ohio; for secretary of the navy, Adolph E. Borie of Pennsylvania; 
 for secretary of war, John M. Schofield of Illinois; for postmaster- 
 general, John A. J. Creswell of Maryland; for attorney-general, E. 
 R. Hoar of Massachusetts. These nominations were at once con¬ 
 firmed; but it was soon discovered that Mr. Stewart, being engaged 
 in commerce, was ineligible, and George S. Boutwell of Massachu¬ 
 setts was appointed in his stead. Mr. Washburne also gave up his 
 office to accept the position of minister to France; and the vacant 
 secretaryship was given to Hamilton Fish of New York. 
 
 The first event by which the new administration was signalized 
 was the completion of the Pacific Railroad. This vast enterprise was 
 projected as early as 1853; but ten years elapsed before the work of 
 construction was actually begun. The first division of the road ex¬ 
 tended from Omaha, Nebraska, to Ogden, Utah, a distance of a thou¬ 
 sand and thirty-two miles. The western division, called the Central 
 Pacific Railroad, reached from Ogden to San Francisco, a distance of 
 eight hundred and eighty-two miles. On the 10th of May, 1869, the 
 great work was completed with appropriate ceremonies. 
 
 Before the inauguration of President Grant two additional amend- 
 ments to the Constitution had been adopted by Congress. The first of 
 these, known as the Fourteenth Amendment, extended the right of citi¬ 
 zenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and de¬ 
 clared the validity of the public debt. This amendment was submitted 
 in 1867, was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and in the following 
 year became a part of the Constitution. A few weeks before the expiration 
 of Mr. Johnson’s term the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted by Congress, 
 providing that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
 be denied or abridged on account of race, color or previous condition of 
 servitude. This clause, which was intended to confer the right of suffrage 
 on the emancipated black men of the South, was also submitted to the 
 States, received the sanction of three-fourths of the legislatures, and on 
 the 30th of March, 1870, was proclaimed by the President as a part of 
 Jiie Constitution. 
 
 In the autumn of 1869 occurred the most extraordinary mone¬ 
 tary excitement ever known in the United States, or perhaps in the 
 world. A company of unscrupulous speculators in New York city, 
 headed by Jay Gould and James Fisk, jr., succeeded in producing 
 what is known as a “corner” in the gold market and brought the 
 38 
 
55-1 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 business interests of the metropolis to the verge of ruin. During the 
 civil war the credit of the government had declined to such an extent 
 that at one time a dollar in gold was worth two hundred and eighty- 
 six cents in paper currency. But after the restoration of the national 
 authority the value of paper money appreciated, and in the fall of 
 1869 the ratio of gold to the greenback dollar had fallen to about one 
 hundred and thirty to one hundred. There were at this time, in the 
 banks of New York, fifteen million dollars in gold coin and in the 
 sub-treasury of the United States a hundred millions more. The plan 
 of Gould and Fisk was to get control by purchase of the greater part 
 of the fifteen millions, to prevent the secretary of the treasury from 
 selling any part of the hundred millions under his authority, then — 
 having control of the market — to advance the price of gold to a fab¬ 
 ulous figure, sell out all which they held themselves, and retire from 
 the field of slaughtered fortunes with their accumulated millions of 
 spoils! Having carefully arranged all the preliminaries, the conspir¬ 
 ators, on the 13th of September, began their work of purchasing gold, 
 at the same time constantly advancing the price. By the 22d of the 
 month, they had succeeded in putting up the rate to a hundred and 
 forty. On the next day the price rose to a hundred and forty-four. 
 The members of the conspiracy now boldly avowed their determina¬ 
 tion to advance the rate to two hundred, and it seemed that on the 
 morrow they would put their threat into execution. On the morning 
 of the 24th, known as Black Friday, the bidding in the gold-room 
 began with intense excitement. The brokers of Fisk and Gould ad¬ 
 vanced the price to a hundred and fifty, a hundred and fifty-five, and 
 finally to a hundred and sixty, at which figure they were obliged to 
 purchase several millions by a company of merchants who had banded 
 themselves together with the determination to fight the gold-gamblers 
 to the last. Just at this moment came a despatch that Secretary Bout- 
 well had ordered a sale of four millions from the sub-treasury ! There 
 was an instantaneous panic. _ The price of gold w r ent down twenty 
 per cent, in less than as many minutes! The speculators were blown 
 away in an uproar; but they managed, by accumulated frauds and 
 corruptions, to carry off with them more than eleven million dollars as 
 the fruits of their nefarious game ! Several months elapsed before the 
 business of the country recovered from the effects of the shock. 
 
 In the first three months of 1870 the work of reorganizing the 
 Southern States was completed. On the 24th of January the senators 
 and representatives of Virginia were formally readmitted to their seats in 
 Ct ngress, and the Old Dominion once more took her place in the Union. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 555 
 
 On the 23d of February a like action was taken in regard to Mississippi; 
 and on the 30th of March the work was finished by the readmission of 
 Texas, the last of the seceded States. For the first time since the outbreak 
 of the civil war the voice of all the States was heard in the councils of 
 the nation. 
 
 In this year was completed the ninth census of the United States. 
 It was a work of vast importance, and the results presented were of the 
 most encouraging character. Notwithstanding the ravages of war, the 
 last decade had been a period of wonderful growth and progress. During 
 that time the population had increased from thirty-one million four hun¬ 
 dred and forty-three thousand to thirty-eight million five hundred and 
 eighty-seven thousand souls. The centre of population had now moved 
 westward into the great State of Ohio, and rested at a point fifty miles 
 east of Cincinnati. The national debt, though still enormous, was rapidly 
 falling off. The products of the United States had grown to a vast 
 aggregate; even the cotton crop of the South was regaining much of its 
 former importance. American manufactures were competing with those 
 of England in the markets of the world. The Union now embraced 
 thirty-seven States and eleven Territories.* From the narrow limits of 
 the thirteen original colonies, with their four hundred and twenty-one 
 thousand square miles of territory, the national domain had spread to the 
 vast area of three million six hundred and four thousand square miles. 
 Few things, indeed, have been more marvelous than the territorial growth 
 of the United States. The purchase of Louisiana more than doubled the 
 geographical area of the nation; the several Mexican acquisitions were 
 only second in importance; while the recent Russian cession alone was 
 greater in extent than the original thirteen States. 
 
 In January of 1871 President Grant appointed Senator Wade of 
 Ohio, Professor White of New York and Dr. Samuel Howe of Massa¬ 
 chusetts as a board of commissioners to visit Santo Domingo and report 
 upon the desirability of annexing that island to the United States. The 
 question of annexation had been agitated for several years, and the 
 measure was earnestly favored by the President. After three months 
 spent abroad, the commissioners returned and reported in favor of the 
 proposed annexation; but the proposal was met with violent opposition 
 in Congress, and defeated. 
 
 The claim of the United States against the British government for 
 damages done to American commerce by Confederate' cruisers during the 
 * Including the Indian Territory and Alaska. 
 
556 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 civil war still remained unsettled. These cruisers had been built and 
 equipped in English ports and with the knowledge of the English gov¬ 
 ernment. Such a proceeding was in plain violation of the law of nations, 
 even if the independence of the Confederate States had been recognized. 
 Time and again Mr. Seward remonstrated with the British authorities, 
 but without effect. After the war Great Britain became alarmed at her 
 own conduct, and grew anxious for a settlement of the difficulty. On 
 the 27th of February, 1871, a joint high commission, composed of five 
 British and five American statesmen, assembled at Washington city. 
 From the fact that the cruiser Alabama had done most of the injury 
 complained of, the claims of the United States were called the Alabama 
 Claims. After much discussion, the commissioners framed a treaty, 
 known as the Treaty of Washington, by which it was agreed that all 
 claims of either nation against the other should be submitted to a board 
 of arbitration to be appointed by friendly nations. Such a court was 
 formed, and in the summer of 1872 convened at Geneva, Switzerland. 
 The cause of the two nations was impartially heard, and on the 14th of 
 September decided in favor of the United States. Great Britain was 
 obliged, for the wrongs which she had done, to pay into the Federal 
 treasury fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 During the year 1871, there were laid and put into operation in 
 the United States no less than seven thousand six hundred arid seventy 
 miles of railroad! There is perhaps no fact in the history of the 
 world which exhibits so marvelous a development of the physical 
 resources of a nation. Ere the mutterings of the civil war, with its 
 untold destruction of life and treasure, had died away in the distance, 
 the recuperative power, enterprise, and genius of the American peo¬ 
 ple were revealed, as never before, in establishing and extending the 
 lines of travel and commerce. In 1830 there were but twentv-three 
 
 J 
 
 miles of railway track in the New World. In 1840 the lines in the 
 United States had been extended to two thousand eight hundred and 
 eighteen miles. Ten years later there were nine thousand and twenty- 
 one miles of track. According to the reports for 1860, the railroads 
 of the country had reached the enormous extent of thirty thousand 
 six hundred and thirty-five miles; and in the next ten years, embrac¬ 
 ing the period of the civil war, the amount was nearly doubled. Such 
 is the triumphant power of free institutions—the victory of free enter¬ 
 prise, free industry, free thought. There stands the fact! Let the 
 adherents of the Old World’s methods, the eulogists of the past, take 
 it and read it. Wherever the human race pants for a larger activity, 
 a more glorious exercise of its energies, let the story be told how the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 55 ? 
 
 United States, just emerged from the furnace of war, smarting with 
 wounds, and burdened with an enormous debt, built in a single year 
 more than twice as many miles of railroad as Spain, ridden with her 
 precedents of kingcraft and priestcraft, has ever built in her whole 
 career. 
 
 The year 1871 is noted in American history for the burning of 
 Chicago. On the evening of the 8th of October a fire broke out in De 
 Koven street, and was driven by a high wind into the lumber-yards and 
 wooden houses of the neighborhood. The flames leaped the South Branch 
 of the Chicago River and spread with great rapidity through the business 
 parts of the city. All day long the deluge of fire rolled on, crossed the 
 main channel of the river, and swept into a blackened ruin the whole dis¬ 
 trict between the North Branch and the lake as far northward as Lincoln 
 Park. The area burned over was two thousand one hundred acres, or 
 three and a third square miles. Nearly two hundred lives were lost in 
 the conflagration, and the property destroyed amounted to about two 
 hundred millions of dollars. No such a terrible devastation had been 
 witnessed since the burning of Moscow in 1812. In the extent of the 
 district burned over, the Chicago fire stands first, in the amount of 
 property destroyed second, and in the suffering occasioned third, among 
 the great conflagrations of the world. 
 
 On the 21st of October, 1872, was settled the only remaining 
 dispute concerning the boundaries of the United States. Bv the terms 
 of the treaty of 1846 it was stipulated that the North-western bound¬ 
 ary line, running westward along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, 
 should extend to the middle of the channel which separates the con¬ 
 tinent from Vancouver’s Island, and thence southerly through the mid¬ 
 dle of said channel and of Fuca’s Straits to the Pacific. But what was 
 “ the middle of said channel ” ? for there were several channels. The 
 British government claimed the Straits of Rosario to be the true line 
 intended by the treaty, while the United States would have the Canal 
 de Haro. So the question stood for a quarter of a century, and Avas 
 then referred for settlement to the arbitration of William I., Em¬ 
 peror of Germany. That monarch heard the cause, decided in favor 
 of the United States, and the Canal de Haro became the international 
 boundary. 
 
 As the first official term of President Grant dreAv to a close the 
 political parties made ready for the twenty-second presidential election. 
 Many parts of the chief magistrate’s policy had been made the subjects of 
 criticism and controversy. The congressional plan of reconstructing the 
 Southern States had prevailed, and with that plan the President Avas in 
 
558 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 accord. But the reconstruction measures had been unfavorably re¬ 
 ceived in the South. The elevation of the negro race to the full rights 
 of citizenship was regarded with apprehension. Owing to the disor¬ 
 ganization of civil government in the Southern States, an opportunity 
 was given in certain districts for bad men to band themselves togethei 
 
 in lawlessness. The 
 military spirit was 
 still rife in the coun¬ 
 try, and the issues 
 of the civil war were 
 rediscussed, some¬ 
 times with much 
 bitterness. On these 
 issues the people di¬ 
 vided in the election 
 of 1872. The Re¬ 
 publicans renom i - 
 nated General Grant 
 for the presidency. 
 For the vice-presi¬ 
 dency Mr. C o 1 fa x 
 declined a renomi¬ 
 nation, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Henry 
 Wilson of Massa¬ 
 chusetts. As the 
 
 HORACE GREELEY. , . , (' 
 
 standard - bearer oi 
 
 the Liberal Republican and Democratic parties Horace Greeley, ed¬ 
 itor of the New York Tribune , was nominated. This was the last act 
 in that remarkable man’s career. For more than thirty years he had 
 been an acknowledged leader of public opinion in America. He had 
 discussed with vehement energy and enthusiasm almost every question 
 in which the people of the United States have any interest. After a 
 lifetime of untiring industry he was now, at the age of sixty-one, 
 called to the forefront of political strife. The canvass was one of 
 wild excitement and bitter denunciations. Mr. Greeley was over¬ 
 whelmingly beaten, and died in less than a month after the election. 
 In his death the nation lost a great philanthropist and journalism its 
 brightest light. 
 
 O o 
 
 A few days after the presidential election the city of Boston was 
 visited by a conflagration only second in its ravages to that of Chicago 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 559 
 
 in the previous year. On the evening of the 9th of November a fire 
 broke out on the corner of Kingston and Summer streets, spread to 
 the north-east, and continued with almost unabated fury until the 
 morning of the 11th. The best portion of the city, embracing some 
 of the finest blocks in the United States, was laid m ashes. The 
 burnt district covered an area of sixty-five acres. Eight hundred 
 buildings, property to the value of eighty million dollars, and fifteen 
 lives were lost by the conflagration. 
 
 In the spring of 1872 an order had been issued to Superintendent 
 Odeneal to remove the Modoc Indians from their lands on the southern 
 shore of Lake Klamath, Oregon, to a new reservation. The Indians, who 
 had been greatly mistreated by former agents of the government, refused 
 to go; and in the following November a body of troops was sent to force 
 them into compliance. The Modocs resisted, kept up the war during the 
 winter, and then retreated into an almost inaccessible volcanic region 
 called the lava-beds. Here, in the spring of 1873, the Indians were sur¬ 
 rounded, but not subdued. On the 11th of April a conference was held 
 between them and six members of the peace commission; but in the 
 midst of the council the treacherous savages rose upon the kind-hearted 
 men who sat beside them and murdered General Canby and Dr. Thomas 
 in cold blood. Mr. Meacham, another member of the commission, was 
 shot and stabbed, but escaped with his life. The Modocs were then be¬ 
 sieged and bombarded in their stronghold; but it was the 1st of June 
 before General Davis with a force of regulars could compel Captain Jack 
 and his murderous band to surrender. The chiefs were tried by court- 
 martial and executed in the following October. 
 
 In the early part of 1873 a difficulty arose in Louisiana which 
 threatened the peace of the country. Owing to the existence of double 
 election-boards two sets of presidential electors had been chosen in the 
 previous autumn. At the same time two governors—William P. Kellogg 
 and John McEnery—were elected; and rival legislatures were also re¬ 
 turned by the hostile boards. Two State governments were accordingly 
 organized, and for a while the commonwealth was in a condition border¬ 
 ing on anarchy. The dispute was referred to the Federal government* 
 and the President decided in favor of Governor Kellogg and his party. 
 The rival government was accordingly disbanded; but on the 14th of 
 September, 1874, a large party, opposed to the administration of Kellogg 
 and led by D. B. Penn, who had been returned as lieutenant-governor 
 with McEnery, rose in arms and took possession of the State-house. 
 Governor Kellogg fled to the custom-house and appealed to the President 
 for help. The latter immediately ordered the adherents of Penn to dis** 
 
 I 
 
560 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 perse, and a body of national troops was sent to New Orleans to enforce 
 the proclamation. On the assembling of the legislature in the following 
 December the difficulty broke out more violently than ever, and the sol¬ 
 diery was again called in to settle the dispute. 
 
 About the beginning of President Grant’s second - term, the country 
 was greatly agitated by what was known as the Credit Mobilier 
 Investigation in Congress. The Credit Mobilier of America was a 
 joint stock company organized in 1863 for the purpose of facilitating the 
 construction of public works. In 1867 another company which had 
 undertaken to build the Pacific Railroad purchased the charter of the 
 Credit Mobilier, and the capital was increased to three million seven 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Owing to the profitableness of the 
 work in which the company was engaged, the stock rose rapidly in value 
 and enormous dividends were paid to the shareholders. In 1872 a law¬ 
 suit in Pennsylvania developed the startling fact that much of the stock 
 of the Credit Mobilier was owned by members of Congress. A suspicion 
 that those members had voted corruptly in the legislation affecting the 
 Pacific Railroad at once seized the public mind and led to a congressional 
 investigation, in the course of which many scandalous transactions were 
 brought to light, and the faith of the people in the integrity of their 
 servants greatly shaken. 
 
 In the autumn of 1873 occurred one of the most disastrous finan¬ 
 cial panics known in the history of the United States. The alarm 
 was given by the failure of the great banking-house of Jay Cooke & 
 Company of Philadelphia. Other failures followed in rapid succes¬ 
 sion. Depositors everywhere hurried to the banks and withdrew their 
 money and securities. Business was suddenly paralyzed, and many 
 months elapsed before confidence was sufficiently restored to enable 
 merchants and bankers to engage in the usual transactions of trade. 
 The primary cause of the panic was the fluctuation in the volume and 
 value of the national currency. Out of this had arisen a wild spirit 
 of speculation which sapped the foundations of business, destroyed 
 financial confidence, and ended in disaster. 
 
 Not the least of the evil results of the great monetary disturb¬ 
 ance was the check given to the Northern Pacific Railroad. 
 As early 7 as 1864 a company had been organized under a congressional 
 charter to construct a railway from Lake Superior to Puget Sound. 
 The work also contemplated the running of a branch road, two hun¬ 
 dred miles in length, down the valley of the Columbia River to Port¬ 
 land, Oregon. Large subsidies were granted to the company by Con¬ 
 gress, and other favorable legislation was expected. In 1870 the work 
 
GRANT'S ADM INIS TRA TION. 
 
 561 
 
 of construction was begun and carried westward from Duluth, Minne¬ 
 sota. Jay Cooke’s banking-house made heavy loans to the company, 
 accepting as security the bonds of the road; for it was confidently 
 expected that such legislation would be obtained as should secure the 
 success of the enterprise and bring the bonds to par. In this condi¬ 
 tion of affairs the Credit Mobilier scandal was blown before the coun¬ 
 try ; and no Congress would have dared to vote further subsidies to 
 a railroad enterprise. Jay Cooke’s securities became comparatively 
 worthless; then followed the failures and the panic. The work of 
 constructing the road was arrested by the financial distress of the 
 country, and has since been pushed forward but slowly and with great 
 difficulty. In 1875 the section of four hundred and fifty miles, ex¬ 
 tending from Duluth to Bismarck, Dakota, had been put in opera¬ 
 tion; and another section, a hundred and five miles in length, between 
 Kalama and Tacoma, in Washington Territory, had also been com¬ 
 pleted. Meanwhile, the attention of the country was turned to the 
 Texas and Pacific line, which had been projected from Shreveport, 
 Louisiana, and Texarkana, Arkansas, by way of El Paso to San Diego, 
 California — a distance from Shreveport of a thousand five hundred 
 and fourteen miles. In 1875 the main line had been carried west¬ 
 ward a hundred and eighty-nine miles to Dallas, Texas, while the line 
 from Texarkana had progressed seventy-five miles towards El Paso. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory of Colorado was au¬ 
 thorized by Congress to form a State constitution. On the 1st of 
 July, in the following year, the instrument thus provided for, was 
 ratified by the people; a month later, the President issued his proc¬ 
 lamation, and “ the Centennial State ” took her place in the Union. 
 The new commonwealth embraced an area of a hundred and four 
 thousand five hundred square miles, and a population of forty-two 
 thousand souls. Public attention was directed to the territory by the 
 discovery of gold, in the year 1852. Silver was discovered about the 
 same time, and in the winter of 1858-9, the first colony of miners 
 was established on Clear Creek and in Gilpin County. The entire 
 yield of gold up to the time of the admission of the State was esti¬ 
 mated at more than seventy millions of dollars. Until 1859, Colo¬ 
 rado constituted a part of Kansas; but in that year a convention 
 was held at Denver, and in 1861 a distinct territorial organization 
 was effected. Since 1870, immigration has been rapid and constant. 
 
 The last years of the history of the Republic have been noted 
 for the number of public men who have fallen by the Land of death. 
 In December of 1869, Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war under 
 
 36 
 
562 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 President Lincoln, and more recently justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, died. In 1870 General Robert E. Lee, president of 
 Washington and Lee University, General George H. Thomas and Ad¬ 
 miral Farragut passed away. In 1872 William H. Seward, Professor 
 Morse, Horace Greeley and General Meade were all called from the 
 
 scene of their earth¬ 
 ly labors. On the 
 7th of May, 1873, 
 Chief-Justice Chase 
 fell under a stroke 
 of paralysis at the 
 home of his daugh¬ 
 ter in New York 
 
 City; and on the 
 • * 
 
 lltli of March in 
 the following year, 
 Senator Charles 
 Sumner of Massa- 
 chusetts died at 
 Washington. He 
 was a native of Bos¬ 
 ton ; bom in 1811; 
 liberally educated at 
 Harvard College. 
 At the age of thir¬ 
 ty - five he entered 
 the arena of public 
 life, and in 1850 succeeded Daniel Webster in the Senate of the 
 United States. This position he retained until the time of his death, 
 speaking much and powerfully on all the great questions that agitated 
 the nation. His last days were spent in considering the interests 
 and welfare of that country to whose service he had given the life¬ 
 long energies of his genius. On the 22d of November, 1875, Vice- 
 President Henry Wilson, whose health had been gradually failing 
 since his inauguration, sank under a stroke of paralysis and died at 
 Washington city. Like Roger Sherman, he had risen from the shoe¬ 
 maker’s bench to the highest honors of his country. Without the 
 learning of Seward and Sumner—without the diplomatic skill of the 
 one or the oratorical fame of the other—he nevertheless possessed 
 those great abilities and sterling merits which will transmit his name 
 to after times on the roll of patriot statesmen. 
 
 CHARLES SCMNER. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 563 
 
 As the Centennial of American Independence drew near, the 
 people made ready to .celebrate the great event with appropriate 
 ceremonies. A hundred years of national prosperity—though not 
 unclouded by ominous shadows and not unhurt by the devastations 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL, 1876. 
 
 cf war —had swept away, and at last the dawn of the centennial 
 morning was rising in the eastern sky. It was not to be supposed 
 that the thoughtful and patriotic of the land would allow so lustrous 
 an epoch to go by without impressing upon the present generation the 
 
564 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 lesson of the past and the hope of the future. As early as 1866, a 
 proposition was made by Professor John L. Campbell of Wabash 
 College, that steps should be taken looking to the proper celebration 
 of the great national anniversary. About the same time the question 
 of an international exhibition in honor of our independence, was 
 agitated by the Honorable John Bigelow, a former minister of the 
 United States to France. A • correspondence was soon afterward 
 begun and carried on by the Honorable Morton McMichael, Mayor 
 of Philadelphia, Senator Henry S. Lane of Indiana, M. R. Muckle of 
 Pennsylvania, and General Charles B. Norton, who had served as a 
 commissioner of the United States at the Exposition Internationale of 
 1867. To these men, more than to others perhaps, must be awarded 
 the honor of having originated the Centennial Exposition. But it is 
 hardly to be supposed that the American people would have failed, 
 from the want of leaders or any other circumstance, to mark with an 
 imposing display the hundredth year of the Republic. 
 
 Such was the origin of the movement; but the development of 
 the project was discouraged for a while with considerable opposition 
 and much lukewarmness. The whole scheme was a vision of enthu¬ 
 siasm, a Quixotieal dream,—said the critics and objectors. No such 
 an enterprise could be carried through except under the patronage of 
 the Government, and the Government had no right to make appropri¬ 
 ations merely to preserve an old reminiscence. We had had enough 
 .of the Fourth of July already. Besides,—said the w r its and caricatur¬ 
 ists,—the other nations would present a ludicrous figure in helping us 
 to celebrate the anniversary of a rebellion which they had tried to 
 crush a hundred years ago. Victoria was expected—so said they-r- 
 to send over commissioners to heap contumely and contempt on the 
 grave of her grandfather! No nation of Europe would consent to its 
 own stultification by joining in the jubilee of republicanism. Besides 
 all this caviling, it was foreseen that Philadelphia would quite 
 certainly be selected as the scene of the proposed display, and on 
 that account a good deal of local jealousy w T as excited in the other 
 principal cities of the Union. Nevertheless, the advocates of the 
 enterprise continued to urge the feasibility and propriety of the 
 exposition; the more enlightened newspapers of the country lent 
 their influence, and the popular voice soon declared in favor of the 
 measure. 
 
 As early as the beginning of 1870, the general plan and princi¬ 
 pal features of the celebration had been determined in the minds of 
 its projectors. As to the form of the display, an International Expo- 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 565 
 
 sition of Arts and Industries was decided on; as to the scene, the city 
 of Philadelphia, hallowed by a thousand Revolutionary memories, 
 was selected; as to the time, from the 19th of April to the 19th of 
 October, 1876. The first organized body to give aid and encourage¬ 
 ment to the enterprise was the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. 
 Through the influence of that patriotic organization, a Centennial 
 Commission, consisting of seven members appointed by the city 
 council, was constituted, with John L. Shoemaker as chairman. 
 Shortly afterwards a resolution was adopted by the Legislature of 
 Pennsylvania, invoking the aid of Congress in behalf of the proposed 
 celebration ; and on the 3d of March, 1871, a bill was passed by the 
 House of Representatives, which became the basis of qll subsequent 
 proceedings relating to the Centennial. 
 
 In this bill it was provided that an exhibition of American and 
 Foreign arts, products and manufactures should be held under the 
 auspices of the Government of the United States, in the city of Phil¬ 
 adelphia, in 1876; that a Centennial Commission, consisting of one 
 member and one alternate from each State and Territory, should be 
 appointed by the President; that to this board of commissioners should 
 be referred the entire management and responsibility of the enter¬ 
 prise ; that the members of the board should receive no compensa¬ 
 tion ; that the United States should not be liable for any of the 
 expenses of the exposition ; and that the President, when officially 
 informed that suitable buildings had been erected and adequate pro¬ 
 visions made for the proposed exhibition, should make proclamation 
 of that fact to the people of the United States and to all foreign 
 nations. During the year 1871, the Centennial Commission was con¬ 
 stituted in accordance with the act of Congress. On the 4th of March, 
 1872, the members assembled at Philadelphia and effected a perma¬ 
 nent organization by the election of General Joseph R. Hawley of 
 Connecticut as President. Orestes Cleveland of New Jersey, John D. 
 Creigh of California, Robert Lowry of Iowa, Robert Mallory of Ken¬ 
 tucky, Thomas H. Coldwell of Tennessee, John McNeill of Missouri, 
 and William Gurney of South Carolina, were chosen as the seven vice- 
 presidents of the organization. As secretary, Professor John L. Camp¬ 
 bell of Indiana was elected. The important office of director-general 
 was conferred on Alfred T. Goshorn of Ohio ; and as counselor and 
 solicitor John L. Shoemaker of Pennsylvania was chosen. 
 
 The question of money next engaged the attention of the man¬ 
 agers. How to provide the funds necessary for carrying forward so 
 vast an enterprise became a source of much discussion and no little 
 
566 
 
 JUS TOE Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 anxiety. The positive refusal of the government to become respon¬ 
 sible for any part of the expenses of the Exhibition added to the em¬ 
 barrassment; for it was now seen that private resources and the good 
 will of the people must furnish the entire sum necessary for the suc¬ 
 cess of the enterprise. Several measures were accordingly adopted 
 
 by the Centennial Commis¬ 
 sion looking to the creation 
 of a treasury. By an act ot 
 Congress, passed on the 1st- 
 of June, 1872, provision was 
 made for the organization of 
 a Centennial Board of Fi¬ 
 nance, to which the whole 
 monetary management of 
 the Exposition should be 
 entrusted. This board was 
 organized by the election 
 of John Welsh of Philadel¬ 
 phia as president. William 
 Sellers and John S. Barboui 
 were chosen vice-presidents. 
 The office of secretary and 
 treasurer was conferred on 
 Frederick Fraley; that of 
 auditor, on H. S. Lansing; 
 and that of financial agent, on William Bigler. The board was au¬ 
 thorized to issue stock in shares of ten dollars each, the whole num¬ 
 ber of shares thus issued not to exceed one million. It was also pro¬ 
 vided that a series of Centennial Memorial Medals should be struck at 
 the mint of the United States, and that the sale of such medals should 
 be under the exclusive control of the Board of Finance. The medals 
 were elegantly executed in several styles and sizes—of gilt, silver, and 
 bronze—furnishing for after ages an impressive token of the American 
 Republic in its hundredth year. 
 
 Careful estimates, made by the Centennial Commission and the 
 Board of Finance, placed the entire expense of the Exposition at eight 
 million jive hundred thousand dollars. Of this sum about two and a 
 half millions were raised by the sale of stock—a work which was at 
 first entrusted to the banks of the country and afterward to a Bureau 
 of Revenue established for that purpose. Long before this amount 
 was secured, however, the legislature of Pennsylvania made a glorious 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 567 
 
 record tor that State by appropriating one million dollars for the 
 Exhibition. The “ City of Brotherly Love” did better still by voting 
 the sum of one million five hundred thousand dollars. The people 
 of New York City made a contribution of a quarter of a million. 
 The State of New Jersey gave a hundred thousand dollars; New 
 
 CENTENNIAL medal.—obverse. centennial medal.—reverse. 
 
 Hampshire, Connecticut, and Delaware, ten thousand dollars each. 
 But notwithstanding these magnificent contributions, the aggregate 
 sum fell far short of the estimates; and the Centennial Commission— 
 in the face of the former illiberal action of Congress—resolved to 
 make a second appeal to that body for help. A bill was accordingly 
 prepared, asking for an appropriation of three million dollars from 
 the national treasury; but on the 6th of May, 1874, the bill was 
 decisively defeated—an act well calculated to bring the American 
 name into contempt and shame.* The managers of the Exposition 
 were again thrown back upon the people for sympathy and aid. 
 
 Meanwhile, the sale of stock and of medals, as well as other 
 enterprises for the increase of the Centennial funds, was going on 
 successfully. * The Exposition gained constantly in public favor. 
 Even in the Far West, Centennial orators traveled through the 
 country districts, stirring up the enthusiasm of the people. The 
 public Free Schools, by exhibitions and excursions, contributed their 
 part towards the success of the great celebration. In June of 1874, 
 
 * After times may be astonished to know that the empire of Japan cheerfully 
 contributed six hundred thousand collars to the success of the American Centennial 
 after the Congress of the United States had twice refused to vote a cent. 
 
568 
 
 HISTOB Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 the President of the United States extended a cordial invitation to 
 all the civilized nations of the world to participate in an Interna¬ 
 tional Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil 
 and Mine, to be held in the city of Philadelphia in 1876, in honor 
 of the one hundredth anniversary of American Independence. By 
 and by, the contagion spread even to Congress, and that body passed 
 an act appropriating five hundred and five thousand dollars for the 
 erection of a Centennial Building in honor of the United States and 
 for the illustration of the functions and resources of the American 
 Government in times of peace and of war. The legislatures of sev¬ 
 eral of the States also became interested in the enterprise, and made 
 appropriations—ranging from five thousand to fifty thousand dollars— 
 for the purpose of erecting State Buildings on the Exhibition 
 grounds, the sum thus contributed amounting to nearly a half 
 million dollars. Finally, as the success of the Exposition became 
 more and more assured, the patriotism of the people and the clamors 
 of the press drove the national Congress into an appropriation of a 
 million five hundred thousand dollars to supply the deficit which was 
 still reported by the Board of Finance. Such were the principal 
 measures by which the Centennial fund was finally secured. 
 
 One of the first matters to which the attention of the Centennial 
 Commission was directed, was the selection of suitable grounds for 
 holding the Exposition. But that problem was soon solved in the 
 most satisfactory manner. By the act of March 3d, 1871, it was 
 decided by Congress that the Exhibition should be held within the 
 corporate limits of Philadelphia. The authorities of that city, throw¬ 
 ing their whole energies into the enterprise, at once proffered to the 
 commissioners the free use of Fairmount Park, one of the largest 
 and most magnificent in the world. This beautiful tract, presenting 
 every variety of surface, well wooded and well watered, extends on 
 both sides of the Schuylkill for more than seven miles, and along the 
 banks of the Wissahickon for nearly the same distance. The entire 
 park embraces two thousand seven hundred and forty acres, and 
 presents to the eye every thing that is lovely and refreshing in 
 woodland scenery, beautified and adorned by the hand of art. The 
 portion of the grounds more particularly set apart for the purposes 
 of the Exposition, including an area of four hundred and fifty acres, 
 lies on the right bank of the Schuylkill, below Belmont, and was 
 formerly known as the old Lansdowne Estate. 
 
 The formal transfer of the grounds to the Centennial Commission 
 was made on the 4th of July, 1873, An immense throng of citizens 
 
TILE CENTENNIAL GE0UND8 AND BUILDINGS. 
 
570 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and strangers gathered in the park to witness the ceremonies. The 
 address of presentation was made by the Honorable Morton Mc- 
 Michael of Philadelphia, and the response by General Hawley, 
 president of the Commission. The dedicatory oration was then 
 delivered by Governor Hartranft of Pennsylvania, who, after reciting 
 the congressional acts and various other measures upon which the 
 Centennial enterprise had thus far proceeded, continued in the 
 following eloquent manner : # 
 
 “We have assembled here to dedicate a portion of this beauti-. 
 ful park to the uses of a great International Exhibition, which is 
 to commemorate the anniversary of our country’s birth. Upon 
 the threshold of the century to expire in 1876, thirteen poor and 
 feeble colonies, with no common ties other than their love of liberty 
 and hatred of oppression, declared their independence. These 
 Thirteen Colonies, with their offspring, now increased in number to 
 thirty-seven, stretch their empire across a continent, and afford the 
 grandest exhibition of a nation’s progress in the world’s history. In 
 all the wondrous changes wrought in the nineteenth century, none 
 are so wondrous and conspicuous as the industrial, moral, and physi¬ 
 cal growth of this our native land. With those powerful auxiliaries, 
 steam and the telegraph—both of which our country gave to man¬ 
 kind—we are striding with majestic steps toward a dominion unri¬ 
 valed by any other nation on the face of the earth. Let us, then,, 
 from every State—north, south, east, and west—bring to this great 
 city, the consecrated place where our liberty was born, the evidences 
 of our culture, the proofs of our skill, and our vast and varied 
 resources, that the world may have a glimpse of our enlargement, 
 industry, wealth, and power. To the myriads who will gather here, 
 let us accord a welcome which shall be in keeping with the dignity 
 and magnitude of our country. Here, too, let our own people gather, 
 garnering new and fresh ideas from a survey of the world’s arts and 
 industries; and let us dedicate ourselves to a higher civilization, to 
 more extensive fields of development, to more liberal and more widely 
 diffused education, to the purification of our institutions, and to the 
 preservation of that liberty which is the foundation-stone of our 
 prosperity and happiness.” 
 
 Governor Hartranft was followed by George M. Robeson, secre¬ 
 tary of the navy, who read a proclamation by the President of the 
 United States; and then the General Regulations for the government 
 of the Exposition were announced as follows : 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 571 
 
 I. The International Exhibition of 1876 will be held in Fair- 
 mount Park, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876. 
 
 II. The date of opening the Exhibition will be April 19th, 
 1876, and of closing will be October 19th, 1876. 
 
 III. A cordial invitation is hereby extended to every nation of 
 the earth to be represented by its arts, industries, progress, and 
 development. 
 
 IV. A formal acceptance of this invitation is requested previous 
 to March 4th, 1874. 
 
 V. Each nation accepting this invitation is requested to appoint 
 a Commission, through which all matters pertaining to its own inter¬ 
 ests shall be conducted. For the purpose of convenient intercourse 
 and satisfactory supervision, it is especially desired that one member 
 of every such Commission be designated to reside at Philadelphia 
 until the close of the Exposition. 
 
 VI. The privileges of exhibitors can be granted only to citizens 
 of countries whose governments have formally accepted the invitation 
 to be represented, and have appointed the aforementioned Commis¬ 
 sion ; and all communications must be made through the Govern¬ 
 mental Commissions. 
 
 VII. Applications for space within the Exposition buildings, or 
 in the adjacent buildings and grounds under the control of the Cen¬ 
 tennial Commission, must be made previous to March 4th, 1875. 
 
 VIII. Full diagrams of the buildings and grounds will be fur¬ 
 nished to the Commissioners of the different nations which shall 
 accept the invitation to participate. 
 
 IX. All articles intended for exhibition, in order to secure 
 proper position and classification, must be in Philadelphia on or 
 before January 1st, 1876. 
 
 X. Acts ot Congress pertaining to custom-house regulations, 
 duties, etc., together with all special regulations adopted by the Cen¬ 
 tennial Commission in reference to transportation, allotment of space, 
 classification, motive power, insurance, police rules, and other matters 
 necessary to the proper display and preservation of materials,—will be 
 promptly communicated to the accredited representatives of the sev¬ 
 eral governments cooperating in the Exposition. 
 
 On the day after the dedication of the grounds in Fairmount 
 Park, a copy of the President’s proclamation, already mentioned; was 
 transmitted to each of the foreign ministers resident at Washington. 
 At the same time, the American secretary of state notified the minis- 
 
572 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ters that the proposed display was intended as an International 
 Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and 
 Mine; that the special design of the Exposition was to commemorate 
 the Declaration of the Independence of the United States; that 
 another prime object was to furnish to all nations an opportunity for 
 mutual improvement and a higher culture in beholding the products 
 of each other’s civilization ; that the President of the United States 
 indulged the hope that all the diplomatic representatives of foreign 
 nations would bring the Exposition and its objects to the attention 
 of the people of their respective countries; and that the Exhibition 
 might greatly conduce to the establishment and perpetuation of in¬ 
 ternational friendship and good will. These official communications 
 were cordially received by the foreign ministers and by the govern¬ 
 ments which they represented. The President’s invitations were 
 quickly accepted; and before the expiration of the allotted time, the 
 following nations had notified the American Government of their 
 desire and intention to participate in the Exposition : The Argentine 
 Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, China, Den¬ 
 mark, Ecuador, Egypt, France (including Algeria), German Empire, 
 Great Britain and her Colonies, Greece, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hayti, 
 Honduras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, 
 Norway, Orange Free State, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Siam, 
 Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunis, Turkey, United States of Colom¬ 
 bia, Venezuela. 
 
 One of the earliest and most difficult of the subjects which 
 engaged the attention of the Centennial Commission was the proper 
 analysis and classification of the materials to be exhibited. Until 
 this question was settled it could not be known what buildings to 
 erect or how to erect them. Nor could the various nations know in 
 advance how to select and arrange their products so as to come into 
 proper competition with each other, until a General Classification 
 should be prepared and reported. It was foreseen, moreover, that 
 a mistake in this regard would be in a great measure fatal to the 
 success of the Exposition, as a bad classification would be sure to 
 result in heaping up in the Centennial buildings a vast and chaotic 
 mass of materials which nobody could appreciate or understand. In 
 this important work of classification the Commissioners—considering 
 the magnitude and novelty of the task imposed upon them—succeeded 
 admirably. It was decided to arrange all of the materials which 
 should be presented for exhibition in ten great classes or departments, 
 
GRANT*S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 573 
 
 the names of which should suggest,, even to the common beholder, 
 the particular object on display. The following was the General 
 Classification adopted by the Commission : 
 
 I. Raw Materials; Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. 
 
 II. Materials and Manufactures used for Food or in 
 the Arts ; the results of Extractive or Combining Processes. 
 
 III. Textile and Felted Fabrics; Apparel, Costumes, and 
 Personal Ornaments. 
 
 IV. Furniture and Manufactures of General Use in 
 Construction and in Dwellings. 
 
 V. Tools, Implements, Machines, and Processes. 
 
 VI. Motors and Transportation. 
 
 VII. Apparatus and Methods for the Increase and Dif¬ 
 fusion of Knowledge. 
 
 VIII. Engineering; Public Works, Architecture, etc. 
 
 IX. Plastic and Graphic Arts. 
 
 X. Objects illustrating Efforts for the Improvement 
 
 of the Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Condition of 
 Man. # 
 
 Each of these general departments was divided and subdivided 
 until a proper classification of all the materials about to be exhibited 
 was secured. 
 
 To erect buildings suitable in character and capacity—buildings 
 illustrative of the taste, equal to the enterprise, and worthy of the 
 genius of the American people—was the next great duty devolved 
 upon the Centennial Commission. Here success was necessary. To 
 succeed was to elicit the admiration of every people; to fail was to 
 fail ingloriously. The reputation of the United States was at stake. 
 For the foremost men of all the world, the savants of Europe and 
 Asia—art critics, wits, and journalists; statesmen, poets, and philoso¬ 
 phers; admirers of the beautiful, keen-scented satirists, and dislikers 
 of republicanism out of every clime under heaven—were sure to gaze 
 upon and criticise whatever should be built in Fairmount Park, and 
 to carry abroad the story of our honor or our disgrace. Grand and 
 imposing structures would add to the dignity of the great occasion. 
 Mean and insignificant buildings would insure a mean and insignificant 
 exhibition, and that, in its turn, would produce among all nations a 
 contemptuous estimate of the American people and their institutions. 
 
 After much deliberation, the Centennial Commission determined 
 upon the erection of five principal buildings, the name and character 
 
574 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES. 
 
 of each to be determined by the nature of the materials therein to be 
 displayed. The first of these, called the Main Building, was de¬ 
 signed with special reference to the exhibition of Products of the 
 Mine, Workmanship in the Metals, Manufactures in general, Edu¬ 
 cational and Scientific displays. The second building—called the 
 Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery —was planned for the exhibi¬ 
 tion of the Fine Arts in all their various branches and modifications 
 —Sculpture, Painting, Engraving, Lithography, Photography, Indus¬ 
 trial and Architectural Designs, Decorations, and Mosaics. The third 
 principal building was named Machinery Hall, and was designed 
 for the display of Machines of every pattern and purpose known to 
 man—Motors, Generators of Power, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Appa¬ 
 ratuses, Railway Enginery, and Contrivances for Aerial and Water 
 Transportation. The fourth edifice projected by the Commissioners 
 was called Agricultural Hall, and was planned for the exhibition 
 of all Tree and Forest Products, Fruits of every grade and descrip¬ 
 tion, Agricultural Products proper, Land and Marine Animals includ¬ 
 ing the Apparatus used in the Care and Culture of the same, Animal 
 and Vegetable Products, Textile Materials, Implements and Processes 
 peculiar to Agriculture, Farm Engineering, Tillage and General Man¬ 
 agement of Field, Forest, and Homestead. The fifth and last build¬ 
 ing, called Horticultural Hall, was designed for the proper dis¬ 
 play of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers—Hot-houses, Conserv¬ 
 atories, Graperies; Tools, Accessories, Designs, Construction, and 
 Management of Gardens. Such was the general plan under which 
 the principal edifices of Fairmount Park were begun. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1874, the foundations of Memorial Hall 
 were laid with appropriate ceremonies. In the following September, 
 work was begun on the Main Building, and was steadily carried for¬ 
 ward during the whole of the next year and until the beginning of 
 February, 1876, when the immense structure was completed. Machin¬ 
 ery Hall was built between the months of January and October, 1875. 
 On the 1st of May, in the same year, the foundations of Horticultural 
 Hall were laid, and the building was brought to completion April 
 1st, 1876. Agricultural Hall was not begun until September of 1875, 
 but the work was carried forward so rapidly that the edifice was com¬ 
 pleted by the middle of the following April. Meanwhile, the work 
 on the Government, Building, the construction of which had 
 been provided for by the congressional act of March 3d, 1875, was 
 pressed to completion early in 1876. Moreover, it had become appar¬ 
 ent to the Commissioners that the space provided in Memorial Hall 
 \ 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 575 
 
 would by no means accommodate the immense exhibition of Fin* 
 Arts which was now confidently expected; and an Art Annex was 
 accordingly planned and built. It was also found from the rapidly 
 accumulating applications for space that the Main Building itself 
 would be filled to overflowing; and two Annexes—the principal one 
 for carriages and the other for the display of the Minerals of the 
 United States—were accordingly added to that immense structure. 
 
 Other buildings—illustrative of various interests and enterprises 
 brought together from the ends of the earth—were rapidly planned 
 and constructed. A Woman’s Pavilion, projected and carried to 
 completion by an organization called the Women’s Centennial Exec¬ 
 utive Committee, was begun in the middle of October, 1875, and fin¬ 
 ished in the following January. The building was designed for the 
 special exhibition of whatever woman’s skill, patience and genius 
 have produced, and are producing, in the way of handicraft, inven¬ 
 tion, decorations, letters, and art. Next came the several States and 
 Territories, selecting grounds and constructing a series of State 
 Buildings, commemorative of the spirit and illustrating the re¬ 
 sources of the respective commonwealths of the Union. Nearly all 
 the foreign nations participating in the Exposition made haste to 
 erect, for their own convenience and for the honor of native land, 
 elegant Government Buildings — French, Spanish, or British — 
 which became a kind of head-quarters and rendezvous for the sev¬ 
 eral nationalities Then came model dwellings and Bazaars, School- 
 houses and Restaurants, Judges’ Halls and model Factories, News¬ 
 paper Buildings and Ticket Offices,—until the Centennial grounds 
 (capacious as they were) were filled with—shall it be called a city ?— 
 the most imposing, spacious, and ornate ever seen in the world. A 
 more complete description of some of those grand structures will here 
 be appropriate. 
 
 The first and largest of them all was the Main Building, situated 
 immediately east of the intersection of Belmont and Elm Avenues. 
 The edifice was in the form of a parallelogram, having a length from 
 east to west of eighteen hundred and eighty' feet,* and a breadth 
 from north to south of four hundred and sixty'-four feet. The build¬ 
 ing throughout its greater extent was one story high, the main cornice 
 being forty-five feet from the ground. The general height within was 
 seventy feet, rising to ninety feet under the principal arcades. From 
 each of the four corners of the building rose a rectangular tower 
 forty-eight feet square and seventy-five feet high. Over the central 
 
 * Eighteen hundred and seventy-six feet (the Centennial number) in the clear. 
 
57G 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 portion of the main structure a 
 raised roof one hundred and eigh¬ 
 ty-four feet square was likewise 
 surmounted at the corners by four 
 towers a hundred and twenty feet 
 in height. In the middle of the 
 two sides, looking north and south, 
 were the principal projections, four 
 hundred and sixteen feet in length. 
 The corresponding projections at 
 the ends were two hundred and 
 sixteen feet long, and extended, 
 the western in the direction of 
 Machinery Hall, and the eastern 
 towards the city. In these four 
 projections were placed the main 
 entrances to the building; that on 
 the east facing the carriage-ways 
 to the city; the southern receiv¬ 
 ing passengers from the street-cars 
 and the depot of the Pennsylvania 
 Railway; the western being rath¬ 
 er an exit to other parts of the 
 grounds than an entrance proper; 
 and the northern facing Memorial 
 Hall and the Schuylkill. 
 
 In the ground-plan of this 
 immense building a central nave 
 or avenue, a hundred and tAventy 
 feet in width, traversed the main 
 diameter to the distance of eight¬ 
 een hundred and thirty-tA\ r o feet. 
 Parallel with this, two side aisles 
 a hundred feet Avide, and of the 
 same length Avith the principal 
 nave, divided the spaces betAA’een 
 the same and the sides of the 
 building. These three main ave¬ 
 nues AA r ere intersected at rig’ht an¬ 
 gles by cross aisles forty-eight feet 
 in width, dividing the Avhole are& 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 577 
 
 of the floor into blocks or squares, with spacious avenues entirely around 
 them. The principal nave and its parallel aisles were likewise inter¬ 
 sected by the main and two subordinate transepts, dividing the cen¬ 
 tral space of the ground-floor into nine great squares, free from 
 columnar support, and embracing an area of over a hundred and 
 seventy-three thousand square feet. The entire area of Ae ground- 
 floor was eight hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred 
 and twenty square feet; of the floors in the projections, thirty- 
 seven thousand three hundred and forty-four feet; of the tower floors, 
 twenty-six thousand three hundred and forty-four feet;—making an 
 aggregate area of nine hundred and thirty-six thousand and eight 
 square feet, or twenty-one and forty-seven hundredths acres! The 
 ground-floor proper covered a space of a little more than twenty acres.* 
 The building was chiefly of iron and glass, and contained a mass 
 of material unprecedented in the history of architecture. The outer 
 walls were carried up in brick-work to the height of seven feet from 
 the foundations, which consisted of stone piers of the most substantial 
 masonry. Above the brick-work the panels between the columns of 
 support were occupied with glazed sash, sections of which were movable 
 for purposes of ventilation. The roof was of tin, laid solidly on boards 
 of pine; and the exterior ornaments—abounding on all the corners, 
 angles, and towers—were of galvanized iron. The columns of interior 
 support—numbering six hundred and seventy-two, and ranging from 
 twenty-three to one hundred and twenty-five feet in length—were 
 of rolled iron, and had an aggregate weight of two million two hun¬ 
 dred thousand pounds. The roof trusses and girders were of the same 
 material, and weighed about five million pounds. No less than seven 
 million feet of lumber were used in the construction of the building. 
 
 * A comparison of the leading Centennial buildings (in respect of dimensions) with 
 other famous edifices may prove of interest. 
 
 Name of Structure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Area of Ground-Floor. 
 
 
 Main Exposition Building, 
 
 
 
 
 872,320 Square feet, 
 
 20.02 Acre?- 
 
 Machinery Hall, 
 
 
 
 
 558,440 
 
 u u 
 
 12.82 
 
 U 
 
 Agricultural Hall, 
 
 
 
 
 442,800 
 
 u u 
 
 10.16 
 
 
 Memorial Hall, 
 
 
 
 
 76,650 
 
 (l u 
 
 1.76 
 
 u 
 
 Horticultural Hall, . 
 
 
 
 
 73,912 
 
 u u 
 
 1.69 
 
 K 
 
 The Louvre (including the 
 
 court), 
 
 
 
 309,888 
 
 (6 U 
 
 7.11 
 
 a 
 
 St. Peter’s, 
 
 
 
 
 273,927 
 
 u u 
 
 6.28 
 
 a 
 
 The Capitol, 
 
 
 
 
 261,348 
 
 u a 
 
 6.00 
 
 u 
 
 The Coliseum, 
 
 
 
 
 245,340 
 
 u u 
 
 5.63 
 
 u 
 
 St. Paul’s, 
 
 
 
 
 142,500 
 
 u u 
 
 3.27 
 
 u 
 
 Cathedral of Milan, . 
 
 
 
 
 139,968 
 
 u u\ 
 
 3.21 
 
 a 
 
 Tuileries, 
 
 
 
 
 108,864 
 
 a u 
 
 2.50 
 
 a 
 
 Westminister, 
 
 
 
 
 103,733 
 
 u u 
 
 2.38 
 
 44 
 
 St. Sophia, 
 
 
 
 
 82,600 
 
 u u 
 
 1.89 
 
 *4 
 
 St. Stephen’s, 
 
 
 
 
 81,420 
 
 a u 
 
 1.86 
 
 44 
 
 Notre Dame, . . 
 
 
 
 
 56,160 
 
 u u 
 
 1.27 
 
 
 37 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1)78 
 
 The water and drainage pipes—laid for the most part underneath the 
 floor—were four miles in length. Light—whether streaming through 
 acres of stained and fretted glass by day, or blazing from thousands 
 of gas-jets and burnished reflectors by night—was equally and abun¬ 
 dantly distributed. Hydrants—everywhere and ever full—promised 
 security against the destroyer. 
 
 Such were the principal features of the largest, if not the most 
 imposing, edifice in the world. The general effect, notwithstanding 
 the immense size of the building, was especially airy and pleasing. 
 Happy proportions and the regularity of irregularity reduced the 
 apparent dimensions of the mammoth pavilion till the vision was 
 nowhere oppressed with a sense of cumbrous outlines or heaviness 
 of structure. In practical adaptation to the purposes for which it 
 was designed, the building was all that could be desired; and in its 
 effect upon that sense—call it by what name you will—which takes 
 cognizance of the sublime and beautiful, there was small room for 
 caviling and criticism. From the great towers and observatories, 
 rising grandly above the roof, the eye of the beholder, sweeping 
 around the horizon, drank in without fatigue the historic outline 
 of the surrounding country and the midsummer glories of Fair- 
 mount Park. Here wound the Schuylkill. Yonder was Laurel Hill, 
 where Elisha Kent Kane sleeps in an uninscribed grave on the rocky 
 hillside. No need of epitaphs for such as him! Farther on there 
 came a glimpse of Germantowm, where through the fogs and deso¬ 
 lations of that forbidding October day-dawn a hundred years ago the 
 greatest man of all history, at the head of his ragged and half-starved 
 army, struggled against the foe. Here to the east, spreading away 
 from the very feet of the beholder to the distant rolling Delaware, 
 and right and left to the skirts of the horizon, slumbered under the 
 summer sun the old City of Penn, where in those same heroic days, 
 now gliding dreamily into the shadow's of the past, Adams and Jef¬ 
 ferson and Franklin did the bravest deed in the civil history of the 
 human race. Such were the thrilling associations which clustered 
 around the great Centennial Building. Only one melancholy reflec¬ 
 tion arose to trouble the soul of the beholder: the grand edifice was 
 designed only as a temporary structure—meant to subserve the fleeting 
 purposes of the International Exhibition. 
 
 The building second in importance, though not in size, among 
 the Centennial structures, was the Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery. It 
 stands upon a broad terrace in the Lansdovme Plateau, at the dis¬ 
 tance of tw r o hundred and fifty feet from the north projection of the 
 
Thm 'rvnrowwW- 
 
580 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Main Building, and a hundred and sixteen feet above the level of 
 the Schuylkill. The structure is of iron, granite, and glass, and is in 
 that modern style of architecture called the Renaissance. The build¬ 
 ing is in the form of a rectangular parallelogram, and is three hun¬ 
 dred and sixty-five feet in length, two hundred and ten feet wide, and 
 fifty-nine feet in height above a twelve-foot basement of stone. The 
 dome, also rectangular in form, rises a hundred and fifty feet above 
 the terrace, and is surmounted with a colossal bell bearing a mag¬ 
 nificent statue of the goddess America, cast in zinc, twenty-three and 
 a half feet in height, and weighing six thousand pounds. At the four 
 corners of the base of the dome are seated other statues representing 
 the four quarters of the globe. The floor of the main hall below has 
 an area of more than a half acre, and is capable of accommodating 
 eight thousand spectators at one time. In its architectural elements 
 the building embraces hints derived from many styles, some of which 
 —as, for instance, the arcades—date back as far as the villas of An¬ 
 cient Rome; but the general effect is that of unity, elegance, and 
 grandeur. 
 
 The Centennial surroundings of Memorial Hall were appropriate 
 and striking. Before the main entrance and on either hand were sta 
 tioned two colossal bronze pegasi curbed by the Muses. On the south¬ 
 west angle of the terrace a group of statuary, also in bronze, repre¬ 
 sented the firing of a mortar and the flight of the shell, watched by 
 the men of the battery; while on the southeast angle a corresponding 
 group depicted a dying lioness, surrounded by her whelps and guarded 
 by her lord. Opposite the main entrances of the edifice the terrace 
 was ascended by flights- of stone steps, spacious and grand; and the 
 beholder, when for the first time he reached the plateau, found him¬ 
 self face to face with an edifice among the most novel and beautiful 
 in the New World. As he stood midway between the site of the Main 
 Building and Memorial Hall, he saw, on the one hand, a mammoth 
 structure designed for the exhibition of all things practical, utilitarian,, 
 and profitable among the products of thought and application; and, 
 on the other, a temple fit for the repose and revelation of all things 
 ideal, beautiful, and sublime among the trophies of human genius. 
 
 The Art Gallery was built at a cost of a million five hundred 
 thousand dollars. The funds for this purpose were the joint contri¬ 
 bution of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania. The building, 
 was designed as a permanent structure, affording for present time a. 
 suitable gallery for the Fine Art display of the International Exhibi¬ 
 tion, and, in its final purpose, becoming a national memorial of tl*- 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 581 
 
 Centennial year. After the close 
 of the Exposition, the edifice was 
 converted, according to the pur¬ 
 pose of its founders, into a recep¬ 
 tacle for the Pennsylvania Museum 
 of Industrial Art,—an institution 
 similar to that of South Kensing¬ 
 ton, in London. When the other 
 structures, many in purpose and 
 fashion, which the Centennial cel¬ 
 ebration had caused to spring up 
 in Fairmount Park, w r ere struck 
 from their foundations—disappear¬ 
 ing even as they came, like an 
 exhalation of the night,—Memo¬ 
 rial Hall, with its higher purpose 
 and destiny, was happily preserved 
 for after ages as an enduring mon¬ 
 ument of the artistic taste and pa¬ 
 triotism of the American people. 
 
 In its general plan and out¬ 
 line Machinery Hall was similar to 
 the Main Exposition Building, and 
 only second thereto in dimensions. 
 The ground-plan was a rectangu¬ 
 lar parallelogram fourteen hun¬ 
 dred and two feet in length, and 
 three hundred and sixty feet in 
 width. On the south side the cen¬ 
 tral transept of the main hall pro¬ 
 jected into an Annex, two hun¬ 
 dred and eight feet in depth by two 
 hundred and ten feet in breadth. 
 On the north the front of the prin¬ 
 cipal structure was on a right line 
 with the corresponding front of 
 the Main Building, and the two 
 bdifices were separated by an inter¬ 
 vening space or promenade of only 
 five hundred and forty-two feet; 
 SO that, glancing from the east end 
 
582 
 
 HIS TOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 of the Main Building to the western extreme of Machinery Hall, 
 the eye swept along an almost unbroken front line more than seventy- 
 two hundredths of a mile in length ! The principal materials used in 
 the construction of Machinery Hall were iron and glass. The piers 
 of the foundation were of stone, and the supporting columns, for the 
 most part, of wood. The main cornice without was forty feet from the 
 ground, and the general height within was seventy feet. The build¬ 
 ing was painted in a pleasing tint of purplish blue, relieved bv various 
 hues of contrasted colors. At the four corners and over the main 
 side-entrances stood the towers, a hundred feet in height, breaking up 
 in some measure the otherwise monotonous outline of the building. In 
 the north-east tower was hung the famous chime of bells, thirteen in 
 number, weighing twenty-one thousand pounds,—many-tongued and 
 clamorous with the silver music which they flung out upon the air in 
 honor of the Old Thirteen States. Over the central gallery a royal 
 bald-eagle looked down upon the great clock which calmly marked 
 the hours of the Centennial summer. 
 
 Machinery Hall could hardly be called a thin'g of beauty: it 
 was too long and low for that;—but if adaptability to the purposes 
 for which it was designed be a criterion, the structure was by no means 
 wanting in taste. American civilization is the civilization of utility, 
 invention, and mechanism. The engine is the emblem, and Qua? 
 Prosunt Omnibus the motto, over the doorway of our temple. On 
 the porches and architrave of what great structure might the em¬ 
 blem and the motto be more appropriately set than on the arches 
 of Machinery Hall? For here Invention was queen, and Utility her 
 minister of state. Here was the realm where Thought had the mas¬ 
 tery over Matter—the empire of wheels and pistons, where Steam 
 was the Mother of Motion.—All this and more was foreshadowed and 
 provided for in the grand structure designed by the Centennial Com¬ 
 mission for the display of machinery. 
 
 The fourth principal building of the Exposition grounds was Ag¬ 
 ricultural Hall, situated on the eastern side of Belmont Avenue, and 
 beyond the valley of the same name. The ground-plan of the edifice 
 presented a central nave eight hundred and twenty feet in length, 
 and one hundred and twenty-five feet wide. This principal aisle was 
 crossed at right angles by a main and two subordinate transepts—the 
 former one hundred feet, and the latter eighty feet, in width. The 
 projections of these transepts formed two courts on either side of the 
 main structure, which, together with the four spaces similarly formed 
 at the corners of the building, were enclosed with fronts and roofs,— 
 
TTTH 'IVHOnnorowr 
 
584 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 whereby the edifice was extended into an immense parallelogram eight 
 hundred and twenty feet long, and five hundred and forty feet in 
 width. The entire area thus embraced in the ground-floor was ten 
 and three-tentlis acres. 
 
 As to its style, Agricultural Hall had a touch of Gothicism— 
 suggested by the Howe truss-arches of the nave and transepts—in its 
 construction. Over the bisection of the central avenue and the main 
 transept, rose an elegant cupola surmounted by a weather-vane. The 
 entrances were ornamental, and at each side were handsome turrets. 
 The roofs were pointed, stained a greenish tint, and flecked with sky¬ 
 lights. The body of the building was composed of wood, iron, and 
 glass, and was painted brown. The general effect was pleasing, and a 
 bird’s-eye view revealed in the edifice and its surroundings a pictur- 
 esqueness hardly discoverable in any other of the Exposition struct¬ 
 ures. This building, being devoted to the general purposes of an 
 agricultural display, had the necessary concomitant of yards for the 
 exhibition of all the domestic fowls and animals. The entire cost of 
 Agricultural Hall was nearly two hundred and sixty thousand dollars. 
 The building was a temporary structure, and at the close of the Ex¬ 
 position was taken down and removed from the Park. 
 
 In the erection of Horticultural Hall—fifth and smallest of the 
 main Exhibition edifices—the Centennial committees displayed their 
 liking for the Moors. For the building is Arabesque in its archi¬ 
 tecture. The twelfth century furnishes the model, and the nineteenth 
 does the work. As to situation, Horticultural Hall stands on the 
 Lansdowne Terrace, north of the valley, overlooking the Schuylkill. 
 As to materials,—iron, glass, and wood. As to dimensions,—three 
 hundred and eighty-three feet long, one hundred and ninety-three 
 feet broad, and sixty-nine feet to the top of the lantern. As to 
 cost,—three hundred thousand dollars. As to purpose,—a temple of 
 flowers. As to destiny,—a permanent ornament of Fairmount Park. 
 For the city of Philadelphia contributed the funds for the building, 
 and decided that it should stand in spite of the general demolition 
 and temple-crushing which prevailed at the close of the Exposition. 
 
 Next among the notable structures of the Exhibition grounds 
 * was that building provided for by the Congressional act of March 3d, 
 1875, and called the United States Government Building. It stood 
 on Belmont Avenue, northward from Machinery Hall. The ground- 
 plan was a cross, with the main stem four hundred and eighty feet, 
 and the transept three hundred and forty feet, in length. In the cen¬ 
 tral part, the building was two stories in height. Over the bisection 
 
Horticultural ball. 
 
586 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the nave and transept rose an octagonal dome, surmounted hy a 
 flag-staff. The edifice was elegantly painted, the prevailing color being 
 brown. The roof was black, the dome in imitation of wood, and all 
 the ceilings blue. The walls within were divided into panels, in each 
 of which was laid off a diamond-shaped space containing in its center 
 an emblem representing some department or function of the Govern¬ 
 ment. The general effect of the building was that of airiness and 
 _ase—hardly to have beeen expected in an edifice so strongly and 
 ieavily built. % 
 
 The Woman’s Pavilion^ already mentioned, was located at the 
 western end of the Horticultural section of the grounds, and was one 
 of the most beautiful of the Centennial buildings. The structure was 
 of wood and glass. Here again the ground-plan was a cross, each of 
 the arms being a hundred and ninety-two feet long, and sixty-four 
 feet in width. The end of each transept was adorned with an elegant 
 porch; and the spaces in the corners—formed by the four projections 
 of the building—were converted into four minor pavilions, and made 
 an integral part of the main hall. Within, there were in all only four 
 columns of support, the roof resting mainly upon the outside walls. 
 The whole interior was painted in delicate tints of blue, the color with¬ 
 out being gray. The central part of the building, surmounted by a 
 lantern bearing a cupola, rose to the height of ninety feet. The 
 ground-floor embraced an area of nearly seven-tenths of an acre. 
 
 The British Government Building, generally called “ St. George’s 
 House,” stood on George’s Hill, and was the head-quarters of the Brit¬ 
 ish commissioners. The edifice, embracing in the ground-plan an area 
 of twenty-two hundred and fifty square feet, was in the style of archi¬ 
 tecture prevalent in the times of Queen Elizabeth. The roof was com¬ 
 posed of red tiles; and the fixtures, furniture, and decorations were all 
 after models which were fashionable at the close of the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury. The building, which was two stories high, was very handsome— 
 even elegant—in its general appearance, recalling forcibly to mind the 
 most brilliant and romantic period in English history. St. George’s 
 House was designed for the accommodation not only of the commis¬ 
 sioners from the home empire of Great Britain, but also for the use 
 and comfort of the agents from the British colonial possessions in 
 different parts of the world. 
 
 The Building of the French Government was located eastward 
 from Memorial Hall. The ground-plan was a parallelogram sixty feet 
 long by forty feet in width. The structure was composed of brick, iron, 
 and glass, and in its general aspect was not unworthy to express the 
 
department of public comport. 
 
588 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 interest felt by the authorities of the Third Republic in the American 
 Centennial. The building was designed to subserve the double pur¬ 
 pose of a home for the French Commission and of a hall for the dis¬ 
 play of models representing the public works of France. 
 
 The Building of the German Empire was an edifice still more 
 spacious and imposing. It was located east of Belmont Avenue, near 
 the head of the Lansdowne Valley. The structure was an imitation of 
 stone, in the style of the Renaissance. The area of the ground-plan 
 was thirty-four hundred and forty-four square feet, being a parallelo¬ 
 gram. The main portico and principal hall were very beautiful, and 
 the walls and ceilings were ornamented with frescos in the best style 
 of art. Here were the head-quarters of the Imperial German Commis¬ 
 sion, and here also was a suite of reception-rooms for the accommoda¬ 
 tion of strangers and visitors from the different parts of Father-Land. 
 
 The single word “Espana” over the portal of an elegant frame 
 structure standing on George’s Hill, told the beholder that he was at 
 the entrance to the Government Building of Spain. The edifice was of 
 wood, was two stories in height, and eighty by one hundred feet in dimen¬ 
 sions. As in the case of the other structures erected by foreign gov¬ 
 ernments, the Spanish Building was intended primarily for the accom¬ 
 modation of the Centennial Commissioners from Spain, and as a place 
 of assembly for Spaniards and their friends who may be present at 
 the Exposition. The secondary design was that of a suitable hall for 
 the display of models and drawings representing the more important 
 public works, fortifications, historical buildings, etc., of Spain. 
 
 The Kingdom of Sweden made a unique contribution to the Cen¬ 
 tennial grounds in the way of a Model School-house. The building 
 was constructed and furnished in Sweden according to the pattern 
 commonly employed in the better class of the national High Schools. 
 The structure was of native wood, unpainted, but brought to a high 
 degree of luster by skillful polishing. The furniture, apparatus, and 
 text-books displayed within, were excellent in their respective kinds; 
 and the building in its entirety was fully worthy of the ten thousand 
 encomiums which were pronounced upon it. 
 
 As already mentioned the different States of the Union—except¬ 
 ing Maine, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Flor¬ 
 ida, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, Kentucky, Minnesota, and Oregon 
 —erected buildings on the Centennial grounds, commemorative of 
 the history, public spirit, and resources of the respective common¬ 
 wealths. These structures varied greatly in their style, expensiveness, 
 aud proportions—according to the liberality or parsimony ot the sev' 
 
WOMAN’S PAVILION. 
 
590 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eral State authorities. The buildings of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kansas were perhaps superior to any others 
 of this class in elegance of design and structure. Of similar sort 
 was the splendid Educational Hall of Pennsylvania, designed for the 
 display, by models and model-work, of all the methods and products 
 of education in the Keystone State. 
 
 Of private structures the grounds were full. There was a commo¬ 
 dious and valuable edifice situated at the intersection of the Agricul¬ 
 tural Avenue with that of the Republic, called the Department of 
 Public Comfort—a name significant of its design. An elegant build¬ 
 ing, devoted to the displays of the Singer Sewing Machine Company, 
 stood on the southern declivity of the Lansdowne Valley, north of 
 the Art Gallery. Southward from Machinery Hall a Shoe and 
 Leather Building had been erected, the design of which was to illus¬ 
 trate the various processes and products of that important branch of 
 manufacture. The Building of the Centennial Photographic Associa¬ 
 tion was located on the east side of Belmont Avenue, and was a spacious 
 edifice where all the processes of photography were illustrated. Sev¬ 
 eral of the leading newspapers of the country had buildings of limited 
 size, where their respective publications were advertised and offered 
 for sale. Then came the restaurants, cafes, and bazaars, varying in 
 their sort from common-place and mediocrity to a high degree of ele¬ 
 gance and luxury.—An extended description of structures of this 
 grade and fashion would hardly be appropriate in an abridged history 
 L he great Exhibition. 
 
 This account of the Exposition buildings can not be better con¬ 
 cluded than by a brief reference to the unexpected and extraordinary 
 part which the Empire of Japan had taken in the Centennial. The 
 Japanese buildings—two in number—though neither elaborate in their 
 style nor expensive in construction, were far more elegant, tasteful, 
 and commodious than had been anticipated. The Japanese Dwelling 
 stood on George’s Hill, north of the Spanish Government Building; 
 and the oriental edifice was the better of the two ! Spain, whose immor¬ 
 tal navigator of the fifteenth century “gave a New World to Castile 
 and Leon,” did obeisance at the American Centennial to the dusky 
 Island Empire of the Far Pacific! The Bazaar of these progressive 
 foreigners was located near the Building of Public Comfort, and ex¬ 
 tended around three sides of a court. The edifice was of carved wood, 
 built without nails, low in elevation, covered with tiles. The grounds 
 were laid off in the style of a Japanese garden, and were surrounded 
 with a quaint fence of interwoven bamboo. These buildings, however. 
 
GRANT'S ADMIN 1STRA TION. 
 
 591 
 
 creditable as they were, by no means did justice to the enterprise and 
 wit of the men who had them in charge. The people of the Western 
 Nations have felt a keen surprise at the intelligence, public spirit, anu 
 progress manifested by the Japanese at the Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 Such were the buildings erected for the great occasion. And the 
 time drew near when they were to fulfill their purpose. On the 5th 
 of January, 1876, the formal reception of articles for the Exposition 
 ■was begun. From that time forth the work of setting in proper array 
 the almost infinite variety of materials which came pouring in from 
 all quarters of the world, was pressed with the utmost expedition by 
 the Centennial Commissioners. A branch track of the Pennsylvania 
 Railway was laid to the very portals of the great halls, and every meas¬ 
 ure was adopted by the managers which could facilitate the delivery 
 and arrangement of the articles of display. Still, there were delays, 
 foreseen and unforeseen; and it became apparent that a brief post¬ 
 ponement of the formal opening of the Exhibition would be neces¬ 
 sary. The anniversary of the battle of Lexington had been fixed upon 
 as a suitable time for the inaugural ceremonies; but the work lagged, 
 and the Commissioners reluctantly changed the date of opening to the 
 10th of May, and of closing to the 10th of November. 
 
 Meanwhile, on the 13th of October, 1875, A System of Awards 
 had been adopted by the Centennial Commission. The members of 
 that body — availing themselves of past experience, and improving 
 upon the imperfect methods employed by the managers of the Inter¬ 
 national Expositions of Paris and Vienna — presented the following 
 General Scheme: 
 
 I. Awards shall be based upon Written Reports, attested by the 
 signatures of their authors. 
 
 II. Two hundred Judges shall be appointed to make such re¬ 
 ports, one-half of whom shall be foreigners, and one-half citizens of 
 the United States. They shall be selected for their known qualifica¬ 
 tions and character, and shall be experts in the departments to which 
 they shall be respectively assigned. The foreign members of this 
 body shall be appointed by the commissioners of each country, and 
 in conformity with the distribution and allotment to each, which will 
 be hereafter announced. The judges from the United States shall be 
 appointed by the Centennial Commission. 
 
 III. The sum of one thousand dollars will be paid to each com¬ 
 missioned judge, for personal expenses. 
 
 IV. Reports and awards shall be based upon Merit. The ele¬ 
 ments of merit shall be held to include considerations relating to 
 
592 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 originality, invention, discovery, utility, quality, skill, workmanship, 
 fitness for the purposes intended, adaptation to public wants, economy, 
 and cost. 
 
 Y. Each report shall be delivered to the Centennial Commission 
 as soon as completed, for final award and publication. 
 
 VI. Awards shall be finally decreed by the United States Cen¬ 
 tennial Commission, in compliance with the act of Congress, and 
 shall consist of a Diploma, with a uniform bronze Medal, and a spe¬ 
 cial Report of the judges on the subject of the award. 
 
 VII. Each exhibitor shall have the right to reproduce and pub¬ 
 lish the report awarded to him, but the United States Centennial 
 Commission reserves the right to publish and dispose of all reports 
 in the manner it thinks best for public information, and also to em¬ 
 body and distribute the reports as records of the Exhibition. 
 
 The day of opening came. Philadelphia was thronged with 
 strangers from all parts of the world. Every line of travel contrib¬ 
 uted its multitude. The morning of the 10th of May broke heavily 
 with clouds and rain. But patriotism made gloom impossible in the 
 Quaker City, and enthusiasm supplied the place of sunshine. A 
 thousand flags fluttered in every street, and more than ten times ten 
 thousand people, cheering as they went, pressed their way towards 
 Fairmount Park. A military escort, four .thousand strong, conducted 
 the President of the United States to the Centennial grounds For 
 it was he who should declare the formal opening of the Exposition. 
 The notables of many nations had already preceded him to the scene 
 of the ceremonies. The great open space—traversed by the Avenue 
 of the Republic—between the Main Building and Memorial Hall, 
 had been prepared for the inauguration. There had assembled the 
 Supreme Court of the United States, members of the Cabinet and 
 the American Congress, the governors of many of the States, distin¬ 
 guished officers of the army and navy, the ministers from foreign 
 countries, Dom Pedro II. of Brazil and his queen, illustrious civil¬ 
 ians, statesmen and diplomatists, noblemen with titles and greater 
 men without them,—to witness the imposing pageant. 
 
 At the appointed hour the splendid orchestra, led by Theodore 
 Thomas, burst forth with the national airs of the various countries 
 participating in the Exhibition. Soon the President ascended the 
 platform and was seated, with the Brazilian Emperor and Empress 
 on his right. Then followed Wagner’s celebrated Centennial Inaugu¬ 
 ration March, composed for the occasion. Matthew Simpson, bishop 
 oi the Methodist Episcopal Church, then offered an eloquent and fer- 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 593 
 
 vent prayer, which was followed by the singing of John G. Whittier’s 
 Centennial Hymn. When the strains had died away, the Honorable 
 John Welsh, chairman of the Board of Finance, arose and made a 
 formal presentation of the buildings and grounds to General Hawley, 
 president of the Centennial Commission. The latter, in an appropri¬ 
 ate manner, accepted the trust; and then followed the singing of Sid¬ 
 ney Lanier’s Centennial Cantata. General Hawley next delivered an 
 address, recounting briefly the things accomplished by the Centennial 
 Commission, and in the name thereof presenting to the President of 
 the United States the International Exhibition of 1876. The 
 President—most famous of all American chief-magistrates for not de- 
 
 INAUGURAL CEREMONIES OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 
 
 livering orations—replied to General Hawley in the following well- 
 chosen address:— 
 
 “ My Countrymen : It has been thought appropriate, upon this 
 Centennial occasion, to bring together in Philadelphia, for popular 
 inspection, specimens of our attainments in the Industrial and Fine 
 arts, and in literature, science, and philosophy, as well as in the great 
 business of agriculture and commerce. That we may the more thor¬ 
 oughly appreciate the excellencies and deficiencies of our achieve¬ 
 ments, and also give emphatic expression to our earnest desire to cul¬ 
 tivate the friendship of our fellow-members of this great family ot 
 nations, the enlightened agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing 
 people of the world have been invited to send hither corresponding 
 
 38 
 
594 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 specimens of their skill to exhibit on equal terms, in friendly com¬ 
 petition with our own.—For so doing we render them our hearty 
 thanks. 
 
 “ The beauty and utility of the contributions will this day be 
 submitted to your inspection. We are glad to know that a view of 
 specimens of the skill of all nations will afford you unalloyed pleas¬ 
 ure, as well as yield to you a valuable practical knowledge of so 
 many of the remarkable results of the wonderful skill existing in 
 enlightened communities. 
 
 “ One hundred years ago our country was new, and but partially 
 settled. Our necessities have compelled us chiefly to expend our 
 means and time in felling forests, subduing prairies, building dwell¬ 
 ings, factories, ships, docks, warehouses, roads, canals, and machin¬ 
 ery. Most of our schools, churches, libraries, and asylums have been 
 established within a hundred years. Burdened with these great pri¬ 
 mal works of necessity, which could not be delayed, we yet have done 
 what this Exhibition will show in the direction of rivaling older and 
 more advanced nations in law, medicine, and theology; in science, 
 literature, philosophy, and the fine^arts. Whilst proud of what we 
 have done, we regret that we have not done more. Our achievements 
 have been great enough, however, to make it easy for our people to 
 acknowledge superior merit wherever found. 
 
 “ And now, fellow-citizens, I hope a careful examination of what is 
 about to be exhibited to you will not only inspire you with a profound 
 respect for the skill and taste of our friends from other nations, but 
 also satisfy you with the attainments made by our own people dur¬ 
 ing the past one hundred years. I invoke your generous cooperation 
 with the worthy Commissioners, to secure a brilliant success to this 
 International Exhibition, and to make the stay of our foreign visit¬ 
 ors— to whom we extend a hearty welcome — both profitable and 
 pleasant to them. 
 
 “ I DECLARE THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION NOW OPEN.” 
 
 When the President’s brief oration was concluded, the National 
 ensign was flung out as a signal from the great flag-stafl* of the Main 
 Building; the banners of foreign nations were immediately unfurled; 
 cheers rent the air; a salute of a hundred guns from the battery on 
 George’s Hill answered to the shout. Memorial Hall, the Main 
 Building, and Machinery Hall were now thrown open to receive the 
 procession of invited guests—four thousand in number, and first to 
 behold the handiwork of the nations. General Grant and Major 
 Alfred T. Goshorn, the able and indefatigable Director-General of 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 595 
 
 the Exhibition, led the way from the Main Building, and down the 
 great aisle of Machinery Hall to the center, where a special work had 
 been reserved for the President and the Brazilian Emperor. This 
 honorable duty was to open the valves of the mighty Corliss Engine, 
 whose tremendous pistons were to start into life and motion the in¬ 
 finite machinery of «the hall. At twenty minutes past one o’clock, the 
 signal was given by George 
 H. Corliss, the maker of the 
 iron giant. The President 
 and the Emperor, standing 
 upon the raised platform, 
 opened t h e valves; the 
 ponderous fly-wheel started 
 on its tireless rounds, and 
 
 the multitudinous engines of 
 
 © 
 
 the hall began their varied 
 work.—The Centennial Ex¬ 
 hibition was fairly inaugu¬ 
 rated under the most auspi¬ 
 cious omens. 
 
 Such was the begin¬ 
 ning. Into the spacious 
 and beautiful park, into the 
 great buildings provided by 
 national wealth and patriot¬ 
 ism, had come the products 
 of all lands and the people of all climes. Never before in the his¬ 
 tory of the world had so many of the fruits of human genius been 
 brought together—never before had so rich a display of the handi¬ 
 work and skill of man been made. What, therefore, of the Exposi¬ 
 tion itself? How did it impress the imagination of the beholder? 
 How enlarge his faculties and increase his fund of knowledge? In 
 what way conduce to a higher standard of civilization? For that 
 was the object aimed at. 
 
 The first effect of the great Exposition upon the mind of the be¬ 
 holder was a sense of alarm and bewilderment at the extent of the dis¬ 
 play. At the very beginning, he despaired of realizing the exhibition 
 on account of its vast proportions. On ascending from the valley of 
 the Schuylkill to the Lansdowne Plateau, a vision rose upon him pos¬ 
 sessing every element of intellectual interest, from the simple beauty of 
 the green sward and flower-gardens at his feet, to the stately magnifi- 
 
596 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cence of the Main Building and the grandeur of Memorial Hall. Here 
 wound the long asphaltum boulevards, thronged, but not crowded, 
 with ten thousand strangers. Beyond lay a landscape of sloping hill¬ 
 sides, lakes, forest, and fountains. The entire space, though a most 
 living picture, was noiseless, airy, and clean—a field of many colors, 
 full of sunshine, foliage, and flags. For the banners of all nations 
 waved everywhere. 
 
 Entering under the eastern arches of the Main Building, the vis¬ 
 itor, rallying from his first surprises, began a work which he should 
 never accomplish—that of examining in detail the exhibits of the great 
 hall. From the gallery overhead floated down upon him the melodi¬ 
 ous and far-reaching harmonies of the mammoth Hastings organ with 
 its twenty-seven hundred pipes and its twelve hundred and eighty 
 square feet of front. Ascending to the gallery, the observer found 
 himself face to face with the splendid educational display of the State 
 of Massachusetts—best of its kind at the Exposition—embracing the 
 finest of the plans, models, and methods employed in the schools of 
 the Old Bay Commonwealth. Turning about and glancing to the 
 west, down the long avenues, the full vision of the Exhibition burst 
 upon him. There on the ground-floor lay the magnificent “ courts,” 
 or hollow squares, into which the space had been divided—each of 
 these courts an exposition in itself. Afar to the right, where the 
 main transept ended in the north projection of the building, the gal¬ 
 lery was occupied with the great Roosevelt organ with its electric 
 echo and hydraulic engine. In the corresponding gallery, at the 
 south end of the transept, were the fine educational displays of Maine, 
 New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Maryland, 
 Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
 and Iowa. In the gallery at the western end of the main avenue— 
 dimly seen at the distance of thirty-five hundredths of a mile—was 
 placed the exhibit of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the 
 display consisting of models, drawings, and photographs peculiar to 
 engineering art. 
 
 Descending to the main floor, the observer found himself in a 
 world of wonders. Near the eastern entrance was the fine exhibit 
 made by American stationers, and south of this the splendid book 
 display, representing the superb work done by all the great publish¬ 
 ing houses of the country. Further westward was the department 
 allotted to the Yale Lock Manufacturers for the exhibition of their 
 model post-offices. Next came the large section set apart for the dis¬ 
 play of American silks, woolens, and cotton goods—fabrics rivaling 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 597 
 
 the richest products of European and Oriental factories. And the 
 carpet pavilion—also American—with its patterns, delicate, novel, 
 luxurious, merited equal praise for the splendor of its treasures. Nor 
 did the cutlery of the United States, which was exhibited above the 
 sections allotted to textile fabrics, suffer by comparison with the finest 
 corresponding products of British skill. 
 
 Among the southeastern squares was likewise set the display of 
 American pottery and porcelain. Near by stood a collection of gram 
 ite monuments, and in the same vicinity a splendid exhibit of iron 
 and steel, chiefly from the furnaces and works of Pittsburgh. More 
 attractive still was the great display of American watches, made by 
 
 VIEW IN THE MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDING. 
 
 the Waltham Company of Massachusetts and the Elgin of Ulinoisc 
 Beyond the main aisle, to the north, bristled batteries of Gatling and 
 Parrott guns, and farther on were placed exhibits of safes from sev¬ 
 eral noted firms. The next sections were occupied with the beautiful 
 and costly displays of furnishing goods, costumes, etc., from the prin¬ 
 cipal merchants of New York and Philadelphia. Then came an ex¬ 
 hibit of vases, pedestals, and fountains, in terra cotta; then the sec¬ 
 tions set apart for threads, cordage, and cables; and south of these, 
 beyond the principal avenue, the massive display of the Centennial 
 Safe Deposit Company and the beautiful department of American 
 clocks. 
 
 On the line of the main aisle, between the eastern entrance ana 
 
598 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the greater transept, were arranged the fine collections of cut and 
 ground glass, the best being from the works of Wheeling and Pitts¬ 
 burgh. In the adjacent sections stood the glittering show-cases of the 
 Meriden Britannia Company with their beautiful specimens of silver, 
 plated wares, and bronzes. But more magnificent still was the jew¬ 
 elers’ pavilion—Moorish in its style—standing at the southeast angle 
 of the principal nave and transept. In this were displayed the almost 
 priceless treasures of the leading American jewelers—Starr and Mar¬ 
 cus, Caldwell of Philadelphia, and the Gorham Manufacturing Com¬ 
 pany of Providence. Among the articles exhibited by the latter was 
 the celebrated Century Vase, representing by its beautiful allego¬ 
 ries and emblems in raised silver the progress of America from bar¬ 
 barism to renown. Here also were the matchless show-cases of Tiffany, 
 starlit with diamonds, and blazing with all manner of precious stoneA 
 It was here, moreover, that the observer found the best view over¬ 
 head ; for at this point, by the bisection of the principal nave and 
 transept, abundant room was afforded above for the display of art. 
 Each of the four sides of the vaulted space was occupied with an 
 immense allegorical painting. That on the east represented America, 
 with Washington and Franklin for its central figures. The piece em¬ 
 blematical of Europe stood opposite, with Charlemagne and Shake¬ 
 speare as its typical heroes. Asia was represented at the south curve 
 of the transept by a group of figures and emblems, with Confucius 
 and Mohammed in the midst; while in the north division was set the 
 painting of Africa, Rameses II. and Sesostris occupying the center. 
 
 In the section south and east of the jewelers’ pavilion were 
 placed the exhibits of ores, paints, and chemicals. The display of 
 printing-inks was made near by; and further to the east stood the 
 perfume-fountains with their jets of cologne and halos of fragrant 
 mist. Still eastward were set the cases containing the exhibit of phil¬ 
 osophical and surgical instruments; and in the same vicinity, to the 
 south, were the sections allotted to furniture, much of which was of 
 the richest woods and most elaborate finish known to that branch of 
 art. And before the observer had finished his examination of these 
 superb apartments—for here the courts were fitted up after the man¬ 
 ner of a suite of rooms—his ear was saluted with strains of music, 
 and turning about, he found himself face to face with the finest dis¬ 
 play of piano-fortes ever made in the world. All of the great makers 
 had here done their best, under the stimulus of the sharpest compe¬ 
 tition—Steinway, Chickering, Decker, Steck, Ivnabe, Weber,—each 
 with his claims of peculiar excellence, and each anxious for the su- 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 593 
 
 preme award.—So ended a ramble through the seven acres of space 
 apportioned on the ground-floor of the Main Building to the exhibits 
 of the United States. 
 
 But the Saxon’s Island Empire, mother of English liberty, was 
 also there with her arts and industries. Over the northwest angle 
 of the main aisle and transept hung the Bed banner of Lancaster, 
 bearing the words “ Great Britain and Ireland.” There 'were 
 the courts apportioned to the British commission. In the first of 
 these was placed the celebrated exhibit of the Elkingtons, silver¬ 
 smiths of Birmingham. Their collection embraced several pieces 
 worthy to rank among the highest products of human skill and pa¬ 
 tience. The work was mostly in the new style of art called Repousse 
 —the process of developing figures in relief upon metallic surfaces by 
 hammering. Here stood the Helicon Vase with its infinite stories 
 from the legends of Greece. Here hung the Milton Shield, bear¬ 
 ing upon its ample disc the sublime visions of Paradise Lost* Here 
 a great number of less valuable works in silver and bronze gave ex¬ 
 tent and variety to one of the richest collections in the whole Exhi¬ 
 bition. 
 
 Nearer to the northern projection of the Main Building were 
 placed the British porcelains and potteries, embracing some of the 
 finest specimens of ceramic art. Farther northward was the display 
 of ornamental iron-work, and to the west an extensive exhibit of 
 tiles. Next came the department of British furniture, rivaling that 
 of the United States in the elaborate and sumptuous character of its 
 specimens. Near by, the pavilion of the Boyal School of Art and 
 Needlework attracted a constant throng of visitors. For the queen 
 herself and the members of her family were the makers of those splen¬ 
 did embroideries. Farther to the west was the magnificent display of 
 the British carpet-dealers. Then came the exhibit of fire-arms, cut¬ 
 lery, philosophical instruments, stained glass, jewelry—chiefly Scot¬ 
 tish—and then the superb collection of cotton and woolen goods, 
 Irish poplins, cloths, silks, and laces, with which the section was 
 filled along the main avenue. 
 
 The British Colonies had emulated the zeal of the mother-coun¬ 
 try. The Canadian exhibit was of the highest order. The educa¬ 
 tional system of Ontario was fully and meritoriously displayed by 
 
 ® It was a matter of oft-repented inquiry among the visitors at the Centennial, why 
 these superb specimens of workmanship exhibited by the Elkingtons, as well as the 
 riitany Bryant Vase and the (lorhatn Century Vase, were not transferred to Memorial 
 Hall, along with oilier works of art in no respect superior. 
 
600 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 models, plans, and drawings illustrative of the methods and work of 
 the public schools. The geological department was enriched with a 
 full collection of ores, especially plumbago, coal, and granite. The 
 Canadian Indians had sent a large contribution of peltry, bead-work, 
 and apparel; and this display was contrasted with the richer and more 
 extensive exhibit of furs made by the Company of Hudson Bay. In 
 another section specimens of furniture from the shops of Quebec and 
 Toronto gave token of tastefully furnished homes in the Dominion. 
 Models of Canadian vessels showed commercial enterprise; cotton 
 and woolen goods told of extensive factories; sewing-machines and 
 pianos repeated the music of the Northern household. 
 
 Far Australia had also remembered the jubilee of Independence. 
 The flocks on her hill-sides had contributed their magnificent fleeces 
 to surprise the Western nations. The Argonauts of the South Pacific 
 were home again with the richest of treasures! Here stood an obe¬ 
 lisk of phantom gold, showing in cubic inches the quantity of real 
 gold taken from the mines of New South Wales since 1851. Here 
 were bars of New Zealand tin and blocks of coal; sections of beau¬ 
 tiful timber and cocoons of silk; ores of antimony and copper; na¬ 
 tive wines and heaps of precious stones. Excellent photographs of 
 Australian cities and scenery added much to the interest of the ex¬ 
 hibit. 
 
 British India had also contributed specimens of her arts and 
 industries. Photographs of her dusky people—oldest of the Aryan 
 races—whose ancestors and our ancestors, in the far hill-country of 
 Bactria, abode together, watching the same flocks, gazing at the same 
 stars, and dreaming the same dream of destiny in the ages agone,— 
 and photographs of Hindu homes as well, made the display of special 
 interest. India carpets, gems from Bombay, and Delhi embroidery 
 added brilliancy to the exhibit. Here, too, were jeweled weapons, 
 native pottery, and precious stones; shawls and laces; silks and wool¬ 
 ens; cereals and cotton from the banks of the Indus. 
 
 The colony of New Zealand was chiefly represented by paintings 
 and drawings. But an important display of copper ores, lead, and 
 coal was also made. The section of the Cape of Good Hope was 
 occupied with a collection of native wines and brandies; gems aud 
 weapons; costumes and ores; and specimens illustrating the natural 
 history of the country. Gold-dust, skins of animals, idols, ornaments, 
 and weapons composed the display from the Gold Coast. Jamaica 
 sent her rums and sugars, native woods and hemp. Tasmania had 
 also come with an exhibit of zoological and mineral specimens. The 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 601 
 
 Bahamas, Bermudas, Trinidad,, and Guiana were represented by their 
 various products, ranging from shells and corals to sugars, tobacco, 
 and manufactures. 
 
 La Belle France—for the third time a republic! After a hun¬ 
 dred years the land of LaFayette had come to do homage at the 
 shrine which his blood had helped to consecrate. The space allotted 
 to the French Commission was located between the main aisle and 
 the north wall of the building, east of the central transept. The 
 section of chief importance was that containing the exhibit of porce¬ 
 lains, rivaling in beauty and excellence the choicest work of the East. 
 In glassware, too, the French display was of the highest order. The 
 superb mirrors and chandeliers, exhibited by Brocard of Paris, were 
 a delight to thousands who thronged around them. The section set 
 apart for the display of bronzes and antiques was also crowded with 
 admiring multitudes. Here stood an elegant mantel-piece of black 
 marble, fifteen feet in height, exquisitely embellished with statues 
 and reliefs; and here were grouped artistic cabinets, quaint figures, 
 and articles in gilt. 
 
 Another department of great beauty was that in which were ex¬ 
 hibited the treasures of French fashion—laces, gloves, silks, velvets, 
 satins, and costumes. In this dazzling court Lyons and Paris were 
 rivals. Near by was a second department of apparel, where courtly 
 wax-figures, dressed to the excess of magnificence, did obeisance to 
 other figures in splendid shawls and laces. Further on, stood the 
 pavilion of the book publishers of France; and opposite to this was 
 the court of engravings. The walls of the booksellers* pavilion were 
 hung with the most elegant tapestries; and many of the publica¬ 
 tions displayed within were in the highest style of art. North of 
 these sections, was the department of French vehicles—a unique col¬ 
 lection, ranging from the quaint Cynofere, or dog-car, to carriages 
 of state. 
 
 In the matter of personal ornaments and articles of household 
 economy, the French exhibit was of great excellence. The display 
 of the Paris jewelers was exceptional in its beauty and tastefulness. 
 Of mantel ornaments there was an almost infinite variety, ranging 
 from little ivory sprites and phantoms in ebony to elaborate clocks 
 and bronzes. Of musical instruments—violins, flutes, cornets, music- 
 boxes, and mimic birds—the exhibit was elegant after its kind. But 
 the French pianos and organs were hardly comparable with the mag¬ 
 nificent instruments displayed by the United States. In the depart¬ 
 ment of cutlery a fine collection was presented, but the display was 
 41 
 
602 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 inferior to the corresponding exhibit made by Great Britain. The 
 comparison turned the other way, however, in the section of plate 
 glass; for in that department the French specimens were peerless.* 
 
 West of the central transept and south of the principal aisle were 
 the sections allotted to the German Empire. Across the avenue, di¬ 
 rectly opposite the American jewelers’ pavilion, was placed the mag¬ 
 nificent exhibit of the Royal Factory of Berlin. Here stood an im¬ 
 posing crescent-shaped case, with black columns at either end, bearing 
 upon their summits the golden eagles of empire—the empire of Caesar 
 and Charlemagne restored in Hohenzollern. In this case were dis¬ 
 played the Gernian porcelains, next to the French in excellence and 
 beauty. Here were plates, busts, and statuettes, elaborate in design 
 and intensely national in every part. Here were the three superb 
 emblematical pieces called the Germania, the Aurora, and the 
 Otho Vases —queenly rivals of the splendid works of the Elkingtons, 
 Tiffany, and Gorham. Further to the west was the section of plate 
 glass; then the exhibit of the German jewelers; and then the court 
 of armory, where were displayed the uniforms, accouterments, and 
 weapons of the German soldiery, from the Crusading times to the 
 present. Next came a section filled with toys from Nurnberg, and 
 next the displays of Elberfeld silks and Saxon hosiery. On the 
 southern aisle the objects of chief interest were the ivories exhibited 
 by Meyer of Hamburg, the woven wire goods of Dresden, the gold 
 and silver leaf exhibit of Bavaria, and the perfumes of Cologne. 
 Nearer to the southern wall v T as the display of the German chem¬ 
 ists. Then came the Leipsic lamps and lanterns, and then the Lin¬ 
 den pavilion of velvets. 
 
 The southwest section of the German department was occupied 
 with what musical instruments soever are played upon in Fatherland. 
 But here again, as in the department of France, the inadequacy of 
 the pianos and organs to compete with the instruments of the United 
 States was plainly apparent. Along the southern wall was placed 
 an interesting collection of articles illustrating the appliances and 
 
 * The manufacture of American plate glass is yet in its incipiencv, and is beset with 
 special difficulties. Chief among the embarrassments which have attended the enter¬ 
 prise is the want of adequate protection, and the inveterate determination of' foreign 
 establishments to prevent the success of such manufacture in the United States. Never¬ 
 theless, it is known to the author that but for the serious misfortune of breaking the 
 finest plate in packing, the Honorable \V. C. De Pauw, president of the Star Glass 
 Works of New Albany, Indiana, would have contributed to the Exposition specimens 
 of his work fairly rivaling the best of the French exhibit. The largest of the De Pauw 
 collection was a magnificent plate having a superficial area o/‘21,095 square inches. 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 603 
 
 methods of a German army hospital. Near by was the exhibit of 
 the Schwartzwold clock-makers—a quaint and beautiful collection. 
 Models of the Hamburg steamships were found in the southeastern 
 sections, and, finally, the elegant pavilion of the German booksellers 
 —best of the kind from Europe. 
 
 A description of the departments of the leading Western nations, 
 and of the exhibits made thereby, is in some measure a description 
 of the rest. True, the beholder as he wandered from court to court 
 was ever impressed with the multifarious aspects of human life and 
 the ever-varying phases of civilization. Still, so far .as the displays 
 made by the different branches of the Aryan race were concerned, 
 there was unity in variety—a generic similarity with specific modifi¬ 
 cations. As to the Oriental nations, there was a wider departure 
 from the common type, but a noticeable similarity of features among 
 their own displays. The thoughtful observer rarely failed to find in 
 the various courts an exhibit typical of a known civilization, but he 
 also found more than that. Thus, for instance, the Austrian sections 
 presented the expected treasures of Bohemian cut-glass; of amber- 
 work and meerschaums; of pipes ad infinitum; of Viennese porte- 
 monnaies, diaries, and albums; and the unexpected treasures of the 
 silk-weavers of the Danube. Also in the Italian court were found 
 the anticipated reproductions of ancient art; trophies commemorative 
 of the Italian Radicals from Columbus to Garibaldi; the religious 
 halo over every thing; and the unanticipated display of Venetian 
 pottery. The Belgian section presented the finest of Brussels linens, 
 laces, and tapestries; and, as if in contrast with these, an elaborate 
 display of fire-arms and an illuminated advertisement of the min¬ 
 eral waters of Spa. Holland made an exhibit of what things soever 
 the Netherlander prizes—from dikes to pipe-stems, from magnificent 
 bridges to humble roofs of thatch. Nor had the conquerors of the 
 North Sea forgotten the refinements of letters; for the Dutch book¬ 
 sellers’ pavilion was among the finest at the Exposition. 
 
 Here stood the cuckoo clocks of Switzerland. Geneva, city of 
 political philosophy and quaint watches, was present with all her arts. 
 The embroidered lace curtains of St. Gall hung tastefully over pho¬ 
 tographs of the Alpine glens, and the Swiss pavilion of education 
 stood near by. Sweden contributed a court of exceptional elegance, 
 well filled with the products of her arts and industries. The chief 
 attractions of the display were the specimens of Bessemer steel and 
 cutlery, Swedish arms and armor, woolens and silks, safety-matches 
 and pottery. Norway presented her glassware from Christiana. An- 
 
604 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cient weapons were placed in contrast with a modern .Norwegian 
 school-house, and old coins and medals with modern jewels and sil¬ 
 verware. 
 
 Among the sections of chief interest were the courts of Den¬ 
 mark, Egypt, and Spain. These were set contiguous, fronting the 
 main aisle, and representing in their style and contents three diverse 
 types of civilization. The articles most attractive in the Danish court 
 were terra cotta ornaments, silverware from Copenhagen, Esquimau 
 apparel, and a rich collection of furs. Across the entrance-way to 
 the Egyptian court was this inscription : “ Egypt—Soudan—the 
 
 OLDEST PEOPLE OF THE WOULD SENDS ITS MORNING GREETING TO 
 
 the youngest nation.” Entering, the visitor was confronted with 
 a bust of Rameses the Great and a model of the Pyramid of Gizeh. 
 Then came a gorgeous display of the caparisons and gold-studded 
 harness of the steeds of the modern Pharaohs; then cabinets of 
 ebony, costly and quaint; and then an exhibit of Arabic books and 
 manuscripts. The court of Spain was richly hung with Spanish tro¬ 
 phies and curtains of velvet. Within were the portraits of those dar¬ 
 ing adventurers, Cortez, De Leon, De Soto, and Pizarro. The articles 
 displayed were typical of the country and people. Scarfs and shawls, 
 silks and woolens, porcelain tiles and glassware, chemicals and fire¬ 
 arms, were the chief products exhibited. 
 
 Opposite the departments allotted to Sweden stood the court of 
 Japan. The contents surpassed description. The display of bronzes 
 attracted universal attention and universal praise. The porcelains 
 were, beyond comparison, the finest of the whole Exposition—finest 
 in quality and in the immense variety of the exhibit. Richness of 
 coloring—vivid hues of scarlet, green, and gold—prevailed every¬ 
 where. Lacquered ware of every variety, superb cabinets, and silken 
 screens embroidered with figures infinite, curious faces, and Japanese 
 costumes, made up a display which astonished the Western mind with 
 the profusion of Eastern art. 
 
 China did not half so well—yet well. About the whole display 
 were the anticipated characteristics of overdone conservatism. Here 
 was the expected array of drawings without perspective and designs, 
 consisting wholly of color. Here was a pagoda painted in fantastic 
 hues, and here that China ware—a rich profusion of plates and vases— 
 for which the Celestial empire has had immemorial fame. Here, too, 
 were the beautiful silks, and cloths with gold embroidery, and elab¬ 
 orate bedsteads carved with dragons’ heads, and woven forms untam¬ 
 able in tapestry and screen. The polite and impassive man or the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 605 
 
 almond eyes and cue—manager of the exhibit—walked among the 
 trophies of his civilization and did reverence before a wooden image 
 of Fo. 
 
 The Russian court was placed between the sections of Spain and 
 Austria. An iron statue of the inspired barbarian, Peter the Great, 
 stood like a grim sentinel to guard the treasures of his empire. Much 
 fine silverware, of excellent design and workmanship, was displayed 
 as the exhibit of Moscow. A magnificent piece in RepoussZ , called 
 The Adoration of the Magi, elicited universal praise. St. Peters¬ 
 burg had sent a similar collection, and also a unique group of bronzes 
 illustrative of the life and manners of the Russian peasants. Another 
 section contained a superb chandelierj together with statuettes, cas¬ 
 kets, cabinets, and mantels. The exhibit of Russian furs was unsur¬ 
 passed ; and the display of embroidered cloths, velvets, and silks was 
 well calculated to excite the jealousy of more favored lands. 
 
 The section of Portugal was found in the rear of the court of 
 Egypt. Glassware, porcelain, and pottery constituted a large part of 
 the exhibit. The life, costumes, and manners of the Portuguese peas¬ 
 antry were here represented by groups of statuary in plaster. The 
 Azores made a beautiful display of phantom ships and flower-baskets 
 woven of the fiber of the fig-tree. Along the south wall of the sec¬ 
 tion was placed a fine collection of geological and topographical maps 
 and charts illustrating the physical aspect of Portugal. The exhibit 
 of raw silk, cotton goods, blankets, and embroidery, was exceptionally 
 good. 
 
 Of the African kingdoms—after Egypt—the best and only dis¬ 
 plays were made by the Orange Free State and Tunis. The court 
 of the latter was located in the rear of the sections of Denmark and 
 Turkey, and was almost exclusively occupied with the personal ex¬ 
 hibit made by the Dey. The collection consisted of articles illustra¬ 
 tive of the manners and customs of the Bedouins, and of antiquities 
 from the ruins of Carthage. The court of the Orange Free State 
 occupied the southwestern angle of the building, and was wholly 
 devoted to the governmental exhibit made by the authorities of that 
 country. An unexpected array of minerals, native woods, ivory, 
 grains, mohair, and wool, composed the chief part of the collection. 
 But the cases containing the wealth of the feathery races of South¬ 
 eastern Africa, from the infinitesimal humming-birds of Madagascar 
 to the straggling descendants of the dinornis, were of still greater 
 interest and beauty. 
 
 No department in the Main Building was more admired and 
 
' 606 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 praised than the court of Brazil. Dom Pedro and his queen had no 
 cause of shame in the presence of their national exhibit. The Bra¬ 
 zilian pavilion was located between the courts of the Netherlands and 
 Belgium, and was characterized throughout by elegant magnificence 
 of structure and contents. At the entrance was a brilliant display of 
 flowers and designs delicately woven from the plumage of Brazilian 
 birds. Topographical maps and photographs illustrated the physical 
 aspect of the country; while the splendid display of tropical woods, 
 together with the finest of coffees, yams, ginger, and rice, revealed 
 the true riches of the empire. 
 
 The minor South American States were also fairly represented. 
 The pavilion of Peru was tastefully ornamented; the contents, of 
 value and interest. Gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, iron, and lead, 
 were the principal minerals exhibited; coffee, pepper, cinnamon, co¬ 
 coa, caoutchouc, and cinchona, the chief vegetable products. The 
 court of Chili was of similar sort, and contained some fine specimens 
 of silk and worsted-work; but the most interesting part was the case 
 filled with the stuffed skins of Chilian wild animals. The exhibit of 
 the Argentine Confederation was chiefly of ores—gold, silver, copper, 
 and lead. The display also embraced fine specimens of building- 
 stone, quartz, and plumbago. The manufactures were, for the most 
 part, of leather; and handicraft was mainly illustrated in a collection 
 of native weapons.—Far Hawaii, also, had a pavilion of considerable 
 interest, containing a collection of birds, shells, and sea-weed; fans, 
 ferns, and feather-work. 
 
 Mexico, with her pseudo-Latin civilization -and anarchic repub¬ 
 licanism, had pitched her court next to that of the United States. 
 The pavilion was Aztec in its style, with hints of a more modern 
 date. The exhibit was principally historic, consisting of antiquities 
 and remains. The display of manufactures embraced some fine silks 
 and elegant leather goods. Here were effigies of Mexican cavaliers, 
 formidable as Quixote in armor. Here were native wines and me¬ 
 dicinal plants, and here a fine collection of ores—silver, galena, and 
 iron. But the exhibit in its entirety was neither striking nor ex¬ 
 tensive. 
 
 In the Carriage Annex the observer found much to instruct and 
 amuse. For here were the ridiculous vehicles which the fathers made 
 their journeys in—old Virginia or Concord coaches, heavy enough 
 for a fortification. But here, in contrast, was the full triumph of 
 modern art in the combination of the ornate and the useful. All 
 things elegant and luxurious of silver-palace car or private carriage 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 607 
 
 studded with gold, and all things prosy of spokes and hubs and har¬ 
 ness, were here displayed in profusion. Here again Brazil, compet¬ 
 ing with Pullman and Woodruff, presented a splendid coach from 
 the Rio Janeiro Railway. Here Canadian sleighs and sledges were 
 contrasted with the diminutive coaches of Italy and the substantial 
 vehicles of Old England.—And so the rambler, passing under the 
 western arches of the Main Building, found himself in the open air, 
 facing the Bartholdi Fountain. 
 
 The way across the beautiful esplanade led to Machinery Hall. 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF MACHINERY HALL. 
 
 Entering at the southeastern portal of that great edifice, the observer 
 came at once into the department of the German Empire. Immedi¬ 
 ately before him stood the famous Krupp guns, gigantic twelve hun¬ 
 dred pounders, black and terrible as the Miltonic artillery. Several 
 rifled cannon of smaller caliber were set in contrast; and just across 
 the aisle was a pyramid of iron-ore, showing the material out of which 
 the great guns were cast. On the opposite side of the battery was 
 exhibited a brick-making machine from Berlin. Near the southeast¬ 
 ern angle of the building, the Gas Motor Factory of Deutz displayed 
 a peculiar engine in which the piston is propelled by the explosion 
 of gas. The best steam-engines exhibited in the German section were 
 from the works of Leipsic. 
 
608 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The department of France embraced the northeastern division of 
 the ground-floor. Near the entrance thereto was placed an elegant 
 pavilion in which were illustrated the processes of working in brass 
 and copper. The confectioners’ section, where bon-bons were made 
 and sold, came next, and then the department of Parisian soaps and 
 cosmetics. In this part also stood the silk-looms of Lyons, and fur¬ 
 ther to the north a set of machines illustrating the processes of li¬ 
 thography. An apparatus for the manufacture of beet-sugar was also 
 exhibited, and an ice-making machine from Paris. The rest of the 
 French contrivances had respect, for the most part, to fashionable 
 wants and the avocations of polite society. 
 
 Further westward was placed the section of Belgium. Chaudron 
 of Brussels led the exhibit with an effective and tremendous machine 
 for boring wells.* Car-wheels and axles from Louvain, a trip-ham¬ 
 mer and steam shears from Marcinelle, and models of machinery for 
 the manufacture of stearine, were the next attractive features of the 
 display. A splendid exhibit of wool-carding apparatus was presented 
 as the contribution of Venders; and the city of Ghent added a superb 
 horizontal engine, built for the mint at Brussels. 
 
 The Northern nations had contributed little in the way of ma¬ 
 chinery : Denmark nothing at all. Sweden made a small but respect¬ 
 able display in the way of trip-hammers, stationary engines, one small 
 locomotive, a fire-engine, and several sewing-machines. The con¬ 
 tribution of Norway consisted of some odd-looking machinery for 
 working in wood and metal. The Russian display was almost wholly 
 of artillery—partly good, partly indifferent in its quality. In the same 
 vicinity was the fine exhibit made by Brazil, consisting of models of 
 dry docks and men-of-war; military and naval enginery; arms, ac¬ 
 couterments, and munitions; stationary, locomotive, and fire-engines; 
 pumps, pin-making apparatus, and machinery employed in the Impe¬ 
 rial mint. 
 
 The best of the exhibits made by foreign nations was that of 
 Great Britain. Two of the Rochester traction-engines, standing near 
 the eastern entrance to the hall, were much wondered at and praised. 
 So, also, the fine carding-machine just opposite. Manchester made a 
 fine display of steam hammers, circular saws, and enginery of coinage 
 and stamping dies. The armor-plate exhibited here was the best ever 
 produced, ranging from nine inches to twenty-two inches in thickness, 
 
 * It is clear that, in respect to machines for upland excavation, the Americans have 
 much to learn. That whole line of contrivance, beginning with the plow and ending 
 with the dredging-machine, is subject to great and radical improvements. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 609 
 
 seemingly impenetrable. The Applebys of London exhibited two of 
 their tremendous cranes—giants after their kind. English sewing- 
 machines—mostly of the hand-power pattern—were plentifully dis¬ 
 played. In the sections near by, the spinning and winding of cotton 
 tnread was illustrated, and further on, the delicate looms for weaving 
 silken badges were in operation. Gadd of Manchester exhibited an 
 engine capable of printing calicoes in eight colors at one impression. 
 An effective system of railway switching and signaling was shown by 
 Brierly and Reynolds of London. In an adjoining square stood a 
 fine model of an Inman steamship, and east of this a Walter printing- 
 press in operation. Farther on, Tait and Watson of London displayed 
 a collection of machines, including a sugar-mill, a valveless engine, 
 and centrifugal drying-pans.—Across the aisle was the exhibit of Can¬ 
 ada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia,—embracing turbine wheels, a 
 set of railway signals, quartz-mills from Halifax, Toronto marbles, 
 fire-engines, sewing-machines, and Indian canoes. 
 
 Of the American department—three-fourths of the whole in ex¬ 
 tent—the greatest trophy was the Corliss vertical engine, standing in 
 the middle of the central aisle. The platform was fifty-six feet in 
 diameter; the stroke of the piston, ten feet; the weight of the fly¬ 
 wheel, a hundred and twelve thousand pounds. It required twenty 
 tubular boilers of large capacity to furnish the proper amount of 
 steam. The periphery of the fly-wheel was geared with cogs into the 
 underground line of shafting, and the power applied was equivalent 
 to that of fourteen hundred horses; but the movements of the great 
 engine were smooth and noiseless. 
 
 From the central station, the observer, glancing down the south 
 transept, had a full view of the Hydraulic Annex. Here pumps of 
 every grade and fashion were pouring their torrents into a vast tank 
 having a capacity of sixty-three thousand cubic feet of water. An 
 interesting display of steel ware was made in a section near by, and 
 further on, an exhibit of metal piano-frames by the Steinways. Here 
 the process of making nails and tacks was illustrated, and there a 
 machine was cutting corks. On this hand was an extensive collec¬ 
 tion of files and screws, and on that a pyramid of grindstones. Far¬ 
 ther on, to the west, was an exhibit of rolled iron, and next, a large 
 display of axles and machinists’ tools. A huge brick-making ma¬ 
 chine, capable of moulding four thousand bricks in an hour, was fairly 
 matched with a mammoth planing machine, weighing a hundred and 
 sixty-two thousand pounds, and having a traverse of forty-four feet, 
 in an adjacent section, paper envelopes were made by an automatic 
 
 39 
 
610 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 apparatus at the rate of a hundred and twenty per minute. Worees- 
 ter, Massachusetts, contributed a collection of edged tools, dies, and 
 presses; and Paterson, New Jersey, a machine for spinning silk. On 
 the central aisle model steamers, men-of-war, yachts, and life-boats- 
 were exhibited. Next came the sections occupied with Hoe and Bul¬ 
 lock printing-presses; then the book-binding, stereotyping, and elec¬ 
 trotyping display, and then the splendid roller-drum book-press of 
 Cottrell and Babcock, New York. A type-writer stood near by, and 
 farther on was a section where all the steam- and sailing-vessels owned 
 in the ports of Massachusetts were exhibited by models. 
 
 In the department of confections the American display rivaled 
 that of France. Close to the bon-bon section were placed some fine 
 wheat-cleaning and centrifugal sugar-drying apparatuses. Then came 
 an old Virginia tobacco factory, where all the processes of making 
 were exhibited. And the colored people, as they wrought, made the 
 hall resound with the weird plantation melodies of the Southland. 
 Farther east the manufacture of India-rubber shoes of all sorts and 
 sizes was illustrated by the actual processes of the art. Then came 
 the glass-blowers’ exhibit, and then an excellent display of wall¬ 
 paper by the Howells of Philadelphia. A collection of washing- and 
 wringing-machines caught the attention for a moment, and then the 
 observer found himself before the huge sugar-refining apparatus ex¬ 
 hibited by the Colwell Iron Works of New York. The Wharton 
 automatic switch was exhibited near by, and then came a splendid 
 display of common and platform scales. Mining machinery was 
 shown by the Dickinson Company of Scranton, and American loco¬ 
 motives—unsurpassed by any in the world—by the Baldwin Works 
 and the Pennsylvania Railway. In the adjacent section the Westing- 
 house air-brake and the Henderson hydraulic-brake were exhibited 
 in sharp competition. The Backus water-motor here attracted much 
 attention, as did also an odd hydraulic-ram near the western entrance. 
 The department of American power-looms—rivaling those of the best 
 European factories—was constantly thronged with visitors, and the 
 section where Waltham watches were made was a similar scene of 
 eager interest. The Pyramid Pin Company of New Haven exhibited 
 a quaint little machine for sticking pins in papers. A powerful hy¬ 
 draulic cotton-press was shown by the Taylor Iron Works of Charles¬ 
 ton, and a magnificent collection of wire ropes and cables by the 
 Roeblings of Trenton. 
 
 The display of railway bars—iron and steel—was, for the most 
 part, made by the works of Pittsburgh. Among the western sections 
 
GRANT’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 611 
 
 of the hall some fine ditching and draining enginery was exhibited; 
 and near by was the display of American knitting-machines. Of sew¬ 
 ing-machines the exhibit was unrivaled. The competition reminded 
 the observer of that among the piano-fortes in the Main Building. 
 Every form of patent, from the original Howe to the most recent in¬ 
 novation, was duly praised by its group of advocates and admirers. 
 The American Steamship Company exhibited their vessels by models, 
 and eastward from their section stood a handsome pavilion contain¬ 
 ing an unlimited assortment of saws. The department of fire-engines 
 and extinguishers was adjacent; and near by, the famous Weimar 
 blowing-engine and an apparatus for charging blast-furnaces were 
 displayed. 
 
 Many relics of old machinery were exhibited in various parts of 
 the hall. Chief of these antiquated contrivances was a section of the 
 first steam-engine ever used in the United States,-—an odd piece 
 of mechanism of the Cornish pattern, which was brought to America 
 in 1753 and set in operation in a copper-mine near Newark, New 
 Jersey. The first saw-maker’s anvil, imported in 1819, was exhibited 
 near by. In another section were several pieces of excellent work¬ 
 manship from the mechanical department of Cornell University. An 
 automatic shingle-machine, having a working capacity of twenty-five 
 thousand shingles per day, was an attractive object in an adjoining 
 division; and in the same space the work of dovetailing, moulding, 
 carving, and paneling by machinery was illustrated. Then came the 
 work of barrel-making, shown by the actual processes; then an ex¬ 
 hibit of scroll-saws in operation; then blast-furnaces by models, steam 
 drills, gas apparatus of every variety, and a machine for crushing an¬ 
 thracite coal.—Taken all in all, the exhibit of .American machinery 
 was the finest display of the kind ever made by man. 
 
 On his way from the western entrance of Machinery Hall to the 
 Government Building of the United States, the observer would hardly 
 fail to pause and admire the Roman Catholic Total Abstinence Fount¬ 
 ain, one of the most beautiful of the outdoor works of Fairmount Park. 
 Thence a brief walk northward on Belmont Avenue brought him to 
 the edifice erected by Congress for the exhibition of the functions of 
 the American Government in times of peace, and its resources in war. 
 The building itself has already been described. Without, to the east, 
 stood a model monitor, having the same dimensions and appearance 
 as the original. In the same vicinity a huge Rodman twenty-inch 
 gun and others hardly less formidable were exhibited. On the south, 
 also, many pieces of heavy artillery were displayed, together with shot, 
 
612 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 shells, and projectiles of various kinds. Here, too, were the boats 
 Faitli and Advance, used by De Haven and Kane in their Arctic 
 voyages. Near by, two postal cars, for the fast-mail service of the 
 United States, were exhibited by the Post-office Department. On the 
 north, the War Department made a display of pontoons, bridge trains, 
 and army wagons. Within, the south division of the principal tran¬ 
 sept was occupied with the Centennial Post-office. Here the mails 
 were regularly received and distributed with systematic precision. '"'The 
 subordinate sections of this department. were named respectively the 
 divisions of Topography, of Books and Blanks, of Mail Equipment, 
 and of Stamps. In the last section a machine of unimaginable inge¬ 
 nuity was displayed, having an automatic capacity to cut, fold, gum, 
 stamp, count, and pack, the Government envelopes. 
 
 Another large display in the Government Building was made 
 under the auspices of the Agricultural Bureau. The subordinate di¬ 
 visions of this exhibit were of Statistics, Chemistry, Botany, Micros¬ 
 copy, Entomology, and Horticulture. In the first named of these 
 sections were large outline maps of the United States, showing the 
 areas of forest- and farming-lands, the various products and capaci¬ 
 ties of soils, the distribution of animals, etc. In the department of 
 chemistry was a fine and well-arranged exhibit of the earths, together 
 with illustrations of the processes of growth, fermentation, distilla¬ 
 tion, and the like, as well as the methods of manufacturing vegetable 
 products. In the botanical division the various woods of the United 
 States were exhaustively exhibited. The collection was very exten¬ 
 sive and valuable, embracing sections of nearly every species of wood 
 growing between Central America and Canada, and from Passama- 
 quoddy to the Golden Gate. The microscopic section was occupied 
 with a series of charts and drawings illustrative of vegetable diseases. 
 The entomological division was chiefly devoted to an exhibit of insect¬ 
 eating birds and of what creatures soever prey upon the farmer’s fruits 
 and grains. In the horticultural section a display was made of those 
 plants which have an economic and cc^omercial value, such as corn, 
 tobacco, cotton, and flax. 
 
 The exhibit made by the Department of the Interior was com¬ 
 posed chiefly of the well-known treasures of the Patent Office and the 
 National Museum at Washington. In addition to these, special dis¬ 
 plays were made by the Land and Indian offices, and by the Bureaus 
 of Education and Pensions. Here, also, was exhibited a complete set 
 of the census reports from 1790 to 1870, inclusive. But surpassing 
 all in interest and value was the magnificent exhibit made by the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 613 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. This extraordinary display embraced, first 
 of all, a classified collection of the animals of America. These ani¬ 
 mals were grouped according to the relation which they bear to man, 
 as useful or injurious; and the exhibit included all those contrivances 
 and implements which man employs in capturing them when wild, or 
 subjecting and controlling them when domesticated. The collection 
 illustrative of the fishery resources of the United States was equally 
 complete and full of interest. In the department of American eth¬ 
 nology an extensive exhibit was made of aboriginal implements and 
 contrivances peculiar to the primitive modes of life. The last branch 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING. 
 
 of the Smithsonian contribution was that illustrating the mineral re¬ 
 sources of the United States—a collection of great extent and value. 
 
 The first section under the auspices of the Treasury Department 
 was devoted to the exhibition of the money, money-making, and med¬ 
 als of the national mint. The special display, made by the Light¬ 
 house Board, of lanterns, reflectors, sea-signals, and electrical and 
 calcium lights, fairly rivaled the great exhibit of similar apparatus 
 made in the government building of France. The whole collection 
 was of the highest order, and gave token that no branch of humani¬ 
 tarian science is making more rapid strides than that which apper¬ 
 tains to the perfection of light-houses and the safety of mariners. 
 
 The Navy Department made an exhibit of torpedoes, and of the 
 
614 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 methods of using them in naval warfare. The collection embraced all 
 of the patterns of that terrible engine, from the original as invented 
 by Fulton, to the more modern forms produced by Ericsson and Lay. 
 Another section was devoted to marine arms and armor, shot, shells, 
 munitions, uniforms, and what weaponry soever is peculiar to men* 
 of-war. The Naval Observatory exhibited—besides its own publica¬ 
 tions—a fine collection of photographs and chronometers. Here, too, 
 were found most of the precious relics of the Arctic explorations, froir 
 the voyage of De Haven to that of Hall. 
 
 The exhibit made by the War Department was still larger ana 
 more complete. In this division was arranged the splendid display 
 of the Signal Service under direction of General Albert J. Meyer, 
 chief signal officer of the army. Here were exhibited all of the del¬ 
 icate instruments and tentative apparatus peculiar to the half-formed 
 science of meteorology; and here the methods of observing and re¬ 
 cording the multiform and many times capricious phenomena of earth, 
 air, and sky, were fully illustrated. The Engineering Corps also con¬ 
 tributed an interesting exhibit, chiefly composed of maps and draw¬ 
 ings illustrative of the coast, lake, and river improvements of the 
 United States during the past century. The section of the Ordnance 
 Service was devoted to the display of fire-arm manufacture as the 
 same is carried,on at the Government Armory at Springfield, Massa¬ 
 chusetts. The making of cartridges was also fully illustrated by the 
 actual processes. Next came the exhibits made by the Post Hospital 
 and the Laboratory—full of interest after their kind—and, last of all, 
 the model light-house standing at the northeast angle of the building, 
 without, and not far off the tremendous fog-horn called the Siren. 
 
 In the extensive exhibits of Agricultural Hall—varied and full 
 of interest, as they were—there was, of course, a less display of hu¬ 
 man skill and a greater revelation of the beneficence of nature. For 
 here the products exhibited were, for the most part, the offspring of 
 the ground—the fruits of air, water, and sunshine. In this vast hall, 
 the agency of man extended but little further than the modification and 
 utilization of the gratuitous riches of the world. The display, there¬ 
 fore, was in a large measure limited to the collection and exhibition 
 of things uncommon and prodigious.—A brief summary of the objects 
 of principal interest in the various departments of the hall may here 
 suffice. 
 
 The products of the United States occupied more space than did 
 those of all other nations combined. And the general superiority of 
 American exhibits over those of foreign lands was noticeable from the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 615 
 
 first. In the northeastern division of the hall were placed the sec¬ 
 tions of agricultural implements, plows being a specialty. The ex¬ 
 hibit made by Speer and Sons of Pittsburgh, as well as that by Oliver 
 Ames and Sons of North Easton, Massachusetts, was specially varied 
 and excellent. In a section to the north were shown rakes and 
 threshers of the most approved patents, and in the same collection a 
 specimen of Foust’s hay-lifting machine, which called forth many 
 commendations. Near by stood the superb plows manufactured by 
 the Oliver Chilled-Plow Company of South Bend, Indiana.* Far¬ 
 ther on was another collection, by the Higganum Plow Company of 
 Connecticut; and then came a section of gang-plows, exhibited by 
 Collins and Company of New York. 
 
 In the department of reapers and mowers all the great makers 
 were fully represented. The Sweepstakes, Harvester, McCormick, 
 Champion, and Buckeye machines were specially conspicuous in the 
 exhibit. The Union Corn Planter, from the shops of Peoria, Illi¬ 
 nois, attracted much attention, and the superb Westinghouse steam- 
 thresher was greatly praised. An excellent reaper, called the Planet, 
 was .shown by the Wayne Agricultural Works of Richmond, Indiana. 
 Slosser’s self-loading excavator—a powerful ditch-digging machine— 
 stood close by; and near the eastern entrance was exhibited one of 
 the well-known Adams Power Cornshellers. 
 
 Grain-drills next attracted attention, especially the display made 
 by the Farmers’ Friend Company of Dayton, Ohio. In the south end 
 of the central transept several excellent cider-mills were exhibited in 
 operation—that of Boomer and Boschert leading the collection. Farm 
 scales were shown by the Howe Manufacturing Company, and farm 
 saw-mills by Harbert and Raymond of Philadelphia. In this vicin¬ 
 ity two models of stables—one of wood, and the other of iron—were 
 exhibited, and also some fine horse-powers from Racine, Wisconsin. 
 
 The observer next found himself in other scenes, amid the Amer¬ 
 ican wine-growers’ exhibit, near the northern entrance. The Califor¬ 
 nia display was first in excellence and extent. After the vintage of 
 the Pacific Slope came the fine exhibits of Ohio, Missouri, and New 
 York. South of the wine collection, at the bisection of the nave and 
 transept, stood a large bronze fountain, throwing high its cooling 
 waters; and at the four angles round about was set the display of 
 canned fruits and meats, hops, malts, and spices. Here, too, was a 
 
 * One plow exhibited by this firm was perhaps the finest ever made. The metallic 
 parts were plated with nickel, and the rosewood frame was splendidly embossed with 
 agricultural emblems. 
 
616 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 varieties of edible fishes, out of the fresh and salt waters of the United 
 States, were exhibited alive in a series of aquaria. 
 
 The northwestern courts of the building were occupied with the 
 tobacconists’ pavilions. The display was very extensive, embracing 
 every variety and caprice of manufacture. North of the tobacco sec¬ 
 tion the Delta Moss Company of New Orleans exhibited a tree bear¬ 
 ing a rich array of Southern moss; and the prepared product was 
 shown in bales near by. A huge evaporator for drying fruits, and a 
 massive road-roller driven by steam, next caught the attention ; and 
 then came the sections set apart for the general display of the woods, 
 grains, vegetables, and fruits of the various States—perhaps the larg¬ 
 est and most imposing collection of such articles ever brought to¬ 
 gether. In the court of New Hampshire were exhibited, along with 
 
 splendid exhibit of starches, chief of which was the fine perfumed 
 starch manufactured by Erkenbrecher of Cincinnati. Here, more¬ 
 over, the appetite of whatsoever creatures live by bread was provoked 
 by the bountiful display of that article. Close by, in the middle of 
 the avenue, stood a huge windmill, purposely old-fashioned, thirty 
 feet in height, dated 1776. Next came the zoological exhibit, com¬ 
 posed of stuffed animals and birds, but more especially of a magnifi¬ 
 cent museum of plaster casts prepared by Professor Henry A. Ward 
 of Rochester University. Along the western wall of the building all 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF AGRICULTURAL HALL. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 617 
 
 other wonders, two enormous swine, stuffed, stupid, and prodigious 
 as nature and taxidermy could make them. Farther on was the fish 
 and fishery exhibit of Massachusetts, and farther still, the silk-worm 
 display of California. South of the central transept the rich soils of 
 Iowa were exhibited in large glass cylinders; and beyond was placed 
 a fine collection of the minerals of Nevada.—Such fvere the objects 
 of chief interest in the departments allotted to the United States. 
 
 The exhibit of Great Britain occupied the southeast division of 
 the hall. First of all, the display of condiments was equal to the 
 expectancy of the most accomplished epicure. Equally commendable 
 were the exhibits of preserved meats, patent coffees and teas, prepara¬ 
 tions of milk, sugar, and the like, presented by the Colonial Produce 
 Company of London. An adjoining section contained a full assort¬ 
 ment of the famous English ales; and farther south was placed the 
 department of British agricultural machinery, embracing some fine 
 road-wagons, portable engines, and the smaller implements peculiar 
 to field, orchard, and garden. Last of all came a display of mill¬ 
 stones, tiles, and ornaments in terra cotta. 
 
 The Canadian section, in the southwest quarter of the hall, was 
 well filled with interesting products. And the exhibit was specially 
 well arranged. The front line of cases was occupied with an exten¬ 
 sive display of root vegetables, pulse, and cereals. In the next line, 
 secondary products, such as wool, feathers, and pelts, were shown ; 
 and in the third tier of cases, prepared animal and vegetable mate¬ 
 rials—cured fish, flour, salt, pickles, and cheese—were displayed. Of 
 agricultural implements the list was varied and extensive. Plows, 
 rivaling the best of the American collection, were exhibited by Spar- 
 dle of Stratford, Ontario, and by Boss of Chatham. Fine threshing- 
 machines, adjustable platform reapers, and turnip-drills of superior 
 pattern, were the other objects of chief interest in the collection.— 
 British Columbia, also, made a creditable display of her products, 
 consisting chiefly of wheat and oats, woods, barks, and woolen goods 
 of Indian manufacture. 
 
 France displayed her vintage. The exhibit was complete, em¬ 
 bracing the whole list of vinous liquors from claret to brandy. In 
 the same section were shown the unrivaled chocolates manufactured 
 by Menier and Company of Paris. Vilmorin and Andrieux of the 
 same city exhibited the products of their famous flower-gardens; and 
 Strasbourg displayed her preserved fruits, sardines, and condiments. 
 The process of manufacturing mineral waters was illustrated by Ga- 
 zaubon of Paris, and near by was shown the method of bottling wine,. 
 
618 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Millstones, crucibles, cements, and artificial stone, were displayed in 
 another department; and last of all, the fine cocoons and raw silks 
 for which Southern France is so justly celebrated. 
 
 Along the south wall of the building was arranged the exhibit 
 of the German Empire. Here, again, the display of wines was pre¬ 
 eminent. The vintage of the Rhine elicited most praise. Nor did 
 Gambrinus the king look down displeased from the florid labels of 
 the Bavarian and Prussian beer-mugs. The exhibit of smoking- and 
 chewing-tobacco was next in extent and importance; after that, the 
 display of confections. Then came a palm-tree with the mowing 
 scythes of Wurtemberg for its branches; then specimens of curled 
 hair out of the shops of Frankfort, and then some beautiful tufts of 
 wool from the sheepcotes of Silesia. 
 
 The products of Austria and Hungary were displayed together. 
 The cereals of the different parts of the empire were well exhibited. 
 Vienna sent a fine collection of canned fruits, Pesth her boxes of 
 nuts, and Prague her offering of wine and raisins. Flax, and wool, 
 and hemp, were the staples of the Hungarian section, and leather of 
 the exhibit of Bohemia. 
 
 On the south side of the central transept lay the court of Russia. 
 And the display was unexpectedly complete and well arranged. The 
 strictly agricultural element predominated throughout the whole ex¬ 
 hibit, only a small space being devoted to wines and liquors. Wheat, 
 oats, rye, and barley—all of the finest quality—constituted the major 
 part of the display, and gave token of abundant wealth in the al¬ 
 most sunless fields of the Muscovite. The fiber-producing plants, of 
 many and superior kinds, were shown ; and excellent candied fruits 
 and confections—the contribution of Poland—completed one of the 
 most interesting divisions of the hall. 
 
 Among the best of the exhibits made by the Southern nations, 
 was that of Spain, located on the south side of the central transept, 
 adjoining the Russian court. Here, again, the true agricultural idea 
 was maintained, and the wine and liquor exhibit given a secondary 
 rank. The display of Spanish cereals, fruits, pulse, and nuts, was set 
 in glass-encased panels, around the sides of the court, presenting a 
 fair summary of the field and garden products of the kingdom The 
 exhibit of wools was among the finest of the Exposition, and the col¬ 
 lection of wines admirable after its kind. Specimens of the gum- and 
 resin-bearing trees of the Philippine Islands were exhibited in an 
 adjoining section ; and near by, Havana displayed her cigars and 
 chocolates. The space allotted to Portugal was well filled with her 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 HID 
 
 products, the exhibit being similar to that of Spain, and equally 
 meritorious. 
 
 The Italian court occupied the southeast division of the hall. 
 The collection embraced specimens of all those products for which 
 the peninsula has been immemorially famous. Here were grains, and 
 fruits, and nuts; olive-oil and raisins; oranges, figs, and lemons; 
 citrons, pomegranates, and liquorice; and wine—such as the Latin 
 wits and poets quaffed when Britain belonged to the Druids. 
 
 The court of the Netherlands joined that of Austria on the south. 
 The Dutch display was arranged with much skill and tastefulness ; 
 and neither Gambrinus nor the grape was the be-all and the end-all 
 of the exhibit. But the collection was as intensely national as those 
 of Germany. The products were mostly shown under the auspices 
 of the Gulderland and Zealand agricultural societies. The various 
 sections presented a full array of grains, plants, and pulse, as well as 
 the more valuable woods, especially those used in the manufacture 
 of dyes. Fine specimens of the famous Holland cheese and flour 
 were shown, and in the sections to the west an assortment of choc¬ 
 olates and cod-liver oil. The Dutch fishing interests were also well 
 illustrated with tackles, seines, and boats. The beet-sugar makers of 
 Arnhem made a fine display of their product, as did also the manu¬ 
 facturers of those peculiar pungent beers, gins, and heavy liquors, 
 which are so popular in Holland. 
 
 In the court of Norway the section of greatest interest was that 
 containing the exhibit of her fisheries. The collection of fishing ves¬ 
 sels and apparatus was extensive and complete. Cured specimens of 
 nearly all the fishes known in the Norwegian marts were included in 
 the display. The space devoted to agricultural implements contained 
 some rude but characteristic machines and tools from the fields and 
 shops of the North. But the display of leather was excellent, and 
 that of the waterfowl of Norway especially interesting.—Similar in 
 sort were the exhibits made by Sweden and Denmark. 
 
 In the Japanese court the principal product displayed was tea-— 
 a large and varied collection. Here, again, the fishing interest was 
 well represented, nets and tackle being a specialty. Then came Illus¬ 
 trations of the silk culture, by the actual processes, from the worm to- 
 the web. The woods of Japan were displayed to good advantage as 
 were also the grains and vegetables of the empire.—No exhibit of their 
 agricultural resources was made by the other nations of the East. 
 
 Among the South American States, Brazil here—as elsewhere—• 
 was preeminent. Before the Brazilian court stood a much admired 
 
620 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rustic pavilion so flecked on post and rafter with tufts of fleecy cotton 
 as to look like the greatcoat of St. Nicholas. Within was the coffee 
 exhibit—a full and complete display of the leading industry of the 
 empire. Leaf-tobacco was also shown, and near by was an unsur¬ 
 passed collection of the tropical woods for which Brazil is famous. 
 In a section farther on were exhibited fine Brazilian sugars, rivaling 
 those of Cuba and the United States. Last of all came the display of 
 the silk interest of Brazil, beginning with the mild-mannered worm 
 peculiar to that country, and ending with the finished fabric.—Vene¬ 
 zuela and the Argentine Republic also made small but interesting ex¬ 
 hibits of their resources, ranging from feathers, waxes, and native 
 gums to leather-work, silk, and liquors. Here, too, Liberia made a 
 display of her resources and industries. 
 
 Entering the Mauresque doorways of the Horticultural Building, 
 the rambler stopped to admire the Foley Fountain in the center of 
 the hall. Around him was the luxuriance of the tropics. Fragrance 
 bathed the air, and silence sat like a plumed but songless bird on 
 all the motionless leaves of this green world of wonders. Here was 
 the great central conservatory, filled with the choicest plants and 
 richest flowers culled out of every clime where sunshine and air are 
 woven into leaf and petal. Here were the date-tree and the palm, 
 fern, and cactus, lemon shrub and banana—a wilderness of blossoms 
 and fruits, cool and silent as the bowers visited in dreams. 
 
 Along the sides of the main conservatory were the green-houses 
 for the propagation of plants. The floors were sunk ten feet below 
 the level of the main hall, and the aisle in each was a hundred feet 
 in length. Passing up and down these avenues, the observer found 
 on either side an indescribable array of whatever the hand of nature 
 has done of quaint or beautiful in moss, or fern, or flower. No ex¬ 
 tended account will here be attempted of the variety and beauty of this, 
 the kingdom of the plants.—The collections of Horticultural Hall were 
 the floral offering of the United States—a wreath for the altar of Inde¬ 
 pendence. But the leaves of the garland were gathered from all climes. 
 
 No structure of Fairmount Park was more characteristic of the 
 epoch than the Woman’s Pavilion. The building and its contents 
 illustrated one of the grandest tendencies ot American civilization— 
 the complete emancipation of woman. In ancient times her chains 
 were forged; the Middle Age re-riveted them upon her; the Modern 
 Fra—even the Reformatian—has mocked her with the semblance and 
 the show of liberty. America sets her free and lifts her to the seat of 
 
 nonor. 
 
GRANT'S ADMTNISTRA TIOX. 
 
 621 
 
 The collections of the Pavilion were rich and varied. The 
 southeast division was set apart for the display of woman’s inven¬ 
 tions. The contrivances were mostly of such sort as appertain to 
 domestic economy and the improvement of home. Now and then, 
 however, some capricious apparatus of fashion, invented in the realm 
 of whim, attracted the gaze of the curious. Photographs of such 
 benevolent institutions as are under the conduct of women formed an 
 interesting exhibit, as did also the worsted and silk embroideries 
 which were displayed in an adjoining court. The art collection em¬ 
 braced some creditable—even excellent—specimens of drawing, a fair 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF HORTICULTURAL HALL. 
 
 display of paintings, and several commendable pieces of statuary. 
 In the center of the hall was an elegant printing office, where The 
 New Century for Women was published and distributed during the 
 Exposition. 
 
 The southwestern quarter was occupied by foreign exhibitors. 
 Here, too, the display of woman’s work was varied and of a high or¬ 
 der of merit. The royal ladies of the Old World had contributed 
 much to the excellence and interest of the exhibit. Queen Victoria’s 
 School of Art and Needlework made some splendid offerings of em¬ 
 broidery. Many contributions of similar sort were presented by the 
 women of France, Sweden, and Canada. Egypt had its section of 
 artistic designs in gold and silver thread-work; even the queen of 
 Tunis had heard of Independence and sent some superb gold-em¬ 
 broidered velvets as a token of her good will. The Japanese exhibit 
 
622 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was composed for the most part of silken screens, writing desks, and 
 cabinets, delicately ornamented after the style of the country. The 
 Brazilian women, also, had honored the pavilion with some beautiful 
 specimens of gold lace, shell work, and silk and worsted embroideries. 
 
 But it was among the art treasures of Memorial Hall that the 
 stranger in Fairmount Park tarried longest: and then came again 
 and again. For the variety was wellnigh infinite—the pageant ever 
 new\ Here were the bright ideals which flit for a moment across the 
 vision of genius, and in that moment are made immortal. Here was 
 a scene where the human imagination had transfused itself into the 
 radiant imagery of the canvas and the imperishable forms of marble. 
 Here, for a season, the scales fell from the sordid eyes of Utility, 
 and the gaze was lifted up in the serener air of the True and the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 In the arrangement of the exhibits in the Art Gallery, Italy was 
 given the preference. The main hall, before the southern entrance, 
 was set apart for her treasures. Here the best of the Italian sculp¬ 
 tors were represented by their works. Caroni of Florence exhibited 
 his Africaine and several other fine pieces of statuary. The Boy 
 Franklin from the studio of Zocchi and Washington and his Hatchet 
 from that of Romanetti attested how much American legends are 
 loved in Italy; and a colossal bust by Gaurnerio of Milan showed the 
 heroic estimate placed upon the Father of his Country in that land. 
 The humorous in art was well represented in The Forced Prayer by 
 the same noted artist. The Milanese sculptor, Baroaglio, was repre¬ 
 sented by several fine pieces, chief of which was a colossal statue 
 called Flying Time. Hardly less attractive were the Berenice by 
 Peduzzi, and Sunshine and Storm by Popatti. The Florentine Torelli 
 presented Eva St. Clair as a specimen of his work; and Ropi of 
 Milan contributed a bust of Garibaldi. The Night of October 1 \th 
 was the name of a piece by D’Amore, illustrating the discovery of 
 Guanahani; while a number of child-statues were shown as the work 
 of the Milanese sculptor Pereda. A Miltonic Lucifer from the studio 
 of Corti was a work of the highest order of merit, as was also the 
 beautiful Madonna by Romanelli. A Psyche by Pagani attracted 
 much attention; and a Bacchus by Braga was greatly praised. 
 
 Of Italian paintings—mostly copies from the famous prouuctions 
 of the old masters—the collection was large and attractive. One of 
 the finest of the exhibit was Galileo before the Inquisition, after Ra¬ 
 phael. The original pictures, mostly of the Renaissance, were of va¬ 
 rious degrees of merit, the Columbus in Chains by Fumigalli deserving 
 
GRANT'S A DMIN IS TRA TION 
 
 623 
 
 special praise.—Nor must mention be omitted of the famous Cas- 
 tellani Museum of Antiquities, which was exhibited in the northeast¬ 
 ern quarter of the hall—a display unsurpassed in interest by any other 
 of the whole Exposition. The exhibit embraced one of the rarest, 
 most valuable, and best classified collections of ancient and mediaeval 
 gems, classic busts, anti personal ornaments, now in existence. The 
 museum was under the care of Professor Castellani himself, and the 
 section was the especial haunt of scholars and antiquaries. 
 
 The American exhibit in Memorial Hall was divided between the 
 
 ROTUNDA OF MEMORIAL HALL. 
 
 main edifice and the annex. The collection was ve:v extensive, em¬ 
 bracing several thousand works in painting and statuary. The chief 
 display of paintings was made in the great north corridor of the main 
 hall Here were exhibited a vast number of pieces, ranging from 
 second-class and mediocrity to the highest productions of genius. The 
 eastern end of the corridor was wholly occupied with Rothermel’s 
 immense painting of The Battle of Gettysburg. Page’s Farragut in 
 Mobile Bay was also exhibited as a historic sketch ; and as an alle¬ 
 gorical work, Thorpe’s Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way was 
 shown. Here, also, were exhibited six of Bierstadt’s famous land¬ 
 scapes—splendid scenes from the Pacific coast. Then came a num- 
 
624 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 berless array of portraits, landscapes, sketches, and ideal works, by 
 well-known American artists and new aspirants for fame, among 
 whose productions, though furnishing abundant room for comment 
 and criticism, it would be invidious, within this narrow limit, to dis¬ 
 criminate. 
 
 Of American statuary, also, a large exhibit was made—chiefly in 
 the central hall. Under the dome was set a fine group in terra cotta, 
 being the allegory of America from the Albert Memorial in Hyde 
 Park, London. Not far off stood Connelly’s Thetis with the Infant 
 Achilles , much and justly admired. Story’s Medea gave proof of that 
 artist’s genius; and Margaret Foley’s Cleopatra was a work of great 
 beauty. Several busts of Americans by Americans, attested the skill 
 ot the artists, especially that of Charles Sumner by Preston Powers. 
 In the northwest corridor was exhibited The Dying Cleopatra —a work 
 of remarkable beauty and power—by Edmonia Lewis, the colored 
 sculptress. 
 
 Too much praise could hardly be bestow r ed upon the British col¬ 
 lection of paintings. It was generally conceded that the exhibit, both 
 in the merit of the works themselves and in the admirable grouping 
 which had been effected by the managers, w T as the best of the Ex¬ 
 position. If any doubt existed as to whether the first artists had 
 contributed their choicest works to the American collection, no such 
 doubt existed in respect to the genius of England. For here was 
 'The Battle of Naseby by Sir John Gilbert; a Summer Moon by Fred¬ 
 erick Leighton ; The Railway Station by Powell; Armitage’s Julian 
 the Apostate; Sir Edwin Landseer’s Lions and Marriage of Griselda; 
 Maclise’s Banquet Scene in Macbeth; Sir Thomas Lawrence’s Three 
 Partners of the House of Baring; William Powell Frith’s Marriage 
 of the Prince of Wales; West’s Death of Wolfe; and a vast number of 
 landscapes, sketches, portraits, drawings, w T ater-colors, pencilings and 
 crayon-work—making a collection so complete and meritorious as to 
 awaken the pride of every Briton. 
 
 The art department of France was hardly representative of the 
 genius of that country. Still, the collection embraced many pieces 
 deserving of high praise. Among the best was Rizpali protecting the 
 Bodies of her Sons, by George Becker; The Conspiracy of the Medici, 
 by Louis Adan ; and The Death of Ccesar, by Clement. Hillemacher’s 
 Napoleon I. with Goethe and Wieland, and Niger’s Josephine in 1814, 
 were notable pieces of portraiture. Leda and the Swan , by Jules 
 Saintin, and The First Step in Crime, by Pierre Antigua, received 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 625 
 
 many commendations, and Duran’s exquisite portrait of Mademoi¬ 
 selle Croixette of the Theatre Frai^ais was universally praised. 
 
 In the German collection the most striking picture was Steffeck’s 
 Crown Prince in the Front of Battle. Louis Braun and Count Harras 
 each contributed a Surrender of Sedan —striking sketches of that his¬ 
 toric event. The Arrest of Luther, likewise by Harras, was a picture 
 of great merit, as was also Elizabeth signing the Death Warrant of Mary 
 Stuart, by Julius Schrader. In the way of humorous pictures, After 
 the Church Festival was exhibited by Ferdinand Meyer, and the Village 
 Gossips by Meyer of Bremen. Nor should mention be omitted of 
 The Flight of Frederick V. from Prague, by Faber du Tour—one of 
 the best historic pieces in Memorial Hall. Another work of the 
 same sort, and almost equally meritorious, was Briicke’s Discovery of 
 America. Last of all—exhibited in a separate corridor—was Wag¬ 
 ner’s great painting, A Scene in the Circus Maximus at Pome. In the 
 way of portraits, that of Pauline Lucca by Begas, and of George Ban¬ 
 croft by Gustave Richter, were worthy of special praise. 
 
 In the eastern gallery was placed the collection of Austria. Here 
 was John Makart’s magnificent picture, entitled Venice Paying Hom¬ 
 age to Catharine Comoro —a historic study of great interest. As speci¬ 
 mens of figure-painting Ernest Lafitte contributed a Girl of Upper 
 Austria, and Aloysius Schonn a Siesta of an Oriental Woman. Of 
 similar sort were the two fine pictures, A Page and A Girl with Fruit, 
 by Canon of Vienna—works in imitation of Rembrandt. Friedlan- 
 der was represented in the- collection by Tasting the Wine, and Muller 
 by an English Garden at Palermo. —Several fine pieces of statuary 
 were shown as a part of the Austrian exhibit. The principal of these 
 were the busts of Francis Joseph, Maximilian I., and Charles V. To 
 this collection also belonged The Freedman, by Pezzicar—a bronze 
 statue emblematical of the emancipation of the slaves by Lincoln. 
 
 In the Spanish department The Landing of Columbus was the sub¬ 
 ject of two paintings—the first by Gisbert, and the second by Puebla. 
 Here also was shown a Christ on the Cross by Murillo. Columbus 
 before the Monks of La Pabida was the title of a large and striking 
 work by Gano. But the painting most esteemed in the Spanish ex¬ 
 hibit was a superb production called The Burial of St. Lorenzo, by 
 Alejo Vera of Rome.—The Portuguese painters and sculptors were 
 not represented in the collections of the hall. 
 
 The Northern nations — Sweden, Norway, Denmark — made a 
 creditable showing of their art. The Swedish collection was ar- 
 
 40 
 
626 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ranged along the eastern wall of the western gallery, and was com¬ 
 posed of several fine and some commonplace productions. One of 
 the best was The Burning of the Royal Palace at Stockholm —a paint¬ 
 ing by Hockert. Then came The Winter Day, The First Snow, and 
 The Poor People’s Burying Ground, by Baron Hermelin, the Swedish 
 art commissioner at the Exposition. A fine work called Dark Mo¬ 
 ments was exhibited by Baron Cederstrom, and Sigurd Ring by Se- 
 verin Nilsson. Several other legends of the Vikings were represented 
 in the works of Winge, exhibited near by; while a Market Day in 
 Dusseldorf illustrated the genius of August Jernberg.—The Norwe¬ 
 gian collection was made up of two fine pieces by Professor Gude; 
 one excellent picture entitled A Scene in Romsdalsfiord, by Norman; 
 The Hardengerfiord, from the studio of Thurman; and several pro¬ 
 ductions of less conspicuous merit.—The Danish group embraced The 
 Discovery of Greenland in A. D. 1000, by Pasmussen; Two Greenland 
 Pilots, by the same artist; and A Midsummer Night under Iceland’s 
 Rough Weather, by Wilhelm Melby. 
 
 The Belgian pictures constituted a notable collection. Here, first 
 of all, was Aidumn on the Meuse, by Asselberg—a work of great ex¬ 
 cellence; as was, also, Rome from the Tiber, by Bossuet. De Keyser’s 
 Dante and the Young Girls of Florence attracted much admiration. 
 Then came The Sentinel at the Gate of the Harem, by St. Cyr; Sunday 
 at the Convent, by Meerts; Xavier Mellery’s Woman of the Roman 
 Campagna; Mols’s Dome of the Invalides; Smits’s War; Stallaert’s 
 Cave of Diomede; and After the Rain, by Van Luppen. The Desde- 
 mona of ATm Kiersbilck, and The Deception by Jean Portaels, were 
 works deserving the highest praise. 
 
 Next in interest was the art exhibit of the Netherlands. Nor 
 did the collection in its entirety suffer by comparison with the best 
 at the Exposition. Here again the observer was constantly reminded 
 of the nationality—both of the artist and his work. Every thing 
 was distinctly marked with the characteristics of Lowland life, method, 
 and manners. First in the display were four large pieces by Altmann 
 of Amsterdam — all excellent paintings—entitled respectively The 
 Banquet of the Civic Guards, The Five Masters of the Drapers, The 
 Masters of the Harlem Guild, and The Young Bull —a copy from Paul 
 Potter. Then came Roster’s View on the Yo, Bust’s Amsterdam in the 
 Sixteenth Century, and A Landscape on the Mediterranean Coast by 
 Hilverdink. The other principal pieces of the collection were Four 
 Weeks after St. John’s Day by Huybers, Bosboom’s Church of Trier, 
 and -Mesdag’s Evening on the Beach. Besides these, many minor 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 627 
 
 paintings in the exhibit testified of the genius of the Lowland 
 artists. 
 
 In the eastern galleries of the annex were placed a few meritor¬ 
 ious pictures by the painters of Brazil and Mexico. But the collec¬ 
 tions were comparatively unimportant. Among the Brazilian produc¬ 
 tions the best were The Defense of Cabrito and The Battle of Humaita — 
 both scenes from the recent war with Paraguay. In the Mexican 
 gallery the most interesting pieces were The Valley of Mexico by Val- 
 esquez, and portraits of Bartholomew de las Casas and Donna Isabella 
 of Portugal.—Such is a brief survey of the art treasures of Memorial 
 Hall. 
 
 During the months of early summer, every day brought its 
 throng to Fairmount Park. The enthusiasm of the people rose with 
 the occasion. The fame of the great Exposition spread through all 
 the land. Success had crowned the enterprise. As the Anniversary 
 of Independence drew near preparations were made for an elaborate 
 celebration at Philadelphia. The day came. Countless multitudes 
 thronged the streets.* The city was alive with flags and banners. 
 Battery answered battery with thunderous congratulation. The scene 
 was set in Independence Square, in the rear of the old Hall, on the 
 very spot where liberty was proclaimed a century ago. Platforms 
 were erected and awnings spread above them, where four thousand in¬ 
 vited guests could be seated to witness the ceremonies. The people 
 crowded into the open space to the south until the whole square wa* 
 a sea of upturned faces. Senator Ferry of Michigan, acting Vice- 
 President of the United States, was the presiding officer. General 
 Hawley and other members of the Centennial Commission acted as his 
 assistants. Dom Pedro II. and Prince Oscar of Sweden sat near by, 
 and distinguished citizens of many nations were present. At ten 
 o’clock the exercises were formally opened. Centennial hymns were 
 sung, and the national airs were played by the finest bands of the 
 country. Richard Henry Lee, grandson of him who offered the fa¬ 
 mous Resolution of Independence, then read the Declaration from the 
 original manuscript. Other music followed; and then came the read¬ 
 ing of The National Ode by Bayard Taylor. Last of all came The 
 Centennial Oration by William M. Evarts of New York. The throng 
 receded, and the ceremonies were at an end. But the pageant was re¬ 
 vived at night with a display of fireworks and a brilliant illumination 
 of the city. 
 
 •It was estimated that on the night of the 3d of July there were fully two hum 
 -died and fifty thousand strangers in Philadelphia. 
 
628 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The daily attendance at the Exhibition grounds during the sum¬ 
 mer varied from live thousand to two hundred and seventy-five thou¬ 
 sand. And the interest in the Centennial was intensified near its 
 close. The whole number of visitors attending the Exposition, as 
 shown by the registry of the gates, was nine million seven hundred 
 and eighty-six thousand one hundred and fifty-one. The daily average 
 attendance was sixty-one thousand nine hundred and thirty-eight. 
 The grounds were open for one hundred and fifty-eight days, and the 
 total receipts for admission were three million seven hundred and 
 sixty-one thousand five hundred and ninety-eight dollars. 
 
 On the 10th of November—in accordance with the purpose of the 
 Centennial Commissioners—the International Exhibition of 1876 was 
 formally closed. At two o’clock in the afternoon the President of 
 the United States attended by General Hawley, Director-General 
 Goshorn—upon whom for his successful management of the Exposi¬ 
 tion too great praise can hardly be bestowed—other members of the 
 Commission, and distinguished foreigners—ascended the platform, and 
 the ceremonies began. Theodore Thomas’s magnificent orchestra 
 again furnished music worthy of the occasion. A hundred thousand 
 people were present to witness the closing exercises. Brief addresses 
 were delivered by the Honorable Daniel J. Morrell of Pennsylvania 
 and the Honorable John Welch, president of the Board of Finance. 
 The history of the Exposition and of its management was then re¬ 
 counted in appropriate orations by Major Goshorn and General Haw¬ 
 ley. The hymn America was sung by the audience, led by the or¬ 
 chestra ; and then President Grant arose and said:— 
 
 “I DECLARE THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION CLOSED.” 
 
 The valves of the great Corliss engine were shut, and the work 
 was done. In its general character and results the Exposition had 
 outranked all of its predecessors, and had left an impress upon the 
 minds of the American people likely to endure for a generation and 
 then become a patriotic tradition with posterity.* 
 
 * Since the close of the Exhibition steps have been taken to secure as far as practi¬ 
 cable the permanency of the Centennial display. Machinery Hall has been purchased 
 by the Common Council of Philadelphia, and is to stand intact. The Main Building 
 also, has been sold by auction, and the purchasers have decided that it shall remain as a 
 permanent Exposition hall. The Woman’s Executive Committee have voted that their 
 Pavilion shall also stand in its present state. The authorities of Great Britain, Ger¬ 
 many, and Prance have given their respective Government Buildings to* the city of 
 Philadelphia as permanent ornaments of the grounds and as tokens of international 
 good will; and it seems not unlikely that the principal features of the delightful park, 
 where' so many thousand people have spent the holiday hours of the Centennial sum¬ 
 mer, will be preserved as they were during the Exposition. 
 
SIOUX INDIANS IN BATTLE WITH EMIGRANTS 
 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 629 
 
 During the last year of President Grant’s administration the 
 country was disturbed by a war with the Sioux Indians. These 
 fierce savages had, in 1867, made a treaty with the United States 
 agreeing to relinquish all the territory south of the Niobrara, west of 
 the one hundred and fourth meridian, and north of the forty-sixth 
 parallel of latitude. By this treaty the Sioux were confined to a 
 large reservation in southwestern 
 Dakota, and upon this reservation 
 they agreed to retire by the 1st of 
 January, 1876. Meanwhile, how¬ 
 ever, gold was discovered among 
 the Black Hills — a region the 
 greater part of which belonged, by 
 the terms of the treaty, to the 
 Sioux reservation. But no treaty 
 could keep the hungry horde of 
 gold-diggers and adventurers from 
 overrunning the interdicted dis¬ 
 trict. This gave the Sioux a good 
 excuse for gratifying their native SCENE 0F THE SI0UX WAR> 1876 - 
 
 disposition by breaking over the limits of the reservation and roam¬ 
 ing at large through Wyoming and Montana, burning houses, steal¬ 
 ing horses, and murdering whoever opposed them. 
 
 The Government now undertook to drive the Sioux upon their 
 reservation. A large force of regulars, under Generals Terry and 
 Crook, was sent into the mountainous country of the Upper Yellow¬ 
 stone, and the savages to the number of several thousand, led by 
 their noted chieftain Sitting Bull, were crowded back against the Big 
 Horn Mountains and River. Generals Custer and Reno, who were 
 sent forward with the Seventh Cavalry to discover the whereabouts 
 of the Indians, found them encamped in a large village extending 
 for nearly three miles along the left bank of the Little Horn. On 
 the 25th of June, General Custer, without waiting for reinforcements, 
 charged headlong with his division into the Indian town, and was 
 immediately surrounded by thousands of yelling warriors. Of the 
 details of the struggle that ensued very little is known. For General 
 Custer and every man of his command fell in the fight. The conflict 
 equaled, if it did not surpass, in desperation and disaster any other 
 Indian battle ever fought in America. The whole loss of the Sev¬ 
 enth Cavalry was two hundred and sixty-one killed, and fifty-two 
 
 wounded. General Reno, who had been engaged with the savages 
 
 • • 
 
630 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at the lower end of the town, held his position on the bluffs of the 
 Little Horn until General Gibbon arrived with reinforcements and 
 saved the remnant from destruction. 
 
 Other divisions of the army were soon hurried to the scene of 
 hostilities. During the summer and autumn the Indians were beaten 
 in several engagements, and negotiations were opened looking to the 
 removal of the Sioux to the Indian Territory. But still a few des¬ 
 perate bands held out against the authority of the Government; be¬ 
 sides, the civilized Nations of the Territory objected to having the 
 fierce savages of the North for their neighbors. On the 24th of No¬ 
 vember, the Sioux were decisively defeated by the Fourth Cavalry, 
 under Colonel McKenzie, at a pass in the Big Horn Mountains. The 
 Indians lost severely, and their village, containing a hundred anti 
 seventy-three lodges, was entirely destroyed. The army now went 
 into winter-quarters at various points in the hostile country; but 
 active operations were still carried on by forays and expeditions during 
 December and January. On the 5th of the latter month, the sav¬ 
 ages were again overtaken and completely. routed by the division 
 of Colonel Miles. 
 
 Soon after this defeat, the remaining bands, under Sitting Bull and 
 Crazy Horse, being able to offer no further serious resistance, escaped 
 across the border and became subject to the authorities of Canada. 
 Here they remained until the following autumn, when the Govern¬ 
 ment opened negotiations with them for their return to their reserva¬ 
 tion in Dakota. A commission, headed by General Terry, met Sitting 
 Bull and his warriors at Fort Walsh, on the Canadian frontier. Here 
 a conference was held on the 8th of October. Full pardon for past 
 offenses was offered to the Sioux on condition of their peaceable re¬ 
 turn and future good behavior. But the irreconcilable Sitting Bull 
 and his savage chiefs rejected the proposal with scorn; the conference 
 was broken off, and the Sioux were left at large in the British domin¬ 
 ions north of Milk River.* 
 
 The excitement occasioned by the outbreak of the war with the 
 Sioux, and even the interest felt in the Centennial celebration, was soon 
 overshadowed by the agitation of the public mind, attendant upon the 
 twenty-third Presidential election. Before the close of June the national 
 conventions were held and standard-bearers selected by the two leading 
 political parties. General Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio and William 
 
 * The result of the Fort Walsh conference was by no means distasteful to the Govern¬ 
 ment. By formally refusing to return to their reservation, the Indians virtually re¬ 
 nounced all relations with the United States, and the authorities were thus, bv an unex* 
 pected stroke of good fortune, freed from the whole complication. Canada can hardly 
 be congratulated on such an accession to her population! 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 631 
 
 A. Wheeler of New York, were chosen as candidates by the Repub¬ 
 licans ; Samuel J. Tilden of New York and Thomas A. Hendricks of 
 Indiana, by the Democrats. A third— the Independent Green¬ 
 back— party also appeared, and presented as candidates Peter Cooper 
 of New York and Samuel F. Cary of Ohio. The canvass began early 
 and with great spirit. The battle-cry of the Democratic party was 
 Reform —reform in the public service and in all the methods of ad¬ 
 ministration. For it was alleged that many of the departments of 
 the Government and the officers presiding therein had become cor¬ 
 rupt in practice and in fact. The Republicans answered back with 
 the cry of Reform ,—averring a willingness and an anxiety to correct 
 public abuses of whatsoever sort, and to bring to condign punishment 
 all who dared to prostitute the high places of honor to base uses. To 
 this it was added that the nationality of the United States, as against 
 the doctrine of State sovereignty, must be upheld, and that the rights 
 ot the colored people of the South must be protected wim ..uuuimial 
 safeguards. The Independent party echoed the cry of Reform —mon¬ 
 etary reform first, and all other reforms afterwards. For it was al¬ 
 leged by the leaders of this party that the measure of redeeming the 
 national legal-tenders and other obligations of the United States in 
 gold—which measure was advocated by both the other parties—was 
 a project unjust to the debtor-class, iniquitous in itself, and impossi¬ 
 ble of accomplishment. And it was further argued by the Independ¬ 
 ents that the money-idea itself ought to be revolutionized, and that 
 a national paper currency ought to be provided by the Government, 
 and be based, not on specie, but on a bond bearing a low rate of 
 interest, and interconvertible, at the option of the holder, with the 
 currency itself. But the advocates of this theory had only a slight 
 political organization, and did not succeed in securing a single elect¬ 
 oral vote. The real contest lay—as it had done for twenty years— 
 between the Republicans and the Democrats. The canvass drew to a 
 close. The election was held, the general result was ascertained, and 
 both parties claimed the victory! The election was so evenly balanced 
 between the two candidates, there had been so much irregularity in 
 the voting and subsequent electoral proceedings in the States or 
 Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon, and the' powers of 
 Congress over the votes of such States were so vaguely defined, under 
 existing legislation, that no certain declaration of the result could be 
 made. The public mind was confounded with perplexity and excite¬ 
 ment ; and more than once were heard the ominous threatenings of 
 civil war. 
 
 
 43 
 
632 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 When Congress convened in December, the whole question ot 
 the disputed presidency came at once before that body for adjust¬ 
 ment. The situation was seriously complicated by the political 
 complexion of the Senate and the House of Representatives. In the 
 former body the Republicans had a majority sufficient to control 
 its action; while in the House the Democratic majority was still 
 more decisive and equally willful. The debates began and seemed 
 likely to be interminable. The question at issue was as to whether 
 the electoral votes of the several States should, at the proper time, be 
 opened and counted by the presiding officer of the Senate, in accord¬ 
 ance with the immemorial and constitutional usage in such cases, or 
 whether, in view of the existence of duplicate and spurious returns 
 from some of the States, and of alleged gross irregularities and frauds 
 in others, some additional court ought to be constituted to open and 
 count the ballots. Meanwhile the necessity of doing something became 
 more and more imperative. The great merchants and manufacturers 
 of the country and the boards of trade in the principal cities grew 
 clamorous for a speedy and peaceable adjustment of the difficulty. 
 The spirit of compromise gained ground; and after much debating in 
 Congress it was agreed that all the disputed election returns should be 
 referred to a Joint High Commission, consisting of five members to 
 be chosen from the United States Senate, five from the House of 
 Representatives, and five from the Supreme Court. The judgment of 
 this tribunal should be final in all matters referred thereto for de¬ 
 cision. The Commission was accordingly constituted. The counting 
 was begun as usual in the presence of the Senate and the House of 
 Representatives. When the disputed and duplicate returns were 
 reached they were referred, State by State, to the Joint High Commis¬ 
 sion ; and on the 2d of March, only two days before the time for the in¬ 
 auguration, a final decision was rendered. The Republican candidates 
 were declared elected. One hundred and eighty-five electoral votes 
 were cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and one hundred and eighty-four for 
 Tilden and Hendricks. The greatest political crisis in the history of 
 the country passed harmlessly by without violence or bloodshed. 
 
CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 HA YES’S ADMINISTRATION, 1877-1881. 
 
 R UTHERFORD B. HAYES, nineteenth President of the United 
 States, was born in Delaware, Ohio, on the 4th day of October. 
 1822. His ancestors were soldiers of the Revolution. His primary 
 education was received in the public schools. Afterwards, his studies 
 
 were extended 
 to Greek and 
 Latin at the 
 Norwalk 
 Academy; and 
 in 1837 he 
 became a stu¬ 
 dent at W ebb’s 
 preparatory 
 school, at Mid¬ 
 dletown, Con¬ 
 necticut. In 
 the following 
 year, he en- 
 tered the 
 Fresh man 
 class at Ken¬ 
 yon College, 
 and in 1842 
 was graduated 
 from that in¬ 
 stitution with 
 
 PRESIDENT HAYES. , , . , 
 
 tne highest 
 
 honors of his class. Three years after his graduation, he completed 
 his legal studies at Harvard University, and soon afterward began 
 the practice of his profession, first at Marietta, then at Fremont, 
 and finally as city solicitor, in Cincinnati. Here he won distinguished 
 reputation as a lawyer. During the Civil War he performed much 
 honorable service in the Union cause, rose to the rank of major 
 
834 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 general, and in 1864, while still in the field, was elected to Congress. 
 Three years later he was chosen governor of his native State, and 
 was reelected in 1869, and again in 1875. At the Cincinnati conven¬ 
 tion of 1876, he had the good fortune to be nominated for the presi¬ 
 dency over several of the most eminent men of the nation. 
 
 In his inaugural address, delivered on the 5th of March,* President 
 Hayes indicated the policy of his administration. The patriotic and 
 conciliatory utterances of the address did much to quiet the bitter 
 spirit of partisanship which for many months had disturbed the 
 country. The distracted South was assured of right purposes on the 
 part of the new chief-magistrate; a radical reform in the civil service 
 was avowed as a part of his policy; and a speedy return to specie 
 payments was recommended as the final cure tor the deranged finances 
 of the nation. The immediate effect of these assurances—so evidently 
 made in all good faith and honesty—was to rally around the incipient 
 administration the better part of all the parties and to introduce a new 
 “Era of Good Feeling” as peaceable and beneficent in its character 
 as the former turbulence had been exciting and dangerous. 
 
 On the 8th of March, the President named the members of his 
 cabinet. Here, again, he marked out a new departure in the policy 
 of the government. For the cabinet, though exceptionably able and 
 statesmanlike, was noticeably non-partisan in its character. As secre¬ 
 tary of state ’William M. Evarts, of New York, was chosen; John 
 Sherman, of Ohio, was named as secretary of the treasury; George W. 
 McCrary, of Iowa, secretary of war; Richard W. Thompson, of 
 Indiana, secretary of the navy; Carl Schurz, of Missouri, secretary of 
 the interior; Charles E. Devens, of Massachusetts, attorney-general; 
 and David M. Key, of Tennessee, postmaster-general. These nomina¬ 
 tions were duly ratified by the Senate; and the new administration 
 and the new century of the republic were ushered in together. 
 
 In the summer of 1877 occurred the great labor disturbance 
 known as the Railroad Strike. For several years the mining 
 districts of the country had been vexed with disputes and outbreaks 
 having their origin in the question of wages. The manufacturing 
 towns and cities had witnessed similar troubles, and the great cor¬ 
 porations having control of the lines of travel and commerce were 
 frequently brought to a stand-still by the determined opposition of 
 their employes. The -workingmen and the capitalists of the country 
 
 *The 4th of March fell on Sunday. The same thing has happened in the following 
 years: 1753, 1781, 1821 (Monroe’s inauguration, second term), 1849 (Taylor’s inaug¬ 
 uration), 1877 (Hayes’s inauguration); and the same will hereafter occur as follows: 
 1917, 1945, 1973, 2001, 2029, 2057, 2085, 2125, 2153. 
 
HA YES'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 635 
 
 had for some time maintained towards each other a kind of armed 
 neutrality alike hurtful to the interests of both. In the spring of this 
 year, the managers of the great railways leading from the seaboard 
 to the West declared a reduction of* ten per cent in the wages of their 
 workmen. This measure, which was to take effect at the middle of 
 July, was violently resisted by the employes of the companies, and 
 the most active steps were taken to prevent its success. The workmen 
 of the various roads entered into combinations, and the officers stood 
 firm. On the 16th of July, the employes of the Baltimore and Ohio 
 Railroad left their posts and gathered such strength in Baltimore and 
 . at Martinsburg, West Virginia, as to prevent the running of trains 
 and set the authorities at defiance. The militia was called out by 
 Governor Matthews and sent to Martinsburg, but was soon dispersed 
 by the strikers who, for the time, remained masters of the line. The 
 President then ordered General French to the scene with a body of 
 regulars, and the blockade of the road was raised. On the 20th of 
 the month, a terrible tumult occurred in Baltimore; but the troops 
 succeeded in scattering the rioters of whom nine were killed and 
 many wounded. 
 
 Meanwhile the strike spread everywhere. In less than a week 
 the trains had been stopped on all the important roads between the 
 Hudson and the Mississippi. Except in the cotton-growing States the 
 insurrection was universal. Travel ceased, freights perished en route, 
 business was paralyzed. In Pittsburgh the strikers, rioters, and dan¬ 
 gerous classes gathering in a mob to the number of twenty thousand, 
 obtained complete control of the city and for two days held a reign 
 
 of terror unparalleled in the history of the country. The lawless 
 
 violence and madness of the scene recalled the fiery days of the 
 
 French Revolution. The Union Depot and all the machine shops 
 
 and other railroad buildings of the city were burned. A hundred and 
 twenty-five locomotives, and two thousand five hundred cars laden 
 with valuable cargoes, were destroyed amid the wildest havoc and 
 uproar. The insurrection was finally suppressed by the regular troops 
 and the Pennsylvania militia, but not until nearly a 1 undred lives had 
 been lost and property destroyed to the value of more than three mill¬ 
 ions of dollars. 
 
 On the 25th of the month, a similar but less terrible riot occurred 
 at Chicago. In this tumult fifteen of the insurgents were killed by 
 the military of the city. On the next day, St. Louis was for some 
 hours in peril of the mob. San Francisco was at the same time the 
 scene of a dangerous outbreak which was here directed against the 
 
636 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 Chinese immigrants and the managers of the lumber yards. Cincin¬ 
 nati, Columbus, Louisville, Indianapolis, and Fort Wayne were for 
 a while in danger, but escaped without serious loss of life or property. 
 By the close of the month, the alarming insurrection was at an end. 
 Business and travel flowed back into their usual channels; but the 
 sudden outbreak had given a great shock to the public mind, and 
 revealed a hidden peril to American institutions. 
 
 In the mean time, a war had broken out with the Nez Perc6 
 Indians of Idaho. This tribe of natives had been known to the Gov¬ 
 ernment since 1806, when the first treaty was made with them by the 
 explorers, Lewis and Clarke. Afterwards, missionary stations were 
 established among them, and the nation remained on friendly terms 
 until after the war with Mexico. In 1854 the authorities of the 
 United StaUs, purchased a parr of the Nez Perc6 territory, large reser¬ 
 vations being made in North-western Idaho and North-eastern Oregon; 
 but some of the chiefs refused to ratify the purchase and remained at 
 large. This was the beginning of difficulties. 
 
 The war began with the usual depredations by the Indians. Gen¬ 
 eral Howard, commanding the Department of the Columbia, marched 
 against them with a small force of regulars; but the Nez Perc6s, led 
 by their noted chieftain Joseph, fled first in this direction, and then in 
 that, avoiding battle. During the greater part of the summer the pur¬ 
 suit continued; still the Indians could not be overtaken. In the fall 
 they were chased through the mountains into Northern Montana, where 
 they were confronted by other troops commanded by Colonel Miles. 
 
 The Nez Perc6s, thus hemmed in, were next driven across the 
 Missouri River, near the mouth of the Musselshell, and were finally 
 surrounded in their camp, north of the Bear Paw Mountains. Here, 
 on the 4th of October, they were attacked by the forces of Colonel 
 Miles. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were completely 
 routed. Only a few, led by the chief White Bird, escaped. All 
 the rest were either killed or made prisoners. Three hundred and 
 seventy-five of the captive Nez Perc6s were brought back to the 
 American post on the Missouri. The troops of General Howard had 
 made forced marches through a mountainous country for a distance of 
 sixteen hundred miles !—The campaign was crowned with complete 
 success. 
 
 During the year 1877, the public mind was greatly agitated 
 concerning the Remonetization of Silver. By the first coinage 
 regulations of the United States, the standard unit of value was the 
 American Silver Dollar, containing three hundred and seventy-one 
 
HA YES'S A DMINIS TEA TION. 
 
 637 
 
 and one-fourth grains of pure silver. From the date of the adoption 
 of this standard, in 1792, until 1873, the quantity of pure metal in this 
 standard unit had never been changed, though the amount of alloy 
 contained in the dollar was several times altered. Meanwhile, in 1849, 
 a gold dollar was added to the coinage, and from that time forth the 
 standard unit of value existed in both metals. In the years 1873- 
 ’74, at a time when, owing to the premium on gold and silver, both 
 metals were out of circulation, a series oi acts were adopted by Con¬ 
 gress bearing upon the standard unit of value, whereby the legal- 
 tender quality of silver was first abridged and then abolished. These 
 enactments were completed by the report of the Coinage Committee in 
 1874, by which the silver dollar was finally omitted from the list of 
 coins to be struck at the national mints. The general effect of these 
 acts was to leave the gold dollar of twenty-three and twenty-two- 
 hundredths grains the single standard unit of value in the United 
 States. 
 
 In January of 1875, the Resumption Act was passed by Con¬ 
 gress, whereby it was declared that on the 1st of January, 1879, the 
 Government of the United States should begin to redeem its outstand¬ 
 ing legal-tender notes in coin. As the time for resumption drew near, 
 and the premium on gold fell off, the question was raised as to the 
 meaning of “coin” in the act for resuming specie payments; and now, 
 for the first time the attention of the people at large was aroused to 
 the fact that by the acts of 1873-’74, the privilege of paying debts in 
 silver had been taken away, and that after the beginning of 1879 ail 
 obligations must be discharged according to the measure of the gold 
 dollar only. A great agitation followed. The cry for the remonetiza¬ 
 tion of silver was heard everywhere. The question reached the Gov¬ 
 ernment, and early in 1878 a measure was passed by Congress for the 
 restoration of the legal-tender quality of the old silver dollar, and pro¬ 
 viding for the compulsory coinage of that unit at the mints at a rate 
 of not less than two millions of dollars a month. The President re¬ 
 turned the bill with his objections, but the veto was crushed under a 
 tremendous majority; for nearly three-fourths of the members of Con¬ 
 gress, without respect to party affiliations, gave their support to the 
 measure, and the old double standard of values was restored. 
 
 In the summer of 1878, several of the Gulf States were scourged 
 with a Yellow Fever Epidemic, unparalleled in the history of the 
 country. The disease made its appearance in New Orleans in the 
 latter part of May, and from thence was quickly scattered among the 
 other towns along the Mississippi. Unfortunately, the attention of 
 
638 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 • the people in the Gulf country had been but little given to sanitary 
 precautions, and the Southern cities were nearly all in a condition to 
 invite the presence of the scourge. The terror soon spread from town 
 to town, and the people began to fly from the pestilence. The cities 
 of Memphis and Grenada became a scene of desolation. At Vicks- 
 burgh the ravages of the plague were almost equally terrible; and 
 even in the parish-towns remote from the river, and as far north as 
 Nashville and Louisville, the horrors of the scourge were felt. All 
 summer long the disease held on unabated. The h lpless populations 
 along the Lower Mississippi languished and died by thousands. A 
 regular system of contributions was established in the Northern States, 
 and men and treasure were poured out without stint to relieve the 
 suffering South. The efforts of the Howard Association at New Or¬ 
 leans, Memphis, and elsewhere, were almost unequaled in heroism 
 and sacrifice. After more than twenty thousand people had fallen 
 victims to the plague, the grateful frosts of October came at last and 
 ended the pestilence. 
 
 By the XVIIIth Article of the Treaty of Washington,* it was 
 agreed th?t the right of the inhabitants of the United States in cer¬ 
 tain sea-fisheries which had hitherto belonged exclusively to the sub¬ 
 jects of Great Britain, should be acknowledged and maintained. It 
 was conceded, moreover, that the privilege of taking fish of every 
 kind — except shell-fish — on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the 
 bays, harbors, and creeks of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 New Brunswick, Prince Edward’s Island, and the islands thereunto 
 adjacent, without restriction as to distance from the shore, should be 
 guaranteed to American fishermen, without prejudice or partiality. 
 On the other hand, the government of the United States agreed to 
 relinquish the duties which had hitherto been charged on certain 
 kinds of fish imported by British subjects into American harbors. 
 Several other concessions of minor importance were mutually made 
 by the contracting parties; and in order to balance any discrepancy 
 that might appear in the aggregate of such concessions, and to make 
 the settlement of a vexed question full, fair, and final, it was further 
 agreed that any total advantage to the United States arising from 
 the treaty, might be compensated by a sum in gross to be paid by the 
 American government to Great Britain. And in order to determine 
 what such sum should be, a Commission was provided for, the same 
 to consist of one commissioner to be appointed by the Queen, one 
 •y the President, and a third (provided the Queen and the Presi- 
 
 * See page 556. 
 
HA YES’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 639 
 
 dent should not agree on a third) by the Austrian ambassador at 
 the Court of St. James!* Accordingly, in the summer of 1877, the 
 Commission was constituted, and the sittings began at Halifax. But 
 little attention was given to the proceedings of. the body until No¬ 
 vember, when the country was startled by the announcement that 
 by the casting vote of Mr. Delfosse, Belgian minister to the United 
 States, who had been named as third commissioner by the Austrian 
 ambassador at London, an award of five millions ,of dollars had been 
 made against the American government! The decision was received 
 with general surprise, both in the United States and in Europe; 
 and for awhile it seemed probable that the arbitration might be 
 renounced as iniquitous. It was decided, however, that the award, 
 whether just or unjust, would better stand; and accordingly, in 
 November, 1878, the amount was paid — not without great popular 
 dissatisfaction—to the British government. 
 
 The year 1878 witnessed the establishment of a resident Chinese 
 embassy at Washington. For twenty years the great and liberal treaty 
 negotiated by Anson Burlingame had been in force between the United 
 States and China. Under the protection of this compact, the commer¬ 
 cial relations of the two countries had been vastly extended, and a knowl¬ 
 edge of the institutions, manners, and customs prevalent in the Celes¬ 
 tial Empire so widely diffused as to break down in some measure the 
 race-prejudice existing against the Mongolians. The enlightened 
 policy of the reigning emperor had also contributed to establish more 
 friendly intercourse with the United States, and to promote such 
 measures as should make that intercourse lasting. The idea of send¬ 
 ing resident ambassadors to the American government had been en¬ 
 tertained for several years. The emperor had been assured that the 
 people of China — more particularly her ministers — would be received 
 with all the courtesy shown to the most favored nation. The officers 
 chosen by the imperial government as its representatives in the United 
 States were Chen Lan Pin, minister plenipotentiary, Yung Wing, 
 assistant envoy, and Yung Tsang Siang, secretary of legation. On 
 the 28th of September the embassy was received by the President. 
 
 A strange and inexplicable provision. As a matter of fact, it came to pass tliat the 
 man who by the terms of the treaty held the power of appointing, and who did appoint, 
 ihe umpire in the Halifax Commission, was Count Von Beust, a Bourbon of the Bour¬ 
 bons in politics, a Saxon renegade, an upholder of the House of Hapsburg by choice, 
 and a hater of all republican institutions. It thus happened that a question which had 
 proved too much for the Joint High Commission itself, was remanded for settlement to 
 a political adventurer temporarily resident in London I To understand the proceeding 
 •equires the wisdom of a — statesman! 
 
640 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES. 
 
 The ceremonies of the occasion were among the most novel and in¬ 
 teresting ever witnessed in Washington. The speech of Chen Lan 
 Tin was equal in dignity and appropriateness to the best efforts of a 
 European diplomatist. Addressing the President the Chinese minister 
 said: 
 
 “Mr. President: His Majesty, the Emperor of China, in ap¬ 
 pointing us to reside at Washington as ministers, instructed us to 
 present your Excellency his salutations, and to express his assurances 
 of friendship for you and the people of the United States. His 
 Majesty hopes that your administration may be one of signal success, 
 and that it may bring lasting peace and prosperity to the whole 
 country. On a former occasion the Chinese government had the 
 honor to send an embassy to Washington on a special mission, and 
 the results were most beneficent. His Majesty cherishes the hope 
 that this embassy will not only be the means of establishing on a 
 firm basis the amicable relations of the two countries, but may also 
 be the starting-point of a new diplomatic era which will eventually 
 unite the East and West under an enlightened and progressive civil¬ 
 ization.” 
 
 The history of modern times contains many pleasing evidences 
 of the growing estimate placed by civilized states upon the value ©f 
 human life. In the legislation of Congress several important acts 
 bear witness to the general interest felt in the United States on the 
 subject of better protection for those who are exposed by land and sea. 
 The question of affording adequate succor to shipwrecked sailors has 
 especially engrossed the attention of the government, and many meas¬ 
 ures have been proposed with a view of giving greater security to 
 “ them that go down to the sea in ships.” During the last session of 
 the Forty-fifth Congress a bill was brought forward by S. S. Cox, of 
 New York, for the reorganization of the Life-Saving Service of 
 the United States, under the patronage and control of the govern¬ 
 ment. This service had existed as a private enterprise since 1871. 
 The plan proposed and adopted June 18, 1878, embraced the establish¬ 
 ment of regular stations and light-houses on all the exposed parts of 
 the Atlantic coast and along the great lakes. Each station was to be 
 manned by a band of surfmen experienced in the dangers peculiar to 
 the shore in times of storms, and drilled in the best methods of rescue 
 and resuscitation. Boats of the most approved pattern — capable of sur¬ 
 viving any storm that ever lashed the sea — were provided and 
 equipped. A hundred appliances and inventions suggested by the 
 wants of the service — life-cars with hawsers, and mortars for firing 
 
HA YES'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 641 
 
 shot-lines into vessels foundering at a distance from the shore — were 
 supplied and their use skillfully taught to the brave men who were 
 employed at, the stations. The success of the enterprise has been so 
 great as to reflect the highest credit on its promoters. The number of 
 lives saved through the direct agency of the service reaches to thou¬ 
 sands annually, and the amount of human suffering and distress alleviated 
 by this beneficent movement is beyond computation. So carefully are 
 the exposed coasts of the United States now guarded that it is almost 
 impossible for a foundering ship to be driven within sight of the shore 
 without at once beholding through the darkness of the otherwise hope¬ 
 less night the sudden glare of the red-light signal flaming up from the 
 beach, telling the story of friends near by and rescue soon to come. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1879, the Resumption of Specie Pay¬ 
 ments was formally accomplished by the treasury of the United 
 States. For more than seventeen years, owing to the disorders arising 
 from the Civil War, gold and silver coin had been at a premium 
 over the legal-tender notes of the Government. During this whole 
 period the monetary affairs of the Nation had been in a state of dis¬ 
 traction. As a matter of fact, the monetary unit had been so fluctu¬ 
 ating as to render legitimate business almost impossible. The actual 
 purchasing power of a dollar could hardly be predicted from one 
 week to another. Resulting from this, a spirit of rampant specula¬ 
 tion had taken possession of most of the market values of the coun¬ 
 try. The lawful transactions of the street, carried forward in obedi¬ 
 ence to the plain principles of political economy, suffered shipwreck, 
 while 'parvenu statesmen gave lectures on the nature of debt and the 
 evils of overproduction! After the passage of the Resumption Act, 
 in 1875, owing to the steady and rapid appreciation of the value of 
 the monetary unit, the debtor classes of the country entered a period 
 of great hardship; for their indebtedness constantly augmented in a 
 ratio beyond the probability, if not the possibility, of payment. It 
 was an epoch of financial ruin and bankruptcy, which was only 
 checked, but not ended, by the abrogation of the Bankrupt Act, in 
 1878. With the near approach of Resumption, however, a certain 
 degree of confidence supervened; and the actual accomplishment of 
 the fact was hailed by many as the omen of better times. 
 
 The presidential election of 1880 was accompanied with the usual 
 excitement attendant upon great political struggles in the United 
 States. The congressional elections of 1878 had generally gone 
 against the Republican party, insomuch that in both houses of the 
 Forty-sixth Congress the Democrats had a clear majority. It was 
 
 41 
 
642 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 therefore not unreasonable to expect that in the impending contest for 
 the presidency the Democratic party would prove successful. The 
 leaders of this party were hopeful of success and entered the campaign 
 with renewed zeal and energy. The Republican national convention 
 was held in Chicago on the 2d and 3d of June. A platform of prin¬ 
 ciples was adopted largely retrospective. The history of the party 
 during the twenty years of its supremacy in the government was 
 recited as the best reason why its lease of power should be continued 
 by the people. The platform reaffirmed and emphasized the doctrine 
 of nationality as opposed to the'theory of states’ rights; declared in 
 favor of popular education; advocated a system of discriminating duties 
 in favor of American industries; called on Congress to limit Chinese 
 immigration; avoided the question of finance; complimented the 
 administration of President Hayes; and arraigned the Democratic 
 party as unpatriotic in its principles and fraudulent in its practices. 
 Upon this platform — after the greater part of two days had been con¬ 
 sumed in balloting—General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was nom¬ 
 inated for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice- 
 President. 
 
 The Democratic national convention assembled in Cincinnati, on 
 the 22d of June. The platform of principles declared adherence to the 
 doctrines and traditions of the party; opposed the tendency to central¬ 
 ization in the government; adhered to gold and silver money and 
 paper convertible into coin; advocated a tariff for revenue only; pro¬ 
 claimed a free ballot; denounced the administration as the creature of 
 a conspiracy; opposed the presence of troops at the polls; compli¬ 
 mented Samuel J. Tilden for his patriotism; declared for free ships 
 and an amendment to the Burlingame treaty as against Chinese im¬ 
 migration; and appealed to the acts of the Forty-sixth Congress as 
 proof and illustration of Democratic economy and wisdom. After 
 adopting this platform the convention nominated for the presidency 
 General Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and for the vice-presi¬ 
 dency William H. English, of Indiana. 
 
 Meanwhile the National Greenback party had held a convention 
 in Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated as standard-bearers 
 General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and General Benja¬ 
 min J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. The platform of 
 principles declared in favor of the rights of the laborer, as against the 
 exactions of capital; denounced monopolies and syndicates; proclaimed 
 the sovereign power of the government over the coinage of metallic 
 and the issuance of paper money; advocated the abolition of tht 
 
HA YES'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 643 
 
 National banking system and the substitution of legal-tender currency; 
 declared for the payment of the bonded debt of the United States as 
 against all refunding schemes; denounced land-grants; opposed 
 Chinese immigration and an increase of the standing army; favored 
 the equal taxation of all property and unrestricted suffrage; demanded 
 reform in the methods of congressional proceedings; and appealed for 
 support to the sense of justice in the American people. 
 
 The canvass had not progressed far until it became evident that 
 the contest lay between the Republican and the Democratic party, and 
 that the long-standing sectional division into North and South was 
 likely once more to decide the contest in favor of the former. That 
 part of the Democratic platform which declared for a tariff for revenue 
 only, alarmed the manufacturing interests and consolidated them in 
 support of the Republican candidates. The banking and bond-hold¬ 
 ing classes rallied with great unanimity to the same standard, and the 
 old war spirit, aroused at the appearance of a “solid South” insured a 
 solid North against the Democracy. The election resulted in the choice 
 of Garfield and Arthur. Two hundred and fourteen electoral votes, 
 embracing those of all the Northern States except New Jersey, Nevada, 
 and four out of the five votes of California, were cast for the Republican 
 candidates, and one hundred and fifty-five votes, including those of 
 every Southern State, were given to Hancock and English. The can¬ 
 didates of the National party secured no elect*. 1 Wes, though the 
 popular vote given to Weaver and Chambers aggregated 307,000 as 
 against 81,000 cast for Cooper and Cary in 1876. 
 
 The administration of President Hayes and the last session of the 
 Forty-sixth Congress expired together on the 4th of March, 1881. 
 The closing session had been chiefly occupied with the matter of 
 refunding the national debt. About seven hundred and fifty millions 
 of dollars of five and six per cent, bonds became due during the year; 
 and to provide for the payment or refunding of this large sum was the 
 most important matter claiming the attention of Congress. Late in 
 the session a bill was passed by that body providing for the issuance 
 by the government of new bonds of two classes, both bearing three 
 per cent.; the first class payable in from five to twenty years, and the 
 second class in from one to ten years. The latter bonds were to be 
 issued in small denominations, adapted to the conditions of a popular 
 loan. One provision of the bill required the national banks holding 
 five and six per cent, bonds to surrender the same — the bonds having 
 fallen due — and to receive instead the new three per cents. This 
 clause of the law aroused the antagonism of the banks, and by every 
 
644 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 possible means they sought to prevent the passage of the bill. On the 
 last day of the session, the measure having been adopted by both 
 houses of Congress, the act was laid before the President for his 
 approval, which was withheld. A veto message was returned to Con¬ 
 gress ; the advocates of the bill being unable to command a two-third’s 
 majority in its favor, the bill failed to become a law and the session 
 closed without any provision for the refunding of the 750,000,000 
 dollars of bonds falling due in 1881. 
 
 Soon after retiring from the presidency, General Grant with his 
 family and a company of personal friends, set out to visit the countries 
 of Europe and Asia, and to make a tour of the world. Though the 
 expedition was intended to be private it could but attract the most 
 conspicuous attention both at home and abroad. The departure from 
 Philadelphia on the 17th of May, 1877, was the beginning of a pageant 
 which, in its duration and magnificence,- was never before extended to 
 any citizen of any nation of the earth. Wherever the distinguished ex- 
 President went he was welcomed with huzzas and dismissed with 
 plaudits. First in England — at Liverpool, Manchester, London — 
 and afterwards, in midsummer, in Belgium, Switzerland, Prussia, 
 and France, everywhere the GeneraPs coming was announced by 
 the thunder of cannon, the thronging of multitudes, and a chorus 
 of cheers. A short stay in Italy was followed by a voyage to Alexan¬ 
 dria, and a brief sojourn in Egypt. Thence the company proceeded to 
 Palestine and afterwards to Greece. The following spring found the 
 ex-President and his party again in Italy — at Pome, Florence, Venice, 
 and Milan; and the summer carried them into Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway. The next countries visited were Austria and Russia, while 
 for the winter the distinguished tourists chose the south of France and 
 Spain. Ireland was visited, and in January of 1879 the company em¬ 
 barked from Marseilles for the East. The following year was spent in 
 visiting the great countries of Asia — India first; then Burmali and 
 Siam; then China; and then Japan. In the fall of 1879 the party 
 returned to San Francisco, bearing with them the highest tokens of 
 esteem which the great nations of the Old World could bestow upon 
 the honored representative of the civilization of the New. 
 
 The census of 1880 was undertaken with more system and care 
 than ever before in the history of the country. The work was entrusted 
 to the general superintendency of Professor Francis A. Walker, under 
 whose direction the admirable census of 1870 was conducted. During 
 the decade the same astounding progress which had marked the pre¬ 
 vious history of the United States was more than ever illustrated. In 
 
HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 every source of national power, in every element of national vigor, the 
 development of the country had continued without abatement. The 
 total population of the states and territories of the Union now amounted 
 to 50,152,866 — an increase since 1870 of more than a million inhabit¬ 
 ants a year! New York was still the leading state, having a popula¬ 
 tion of 5,083,173. Nevada was least populous, showing an enumera¬ 
 tion of but 62,265. Of the 11,584,188 added to the population since 
 the census of 1870, 2,246,551 had been contributed by immigration, 
 of whom about 85,000 annually came from Germany alone. The 
 number of cities having a population of over 100,000 inhabitants had 
 increased during the decade from fourteen to twenty.* The center 
 of population had moved westward about fifty miles, and now rested 
 at the city of Cincinnati. 
 
 The statistics of trade and industry were likewise of a sort to 
 gratify patriotism, if not to excite national pride. The current of the 
 precious metals which for many years had flowed constantly from the 
 United States to foreign countries turned strongly, in 1880, towards 
 America. The importation of specie during the year just mentioned 
 amounted to $93,034,310, while the exportation of the same during 
 the year reached only $17,142,199. During the greater part of the 
 period covered by the census abundant crops had followed in almost 
 unbroken succession, and the overplus in the great staples peculiar to 
 our soil and climate had gone to enrich the country, and to stimulate 
 to an unusual degree those fundamental industries upon which national 
 perpetuity and individual happiness are ultimately founded.f 
 
 * The following table will show the population and rate of increase in the ten lead¬ 
 ing cities in the United States, according to the censuses of 1870 and 1880: 
 
 City. 
 
 State. 
 
 Population 
 
 Per cent, 
 of increase. 
 
 New York . . . 
 
 New York .... 
 
 1870 
 
 942,292 
 
 1880 
 
 1,206,590 
 
 28 
 
 Philadelphia . . 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 674,022 
 
 846,984 
 
 25 
 
 Brooklyn .... 
 
 New York .... 
 
 396,099 
 
 586,689 
 
 48 
 
 St. Louis .... 
 
 Missouri .... 
 
 310,864 
 
 350,522 
 
 13 
 
 Chicago .... 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 298,977 
 
 503,304 
 
 72 
 
 Baltimore .... 
 
 Maryland .... 
 
 267,354 
 
 333,190 
 
 24 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Massachusetts . . 
 
 250,526 
 
 362,535 
 
 44 
 
 Cincinnati .... 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 216,239 
 
 255,708 
 
 22 
 
 New Orleans . . . 
 
 Louisiana .... 
 
 191,418 
 
 216,140 
 
 13 
 
 San Francisco . . 
 
 California .... 
 
 149,473 
 
 233,956 
 
 56 
 
 t At the date of sending this edition to the press, only the preliminary results of the 
 oensus of 1880 have been given to the public. 
 
646 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 During the administration of President Hayes several eminent 
 Americans passed from the scene of their earthly activities. On the 
 1st of November, 1877, the distinguished Senator Oliver P. Morton, 
 of Indiana, after battling for many years against the deadly en¬ 
 croachments of paralysis, died at his home in Indianapolis. His 
 death, though not unforeseen, was much lamented. Still more 
 universally felt was the loss of the great poet and journalist, ‘William 
 Cullen Bryant, who, on the 12th of June, 1878, at the advanced age 
 of eighty-four, passed from among the living. For more than sixty 
 years his name had been known and honored wherever the English 
 language is spoken. His life had been an inspiration, and the 
 brightest light of American literature was extinguished in his death. 
 On the 19th of December, in the same year, the illustrious Bayard 
 Taylor, who had recently been appointed American minister to the 
 German Empire, died suddenly in the city of Berlin. His life had 
 been exclusively devoted to literary work ; and almost every depart¬ 
 ment of letters, from the common tasks of journalism to the highest 
 charms of poetry, had been adorned by his genius. His death, at the 
 early age of fifty-four, left a gap not soon to be filled in the shining 
 ranks of literature. On the 1st day of November, 1879, Senator 
 Zachariah Chandler, of Michigan, one of the organizers of the JRe- 
 publican party, and a great leader of that party in the times of the 
 civil war, died suddenly at Chicago ; and on the 24tli day of February, 
 1881, another senator, the distinguished Matt. JI. Carpenter, of 
 Wisconsin, after a lingering illness, expired at Washington. One 
 by one the strong men who battled for the preservation of American 
 nationality in the stormy days of the civil war are passing or have 
 passed into the land of. rest. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 
 
 64 ? 
 
 CHAPTER L X X. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR, ; 
 
 TAMES A. GARFIELD, twentieth President of the United Stales. 
 
 was born at Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, November 19th, 1881 
 By the death of his lather he was left in infancy to the sole care 
 of his mother and to the rude surroundings of a backwoods home. 
 
 Blest with great 
 native energy 
 and an abundance 
 of physical vigor, 
 the boy gathered 
 from country toil 
 a sound constitu¬ 
 tion, and from 
 country schools 
 the rudiments 
 of education. 
 In boyhood his 
 services were in 
 frequent demand 
 by the farmers 
 of the neighbor¬ 
 hood — for he de- 
 veloped unusual 
 skill as a me¬ 
 chanic. After¬ 
 wards he served 
 as a driver and 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD. pilot Ol U Caiial 
 
 boat plying the 
 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania canal. At the age of seventeen he attended 
 the High School in Chester, where he applied himself with great dili¬ 
 gence, extending his studies to algebra, Latin, and Greek. In the fall 
 of 1851, he entered Hiram College, in Portage county, Ohio, where he 
 remained as student and instructor until 1854. In that year he entered 
 
 44 
 
648 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Williams College, from which, in August of 1856, he was graduated 
 with honor. He then returned to Ohio, and was made first a professor 
 and afterwards president of Hiram College. This position he held 
 until the outbreak of the civil war when he left his post to enter the 
 army. Meanwhile he had studied law, imbibed a love for politics, and 
 been elected to the Ohio State Senate. 
 
 As a soldier Garfield was first made lieutenant-colonel and after¬ 
 wards colonel of the Forty-second regiment of Ohio volunteers. Ad¬ 
 vancing with his men to the front he was soon promoted to a brigadier 
 generalship, and did good service in Kentucky and Tennessee. He 
 was made chief of staff to General Rosecrans, and bore a distinguished 
 part in the battle of Chickamauga. Soon afterwards, while still in the 
 field, he was, in 1862, elected by the people of his district to the lower 
 house of Congress, where he continued to serve as a member for seven¬ 
 teen years. In 1879 he was elected to the United States Senate, and 
 hard upon this followed his nomination and election to the presidency. 
 American history has furnished but few instances of a more steady and 
 brilliant rise from the poverty of an obscure boyhood to the most dis¬ 
 tinguished elective office in the gift of mankind. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1881, President Garfield, according to the 
 custom, delivered his inaugural address. A retrospect of the progress 
 of American civilization during the last quarter of a century was given 
 and the country congratulated on its high rank among the nations. 
 The leading topics of politics were briefly reviewed, and the policy of 
 the executive department of the government with respect to the great 
 questions likely to engross the attention of the people, set forth with 
 clearness and precision. The public school system of the United 
 States should be guarded with jealous care; the old wounds of the 
 South should be healed and the heartburnings of the civil war be 
 buried in oblivion; the present banking system should be maintained; 
 the practices of polygamy should be repressed; Chinese immigration 
 should be curbed by treaty; the equal rights of the enfranchised blacks 
 should be asserted and maintained. 
 
 On the day following the inauguration the President sent to the 
 Senate for confirmation the names of the members of his cabinet. 
 The nominations were, for secretary of state, James G. Blaine, of 
 Maine; for secretary of the treasury, William Windom, of Minnesota; 
 for secretary of war, Robert T. Lincoln, of Illinois; for secretary of the 
 navy, William H. Hunt, of Louisiana; for secretary of the interior, 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood, of Iowa; for attorney-general, WayneMacYeagh, 
 of Pennsylvania; for postmaster-general, Thomas L. James, of New 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 
 
 649 
 
 York. These nominations were promptly confirmed, and the new 
 administration entered upon its course with omens of an auspicious 
 future. 
 
 One of the first issues which engaged the attention of the govern¬ 
 ment after Garfield’s accession to the Presidency, was the question of 
 Reform in the Civil Service. This question had been inherited 
 from the administration of Hayes, by whom several spasmodic efforts 
 had been made to introduce better methods in the selection of men to 
 fill the appointive offices of the United States. The real issue was 
 whether the choice of the officials of the government should be made 
 on the grounds of the character and fitness of the candidate, or on the 
 principle of distributing political patronage to those who had best 
 served the party — whether men should be promoted from the lower 
 to the higher grades of official life, and retained according to the 
 value and proficiency of the service rendered, or be elevated to posi¬ 
 tion in proportion to their success in carrying elections and maintain¬ 
 ing the party in power. The members of Congress to whom the help 
 of efficient supporters in their own districts and states seemed essential, 
 and by whom the patronage of the government had been dispensed 
 since the days of Jackson, held stoutly to the old order, unwilling to 
 relinquish their influence over the appointing power. President 
 Hayes, after vainly attempting to establish the opposite policy, aban¬ 
 doned the field near the close of his administration. The national 
 Republican platform of 1880, however, vaguely endorsed “ civil service 
 reform” as a principle of the party, and some expectation existed that 
 President Garfield would follow the policy of his predecessor. With 
 the incoming of the new administration the rush for office was unpre¬ 
 cedented in the previous history of the country. The politicians and 
 place-seekers, who claimed to have “carried the election,” swarmed 
 into Washington and thronged the executive mansion, clamoring for 
 office, until, for the time, all plans and purposes of reform in the civil 
 service were quite crushed out of sight and forgotten. As always 
 hitherto, ambition for political power and hunger for the spoils of 
 office triumphed over the better sense of the American people. 
 
 The prospects of the new administration were soon darkened 
 with political difficulties. A division arose in the ranks of the Re¬ 
 publican party, threatening the disruption and ruin of that organiza¬ 
 tion. The two wings of the Republicans were nicknamed the “Half- 
 breeds ” and the “ Stalwarts: ” the latter, headed by Senator Conkling, 
 of Hew York, being the division which had so resolutely supported 
 General Grant for the Presidency in the Chicago Convention; the 
 
650 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 former, led by Mr. Blaine, now Secretary of State, and indorsed by 
 the President himself, had control of the government, and were 
 numerically stronger than their opponents. The Stalwarts claimed 
 the right of dispensing the appointive offices of the Government, after 
 the manner which prevailed for several preceding administrations; 
 that is, the distribution of the offices in the several States, under the 
 name of patronage, by the Senators and Representatives of those States 
 in Congress. The President, supported by his division of the party, 
 and in general by the reform element in politics, insisted on naming 
 the officers in the various States according to his own wishes and what 
 he conceived to be the fitness of things. ; 
 
 The chief clash between the two influences in the party occurred 
 in respect to the offices in New York. The collectorship of customs 
 for the port of New York is the best appointive office in the gift of 
 the Government. To fill this position the President appointed Judge 
 William Robertson, and the appointment was bitterly antagonized by 
 the New York Senators, Roscoe Conkling and Thomas C. Platt, who, 
 failing to prevent the confirmation of Robertson, resigned their seats, 
 returned to their State, and failed of a reelection. The breach thus 
 effected in the Republican ranks was such as to threaten the dis¬ 
 memberment of the party. 
 
 Such was the condition of affairs at the adjournment of the Senate 
 in June. A few days afterward the President made arrangements to 
 visit Williams College, where his two sons were to be placed at school, 
 and to pass a short vacation with his sick wife at the sea-side. On 
 the morning of July 2d, in company with Secretary Blaine and a few 
 friends, he entered the Baltimore depot at Washington, preparatory to 
 taking the train for Long Branch, N. J. A moment afterward he was 
 approached by a miserable political miscreant named Charles Julius 
 Guiteau, who, from behind, and unperceived, came within a few feet 
 of the company, drew a pistol, and fired upon the chief magistrate 
 of the Republic. The aim of the assassin was too well taken, and the 
 second shot struck the President centrally in the right side of the 
 back, inflicting a dreadful wound. The bleeding chieftain was quickly 
 borne away to the executive mansion, and the vile wretch who had com¬ 
 mitted the crime was hurried to prison. 
 
 For a week or two the hearts of the American people vibrated 
 between hope and fear. The best surgical aid was procured, and bul¬ 
 letins were daily issued containing a brief outline of the President's 
 condition. The conviction grew day by day that he would ultimately 
 recover. Two surgical operations were performed with a view of iiu 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 
 
 651 
 
 proving liis chances for life ; but a series of relapses occurred, and the 
 President gradually weakened under his sufferings. As a last hope 
 he was, on the 6th of September, carefully conveyed from Washington 
 City to Elberon, where he was placed in a cottage only a few 
 yards from the surf. Here, for a brief period, hope again revived, 
 but the symptoms were aggravated at intervals, and the patient sank 
 day by day. 
 
 At half past ten on the evening of September 19th, the anniversary 
 of the battle of Chickamauga, in which President Garfield had won his 
 chief military reputation, his vital powers suddenly gave way under the 
 destructive influence of blood poisoning and exhaustion, and in a few 
 moments death closed the scene. For eighty days he had borne the 
 pain and anguish of his situation with a fortitude and heroism rarely 
 witnessed among men. The dark shadow of the crime which had laid 
 him low heightened rather than eclipsed the luster and glory of his 
 great and exemplary life. 
 
 On the day following this deplorable event Vice-President 
 Arthur took the oath of office in Hew York, and immediately repaired 
 to Washington. For the fourth time in the history of the American 
 Republic the duties of the presidency had been devolved by death 
 upon the man constitutionally provided for such an emergency. The 
 heart of the people, however, clung for a time to the dead rather than 
 to the living President. The funeral of Garfield was observed first of 
 all at Washington, whither the body was taken and placed in state in 
 the rotunda of the Capitol. Here it was viewed by tens of thousands 
 of people during the 22d and 23d of September. In liis life-time the 
 illustrious dead had chosen as the place of his burial the Lakeview 
 Cemetery, at Cleveland, Ohio, and thither, on the 24th of the month, the 
 remains were conveyed by way of Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. As 
 in the case of the dead Lincoln, the funeral processions and ceremonies 
 were a pageant, exhibiting every-where the loyal respect and love of 
 the American people for him who had so lately been their pride. On 
 the 26th of September his body was laid in its final resting-place. The 
 day of the burial was observed throughout the country in great as¬ 
 semblies gathered from hamlet and town and city, all anxious to tes¬ 
 tify, by some appropriate word or token, their sorrow for the great 
 national calamity, and their appreciation of the grand example of 
 James A. Garfield’s life. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, called by this sad event to be the President of the 
 United States, was born in Franklin County, Vermont, October 5,1830. 
 He is of Irish descent, and was educated at Union College, from which 
 
652 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 institution lie was graduated in 1849. For a while he taught school 
 in his native State, and then came to New York City to study law. 
 Here he was 
 soon admitted 
 to the bar and 
 rapidly rose to 
 d i stincti on. 
 
 During the 
 Civil AYar he 
 was Quarter¬ 
 master-Gener¬ 
 al of the State 
 of New York, 
 a very impor¬ 
 tant and try¬ 
 ing o ffi c e, 
 which he filled 
 with great 
 credit to him¬ 
 self and the 
 government. 
 
 After 1865 lie 
 returned to 
 the practice of 
 law, and was 
 appointed Col¬ 
 lector Of CllS- CHKSt'EU A. AUTlIfII. 
 
 toms for the 
 
 port of New York in 1871. This position he held until July, 1878, 
 when he was removed by President Ilayes. Again he returned to his 
 law practice, but was soon called by the voice of his party to be a 
 standard-bearer in the presidential canvass of 1880. His election to 
 the vice-presidency followed, and then, by the death of President 
 Garfield, he rose to the post of chief honor among the American 
 people. 
 
 The assumption of the duties of his high office by President 
 Arthur was attended with but little ceremony or formality. On the 
 22d of September the oath of office was again administered to him in 
 the \Gce-President’s room, in the Capitol, Chief-justice AVaite officiat¬ 
 ing. After this, in the presence of the few who were gathered in 
 the apartment, he delivered a brief and appropriate address, referring. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF OAIIFIELD AND ARTHUR. 655 
 
 in a touching manner, to the death of his predecessor. Those present 
 .—including General Grant, ex-President Hayes, Senator Sherman, and 
 his brother the General of the army—then paid their respects, and 
 the ceremony was at an end. 
 
 In accordance with the custom, the members of the Cabinet, as 
 constituted so recently by President Garfield, immediately tendered 
 their resignations. These were not at once accepted, the President in¬ 
 stead inviting all of the members to retain their places as his consti 
 tutional advisers. For the time all did so except Mr. Windom, Secre¬ 
 tary of the Treasury, who was succeeded by Judge Folger, of New 
 York. Mr. MacVeagh, the Attorney General, also resigned a short time 
 afterward, and the President appointed as his successor lion. Benjamin 
 H. Brewster, of Philadelphia. The next to retire from the Garfield 
 Cabinet were Mr. Blaine, Secretary of State, and Mr. James, Post¬ 
 master General, who were succeeded in their respective offices by Hon. 
 F. T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, and Hon. Timothy A. Howe, of 
 Wisconsin. Mr. Lincoln—so great was the charm of that illustrious 
 name—remained, as if by common consent, at the head of the Depart¬ 
 ment of War. Besides those changes in his constitutional advisers, 
 not much disposition to revolutionize the policy of the Government 
 was manifested by the new administration; and the people generally, 
 without respect to party lines, gave a tolerably cordial support to him 
 who had been so suddenly called to the chief magistracy of the Union. 
 
 From its predecessor the administration of President Arthur in¬ 
 herited not a few complications and troubles. The chief of these was 
 the series of important State trials relating to the alleged Star Route 
 Conspiracy. Under the recent conduct of affairs in the Post-office 
 Department of the Government there had been organized a class of 
 fast mail routes, known as the Star Houtes, the ostensible object being 
 to carry the mails with rapidity and certainty into certain distant and 
 almost inaccessible portions of the Western States and Territories. 
 The law governing the letting of mail contracts was of such sort as to 
 restrict the action of the Postmaster General and his subordinates to 
 definite limits of expense; but one clause of the law gave to the De¬ 
 partment the discretionary power to “ expedite ” such mail routes as 
 seemed to be weaker and less efficient than the service required. This 
 gave to certain officers of the Government the opportunity to let the 
 contracts for many mail lines at a minimum , and then under their dis¬ 
 cretionary power to expedite the same lines into efficiency at exorbitant 
 rates—the end and aim being to divide the spoils with the contractors. 
 
 This alleged Star Route conspiracy to defraud the Government was 
 
654 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 unearthed during the Garfield administration, and Attorney-General 
 MacYeagh was directed by the President to prosecute the reputed 
 conspirators. Indictments were found by the Grand Jury against ex- 
 United States Senator S.tephen W. Dorsey, of Arkansas; second 
 assistant Postmaster-General Thomas J. Brady, of Indiana, and several 
 others of less note. Mr. MacYeagh, however, seemed in the conduct 
 of the Department of Justice to act with little spirit and no success; 
 but on the coming into office of Attorney-General Brewster, matters 
 were quickened into sharp activity, and those indicted for conspiracy 
 were brought to trial. After several weeks of stormy prosecution and 
 defence, the case went to the jury, who brought in a verdict absurdly 
 convicting certain subordinates of participating in a conspiracy which 
 could not have existed without the guilt of their superiors. This 
 scandal, occupying the public mind in the summer of 1882, contributed 
 much to the defeat of the Republican party in the State elections of 
 the November following—a defeat so general as to remand by over¬ 
 whelming majorities the control of the Congress of the United States 
 to the Democrats. 
 
 It is fortunate that the pen of history is sometimes occupied with 
 events of a nature and tendency wholly different from the public 
 affairs of the State. Perhaps the most striking feature of the civiliza 
 tion of our times is exhibited in the advancement of science, as illus¬ 
 trated in the thousand applications of discovery and invention to the 
 wants of mankind. At no other age in the history of the world has the 
 practical knowledge of nature’s laws been so rapidly and widely 
 diffused ; and at no other epoch has the subjection of natural relations 
 to the will of man been so wonderfully displayed. The old life of 
 the human race is giving place to the new life, based on science, and 
 energized by the knowledge that the conditions of man’s environment 
 are as benevolent as they are immutable. 
 
 Yain would it be to attempt to enumerate all the ways in which the 
 beneficent work of science has been extended in our day ; but perhaps 
 a specification of a few of the most remarkable of the recent applica¬ 
 tions of scientific knowledge may prove of interest to the reader of 
 our current history. 
 
 It has remained for the present to solve the problem of oral commu¬ 
 nication between persons at a distance. A knowledge of the laws of 
 sound and electricity has enabled the scientists of our day to transmit, 
 or at least reproduce, the human voice at a distance of hundreds or even 
 thousands of miles. The history of the Telephone will ever stand as 
 a perpetual reminder to after ages of the inventive skill and scientific 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 655 
 
 progress of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. This instru¬ 
 ment, like many similar inventions, seems to have been the work of 
 several ingenious minds directed at nearly the same time to the same 
 problem. The solution, however, may be properly accredited to Mr. 
 Elisha P. Gray, of Chicago, and Professor A. Graham Bell, of the 
 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It should he mentioned, 
 however, that Professor A. C. Dolbear, of Tufts College, Massa¬ 
 chusetts, and Mr. Thomas A. Edison, of Menlo Park, New Jersey, 
 have also succeeded in solving the original difficulties in the way of 
 telephonic communication, or at least in answering practically some of 
 the minor questions in the way of success. 
 
 The Telephone may 
 be defined as an instru¬ 
 ment for the reproduction 
 of sounds, particularly the 
 sounds of the human voice, 
 by the agency of electricity, 
 at long distances from the 
 origin of the vocal disturb¬ 
 ance. It is now well known 
 that sound consists of a 
 wave agitation, communi¬ 
 cated through some me¬ 
 dium to the organ of- hear¬ 
 ing. Every particular sound 
 has its own physical equiv¬ 
 alent in the system of waves 
 in which it is written. The 
 only thing that is necessary 
 in order to carry a sound in 
 its integrity to any distance 
 is to transmit its physical 
 equivalent, and to redeliver 
 that equivalent to some or¬ 
 gan of hearing capable of receiving it. Upon this idea the Telephone 
 is created. Every sound which falls by impact upon the sheet-iron disk 
 of the instrument communicates thereto a sort of tremor ; this tremor 
 causes the disk to approach and recede from the magnetic pole placed 
 just behind the diaphragm. A current of electricity is thus induced, 
 pulsates along the wire to the other end, and is delivered to the me¬ 
 tallic disk of the second instrument, many miles away, just as it was 
 
 THE TELEPHONE. 
 
656 
 
 BISTORT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 produced in the first. The ear of the hearer receives from the second 
 instrument the exact physical equivalent of the sound or sounds which 
 were delivered against the disk of the first instrument, and thus the 
 utterance is received at a distance just as it was given forth. 
 
 As already said, the invention of the Telephone stands chiefly to 
 the credit of Professors Gray and Bell. It should be recorded that as 
 early as 1837 the philosopher Page succeeded, by means of electro¬ 
 magnetism, in transmitting musical tones to a distance. It was not, 
 however, until 1877 that Professor Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology, at a public lecture given at Salem, astonished his 
 ludience, and the whole country as well, by receiving and transmitting 
 vocal messages from Boston, twenty miles away. Incredulity had no 
 more a place, as it respected the feasibility of talking to others at a dis¬ 
 tance. The experiments of Mr. Gray at Chicago, a few days later in 
 the same month, were equally successful. Messages were distinctly 
 transmitted between that city and Milwaukee, a distance of eighty-five 
 miles; nor could it be longer doubted that a new era in the means of 
 communication had come. The Bell Telephone, with many modifi¬ 
 cations and improvements, has sprung into rapid use. Within reason¬ 
 able limits of distance the new method of transmitting intelligence by 
 direct vocal utterance is rapidly taking the place of all slower and less 
 convenient means of inter-communication. The appearance of this 
 simple instrument is one of the many harbingers of that auspicious 
 time when the constant interchange of thought and sentiment between 
 man and man, community and community, nation and nation, shall 
 conduce to the peace of the world and the goodfellowsliip of all 
 mankind. 
 
 From the Telephone to the Phonogkaph was but a step. Both in¬ 
 struments are based upon the same principle of science. The dis¬ 
 covery that every sound has its physical equivalent in a wave or agita¬ 
 tion which affects the particles of matter composing the material 
 through which the sound is transmitted, led almost inevitably to the 
 other discovery of catching and retaining that physical equivalent or 
 wave in the surface of some body, and to the reproduction of the 
 original sound therefrom. Such is the fundamental principle of the 
 interesting, but thus far little useful, instrument known as the Phono¬ 
 graph. The same was invented by Thomas A. Edison in the year 
 1877. The Phonograph differs considerably in structure and purpose 
 from the Yibrograph and the Phonautograph which preceded it. The 
 iatter two instruments were made simply to write sound vibrations: 
 the former to reproduce audibly the sounds themselves. 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 657 
 
 The Phonograph consists of three principal parts: the sender, oi 
 funnel-shaped tube, with its open mouth-piece standing toward the 
 operator; the diaphragm and stylus united therewith, which receive 
 the sound spoken into the tube ; and, thirdly, the revolving cylinder, 
 with its sheet-coating of tin foil laid over the surface of the spiral 
 groove, to receive the indentations of the point of the stylus. The mode 
 of operation is very simple. The cylinder is revolved and the point of 
 the stylus when there is no sound-agitation in the funnel or moutli-piece 
 makes a smooth continuous depression in the tin-foil over the spiral 
 groove. But when any sound is thrown into the mouth-piece the iron 
 disk or diaphragm is agitated ; this agitation is carried through the 
 stylus and M r ritten in irregular marks, dots, and peculiar figures in the 
 tin-foil groove. When the utterance which is to be reproduced has 
 been completed the instrument is stopped, the stylus thrown back 
 from the groove, and the cylinder revolved backward to the place of 
 starting. The stylus is now returned to its place in the groove, and 
 the cylinder is revolved at the same rate of rapidity as before. As the 
 point of the stylus plays up and down in the indentations and through 
 the figures of the tin-foil produced by its own previous agitation, a 
 quiver exactly equivalent to that which was produced by the utterance 
 in the mouth-piece is now communicated backward to the diaphragm, 
 and by it is flung through the mouth-piece into the air. This agita¬ 
 tion is, of course, the exact physical equivalent of the original sound, 
 or more properly is the sound itself. Thus it is that the Phonograph 
 is made to talk, to sing, to cry, to utter, in short, any sound sufficiently 
 powerful to produce a perceptible tremor in the mouth-piece and dia¬ 
 phragm of the instrument. 
 
 Some experiments have already been made looking to the utilization 
 of the Phonograph as a practical addition to the civilizing apparatus 
 of our times. It has been proposed to stereotype the tin-foil record of 
 what has been uttered in the mouth-piece, and thus to preserve in a 
 permanent form the potency of vanished sounds. If this could be 
 successfully and perfectly accomplished the invention of the Phono¬ 
 graph would, doubtless, take rank with the greatest of the age, and 
 might possibly revolutionize the whole method of learning. It would 
 seem, indeed, that nature has intended the ear , rather than the eye , as 
 the organ of education. It seems to be against the everlasting fitness 
 of things that the eyes of all mankind should be strained, weakened, 
 permanently injured, in childhood with the unnatural tasks which are 
 imposed upon that delicate organ. It would seem to be more in 
 accordance with the nature and capacities of man and the general 
 42 
 
658 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITE!) STATES. 
 
 character of the external world to reserve the eve for the discernment 
 
 V 
 
 and appreciation of beauty, and to impose upon the ear the tedious 
 and hard tasks 'of education. The Phonograph make it possible to 
 read by the ear, instead of by the eye ; and it is not beyond the range 
 of probability that the book of the future, near or remote, will be 
 written in phonographic plates and made to reveal its story to the 
 waiting ear rather than through the medium of print to the enfeebled 
 and tired eye of the reader. 
 
 Perhaps the most marked and valuable invention of the age—the 
 one best calculated to affect favorably the welfare of the people, 
 especially in great cities—is that of The Electric Light. The intro¬ 
 duction of this superior system of illumination marks an epoch more 
 interesting and important in the history of our country than is any 
 political conflict or mere change of rulers. About the beginning of 
 the last decade the project of introducing the electric light for general 
 purposes of illumination began to be agitated. It was at once per¬ 
 ceived that the advantages of such lighting were as conspicuous as 
 they were obvious. The light is so powerful as to render practicable 
 the performance of many mechanical operations as easily by night as 
 by day. Again, the danger of lire from illuminating sources is obvi¬ 
 ated by the new system. The ease and expedition of all kinds of 
 night employment are greatly enhanced. A given amount of illumi¬ 
 nation can be produced much more cheaply by electricity than by any 
 means of gas-lighting or ordinary combustion. 
 
 Among the first to demonstrate the feasibility of Electric Lighting 
 was the philosopher Gramme, of Paris. In the early part of 1875 he 
 successfully lighted his laboratory by means of electricity. Soon 
 afterward the foundry of Ducommun & Company, of Mulhouse, was 
 similarly lighted. In the course of the following year the apparatus 
 for lighting by means of carbon candles was introduced into many -of 
 the principal factories of France and other leading countries of 
 Europe. It may prove of interest in this connection to sketcli briefly 
 the principal features of the Electric Light system, and to trace in a 
 few paragraphs the development of that system in our own and other 
 countries. 
 
 Lighting by electricity is accomplished in several ways. In general, 
 however, the principle by which the result is accomplished is one, and 
 depends upon the resistance which the electrical current meets in its 
 transmission through various substances. There are no perfect con¬ 
 ductors of electricity. In proportion as the non-conductive quality ia 
 present in a substance, especially in a metal, the resistance to the pas- 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 659 
 
 sage of electricity is pronounced, and the consequent disturbance 
 among the molecular particles of the substance is great. Whenever 
 such resistance is encountered in a circuit, the electricity is converted 
 into heat; and when the resistance is great the heat is in turn con¬ 
 verted into light; that is, the substance which offers the resistance 
 glows with the transformed energy of the impeded current. 
 
 Upon this simple principle all the apparatus for the production of 
 the Electric Light is constructed. Among the metallic substances the 
 one best adapted by its low conductivity to such resistance and transfor¬ 
 mation of force is platinum. The high degree of heat necessary to 
 fuse this metal adds to its usefulness and availability for the purpose 
 indicated. When an electrical current is forced along a platinum wire 
 too small to transmit the entire volume it becomes at once heated, first 
 to a red and then to a white glow, and is thus made to send forth a 
 radiance like that of the sun. Of the non-metallic elements which 
 offer similar resistance the best is carbon. The infusibility of this 
 substance renders it greatly superior to platinum for purposes of the 
 Electric Light. 
 
 As much as seventy years ago it was discovered by Sir Humphry 
 Davy that carbon points may be rendered incandescent by means of a 
 powerful electrical current. That philosopher in 1809 made the dis¬ 
 covery here referred to while experimenting with the great battery of 
 the Royal Institution in London. He observed, rather by accident 
 than by design or previous anticipation, that a powerful electrical cur¬ 
 rent, passing between two pointed bits of wood charcoal, produces 
 tremendous heat and a light like that of the sun. It appears, how¬ 
 ever, that the philosopher regarded the phenomenon rather in the 
 nature of an interesting display of force than as a suggestion of the 
 possibility of turning night into day. 
 
 For nearly three quarters of a century the discovery made by Sir 
 Humphry lay dormant among the great mass of scientific facts 
 revealed in the laboratory. In the course of time, however, the 
 potency of the new fact began to be apprehended. The electric lamp 
 in many forms was proposed and tried. The scientists Niardet, 
 Wilde, Brush, Fuller, and many others of less note busied themselves 
 with the work of invention. Especially did MM. Gramme and 
 Siemens devote their scientific genius to the work of turning to good 
 account the knowledge now fully possessed of the transformability of 
 the electric current into light. 
 
 The experiments of these two distinguished inventors seemed to 
 bring us to the dawn of a new era in artificial lighting. The Russian 
 
660 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 philosopher Jablochkoff carried the work still further by the practical 
 introduction of the carbon candle. Other scientists—Carre, Foucault, 
 Serrin, Rapieff, and Werdermann—had at an earlier or later day 
 thrown much additional information into the common stock of knowl¬ 
 edge relative to the illuminating possibilities of electricity. Finally 
 this accumulated material of science fell into the hands of our own 
 untutored but remarkably brilliant and radical inventor, Thomas A. 
 Edison, who gave himself with the utmost zeal to the work of remov¬ 
 ing the remaining difficulties in the problem. He began his investiga¬ 
 tions in this line of invention in September of 1878, and in December 
 of the following year gave to the public his first formal statement of 
 results. After many experiments with platinum, he abandoned that 
 material in favor of the carbon-arc in vacuo. The latter is, indeed, the 
 essential feature of the Edison light. A small semicircle, or horse¬ 
 shoe, of some substance reduced to the form of pure carbon, the two 
 ends being attached to the poles of the generating machine, or 
 “ dynamo,” as the engine is popularly called, is enclosed in a glass 
 bulb from which the air has been carefully withdrawn, and is rendered 
 incandescent by the passage of an electric current. The ofchoi' impor¬ 
 tant features of Edison’s discovery relate to the divisibility of the cur¬ 
 rent and its control and regulation in volume by the operator. These 
 matters have been so fully mastered ; n the Edison invention as to 
 render the apparatus as completely subject to the management of even 
 an unskilled PPffifpulator as are the other varieties of illuminating 
 itj)jparatus. 
 
 it were vain to speculate upon the future of electric lighting. 
 Doubtless the old systems of illumination are destined soon to give 
 place altogether to the splendors of the electric glow. The general 
 effects of the change upon society will, no doubt, be as marked as they 
 are salutary. Darkness, the enemy of good government and morality in 
 great cities, will in a great measure be dispelled by the beneficent 
 agent over which the genius of Davy, Gramme, Brush, Edison, and a 
 host of other explorers in the new continents of science has so nearly 
 triumphed. The ease, comfort, happiness, and welfare of mankind 
 will be vastly multiplied; and we shall ever be reminded in the 
 glow of the “ light of the future” of that splendid fact, that the prog¬ 
 ress of civilization depends in a large measure upon the knowl¬ 
 edge of nature’s laws and the diffusion of that knowledge among the 
 people. 
 
 The last decade has also been conspicuous for the number and 
 character of the public works which have been projected or brought 
 
ARTHUR'S ABMINISTRATWN. 
 
 661 
 
 to completion within 
 the period. In these 
 the immense physical 
 capacity of our country 
 and people has been am¬ 
 ply illustrated. Among 
 the most important of 
 the enterprises here re¬ 
 ferred to may be men¬ 
 tioned the great suspen¬ 
 sion bridge over the 
 strait known as the East 
 Eiver, between New 
 York and Brooklyn. 
 The completion and for¬ 
 mal opening of this work, 
 which occurred on the 
 24th of May, 1883, was 
 an event of such interest 
 as to evoke universal at¬ 
 tention and elicit many 
 descriptions. 
 
 The Brooklyn 
 Bridge is the longest 
 and largest structure of 
 the kind in the world. 
 The design was the work 
 of the distinguished 
 John A. Boebling, the 
 originator of wire sus¬ 
 pension bridges, under 
 whose supervision and 
 that of his son, Wash¬ 
 ington A. Roebling, 
 the structure was com¬ 
 pleted.* 
 
 * The personal history of 
 the Roeblings, father and son, 
 in connection with the great 
 bridge, is as pathetic as it is 
 interesting. The elder engineer 
 was injured while laying the 
 
662 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The East River structure is what is known as a suspension bridge, 
 being supported by four enormous wires or cables stretching from pier 
 to pier a distance of 1,595 feet. From the main towers to the anchor¬ 
 ages on either side is 930 feet. From the anchorages outward to the 
 termini of the approaches is, on the New York side a distance of 1,562 
 feet, and on the Brooklyn side 972 feet, giving a total length of bridge 
 and approaches of 5,989 feet. The total weight of the structure is 
 6,470 tons. The estimated capacity of support is 1,740 tons, though 
 the ultimate resistance is calculated at 49,200 tons. 
 
 The Brooklyn Bridge was first projected by William C. Kingsley, 
 president of the bridge trustees, and his predecessor in that office, 
 Henry C. Murphy; the first plans and estimates were prepared in 
 1865. The company for the construction was organized two years 
 afterward. The capital was fixed at $5,000,000. The enterprise 
 was not pressed with due vigor until 1875, when the work was taken 
 up by the State of New York. A Board of Managers was appointed 
 to bring the bridge to completion at as early a date as possible. Con¬ 
 gress also patronized the enterprise to the extent of authorizing the 
 construction of the work, which act was passed in June of 1869. The 
 formal opening of the bridge in May of 1883 drew the attention of 
 the whole nation to the metropolis, and proved bv the interest which 
 the event excited that the American people are still able to appreciate 
 a great enterprise in art and mechanics, and to show by such appre¬ 
 ciation that, even in America, politics is not the best vocation of 
 mankind. 
 
 On the whole, the administration of President Arthur proved to 
 be uneventful. The government pursued the even tenor of its way, 
 and the progress of the country was unchecked by serious calam¬ 
 ity. In the domain of politics we may note the gradual obliteration of 
 those sharply defined issues which for the last quarter of a century 
 have divided the two great parties. As a consequence there has been a 
 healthful abatement of partisan rancor. It is becoming every year more 
 apparent that the questions at issue in the political arena are merely 
 
 foundation of one of the shore piers on the 22d of July, 1869, and died of lockjaw. W. A. 
 Roebling then took up his father’s unfinished task. He continued the work of super¬ 
 vision for about two years, when he was prostrated with a peculiar form of paralysis known 
 as the ‘'caisson disease,” from which he never fully recovered. His mental faculties, 
 however, remained unimpaired, and he was able to direct with his eye what his hands could 
 no longer touch. While thus prostrated his wife discovered a genius almost equal to that 
 of her husband and her father-in-law. The palsied engineer, thus re-enforced, continued for 
 five years to furnish plans for the work which had been projected by his father. These 
 plans were almost all drawn by his wife, who never flagged in the great work which had 
 fallen to her prostrate husband. In 1876 he was partly restored to health, and lived to 
 hear the applause which his genius and enterprise had merited. 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 663 
 
 factitious, and that the clamor of partisanship is kept up for the most 
 part by those who hope to gather the spoils of the political battle¬ 
 field. How much longer these ill-founded cries of alarm will serve 
 the purpose of holding the people in line under the old party names 
 is a question which none may solve with certainty. Meanwhile, the 
 man who plows, or keeps the flock—the mechanic, the artisan, the 
 merchant—will for the present, no doubt, continue to come forth at 
 the call of the party leaders and vote as has been his wont on issues 
 that are more imaginary than real, and whose only merit consists in 
 the fact that a certain residue of patriotism is still the motive-force in 
 the average American election. 
 
 To the general fact, that party questions are no longer vital and dis¬ 
 tinct, there is one general exception. It cannot be doubted that the 
 American people are really and sincerely divided on the question of 
 the tariff. Whether the true policy of the United States is that of free 
 trade or of a protective system is a fundamental issue, and the decision 
 is not yet. Ever and anon, from the very foundation of the government 
 to the present hour, this question has obtruded itself upon the attention 
 of the people. It may be well, therefore, in this connection to state 
 the various views which may be entertained on the subject. 
 
 First, we have the doctrine of free trade pure and simple. The 
 theory is this: The indications of profitable industry are founded in 
 nature. A rich soil means agriculture; a barren soil means something 
 else. Beds of ore signify mining; veins of petroleum, oil wells; a 
 headlong river, water-power; a hill of silicon, glass-works ; a forest of 
 pine, ship masts and coal-tar; bays, havens, and rivers, commerce. 
 Free trade says that these things are the hints of the natural world as 
 to how human industry shall be exerted. The way to wealth, pros- 
 perit}^, happiness, is to follow nature whithersoever she leads. To go 
 against nature is to go against self-interest and common sense. “Let 
 alone ” is the motto of the system—hands off and no meddling with 
 the plain conditions which are imposed on man by his environment. 
 Let him who lives in the fecund valley till the soil and gather a hun¬ 
 dred-fold. Let him who inhabits the rocky upland by river-side or bed of 
 pent-up coal devote his energies to manufacturing. Let each procure 
 from the other by exchange the necessities and conveniences of life 
 which he could not himself produce but at a great disadvantage. Let 
 the producer of raw material send it near or far to the manufacturer and 
 receive in return the fabric which he must wear; the food wherewith 
 he must sustain his life. Why should he do otherwise ? It is intend¬ 
 ed that men should live together in t °mity. Neighbors should be at 
 45 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 664 
 
 
 peace. Different communities should not quarrel. Nations should 
 not fight. The harmonious order of civilization requires a world-wide 
 exchange of products. Men are happier and richer when they give 
 themselves freely to the laws of their environment, and toil in those 
 fields of industry to which both their own dispositions and the benevo¬ 
 lent finger of nature points the way. 
 
 All contrivances of law which controvert or oppose these funda¬ 
 mental conditions of legitimate industry are false in theory and per¬ 
 nicious in application. If civil society assume to direct the industries 
 of her people against the plain indications of nature, she becomes a 
 tyrant. All laws which tend to divert the industrial energies of a 
 nation from these pursuits which are indicated by the natural sur¬ 
 roundings are hurtful, selfish, self-destructive, and, in the long run, 
 weakening and degrading to the people. A tariff duty so laid as to 
 build up one industry at the expense of another is a piece of barbarous 
 intermeddling alike with the principles of common sense and the in¬ 
 herent rights of man. If free trade makes one nation dependent on 
 another, then it also makes that other nation dependent on the first. 
 The one can no more afford to fight the other than the other can af¬ 
 ford to fight it. Hence free trade. It is beneficent and just. Hence 
 a tariff for revenue only. It is the true policy of government rela¬ 
 tive to the interests of the people. Such is the theory of the free 
 trader. 
 
 The first remove from the doctrine of free trade proper is that of 
 incidental protection. The primary assumptions of this theory are 
 nearly identical with those above presented. Nearly all of the propo¬ 
 sitions advanced by the free trader are accepted as correct by the inci¬ 
 dental protectionist. The latter, however, holds some peculiar doc¬ 
 trines of his own. He claims that men—as the doctrine of free trade 
 teaches—should labor according to the indications of nature, and that 
 the attempt on the part of government to divert the industries of the 
 people from one channel to another is contrary to right reason and 
 sound policy. But he also holds that since a tariff is the common 
 means adopted by most of the civilized States of the world to produce 
 the revenue whereby the expenses of the State are met and sustained, 
 the same should be so levied as to be incidentally favorable to those 
 industries of the people which are placed at a natural disadvantage. 
 He does not hold that any tariff should be levied with the intention 
 of protecting and fostering a given industry, but that in every case the 
 tax should be laid for public purposes only—that is, with the intention 
 of sustaining the State , and be only incidentally directed to the pro- 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 665 
 
 tection of the weaker industry. These last assumptions furnish the 
 ground of political divergence between free traders proper and in¬ 
 cidental protectionists. The latter take into consideration both the fun¬ 
 damental conditions of the argument and the peculiar character of the 
 industries of the people. They claim that given pursuits may thus be 
 strengthened and encouraged by legislative provisions, and that natural 
 and political laws may be made to co-operate in varying and increasing 
 the productive resources of the State. 
 
 The third view as relative to this question is that of limited pro¬ 
 tection. The fundamental difference between this theory and the 
 preceding is this: The incidental protectionist denies, and the limited 
 protectionist affirms, the wisdom of levying tariff duties with the in¬ 
 tention and purpose of protecting home industries. The limited pro¬ 
 tectionist would have the legislation of the State take particular cog¬ 
 nizance of the character of the industries of the people, and would 
 have the laws enacted with constant reference to the encouragement 
 of the weaker—generally the manufacturing—pursuits. The doctrine 
 of incidental protection would stop short of this; would adopt the 
 theory of “ let alone,” so far as the original purpose of legislation is 
 concerned, but would at the same time so shape the tariff that a needed 
 stimulus should be given to certain industries. The limited protec¬ 
 tionist agrees with the free trader in certain assumptions. The former 
 as well as the latter assents to the proposition that the original con 
 dition o* industry is found in nature—in the environment of the 
 laborer. But he also urges that the necessity for a varied industry is 
 so great so important, to the welfare and independence of a people as 
 to justify the deflection of human energies by law to certain pursuits 
 which could not be profitabl } 7 followed but for the fact of protection. 
 This he makes a reason for tariff legislation. He would make the 
 weaker industry live and thrive by the side of the stronger. He 
 would modify the crude rules of nature by the higher rules of human 
 reason. He would not only adapt man to his environment, but would* 
 adapt the environment to him. He would keep in view the strength 
 and dignity of the State, and would be willing to incur temporary dis¬ 
 advantages for the sake cf permanent good. In the course of time, 
 when, under the stimulus of a protective system, the industries of the 
 State have become sufficiently varied and sufficiently harmonized with 
 original conditions, he would allow the system of protective duties to 
 expire and freedom of trade to supervene, but until that time he would 
 insist that the weaker, but not less necessary, industries of a people 
 should be encouraged and fostered by law. He would deny the justice- 
 
666 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 or economy of tliat system which in a new country, boundless in 
 natural resources but poor in capital, would constrain the people to 
 bend themselves to the production of a few great staples, the manu¬ 
 facture of which by foreign nations would make them rich and leave 
 the original producers in perpetual vassalage and poverty. 
 
 The fourth view is embodied in the theory of high protection. In 
 this the doctrine is boldly advanced that the assumptions of free trade 
 are specious and false. The influence of man upon his environment 
 is so great as to make it virtually whatever the law of right reason 
 would suggest. The suggestion of right reason is this: Every nation 
 should be independent. Its sovereignty and equality should be secured 
 by every means short of injustice. In order that a State may be inde¬ 
 pendent and able to mark out for itself a great destiny, its industries 
 must afford employment for all the talents and faculties of man, and 
 yield products adapted to all his wants. To devote the energies of a 
 people to those industries only which are suggested by the situation 
 and environment, is to make man a slave to nature instead of nature’s 
 master. It may be sound reason for the people inhabiting a fertile valley 
 to devote themselves principally to agricultural pursuits; but to do 
 this to the exclusion of other industries is merely to narrow the en¬ 
 ergies of the race, make dependent the laborer, and finally exhaust 
 those very powers of nature which for the present seem to suggest one 
 pursuit and forbid all others. On the contrary it is the duty of society 
 to build up many industries in every locality, whatever may be the en¬ 
 vironment. If nature furnishes no suggestion of blast furnaces and 
 iron-works, then nature should be constrained by means of human 
 law. The production of manufactured products should be so en¬ 
 couraged by tariff duties as to become profitable in all situations. Hot 
 only should every State, but every community be made comparatively 
 independent. Every community should be able, by its own in¬ 
 dustries, to supply at least the larger part of its own wants. The 
 spindle should be made to turn; the forge made to glow; the mill¬ 
 wheel made to turn; the engine made to pant; and the towering fur¬ 
 nace to fling up into the darkness of midnight its volcanic glare—all 
 this, whether nature has or has not prepared the antecedents of such 
 activities. And this cannot be accomplished, or at least not well accom¬ 
 plished, in any other way than by the legal protection of those in¬ 
 dustries which do not flourish under the action of merely natural laws. 
 It is, in brief, the theory of the high protectionist that every commu¬ 
 nity of men, by means of its varied and independent activities—fos¬ 
 tered and encouraged by the protective system—should become in the 
 
667 
 
 ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 body politic wliat the ganglion is in the nerve system of man—an in¬ 
 dependent, local power, capable of originating its own action and di¬ 
 recting its own energies. 
 
 There is still a fifth position occasionally assumed by publicists and 
 sometimes by nations. This is the doctrine and practice of prohib¬ 
 itory tariffs. The idea here is that the mutual interdependence of 
 nations is, on the whole, disadvantageous, and that each should be ren¬ 
 dered wholly independent of the other. If in any State or nation cer¬ 
 tain industrial powers and conditions are wanting, then those powers 
 and conditions should be produced by means of law. Internal trade 
 is, according to this doctrine, the principal thing; and commercial in¬ 
 tercourse with foreign States a matter of secondary or even dubious ad¬ 
 vantage. If the price of the given home product be not sufficient to 
 stimulate its production in such quantities as to meet all the requirements 
 of the market, then that price should be raised by means of legislation, 
 and raised again and again, until the foreign trade shall cease and home 
 manufacture be supplied in its place. True, there are not many who 
 now carry the doctrine of protection to this extreme; but it is also true 
 that in the endeavor to prepare protective schedules under the system of 
 limited or high protection it not infrequently happens that the tariff 
 is fixed at such a scale as to act as a prohibitory duty, and turn aside 
 entirely the foreign commerce in the article on which the tariff is laid. 
 
 Such, then, is the question which from time to time has arisen in 
 die political history of our country. The second statute ever enacted by 
 Congress under the Constitution was passed for the purpose of “ pro 
 viding a revenue and affording protection to American industry 
 Even the very necessity which gave rise to the Constitution itself was 
 one relating to commerce and interwoven with the tariff. From the 
 beginning the question would not down. During the fourth and fifth 
 decades of the century the leading political agitations were produced 
 by the revival of the tariff issue in our politics. Every one is acquaint¬ 
 ed with the “ American system ” which was so earnestly promoted by 
 Henry Clay. Every one knows that in general the Whigs of the ante¬ 
 bellum epoch were in favor of the protective system, and that the Demo¬ 
 crats opposed it. After the war the question slumbered for a season. 
 In 1880 a paragraph in the national platform of the Democratic party 
 was inserted—not, indeed, with the intention of evoking an old con¬ 
 troversy from the shadows of oblivion—which by declaring in favor of 
 “a tariff for revenue only,” unexpectedly precipitated the whole issue, 
 and contributed to, if it did not determine, the defeat of the Demo¬ 
 cratic ticket. Even in those States where Democracy was in the ascend- 
 
 • A 
 
668 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ant the growth of great, manufacturing establishments had in the 
 meantime brought in a vast army of artisans, who, in spite of all party 
 affiliation, refused to support a platform which, according to their be¬ 
 lief, was calculated to injure, if not destroy, the very business in which 
 they were engaged. Both the Democrats and the Republicans during 
 the last four years have made a strenuous effort to align their party 
 followers on this question, but neither have been successful. Neither 
 are the Democrats unanimous for free trade, nor are the Republi¬ 
 cans unanimous for a system of protection. Perhaps unanimity has 
 been more nearly attained in the Republican than in the Democratic 
 ranks, though it is not to be denied that many of the most eminent 
 and thoughtful Republican leaders, in the East, are in favor of free 
 trade. 
 
 During the whole of Arthur’s administration this question gath¬ 
 ered head, and the white crests of conflicting tides were seen along 
 the whole surface of the presidential contest of 1884. The ultimate 
 settlement of the question will be determined by self-interest rather 
 than by abstract argument. When the party in power, whatever that 
 party may be, shall become convinced that the interest of the United 
 States requires the abolition of all protective duties and the substitution 
 therefor of a system of tariff for revenue only, then, and not till then, 
 will the English theory of political economy take the place of that 
 which has thus far prevailed on this side of the sea. 
 
 The quadrennial agitation of the American people relative to the 
 presidency began at an early date of Arthur’s administration. Hardly 
 had the crime of Garfield’s murder been perpetrated and the presi¬ 
 dency transferred to Mr. Arthur until the issue of naming a successor 
 was raised by the ever-busy swarm of American politicians. The year 
 1882 had hardly furnished a breathing-time for the subsidence of the 
 party passions of two years before, until the great army of the inter¬ 
 ested went, forth on an expedition to arouse the country for another 
 contest. It cannot be doubted that the managers of both the leading 
 political organizations have been for some years alarmed lest through 
 the failure of living issues the old combinations which have divided 
 the country for a quarter of a century should go to pieces and leave 
 the field to the people. But thus far the skill of partisans has been 
 sufficient to cajole the masses into the belief that the old questions are 
 still vital, and thus to keep alive the fires of a well-nigh extinct party 
 strife. 
 
 During the year 1883 many eminent men were named in connec¬ 
 tion with the presidential office. Among those most prominently and 
 
ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 669 
 
 warmly advocated by the Republicans were James G. Blaine, of 
 Maine ; George F. Edmunds, of Vermont; President Arthur, of New 
 York; Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut; John Sherman, of Ohio; 
 John A. Logan and Robert T. Lincoln, of Illinois ; and General Will¬ 
 iam T. Sherman, of Missouri. Among the Democrats, the statesmen 
 most frequently urged for the nomination in 1884 were General B. F. 
 Butler, of Massachusetts; Samuel J. Tilden and Grover Cleveland, of 
 New York; Samuel J. Randall, of Pennsylvania; Thomas F. Bayard, 
 of Delaware; Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio ; John G. Carlisle, of Ken¬ 
 tucky; Joseph E. M’Donald and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. 
 Early in 1884 Chicago was selected as the place of both the national 
 conventions. Meanwhile the Greenback-Labor party held its conven¬ 
 tion at Indianapolis in the month of April, and nominated Gen. B. F. 
 Butler as a candidate for the presidency, and A. M. West, of Missis¬ 
 sippi, for the vice-presidency, of the United States. The Republican 
 convention met on the 3d of May, and after a spirited session of three 
 days’ duration brought its labors to an end by the nomination of James 
 G. Blaine, of Maine, for president, and Gen. John A. Logan, of Illinois, 
 for vice-president; the Democratic delegates assembled on the 9th of 
 July, and on the 11th of the month concluded their session by the 
 nomination of Gov. Grover Cleveland, of New York, for the first place, 
 and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the second, on the national 
 ticket. Both the Republican and Democratic nominations were re¬ 
 ceived with general enthusiasm, but large and powerful factions in both 
 parties refused to support the nominee; nor could it well be foreseen at 
 the opening of the canvass of 1884 which party was likely to come out 
 victorious in the battle of the ensuing autumn. 
 
 As the summer wore away and the issues which the political parties 
 had attempted to create were discussed before the people, the uncer¬ 
 tainty became still greater. When the election drew nigh every thing 
 seemed to depend upon the electoral votes of New York and Indiana. 
 A close study of the situation revealed the fact that the latter State was 
 Democratic, and would so record her vote. This fact narrowed the 
 contest to the great State of New York. The event proved favorable 
 to the Democrats, though their majority in the popular vote of the 
 State was only 1,142. This small preponderance, however, was suffi¬ 
 cient to determine the result; it gave the vote of the Empire State to 
 Cleveland and Hendricks, assuring to them 219 ballots in the Electoral 
 College against 182 votes for Blaine and Logan. 
 
 The sequel of the presidential election of this year was less happy 
 than generally happens under like circumstances. It could hardly be 
 
670 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 expected that the Republican managers and office-holders long occupy* 
 ing the places of power would abdicate without expressions of dis¬ 
 pleasure. Mr. Blaine himself soon after the election delivered a speech 
 which, so far from being pacific in its tone, w r as, for the most part, a 
 bitter invective against the South. The Republican newspapers, espe¬ 
 cially in the West, took up the hue and cry, and for a while filled their 
 columns with such matter as might well have appeared in the first year 
 after the Civil War. By degrees, however, this feeling subsided and 
 near the close of Arthur’s administration the office-holders as a class 
 began to trim their sails with the evident hope that the breezes of 
 Civil Service Reform, to which the President-elect was pledged, might 
 waft them still farther on the high seas of power and emolument. 
 
 Before the retirement of President Arthur the command of the 
 Army of the United States was transferred from General William T. 
 Sherman to General Philip H. Sheridan. The former distinguished 
 officer, one of the most talented and eminent soldiers of the century, 
 having reached the age at which, according to an act of Congress, he 
 might retire from active service, availed himself of the provision and 
 laid down his command. The formal papers with which he concluded 
 his official relations with the army were marked with the same fervor 
 and patriotism which had characterized all of his utterances since the 
 time when he gave his services to the country in the dark days of dis¬ 
 union. Nor could it be said that the new chieftain, to whom the com¬ 
 mand of the American army was now given, was less a patriot and sol¬ 
 dier than his illustrious predecessor. 
 
 The recurrence of the birthday of Washington, 1885, was noted for 
 the dedication of the great monument which had been a-building for 
 so many years at the capital. The erection of such a structure was 
 suggested as early as 1799. It was not, however, until 1835 that a a 
 organization was effected with a view to undertaking the work. For 
 many years after the incipiency of the enterprise the building lagged, 
 and it was not until the work had been energized by Congress that it 
 was brought to completion. The cost of the completed monument was 
 about a million fiVe hundred thousand dollars. The structure is the 
 highest in the world. The shaft itself, without reckoning the founda¬ 
 tion, is five hundred and fifty-five feet in height, being thirty feet higher 
 than the Cathedral at Cologne, and seventy-five feet higher than the 
 Pyramid of Cheops. The structure is composed of more than eighteen 
 thousand blocks of stone. They are mostly of white marble and weigh 
 several tons each. One hundred and eighty-one memorial stones, con¬ 
 tributed by the different States of the Union and by friendly foreign 
 
ARTHURS ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 67 L 
 
 President of the United States. The concluding ceremonies were held 
 in the House of Representatives, where a great throng had assembled to 
 honor the memory of the Father of his Country. The principal ora¬ 
 tion, written by the Honorable Robert C. Winthrop, as well as the less 
 formal addresses of the occasion, was well worthy of the event and cal¬ 
 culated to add —if aught could add—to the fame of him who was “ first 
 in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” 
 
 flations, are set at various places in the structure. The dedication 
 occurred on Saturday, the 21st of February. The ceremonies were of 
 the most imposing character. A procession of more than six thousand 
 persons proceeded from the base of the monument along Pennsylvania 
 Avenue to the Capitol, while salutes were fired from the batteries of 
 the Navy Yard. At the Capitol the procession was reviewed by the 
 
 GENERAL PHILIP H. SHERIDAN. 
 
67: 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION, 1885-1889. 
 
 ROYER CLEVELAND, twenty-second President of the United 
 States, was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, on the 18th of March, 
 1837. Three years afterward he was taken by his father and mother 
 to Fayetteville, near Syracuse, New York. Here in his boyhood he 
 received such limited education as the schools of the place afforded. 
 For a while in his youth he was clerk in a village store. Afterward 
 
 the family removed first to Clinton 
 and then to Holland Patent. At 
 the latter place his father died, 
 and young Cleveland, left to his 
 own resources, went to New York 
 and became a teacher in a blind 
 asylum, in which an elder brother 
 held a like position. After a short 
 time, however, the young man, 
 finding such a pursuit uncongenial 
 to his tastes, went to Buffalo and 
 engaged in the study of law. He 
 was admitted to the bar in 1859, 
 and four years afterward began 
 his public career as assistant dis¬ 
 trict-attorney. In 1869 he was 
 elected sheriff of Erie County, 
 and in 1881 was chosen mayor of 
 Buffalo. 
 
 grover Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland’s next promotion 
 
 by his fellow-citizens was to the 
 governorship of New York, to which position he was elected in 1882 
 by the astonishing majority of 192,854—the majority being, perhaps, 
 unparalleled in the history of American elections. It was while he 
 still held this office that, in July of 1884, he was called by the Demo¬ 
 cratic national convention to be the standard-bearer of his party in the 
 presidential contest. 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 673 
 
 The first duty of the new chief executive was to frame his cabinet. 
 Public interest was not a little excited with the probabilities of the 
 President’s choice. On the day following the inauguration the nomi¬ 
 nations were sent to the Senate, and were as follows : for secretary of 
 state, Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware ; for secretary of the treasury, 
 Daniel Manning, of 
 
 New York ; for sec¬ 
 retary of the interi¬ 
 or, Lucius Q. C. La¬ 
 mar, of Mississippi; 
 for secretary of war, 
 Vm. C. Endicott, of 
 Massachusetts ; for 
 secretary of the na¬ 
 vy, Wm, C. Whit¬ 
 ney, of New York; 
 for postmaster-gen- 
 oral, Wm. F. Yilas, 
 of Wisconsin ; for at¬ 
 torney-general, Au¬ 
 gustus H. Garland, 
 of Arkansas. The 
 peculiarity of the ap¬ 
 pointments was that 
 two of them were 
 from NewYork; but 
 the prejudice which 
 might arise on this 
 
 account was fully 
 •counter-balanced by 
 the high character 
 and undoubted abil¬ 
 ities of the men 
 whom the President 
 had chosen as the responsible advisers of his administration. 
 
 The most serious question which confronted the new President, 
 was the distribution of official patronage. The Democratic party had 
 come into power on a platform distinctly enunciating the doctrine of 
 reform in the civil service. From almost the beginning of the gov¬ 
 ernment, it had been the custom of the party in power to distribute 
 to its own partisans all the appointive otfices. This usage, well estab- 
 
 THOMAS F. BAYARD. 
 
 43 
 
674 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lished since the days 
 of President Jackson, 
 had been the origin 
 and cause of the great- 
 
 THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. 
 
 it became all important that both 
 ate, at least by professions of sym¬ 
 pathy, the growing phalanx of 
 civil service reformers. They it 
 was who, in the late election, be¬ 
 lieving in the sincerity of Mr. 
 Cleveland, had thrown their in¬ 
 fluence in his favor and thereby 
 secured his elevation to the pres¬ 
 idency. He went into office 
 pledged to carry out the views of 
 those by whose suffrages he had 
 been raised to power. These 
 views, moreover, were his own, 
 and it thus happened that the 
 new administration was launched 
 with “ Civil Service Reform ” in-' 
 scribed on its pennon. It was 
 
 er part of the abuses 
 which had existed in 
 the various. depart¬ 
 ments of the govern¬ 
 ment. Extreme party 
 men bad claimed al¬ 
 ways that “to the vic¬ 
 tors belong the spoils ” 
 of office. Gf late 
 years, however, the 
 best political opinion 
 of the country has 
 turned with disgust 
 from the gross practice 
 of rewarding men for 
 mere party services ,* 
 and in the evenly bal¬ 
 anced presidential con¬ 
 tests of 1880 and 1884 
 the dominant parties should concili- 
 
 george b. McClellan. 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 675 
 
 soon seen, however, that the President would have serious difficulty 
 in carrying out his purpose. From the day of the inauguration, 
 
 a great crowd of office-seekers 
 thronged the capital, and the chief 
 magistrate was besieged by hun¬ 
 dreds and thousands of those whose 
 principal claims to preferment were 
 that they had served the party. 
 During the first year of the new 
 administration it was a grave ques¬ 
 tion whether or not the President 
 would be able to stand by the flag 
 of reform, or whether he would be 
 driven to re-adopt the cast-off policy 
 of satisfying with official appoint¬ 
 ments the hungry horde that surged 
 around the presidential mansion. 
 
 The last years of the Republic 
 have been noted for two circum¬ 
 stances, both of historical interest, and both relating to the Civil War. 
 The first of these is the revival of the memory of that conflict, in au¬ 
 thoritative publications, by some of the leading participants. This 
 work, so important to the right understanding of the great strug¬ 
 gle for and against the Union, 
 was begun by General William 
 T. Sherman, who, in 1875, pub¬ 
 lished his Memoirs , narrating 
 the story of that part of the war 
 in which he had been a leader. 
 
 This had been preceded by the 
 history of the War between 
 the States, by Alexander H. 
 
 Stephens, late Vice-President of 
 the Confederacy. In 1884 Gen¬ 
 eral Grant began the publication 
 of a series of war articles in the 
 Century Magazine , which at¬ 
 tracted universal attention, and 
 which led to the preparation and 
 publication of his Memoirs in 
 1885-86. Similar contributions 
 
 JOSEPH HOOKER. 
 
676 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by other eminent commanders of the Union and Confederate armies- 
 followed in succession, until a large amount of able and impartial litera¬ 
 ture was left on record for the instruction of after times. 
 
 The second fact referred to is the death, within the compass of a 
 single year, of a number of the great Union generals who had led 
 their armies to victory in the War of the Rebellion. It was in the 
 early summer of 1885 that the attention of the people was called 
 away from public affairs by the announcement that the veteran Gen* 
 
 eral Ulysses S. Grant 
 had been stricken 
 with a fatal malady, 
 and that his days 
 would be but few 
 among the living. 
 The heart of the Na¬ 
 tion was greatly sad¬ 
 dened by the intelli- 
 ence; but not even 
 the sympathy of a 
 great people could 
 prevail against or 
 even postpone the 
 approaching hour of 
 fate. The hero of 
 Vicksburg and Ap¬ 
 pomattox sank under 
 the ravages of a ma¬ 
 lignant cancer, which 
 had fixed itself in 
 his throat, and, on 
 <$nly 23, died at a summer cottage on Mount McGregor, New 
 York. His last days were hallowed by the sympathies of the Nation 
 which he had so gloriously defended. The news of his death passed 
 over the land like the shadow of a great cloud. Almost every city 
 and hamlet showed, in some appropriate way, its emblems of grief. 
 The funeral ceremonies equaled, if they did not surpass, any which 
 had ever been witnessed. The procession in New York city was, 
 perhaps, the most solemn and imposing pageant ever exhibited in 
 honor of the dead. On August 8, the body of General Grant was 
 laid to rest in Riverside Park, overlooking the Hudson. There, on 
 a summit, from which may be seen the great river and the metropolis 
 
 WINFIELD S. HANCOCK. 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 677 
 
 of the Nation, is the tomb of him whose courage and magnanimity in 
 war will forever give him rank with the few master spirits who, by 
 their heroic deeds, have honored the human race and changed the 
 course of history. 
 
 Within less than three months from the funeral of Grant another 
 
 GEORGE G. MEADE. 
 
 distinguished Union general fell. On the 29th of October, General 
 George B. McClellan, first commander of the Army of the Potomac, 
 at one time general-in-chief, subsequently Democratic candidate for 
 the presidency, and at a later period governor of New Jersey, died 
 at his home at St. Cloud, in that State. The conspicuous part which 
 ho had borne during the first two years of the Civil War, his eminent 
 abilities as a soldier and civilian, and his unblemished character as a 
 
678 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 man and citizen, combined to heighten the estimate of his life and 
 services, and to evoke the sincerest expressions of national sorrow on 
 the occasion of his death. 
 
 After another brief interval a third great military leader fell, in the 
 person of General Winfield S. Hancock. This brave and generous 
 commander was, at the time of his death, the senior major-general of 
 the American army. Always a favorite with the people, he had, 
 since the close of the war, occupied a conspicuous place before the 
 public. In 1880 he was the Democratic candidate for the presidency, 
 and though defeated by General Garfield, the defeat w r as without dis¬ 
 honor. His death, which occurred at his home on Governor’s Island, 
 on the 9th of February, 1886, was universally deplored, and the people 
 omitted no mark of respect to the memory of him who, in the great 
 struggle for the preservation of the Union, had been honored with 
 the title of “ Hero of Gettysburg.” Thus have passed away the gal¬ 
 lant generals of the Army of the Potomac. George B. McClellan, 
 Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, George G. Meade, and 
 Winfield S. Hancock have one by one joined 
 
 “The innumerable caravan that moves 
 
 To that mysterious realm where each shall take 
 
 His chamber in the silent halls of death.” 
 
 Before the close of the year 1886 still another, worthy to rank 
 among the greatest of the Union commanders of the Civil War, 
 ended his career on earth. Late in December, Major-General John 
 A. Logan, United States Senator from Illinois, fell sick at his home, 
 called Calumet Place, in Washington City. His disease was rheu¬ 
 matism, to which he had been subject at intervals since his exposure 
 and hardships in the early Western campaigns of the war. After a 
 few days’ illness he became suddenly worse, sank into a comatose con¬ 
 dition, and on the 26th of the month quietly breathed his last. His 
 military and civil career had been distinguished in the highest degree. 
 At the outbreak of hostilities, in 1861, few men did more than Logan 
 to strengthen and unify the Union sentiment in the wavering Border 
 States. His voice was a clarion, heard shrill and far above the con¬ 
 fusion and uproar of the times. Designing his seat in Congress he 
 joined the first advance of the Union army, and fought in the battle 
 of Bull Pun. Without previous military training he rose rapidly to 
 distinction, and became the volunteer general jpar excellence of the 
 war. After the close of the conflict he returned to political life, and 
 was chosen United States Senator from Illinois. In 1884 he w T as 
 
CLE VELAND'8 ADMIN 18TEA TION. 
 
 m 
 
 nominated for the vice-presidency on the Bepublican ticket with James 
 G. Blaine. That ticket being defeated, he resumed his duties in the 
 Senate, and remained at his post until his death. The ceremonies of 
 his funeral and the general voice 
 of the American press indicated 
 in an unmistakable manner the 
 enduring place which he had mer¬ 
 ited and won in the affections of 
 the people. 
 
 In the meantime a great civilian 
 had fallen at his post of duty. On 
 Nov. 25, 1885, Vice-President 
 'Thomas A. Hendricks, after what 
 was supposed to be a trifling illness 
 of a single day, died suddenly at his 
 nome in Indianapolis. The fatal 
 message came in the form of paral¬ 
 ysis. Not a moment’s warning was 
 .given of the approach of that pale 
 courier who knocks impartially at 
 the door of the peasant and the 
 portal of the great. The life of 
 Mr. Hendricks had been one of 
 singular purity, and the amenities of Ins character had been for 
 many years conspicuous in the stormy arena of American politics. 
 The goodness and greatness of the man, combined with his distinction 
 as governor, senator, and vice-president, served to draw from the peo¬ 
 ple every evidence of public and private respect for his memory. 
 The body of the dead statesman was buried in Crown Hill Cemetery, 
 near Indianapolis, the funeral pageant surpassing in grandeur and 
 solemnity any other display of the kind ever witnessed in the Wes¬ 
 tern States, except the funeral of Lincoln. 
 
 The death of the Vice-President was soon followed by that of 
 Horatio Seymour, of New York. On the 12th of February, 1880, 
 this distinguished citizen, who had been governor of the Empire 
 State, and, in 1868, candidate of the Democratic party for the presi¬ 
 dency against General Grant, died at his home in Utica. He had 
 reached the age of seventy-six, and, though for many years living in 
 retirement, had never ceased to hold a large share of the attention of 
 his fellow-citizens. Still more distinguished in reputation and ability 
 was Samuel J. Tilden, also of the Empire State, who died at his home. 
 
 46 
 
 JOHN A. LOGAN. 
 
680 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 called Greystone, at Yonkers, near New York City, on the 4th ot 
 August, 1886. Mr. Tilden had lived to make a marked—perhaps inef¬ 
 faceable—impression on the political thought of the epoch. He had 
 acquired within the lines of his own party an influence and ascendency 
 far greater than that of any other statesman of his times. His intel¬ 
 lectual force could not be doubted, 
 nor could it be claimed that he 
 failed to apply his faculties assid¬ 
 uously to the greatest political 
 questions of the age. 
 
 Mr. Tilden was born on the 14th 
 of February, 1814, and was thus 
 in the 73d year of his age at the 
 time of his death. He had been a 
 prominent figure in his native State 
 for fully forty years, and had held 
 many places of public trust and 
 honor. In 1870-71 he was among 
 the foremost in unearthing the 
 astounding frauds and robberies 
 which had been perpetrated on the 
 city of New York, and in the fol¬ 
 lowing year was sent to the General 
 Assembly, where his services were 
 - samuel j. tilden. in valuable. In 1874 he was elected 
 
 Governor of New York by a major¬ 
 ity of more than 50,000 votes. In the executive office he was one of the 
 ablest and most thorough-going who ever occupied the gubernatorial 
 chair of the State. In 1876 he was nominated for the presidency, and at 
 the election of that year received a large majority of the popular vote, 
 only failing of a majority in the electoral college because of the tactics 
 of the leaders of the party in power. Neither he nor General Hayes 
 was clearly elected, the Democrats having carried two or three States 
 with the shot-gun, and the Republicans, by the aid of the Electoral 
 Commission, having counted in the electoral votes of a State or two 
 which they did not carry at all. After the contest Mr. Tilden retired 
 to private life, but continued to guide the counsels of his party and to 
 influence public opinion up to the date of his death. Perhaps one of 
 his ablest—as it was his last—public paper was a general letter on the 
 subject of “ The Coast and Harbor Defenses of the United States,” a 
 publication which clearly led to the legislation of the Forty-ninth Con- 
 
CLEVELAND'S A D MINIS 2 It A TL ON. 
 
 68! 
 
 gress on that important subject. Thus, within the space of less than 
 eleven months, four of those eminent American statesmen who bad 
 been candidates of the Democratic party for the presidency of the 
 United States, and the distinguished Vice-President recently chosen 
 by that party to the second place of honor in the Government, had 
 fallen from their places in the ranks of the living. 
 
 To this list of the American great whose earthly activities have 
 recently ended in death must still be added the illustrious name of 
 Henry Ward Beecher. To him, with little reservation, must be a&- 
 signed the first place among our 
 orators and philanthropists. Nor 
 is it likely that his equal in most 
 of the sublime qualities of energy 
 and manhood will soon be seen 
 again on the great stage of life. 
 
 His personality was so large, so 
 unique, and striking, as to consti¬ 
 tute the man in some sense sui 
 generis. His kind is rare in the 
 world, and the circumstances which 
 aided in his development have 
 away. That fact in Amer¬ 
 ican history—the institution of 
 slavery—which brought out and 
 displayed the higher moods of 
 his anger and stormy eloquence 
 cannot again arouse the indigna¬ 
 tion of genius. The knight and 
 his dangerous foil sleep together in 
 the dust. 
 
 Mr. Beecher had the happy fortune to retain his faculties unim¬ 
 paired to the very close of his career. On the evening of the 5th of 
 March, 1887, at his home in Brooklyn, surrounded by his family, with 
 no premonition or portent, the message came by apoplexy. An artery 
 broke in the magnificent, heavy brain, that had been for more than 
 forty years one of the greatest batteries of thought and action in the 
 world, and the aged orator, nearing the close of his seventy-fourth 
 year, sank into that deep sleep from which no power on earth could 
 wake him. He lived until the morning of the 8th, and quietly entered 
 the shadows. The sentiments awakened by his death, the circum¬ 
 stances of his sepulture, and the common eulogium of mankind, proved 
 
 HENRY WARD BEECHER. 
 
682 
 
 HIS TOBY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 beyond doubt the supreme place which lie had occupied in the ad 
 miring esteem, not only of his own countrymen, but of all the great 
 peoples of the world. 
 
 Another distinguished name to be added to the American necrology 
 of the decade is that of Morrison Remicli Waite, Chief Justice of the 
 United States. His death occurred at his home, in Washington City, 
 
 on the 23d day of March, 1888. 
 The event suggests and justifies the 
 addition of a few paragraphs rela¬ 
 tive to the history and personnel 
 of that great tribunal over which 
 Judge Waite presided during the 
 last fourteen years of his life. 
 
 In the formation of the Consti¬ 
 tution of the United States it w r as 
 intended that the three general de¬ 
 partments of the Government 
 should be of correlative rank and 
 
 as developed and illustrated in the 
 actual working of our national 
 system, has shown that the execu¬ 
 tive and 
 
 predominate, naturally, perhaps in¬ 
 evitably, over the judicial branch, 
 and that, in the popular estimate, 
 at least, the supreme court is of 
 small importance as compared with the presidency and the two houses of 
 Congress. This disesteem of the judiciary is not verified by a broader 
 and more philosophical view of the subject. The importance, 
 especially, of the conservative opinion of our great national court, in 
 determining, at least negatively, the final validity of all legislation and 
 of all subordinate judicial decisions, can hardly be overestimated. The 
 same may be said of the supreme bench, considered as the only im¬ 
 movable breakwater against the unscrupulous and rampant spirit of 
 party. It is fortunate, moreover, that the offices of our chief justice 
 and of the associate justiceships are appointive, and are thus removed, 
 in great measure, from the perfidy of the convention and the passion 
 of a partisan election. It maybe of interest to glance for a moment 
 at some of the vicissitudes through which the supreme court has passed 
 since its organization, in 1789- 
 
 legislative departments 
 
 influence. The sequel, however, 
 
 JiORRISOX REMICH WAITE, 
 
CLE VELAND'S AD MINIS TRA TION. 
 
 683 
 
 The court was then instituted by the appointment of John Jay as 
 chief justice,* who held the office until 1796, when he gave place to 
 Oliver Ellsworth. The latter presided over the court until, in 1800, 
 the infirmities of age compelled his resignation. Then came the long 
 and honorable ascendency of Chief Justice John Marshall, who held the 
 office from his appointment, in 1801, to his death, in 1835. This was 
 the golden age of the supreme court. From 1835 to 1837 there was 
 an interregnum in the chief justiceship, occasioned by the disagree¬ 
 ment of President Jackson and the Senate of the United States; but, 
 at the latter date, the president secured the confirmation of Judge 
 Roger B. Taney as chief justice, who entered upon his long term of 
 twenty-seven years. It was his celebrated decision in the case of the 
 negro, Dred Scott, relative to the status of the slave race in America, 
 that applied the torch to that immense heap of combustibles whose 
 explosion was the Civil War. 
 
 At the death of Chief Justice Taney, in 1864, President Lincoln ap¬ 
 pointed as his successor Salmon P. Chase, recently secretary of the 
 treasury, and author of most of the great financial measures and expe¬ 
 dients by which the national credit had been buoyed up and preserved 
 during the rebellion. His official term extended to his death, in 1873, 
 and covered the period when the important issues arising from the 
 Civil War were under adjudication. To Chief Justice Chase fell also, 
 by virtue of his office, the duty of presiding at the impeachment trial 
 of President Andrew Johnson. In 1874 the appointment of Morrison 
 R. Waite as chief justice was made by President Grant; and the death 
 of this able jurist devolved on President Cleveland and the Senate the 
 duty of naming his successor. 
 
 Chief Justice Waite was born at Lyme, Connecticut, on the 29th 
 of November, 1816. From the public school he was transferred 
 to Yale College, and was graduated from that institution in 1837. 
 He then became a student of law, and, after completing his course, 
 removed to Ohio, where he entered upon the practice of his profession 
 «t Maumee City. After serving one term, 1849-50, in the Legislature 
 of the State, he removed to Toledo, which became henceforth his 
 home, until his duties as chief justice called him to Washington City. 
 He had been frequently solicited to become a candidate for office, but 
 had adhered to his profession until 1871-72, when he accepted from 
 President Grant the appointment as member of the celebrated Board 
 of Arbitration, to sit at Geneva, in the adjudication of the Alabama 
 Claims. Here he was associated with Charles Francis Adams, Caleb 
 
 * For the organization of the first supreme bench see page 364. 
 
684 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cushing and Win. M. Evarts: and, though he was less known to the 
 public than they, he nevertheless bore himself with honor among his 
 colleagues. Shortly after his return the death of Chief Justice Chase 
 opened the way for Mr. Waite’s appointment to the highest and most 
 important judicial seat in America; and to this august position he 
 brought a character, talents and attainments equal to the responsi¬ 
 bilities of his office. 
 
 During his occupancy of the supreme bench Chief Justice Waite 
 steadily rose in the esteem and confidence of the nation. He was not, 
 perhaps, a man of the highest order of genius or of the very highest 
 rank as a jurist. But, on the whole, the office of chief justice was 
 rarely, if ever, more worthily borne than by its latest occupant. He 
 was a man of equable and judicial temper, little disposed, if dis¬ 
 posed at all, to look beyond the supreme bench to a possibly higher 
 seat. His death was from pneumonia, and was so sudden as to be an¬ 
 nounced to the country by the same dispatches which gave first in¬ 
 formation of his serious sickness. He died peacefully, at his home. 
 Id is funeral was held first in the hall of the House of Representatives, 
 and afterward from his old residence in Toledo, at which city his 
 remains were finally committed to the tomb- 
 
 The death of Chief Justice Waite made way for the return to tilt 
 supreme judicial office in the United States of some member of the 
 political party which has long been out of power. Since the epoch 
 of the Civil War the court has been filled almost exclusively with 
 judges who, by political affiliation, have belonged to the Republican 
 party. The first distinctly Democratic appointment which has been 
 made in the last quarter of a century was the recent one of Judge 
 Lucius Q. C. Lamar, who by the nomination of President Cleveland 
 was transferred from the secretaryship of the interior to the supreme 
 bench. It has thus happened, in the vicissitude of things, that the 
 two political theories which were opposed to each other in the 
 war for the Union, and are still opposed by party name, have 
 become continent in the high court of the nation. This circumstance 
 lias been to some a source of alarm and prejudice; but the hope may 
 be well entertained that partisan dispositions are less potent and 
 dangerous—if indeed they assert themselves at all—on the supreme 
 bench of the United States. Thus far in its historv the court has, as 
 a rule, been as pure in its administration and methods as it has been 
 great in reputation. The muddy waters of party conflict have only 
 occasionally reached as high as the threshold of our honored tribunal; 
 and the fear that it may be otherwise hereafter may hopefully be put 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRALION. 
 
 6S5 
 
 aside as a groundless and spectral chimera of the hour. On May 1, 
 1888, the President appointed Melville W. Fuller, of Chicago, to the 
 vacant chief justiceship. 
 
 The impression produced by the death of Chief Justice Waite 
 had scarcely passed when the decease of another citizen, most noted 
 for high character and great talents, again called the public attention to 
 the rapid disappearance of the nation’s most distinguished represent¬ 
 atives. On the 18th of April, at the Hoffman House, New York 
 city, Hon. Roscoe Conkling, ex-Senator of the United States, died 
 after a brief and painful illness. A 
 local inflammation resulting in the 
 formation of a pus-sack under the 
 mastoid bone of the skull led to 
 the cutting of the skull in hope of 
 saving Mr. Conkling’s life; but he 
 succumbed to the fatal malady and 
 shock of the operation. 
 
 Roscoe Conkling was born in 
 , N. Y., on the 30th of Octo¬ 
 ber, 1829. After the completion 
 of an academic course of study he 
 went as a student of law to Utica 
 in 1846. On reaching his majority 
 he was admitted to the bar, and was 
 soon afterward appointed to the 
 office of County Attorney. From 
 the beginning of his career his 
 great talents and remarkable force 
 of character were manifest. He 
 made a profound impression first upon the local and then upon the 
 general society of New York. In 1858 he was Mayor of Utica, and 
 in the same year was sent to the national House of Representatives. 
 He had already become an able politician, and was soon recognized as 
 the leader of the Republican party in his native State. His rise was 
 rapid, and his influence became marked in the affairs of the Govern¬ 
 ment. He served for six years in the lower House, and in 1-866 was 
 elected to the Senate. In that body he aspired to leadership and grad¬ 
 ually attained it, though not without many struggles and contests with 
 the great men of the epoch. He was twice re-elected Senator—-in 1812 
 and 1878; but in his third term, namely, in 1881, he found himself in 
 such relations with the Garfield administration as induced him to resign 
 
 ROSCOE CONKLING. 
 
686 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his seat. This step was regarded by many as the mistake of his polit¬ 
 ical life. At any rate, he failed of a re-election, the administration 
 party getting control of the Legislature of New York and sending 
 another in his place. After that date Mr. Conkling retired to private 
 life and took up with the greatest success the practice of his profession 
 in New York city. 
 
 Roscoe Conkling was a man of the highest courage and stanchest 
 convictions. Pie never shone to greater advantage than when leading 
 the forces of General Grant in the Chicago Convention of 1880. He 
 was a born political general. His will and persistency and pride gave 
 him a power which, if it had been tempered with greater urbanity, 
 could hardly have failed to crown his life with the highest honors of 
 the nation. His talents rose to the region of genius, and his presence 
 was magnificent—an inspiration to his friends, a terror to his enemies. 
 As a summary of the results of his career it may be said that at the 
 time of his death none except his eminent rival, Mr. Blaine, might 
 justly contest with him the proud rank of most distinguished private 
 citizen of the United States. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the spring of 1886, had occurred one of the most 
 serious labor agitations which had ever been witnessed in the United 
 States. It were difficult to present an adequate statement of the 
 causes, general and special, which produced these alarming troubles. 
 Not until after the close of the Civil War did there appear the first 
 symptoms of a renewal, in the New World, of the struggle which has 
 been going on for so long a time in Europe between the laboring classes 
 and the capitalists. It had been hoped that such a conflict would never 
 be renewed in the countries west of the Atlantic. Such a hope, how¬ 
 ever, was doomed to disappointment. The first well-marked symptoms 
 of the appearance of serious labor strikes and insurrections occurred 
 as early as 1867. The origin of these difficulties was in the coal and 
 iron producing regions of Pennsylvania and in some of the great 
 manufactories of New England. For a while the disturbances pro¬ 
 duced but little alarm. It was not until the great railroad strike of 
 1877 that a general apprehension was excited with respect to the 
 unfriendly relations of labor and capital. In the following year much 
 uneasiness existed, but the better times, extending from 1879 to 1882, 
 with the consequent favorable rate of wages, tended to remove, or at 
 least to postpone, the renewal of trouble. 
 
 A series of bad crops ensued, and the average ability of the people 
 to purchase was correspondingly diminished. The speculative mania, 
 however, did not cease, and the large amounts of capital withdrawn 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 687 
 
 from legitimate production and lost in visionary enterprises still 
 further reduced the means of employing labor. Stagnation ensued in 
 business; stocks declined in value; manufactories were closed, and the 
 difficulty of obtaining employment was greatly enhanced. 
 
 While these causes, half-natural, half-artificial, were at work, others, 
 wholly fictitious, but powerful in their evil results, began to operate in 
 the creation of strife and animosity. Monopolies grew and flourished 
 to an extent hitherto unknown in the United States. On the other 
 hand, labor discovered the salutary but dangerous power of combina¬ 
 tion. A rage for organizing ‘took possession of the minds of the 
 laboring men of the country, and to the arrogant front of monopoly 
 was opposed the insurrectionary front of the working classes. 
 
 More serious still than the causes here referred to was the intro¬ 
 duction into the United States of a large mass of ignorant foreign 
 labor. The worst elements of several European States contributed 
 freely to the manufactories and workshops of America, and a class of 
 ideas utterly un-American became dominant in many of the leading 
 establishments of the country. Communistic theories of society and 
 anarchic views of government began to clash with the more sober 
 republican opinions and practices of the people. To all this must be 
 added the evils and abuses which seem to be incident to the wage 
 system of labor, and are, perhaps, inseparable therefrom. The result 
 has been a growing jealousy of the two great parties to production, 
 the laborer and the capitalist. 
 
 The opening of trade for the season of 1886 witnessed a series of 
 strikes and labor imbroglios in all parts of the country. Such troubles 
 were, however, confined for the most part to the cities and towns 
 where labor was aggregated. The first serious trouble occurred on 
 what is known as the G'onld system of railways, reaching from the 
 Mississippi to the south-west. A single workman, belonging to the 
 Knights of Labor, and employed on a branch of the Texas Pacific 
 Railway, at that time under a receivership, and therefore beyond the 
 control of Jay Gonld and his subordinates, was discharged from his 
 place. This action was resented by the Knights, and the laborers on a 
 great part of the Gould system were ordered to strike. The move¬ 
 ment was, for a season, successful, and the transportation of freights 
 from St. Louis to the south-west ceased. Gradually, however, other 
 workmen were substituted for the striking Knights; the movement of 
 freights was resumed, and the strike ended in comparative failure ; but 
 this end was not reached until a severe riot in East St. Louis had 
 occasioned the sacrifice of several innocent lives. 
 
688 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Far more alarming was the outbreak in Chicago. In that city the 
 socialistic and anarchic elements were sufficiently powerful to present a 
 hold front to the authorities. Processions bearing red flags and banners, 
 with communistic devices and mottoes, frequently paraded the streets, 
 and were addressed by demagogues who avowed themselves the open 
 enemies of society and the existing order. On the 4th of May a vast 
 crowd of this reckless material collected in a place called the Hay- 
 market, and were about to begin the usual inflammatory proceedings, 
 when a band of policemen, mostly officers, drew near, with the 
 evident purpose of controlling or dispersing the meeting. A ter¬ 
 rible scene ensued. Dynamite bombs were thrown from the crowd 
 and exploded among the officers, several of whom were blown to pieces 
 and others shockingly mangled. The mob was, in turn, attacked by 
 the police, and many of the insurgents were shot down. Order was 
 presently restored in the city; several of the leading anarchists were 
 arrested and held for trial on the charge of inciting to murder, and 
 measures were taken to prevent the recurrence of such tragedies as 
 had been witnessed in the Hay market Square. On the following day 
 a similar, though less dangerous, outbreak occurred in Milwaukee; 
 but in this city the insurrectionary movement was suppressed without 
 serious loss of life. The attention of the American people—let us 
 hope to some good end—was called, as never before, to the danger¬ 
 ous relations existing between the upper and nether sides of our 
 municipal populations. . 
 
 The summer of 1886 is memorable on account of that great natural 
 phenomenon, known as the Charleston earthquake. On the night of 
 the 31st of August, at ten minutes before ten o’clock, it was discovered 
 at Washington City, and at several other points where weather and 
 signal stations were established, that communications with Charleston, S. 
 C., were suddenly cut oil. The discovery was made by inquiries relative to 
 the origin of a shock which had that moment been felt with varying 
 degrees of violence throughout nearly the whole country east of the 
 Mississippi and south of the great lakes. In a few minutes it was 
 found that no telegraphic communication from any side could be had 
 with Charleston, and it was at once perceived that that city had suffered 
 from the convulsion. Measures w r ere hastily devised for further in¬ 
 vestigation, and the result showed that the worst apprehensions were 
 verified. Without a moment’s warning the city had been rocked and 
 rent to its very foundations. Hardly a building in the limits of 
 Charleston or in the country surrounding had escaped serious injury, 
 and perhaps one-lialf of all were in a state of semi-wreck or total ruin. 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 689 
 
 No such scene of devastation and terror from a like cause had ever 
 before been witnessed within the limits of the United States. 
 
 Many scientists of national reputation hurried to the scene and 
 made a careful scrutiny of the phenomenon with a view of contributing 
 something to the exact knowledge of mankind respecting the causes 
 and character of earthquakes. One or two points were determined 
 with tolerable accuracy. One was, that the point of origin, called the 
 epicenter, of the great convulsion had been at a place about twenty 
 miles from Charleston, and that the motion of the earth immediately 
 over this center had been nearly up and down—that is, vertical. A 
 second point tolerably well established was that the isoseismic lines, 
 or lines of equal disturbance, might be drawn around the epicenter in 
 circles very nearly concentric, and that the circle of greatest disturb¬ 
 ance was at some distance from the center. Still a third item of 
 knowledge tolerably well established was that away from the epicenter 
 —as illustrated in the ruins of Charleston—the agitation of the earth 
 was not in the natm e of a single shock of convulsion, as a dropping or 
 sliding of the region to one side, but rather a series of very quick and 
 violent oscillations, by which the central country of the disturbance 
 was in the course of some five minutes settled somewhat to seaward. 
 
 The whole coast,in the central region of the disturbance was modi¬ 
 fied with respect to the sea, and the ocean itself was thrown into tur¬ 
 moil for leagues from the shore. The people of the city were in a state 
 of utmost consternation. The people fled from their falling houses to 
 the public squares and parks and far into the country. Afraid to 
 return into the ruins they threw up tents and light booths for protec¬ 
 tion and abode for weeks away from their homes. The convulsion 
 was by far the greatest that this continent has experienced within 
 the historical epoch. Nothing before in the limits of our knowledge 
 has been at all comparable with it in extent and violence except the 
 great earthquake of New Madrid, in 1811. The disaster to Charles¬ 
 ton served to bring out some of the better qualities of our civiliza¬ 
 tion. Assistance came from all quarters, and contributions poured 
 in for the support and encouragement of the afflicted people. For 
 several weeks a series of diminishing shocks continued to terrify the 
 citizens and paralyze the efforts at restoration. But it was discovered 
 in the course of time that these shocks were only the dying away of 
 the great convulsion, and that they gave cause for hope of entire cessa¬ 
 tion rather than continued alarm. In a lapse of a few months the 
 debris was cleared away, business was resumed, and the people were 
 again safe in their homes. 
 
 44 
 
690 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1887, the second session of the Forty-ninth 
 Congress expired by statutory limitation. The work of the body had 
 not been so fruitful of results as had been desired and anticipated by 
 the friends of the government; but some important legislation had 
 been effected. On the question of the tariff nothing of value was accom¬ 
 plished. True, a serious measure of revenue reform had been brought 
 forward at an early date in the session, but owing to the opposition of 
 that wing of the Democratic party headed by Hon. Samuel J. Ran¬ 
 dall, and committed to the doctrine of protection, as well as to the 
 antagonism of the Republican majority in the Senate, the act failed of 
 adoption. In fact, by the beginning of 1887 it had become apparent 
 that the existing political parties could not be forced to align on the 
 issue of free trade and tariff, and as a result no legislation looking 
 to any actual reform in the current revenue system ~f the United 
 States could be carried through Congress. 
 
 On the question of extending the Pensic List, however, the case 
 was different. A great majority of both parties could always be 
 counted on to favor such measures as looked to the increase of benefits 
 to the soldiers. At the first, only a limited number of pensions had 
 been granted, and these only to actually disabled and injured veterans 
 of the War for the Union. With the lapse of time, however, and the 
 relaxation of party allegiance, it became more and more important to 
 each of the parties to secure and hold the soldier vote, without which 
 it was felt that neither could maintain ascendency in the government. 
 Nor can it be denied that genuine patriotic sentiment and gratitude of 
 the nation to its defenders coincided in this respect with political 
 ambition and selfishness. The Arrears of Pensions Act, making up 
 to those who were already recipients of pensions such amounts as 
 would have accrued if the benefit had dated from the time of dis¬ 
 ability, instead of from the time of granting the pension, was passed in 
 1879, and at the same time the list of beneficiaries was greatly enlarged. 
 
 The measure presented in the Forty-ninth Congress was designed 
 to extend the pension list so as to include all regularly enlisted and 
 honorably discharged soldiers of the Civil War who had become in 
 whole or in part dependent upon the aid of others for their mainte¬ 
 nance and welfare. The measure was known as the Dependen' Pen¬ 
 sions Bill, and thougu a few had the courage to oppose the enactment 
 of a law which appeared to fling away the bounty of the government 
 to the deserving and the undeserving, the evil and the just alike, and 
 to compel the worthy and honorable recipients of pensions who had 
 actually suffered in the war to rank themselves in the same category 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 691 
 
 with the thriftless, the unpatriotic, and the improvident, who, having 
 been in the army, had afterward come to grief through their own lack 
 of enterprise and frugality; yet a majority was easily obtained for the 
 measure in both Houses, and the act was passed. President Cleve¬ 
 land, however, interposed his veto, and the proposed law fell to the 
 ground. A strenuous effort was made in the House of Represent¬ 
 atives to pass the bill over the veto; but the movement failed. 
 
 By far the most important and noted piece of legislation of the 
 session was incorporated in the act known as the Inter-State Commerce 
 Bill. For some fifteen years complaints against the methods and man¬ 
 agement of the railways of the United States had been heard on many 
 sides, and in cases not a few the complaints had originated in actual 
 abuses, some of which were willful, but most were merely incidental 
 to the development of a system so vast and, on the wdiole, so bene¬ 
 ficial to the public. In such a state of affairs the lasting benefit is 
 always forgotten in the accidental hurt. That large class of people 
 who, in despite of the teachings of history, still believe in the cure of 
 all things by law, and that mankind are always about to perish for want 
 of more legislation, became clamorous in their demand that Congress 
 should take the railways by the throat and compel them to accept 
 what may be called the system of uniformity as it respects all charges 
 for service rendered. It was believed in Congress that to take up this 
 call, and champion the alleged cause of the people, would be one of 
 the most popular measures of the period. The Inter-State Com¬ 
 merce Bill was, accordingly, prepared, with a multitude of lengthy 
 and involved clauses requiring a commission of great lawyers for their 
 interpretation. It was enacted that all freight carriage across State 
 lines within the Union should be at the same rate per hundred for all 
 distances, and between all places, and under substantially the same 
 conditions, and that passenger fares should be uniform for all 
 persons. It must be borne in mind that, in the very nature of things, 
 railways are unable to carry freight at as small a rate per hundred, or 
 passengers at as small a charge per mile, between places approximate as 
 between places at great distances. It must also be remembered that 
 in some regions it is many times more expensive to build and operate 
 a railroad than in others. To carry one of these great thoroughfares 
 over the Rocky Mountains is a very different thing from stretching a 
 similar track across the level prairies of Illinois. It must still further 
 be considered that, in the nature of the case, competition will do its 
 legitimate and inevitable work at an earlier date and more thoroughly 
 between great cities, even when remotely situated, than between unim- 
 
692 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 portant points, however near together. The traffic and travel between 
 two villages is not sufficient to create competition among the carriers. 
 It is as absurd to suppose that railway tariffs can be the same between 
 New York and Chicago as they are between two Missouri towns, as it 
 is to suppose that butter can command the same price in an Iowa vil¬ 
 lage that it does in the Quincy Market of Boston. What should be said 
 of an attempt in Congress to make the price of wheat and pork 
 uniform throughout the United States? 
 
 The Inter-State Commerce Bill was conceived against all the 
 natural, manifest and undeniable principles of the commercial world. 
 It was passed with the belief that all discriminations in the charges 
 made by railways doing business in more than one State could be pre¬ 
 vented by law. It was passed as if to amend or abrogate those natural 
 laws of trade and traffic which in their kind are as absolute, and as 
 beneficial, as the law of gravitation. It was passed with the ulterior 
 design of securing to its promoters the support of that ignorant and 
 embittered race of men whose prejudices are out of all proportion to 
 their knowledge of human rights, or their recognition of the par¬ 
 amount interests of the whole people. It was passed under the per¬ 
 nicious anti-democratic theory of governmental paternalism, which says 
 that men are infants or imbeciles, unable to care for themselves unless 
 they are fed and led and coddled by some motherly government of which 
 they are the irresponsible offspring. It is safe to say that no other 
 measure ever adopted by the American Congress has been so difficult 
 of application, or has thrown the commercial affairs of the country into 
 so great disorder. The one redeeming feature of the case has been, 
 and is, that they who, by the passage of so preposterous a series of 
 enactments, thought to crown themselves with laurel, came forth wear¬ 
 ing a diadem of weeds and cactus. 
 
 During the whole of Cleveland’s administration the public mind 
 was swayed and excited by the movements of politics. The univer¬ 
 sality of partisan newspapers, the combination in their columns of all 
 the news of the world with the invectives, misrepresentations, and 
 countercharges of party leaders, kept political questions constantly 
 uppermost, to the detriment of social progress and industrial interests. 
 Scarcely had President Cleveland entered upon his office as chief magis¬ 
 trate when the question of the succession to the Presidency was agitated. 
 The echoes of the election of 1884 had not died away before the 
 rising murmur of that of 1888 was heard. 
 
 By the last year of the current administration it was seen that 
 there would be no general break-up of the existing parties. It was 
 
CLE VELAND'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 693 
 
 also perceived that the issues between them must be made , rather than 
 found in the existing state of affairs. The sentiment in the United 
 States in favor of the Constitutional prohibition of the manufacture 
 and sale of intoxicating liquors had become somewhat extended and 
 intensified since the last quadrennial election. But the discerning eye 
 might perceive that the real issue was between the Republican and 
 Democratic parties, and that the questions involved were to be rather 
 those of the past than of the future. 
 
 One issue, however, presented itself which had a living and prac¬ 
 tical relation to affairs, and that was the question of Protection to 
 American Industry. Since the campaign of 1884, the agitation had 
 been gradually extended. At the opening of the session, in 1887, the 
 President, in his annual message to Congress, departed from all prece¬ 
 dent, and devoted the whole document to the discussion of the single 
 question of a Reform of the Revenue System of the United States. 
 The existing rates of duty on imported articles of commerce had so 
 greatly augmented the income of the Government that a large surplus 
 had accumulated, and w T as still accumulating, in the treasury of the 
 United States. This fact was made the basis of the President’s argu¬ 
 ment in favor of a new system of revenue, or at least an ample reduc¬ 
 tion in the tariff rates under the old. It was immediately charged by 
 the Republicans that the project in question meant the substitution of 
 the system of free trade in the United States as against the system of 
 protective duties. The question thus involved was made the bottom 
 issue in the Presidential campaign of 1888. 
 
 As to the nominees of the various parties, it w T as from the first a 
 foregone conclusion that Mr. Cleveland would be nominated for re-elec¬ 
 tion by the Democrats. The result justified the expectation. The 
 Democratic Rational Convention was held in St. Louis, on the 5th day 
 of June, 1888, and Mr. Cleveland was re-nominated by acclamation. 
 For the Vice-Presidential nomination there was a considerable contest; 
 but, after some balloting, the choice fell on ex-Senator Allen G. Thur¬ 
 man, of Ohio. The Republican Rational Convention was held in Chi¬ 
 cago, on the 19th day of June. Many candidates were ardently pressed 
 upon the body, and the contest was long and spirited. It was believed, 
 up to the time of the Convention, that Mr. Blaine, who was evidently 
 the favorite of a great majority, would be again nominated for the 
 Presidency. But the antagonisms which that statesman had awakened 
 in nis own party made it imprudent to bring him forward again as the 
 nominee. His name was accordingly not presented to the Convention. 
 The most prominent candidates were Senator John Sherman, of Ohio; 
 
694 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Judge Walter Q. Gresham, of Chicago; Chauncey M. Depew, of New 
 York; ex-Governor Russel A. Alger, of Michigan; ex-Senator Benja¬ 
 min Harrison, of Indiana; and Senator William B. Allison, of Iowa. 
 The voting was continued to the eighth ballot, when the choice fell 
 upon Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana. In the evening Levi P. Morton, 
 of New York, was nominated for the Vice-Presidency on the first ballot. 
 
 In the meantime the Prohibition party had held its National Con¬ 
 vention at Indianapolis, and on the 30th of May had nominated for 
 the Presidency General Clinton B. Fisk, of New Jersey, and for the 
 Vice-Presidency John A. Brooks, of Missouri. The Democratic plat¬ 
 form declared for a reform of the revenue system of the United States, 
 and re-affirmed the principle of adjusting the tariff on imports with 
 strict regard to the actual needs of governmental expenditure. The 
 Republican platform declared also for a reform of the tariff schedule, 
 but at the same time stoutly affirmed the maintenance of the pro¬ 
 tective system, as such, as a part of the permanent policy of the United 
 States. Both parties deferred to the patriotic sentiment of the country 
 in favor of the soldiers, their rights and interests, and both endeavored 
 by the usual incidental circumstances of the hour to gain the advantage 
 of the other before the American people. The Prohibitionists entered 
 the campaign on the distinct proposition that the manufacture and sale 
 of intoxicating liquors should be prohibited throughout the United 
 States by Constitutional amendment. To this was added a clause in 
 favor of extending the right of suffrage to women. 
 
 As the canvass progressed during the summer and autumn of 1888 
 it became evident that the result was in doubt. The contest was exceed¬ 
 ingly close. As in 1880 and 1884, the critical States were New York, 
 Connecticut, New Jersey, and Indiana. In all of the other Northern 
 States the Republicans were almost certain to win, while the Democrats 
 were equally certain of success in all the South. In the last weeks of 
 the campaign General Harrison grew in favor, and his party gained 
 perceptibly to the close. The result showed success for the Republican 
 candidate. He received 233 electoral votes, against 168 votes for Mr. 
 Cleveland. The latter, however, appeared to a better advantage on the 
 popular count, having a considerable majority over General Harrison. 
 General Fisk, the Prohibition candidate, received nearly three hun¬ 
 dred thousand votes; but under the system of voting no electoral vote 
 of any State was obtained for him in the so-called “ College,” by which 
 the actual choice is made. As soon as the result was known the excite¬ 
 ment attendant upon the campaign subsided and political questions 
 gave place to other interests. 
 
CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 695 
 
 Tlie last days of Cleveland’s administration and of the Fiftieth 
 Congress were signalized by the admission into the Union of Four 
 ISTew States, making the number forty-two. Since the incoming of 
 Colorado, in 1876, no State had been added to the Republic. Mean¬ 
 while the tremendous tides of population had continued to flow to the 
 west and north-west, rapidly filling up the great Territories. Of these 
 the greatest was Dakota, with its area of 150,932 square miles. In 
 1887 the question of dividing the Territory by a line running east and 
 west was agitated, and the measure finally prevailed. Steps were taken 
 by the people of both sections for admission into the Union. Montana, 
 with her 145,776 square miles of territory, had meanwhile acquired a 
 sufficient population; and Washington Territory, with its area of 
 * 69,994 square miles, also knocked for admission. In the closing days of 
 the Fiftieth Congress a bill was passed raising all these four Territories 
 —South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, and Washington — to the 
 plane of Statehood. The Act contemplated the adoption of State 
 Constitutions, and a proclamation of admission by the next President. 
 It thus happened that the honor of bringing in this great addition to the 
 States of the Union wus divided between the outgoing and incoming 
 administrations. 
 
 Another Act of Congress was also of national importance. Hith¬ 
 erto the government had been administered through seven departments, 
 at the head of each of which was placed a Cabinet officer, the seven 
 together constituting the advisers of the President. No provision for 
 such an arrangement exists in the Constitution of the United States; 
 but the statutes of the Nation provide for such a system as most in 
 accordance with the republican form of government. Early in 1889 
 a measure was brought forward in Congress and adopted for the institu¬ 
 tion of a new department, to be called the Department of Agriculture. 
 Practically the measure involved the elevation of what had previously 
 been an Agricultural Bureau in the Department of the Interior to the 
 rank of a Cabinet office. Among foreign nations France has been con¬ 
 spicuous for the patronage which the Government has given to the 
 agricultural pursuits of that country. Hitherto in the United States, 
 though agriculture has been the greatest of all the producing interests 
 of the people, it has been neglected for more political and less useful 
 departments of American life and enterprise. By this act of Congress 
 the Cabinet offices were increased in number to eight instead of seven. 
 
 47 
 
696 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 
 HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1889- 
 
 B ENJAMIN HARRISON, twenty-third President of the United 
 States, was born at North Bend, Ohio, on the 20th of August, 
 1833. He is the son of John Scott Harrison, a prominent citizen of his 
 native State ; grandson of President William Henry Harrison ; great- 
 grandson of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
 pendence. In countries where attention is paid to honorable lineage 
 
 the circumstances of General Har¬ 
 rison’s descent would be considered 
 of much importance; but in Amer¬ 
 ica little attention is paid to one’s 
 ancestry, and more to himself. 
 
 Harrison’s early life was passed 
 as that of other American boys, 
 in attendance at school and at 
 home duties on the farm. He was 
 a student at the institution called 
 Farmers’ College for two years. 
 Afterwards he attended Miami 
 University, at Oxford, Ohio, and 
 was graduated therefrom in June, 
 1852. He took in marriage the 
 daughter of Dr. John W. Scott, 
 President of the University. After a course of study he entered the 
 profession of law, removing vo Indianapolis and establishing himself 
 in that city. With the outbreak of the War he became a soldier of the 
 Union, and rose to the rank of Brevet Brigadier-General of Volunteers. 
 Before the close of the Wai he was elected Reporter of Decisions of 
 the Supreme Court of Indiana. 
 
 In the period following the Civil War General Harrison rose to dis¬ 
 tinction as a civilian. In L876hewas the unsuccessful candidate of 
 the Republican party for Governor of Indiana. In 1881 he was elected 
 to the United States SenfV. where he won the reputation of a leader 
 and statesman. In 1884 hk name was prominently mentioned in eon- 
 
 BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 697 
 
 nection with the Presidential nomination of his party, but Mr. Blaine 
 was successful. After the lapse of four years, however, it was found 
 at Chicago that General Harrison, more than any other, combined in 
 himself all the elements of a successful candidate; and the event justi- 
 tied the choice of the party in making him the standard-bearer in the 
 ensuing campaign. 
 
 General Harrison was, in accordance with the usages of the Gov¬ 
 ernment, inaugurated President on the 4th of March, 1889. He had 
 succeeded better than any of his predecessors in keeping his own coun< 
 sels during the interim between his election and the inauguration. Ho 
 one had discerned his purposes, and all waited with interest the ex¬ 
 pressions of his Inaugural Ad¬ 
 dress. In that document he set 
 forth the policy which he should 
 favor as the chief executive, 
 recommending the same general 
 measures which the Republican 
 party had advocated during the 
 campaign. 
 
 On the day following the in¬ 
 
 augural ceremonies President Har¬ 
 rison sent in the nominations for 
 his Cabinet officers, as follows: 
 for Secretary of State, James G. 
 
 Blaine, of Maine; for Secretary 
 of the Treasury, William Windom, 
 of Minnesota; for Secretary of 
 
 War, Redfield Proctor, of Vermont; for Secretary of the Havy, Ben¬ 
 jamin F. Tracy, of Hew York; for Postmaster-General, John Wana- 
 maker, of Pennsylvania; for Secretary of the Interior, John W. Hoble, 
 of Missouri; for Attorney-General, William H. H. Miller, of Indiana; 
 and for Secretary of Agriculture — the new department — Jeremiah 
 Rusk, of Wisconsin. ' These appointments were immediately con¬ 
 firmed by the Senate, and the members of the new administration 
 assumed their respective official duties. 
 
 Within two months after Harrison’s inauguration an event oc¬ 
 curred which might well recall to the mind of the American people 
 the striking incidents in the history of the Revolutionary Epoch. The 
 event in question was the great Centennial Celebration of the Inaugu¬ 
 ration of Washington, first President of the United States. The same 
 was commemorated in many parts of the country ; but the supreme 
 
 JAMES G. BLAINE. 
 
698 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 event was in New York city, and the ceremonies connected there¬ 
 with were associated, as far as practicable, with the scenes of the 
 first inauguration. These circumstances may well call forth not 
 only some descriptive account of the celebration itself, but also a 
 brief review of those events and incidents on which the same was 
 based. 
 
 The period extending from the year 1776 to the year 1789 was 
 marked in the colonial history of the United States by several crises, 
 different in kind, but each so well defined in character as to be worthy 
 of commemoratiou by the people of another and distant age. These 
 crises were: 
 
 1. The Declaration of Independence. 
 
 2. The Formation of the Constitution of the United States. 
 
 3. The Adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 4. The Institution of the New Government. 
 
 The dates of these successive events are well known, the first oc¬ 
 curring in midsummer of 1776 ; the second, in the summer of 1787; 
 the third, in the years 1787 and 1788 ; and the fourth, in 1789. It is 
 to the events of the last-named year that the attention of the reader 
 will now be more particularly called. 
 
 As we have said, each of these crises has a philosophical place and 
 character in American history, and the reader may be interested to 
 note the same as preliminary to an understanding of the Centennial 
 exercises in New York city. 
 
 First, the Declaration of Independence was a democratic and 
 popular revolution. It was the act by which the allegiance of the 
 old Thirteen Colonies to the mother country was broken. It was essen¬ 
 tially destructive in its character. The first stages of all revolutions 
 have this distinctive aspect. They destroy. It remains for a subse¬ 
 quent movement to rebuild. The revolution, in the first place, abol¬ 
 ishes and destroys an existing order. It implies that the people have 
 borne as long as possible some system which presses upon them as if 
 it were of chains and fetters. It is to break the chains, to throw off 
 the fetters, that the revolution begins its career. Sometimes it is 
 carried forward under a government which is able to survive the 
 shock ; more frequently it attacks the government itself, and, if suc¬ 
 cessful, overthrows it. Such was the case with the destructive Revo¬ 
 lution of 1776. It was leveled against the existing order, and was 
 most happily successful. 
 
 Second, it was not long after the achievement of independence until 
 the Revolutionary patriots, at least the more thoughtful and conserva- 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 69 £ 
 
 tive of them, came to see that mere independence was not enough; 
 that mere destruction of popular abuses could not suffice for the future 
 of America. Acting from these sentiments the Fathers began to con¬ 
 sult about re-building, or building anew, a structure in which civil 
 liberty in America might find an abiding-place. These discussions 
 began almost as soon as independence was clearly gained. Within a 
 year after the treaty of peace Washington and his friends began to 
 discuss the feasibility of a better system of government. Conferences 
 were held first at Mount Vernon, then at Annapolis, and finally a 
 great convention of delegates was assembled at Philadelphia. This 
 occurred, as we have said, in the summer of 1787. The result of the 
 labors of this convention is well known. That strange compromise 
 called the Constitution of the United States was produced and signed 
 by the delegates, with Washington as their president. This, then, was 
 the epoch of the Formation of the Constitution. 
 
 Third, immediately after this event a period oi political agitation, 
 the first real and general agitation known in the history of the United 
 States, occurred. The new Constitution laid before the States was 
 the bottom fact from which the stormy discussions of the next two 
 years sprang. Should that Constitution be adopted ? Or should it 
 be rejected and the old confederative system of government be con¬ 
 tinued? On these questions there was a division of parties. The con¬ 
 troversy waxed violent. All the old Thirteen States were shaken from 
 center to boundary line. 
 
 In a former part of the present work* the story of the Adoption 
 of the Constitution by the several States has been narrated; nor is it 
 necessary here to repeat the well-known account of how State after 
 State carried a majority of its delegates for the new system of gov¬ 
 ernment. This epoch of agitation, of controversy, and the final adop¬ 
 tion is the third of the three crises to which we have made reference 
 as belonging to our Revolutionary history. 
 
 Fourth, and last of all, after the Constitution was adopted by nine 
 or ten of the States, came the striking event of the Institution of the 
 Uew Government. The paper model of that Government existed in 
 the Constitution itself. How Washington was unanimously chosen as 
 first chief magistrate of the new republic is known to all the world. A 
 Congress was constituted by the election of a House of Representa¬ 
 tives and a Senate, in accordance with the provision of the new instru¬ 
 ment. All things were made ready, as an architect might prepare the 
 materials for a structure. Then came the actual building of the 
 
 * See pp. 356-362. 
 
700 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 temple. The scene was in old New York ; the New York oi one 
 hundred years ago. 
 
 It is worth while, before proceeding with the account of the * 
 Washingtonian inauguration, and of the commemorative events of 
 1889, to notice briefly the manner and spirit in which the preceding 
 centennials were observed by the people of the United States. We 
 have already seen with what enthusiasm the Centennial Anniversary 
 of the great democratic Revolution of 1776 was marked by the masses. 
 The people of the United States are warm in their affections toward 
 the destructive revolution which was accomplished by the Declaration 
 of Independence and the war which followed. There can be no 
 doubt that, so far as the masses are concerned, they have taken 
 more interest, not only in our own independence and the means by 
 which it was accomplished, but in the destructive aspect of all other 
 revolutionary movements. With what zeal and success the Centen¬ 
 nial Anniversary of Independence was observed in the city of Phila¬ 
 delphia has already been narrated in a previous chapter of the present 
 work.* The second Centennial—that is, the Centennial of the For¬ 
 mation of the Constitution, did not awaken in the United States 
 any considerable degree of enthusiasm. From this it is to be plainly 
 inferred that the people as a whole rejoice more in the fact of inde¬ 
 pendence, in the destruction of old forms, and in the events by which 
 independence was achieved, than they do in the structural part of the 
 history of the country—that is, in the history of those new institutions 
 which have been planted in place of the old. 
 
 There was in the city of Philadelphia, where the Constitution was 
 adopted, an effort in 1887 to commemorate the anniversary, and some 
 local interest was excited in the event; but there was no wide-spread 
 zeal, no throbbing of the popular heart over the coming of the hun¬ 
 dredth year of our national charter. The same may be said with 
 respect to observing the intermediate period of the adoption of the 
 Constitution. No celebrations of more than local importance were 
 had in any of the States in commemoration of this important event. 
 At the first it was even doubted whether the era of the institution of 
 a government itself, dating from the 30th of April, 1789, could awaken 
 sufficient public enthusiasm to warrant a national celebration. Events 
 such as the formation of our Constitution, its adoption by the people 
 of the States, and the institution of the new form instead of the old 
 are not sufficiently spectacular and heroic to set the masses aglow, to 
 produce the requisite heat of a great national commemoration. Never- 
 
 * See pp. 563-628. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 701 
 
 theless in the case of the institution of the Government it was believed 
 by the people of New York city that the event could not by any 
 means be allowed to pass without an effort to impress upon the 
 minds of the present generation the great events of a century 
 gone by. 
 
 Sufficiently striking in all respects was the contrast between the 
 actual inauguration of Washington and the ceremonies attendant upon 
 the beginning of the Government of the United States in 1789, on the 
 one hand, and the commemorative exercises after the lapse of a cent¬ 
 ury. It may be appropriate in this connection to review briefly the 
 circumstances of Washington’s inauguration in order that the reader 
 may have the contrast well in mind. 
 
 According to the Constitution of the United States the new Gov¬ 
 ernment which had been provided for was to have been instituted on 
 the 4th of March—the day which has ever since been retained as the 
 quadrennial beginning of the successive administrations. 
 
 But the first setting up of the Government was attended with 
 many difficulties. The seat of the new Republic, so far as its govern¬ 
 mental machinery was concerned, was to be, at least for the time, in 
 New York city. To reach that colonial metropolis, especially in the 
 early spring, was a difficult and tedious process; the members of Con¬ 
 gress had to come from what were then distant regions to reach the 
 place appointed. So the work lagged. On the 25th of March, 1789, a 
 quorum had not yet appeared in either House of Congress. Nor should 
 the reader forget that the old Congress of the Confederation had not 
 yet expired. It met from day to day in the old Federal Hall in Wall 
 Street. The coming of a greater Congress was at hand. Near the 
 close of the month Fisher Ames wrote to a friend in Boston, as 
 follows: 
 
 We have 26 representatives, and as 30 are necessary to make a quorum 
 we are still in a state of inaction. ... I am inclined to believe that the languor 
 of the old Confederation is transfused into the members of the new Congress- 
 This city has not caught the spirit, or rather the want of spirit, I am vexing my¬ 
 self to express to you. Their ball will cost £20,000, York money. They are pre¬ 
 paring fireworks and a splendid barge for the President, which last will cost £200 
 to £300. We lose £1,000 a day revenue. We lose credit, spirit, every thing. The 
 public will forget the Government before it is born. The resurrection of the 
 infant will come before its birth. Happily the federal interest is strong in Con¬ 
 gress. The old Congress still continues to meet, and it seems to be doubtful 
 whether the old Government is dead or the new one alive. God deliver us speed¬ 
 ily from this puzzling state, or prepare my will, if it subsists much longer, for I 
 am in a fever to think of it.” 
 
702 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the 1st of April, however, the House of Representatives had a 
 quorum. Shortly afterwards the Senate also was sufficiently full to 
 proceed to business. On the 6th of April both Houses were organized 
 in the same Hall where the old Confederative Congress of the Colonies 
 had been sitting. It will be remembered that this so-called Federal 
 
 OLD FEDERAL HALL, WALL STREET, AT THE HEAD OF BROAD, 1789. 
 
 Hall was the old historic City Hall of Hew York, which had been 
 used as the seat of legislative affairs since the close of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 The Constitution had devolved upon Congress the duty of open¬ 
 ing and counting the ballots for President of the United States. TIhs 
 was first of all attended to. It was found that George Washingfon, of 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 703 
 
 Virginia, had a unanimous vote from all the States. The next highest on 
 the list was John Adams, of Massachusetts, who, as the Constitution then 
 stood, was to serve as Vice-President. But neither the President-elect 
 nor the A r ice-President-elect had as yet arrived in New York. Events 
 in those days went forward like a stately minuet. There was neither 
 hurrying nor excitement; or if the latter existed it was suppressed 
 under the formal regularities of the times. 
 
 Charles Thompson was dispatched by Congress to Mount Vernon to 
 notify General Washington of his election to the Presidency. The 
 messenger rode on horseback. For fifteen years he had been secretary 
 of Congress. Nor is it uninteresting to notice that his wife, Hannah 
 Harrison, was a sister of Benjamin Harrison, the signer of the Declara¬ 
 tion of Independence, great-grandfather of him who was destined, in 
 the course of events, to be the Centennial President of the United 
 States. Washington was thus notified, and preparations were begun 
 for his departure to the seat of government. 
 
 Svlvanus Bourne was a like messenger to Vice-President Adams. 
 
 J O 
 
 The latter left home sooner than did Washington, and presently, on the 
 20th of April, arrived at New York. But the General’s coming was 
 delayed until late in April. Even then his progress was slow; the people 
 retarded his course. In the proper place we have already noticed the 
 manner in which he was received en route —how, especially at Tren¬ 
 ton, passing under triumphal arches, thirteen young girls strewed the 
 way before him with flowers. Washington’s course from Trenton 
 was across New Jersey by the old stage-route to Elizabethtown, 
 where he was met by a deputation from Congress to escort him to 
 the city. 
 
 The passage of the harbor was sufficiently beautified with civic 
 ceremonies; the boats were decorated with flags, and gay barges glided 
 through the shining water. The President himself crossed over in a 
 barge. It is said that every vessel in the great harbor was in full dress 
 of streamers and flags, while at several points groups of singers saluted 
 the President with music as he passed. Governor George Clinton, of 
 New York, had been commissioned to receive Washington at the ferry. 
 The stairs were carpeted leading up from the water to the shore ; there 
 Clinton received the Father of his Country. As soon as Washington’s 
 figure rose to view the assembled people broke out in shouts long con¬ 
 tinued and the excitement swirled through the city when it was known 
 that the new President had really arrived. This was on the 23d of 
 April, 1789. 
 
 New York at the time of which we speak was limited to the lower 
 
704 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 end of Manhattan Island. It was no more than a speck in comparison 
 with the Centennial Metropolis of the nation. Its northern limits were 
 marked by the building of the New York Times. Immediately north 
 of this lay a lake, called the Collect Pond, about sixty feet in depth, 
 covering that part of the city now occupied by the Tombs. It is 
 said that the capitalists, even the adventurers, of that day, were 
 without faith as to the future extension of the city northward. 
 The population was approximately forty thousand. Water was dis¬ 
 tributed to the citizens in hydrants and drawn from what was known 
 as the Old Tea-Water Pump standing at the head of Pearl Street. 
 No system of public street cleaning had been adopted. The streets 
 were lighted with oil lamps. Much of the work was done by slaves, 
 and slave auctions w T ere at that time still a common occurrence. 
 
 General Washington was conducted to the residence which had 
 been prepared for him in Franklin Square, and a programme was 
 made out by Congress for the inauguration, which was set for the 
 30th of April. The stately and yet successful formalities of the oc¬ 
 casion are fully set forth in the following memorandum from the 
 first records of Congress: 
 
 April 29th, 1789. The committees of both houses of Congress, appointed 
 to take order for conducting the ceremonial of the formal reception, &c., of the 
 President of the United States, on Thursday next, have agreed to the following 
 order thereon, viz.: 
 
 That General Wetm, Colonel Smith, Lieutenant Colonel Fish, Lieutenant Col¬ 
 onel Franks, Major L’Enfant, Major Bleecker, and Mr. John R. Livingston, be re¬ 
 quested to serve as assistants on the occasion. 
 
 That a chair be placed in the Senate Chamber for the President of the United 
 States. That a chair be placed in the Senate Chamber for the Vice-President, to 
 the right of the President’s chair; and that the Senators take their seats on that 
 side of the chamber on which the Vice-President’s chair shall be placed. That a 
 chair be placed in the Senate Chamber for the Speaker of the House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives, to the left of the President’s chair—and that the Representatives take 
 their seats on that side of the chamber on which the Speaker’s chair shall be placed. 
 
 That seats be provided in the Senate Chamber sufficient to accommodate the 
 late president of Congress, the governor of the Western territory, the five persons 
 being the heads of three great departments, the Minister Plenipotentiary of France, 
 the Encargado de negocios of Spain, the chaplains of Congress, the persons in the 
 suite of the President, and also to accommodate the following Public Officers of 
 the State, viz.: The Governor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the Chancellor, the Chief 
 Justice, and other judges of the Supreme Court, and the Mayor of the city. That 
 one of the assistants wait on these gentlemen, and inform them that seats are pro¬ 
 vided for their accommodation, and also to signify to them that no precedence of 
 seats is intended, and that no salutation is expected from them on their entrance 
 into, or their departure from, the Senate Chamber. 
 
HAHRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 705 
 
 That the members of both houses assemble in their respective Chambers pre¬ 
 cisely at twelve o’clock, and that the representatives preceded by the Speaker, and 
 attended by their clerk, and other officers, proceed to the Senate Chamber, there 
 to be received by the Vice-President and the senators rising. 
 
 That the Committees attend the President from his residence to the Senate 
 Chamber, and that he be there received by the Vice-President, the senators and 
 representatives rising, and be by the Vice-President conducted to his chair. 
 
 That after the President shall be seated in his chair, and the Vice-President, 
 senators and representatives shall be again seated, the Vice-President shall an¬ 
 nounce to the President, that the members of both houses will attend him to be 
 present at his taking the Oath of Office required by the Constitution. To the end 
 that the Oath of Office may be administered to the President in the most public 
 mauner, and that the greatest number of the people of the United States, and 
 without distinction, may be witnesses to the solemnity, that therefore the Oath be 
 administered in the outer gallery adjoining to the Senate Chamber. 
 
 That when the President shall proceed to the gallery to take the Oath, he be 
 attended by the Vice-President, and be followed by the Chancellor of the State, 
 and pass through the middle door; that the Senators pass through the door on 
 the right; and the Representatives, preceded by the Speaker, pass through the 
 door on the left; and such of the persons who shall have been admitted into the 
 Sepate Chamber, and may be desirous to go into the gallery, are then also to pass 
 through the door on the right. When the President shall have taken the 
 Oath, and returned into the Senate Chamber, attended by the Vice-President, 
 and shall be seated in his chair, that the Senators and the Representatives also 
 return into the Senate Chamber, and that the Vice-President and they resume 
 their respective seats. 
 
 Both Houses having esolved to accompany the President, after he shall have 
 taken the Oath, to St. Paul’s Chapel, to hear divine service, to be performed by 
 the chaplain of Congress, that the following order of procession be observed, viz.: 
 The door-keeper and messenger of the House of Representatives. The clerk of 
 the House. The Representatives. The Speaker. The President, with the Vice- 
 President at his left hand. The Senators. The Secretary of the Senate. The 
 door-keeper, and messenger of the Senate. 
 
 That a pew be reserved for the President, Vice-President, Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives, and the Committees ; and that pews be also reserved 
 sufficient for the reception of the Senators and Representatives. 
 
 That after divine service shall be performed, the President be received at the 
 door of the Church, by the Committees, and by them attended in carriages to 
 his residence. 
 
 That it be intrusted to the assistants to take proper precautions for the keep¬ 
 ing the avenues to the Hall open, and that for that purpose, they wait on his Ex¬ 
 cellency, the Governor of this State, and in the name of the Committees request 
 his aid, by an order of recommendation to the Civil Officers, or militia of the 
 city, to attend and serve on the occasion, as he shall judge most proper. 
 
 New York,, as New York then was, had made great preparations 
 to receive the Chief Magistrate. On the morning of the 30th, a 
 national salute was fired; the bells burst out merrily from all the 
 45 
 
706 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 steeples of the city. The newspapers of the day described the scene 
 as especially impressive. The people were called to attend church at nine 
 o’clock in the morning. The beginning of the inaugural procession 
 was set for noon-day ; and promptly at that hour the President’s car¬ 
 riage, followed b)’ a train of attendants, proceeded from the house in 
 Cherry Street, which had been appointed as his residence, through 
 what was then Queen, Great Dock, and Broad Streets to the Old 
 Federal Hall, where the ceremonies of the inauguration were to take 
 place. The order of march is worthy of commemoration ; for this, as 
 well as many other circumstances, tends to set in strongest contrast the 
 first inauguration with that of its Centennial recurrence. 
 
 Col. Morgan Lewis, 
 
 Attended by two officers. 
 
 Capt. Stakes, 
 
 With the Troop of Horse. 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 Maj. Van Horne. 
 
 Grenadiers, under Capt. Harsin. 
 
 German Grenadiers, very gayly attired, under Capt. Scriba. 
 
 Major Bicker. 
 
 The Infantry of the Brigade. 
 
 Major Chryslie. 
 
 Sheriff. 
 
 Committee of the Senate. 
 
 , President-elect, •> 
 
 Assistants. 1 In a chariot drawn by four horses. > Assistants. 
 
 * His Suite. ' 
 
 Committee of the Representatives. 
 
 Hon. Mr. Jay, Secretary of Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Gen. Knox, Secretary of War. 
 
 Chancellor Livingston. 
 
 Several gentlemen of distinction. 
 
 Arrangements had been made for the reception of Washington in 
 tne Senate Hall. Thither he was conducted, and, when seated, was 
 addressed by Vice-President Adams. After these preliminaries, the 
 
# 
 
 
 
 feAKON STEUBEN. GOV. ARTHUR ST. CLAIR. SECRETARY SAMUEL A. OTI8. ROGER SHERMAN. GOV. GEORGE CLINTON. 
 
 CHANCELLOR ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON. GEORGE WASHINGTON. JOHN ADAMS. GEN. HENRY KNOX* 
 
 WASHINGTON TAKING THE OATH AS PRESIDENT, 
 
 APKIL 30, 1789, ON THE SITE OF THE PRESENT TREASURY BUILDING, WALL STREET, NEW YORK CITY- 
 
708 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 President-elect, with the Chief Officers of the new Republic, the 
 Senate and House of Representatives, repaired by the left and right to 
 the balcony in front of the Hall, looking down in Wall Street, where 
 the assembled throng awaited the administration of the oath of office. 
 To this duty Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, Chief-justice of Hew 
 York, had been appointed. Perhaps no scene of public induction into 
 office was ever more solemn or impressive. The chief figure was that 
 of the Father of his Country, conspicuous by his height, and still more 
 conspicuous by the grandeur and impressiveness of his demeanor. 
 The oath of office was administered on the Bible, opened before 
 Washington, whereon he laid his hand, and to which he pressed his 
 lips at the conclusion of the oath. This done, Chancellor Livingston 
 raised his voice, and with a gesture cried : “ Long live George Wash¬ 
 ington, President of the United States.” Immediately afterward the 
 throng burst out in wild cheering; shouts echoed through the city, and 
 the bells rang out their peal of gladness at the auspicious event. Re¬ 
 turning to the Senate Chamber Washington delivered an inaugural 
 address, not elaborate and formal, as such papers have become in the 
 course of our history, but brief, and affecting to those who heard it.* 
 
 As soon as the exercises at the Federal Hall were over Washing¬ 
 ton, attended by the chief officers of the government, and the Senate, 
 repaired to the old St. Paul’s Chapel, where divine services were held, 
 and a sermon preached by Bishop Provost of the Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal Church. This concluded the formal exercises of the day. With 
 the coming of night the city was brilliantly illuminated. The people 
 poured into the streets ; shouts rang out on the evening air, and a uni¬ 
 versal joy seemed to prevail, which was but the conspicuous example 
 of the common rejoicing in all the States. 
 
 It is fitting to note once more that Washington furnishes the 
 only purely and absolutely non-partisan figure in the history of the 
 United States of America. Already in the Colonial times local 
 
 *It is worthy of note that Washington, at the time of the inauguration, though 
 only 57 years of age, was already an old man. He had gone into the Revolution a young 
 man, but was now aged, gray, enfeebled by the strenuous services and great auxieties to 
 which he had been subjected through a period of fourteen years. He was still erect, majestic, 
 firm in his step, with a certain serene dignity of countenance which has hardly had » 
 parallel among all the great men who have risen on this side of the sea. But it was 
 noticed by those in the Senate Chamber, on the day of his inauguration, that his voice 
 was not a little enfeebled. He spoke in a low tone, and could be heard only by those who 
 were sitting near. Perhaps the premonitory shadows of the serious and long-continued 
 illness, which fell upon him within two months after his inauguration, were already 
 gathering on the day of his accession to the Presidency. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 70S 
 
 divisions had given rise to local partisan controversy, and at the time of 
 Washington’s inauguration—even before that inauguration—a great dis¬ 
 pute, relative first of all to the Constitution itself, whether it should or 
 should not be, and after that, relative to the construction of the great 
 instrument, had broken out in all the States. Little jets of flame were 
 already springing through the placid surface of public affairs, indica¬ 
 tive of the great Federal and Democratic partisan disputes which have 
 hardly yet ceased to agitate the American mind. But in this Wash¬ 
 ington had no part or lot. He stood proudly above it. His theory 
 wa3 to introduce into his administration the diverse elements of polit¬ 
 ical belief, and to harmonize under his benign, fatherly influence the 
 
 old st. Paul’s church, Broadway, new york. 
 
710 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 opposing forces which threatened to distract, if not to destroy, the 
 very system to which he had now pledged his all. 
 
 Turning from the actual inauguration of the first President to the 
 commemoration of that event one hundred years afterward, we notice 
 first of all the incipiency of the enterprise. As early as March of 
 1883, a resolution was introduced into the Legislature of Tennessee re¬ 
 questing Congress to make a suitable appropriation for the observance of 
 the Centenary of the American government. The measure is said to 
 have originated with Colonel J. E. Peyton of New Jersey, who, though 
 an Englishman by birth, had for a number of years been prominent as 
 a mover and deviser of Centennial celebrations. It is perhaps true 
 that to him the first movement in favor of the commemorative exer¬ 
 cises of 1889 must be attributed. 
 
 Practically, however, the celebration originated with the New 
 York Historical Society. In March of 1884 that body passed a resolu¬ 
 tion to undertake the enterprise. The project was then espoused by 
 the Chamber of Commerce; and Congress and the State of New York 
 were asked to indorse and support the measure. So far as the citizens 
 of New York were concerned, their first public interest was excited by 
 Colonel Peyton and Algernon S. Sullivan. A meeting was held at the 
 Fifth Avenue Hotel, on the 1st of September, 1884, and formal steps 
 began to be taken for the celebration. It was not, however, until 1887< 
 and near the close of that year, that a committee of forty-nine citizens, 
 with Mayor Abram S. Hewitt as chairman, was appointed for general 
 supervision of the project. Many prominent citizens of New York, 
 capitalists, military men, merchants, and others espoused the cause, and 
 by the beginning of 1888 the enterprise was well under way. 
 
 At an early date it was determined that the commemorative cele¬ 
 bration should conform as nearly as practicable to the actual inaugura- 
 tion of Washington. To this end it was decided to invite the 
 President of the United States, whoever he should be, to visit New 
 York, going approximately by the same route which had carried 
 Washington thither one hundred years ago, to be received in like man¬ 
 ner, conducted across the harbor in a similar vessel, and to be presented 
 in Wall Street, on the very spot where Washington was inaugurated, 
 and where a Centennial oration commemorative of the progress and 
 glory of the American people was to be delivered. About this central 
 idea all the other features of the celebration were clustered. The 
 event was totally different in character from the great expositions which 
 had been connected with most Centennial celebrations. The Jubilees 
 of France; the great World’s Fairs of England; and our own Cen- 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 711 
 
 tennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, were of this kind. But in 
 the case of the commemoration of the American government, now 
 undertaken, the feature of exposition was wholly omitted. Every thing 
 was made truly commemorative—designed to point backward to the 
 events of a century ago, and to evoke, through the shadows of several 
 generations, a vivid recollection of the condition of the American people 
 and the American Republic, when the latter was instituted. 
 
 Dnring the whole of 1888, and the first months of 1889, the pre¬ 
 liminaries were prosecuted with zeal by the Citizens’ Committee of 
 New York. Meanwhile the presidential election had been held in 
 which the temporary ascendency of the Democratic party was replaced 
 by Republican success. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, was chosen 
 President. Ex-President Cleveland retired at the close of his adminis¬ 
 tration to New York city, and became a resident of that metropolis. 
 Happily enough, the incoming Chief Magistrate was intimately asso¬ 
 ciated in his family relations with the great events of the Revolution. 
 His great-grandfather, also named Benjamin Harrison, had presided in 
 the Colonial Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopt¬ 
 ed, Mr. Hancock being absent from the chair on that ever memorable 
 day. The son of that distinguished statesman had become ninth Pres¬ 
 ident of the United States, and now the great-grandson was chosen by 
 the election of the American people to the same high office and dignity. 
 
 It was foreseen that the celebration would bring to New York 
 city a vast concourse of people, and the event justified the expectations. 
 It had been decided by the committee to devote two days to the com¬ 
 memorative exercises, namely, the 30th of April, and the 1st of May. 
 For perhaps two weeks before these days the great trains on the many 
 railways centering in the metropolis began to pour out an unusual 
 cargo of human life. They grew longer, and darker with their burden, 
 until, by the 29th of April, the city of New York was a mass of living 
 beings gathered from all parts of the Republic, but principally from 
 the old thirteen States. Next after these, the five great States com¬ 
 posing what was a hundred years ago the territory north-west of the 
 river Ohio were best represented. It is probable that at the time of 
 the celebration New York proper held for her own population about 
 1,750,000 inhabitants, and a fair estimate would perhaps place the 
 strangers then in the city at fully a half million. 
 
 For three days before the formal opening of the celebration, the 
 Atlantic coast in the region of New York was visited with a great 
 rain storm, which threatened to mar all that had been attempted,, but 
 on the 29th of the month the skies cleared, the air became fresh, and 
 48 
 
712 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the sunshine bright. The morning of the Centennial day was ushered 
 in as auspiciously as could be desired, and the metropolis was early 
 astir for the great event. 
 
 Meanwhile arrangements had been made for President Harrison, 
 Vice-President Morton, the members of the Cabinet, and other promi¬ 
 nent men connected with the government, to go to the city from 
 Washington. To this end a magnificent train was prepared by the 
 managers of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and a little after midnight on 
 the morning of the 29th the President and his companions left Wash¬ 
 ington. They were received at several points en route with much 
 enthusiasm, and as the train drew near New York the stations and towns 
 were crowded with people. At Elizabethtown the real imitation of 
 of the Washington inaugural began. Here a committee sent out from 
 New York met the President and prepared to conduct him across the 
 bay. A steamer called the Despatch had been prepared for this es¬ 
 pecial purpose. She was gaily decked with flags and streamers. The 
 upper harbor of New York had been given up to the shipping, which 
 was placed under the command of Admiral Porter. The scene pre¬ 
 sented from the observatory of the Field Building, erected on the site 
 of Washington’s old head-quarters at the lower end of the island, was 
 one of the finest ever witnessed. The broad harbor was covered with 
 vessels, and gaily decorated ships of foreign nations vied with the 
 American craft in flinging their streamers to the breeze. 
 
 We may here speak of the general appearance of the city. Every 
 pains had been taken to put the metropolis into gala dress and to 
 present to the eye the most inspiring spectacle. Never was a city 
 more completely clad in gay apparel. Every street on both sides as 
 far as the eye could reach was ornamented with flags and streamers, 
 mottoes, and emblems of jubilee. In this respect Broadway and Fifth 
 Avenue were the most elaborately and beautifully adorned. It is 
 doubtful whether in the history of mankind a finer display has been 
 made in the streets of any city. The decorations extended to every 
 variety of public and private edifices. Scarcely a house on Manhattan 
 Island but had its share in the display. Indeed, if one had been lifted 
 in a balloon above old Castle Garden, sweeping northward with his 
 glass he would have seen flags on flags from the Battery to Spuyten 
 Duyvil. Along both sides of the North River and East River and in 
 the islands of the bay the universal emblems were flung to the breeze. 
 And the purest of sunshine glorified the scene with a blaze of morning 
 light. The convoy of the Despatch , under command of Captain Am¬ 
 brose Snow, of the New York Marine Society, was rowed by twelve 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 713 
 
 »inarable retired sea captains. The scene was sufficiently picturesque 
 as they brought the President safely to land in the barge called the 
 Queen Kapiolani. 
 
 The landing was effected a little after noon-day. The President was 
 received by Mayor Grant, Governor Hill, and Stuyvesant Fish. The 
 procession had been arranged from the foot of Wall Street to the great 
 building of the Equitable Assurance Company in Broadway, where, 
 under the auspices of the Lawyers’ Club of New York, the first formal 
 reception of the President occurred. As soon as General Harrison 
 had taken his carriage the procession moved to the Equitable Building, 
 where, on a raised platform, the President, the Vice-President, and Gov¬ 
 ernor Hill were introduced to the invited guests, most of whom had 
 taken part in the procession. In the next place the President lunched 
 in an adjoining private room, the ornamentation of which, for this oc¬ 
 casion, is said to have cost nearly $5,000. At this time the narrow 
 streets in the lower part of the metropolis were packed with eager 
 people. It was with difficulty that the troops, drawn up in a hollow 
 square in front of the Equitable building, were able to keep back the 
 crowds. Meanwhile many bands, especially those of Gilmore and Cappa, 
 discoursed national airs, while in distant parts of the city the hum and 
 roar of the rising excitement could be distinctly heard. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the part assigned to President Har¬ 
 rison in these commemorative exercises was the part of Washington. 
 He was to impersonate the Father of his Country. The next movement 
 of the concourse was from the Equitable Building to the City Hall, 
 where another reception was given. A splendid platform, covered 
 with plush materials, railed in with brass, was erected on the spot 
 where the bodies of Abraham Lincoln and General Grant had lain in 
 state in death, and where the Marquis of Lafayette had stood on his 
 visit to New York in 1824. About 5,000 persons at this place were 
 received by the President. After the close of the exercises at City 
 Hall the President was taken to the residence of Vice-President Mor¬ 
 ton on Fifth Avenue, whither his wife had already preceded him. In 
 the evening he dined with Mr. Stuyvesant Fish in Gramercy Park, 
 and at a later hour attended the great ball in the Metropolitan Opera 
 House, which had been prepared in imitation and commemoration of 
 the Washingtonian ball given on the occasion of the first inauguration, 
 at which the Father of his Country led the first cotillon. Thus closed 
 the ceremonies of the 29th of April, the day preceding the commemo¬ 
 rative exercises proper. 
 
 On the following morning the inhabitants of New York, and hun» 
 
' W/ffiA 
 
 SUB-TREASURY, WALL AND NASSAU STREETS, NEW YORK. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 715 
 
 dreds of thousands of strangers, poured into the streets to witness the 
 great military parade which was to be the feature of the day. Mean¬ 
 while in the lower part of the city the exercises which had been 
 planned in imitation and commemoration of Washington’s accession to 
 the presidency were under way. Wall Street and Broad Street were 
 packed with people. A great platform had been erected in front of 
 the Treasury building, now occupying the site of old Federal Hall, and 
 marked by the presence of Ward’s colossal statue of Washington. It 
 was here that the oratorical and literary exercises were to take place. 
 These were to consist of a Centennial oration by Hon. Chauncey M. 
 Depew, also of an address by President Harrison, of a poem by John 
 Greenleaf Whittier, and of such religious services as were appropriate 
 to the occasion. Several of the leading clergymen of the metropolis 
 were present on the stand. Archbishop Corrigan, Dr. Bichard S. 
 Storrs, and Dr. Henry C. Potter, bishop of Hew York, were the most 
 distinguished of the group. 
 
 The exercises were opened by Mr. Elbridge T. Gerry, who in a few 
 explanatory words introduced Dr. Storrs, who pronounced the invoca¬ 
 tion. The accessories were ail in keeping with the occasion. President 
 Harrison sat in a chair which had been much used by Washington. 
 The table also was Washington’s, and the Bible which was laid thereon 
 was that on which the Father of his Country had taken the solemn oath 
 to support and defend the Constitution of the United States. The 
 Whittier poem was then read by Mr. C. W. Bowen, secretary of the 
 Citizens’ Committee, as follows: 
 
 THE VOW OF WASHINGTON. 
 
 BY JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 
 
 The sword was sheathed; in April’s sun 
 
 Lay green the fields by freedom won; 
 
 And severed sections, weary of debates, 
 
 Joined hands at last, and were United States. 
 
 O, city sitting by the sea! 
 
 How proud the day that dawned on thee; 
 
 When the New Era, long desired, began, 
 
 And in its need the hour had found the Man I 
 
 One tnought the cannon’s salvos spoke; 
 
 The resonant bell-tower’s vibrant stroke; 
 
 The voiceful streets, the plaudit-echoing halls, 
 
 And prayer and hymn borne heavenward from St. Paul s. 
 
m 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 How felt the land in every part 
 
 The strong throb of a nation’s heart 
 
 As its great leader gave, with reverent awe, 
 
 His pledge to Union, Liberty, and Law. 
 
 That* pledge the heavens above him heard; 
 
 That vow the sleep of centuries stirred; 
 
 In world-wide wonder listening peoples bent 
 Their gaze on freedom’s great experiment. 
 
 Could it succeed? Of honor sold 
 And hopes deceived all history told; 
 
 Above the wrecks that strewed the mournful past 
 Was the long dream of ages true at last ? 
 
 Thank God! The people’s choice was just; 
 
 The one man equal to his trust; 
 
 Wise beyond lore and without weakness good, 
 Calm in the strength of flawless rectitude. 
 
 His rule of justice, order, peace, 
 
 Made possible the world’s release; 
 
 Taught prince and serf that power is but a trust, 
 And rule alone which serves the ruled is just. 
 
 That freedom generous is, but strong 
 In hate of fraud and selfish wrong— 
 
 Pretense that turns her holy truths to lies, 
 
 And lawless license masking in her guise. 
 
 Land of his love! with one glad voice 
 Let thy great sisterhood rejoice; 
 
 A century’s suns o’er thee have risen and set 
 And, God be praised ! we are One Nation yet. 
 
 And still we trust the years to be 
 Shall prove his hope was destiny; 
 
 Leaving our flag with all its added stars 
 Unrent by faction and unstained by wars. 
 
 Lo! where with patient toil he nursed 
 And trained the new set plant at first, 
 
 The widening branches of a stately tree 
 Stretch from the sunrise to the sunset sea. 
 
 And in its broad and sheltering shade, 
 
 Sitting with none to make afraid, 
 
 Were we now silent through each mighty limb 
 The winds of heaven would sing the praise of him. 
 
 Ocr first and best! his ashes lie 
 Beneath his own Virginian sky. 
 
 Forgive, forget, O true and just and brave, 
 
 The storm that swept above thy sacred grave. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 TIT 
 
 Forever in the awful strife 
 
 And dark hours of the nation’s life, 
 
 Through the fierce tumult pierced his warning word; 
 
 Their father’s voice his erring children heard. 
 
 The change for which he prayed and sought 
 In that sharp agony was wrought; 
 
 No partial interest draws its alien line 
 
 ’Twixt North and South, the cypress and the pin*. 
 
 One people now, all doubt beyond, 
 
 His name shall be our union bond; 
 
 We lift our hands to heaven, and here and now 
 Take on our lips the old Centennial vow. 
 
 For rule and trust must need be ours; 
 
 Chooser and chosen both are powers; 
 
 Equal in service as in rights, the claim 
 Of duty rests on each and all the same. 
 
 Then let the sovereign millions where 
 Our banner floats in sun and air, 
 
 From the warm palm-lands to Alaska’s cold, 
 
 Repeat with us The Pledge a century old 1 
 
 The oration of Mr. Depew was of a high order, eulogistic of the 
 present—the voice of a patriot who believes in the past and trusts the 
 future. The address by the President was also able and patriotic. 
 The exercises were closed with a benediction by Archbishop Corrigan, 
 of the archdiocese of New York. 
 
 In the meantime the great military parade—the greatest of all such 
 displays in the United States, with the single exception of the review of 
 the soldiers at Washington at the close of the war—was in preparation 
 for the march. The principal streets in the lower part of the city had 
 been assigned for the formation of the various divisions of the parade. 
 At last the procession was ready to move. A number of magnificent 
 carriages bearing the President, the Vice-President, the members of the 
 Cabinet, and other distinguished representatives of the government, 
 swept up to the head of the column and led the way to the great re¬ 
 viewing stand which had been prepared on the west side of Madison 
 Square, looking down into Fifth Avenue. Here the President and his 
 companions took their places to review the column as it passed, and 
 for six hours the chief magistrate stood up to recognize, in his official 
 capacity, the passing squadrons of the greatest parade ever known 
 in a time of peace west of the Atlantic. 
 
 It were difficult to describe the great procession. It was admirably 
 
718 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 managed—wholly military. The different divisions were arranged in 
 files from eighteen to twenty-two men abreast. In many places the 
 marching was in close rank, so that the knees of those in the rear rank 
 fitted almost geometrically into those of the men in front. The pas¬ 
 sage was at the rate of more than 9,000 per hour. The best estimates 
 place the number in line at over 52,000. Major General John M. Scho¬ 
 field was commander-in-chief. The course of march was from Wall 
 Street into Broadway; up Broadway to Waverly Place ; through Wav* 
 erly Place into Fifth Avenue; along that magnificent thoroughfare to 
 Fourteenth Street; thence around Union Square, through to Fifth 
 Avenue and thence northward to Central Park. 
 
 Through all this distance and on both sides of the street was a 
 solid wall of human beings, rising to the rear by every kind of con¬ 
 trivance which human ingenuity 
 could invent, so as to gain a view 
 of the procession. The mass on the 
 sidewalks was from twenty to fifty 
 persons deep. In every advanta¬ 
 geous position scaffolding with as¬ 
 cending seats had been erected for 
 the accommodation of the multi¬ 
 tudes, and not a seat was left un¬ 
 occupied. At the street crossings 
 every variety of vehicle had been 
 drawn up, and the privilege of stand¬ 
 ing on boxes or sitting in carts, 
 wagons, or hacks was sold at high 
 john m. schofield. figures to the eager people who 
 
 pressed into the crowd. Windows 
 and every other available point of view, housetops, balconies, stoops, 
 verandas, were crowded to their utmost capacity. In favorite local¬ 
 ities fabulous prices were charged for the privilege of looking from 
 a window upon the passing cavalcade. The latter was, as we have 
 said, preceded by the Presidential company. General Schofield, senior 
 Major-General of - the American Army, as chief marshal, rode at 
 the head of the column. After him, and leading the van of the pro¬ 
 cession proper, were over 2,000 regulars, infantry and cavalry, drawn 
 from the Army; then came the cadets from West Point, whose march¬ 
 ing and uniform and bearing were of such excellence as to excite a 
 chorus of cheers from end to end of the long march. Next followed 
 the artillery and batteries of the regular army. Many of the guns and 
 
#EMUftlAJ» ARCH. FIFTH AY2NUE ANL WAVE&CEY PLACE. »V«lfe/ 
 
720 
 
 BISTORT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 much of the armor was resplendent for its brilliancy. After cnese cama 
 the marines and naval cadets, a vast column of apprentices, whose 
 march, by its peculiar rolling movement, denoted that the column had 
 been recently gathered from the decks of ships. 
 
 Thus closed the first division of the procession—that is, those who 
 were taken from the Army and Navy of the United States. Then 
 followed the militiamen—the National Guard of the different States. 
 At the head was a column of 370 men from Delaware; for Delaware 
 had been first of the old thirteen States to adopt the Constitution, and 
 w r as thus given a place of honor on the centennial anniversary. The 
 Governor of each State represented in the parade rode at the head of 
 the division from his ow r n Commonwealth. Most of the governors -were 
 in civil attire. General Beaver, of Pennsylvania, General Fitzhugh 
 Lee, of Virginia, and General John B. Gordon, of Georgia, were con¬ 
 spicuous at the head of their divisions. It was noticed that those who 
 were present from the Southern States were received with unstinted 
 applause. Governor Beaver rode at the head of the Pennsylvania 
 troops, numbering fully 8,000 men. Then came Governor Green, with 
 the soldiers of New Jersey 3,700 strong; then Georgia, with General 
 Gordon and his staff. The Foot Guards from Connecticut, preceded 
 by the Governor, numbered 600. Governor Ames, of Massachusetts, 
 headed the column of 1,500 from the old Bay State—a noble division, 
 containing the Ancient and Honorable Artillery of Boston, all uni¬ 
 formed after the most antique pattern. The men of Maryland were 
 500 strong. Then came New Hampshire; then Vermont, with a di¬ 
 vision of 700. Governor Richardson, of North Carolina, followed with 
 a body of 500 men. This division was fortunate in bearing an old flag 
 belonging to North Carolina in the pre-Revolutionary epoch. After 
 this came the great division of New York. Twelve thousand men, 
 arranged in four brigades of eighteen regiments, one battalion, and five 
 batteries, were the contribution of the Empire State to the great display. 
 At the head of the line rode Governor David B. Hill. 
 
 In this column the Seventh Regiment, made up of prominent men 
 of New York city, and numbering over 1,000, was, perhaps, the most 
 conspicuous single body in the wdiole procession. The Twenty-second 
 Regiment vied with its rival; and it might be difficult to decide whether 
 the palm for marching and other evidences of elegant training should be 
 awarded to the West Point Cadets, the Seventh Regiment of New 
 York, the Twenty-second Regiment of the same State, the squadron 
 from the Michigan Military Academy, or the T venty-third Regiment, 
 of Brooklyn. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 721 
 
 Behind this magnificent display of the military came the veterans 
 of the Civil War, the men of the Grand Army of the Republic, headed 
 by their commander-in-chief, General William Warner. These were 
 arranged column after column to an aggregate of 12,000, according to 
 the locality from which they were gathered, the rear being closed with 
 a magnificent body of old soldiers, numbering nearly 4,000, from 
 Brooklyn and Kings County. It was already nightfall when this ex¬ 
 treme left of the column passed the reviewing stand, and the parade 
 for the day was at an end. 
 
 The evening of the 30tli was occupied with one of the most elabo¬ 
 rate and sumptuous banquets ever spread in the United States. For 
 this purpose the Metropolitan Opera House, in Broadway, had been pro¬ 
 cured and decorated. It was claimed by those experienced in such 
 matters that the floral ornamentation of the hall was far superior in 
 costliness and beauty to any thing of like kind ever before displayed in 
 the country. The boxes of the theater were adorned with the national 
 «olors, with the shields and coats-of-arms of the various States of the 
 Union. Over the proscenium arch was a portrait of Washington, ar¬ 
 ranged in a cluster of evergreens and flowers. The auditorium was brill¬ 
 iantly illuminated, and the scene of splendor on every hand might well 
 dazzle the eye and surprise the imagination of the beholder. The ban¬ 
 queters, embracing many of the chief men of the nation, were seated 
 at a series of tables, the first and principal one being occupied by the 
 President of the United-States, the Governor of New York, the Vice- 
 President, the Lieutenant-Governor, Chief-Justice Fuller, Judge An¬ 
 drews, General Schofield, Admiral Porter, Senator Evarts, Senator 
 Iliscock, Ex-President Hayes,‘Ex-President Cleveland, Bishop Potter, 
 Speaker Cole, of the Hew York Assembly, Secretary Proctor, Hon. S. 
 S. Cox, General William T. Sherman, Clarence W. Bowen, and El- 
 bridge T. Gerry, the last two representing the Citizens’ Committee. 
 At this table Mayor Grant presided, and read the toasts of the evening. 
 
 The feast began at 9 o’clock in the evening. At the close a series 
 of brief addresses were delivered by the Governor of Hew York, Ex- 
 President Cleveland, Ex-President Hayes, General Sherman, Senator 
 Evarts, President Eliot, of Harvard; James Russell Lowell, Senator 
 Daniel, and others. The closing address was by the President of the 
 United States. Hearly all the speeches were faultless in their subject- 
 matter, eloquent in delivery, and worthy to be regarded as classics of 
 the occasion. 
 
 The programme prepared by the Citizens’ Committee embraced a 
 general holiday of three days’ duration, during .which business was mu*• 
 46 
 
722 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 pended throughout the city. On the 29th and 30th of April and on 
 the 1st day of May the restriction was faithfully regarded. One might 
 traverse Broadway and find but few business establishments open to 
 the public. This was true particularly of the two principal days of 
 the festival. 
 
 It now remains to notice the great civic parade of the 1st of May, 
 with which the commemorative exercises were concluded. The design 
 was that this should represent the industries, the progress, and in gen¬ 
 eral the civic life of the Metropolis of the Nation and of the country 
 at large, as distinguished from the military display of the preceding day. 
 It was found from the experience of the 30tli that the line of march 
 was too lengthy, and the second day’s course was made somewhat shorter. 
 It is not intended in this connection to enter into any elaborate account 
 of the civic procession of the third day. It was second only in impor¬ 
 tance to the great military parade which had preceded it. The proces¬ 
 sion was composed, in large part, of those various civic orders and broth¬ 
 erhoods with which modern society so much abounds. In these the foreign 
 nationalities which have obtained so large a footing in New York city 
 were largely prevalent. The German societies were out in full force. 
 Companies representing almost every nation of the Old World were in 
 the line, carrying gay banners, keeping step to the music of magnificent 
 bands, and proudly lifting their mottoes and emblems in the May-day 
 * morning. 
 
 The second general feature of this procession was the historical 
 part. The primitive life of Manhattan Island, the adventures of the 
 early explorers and discoverers along the American coast, the striking 
 incidents in the early annals of the old Thirteen States, were allegorized 
 and mounted in visible form on chariots and drawn through the streets. 
 All the old heroes of American History, from Columbus to Peter Stuy- 
 vesant, were seen again in mortal form, received obeisance, and heard 
 the shouts of the multitudes. From ten o'clock in the forenoon till 
 half-past three in the afternoon the procession was under way, the 
 principal iine of march being down Fifth Avenue and through the 
 principal squares of the city. With the coming of evening the pyro¬ 
 technic display of the preceding night was renewed in many parts of 
 the metropolis, though it could hardly be said that the fireworks were 
 equal in brilliancy, beauty, and impressiveness to the magnificent day 
 pageants of the streets. 
 
 One of the striking features of the celebration was the ease and 
 rapidity with which the vast multitudes were breathed into and breathed 
 out of the city. In the principal hotels fully 150,000 strangers were 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 723 
 
 registered as guests. More than twice this number were distributed in 
 the smaller lodging-houses and private dwellings of New York and 
 Brooklyn. Yet the careful observer abroad in the streets saw neither 
 the coming nor the going. With the appearance of the days of the 
 celebration the throngs were present; on the following days they were 
 gone. The great railways centering in the metropolis had done their 
 work noiselessly, speedily, effectively. It may well be recorded as one 
 of the marvels of modern times that only two persons are said to have 
 lost their lives in this tremendous assemblage, extending through sev¬ 
 eral days, and that at least one of these died suddenly from heart dis¬ 
 ease, while the manner of the death of the other was unknown. Such 
 is the triumph which the mastery of the human mind over the forces 
 of the material world has easily achieved in our age, under the guidance 
 of that beneficent science by which the world is at once enlightened 
 and protected from danger. 
 
 The close of the year 1888 and the beginning of 1889 were marked 
 by a peculiar episode in the history of the country. An unexpected 
 and even dangerous complication arose between the United States and 
 Germany relative to the Samoan Islands. This comparatively unim¬ 
 portant group of the South Pacific lies in a south-westerly direction, 
 at a distance of about five thousand miles from San Francisco and nearly 
 two thousand miles eastward from Australia. The long-standing pol¬ 
 icy of the government, established under the administration of Wash¬ 
 ington and ever since maintained, to have no entanglements with foreign 
 nations, seemed in this instance to be strangely at variance with the 
 facts. 
 
 During 1888 the civil affairs of the Samoan Islands were thrown 
 into extreme confusion by what was really the progressive disposition 
 of the people, but what appeared in the garb of an insurrection against 
 the established authorities. The government of the islands is a mon¬ 
 archy. The country is ruled by native princes, and is independent of 
 foreign powers. The capital, Apia, lies on a bay of the same name on 
 the northern coast of the principal island. It was here that the insur¬ 
 rection gained greatest headway. 
 
 The revolutionary movement was headed by an audacious chief¬ 
 tain called Tamasese. The king of the island was Malietoa, and his 
 chief supporter, Mataafa. At the time the German Empire was rep¬ 
 resented in Samoa by its Consul-General, Herr Knappe ; and the United 
 States was represented by Hon. Harold M. Sewall. A German armed 
 force virtually deposed Malietoa and set up Tamasese on the throne. 
 On the other hand, the representative of the United States, following 
 
724 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the policy of his government, stood by the established authority, sup¬ 
 porting the native sovereign and Mataafa. The American and German 
 authorities in the island were thus brought into conflict, and serious 
 difficulties occurred between the ships of the two nations in the harbor. 
 
 When the news of this state of affairs reached Germany, in April, 
 1889, several additional men-of-war were sent out to the island to up¬ 
 hold the German cause. Mataafa and the Germans were thus brought 
 to war. Meanwhile the American government took up the cause of 
 its consul and of King Malietoa as against the insurrection. A section 
 of the American navy was dispatched to the distant island, and the ships 
 of war of two of the greatest nations of Christendom were thus set 
 face to face in a harbor of the South Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In this condition of affairs, on the 22d of March, 1889, one of the 
 most violent hurricanes ever known in the islands blew up from the 
 north, and the American and German war-vessels were driven upon 
 the great reef which constitutes the only break-water outside of the 
 harbor of Apia. Here they were wrecked. The American war-ships 
 Nipsic, Trenton , and Vandalia were dashed into ruins. The German 
 vessels Adler , Olga , and Eher were also lost. The English vessel 
 Calliope , which was caught in the storm, was the only war-ship which 
 escaped by steaming out to sea. Serious loss of life accompanied the 
 disaster: 4 American officers and 46 men, 9 German officers and 87 
 men sank to rise no more. 
 
 Meanwhile England had become interested in the dispute, and had 
 taken a stand with the United States as against the decision of Germany. 
 The matter became of so great importance that President Harrison, 
 who had in the meantime acceded to office as chief magistrate, ap¬ 
 pointed, with the advice of the Senate, an Embassy Extraordinary, 
 to go to Berlin and meet Prince Bismarck in a conference with a view 
 to a peaceful solution of the difficulty. The embassadors appointed 
 for this purpose were J. A. Kasson, of Iowa; William W. Phelps, of 
 New Jersey ; and G. H. Bates, of Delaware. The commissioners set 
 out on the 13th of April, and on their arrival at the capital of the 
 German Empire opened negotiations with the Chancellor Bismarck and 
 his son. The attitude and demand of the American government was 
 that the independence of Samoa, under its native sovereign, should be 
 acknowledged and guaranteed by the great nations concerned in the 
 controversy. The conference closed in May, 1889, with the restoration 
 of King Malietoa and the recognition of his sovereignty over the island. 
 
 The closing week of May, 1889, was made forever memorable in 
 the history of the United States by the destruction of Johnstown, 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 725 
 
 Pennsylvania. The calamity was caused by the bursting of a reser¬ 
 voir and the pouring out of the deluge in the valley below. A large 
 artificial lake had been constructed in the ravine of the South Fork 
 River, a tributary of the Conemaugh. It was a fishing lake, the prop¬ 
 erty of a company of wealthy sportsmen, and was about five miles in 
 length, varying in depth from fifty to one hundred feet. An immense 
 volume of water was thus accumulated in a gorge at the foot of the 
 mountains, and was, as it were, suspended over the valley of Cone¬ 
 maugh The country below the lake was thickly peopled. The city of 
 Johnstown, with a population of more than ten thousand, lay at the 
 junction of the South Fork with the Conemaugh. In the last days of 
 May unusually heavy rains fell in all that region, swelling every stream 
 to a torrent. The South Fork Lake became full to overflowing. 
 The dam had been imperfectly constructed. On the afternoon of 
 May 31 the dam of the reservoir burst wide open in the center and a 
 solid wall of water from twenty to fifty feet in height rushed down 
 the valley with terrific violence. The country was already inundated, 
 and on top of the swollen streams was poured a veritable flood. 
 
 The destruction which ensued was among the greatest which the 
 modern world has witnessed. In the path of the deluge every thing 
 was swept away. The manufacturing city of Johnstown was totally 
 wrecked, and was thrown , in an indescribable heap of horror against 
 the aqueduct of the Pennsylvania railway, which spanned the river 
 below the town. Here the ruins caught fire, and the wild shrieks of 
 hundreds of miserable victims were drowned in the holocaust. Ac¬ 
 cording to the best estimates more than 2,000 people perished in the 
 flood or were burned to death in the ruins. The heart of the nation 
 responded quickly to the sufferings of the survivors, and millions of 
 dollars in money and supplies were poured out to relieve the despair 
 of those who survived the calamity. 
 
 The year 1889 witnessed the assembling at Washington City of 
 an International Congress. The body was composed of delegates 
 from the Central and South American States, from Mexico, and the 
 United States of America. Popularly the assembly was known as 
 the “ Pan-American Congress.” The event was the culmination of 
 a policy adopted by the United States some years previously. Gen¬ 
 eral Grant, during his presidency and in the subsequent parts of his 
 life, had endeavored to promote more intimate relations with the 
 Spanish-American peoples. James G. Blaine, Secretary of State 
 under Garfield, entertained a similar ambition. The publicist and 
 author, Hinton Rowan Helper, had also by his writings and ad- 
 
726 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vocacy, greatly promoted the cause of overland intercourse through 
 the Three Americas. Mr. Blaine in this cause was accused of a 
 purpose to create in the United States a policy similar to Disraeli’s 
 “ high-jingoism ” in Great Britain. The United States were to 
 become the arbiter of the Western nations. To this end the Central 
 American and South American States must be brought, first into 
 intimacy with our Republic, and afterwards to be made to follow 
 her lead in warding off all Europeanism. 
 
 The death of Garfield prevented the institution of some such 
 policy as that here vaguely defined. Nevertheless, in 1884, an Act 
 was passed by Congress authorizing the President to appoint a com¬ 
 mission “ to ascertain and report upon the best modes of securing 
 more intimate international commercial relations between the United 
 States and the several countries of Central and South America.” 
 Commissioners were sent out to the countries referred to, and the 
 movement for the Congress was started. Not until May of 1888, 
 however, was the Act passed providing for the Congress. The 
 Spanish-American nations responded to the overtures and took the 
 necessary steps to meet the United States in the conference. The 
 objects contemplated were, first, to promote measures pertaining to 
 the peace and prosperity of the peoples concerned; to establish cus¬ 
 toms-unions among them ; to improve the means of communication 
 between the ports of the States represented, and to advance the 
 commercial interests and political harmony of the nations of the New 
 World. 
 
 The Spanish-American and Portuguese-American States, to the 
 number of nine, appointed their delegates, and the latter arrived in 
 the United States in the autumn of 1889. President Harrison on 
 his part named ten members of the Congress as follows: John F. 
 Hanson, of Georgia; Morris M. Estee, of California; Henry G. 
 Davis, of West Virginia; Andrew Carnegie, of Pennsylvania: 
 T. Jefferson Coolidge, of Massachusetts; Clement Studebaker, of 
 Indiana; Charles R. Flint, of New York; William H. Trescot, of 
 South Carolina; Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; and John B. 
 Henderson, of Missouri. Mexico sent two representatives, namely: 
 Matias Romero and Enrique A. Maxia. Brazil, still an Empire, also 
 sent two delegates: J. G. de Amaral Valente and Salvador de Men- 
 donca. The representative of Honduras was Jeronimo Zelaya; 
 Fernando Cruz, the delegate of Guatemala, and Jacinto Castellanos 
 of San Salvador. Costa Rica sent as her representative Manuel 
 Aragon. Horatio Guzman, Minister of Nicaragua, represented hi? 
 
HARRISON’S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 727 
 
 Government in the Congress. The Argentine Republic had two 
 delegates: Roque Saenz Pena and Manuel Quintana. Chili 
 sent two delegates: Emilio C. Varas and Jos6 Alfonso. The repre¬ 
 sentatives of the United States of Colombia were Jose M. Hurtado, 
 Carlos Martinez Silva, and Climaeo Calderon. The delegates of 
 Venezuela were Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Jos6 Andrade, and Francisco 
 Antonia Silva; that of Peru was F. C. C. Zegarra; that of Ecuador, 
 Jose Maria Placido Caamano; that of Uruguay, Alberto Nin ; that 
 of Bolivia, Juan F. Velarde ; that of Hayti, Arthur Laforestrie ; and 
 that of Paraguay, Jos6 S. Decoud. 
 
 The representatives met in Washington City, in October. Com¬ 
 mittees were formed to report to the body suitable action on the sub¬ 
 jects which might properly come before it for discussion. From the 
 first the proceedings took a peculiarly practical direction. The great 
 questions of commerce were at the bottom of the reports, the debates 
 and the actions which followed. Nor can it be doubted that the 
 movement as a whole conduced in the highest degree to the friend¬ 
 ship, prosperity and mutual interests of the nations concerned. 
 
 At the same time an International Maritime Conference, for 
 which provisions had been made in the legislation of several nations, 
 convened at Washington. In this case the States of Europe were 
 concerned in common with those of the New World. All the mari¬ 
 time nations were invited by the act of Congress to send represent¬ 
 atives to the National Capital in the following year, to consider the 
 possibility of establishing uniform rules and regulations for the gov¬ 
 ernment of vessels at sea, and for the adoption of a common system 
 of marine signals. Twenty-six nations accepted the call of the 
 American Government, and appointed delegates to the Congress. 
 They, too, as well as the representatives of the Pan-American Con¬ 
 ference, held their sittings in November and December of 1889. 
 The same practical ability and good sense as related to the subjects 
 under consideration were shown by the members of the Maritime 
 Conference as by those of the sister body, and the results reached 
 were equally encouraging and equally gratifying, not only to the 
 Government of the United States, but to all the countries whose 
 interests were involved in the discussions. 
 
 We may here revert briefly to the work of the Fifty-first Con¬ 
 gress. The proceedings of that branch of the Government were 
 marked with much partisan bitterness and excitement. The first 
 question which occupied the attention of the body was the revision 
 of the tariff. In the preceding pages we have developed with sufli- 
 
728 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cient amplitude the history and various phases of this question. 
 The Civil War brought in a condition of affairs which must, in the 
 nature of the case, entail the tariff issue on the rest of the century. 
 More than two decades elapsed after the close of the conflict before 
 the attention of the American people was sufficiently aroused to the 
 nature of the laws bearing on their industrial condition. Then it 
 was that they first became aware of the fact that a schedule of cus¬ 
 toms-duties, which had been brought forth under the exigency of 
 war, still existed, and that under the operation of this schedule a 
 vast array of protected industries had grown great and strong. 
 Around them consolidated corporations had been formed, having 
 millions of money at their command and vast ramifications into poli¬ 
 tical society. Asa consequence, the revenues of the United States 
 were swollen to mountainous proportions. The treasury at Wash¬ 
 ington became engorged, and at length the necessity was developed 
 of doing something in the nature of reform. 
 
 The condition of affairs in the treasury — depending as it did 
 upon the tariff system — entailed two prodigious evils: the surplus 
 served as a motive in Congress for all manner of jobbery and extrav¬ 
 agant expenditure. In the second place, it enabled the combined 
 monopolies of the country to uphold themselves by affecting national 
 legislation in favor of the protected industries and against the com¬ 
 mon interest of the people as a whole. The situation was really a 
 danger and constant menace. It was for this reason that President 
 Cleveland, as already noted, sent his celebrated annual message to 
 Congress, touching upon the single question of the evils of the exist¬ 
 ing system and asking that body to take such steps as should lead to 
 a general reform. 
 
 We have already seen how this question was uppermost in the 
 presidential contest of 1888. The Democratic platform boldly 
 espoused the doctrine of tariff reform, but stopped short— out of an 
 expedient deference to the manufacturing interests — of absolute 
 free trade. The Republican platform declared for a revision of the 
 tariff system — such a revision as might preserve the manufacturing 
 interests, but favor those industries which seemed to be disparaged. 
 This clause of the platform proved to be wonderfully effective in the 
 political campaign. The event showed, however, that it was a shuffle. 
 A very large part of the Republicans understood by “ revision of the 
 tariff’’ such legislation as should reduce and reform the existing sys¬ 
 tem, not merely change it and adapt it to the interests of the pro¬ 
 tected classes. 
 
HARRISON ’S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 729 
 
 With the opening of the Fifty-first Congress it soon became 
 apparent that “revision of the tariff” was not to mean a reform by 
 reduction and curtailments of the schedule, but that the actual 
 movement was in the other direction! Representative William 
 McKinley, of Ohio, chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, 
 brought in a measure which passed into history under the name of 
 the McKinley Bill, and which, finally adopted by the Republican 
 majority, was incorporated as a part of the governmental system. 
 The policy of the bill was to abolish the existing duties on a few 
 great articles of production, particularly raw sugar and the lower 
 grades of refined sugar. By this means a vast reduction was secured 
 in the aggregate revenues, notwithstanding the fact that the average 
 rates of import duties on manufactured articles in general was raised 
 from about forty-seven per cent, to more than fifty-three per cent.! 
 The McKinley Bill became, therefore, efficient by adroitly drawing 
 to its principles tfle sympathies of the protected classes, and at the 
 same time, by throwing free—and therefore cheap — sugar to tht 
 people, attracted not a little popular support. The contest over the 
 measure was extreme in animosity, and the bill was adopted only 
 after great delay. 
 
 The sequel showed unusual results. The tariff legislation, of 
 the Fifty-first Congress was immediately attacked by the Demo¬ 
 cratic and Independent press of the country. Opinion was over¬ 
 whelmingly against it. The general elections of 1890 brought an 
 astonishing verdict of the people against the late enactments. 
 There was a complete political revulsion by which the Republican 
 majority in the House of Representatives was replaced by a Demo¬ 
 cratic majority of nearly three to one. At a later period a second 
 reaction ensued somewhat favorable to the McKinley legislation, 
 and the author of the measures referred to succeeded in being 
 chosen, in 1891, governor of Ohio, attaining his position by a popu¬ 
 lar majority of over twenty thousand. 
 
 Another incident in the history of the same Congress relates to 
 the serious difficulty which arose in the House of Representatives 
 between the Democratic minority and the Speaker, Thomas B. 
 Reed, of Maine. The Republican majority in the Fifty-first House 
 was not large, and the minority were easily able, in matters of party 
 legislation, to break the quorum by refusing to vote. In order to 
 counteract this policy, a new system of rules was reported, em¬ 
 powering the Speaker to count the minority as present, whether 
 voting or not voting, and thus to compel a quorum. These rules 
 
730 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 were violently resisted by the Democrats, and Speaker Reed was 
 denounced by his opponent as an unjust and arbitrary officer. He 
 was nicknamed in the jargon of the times “ The Czar,” because of 
 his rulings and strong-handed method of making the records of the 
 House show a majority when no majority had actually voted on the 
 pending questions. It was under the provision of the new rule that 
 nearly all of the party measures of the Fifty-first Congress were 
 adopted. 
 
 One of the most important of these acts was the attempt to 
 pass through Congress a measure bearing radically upon the 
 election-system of the United States. A bill was reported by which 
 it was proposed virtually to transfer the control of the Congressional 
 elections in the States of the Union from State to National authority. 
 It cannot be doubted that the measure reached down to the funda¬ 
 mental principles of American political society. ^The “ Force Bill,” 
 as it was called, brought out the strongest passions of the day. The 
 opposition was intense. The Republican party was by no means 
 unanimous in support of the measure. A large part of the thinking 
 people of the United States, without respect to political affiliation, 
 doubted the expediency of this additional measure of centralization. 
 
 * Certain it was that‘serious and great abuses existed in the 
 election-systems of the States. In many parts of the United States 
 elections were not free. In parts of the South the old animosities 
 against the political equality of the Black Men were still sufficiently 
 vital to prevent the freedom of the ballot. Congressmen were many 
 times chosen by a small minority who, from their social and political 
 superiority, were able to baffle or intimidate the ignorant many at 
 the polls. Such an abuse called loudly for a reform; but the 
 measure proposed doubtless contained within itself the potent germs 
 of abuses greater than those which it was sought to remove. The 
 Elections Bill was for a long time debated in Congress, and was then 
 laid over indefinitely in such manner as to prevent final action upon 
 it. Certain Republican Serfators who were opposed to the measure, 
 and at the same time strongly wedded to the cause of the free coin¬ 
 age of silver money, joined their votes with the Democrats, and the 
 so-called “ Force Bill ” failed of adoption. 
 
 The third great measure of the Fifty-first Congress was the at¬ 
 tempt to restore silver to a perfect equality with gold in the coinage 
 system of the United States. Since 1874 there had been an mcreas- 
 ing departure in the market values of gold and silver bullion,'Though 
 the purchasing power of the two money metals had been kept equal 
 
HARRISON'S ADM1N1STRA T10N. 
 
 731 
 
 when the same were coined, under the provisions of legal tender. 
 The purchasing power of gold bullion had in the last fifteen years 
 risen about sixteen per cent., while the purchasing power of silver 
 bullion had fallen about four per cent., in the markets of the world, 
 thus producing a difference of twenty per cent, or more, in the pur¬ 
 chasing power of the two metals in bullion. One class of theorists, 
 assuming that gold is the only standard of values, insisted that this 
 difference in the purchasing power of the two raw metals had arisen 
 wholly from a depreciation in the price of silver. This class in¬ 
 cluded the monometalists — those who desire that the monetary 
 system of the United States shall be brought to the single standard 
 of gold, and that silver shall be made wholly subsidiary to the 
 richer metal. To this class belonged the fund-holding syndicates, 
 and indeed all great creditors whose interest it is to have the debts 
 due them discharged in as costly a dollar as possible. 
 
 As a matter of course, if a debt be contracted on a basis of two 
 metals, that fact gives to the debtor the valuable option of paying in 
 the cheaper of the two coins. This valuable option the people of 
 the United States have enjoyed, greatly to their advantage and 
 prosperity. The silver dollar has been for precisely a hundred 
 years (with the exception of the quadrennium extending from T874 
 to 1878) the dollar of the law and the contract. It has never.been 
 altered or abridged to the extent of a fraction of a grain from the 
 establishment of our system of money in 1792. It has therefore 
 been, and continues to be, the lawful and undoubted unit of all 
 money and account in the United States, just as much, and even 
 more, than the gold dollar with which it is associated. If it be 
 true, therefore, that there is a radical and irremediable departure in 
 the value of these two metals — if it be true that we have, as mono¬ 
 metalists assert, an 80-cent dollar — it is clearly and demonstrably 
 true that we have also a “ long dollar,” a dollar worth more than 
 par, a 120-cent dollar, which the creditor classes desire to have 
 substituted for the dollar of the law and the contract. 
 
 The advocates of the free coinage of silver have argued that the 
 difference in the bullion values of the two money metals has arisen 
 most largely from an increase in the purchasing power of gold, and 
 that equal legislation and equal favor shown to the two money 
 metals would bring them to par the one with the other, and keep 
 them in that relation in the markets of the world. It is claimed, 
 with good reason, that the laws hitherto enacted by Congress dis¬ 
 criminating against silver and in favor of gold, were impolitic, un- 
 
732 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 just and un-Amcrican. It was urged in the debates of 1889-90 that 
 the free coinage of silver would be of vast advantage to the financial 
 interests of the country. This view and argument, however, were 
 strenuously opposed by the money centres and credit-holding 
 classes of the United States, to whom the payment of all debts 
 according to the highest standard of value, that is, in gold only, was 
 a fundamental principle. 
 
 The debates, for awhile, seemed likely to disrupt the existing 
 political order. Suddenly the United States Senate, by a combina¬ 
 tion of a large number of free-silver Republicans, with the great 
 majority of the Democrats, passed a bill for the absolute free coinage 
 of silver, and for the day it seemed that the measure had succeeded. 
 The Administration, however, was strongly opposed to free coinage. 
 The Senate bill was therefore adroitly arrested by the management 
 of Speaker Reed and the Ways and Means Committee of the House. 
 Another bill, in the form of an amendment providing for the pur¬ 
 chase (but not for the coinage') of four million ounces of silver 
 monthly, by the treasury of the United States, and the payment 
 therefor in silver certificates having the form and functions of 
 money, was passed by the House and finally accepted by the Senate. 
 An expansion of the paper money of the country was thus effected, 
 while at the same time the control of the silver bullion was retained 
 in the treasury under the management of those who were opposed to 
 free coinage and hopeful ultimately of at least effecting a com¬ 
 promise by which a more valuable silver dollar may be substituted 
 in the interest of the creditor classes in place of the standard silver 
 dollar which has borne the full legal tender quality since the 
 foundation of the Government. By the legislation just referred to, 
 the ultimate decision of the silver question was thrown‘over to 
 another Congress, to constitute a menace and terror to party dis¬ 
 cipline for both the Democratic and Republican parties. 
 
 In addition to the admission of four new States, the Fifty-first 
 Congress passed the necessary acts for the organization of Idaho and 
 Wyoming. These were destined to make the forty-third and forty- 
 fourth members of the Union. Idaho at the time of organization 
 contained a population of 84,385. Wyoming had a population of 
 GO,705. The acts for Statehood were passed for the two new com¬ 
 monwealths on the 3d and 10th of July, respectively, in the year 
 1890. 
 
 In June of the same year was taken the eleventh decennial 
 census of the United States. Its results, so far as the same have 
 
HARRISON’S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 733 
 
 been compiled, indicate that the aggregate population of the country 
 has increased to 62,622,250, exclusive of Indians not taxed and 
 Whites in Alaska and the Indian Territory. These additions will 
 doubtless increase the grand total to 63,000,000 souls. The centre- 
 of population had continued its progress westward, having removed 
 during the ninth decade from the vicinity of Cincinnati to a point 
 near the hamlet of Westport, in Decatur County, Indiana. 
 
 The period which is here before us, was marked by the death of 
 three of the few remaining great leaders of the Civil War. On the 
 5th of August, 1885, Lieutenant-General Sheridan, at that time 
 commander-in-chief of the American army, died at his home in Non- 
 quitt, Massachusetts. Few other generals of the Union army had 
 won greater admiration and higher honors. He was in many senses 
 a model soldier, and his death at the comparatively early age of 
 fifty-seven, was the occasion of great grief throughout the country. 
 Still more conspicuous was the fall of General William T. Sherman. 
 Among the Union commanders in the great Civil War, he stood 
 easily next to Grant in greatness and reputation. In vast and 
 varied abilities, particularly in military accomplishments, he was 
 perhaps superior to all. It may well be thought that he was more 
 fortunate than any other — and wiser. After the war, he steadily 
 refused to be other than a great soldier. No enticement, no bland¬ 
 ishment, no form of applause or persuasion, could induce him to 
 exchange the laurels which he had won in the immortal contest for 
 the Union for any other form of chaplet or perishable wreath. 
 
 Sherman might have been President of the United States. It 
 were not far from the truth to believe that he was the only man in 
 America who ever willingly put aside that glittering prize. To 
 have fallen into the hands of politicians, place-hunters, jobbers and 
 cormorants, would have been intolerable to that brusque, sturdy 
 and truthful nature. With a clearer vision even than the vision of 
 Grant, he perceived that to be the unsullied gre;it soldier of the 
 Union, was to be better than anything made by men in caucus and 
 convention. Born in 1820, he reached the mature age of seventy- 
 one, and died at his home in New York City, on the 14th day of 
 February, 1891. That event produced a profound impression. The 
 General of the Union army who had fought so many great battles 
 and said so many great things, was at last silent in death. Of his 
 sterling patriotism there had never been a doubt. Of his prescience 
 in war, of his learning, of his abilities as an author, there could be as 
 little skepticism. As to his wonderful faculties and achievements. 
 
734 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 all men were agreed. His funeral became the man. He had pro¬ 
 vided for that also, in advance. He had directed that nothing 
 other than a soldier’s burial should be reserved for him. His re¬ 
 mains were taken under escort from New York to St. Louis, where 
 they were deposited in the family burying grounds, in Mount Cal¬ 
 vary Cemetery. 
 
 After the death of General Sherman, only two commanders of 
 the first class remained on the stage of action from the great Civil 
 War — both Confederates. These were Generals Joseph E. Johnston 
 and James Longstreet. The former of these two was destined to 
 follow his rival and conqueror at an early day to the land of rest. 
 General Johnston had been an honorary pall-bearer at the funeral 
 of Sherman, and contracted a heavy cold on that occasion, which 
 resulted in his death on the 20th of February, 1891, at his home in 
 Washington City. Strange fatality of human affairs that after 
 twenty-five years, he who surrendered his sword to Sherman at 
 Raleigh, should have come home from the funeral of the victor to 
 die! General Johnston was in his eighty-third year at the time of 
 his decease. Among the Confederate commanders none were his 
 superiors, with the single exception of Lee. After the close of the 
 war, his conduct had been of a kind to win the confidence of Union 
 men, and at the time of his death he was held in almost universal 
 honor. 
 
 It was at this time, namely, in February of 1891, that a serious 
 event reaching upward and outward, first, into national and theD 
 into international proportions, occurred in the city of New Orleans. 
 There existed in that metropolis a branch of the secret social organ¬ 
 ization among the Italians known by the European name of the 
 Mafia Society. The principles of the brotherhood involved mutual 
 protection, and even the law of revenge against enemies. Doubtless 
 much of the spirit which had belonged to the Italian order of the 
 Mafia had been transferred to America. At any rate, some of the 
 features of the order were un-American in character, and some of 
 the methods dangerous to the public and private peace. Several 
 breaks occurred between members of the society (not the society 
 itself) and the police authorities of the city; and the latter, by 
 arrest and persecution, incurred the dislike and hatred of the former. 
 The difficulty grew in animosity until at length Captain David C. 
 Hennessey, chief of the police of New Orleans, was assassinated by 
 some secret murderer, or murderers, who for the time escaped de¬ 
 tection. It was believed, however, that the Mafia society was at the 
 

 HARRISON’S ADMINISTRATION. 735 
 
 bottom of the assassination, and several of the members of the 
 brotherhood were arrested under the charge of murder. 
 
 Atrial followed, and the circumstances tended to establish — 
 but did not establish — the guilt of the prisoners. The proof was 
 not positive — did not preclude a reasonable doubt of the guilt of 
 those on trial, and the first three of the Italian prisoners were 
 acquitted. The sequel was unfortunate in the last degree. A great 
 excitement followed the decision of the court and jury, and charges 
 were made and published that the jurjr had been bribed or terrorized 
 with threats into making a false verdict. These charges were never * 
 substantiated, and were doubtless without authenticity. But on 
 the day following the acquittal of the Italians, a public meeting, 
 having its origin in mobocracy, was called, and a great crowd, irre¬ 
 sponsible and angry, gathered around the statue of Henry Clay, in 
 one of the public squares of New Orleans. 
 
 Speeches were made. The authorities of the city, instead of 
 attempting to check the movement, stood off and let it take its own 
 course. A mob was at once organized and directed against the jail, 
 where the Italian prisoners were confined. The jail was entered by 
 force. The prisoners were driven from their cells, and nine of them 
 were shot to death in the jail-yard. Two others were dragged forth 
 and hanged. Nor can it be doubted that the innocent as well as the 
 guilty (if indeed any were guilty — as certainly none were guilty 
 according to law) suffered in the slaughter. 
 
 The event was followed by the greatest public excitement. 
 Clearly murder and outrage had been done by the mob. It was soon 
 proved that at least two of the murdered Italians had been subjects 
 of the Italian Kingdom; the rest were either naturalized Americans 
 or foreigners bearing papers of intention. The affair at once became 
 of national, and then of international, importance. The President of 
 the United States called upon Governor Nicolls, of Louisiana, to 
 give an account of the thing done in New Orleans, and its justifica¬ 
 tion. The governor replied with a communication in which it were 
 hard to say whether insolence or inconsequential apology for the 
 actions of the mob was uppermost. With this the excitement 
 increased. The Italian Minister, Baron Fava, at Washington, 
 entered his solemn protest against the killing of his countrymen, and 
 the American Secretary of State entered into communication with 
 King Humbert on the subject. 
 
 Italy was thoroughly aroused. The Italian societies in various 
 American cities passed angry resolutions against the destruction of 
 
736 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 their fellow-citizens by the mob, and the newspapers of the country 
 teemed with discussions of the subject. There was unfortunately a 
 disposition on the part of America to play the bully. At times, 
 threats of war were freely made, and it appeared not impossible that 
 the two countries would become unhappily involved in a conflict. 
 The more thoughtful, however, looked with confidence to the settle¬ 
 ment of the question by peaceable means. The Italian Government 
 presently recalled Baron Fava from Washington, and during the 
 remainder of the year, communications between the two governments 
 were made only through the Italian Charge d’Affaires at Washington. 
 Gradually, however, the excitement subsided. The American Gov¬ 
 ernment was fortunate in having as its representative at the Court of 
 Italy the Honorable Albert G. Porter, a man of calm temperament 
 and deeply imbued with the sense of justice and right. By the 
 beginning of 1892 it had become certain that the unpleasant episode 
 would pass without further menace of war, and that the question in¬ 
 volved in the difficulty would be justly settled in the course of time 
 by the equitable rules of diplomacy. 
 
 The year 1891 was noted for a serious difficulty between the 
 United States and the Republic of Chili. The complication had its ori¬ 
 gin in the domestic affairs of that Republic, particularly in a revolu¬ 
 tion which, in the spring of the year named, began to make headway 
 against the existing government. At the head of that government 
 was President Balmaceda, against whom the popular party in the 
 Chilian Congress was violently arrayed. The President was accused 
 of seeking to influence the choice of his own successor in the 
 approaching election, but more especially of retaining in office a 
 Ministry out of harmony with the Congressional majority. The 
 latter point was the more serious, and led at length to the assump¬ 
 tion of dictatorial powers by the President. This course seemed 
 necessary in order to maintain himself in power and to uphold the 
 existing Ministry. The popular party receded from Congress only 
 to take up arms. This party was known in the civil conflict that 
 ensued as the Congressionalists, while the upholders of the existing 
 order were called Balmacedists. The latter had possession of the 
 government; but the former, outside of the great cities of Valparaiso 
 and Santiago, were the most powerful. 
 
 The insurrection against Balmaceda gathered head. A Congres¬ 
 sional Junta was formed, and a provisional government was set up at 
 the town of Iquique. Thus far the movement had in no wise dis¬ 
 turbed the relations of Chili with the United States. It is in the 
 
HARRISON’S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 737 
 
 nature of such revolutions that the insurgent party must acquire re¬ 
 sources, gather arms and create all the other means of its existence, 
 progress and success. The Chilians of the Congressional faction 
 found themselves in great need of arms, and would fain look to some 
 foreign nation for a supply. In the emergency they managed to get 
 possession of a steamship called the Itata , belonging to the South 
 American Steamship Company, and sent her to the western coast of 
 the United States to purchase arms. The steamer came to the harbor 
 of San Diego, California, and by the agency of an intermediate vessel 
 managed to secure a large purchase of arms, and to get the same trans¬ 
 ferred to her own deck. At this juncture, however, the government, 
 gaining information of the thing done, ordered the detention of the 
 Itata until her business and destination could be known. A district 
 attorney of the United States was sent on board the ship, which was 
 ordered not to leave the bay. In defiance of this order, however, 
 the officers of the Itata steamed out by night and got to sea. They 
 put the officer of the United States in a boat, sent him ashore, and 
 disappeared over the Pacific horizon. 
 
 The announcement of the escape of the Itata led to vigorous 
 action on the part of the Government. The United States war-ship 
 Charleston was ordered out in pursuit from the bay of San Francisco. 
 
 The Itata , however, had three days the start, and it could hardly 
 be expected that the Charleston would be able to overhaul the fugi¬ 
 tive. The former made her way to one of the harbors of Chili, 
 whither she was pursued by the Charleston. But the matter had 
 now come to protest, made by the United States to the provisional 
 government of the Revolutionists, and the latter consented to the 
 surrender of the Itata to the authorities of our country. This was 
 done, and the incident seemed for the time to have ended without 
 serious conseqences. 
 
 After the affair of the Itata, public opinion in Chili, particularly 
 in the cities of Santiago and Valparaiso, turned strongly against the 
 United States. This is said of the sentiments of the Congressional 
 party. That party saw itself thwarted iijt its design and put at fault 
 by its failure to secure the wished-for supply of arms, that failure 
 having arisen through the agency of our Government. However 
 correct the course of the United States may have been, the Revolu¬ 
 tionists must needs be angered at their disappointment, and it was 
 natural for them to look henceforth with distrust and dislike on the 
 authorities of our country. This dislike centered about the legation 
 of the United States in Santiago. Hon. Patrick Egan, the American 
 
738 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Minister, became unpopular with the Congressionalists because of 
 his supposed favor to the Balmacedan Government. That govern¬ 
 ment still stood. It was recognized by the President of the United 
 States as the government both de jure and de facto of Chili. Egan 
 must therefore hold relations with Balmaceda and his Minister of 
 Foreign Affairs. He must continue to stand in with the existing 
 order until some other order should be established in its stead. 
 
 It appears that our Minister and our Government misapprehended 
 the importance and strength of the revolutionary movement. The 
 Congressionalists steadily gained ground. Perhaps the revolution 
 which was progressing could not be seen in full magnitude from the 
 position occupied by our Minister at the Chilian capital. At all 
 events, the Congressional army came on in full force, and soon 
 pressed the government back to the limits of the capital and the im¬ 
 mediate vicinity of that city. Affairs drew to a crisis. A bloody 
 battle was fought at a place called Placilla, near Santiago. The 
 Balmacedists gave way before the storm. The battle of Placilla and 
 a subsequent engagement still nearer to the capital, went against 
 them. The insurgents burst victoriously into Santiago, and the rev¬ 
 olution accomplished itself by the overthrow of the existing govern¬ 
 ment. Everything went to wreck. Both Santiago and Valparaiso 
 were taken by the Revolutionary party. The Balmacedists were 
 fugitives in all directions. The Dictator himself fled into hiding, 
 and presently made an end by committing suicide. 
 
 In such condition of affairs it was natural that the defeated par¬ 
 tisans of the late government should take refuge in the legations of 
 foreign nations at the capital. A Ministerial legation is, under inter¬ 
 national law, an asylum for refugees. At this time the official resi¬ 
 dences of the foreign nations at Santiago, with the exception of that 
 of Great Britain, were all crowded more or less with fugitives flying 
 hither for safety from the wrath of the successful Revolutionists. 
 The attitude of Great Britain from the first had been favorable to 
 the Congressional party, and it was evident that that power would 
 now stand in high favor with the victors. 
 
 It chanced that the Minister of the United States was by birth an 
 Irishman. He was an Irish agitator and British refugee lately natu¬ 
 ralized in America. Probably the antagonistic attitude of Great 
 Britain and the United States at the Chilian capital was attributable 
 in part to the nativity and political principles of Egan. At all 
 events, the American Ministerial residence gave asylum to numbers 
 ff the defeated Balmacedists, and the triumphant Revolutionists 
 
HARRISON’S A DMINISTRA TION. 
 
 739 
 
 grew more and more hostile to our Government and Minister because 
 they could not get at those who were under his protection. This 
 hostility led to the establishment of a police guard and a force of 
 detectives around the American legation ! It seemed at times that 
 the place might be attacked and taken by the angry victors in the 
 recent revolution. At length, however, under the protests of our 
 Government, the guards were withdrawn and the legation was freed 
 from surveillance. Relations began to grow amicable once more, 
 when the difficulties suddenly took another and more serious form. 
 
 It happened at this time that the war-vessels of several nations 
 visited the harbor of Valparaiso, drawn thither by interest and for 
 the sake of information or the business of the respective navies. 
 Among the ships that came was the United States war-steamer Bal¬ 
 timore. On the 16th of October, 1891, a hundred and seventeen 
 petty officers and men, headed by Captain Schley, went on shore by 
 permission, and in the usual way went into the city of Valparaiso. 
 Most of them visited a quarter of the city not reputable in character. 
 It soon became apparent that the ill-informed enmity and malice of 
 the lower classes were strongly excited at the appearance of the men 
 and uniform of the United States on the streets. With the approach 
 of night, and with apparent pre-arrangement, a Chilian mob rose 
 upon the sailors and began an attack. The sailors retreated and 
 attempted to regain their ship; but the mob closed around them, 
 throwing stones, and presently at close quarters using knives and 
 clubs. Eighteen of the sailors were brutally stabbed and beaten^ 
 and some died from their injuries. The remainder, leaving the 
 wounded behind them, escaped to the ship. 
 
 Intelligence of this event was at once communicated to the 
 Government of the United States. The country was greatly excited 
 over the outrage, and preparations were begun for war. The navy 
 department was ordered to prepare several vessels for the Chilian 
 coast. The great war-ship Oregon and two others were equipped, 
 manned and directed to the Pacific shores of South America. The 
 President immediately directed the American Minister at Santiago 
 to demand explanation, apology and reparation for the insult and 
 crime committed against the Government of the United States. 
 The Chilian authorities began to temporize with the situation. A 
 tedious investigation of the riot was undertaken in the courts of 
 Santiago, resulting in an inconsequential verdict. 
 
 Meanwhile, Senor M. A. Matta, Chilian Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, added fuel fo the flame by transmitting an offensive coin- 
 
740 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 munication to Senor Pedro Montt, representative of the Chilian 
 Government at Washington, in which he reflected on the President 
 of the United States, accused our Government of falsehood, attacked 
 Egan, and ended by instructing Montt to let the contents of the 
 note be known! This was soon followed by another communication 
 from Senor Matta, demanding the recall of Patrick Egan from the 
 Chilian capital, as persona non grata to the Government. But he 
 failed to specify the particular qualities or acts in the American 
 Minister which made him unacceptable. 
 
 The publication of these two notes brought matters to a crisis. 
 The President, through the proper authorities, demanded that the 
 offensive note of Matta be withdrawn; that the demand for the re¬ 
 call of Egan be reconsidered, and that reparation for the insults and 
 wrongs done to the crew of the Baltimore be repaired with ample 
 apology and salute to the American flag by the Chilian Government. 
 Answers to these demands were again delayed, and on the 25th of 
 January, 1892, the President sent an elaborate message to Congress,, 
 laying before that body an account of the difficulti"S, and recom¬ 
 mending such action as might be deemed necessary to uphold the 
 honor of the United States. For a single day it looked like war. 
 
 Scarcely, however, had the President's message been delivered 
 to Congress when the Chilian Government, receding from its high- 
 toned manner of offence and arrogance, sent, through its Minister of 
 Foreign Affairs, a paper of full apology for the wrongs done, and 
 ottering to submit the affair of the Baltimore to arbitration of some 
 friendly power. The offensive note of Senor' Matta was uncon¬ 
 ditionally withdrawn. The demand for the removal of Egan was 
 recalled, and indeed all reasonable points in the contention of the 
 President, freely and fully conceded. The crisis broke with the 
 knowledge that the apology of Chili had been received, and like the 
 recent difficulty with Italy over the New Orleans massacre, the im¬ 
 broglio passed without further alarm or portent of war. 
 
 More important still, in the diplomacy of the United States, was 
 the controversy which arose in this quadrennium between our coun¬ 
 try and Great Britain, relative to the seal fisheries in Behring Sea* 
 The dispute in question was by no means so hot and immediately 
 dangerous as that of the United States and Italy, or the more recent 
 imbroglio with Chili; but it was a more important complication on 
 account of the parties to the controversy. It is one thing for a 
 country like the United States to be involved in a dispute with a 
 country such as Chili, and quite another thing fo be on the edge of 
 
HARRISON’S ADMINISTIIA TION. 
 
 741 
 
 hazard with a country such as Great Britain. It cannot be denied 
 that the United States are able, by reputation and authority, to dictate 
 the terms of settlement to the secondary nations, but not to the tre¬ 
 mendous power which sits enthroned in the British Isles. Great 
 Britain is a stern and opinionated government, highly self-conscious, 
 and imbued with an arrogant spirit. This is true in particular of all 
 controversies relating to the dominion of the waters. 
 
 For a period of years the diplomacy of the governments of Eng¬ 
 land and the United States had run on a low plane. Ever since the 
 settlement of the controversy about the Halifax Fisheries we had had 
 a calm in our international relations. This, however, was broken by 
 the question of the Alaskan seal fisheries which now obtruded itself 
 upon the attention of both governments. Certain Canadian vessels, 
 bearing the English flag, entered Behring Sea, and without regard 
 to the interests of the nations concerned, or respect to those condi¬ 
 tions upon which the maintenance of the fisheries depends, began to 
 take seals at random and with a recklessness that must needs attract 
 the attention of our government. 
 
 This action on the part of the Canadian ships was declared at once 
 to be in violation of American rights, and the ships were seized. It 
 was avowed by our government that the waters of Behring Sea are 
 not open, but, as we.should say in international law, a mare clausum; 
 that is, shut up to foreign commerce. The basis of the American 
 claims was the Treaty of Purchase which we had made with Russia 
 in March of 1867. Alaska had been bought by the United States. 
 Russia had sold us not only the land but her claim to the sea ! Her 
 claim extended as far as complete jurisdiction over the Behring 
 waters. 
 
 A glance at the map will show the reader the nature of the waters 
 in controversy. They extend from Behring Strait on the north to. 
 the Alaskan Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands on the south, and 
 to a line extending from those islands to the southernmost point of 
 Kamtchatka. The more particular field in contention was that lying 
 between the 160th meridian of longitude, west, and the 170th merid¬ 
 ian east from Greenwich. This broad sea-area had been received 
 from Russia under the provisions of a treaty existing between that 
 power and Great Britain going back to the year 1825. Great Britain 
 had acknowledged, strangely enough, the jurisdiction of Russia over 
 Behring Sea; but this was before the importance of the seal fisheries 
 had become known. 
 
 The question which arose out of these conditions was an old one. 
 
i 
 
 742 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATE*.' 
 
 It was the right of a nation to extend its dominion and establish an 
 exclusive sway over the sea. This claim Great Britain had formerly 
 made and supported in her diplomacy and in her wars; but the claim 
 had been gradually disallowed by the nations ; so that in more recent 
 times no nation had attempted to make good her authority over the 
 open waters of the ocean. The United States had formerly con¬ 
 tended for the freedom of the high seas. In this particular instance, 
 it became the interest of our country to change position somewhat 
 and to advocate, to a limited extent, the doctrine of mare clausum. 
 
 The seal fisheries are of immense value and their control by Amer¬ 
 ican authority could hut be regarded as a matter of vital importance. 
 The question was taken up in 1890 in the diplomatical correspond¬ 
 ence of the two countries. The cruisers of the United States were 
 sent into the Behring waters, but were not satisfied with protective 
 general interests; they went out openly and searched and, as above 
 stated, seized the Canadian vessels bearing the flag of England. In 
 justification it was claimed that the action of the British ships in 
 sealing in these waters was contra bonos mores , or, as we should say, 
 against international morality. 
 
 It was held by the National authorities that the action of the 
 Canadian vessels in free sealing in Behring Sea was a permanent 
 injury to the rights of our government and to the commercial inter¬ 
 ests of all civilized peoples. The matter was made the basis of pro¬ 
 test and counterprotest between the two governments. Great Britain 
 protested sternly against the seizure of the Canadian ships, and these 
 were of necessity liberated. The American government protested 
 against the action of the ships in violating the rights of the United 
 States. 
 
 The bottom reason for the action of our government was suffi¬ 
 ciently valid. It could not he doubted that free sealing in these waters 
 would presently destroy one of the most important sources of revenue, 
 both to Great Britain and the United States. The killing of seals in 
 the open sea involves the destruction of the female animals in com¬ 
 mon with the males. The destruction of each female is reckoned to 
 be equal to the loss of three seals for each of the succeeding years 
 of the life of the animal destroyed. It could not be doubted that 
 such indiscriminate sealing: would result in the ultimate destruction 
 of the seal fisheries. On the other hand, the prosecution of sealing 
 under proper restrictions would permit the gathering of vast wealth, 
 and, at the same time, consist with the constant increase of the 
 number of seals. It was ascertained that if only male seals of a 
 
 
IIA RRISON -S A DMINISTRA TION. 
 
 743 
 
 given age should be taken and this only between the first of Novem¬ 
 ber and the middle of the following April in each year, then the 
 seals could go on increasing in numbers and supporting the supply of 
 fur-bearing pelts. 
 
 The whole controversy turned about this question. The corre¬ 
 spondence was conducted between Mr. Blaine, the American Secre¬ 
 tary of State, and Lord Salisbury, the British Prime Minister. More 
 than two years were occupied in the discussion and it was finally 
 agreed with great moderation and good sense to refer the controversy 
 to a joint high tribunal to be constituted by the two governments —• 
 that is, to an arbitration of the questions between the parties. In 
 accordance with this method of settlement, a commission was ap¬ 
 pointed to meet in Paris, France, in February, 1893. The dispute 
 dragged 0.11 to the end of the Harrison administration and was carried 
 over for final settlement to the beginning of the second term of 
 Cleveland. 
 
 The arbiters selected in the cause were seven in number. Two of 
 them were chosen on behalf of the United States by President Harri¬ 
 son ; two others by the British government, and three bthers on the 
 joint request of the President of the French Republic, the King of 
 Italy and the King of Norway and Sweden. The members of the 
 tribunal were, for the United States, Justice John M. Harlan, of the 
 Supreme Court, and Senator John T. Morgan, of Alabama. Those 
 for Great Britain were Lord James Hannen and Sir John Thompson, 
 of Canada. The commissioner named by the President of France 
 wasdhe Baron de Courcel; by the King of Italy, the Marquis Emilio 
 Visconti-Venesta; and by the King of Sweden and Norway, Judge 
 Gram, of the Supreme Court of Christiana. 
 
 Besides these distinguished personages there were agents and 
 attorneys for the two governments. On behalf of Great Britain, Sir 
 Charles Russell and Sir Charles E. Tupper were appointed as coun¬ 
 sel ; on behalf of the United States appeared Honorable E. J. Phelps, 
 Honorable James C. Carter, Honorable F. R. Coudert and Judge 
 Blodgett of the Supreme Court, together with Honorable John W. 
 Foster, Secretary of State. The tribunal, after meeting in a prelimi¬ 
 nary way at the appointed time, adjourned until the 22d of March, 
 1893, when the actual work of arbitration was undertaken. The 
 questions submitted to the body for solution were the following : 
 
 1. What exclusive jurisdiction in the sea known as the Behring Sea, and what 
 exclusive rights in the seal fisheries therein, did Russia assert and exercise prior and 
 up to the time of the cession of Alaska to the United States? 
 
744 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 2. How far were these claims of jurisdiction as to the seal fisheries recognized 
 and conceded by Great Britain? 
 
 3. Was the body of water known as the Behring Sea included in the phrase 
 “ Pacific Ocean,” as used in the treaty of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia, 
 and what rights, if any, in the Behring Sea were held and exclusively exercised by 
 Russia after said treaty ? 
 
 4. Did not all the rights of Russia as to jurisdiction and as to the seal fisheries in 
 Behring Sea, east of the water boundary, in the treaty between the United States 
 and Russia of the 30th of March, 18C7, pass unimpaired to the United States under 
 that treaty? 
 
 5. Has the United States any right, and, if so, what right, of protection of 
 property in the fur-seals frequenting the islands of the United States in Behring Sea, 
 when such seals are found outside of the ordinary three-mile limit? 
 
 While the discussions of the tribunal were necessarily prolonged 
 and the decision for a while postponed, the great historical lesson 
 was again impressed on the nations. It was seen that the leading 
 governments of the English-speaking world had committed them¬ 
 selves fully to the principle of arbitration, and that the example 
 must soon be followed by all the civilized States of Christendom. 
 
 About the middle of Harrison’s administration, the attention of 
 the American people, and of the government in particular, was 
 turned to the question of restoring American influence on the high- 
 seas. The public interest in this direction was manifested in two 
 ways: first, in the strengthening of the American navy, and sec¬ 
 ondly, in the attempt to regain the carrying and passenger trade 
 between Europe and the United States. The latter had gone for a 
 long time to the Marine of England. During Harrison’s adminis¬ 
 tration great outlays were made for the improvement of the Navy. 
 This was suggested in part by the difficulties with Italy and Chili, 
 both of which portended war, that, had it occurred, in the nature of 
 the case must be prosecuted by the sea. 
 
 We had found ourselves in these crises lamentably deficient in 
 the means of making war on the ocean. This fact led to the construc¬ 
 tion of new war-ships of the most improved patterns and the largest 
 dimensions. Of this kind was the great steamer Indiana , the largest 
 ship in the possession of the government, and among the most for¬ 
 midable of the floating war-vessels of the world. The Indiana was 
 completed and launched in the latter part of 1892. While it is cer¬ 
 tainly not the true policy of the United States to make war, or to 
 assume the war-like manners and methods of the Eui-opean Powers, 
 it nevertheless seemed to be necessary that the government should 
 make itself more feared on the sea than it had been since the Civil 
 War. 
 
HARRrSON ’S ADMINISTRA TIOX. 
 
 745 
 
 More pacific and commendable was the effort to regain ascendency 
 in the matter of communication across the Atlantic. The reviving 
 spirit of the country was shown in this regard by the transfer, in 
 February of 1893, of the splendid passenger steamer New York from 
 tdie flag of England to that of the United States. The event was 
 regarded with much interest by the public as it seemed to denote the 
 revival of American honor in the competition with the mother coun¬ 
 try for the carrying and passenger trade between our seaboard and 
 the ports of Western Europe. The transfer of flags on the New 
 York was made the occasion in the harbor of the metropolis of a 
 public day, and the raising of the Stars and Stripes over the great 
 steamer was hailed with national applause. 
 
 In the after part of the administration of Harrison the financial 
 condition of the government became a source of anxiety, not only to 
 the party in power, but to the country at large. It will be remem¬ 
 bered that at the close of the administration of Cleveland a large 
 surplus had accumulated in the Treasury of the United States, and 
 that this fact was made the basis of party controversy in the cam¬ 
 paign of 1888. The Republican party, coming into power, was put 
 to the necessity of reducing the surplus and was, at the same time, 
 under pledge of maintaining the tariff system, by the action of which 
 the surplus had accumulated. 
 
 How, then, should these two ends be attained ? Practically, the 
 policy adopted was one of enormous expenditure. The already pro¬ 
 digious public outlay began to be augmented, rather with the motive 
 of reducing the surplus than for any intrinsic public good. Each 
 year witnessed an ever-increasing list of extravagances. The pension 
 roll was enlarged; river improvements were sought out, and almost 
 every avenue of expenditure discovered, with the immediate purpose 
 of relieving the plethora of the Treasury, and the ultimate design of 
 saving the system of protection. 
 
 By these means the expenses of the government were increased 
 in the last year of Harrison’s administration to more than a billion 
 dollars ! The Treasury was indeed reduced but, at the same time, 
 a system of things was instituted which overdid itself, and, as the 
 administration drew to a close, the country was aroused to the fact 
 that there was imminent danger of a National deficit. 
 
 This state of facts worked both ways. While the Republicans 
 gloried in the reduction of the surplus and the scattering broadcast 
 of the vast accumulations of the Treasury to the industries of the 
 country, the Democrats raised the cry of reckless extravagance and 
 
746 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 threatened bankruptcy. It was with the greatest difficulty that 
 Secretary Foster of the Treasury Department was able, at the close 
 of the year 1892, to pull his accounts together, so that the adminis¬ 
 tration might go out of power with even the appearance of validity 
 remaining behind it. 
 
 In the field of pure politics there was now much activity. The 
 management of both parties looked anxiously to the condition of 
 public affairs, and sought to draw therefrom such policies as might 
 prove successful in the presidential contest of 1892. There was a 
 mixture of principles and personalities. On the whole, the person¬ 
 alities predominated. On the Democratic side, there was never a 
 time in the quadrennium when ex-President Cleveland did not ap¬ 
 pear as the leader of his party and the logical candidate of his party 
 for re-election to the presidency. It was his influence and policy 
 that had determined the whole existing condition of party contro¬ 
 versy. The question of a reform of the revenue system of the United 
 States, involving a complete change in the theory of customs-duties, 
 was uppermost, and this was connected with various financial ques¬ 
 tions, including the paramount dispute about the free coinage of 
 silver. 
 
 On the Republican side, there was considerable confusion as to the 
 candidate to be named and the policy to be adopted. Undoubtedly, 
 James G. Blaine, Secretary of State, was the favorite of the masses 
 of his party. Other leaders had meanwhile appeared with claims 
 more or less well grounded, to the support of their party. As to 
 President Harrison, he desired a re-election, and, although he was 
 not preferred by the rank and file of the party that had supported 
 him in 1888, he was cordially endorsed by the large and powerful 
 office-holding classes of the country. These were unanimous for his 
 re-election. They were unable to see in any other candidate the 
 prospect of advantage and that political salvation which the politi¬ 
 cian always seems so anxious to secure. 
 
 On the whole, the advantage was in Harrison’s favor. Mr. Blaine 
 held office in the cabinet, and could not well permit his ambitions 
 and those of his friends to be promoted at the expense of the ambi¬ 
 tions of the President. It was with difficulty that amicable relations 
 were maintained in the cabinet in the third year of the administra¬ 
 tion, and with the beginning of the fourth a break seemed to be 
 always imminent. At length Mr. Blaine, after much annoyance, 
 published a card declining to be a candidate before the approaching 
 Republican National Convention at Minneapolis; but the card was 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRA TiON. 
 
 747 
 
 not regarded by his more enthusiastic followers as final. It was said 
 that if, without being a candidate, he should receive the nomination, 
 he would accept. 
 
 The National Convention of the Administration Party was ap¬ 
 pointed to meet on the 7th day of June, in the City of Minneapolis* 
 Mr. Blaine continued in his office of Secretary of State until the eve 
 of the Convention, and then suddenly and peremptorily resigned. 
 The resignation was accepted in like terms of official coldness and 
 brevity. These facts were regarded as a signal to the Blaine follow¬ 
 ing, and they immediately began to advocate the nomination of the 
 ex-Secretary. The office-holding classes of the Republican party 
 went to the Convention in solid phalanx, supported by a respectable 
 part of the party in general, and in particular by the manufacturing 
 and protected interests of the country. These prevailed, and on the 
 third day of the Convention the renomination of the President was 
 effected. Blaine’s retirement from the cabinet had come too late. 
 His flame flared up fitfully at the Convention, and then went out. 
 He was the setting sun, and men do not worship the setting sun. 
 
 The nomination for the vice-presidency was given to Honorable 
 Whitelaw Reid, of New York. For some reason of his own, Vice- 
 President Morton was not a candidate for renomination. It was 
 deemed expedient, however, that New York should be honored with 
 the second place on tliQ ticket, and Mr. Reid was the favorite of both 
 the administration and the party at large. He was, at the time, the 
 representative of the Government of the United States to that of the 
 French Republic. He had been one of the great journalists who re¬ 
 ceived, at the beginning of the Harrison administration, recognition 
 by appointment to the first diplomatical positions in a gift of the 
 President. He had recently returned to the United States, and the 
 New York Tribune , which he controlled, had been made a powerful 
 support in the work of renominating Harrison and incidentally secur¬ 
 ing the second place to its editor. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Democratic party rallied its forces and on the 
 21st of June, the National Convention of that party met in the city of 
 Chicago. Mr. Cleveland was the favorite of the masses of his party 
 for the nomination, but in his own State there was a powerful and 
 well-organized effort to defeat him. The Tammany Society of New 
 York City, controlling the Democratic forces in the State, was firmly 
 set against the ex-President, and left no stone unturned to prevent 
 his selection as the standard-bearer in the approaching canvass. With 
 this party, Senator David B. Hill was the favorite, and the New York 
 
748 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 delegation was sent to Chicago instructed in his interest. But the 
 political machinery of the Empire State, supported as it was by cer¬ 
 tain malcontent elements in other States, was not able to prevail 
 against the overwhelming sentiment in favor of Cleveland, and he 
 was easily renominated. The second place on the ticket was given 
 to Honorable Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois. 
 
 The People’s party now displayed itself in greater strength than 
 ever before. Throughout a large part of the West, the new political 
 organization showed such vitality as seriously to threaten the in¬ 
 tegrity of the old parties. The claims of the People’s organization 
 to be in sympathy with the demands of the masses as against the 
 organized powers of wealth and manufacture, were recognized as 
 having in them a measure of justice, and the public sentiment in the 
 West was strongly displayed at the National Convention of the 
 party which was held in Omaha on the 2d of July. 
 
 When the Convention assembled it was evident that the prefer¬ 
 ences of the delegates for Judge Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois, 
 would assure his nomination; but the Judge, while the Convention 
 was in session, declined to permit the use of his name, and the nomi¬ 
 nation went by common consent to the old and tried leader of the 
 party, General James B. Weaver, of Iowa. Associated on the ticket 
 with him was Judge James G. Field, of Virginia. 
 
 The platform of the new party declared for the free coinage of 
 silver; for the radical reform of the revenue system of the United * 
 States, and for the control of the railways and telegraphs of the 
 country by the government, in the interest of the people. There 
 were also other declarations in favor of a system of banking and 
 loans to the people on security of farm property, and,the like. The 
 clause in favor of the free coinage of silver was the prevalent one 
 and drew to the support of the ticket a large following in all parts of 
 the country where the sentiment in favor of paying the debts of the 
 people by the bimetallic standard prevailed. 
 
 The presidential canvass of 1892 was conducted in an apathetic 
 manner. It was found impossible to arouse the masses of the people 
 to the usual pitch of enthusiasm and party combat. With the progress 
 of the campaign it became evident that the candidates of the Demo¬ 
 cratic party were strongly in the lead. The popularity of Cleveland 
 was never before displayed in so strong a manner. It amounted to a 
 public confidence against which no party machinery could well pre¬ 
 vail. The Republican leaders continued the battle until the day of 
 election came, but with ever diminishing prospects of success. The 
 
HARRISON ’S A DMINISTRA TION. 
 
 74ft 
 
 result was the election of Cleveland and by a majority so overwhelm¬ 
 ing as to mark a political revolution. By the same event the control 
 of both the Senate and the House of Representatives passed to the 
 Democratic party. The electoral vote in favor of Cleveland was 276, 
 against 145 for President Harrison and 23 votes for General Weaver. 
 Thus, by a decisive and unmistakable verdict, the political destinies 
 of the Republic were entrusted for the ensuing quadrennium to that 
 party which had gone out of power with Buchanan in 1861, and had 
 never, in the interim, gained possession of the Executive and both 
 branches of the Legislative departments of the government. 
 
 The election was quickly followed by the last scene in the life of 
 James G. Blaine. That statesman had suffered many hardships and 
 disappointments in his public and his personal career. Soon after 
 the Minneapolis Convention, his son, Emmons Blaine, suddenly 
 sickened and died at Chicago. Already the Honorable Walker 
 Blaine, upon whom his father had placed his principal expectations, 
 and Mrs. Alice Coppinger, the statesman’s daughter, had died at 
 Washington. The family was decimated. Mr. Blaine’s political 
 fortunes had now gone utterly to wreck. There was no longer a 
 shadow of hope of the revival of those great ambitions by which he 
 had been employed for fully a quarter of a century. He might not 
 even aspire to reappear prominently in the councils of the nation; 
 for the opposing party had come into power; the Senate was full as 
 to its membership, and the appointive officers were at the disposal of 
 a Democratic president. 
 
 Mr. Blaine might be regarded as a heart-broken man. His health 
 had already become precarious ; indeed, for sixteen years he had 
 been under stress and alarm with respect to the failure of his physical 
 powers. In the late autumn of 1892, he became prostrated at his 
 home in Washington City and it was soon known that his days were 
 numbered. He sank under an accumulation of ills, the most fatal of 
 which was Bright’s disease, and his mind as well as his body yielded 
 to the attack. He lingered until the beginning of the new year, 
 when the heart’s action became enfeebled and his life was limited to 
 a few days. 
 
 Much uncertainty existed in the public mind and great interest 
 was manifested in the condition and decline of the distinguished pa¬ 
 tient. At last, death came suddenly, unexpectedly. On the morning 
 of January 27, 1893, Mr. Blaine was found by his physicians to be in 
 a sinking condition. His constitution no longer reacted under the 
 
 o o 
 
 most powerful stimulants, and at 11 o’clock, on the forenoon of the 
 
750 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 day referred to, he died in quietude and peace. Instantly the event 
 was known and was flashed by wire to the remotest corners of the 
 Republic. 
 
 The funeral of the statesman was as private as such an event could 
 be in Washington City. His body was placed in one of the rooms of 
 the old Seward House, in Lafayette Square, and was there viewed by 
 friends until Monday the 30th of January, when the funeral cere¬ 
 mony was held in the Church of the Covenant. Afterwards the body 
 was interred in the cemetery at Georgetown, in a spot selected by 
 the statesman as his last resting-place. 
 
 We need not in this connection dwell upon the life and services of 
 James G. Blaine. Without doubt he was, for a considerable period 
 at an important epoch of our country’s history, one of its most distin¬ 
 guished and able of our public men. He had great talents and great 
 ambitions. His character, though somewhat enigmatical, was never¬ 
 theless of the highest type so far as his statesmanship and patriotism 
 were concerned. His leadership of his party was brilliant; his fol¬ 
 lowing was enthusiastic, and his general influence strong and endur¬ 
 ing. Though he failed to reach the presidency, his career was so 
 conspicuous and, on the whole, successful, as to entitle him to rank 
 with the great names that have brightened our country’s history in 
 its era of statesmanship — with Clay and Webster of the middle of 
 the century, and with Sumner and Conkling of the later period. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 751 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIII. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF CLEVELAND. 
 
 rrHE re-election of Grover Cleveland to the presidency was an 
 event of peculiar significance. No such fact had hitherto been 
 known in our history. On seven former occasions Presidents had 
 been re-elected to the chief magistracy while holding that office; 
 but in no case had one who had retired from office been re-chosen 
 for a second term. The record of precedent was thus broken in the 
 election of 1892. The successful candidate had indeed been Presi¬ 
 dent, but he had been for four years out of office, and had no longer 
 at his disposal the powerful official array which has shown itself so 
 efficient in presidential elections. Mr. Cleveland was obliged to begin 
 'the canvass as any other citizen, supported only by his prestige as 
 a former chief magistrate and by the fealty of his party. The event 
 showed that in addition to these elements of strength he had also a 
 powerful independent following in all parts of the country, adhering 
 not only to his personal and political fortunes, but believing stead¬ 
 fastly in the principles and policies which he so strenuously repre¬ 
 sented. 
 
 We have already presented in a former chapter a sketch of the 
 previous career of this remarkable public character. It is not needed 
 that we should here recount the events of his past life or of his 
 administration as President of the United States. It is appropriate, 
 however, that we should emphasize somewhat the remarkable ascend¬ 
 ency which he had gained over the public mind. His pre-eminence 
 was by no means that of a partisan, but rather that of a public man 
 who had risen to influence by the sternness and persistency of his 
 political views, and the honesty with which he had followed them 
 to their legitimate results. 
 
 These traits of character were shown in full measure at the be¬ 
 ginning of Cleveland’s second term in the presidency. It was mani¬ 
 fested at the very start by his course in selecting the members of his 
 cabinet. At the head of that body he placed Judge Walter Q. 
 Gresham, of Illinois, who had been, until the last canvass, a life¬ 
 long Republican leader. He had been prominently advocated for 
 the presidential nomination in 1888, and during the Harrison admin- 
 
752 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 istration there were many who had looked to him as the standard- 
 bearer of his party in 1892. Meanwhile, the growing People’s party 
 had laid claim to Judge Gresham as their favorite, and it could not 
 be doubted that he would have received the nomination of that party 
 if he had consented to accept it. He was known to be a man of the 
 people as well as a party leader. He was recognized everywhere as 
 an able and upright judge, without flaw or blemish in his political or 
 judicial character. With respect to the reform of the revenue system 
 and one or two other items of Democratic policy, he came to be in 
 agreement with the President; but it was no doubt the conviction 
 of Mr. Cleveland in the personal and official integrity of Gresham 
 that led to the selection of the latter for the important place of 
 Secretary of State in the new cabinet. 
 
 The second place, that of Secretaryship of the Treasury, was given 
 to ex-Senator John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky, whose ascendency in 
 his party and his views on the question of the currency recommended 
 him strongly for the place. The appointment of Secretary of War 
 was given to Honorable Daniel S. Lamont, of New York, who had* 
 been intimately associated with President Cleveland as his private 
 Secretary during his first term of service. Honorable Wilson S. 
 Bissell, of New York, was made Postmaster-General, and Richard 
 Olney, of Massachusetts, Attorney-General. The position of Secre¬ 
 tary of the Navy was assigned to Honorable Hillary A. Herbert, of 
 Alabama, whose influence and rank in the South were such as to 
 suggest him for the place. The appointment of Secretary of the 
 Interior was given to Honoiable Hoke Smith, of Georgia, a second 
 representative of the Southern Democracy. The place of Secretary 
 of Agriculture was given to Honorable J. Sterling Morton, of Ne¬ 
 braska, thus completing the cabinet. One of the peculiarities of 
 Mr. Cleveland’s method was his naming of the cabinet officers before 
 the day of inauguration. The appointments were given out in ad¬ 
 vance, and the usual excitement and controversy about places in the 
 cabinet were thus avoided. 
 
 Much curiosity was shown by the public as to the policy of the 
 President in his general official appointments. He was known to be 
 committed to the doctrine of civil-service reform, and to be strongly 
 opposed to the removal of officers for merely political reasons. These 
 qualities were manifested in the appointments which he now made to 
 the principal positions at his disposal. In filling such places as were 
 vacant he adopted certain maxims, one of which was, that those who 
 had held office under him formerly should not do so a second time. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 753 
 
 Another was, that fitness and competency should be considered as 
 the prime requisites in applicants for office, and that competent 
 officials should not be removed until their official terms had expired. 
 It was said, also, that the President decided not to appoint, as his 
 predecessor had done, the great editors of the country to public 
 office. The course pursued by President Harrison in this respect, 
 had reacted strongly against him. That chief magistrate had adopted 
 the policy of filling his principal foreign appointments with the pro¬ 
 prietors and editors of the great journals and magazines of the coun¬ 
 try, as if with a view to the control of public opinion. But the ruse 
 was quickly discovered, and public opinion reacted against such a 
 method of keeping a party in power. Mr. Cleveland went to the 
 opposite extreme, and selected his foreign ministers with strict avoid¬ 
 ance of the editorial profession. On the whole, it should be allowed 
 that the new President was personally one of the most conspicuous, 
 as well as one of the most determined, leaders of public policy who 
 had held the presidency since the Civil War. 
 
 The years 1892-93 were destined to be made memorable in Ameri¬ 
 can history by the World’s Columbian Exposition. A period of 
 nearly forty years had elapsed since the first great national event of 
 this kind had occurred in the United States. Since the date of the 
 first World’s Fair at New York a new generation had arisen. Since 
 that date the greatest of civil wars had been fought to its bloody end. 
 Since that date two other exhibitions of international fame had been 
 held, the one being the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, and 
 the other the celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the 
 Republic, at New York, in 1889. 
 
 With the coming of the Columbian year 1892, marking the close 
 of the fourth centennium since the discovery of the New World, the 
 project of commemorating that greatest of human events with an 
 international celebration in America was agitated, and a plan for 
 such celebration was rapidly developed. The measure first came into 
 practical form and bearing with the adoption by Congress of an Act 
 providing for a World’s Columbian Exposition, to be held in the 
 United States in 1892-93. The principal provisions of the Act were 
 as follows: 
 
 “ Whereas, It is fit and appropriate that the four hundredth anniversary of the 
 discovery of America be commemorated by an exposition of the resources of 
 the United States of America, and of their development and of the progress of civ¬ 
 ilization in the New World; and 
 
 *• Whereas, Such an exhibition should be of a national and international character, 
 
754 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 so that not only the people of our Union and this Continent, but those of all nations 
 as well, can participate, and should therefore have the sanction of the Congress of 
 the United States: therefore be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibition of 
 arts, industries, manufactures, and products of the soil, mine and sea shall be inaugu¬ 
 rated in the year 1892 in the City of Chicago, in the State of Illinois, as hereinafter 
 provided. 
 
 “ Section 2. That a Commission, to consist of two commissioners from each 
 State and Territory of the United States and from the District of Columbia, and 
 eight commissioners at large, is hereby constituted to be designated as the World’s 
 Columbian Commission. 
 
 “ Section 3. That said commissioners, two from each State and Territory, shall 
 be appointed within thirty days from the passage of this Act by the President of the 
 United States on the nomination of the Governors of the States and Territories re¬ 
 spectively, and by the President eight commissioners at large, and two from the Dis¬ 
 trict of Columbia; and in the same manner and within the same time there shall be 
 appointed two alternate commissioners from each State and Territory of the United 
 States and the District of Columbia, and eight alternate commissioners at large, who 
 shall assume and perform the duty of such commissioner or commissioners as may be 
 unable to attend the meetings of the said Commission, and in such nominations and 
 appointments each of the two leading political parties shall be equally represented. 
 Vacancies in the Commission nominated by the Governors of the several States and 
 Territories respectively, and also vacancies in the Commission at large and from the 
 District of Columbia, may be filled in the same manner and under the same condi¬ 
 tions as provided herein for their original appointment. 
 
 “Section 4. That the Secretary of State of the United States shall immediately 
 after the passage of this Act notify the Governors of the several States and Territories 
 respectively thereof, and request such nominations to be made. The commissioners 
 so appointed shall be called together by the Secretary of State of the United States 
 in the City of Chicago, by notice to the commissioners, as soon as convenient after 
 the appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days thereafter. The said 
 commissioners at said first meeting shall organize by the election of such officers and 
 the appointment of such committees as they may deem expedient, and for this pur¬ 
 pose the commissioners present at said meeting shall constitute a quorum. 
 
 “ Section 5. That said Commission be empowered in its discretion to accept 
 for the purposes of the World’s Columbian Exposition such site as may be selected 
 and offered, and such plans and specifications of buildings to be erected for such pur¬ 
 pose at the expense of and tendered by the corporation, organized under the laws of 
 the State of Illinois, known as the World’s Exposition of 1892, Provided , That said 
 site so tendered and the buildings proposed to be erected thereon shall be deemed by 
 said Commission adequate to the purpose of said exposition; and provided, That said 
 Commission shall be satisfied that the said corporation has an actual bona fide and 
 valid subscription to its capital stock of at least five million dollars, of which not less 
 than five hundred thousand dollars shall have been paid in, and that the further sum 
 of five million dollars, making in all ten million dollars, will be provided by said cor¬ 
 poration in ample time for its needful use during the prosecution of the work for the 
 complete preparation of said exposition.” 
 
 Section 6 provided for the allotment of space, specification of exhibits and the 
 appointment of judges. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 755 
 
 Section 7 provided for rules and regulations relative to entrance and admission 
 fees, and to rights, privileges and interests of the exhibitors. 
 
 Section 8 provided for the dedication of the buildings of the World’s Columbian 
 Exposition on the 30th of April, 1892. 
 
 Section 9 provided that the President, through the Department of State, 
 should communicate the fact of the exposition to foreign nations, and invite partici¬ 
 pation therein. 
 
 Section 10 provided for the admission of exhibits from all countries free of 
 duties, custom-fees, etc. 
 
 Section 11 provided for a preliminary appropriation of twenty thousand dollars 
 for the purpose of starting the exposition enterprise by the Government. 
 
 The remainder of the Act, which embraces twenty-one sections in all, related 
 to the details of the great project and to contemplated expenditures in promoting 
 the same by governmental support. 
 
 The Bill thus reported was adopted with certain amendments 
 by the House- of Representatives, on the 25th of March, 1890, and 
 became the legal and authoritative basis of all that was subsequently 
 accomplished. 
 
 The subscriptions to the capital for the organization of the World’s 
 Fair at Chicago were completed by March of 1890. The subscribers 
 to the fund had a meeting on the 4th of April, 1890, and elected a 
 Board of Directors, which, in turn, elected Lyman J. Gage president, 
 Thomas B. Bryan and Potter Palmer vice-presidents, Anthony F. 
 Seeberger treasurer, Benjamin Butterworth secretary, and William 
 K. Ackerman auditor. The new directory first met on the 12th of 
 April. President Harrison meanwhile signed the Congressional Act 
 locating the Exposition in Chicago. The measure provided for the 
 appointment of commissioners, and the creation of the World’s Co¬ 
 lumbian Exposition Board. The board consisted of two commission- 
 el's appointed by the President for each State and Territory, of eight 
 commissioners-at-large, and two from the District of Columbia, each 
 with alternates. At the annual meeting of directors in 1892, Harlow 
 N. Higinbotham was elected president upon the resignation of Wil¬ 
 liam T. Baker, who had succeeded Lyman J. Gage after his resigna¬ 
 tion on April 14, 1891. Ferdinand W. Peck and Robert A. Waller 
 were chosen for the new vice-presidents, and Howard O. Edwards, 
 secretary. 
 
 A body created to be representative of the supreme power, vested 
 in both the National Commission and the Directory of the corporation, 
 was known as the Council of Administration, and H. N. Higinbotham 
 was appointed to the chairmanship. This Council had the chief 
 direction and management of the Exposition, subject only to the 
 
756 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 action of Congress. It was created by agreement between the Na¬ 
 tional Commission and the Exposition Directory, or local organiza¬ 
 tion, its membership embracing two representatives from each body. 
 
 As soon as the World’s Fair Bill received the executive signa¬ 
 ture, President Harrison appointed as members of the National Com¬ 
 mission two from each of the several States and Territories, one Re¬ 
 publican and one Democrat in each case. The nominations for these 
 positions were made by the respective governors of the States and 
 Territories. On the 5th of June, 1890, an official letter was issued 
 by James G. Blaine, Secretary of State, convening the Commission 
 in first session at the Grand Pacific Hotel in Chicago on the 25th of 
 the same month. 
 
 Hon. A. T. Ewing, of Illinois, acted as chairman of this meeting. 
 Later in June, when the commissioners reassembled, the office of 
 president was filled by the unanimous election of Thomas W. Palmer, 
 of Michigan, a man in every respect worthy to discharge the high 
 duties devolved upon him. Five vice-presidents and a secretary 
 were also elected. When the organization was perfected, the local 
 directors were formally notified that the Commission was prepared 
 to receive any communications they had to submit. After this the 
 Commission met daily, and prepared an outline of the details of a 
 complete legislative and executive organization. During these sit¬ 
 tings the following resolution was adopted: 
 
 “ Resolved , That this Commission is satisfied that the World’s Columbian Ex¬ 
 position of Chicago has an actual, bona fide and valid subscription to its capital 
 stock which will secure the payment of at least five million dollars, of which not less 
 than five hundred thousand dollars has been paid in, and that the further sum of 
 five million dollars, making in all ten million dollars, will be provided by said cor¬ 
 poration in ample time for its needful use during the prosecution of the work for the 
 complete preparation of said Exposition.” 
 
 The following is a full roster of the principal officers of the Na¬ 
 tional Commission, the States and Territories they represent, and 
 their places of residence; also the names of the Commissioners-at- 
 Large. Honorable Thomas W. Palmer, of Michigan, President; 
 Honorable Thomas M. Waller, of Connecticut, First Vice-President; 
 M. H. De Young, of California, Second Vice-President; Davidson 
 B. Penn, of Louisiana, Third Vice-President; Gorton W. Allen, of 
 New York, Fourth Vice-President; Alexander B. Andrews, of North 
 Carolina, Fifth Vice-President; Honorable John T. Dickinson, of 
 Texas, Secretary; Harvey B. Platt, of Ohio, Vice-Chairman of Ex- 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 757 
 
 ecutive Committee. The Commissioners-atrLarge were: Augustus 
 G. Bullock, Worcester, Mass.; Gorton W. Allen, Auburn, N. Y.; 
 Peter A. B. Widener, Philadelphia, Pa.; Thomas W. Palmer, De¬ 
 troit, Mich.; R. W. Furnas, Brownville, Neb.; Patrick P. Walsh, 
 Augusta, Ga.; Henry Exall, Dallas, Tex.; and Mark L. McDonald, 
 Santa Rosa, Cal. The alternates were: Henry Ingalls, Wiscasset, 
 Me.; Louis Fitzgerald, New York, N. Y.; John W. Chalfant, Pitts¬ 
 burgh, Pa.; James Oliver, South Bend, Ind.; Hale G. Parker, St. 
 Louis, Mo.; John B. Castleman, Louisville, Ky.; H. C. King, San 
 Antonio, Tex.; and Thomas Burke, Seattle, Wash. 
 
 During the second session of the Commission, on September 18, 
 1890, Colonel George R. Davis, of Massachusetts, was elected upon 
 the recommendation of a majority of the members of the Board of 
 Directors, Director-General of the World’s Columbian Exposition. 
 During the same session President Palmer announced the standing 
 committees on Judiciary, Rules and By-Laws; Tariffs and Transpor¬ 
 tation ; Foreign Affairs ; Fine Arts ; Science, History, Literature and 
 Education; Agriculture ; Live Stock ; Horticulture and Floriculture; 
 Finance; Auditing ; Ceremonies; Classification ; Manufactures; Com¬ 
 merce ; Mines and Mining; Fisheries and Fish Culture; Electricity 
 and Electrical Appliances; Forestry and Lumber; Machinery; World’s 
 Congresses and Printing. 
 
 Before adjourning the National Commission created the great 
 departments into which the Fair was divided, as follows : A — Agri¬ 
 culture : fruits, plants, food and food-products, farming machinery 
 and appliances. B — Horticulture : seeds, vines, nursery trees, gar¬ 
 den implements. C —LiveStock: domestic and wild animals. I) — 
 Fish, Fisheries, Fish Products and Apparatus for Fishing. E — 
 Mines, Mining and Metallurgy. F —Electricity and Electrical Ap¬ 
 pliances. K —Fine Arts. L — Liberal Arts. M —Ethnology. 0 — 
 Publicity and Promotion. P — Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Subsequently the Commission met a number of times, and decided 
 such questions as those relating to the sale of liquors and Sunday 
 closing. At first, a vote was passed in favor of opening the Exposi¬ 
 tion on Sunday, and in favor of leaving the problem of selling light 
 wines and malt liquors with the directors. Afterward, however, the 
 managers voted against the former measure ; the question was carried 
 into the courts, and remained virtually 1 undecided during the Expo¬ 
 sition. 
 
 The World’s Columbian Exposition was thus created under pro¬ 
 visions of the Act of Congress of April 25, 1890. The President of 
 
758 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the United States, on December 24,1890, proclaimed the Exposition 
 to the world, and invited foreign nations to participate in the Colum¬ 
 bian jubilee. 
 
 In the fall of 1891 the Exposition managers sent a commission 
 to Southern Europe. This was presided over by Thomas B. Bryant 
 one of the commissioners-at-large. The portions of the world visited 
 by the commission had not, at that time, manifested the slightest 
 interest in the Exposition; but the rulers and people were both ap¬ 
 pealed to by the commission, and were fully informed of the enormous 
 undertaking in which the United States had embarked. Five months 
 were spent in spreading broadcast all the information available, which 
 resulted in changing most materially the sentiment of these foreign 
 nations and inspiring them with the liveliest interest. Potentates 
 began to respond encouragingly, and even the Pope acknowledged 
 that he was greatly surprised at the gigantic project of the Exposi¬ 
 tion and its grand scale, and promised to contribute to its success in 
 any way within his power. He wrote a cordial letter, and sent for 
 exhibition rare treasures never before permitted to leave the Vatican. 
 After the return of the Bryan commission from Europe, the chairman 
 kept up an interesting correspondence with the powers abroad, in 
 order that their interest, so long latent, which the commission had 
 now aroused, might not subside. 
 
 The governments of all distant countries seemed at first dis¬ 
 inclined to affiliate with the United States and its projected Expo¬ 
 sition. Honorable Walter Fearn was elected chief of a Department 
 of Foreign Affairs, and fifty nations were induced to participate as a 
 result of the work of this Department. The wonderful exhibitions 
 of mechanism and handicraft made by these countries may well teach 
 the United States that, however unrivalled its progress in acquisition 
 of wealth and power may have been, our country has yet much to 
 learn from the highly cultivated nations of the Old World. 
 
 Next followed the acts of appropriation by the various foreign 
 nations. Norway and Sweden first set aside $110,000, and Denmark 
 $67,000, to provide for participation in the Fair. France accepted 
 the invitation, and placed $631,000 at the disposal of her commis¬ 
 sioners. The Emperor of Germany took personal interest in the part 
 and place that great empire was to have in the Exposition at Chi¬ 
 cago, and the sum of $800,000 was appropriated for the proper 
 acceptance of America’s invitation. Austria-Hungary placed $150,- 
 000 florins at the disposal of her commission as a preliminary appro¬ 
 priation, and the Emperor’s brother acted as one of the commission- 
 
CLEVELAND’S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 759 
 
 ere. The government of Russia assumed entire charge of the exhibit 
 from that country ; and the richest and finest products from all parts 
 of that wonderful domain were gathered together. One million dol¬ 
 lars would perhaps not cover the expense of the Russian display. 
 The countries under the dominion of Great Britain were all repre¬ 
 sented ; and probably $1,500,000 would not exceed the amount ex¬ 
 pended by the British dependencies in their preparations to comply 
 with the invitation to participate in the Fair. The Irish, Welsh and 
 Scotch were all well represented. Spain, Portugal, Greece, Belgium, 
 Turkey, Switzerland and Egypt all responded heartily to the cordial 
 invitation of the United States. Brazil set aside $600,000 for the 
 display from that uncertain but growing Republic. Costa Rica voted 
 $150,000; Ecuador, $125,000; Guatemala, $200,000; Mexico, $50,- 
 000; and Japan, $700,000. All the leading nations of the world 
 responded to the friendly call of our country. 
 
 As soon as it became evident that the United States would hold 
 the World’s Fair, all the leading American cities endeavored to 
 secure the Exposition. The rivalry was keen. Chicago, however, 
 won the prize. As early as July, 1889, the council of that city passed 
 a resolution instructing the mayor to appoint a committee of one hun¬ 
 dred to induce Congress to locate the Fair in Chicago. In August 
 of the same year subscription books were opened for the proposed 
 corporation entitled “The World’s Exposition of 1892,” the object of 
 which was the holding of an international exhibition in the City of 
 Chicago to commemorate on its four hundredth anniversary the dis¬ 
 covery of America. Senator Cullom, of Illinois, introduced the first 
 World’s Fair bill in the United States Senate ; and in January, 1890, 
 Chicago’s application was placed before a special committee of that 
 body. 
 
 New York, also, was eager for the Fair. The contest was bitterly 
 waged between the great metropolis of the East and the newer West- 
 ern metropolis. Nothing that could influence the decision of Con¬ 
 gress was left undone by the people of Chicago, and this persistency 
 was rewarded by the vote of Congress on February 24, 1890, to hold 
 the Exposition in Chicago. Then began that wonderful ambition on 
 the part of the people of the favored city to make the Fair the most 
 brilliant achievement of the age. The question of funds was met 
 promptly by the Illinois Legislature; and, although the National 
 Congress seemed dilatory and at times unwilling to make an appro¬ 
 priation for the gigantic undertaking, the energy of Chicago proved 
 indomitable, and the great work went on despite all drawbacks and 
 hinderances. 
 
760 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 After it was decided to hold the Fair in Chicago, the next prob¬ 
 lem which presented itself was the selection of a suitable site for the 
 Exposition buildings. It was many months before the committee 
 arrived at a decision. Jackson Park and Midwdy Plaisance, an un¬ 
 inviting strip of sand, swamp and scrub-oaks was at last selected. 
 This portion of the territory of Chicago is located on the South Side, 
 and, at the time of its selection, Jackson Park was perhaps as unin¬ 
 viting a spot in appearance as could be found along the margin of 
 Lake Michigan. But the park was rapidly transformed. From pos¬ 
 sessing at first no redeeming feature save area and location, in two 
 years it became the most beautiful spot in the entire world ! Before 
 the opening of the Exposition a most magnificent transformation had 
 occurred. Twenty-five millions of dollars had been expended on 
 buildings and improvements, and the value of the exhibits these 
 buildings contained was estimated at $100,000,000. Daniel H. Burn¬ 
 ham and his engineers, architects and sculptors had transformed the 
 dreary swamp into a glistening White City of beautiful palaces and 
 picturesque islands. 
 
 When the work of preparing the immense area of Jackson Park 
 for the erection of large buildings was begun, the larger part of the 
 site to be dealt with was liable to be at times submerged by the lake; 
 the remainder was composed of sandy ridges, on which had grown a 
 few stunted oak trees. The prime idea of the committee on grounds 
 and buildings, appointed in 1890, was to make a system of navigable 
 waterways by dredging-boats, working inward from the lake through 
 the lowest parts of the grounds. The earth lifted by the boats was 
 deposited so as to increase the elevation of the highest parts, and 
 make them suitable places for the erection of the heavy Exposition 
 buildings. By such means the whole area was better adapted to the 
 intended uses. 
 
 The plan of the grounds contemplated the following as leading 
 features of design : “ That there should be a great architectural court, 
 with a body of water therein; that this court should serve as a suit¬ 
 ably dignified and impressive entrance-hall to the Exposition, and 
 that visitors arriving by train or by boat should all pass through it; 
 that there should be a formal canal leading northward from this 
 court to a series of broader waters of a larger character, by which 
 nearly the entire site would be penetrated, so that the principal Ex¬ 
 position buildings would each have a water as well as a land frontage, 
 and would be approachable by boats; that near the middle of this 
 lagoon system there should be an island about fifteen acres in area, 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 761 
 
 in which there would be abounding clusters of the largest trees grow¬ 
 ing upon the site ; that this island should be free from conspicuous 
 buildings, and that it should have a generally secluded, natural, 
 sylvan aspect, the existing clusters of trees serving as centres for 
 such broad and simple larger masses of foliage as it would be practi¬ 
 cable to establish in a year’s time by plantations of young trees and 
 bushes. Since the water in the lagoons would be subject to consid¬ 
 erable fluctuations, it was proposed that its shores should be occupied 
 by a collection of such aquatic plants as would endure the occasional 
 submergence and yet survive an occasional withdrawal of water from 
 their roots.” This general outline was adopted in December, 1890, 
 as the plan of the Exposition, and in twenty months nearly seven 
 hundred acres of barren land on the borders of Lake Michigan was 
 converted into a suitable place for the exhibition of industries 
 and the entertainment by the Republic of representatives from all 
 the nations of the world. Within this period more than a score of 
 gigantic palaces were built, and hundreds of other buildings; great 
 canals, lagoons and islands were formed; towers, bridges and piers 
 were constructed ; and the ablest talent in the land was employed in 
 order that the World’s Columbian Exposition should be unexcelled* 
 Ground was broken for the first building — Mines and Mining —■ 
 July 2, 1891: and day and night thereafter the work went on, until 
 Jackson Park became by the time of the opening of the Fair, the 
 greatest wonder the world had ever known. 
 
 Friday, October 21,1892, Avas a great day for the City of Cliicago- 
 On the preceding Thursday had begun the greatest of civic parades.. 
 A procession of 80,000 men was passed in review before the Vice- 
 President of the United States. Half a million people witnessed this 
 event; 116 bands of music were in line. Citizens of foreign birth 
 carried the red, white and blue flag of America, and the music was 
 mostly the patriotic airs of our country. It was an army of men of 
 all parties, religions and nations. On Friday, hundreds of trains 
 arrived in the city, heavy with the weight of thousands of men and 
 women Avho came to witness and take part in the opening festivities. 
 The boulevards were crowded all day, and the throngs at the princi¬ 
 pal hotels were overwhelming. Among the distinguished arrivals 
 were Vice-President Morton, who attended in place of President 
 Harrison ; the latter had been called to the bedside of an invalid 
 wife. The Vice-President was the observed of all observers; Chi¬ 
 cago received him as the representative of the nation. Bishop 
 Fowler, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Cardinal Gibbons, of 
 
762 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Baltimore, Archbishop Satolli, of Rome, Papal Envoy to the United 
 States, and other high churchmen were conspicuous. Senators Stock- 
 bridge, Sherman and Brice were enthusiastically received. Diplo¬ 
 mats and Cabinet Officers and members of the Supreme Court of the 
 United States, the Governors of nearly all the States and Territories 
 in the Union were present. In the evening, there was a grand Dedi¬ 
 cation Ball at the Auditorium Hotel. All classes of people and rep¬ 
 resentatives from many nations were in attendance. So gorgeous 
 were all the surroundings, and the display of electric lights was so 
 brilliant, that the scene appeared like a transcript from fairy-land. 
 
 At 11 A. M., the opening day, the grand military procession and 
 review took place, and also the dedicatory exercises at Jackson Park. 
 Fifteen thousand soldiers were in line on this occasion. The day 
 was bright and beautiful. Two hundred thousand people witnessed 
 the review at Washington Park. The Marine Band of Washington 
 made music, and thirty-eight other bands were in the procession. 
 Vice-President Morton, Director-General Davis, Presidents Palmer 
 and Higinbotham, Ex-President Hayes, the Justices of the Supreme 
 Court of the United States, Major-General Schofield, Senior Com¬ 
 mander of the Army, and his Staff, and Governors of thirty-one 
 States rode in carriages to the park. Cardinal Gibbons, the National 
 Commissioners, Lady Managers, Foreign Commissioners, Directors, 
 Chiefs of Departments, members of City Council and many others 
 were also of the procession, which was applauded through the whole 
 line of march. 
 
 In the afternoon the dedicatory exercises were witnessed by one 
 hundred thousand people. The music was in charge of Theodore 
 Thomas, with a grand orchestra of five hundred pieces and a chorus 
 of five thousand voices. Bishop Fowler made the opening prayer, 
 and the Director-General the opening address. At the conclusion of 
 his address, Hempstead Washburne, then Mayor of Chicago, made a 
 brilliant speech of welcome, saying in conclusion: “ Our hospitalities 
 and our welcome we now extend without reserve, without regard to 
 nationality, creed or race.” The dedicatory ode, written at the order 
 of the Exposition managers by Miss Harriett Stone Munroe, of Chi¬ 
 cago, was then read and sung. During the progress of the dedicatory 
 programme, President Higinbotham bestowed the commemoratoiy 
 medals to the Board of Directors. The President of the Columbian 
 Commission received the buildings from the President of the Exposi¬ 
 tion, and the latter presented them to the Vice-President of the 
 United States for dedication. Mr. Morton then dedicated them in a 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 763 
 
 splendid speech, to the world’s progress in art, science, agriculture 
 and manufactures. “I dedicate them to humanity,” he concluded; 
 “ God save the United States of America.” Mrs. Potter Palmer, 
 President of the Board of Lady Managers, then made an address, 
 which was received with liberal applause. 
 
 Henry Watterson, editor of the Louisville Courier-Journal, pro¬ 
 nounced the dedicatory oration. The address was grand and patri¬ 
 otic. The speaker touched upon all the salient points in American 
 history, from 1492 to the present time — from the Convent of La 
 Rabida to the World’s Columbian Exposition. 
 
 The glowing tribute of Chaunc'ey M. Depew, of New York, 
 followed the address of Mr. Watterson. In conclusion, the speaker 
 said: “ All hail, Columbus, discoverer, dreamer, hero and apostle ! 
 We, here, of every race and country, recognize the horizon which 
 bounded his vision and the infinite scope of his genius. The voice of 
 gratitude and praise for all the blessings which have been showered 
 upon mankind by his adventures is limited to no language, but is 
 uttered in every tongue. Neither brass nor marble can fitly frame 
 his statue. Continents are his monuments, and unnumbered mil¬ 
 lions, past, present and to come, who enjoy in their liberty and their 
 happiness the fruits of his faith, will reverently guard and preserve, 
 from century to century, his name and fame.” 
 
 At the conclusion, Cardinal Gibbons, of Baltimore, offered 
 prayer, and Dr. H. C. McCosh, of Philadelphia, pronounced the ben¬ 
 ediction. A national salute concluded the ceremonies of the day. 
 At night, the fireworks on the north, south and west of Chicago were 
 witnessed by half a million or more people. 
 
 On the night of October 25th, President Palmer’s banquet at 
 Chicago, practically closed the festivities of dedication. The guests 
 on this occasion included all the great persons within the city, and 
 those connected responsibly with the World’s. Columbian Exposition. 
 
 Just before the official opening of the Fair, the war vessels of 
 many nations gathered at Fortress Monroe. The ships at length 
 made their way to New York, where there was a review of the fleets 
 on the Hudson River. 
 
 The formal opening of the Exposition had been fixed for the 1st 
 of May. On the day before the formal opening, President Cleveland 
 arrived at Chicago. The Duke of Yeragua, a grandee of Spain, and 
 lineal descendant of Columbus, accompanied by his family and other 
 distinguished people, also arrived and were warmly welcomed. The 
 old Liberty Bell was brought to the city from Philadelphia, and was 
 received bv a vast multitude. 
 
764 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The 1st of May, 1893, was one of the greatest days in the social 
 history of the New World. It was the day of the formal and official 
 opening of the World’s Columbian Exposition. At twelve o’clock 
 on the eventful Monday President Cleveland pressed the magic 
 button which started the great Allis engine, and told the world that 
 the Fair was begun. Nearly a quarter of a million of people were 
 present on the occasion. The act of the President opened an elec¬ 
 tric current, in a wire circuit 2,000 feet in length, which connected 
 with minute temporary motors at the gigantic Allis engine. The 
 golden figure of the Republic was also unveiled. The spectacle was 
 grand and enlivening. President Cleveland made brief remarks upon 
 the opening of the Fair, announcing the readiness of the management 
 and welcoming the crowds who were to throng the portals of Jackson 
 Park during the Exposition. 
 
 After the selection of Chicago and Jackson Park as the scene of 
 the Exposition, the Chief of Construction recommended the direct 
 appointment of architects for the buildings, rather than that the 
 designs should be secured by competition. The following were the 
 principal edifices erected: Administration Building, Transportation 
 Building, Agricultural Building, Horticultural Building, Manufac¬ 
 tures and Liberal Arts Building, Fisheries Building, Machinery 
 Hall, Woman’s Building, Electrical Building, Stock Ring and Pa¬ 
 vilion, Mines and Mining Building, Galleries of Fine Arts, Perist}de, 
 Music Hall and Casino, Railway Terminal Station, guard-stations, 
 fire-stations, balustrades, bridges, rostral columns, and many other im¬ 
 portant structures. The first named main buildings of the Fair cov¬ 
 ered an aggregate ground area of 5,382,000 square feet, or over 125 
 acres; other buildings, 1,155,000 square feet; foreign buildings 290,000 
 square feet; concession buildings about 1,050,000, making a grand 
 total area of the buildings of the Fair about 190 acres. 
 
 These great structures may now be considered in their order. 
 The Administration Building was 262 feet square, and the height of 
 the outer dome 277£ feet; the cost $550,000. This structure was 
 beautiful in the daytime and gorgeously resplendent with electrichy at 
 night. It was richly ornamented in sculpture and frescoing. Around 
 the base of the dome, on the corners of the pavilions, and at entrances 
 were groups of statuary, emblematic of the arts and sciences. The 
 building contained the offices of the Exposition management, the 
 press headquarters, the foreign department, the post-office, bank, and 
 information bureau. The general design was in the stvle of the 
 French Renaissance. The first story was of the Doric order, sur- 
 
* 
 
 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 65 
 
 rounded by a lofty balustrade. The Ionic style of architecture was 
 represented in the second story with the lofty colonnade. The build¬ 
 ing was situated at the west of the Grand Court of Honor, looking 
 eastward toward the Peristyle, and at its rear were the transportation 
 facilities and the terminal railway building. Its huge, gilded dome 
 was one of the most conspicuous features of the grounds, and at 
 night when illuminated could be seen for miles. No other dome in 
 America, with the possible exception of that of the Capitol at Wash¬ 
 ington, could compare with it. The under side of the dome was 
 enriched with rare sculpture and paintings. The space covered by 
 the painting “ The Glorification of the Arts,” was 315 feet in circum¬ 
 
 ference, and 40 feet from apex to base. In front of the east entrance 
 was the plaza 200 yards square, and in front of this the Mac Monnies 
 fountain and the lagoon; beyond, the gilded statue of the “ Republic ” 
 and the Peristyle, under which boats from the lagoon reached the 
 lake. This was one of the most enchanting spots in the whole world. 
 The lagoon was an immense basin of water, 3,000 by 1,000 feet in 
 size, surrounded by a stone balustrade containing a perfect chain of 
 electric-light globules. The wonderful fountain represented Colum¬ 
 bia seated on the Ship of State, which was steered by Father Time, 
 on the prow of which stood the figure of Fame. This vessel was 
 driven through the water by eight girls standing at the oars, four on 
 either side. Around the basin were figures of young men on half- 
 submerged horses, and .rniidens and cherubs disporting themselves in 
 the waves near the boat. On either side of the fountain were elec- 
 
766 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 trie fountains, spouting iridescent torrents. The completed work of 
 this grand central court presented a magnificent, a gorgeous spectacle 
 by night when elaborately illuminated by electricity. The architect¬ 
 ural outlines of all the buildings bordering on the lagoon, and the 
 shore line of the basin were delineated in incandescent lights. 
 
 The great feature of the Transportation Building, aside from the 
 exhibits it contained was the main entrance, a great single arch, 
 elaborately ornamented and treated in gold leaf, called the “ Golden 
 Door.” The Transportation exhibit included every appliance and 
 vehicle for carrying purposes, from a cash-carrier to a balloon, and 
 from the first crude conveyance of antiquity to a Mogul engine. The 
 Transportation Building was an interesting and educating place. 
 It overlooked the Wooded Island, a plot of land containing sixteen 
 acres, and devoted to floriculture, horticulture, and the Japanese 
 temple and garden. Its architecture was very simple ; the cost of 
 the building was $488,183. The interior was like a Roman basilica, 
 with broad nave and aisles. The roof had three divisions; the 
 middle one rose much higher than the others, and its walls were 
 made to form a beautiful arcade above. The cupola was in the 
 centre of the building, and rose 165 feet above the ground and was 
 reached by elevators. The divisions of the main building were 256 
 by 960 feet. Besides this, however, there extended westward toward 
 Stony Island a large annex, one story high, and covering nine acres. 
 Here were placed the more bulky exhibits. Along the central ave¬ 
 nue were scores of locomotive engines, highly polished. The Trans¬ 
 portation Building was the only colored building on the grounds. 
 At first, it was thought that it would detract from the beauty of the 
 White City; but the glaring colors merged gradually into a harmo¬ 
 nious whole, pronounced by many to be the most artistic structure on 
 the grounds, serving, as it did, to accentuate the dazzling whiteness 
 of the other buildings. It was built for use in displaying historically 
 the ancient and modern methods of transportation, and no ornament 
 was attempted save the main entrance or “ Golden Door.” Here one 
 saw the wonderful evolution in transportation, from the original 
 “ Rocket ” locomotive, with its stove boiler and barrels of water on 
 wheelbarrow tenders, to the modern 130-ton locomotives capable of a 
 speed of one hundred miles an hour; or from the two joined wheels, 
 with a frame and saddle made forty years ago by an enterprising 
 Frenchman, through all the gradual steps of improvement to the 
 modern pneumatic safety bicycle. The development of the genius of 
 man has never been more wonderfully displayed. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 767 
 
 The Agricultural Building proved to be the great resort for farm¬ 
 ers. This was a beautiful structure 800 by 500 feet, surrounded by 
 a dome 130 feet high. The annex was 500 by 300 feet. Cost of the 
 main building was $800,000. In connection with this was an assem¬ 
 bly hall, with a seating capacity of about 1,500. The Agricultural 
 Building was located on the main basin of the lagoon, opposite the 
 Manufactures Building, and was one of the handsomest and largest 
 on the grounds. Its main entrance was 64 feet wide, adorned with 
 Corinthian pillars 50 feet high and five feet in diameter. The ro¬ 
 tunda was 100 feet in diameter, surmounted by a great glass dome, 
 
 
 B 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 mm 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUILDING. 
 
 on the top of which was a glittering figure of the goddess Diana, 
 with a drawn bow used as a weather vane. The entire structure was 
 richly ornamented — adorned with many groups of statuary of heroic 
 size. Agriculture, forestry, dairy and live stock had exhibition space 
 under a roof of 69 acres, the building costing $1,218,000. Inside this 
 building were avenues of extremely unique pavilions. Twenty-nine 
 States and Territories were represented in the main floor. There 
 were in all 19 acres of exhibits, and all of the industries were pictur¬ 
 esquely shown. There was also a novel exhibit of the Association 
 of American Experimental Stations and Agricultural Colleges, while 
 all the essential products derived from agriculture were attractively 
 displayed in the galleries. Grasses and grain, varied in color, were 
 beautifully blended for the purpose of ornamentation. Here the 
 
768 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 largest cheese ever made, a monster weighing eleven tons, was exhib¬ 
 ited from Ontario, Canada. The State exhibits were elaborate, and 
 the Burdett-Coutt’s stable exhibit attracted great attention. There 
 were many displays from foreign lands, mowers, threshers, harvesters 
 and plows by the acre, and pumps of all descriptions. In connection 
 with this building was that of forestry. The Forestry Building was 
 one of the most unique of all, because of its rustic simplicity. It 
 was made by grouping most effectively the different natural woods. 
 Big and little trees from all over the world were here displayed; 
 magnificent specimens of tiiuber growths were sent from all coun- 
 
 HORTICULTURAL BUILDING. 
 
 tries. There were medicinal trees, lichens and mosses. California 
 sent her huge sequivias. Methods of testing, transplanting and 
 measuring were illustrated, as was also the protection of young trees 
 against insects. A saw-mill in operation was another exhibit of 
 interest. There was not a single nail used in the construction of 
 this building. This was to show the peculiarly American methods 
 of joining timbers so as to economize material. 
 
 The Live Stock Pavilion seated six hundred people. The reg- 
 ular Stock Show commenced August 21st, sheep and swine being 
 exhibited at one time, and cattle and horses at another. There were 
 also dog shows here, and carrier-pigeon flights. All the stock exhib¬ 
 ited was blooded, bearing long and famous pedigrees. 
 
 The Horticultural Building was the completest and largest of 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 769 
 
 its kind ever built. It contained more space than the combined areas 
 of the buildings used for a similar purpose at Paris, the Centennial 
 and New Orleans. It was 1,800 feet long by 287 feet wide. The 
 glass dome was 187 feet in diameter, and had an altitude of 113 feet 
 on the inside, easily accommodating the tallest palms, cacti, etc. 
 There was a broad promenade gallery inside the dome, from which 
 visitors misdit view the wonderful exhibits below. The structure 
 cost $300,000. The plan was a central pavilion with two end pavil¬ 
 ions, each connected with the centre by front and rear curtains, 
 forming two interior courts, each 88 by 270 feet. These courts were 
 planted with shrubs and orange and lemon trees. 
 
 The most prominent feature of the Horticultural Building was 
 the floral collection. Rare plants, valued at more than a half a mil¬ 
 lion dollars, from all corners of the globe were here displayed. There 
 were magnificent exhibits of orchids, roses, carnations, lilies, rhodo¬ 
 dendrons and callas, from New York, Canada, Mexico and Japan ; 
 Australian tree-ferns six hundred years old; enormous bamboos from 
 Trinidad, and century-plants in bloom; ferns from the Fiji Islands. 
 Besides flowers and plants, fruit from nearly every State in the Union 
 was exhibited, such as the finest apples, pears, peaches, plums, etc. 
 There was an unexcelled display of thirty kinds of fruit by Califor¬ 
 nia ; towers and figures built of oranges and lemons, or dried fruits; 
 gigantic jars of preserved fruits, and an interesting display of seeds. 
 In another portion of the building was an array of garden imple¬ 
 ments, lawn-mowers, statuary and fancy fences. Horticulture was 
 also represented by about two acres of nursery-trees in the Midway 
 Plaisance. 
 
 The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building was the largest of 
 the extraordinary World’s Fair structures. It was the largest in the 
 world — the largest under roof ever constructed by man. The dimen¬ 
 sions of the mammoth edifice were 1,687 by 787 feet, the exhibit area 
 being forty acres, and the ground area thirty and one-half acres. The 
 cost was $1,700,000. A central hall 380 feet wide called Columbia 
 Avenue, extended through the building and was spanned by single 
 arches, without supports; there were twenty-two trusses, the span of 
 each measuring 382 feet, requiring 12,000,000 pounds of steel, each 
 truss weighing 125 tons. It required 600 flat cars to carry them from 
 the iron-works to Chicago. In the roof of the nave were 2,000,000 
 pounds of iron. Seventeen million feet of lumber were used in the 
 construction of this gigantic building, and five car-loads of nails. 
 There were eleven acres of skylight and forty car-loads of glass in 
 
770 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the roof. The building was 100 feet longer than the Brooklyn 
 Bridge at New York, with iron and steel enough in its roof alone to 
 build two such bridges. Three hundred thousand people could be 
 seated in it. Russia’s entire standing army could have been accom¬ 
 modated within. The building was in the Corinthian style of archi¬ 
 tecture, classic and stupendous. It was rectangular in form, the 
 interior divided into a great central hall, surrounded by a nave 107 
 feet wide. Both hall and nave had a gallery of fifty feet in width 
 extending entirely around them. The unequalled size of the struct¬ 
 ure made it one of the architectural wonders of the world. It was 
 three times larger than the Cathedral of St. Peter’s in Rome.* It 
 
 MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING. 
 
 was four times larger than the Roman Coliseum, which seated 80,000 
 persons. If the great pyramid of Khufu could have been removed to 
 the Exposition, it could have been piled up in this building, with the 
 galleries left from which to view the stone. 
 
 The central hall of the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building 
 was a single room without a supporting pillar under its roof. The 
 space on the ground floor was allotted mainly on the basis of 
 nationality. From the centre of the hall, where the building was 
 exactly quartered, branched out the four greatest powers, Great 
 Britain, Germany, France and the United States. In the northwest 
 corner were the exhibits of Austria and Japan. In the southwest 
 * Any church in Chicago might be placed in the vestibule of St. Peter’s. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 771 
 
 were Belgium, Russia and Norway, with China to the east. To the 
 southwest were Denmark, Brazil, Italy and Spain, while to the west 
 were Jamaica, India, New South Wales, Switzerland, Mexico and 
 Persia. 
 
 Articles classed under manufactures were bewilderingly nu¬ 
 merous. These were divided into thirty-five groups, each group 
 divided into ten or more classes, and each class into about twenty 
 smaller departments; and even these last were so general as to be 
 exhibits in themselves. More than thirty foreign governments were 
 here represented, many of them having pavilions built after the 
 
 FISH AND FISHERIES BUILDING. 
 
 designs of famous palaces. Germany’s pavilion was wonderful, 
 France’s maomificent, and England’s massive. The value of the 
 
 o 7 o 
 
 exhibits in this building was estimated to be more than $50,000,000. 
 Costly articles were contributed for exhibition by the Emperor of 
 Germany and many potentates of all nationalities. 
 
 The most important educational feature of the Exposition was 
 the department of Liberal Arts, under the same roof as the Manu¬ 
 factures. This was wonderful and complete in every detail, divided 
 into twelve groups. To the student and teacher, this department 
 was an exhaustless mine. Here nearly every State in the Union was 
 represented, and nearly every country in the world. The exhibits 
 from Montreal and Quebec were especially remarkable, as was also 
 the display made by the American Bible Society. The Lincoln man- 
 
772 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UN FT ED STATES. 
 
 uscripts were there, including the only letter Jefferson Davis wrote 
 to Lincoln. The unique features of the collection were remarkable. 
 
 The Fish and Fisheries Building was 365 feet long by 165 feet 
 wide, and had two annexes. These were circular in form, 135 feet 
 in diameter, and connected with the main building by arcades. The 
 cost of the building was $225,000, and the floor area measured more 
 than three acres. It was considered by many good judges as the 
 handsomest building in the grounds. In the main part was the 
 general fisheries exhibit, in the west annex the angling display, and 
 in the east the aquaria. The glass fronts of the aquaria were 575 
 
 MACHINERY HALL. 
 
 feet in length, and had 3,000 square feet of surface. The water 
 capacity was 140,000 gallons. Salt-water fish were shown in 40,000 
 gallons of salt water taken from the Atlantic Ocean, condensed for 
 shipment to half of its bulk, and then restored at the tanks with fresh 
 water. The aquaria was the largest in the world except the one near 
 London. Fish propagation was a feature of the display in the main 
 building, and many varieties of fishing boats were exhibited. Ten 
 of the individual States of the Union showed collective exhibits of 
 the fisheries of their waters. The boat used by the courageous Grace 
 Darling in her heroic life-saving deeds, was also there on exhibition. 
 The exterior of this Fisheries Building was especially beautiful and 
 artistic. 
 
 Machinery Hall, or the Palace of Mechanic Arts, as it was some¬ 
 times called, was a handsome structure. Its dimensions Avere 850 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 773 
 
 by 500 feet, and its cost with annex and power-house $1,200,000. 
 The wonderful Allis engine, the one started by the President on the 
 day of the formal opening of the Exposition, was the largest in the 
 world. The entire combination of iron and steel in the monster 
 weighed 225 tons, its wheel and shaft alone more than 100 tons. The 
 Machinery Hall produced an aggregate of 24,000 horse-power, and 
 was the largest power-plant in the world. Of this power, 17,000 
 parts were devoted to electricity, there being two dynamos, each with 
 a capacity of 10,000 lights. These were run by the Allis engine. 
 The Exposition required five thousand arc-lights and twelve thousand 
 incandescent-lights, and here they originated. In this building were 
 ten engines averaging 2,000 horse-power each ; a fly-wheel, thirty feet 
 
 in diameter; machinery of every description in operation ; manufact¬ 
 uring devices and machine tools by thousands ; the nearest approach 
 to perpetual motion, and many things in process of manufacture 
 before the observer. Looms of all sorts w r ere exhibited, and the 
 process of making thread shown and explained, making it one of the 
 most interesting and instructive of places. The structure of the 
 main building had the appearance of three train-houses, side by side. 
 The tiers of roof trusses were built separately, to be sold after the 
 Fair. In the nave formed by each space was an elevated travelling 
 crane for moving machinery. Adjoining this building in the south 
 were the pumping-works, power-house and machine-shops. 
 
 The Woman’s Building Avas designed by Sophia G. Hayden, a 
 woman architect of Boston, and was 388 by 199 feet on the ground 
 plan. The floor area Avas three and three-tenths acres, and the cost 
 $138,000. This structure was ten stories high, Avith an elevation of 
 60 feet. The rotunda Avas 70 by 65 feet, reaching through the 
 
774 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 whole extent of the building, and covered with a skylight. On 
 the roof of the pavilion were open spaces covered with awnings. 
 One served as a cafe and the other as a tea-garden. The formal 
 opening took place the afternoon of May 1, 1893; and the last nail 
 (made of gold) was driven with a silver hammer by Mrs. Potter 
 Palmer, President of the Board of Lady Managers. In this building 
 English hospital methods were illustrated, and surgical instruments 
 and nurses’ clothing. The work of the Navajo Indian women was 
 displayed, and also that of the East Indian races. Rare specimens of 
 
 ELECTRICITY BUILDING. 
 
 needle-work were a feature of the exhibit in this building; and Mrs. 
 Rogers gave culinary lectures and examples in cooking. 
 
 The Electricity Building carried out the idea of the Spanish Re¬ 
 naissance somewhat modified by Corinthian effects. It was 345 feet 
 wide and 690 feet long. The height of nave was 112 feet; width, 
 115 feet. The transept which crossed the nave was of the same 
 dimensions. The roof of the rest of the building 1 was 62 feet high. 
 There were four domes and ten spires or towers, the two highest 
 being 195 feet. It covered more than five and one-half acres and 
 cost $410,000. The building was especially designed for electri¬ 
 cal illumination at night. It is difficult to present a picture of this 
 enormous hall brilliantly flooded with light from two thousand con¬ 
 cealed incandescent burners. The principal room was ornamented 
 with six massive columns composed of prismatic glass. Through 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 775 
 
 these the lights glowed and faded, causing a vibration of rainbow 
 tints and mingling of colors throughout the entire enclosure, until 
 the observer almost feared the apparition of some silent unseen 
 power. 
 
 The exhibits of the Electrical Building consisted of annunciators, 
 telephone and telegraph apparatus, multiple drill presses, wire-insu¬ 
 lating machines, cable-lajdng devices, and every other article of elec¬ 
 trical manufacture. Over cases in which displays were made, the 
 walls were in purple and red stones relieved by gold. In the gallery 
 were seen thousands of new devices of electrical use — light-houses, 
 
 MINES AND MINING BUILDING. 
 
 house-lights, and all styles of electric buttons, and revolving cascades 
 of fantastic incandescents. The Western Electric Company built 
 and operated a small theatre complete in every respect, a tiny, beau¬ 
 tiful thing. The exhibit of Thomas A. Edison was wonderful in its 
 startling and brilliant effects. Over all the building were obelisks 
 of light and color, spirals of incandescent burners, and fountains of 
 mellow radiance. Corinthian columns were ablaze with twinkling 
 stars and fairy-like flashes of beauty. In the Edison tower there 
 were 18,000 lights. 
 
 The dimensions of the Mines and Mining Building were 350 by 
 700 feet, and its cost $265,000. The cantilever system, as applied to 
 roofs, was never used on so large a scale before as in the trusses of 
 this structure, in which 1,800,000 pounds of steel were used. This 
 
776 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 department of Mines and Mining excelled all other exhibits of its 
 kind. Included in the display was every kind of material, from the 
 rough state to the finished product, all artistically and instructively 
 grouped. New South Wales made a striking exhibit, and the State 
 of Michigan an excellent display of copper from her mines. The 
 departments of Missouri, Canada and Montana were centres of attrac¬ 
 tion, the latter State exhibiting the famous Ada Rehan statue of 
 “Justice,” composed of silver, and pedestal of gold. The California 
 marble and onyx exhibit was splendid, commanding universal admira¬ 
 tion. Ponderous mining machinery of every description was shown in 
 
 PALACE OP FINE ARTS. 
 
 operation, as well as miniature mining plants, with devices for boring, 
 lighting, hoisting and pulverizing ores. Methods of separating ores 
 were illustrated, and all new, also improved implements for mining. 
 The coal and iron exhibits from Ohio-and Pennsylvania were mag¬ 
 nificent, and the German exhibits well-nigh marvellous. 
 
 The Palace of Fine Arts was the largest art gallery ever con¬ 
 structed, and was magnificent throughout. Paintings and statuary 
 were shown from all parts of the world. There were seventy-four 
 galleries in the building, of various dimensions. This building, as 
 was demanded by foreign exhibitors, was made fire-proof, the walls 
 being of brick covered with “staff,” like that used for the other 
 structures of the Exposition, and handsomely ornamented. The main 
 building was 500 feet by 320 feet, in ground plan, and had two an¬ 
 nexes, each 120 by 200 feet. The floor area was over five acres, and 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 777 
 
 the wall area for hanging pictures 145,852 square feet. The nave 
 and transept, which intersected the building north, south, east and 
 west, were 100 feet w'ide by 70 feet high. The height of the dome 
 of the central structure was 125 feet and its diameter GO feet. The 
 cost of the whole was $670,000. Thirteen million bricks were used, 
 and 3,000,000 feet of lumber. The roof of the structure, floors and 
 galleries were of iron, of which 1,359,000 pounds were used. 
 
 The Fine Arts Building was severe!)' classic in appearance, of 
 the Grecian-Ionic style. The grand central dome was capped by a 
 gigantic statue of “ Winged Victory.” It was located in the north¬ 
 ern part of the park, bordering on the waters of the lagoon, with 
 verdant lawns terraced down to the balustrades at the water’s edge. 
 Flights of broad marble steps led down from the main portal to the 
 lagoon, where there was a most picturesque boat-landing. The east 
 and west pavilions connected with the central by large corridors, 
 which were used as galleries. The east pavilion contained the ex¬ 
 hibit of the French Government and also French masterpieces owned 
 by Americans. The west pavilion contained the Italian exhibit and 
 those of other foreign countries whose space was limited. The cen¬ 
 tral pavilion had ten floors devoted to the exhibits; and here the 
 United States, Great Britain, Canada, Holland, Spain, Russia, Japan 
 and Germany were represented magnificently. The lighting arrange¬ 
 ments were faultless. There were paintings and statuary from all 
 parts of the world, and many private collections on exhibition. Pict¬ 
 ures of every phase of life and nature, and animals and portraits from 
 all lands, and loans from many imperial galleries, especially that of 
 the Emperor Francis Joseph. The English paintings were beautiful, 
 and the art works of France were equally meritorious. 
 
 The Music Hall was situated at the north end of the Peristyle, 
 and was 260 by 140 feet. The audience hall had a seating capacity 
 of two .thousand, and an orchestra chorus of five hundred was pro¬ 
 vided for. The Casino was at the other end of the Peristyle. This 
 structure contained restaurants and resting-rooms, and was of nearly 
 the same dimensions as the Music Hall. 
 
 The United States Government Building was 415 by 345 feet, 
 and cost $400,000. The Government contribution included exhibits 
 by the Departments of AVar, State, PosROffice, Treasury, Justice, 
 Agriculture, Interior, Fish Commission, National Museum and Smith¬ 
 sonian Institution. The A lint showed every coin made by the United 
 States, and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing showed samples 
 of “ paper ” money. A life-saving station was in operation on the 
 
778 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lake shore, and an exhibit of heavy guns and explosives. The Gov¬ 
 ernment Naval exhibit was made in a battle-ship, an exact reproduc¬ 
 tion of a United States coast-liner. The ship was manned by a crew 
 detailed by the Government, and the discipline and life on a man-of- 
 war was illustrated. 
 
 Special buildings were erected on the grounds by nearly all the 
 great nations of the earth, and by almost every State and Territory 
 in the Union. The Illinois Building was especially fine in design 
 and construction. Its north wing was a fire-proof memorial hall, 
 where rare relics and trophies owned by the State were kept. 
 
 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING. 
 
 The quaint Convent of La Iiabida was called the shrine of the 
 Exposition. This was an exact reproduction of that convent in 
 Spain where Columbus, under the friendship of Father Juan Perez, 
 found shelter in time of trouble, and where he developed his theory 
 of the undiscovered Indies. This building cost $50,000 and had a 
 marvellous collection of paintings and trophies, ah referring to the 
 great discoverer. 
 
 As already said, the opening of the Exposition was set for the 
 first of May. Notwithstanding the long time that had intervened 
 since the enterprise was projected, it was found that neither the 
 buildings nor the exhibits proper were ready at the designated time. 
 This has always happened at the opening of international expo¬ 
 sitions. It seems impossible to provide in advance against the con¬ 
 tingencies of delays. So vast is the enterprise that it surprises the 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 i 79 
 
 managers, however diligent, with unexpected developments requiring 
 time for their solution. The World’s Columbian Exposition was not 
 at the date of opening more seriously behindhand than those of Paris, 
 London and Vienna. While there still remained a m-eat deal to be 
 
 O 
 
 adjusted before the Exposition was at its best, so much had been 
 done that the grounds were promptly opened on the appointed day, 
 and the dedicatory exercises, as already related, given with eclat and 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 One drawback on the success of the opening was the season. 
 In the latitude of Chicago, cold airs and colder earth and lake, still 
 
 BATTLE-SHIP. 
 
 linger at the nominal beginning of spring, and this was particularly true 
 after the severe winter of 1892-93. The early visitors who attended 
 the Exposition were much chilled with the remaining severity of the 
 season. Nevertheless, the throngs were present from the first day, 
 and the magnificent grounds and buildings were darkened with 
 clouds of humanity drifting from all quarters of the habitable globe. 
 
 It might be noted from the first that the civilized nations had 
 answered the invitation from the United States, not only with great 
 displays of their arts and industries, but also with large contributions 
 of visitors. The incoming ocean steamers from every port of Europe 
 and the East brought long lists of travellers, adventurers, scholars, 
 artists, statesmen, and mere sight-seers, to attend the Exposition. 
 Provision had been made in advance by the various nations for the 
 accommodation of their own contingents of visitors, by the establish- 
 
780 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ment of national headquarters in Jackson Park, and by agencies in 
 the American seaports and in Chicago. 
 
 The German Government Building 1 was the largest and most 
 pretentious of all the foreign buildings of the Exposition. It was 
 located on the lake shore. The outer walls of this building, which 
 had a frontage of 150 feet, and a tower rising 150 feet from the 
 ground, were decorated with imperial eagles, allegorical figures, and 
 colored flowers, after the manner of old German houses. The boy 
 Crown Prince of Germany presented three bells to the Commission, 
 and these were hung in three smaller towers at different corners of 
 the building. Nearly a quarter of a million dollars was expended by 
 the German Government on this structure. The collection contained 
 a display of Bismarck souvenirs, historical documents and treatises, 
 tapestry, furniture, statuary and paintings, and beautiful work in 
 carved oak. 
 
 Great Britain expended the sum of $125,000 on her small but 
 artistic building called “ Victoria House.” It was purely English in 
 its quiet but splendid elegance and comfort, majestic but not gaudy. 
 Different parts of the interior were copied from famous English 
 country-seats. There were double flights of broad stair-cases from 
 Hadden Hall, in Cheshire; ceilings from Queen Elizabeth’s place, at 
 Plas Mawe in Wales; and a library from Eton Hall, near Chester. 
 There was also exhibited a fine collection of furniture and rare wood- 
 carvings. 
 
 At the north end of the Park, not far from the German Build¬ 
 ing, was the pavilion of France. This was a most interesting ana 
 beautiful place surrounded by flowers. Inside the building was an 
 exact reproduction of the room in which Franklin was received by 
 Louis XVI, that famous salon in the palace of Versailles, where the 
 treaty of Alliance was signed which secured the aid of France for the 
 United States in their struggle for independence. In cases in this 
 room were exhibited the sword of Lafayette, and numerous other 
 relics, silver vases, etc. 
 
 The Spanish Building was modelled after the Casa Lonja of 
 Valencia, much reduced in size. It was formally opened in June by 
 the Infanta Eulalie who visited the United States and attended the 
 Exposition. The Duke of Veragua, the only living descendant of 
 Columbus, contributed the original commission of Columbus and the 
 Royal letters from Isabella to the discoverer, together with many 
 other certificates and documents, greatly enhancing the interest of 
 the exhibit. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 781 
 
 The Swedish Building was made of modern brick and terra-cotta 
 from Stockholm, the “ Venice s of the North.” Many of the products 
 of Sweden were here displayed, and a fine panorama of landscapes of 
 that country. The cost of the building was $40,000. The Nor¬ 
 wegian Building was quaint. The pavilion was what is known as 
 the Star Kirke style, copied after the houses they have been building 
 in Norway ever since the twelfth century. It was built of Nor¬ 
 wegian pine at a cost of $10,000. 
 
 The East Indian Building was called the Indian Court. It was 
 erected through the public spirit of a few wealthy tea-merchants of 
 Calcutta. It was a large, one-story pavilion of staff, after the East 
 Indian style of architecture, with a gold-canopied entrance, where 
 tea was constantly served by natives. There were some exquisite 
 carvings of ivory exhibited, and robes, shawls and carpets of inesti¬ 
 mable value. The building was dedicated with the peculiar rites of 
 the land of Brahma and Buddha. 
 
 Ceylon had an attractive building and some curious and interest¬ 
 ing exhibits, among which was an alleged sacred tootli of Buddha. 
 Twenty-five varieties of different colored wood were used in the 
 interior ornamentation of this structure. 
 
 Canada and New South Wales were well represented, and their 
 buildings attractive. The provinces of Ontario and Quebec displayed 
 shrubbery and highly polished woods, and various commercial, 
 scientific, agricultural and educational articles. New South Wales 
 erected a classical pavilion which was a credit to that far off land. 
 
 The Turkish Building was the principal exhibit of that Empire. 
 Here the resources of the country were displayed in twelve rooms or 
 sections. The structure was of the Moresque Style, in imitation of 
 the Hunkhar Casque (fountain) of Sultan Ahmed III, in Constanti¬ 
 nople. Damascus rugs, tapestries and many carvings were here 
 displayed. 
 
 Costa Rica had a modest but pretty pavilion, where was ex¬ 
 hibited a diminutive monkey with hairy coat, and silks and fabrics 
 that were fairly dazzling. Natives served coffee and waffles to the 
 people of all climes. 
 
 * Guatemala’s building'was square in plan and was. colored light 
 green. It was not classical nor very beautiful. About thirty-five 
 feet from this main structure was a rustic hut, and at the end of it a 
 small kiosk for testing coffee. Around this was a large garden rep¬ 
 resenting a coffee plantation, banana grove and other plants, and In¬ 
 dian tents. This building cost $40,000. 
 
782 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Brazil and Venezuela, the two South American republics, 
 erected beautiful buildings. That of Brazil was one of the most at¬ 
 tractive and charming on the grounds; both pretentious and hand¬ 
 some. The outer walls were ornamented with twenty medallions, 
 each bearing the name of one of the twenty States which comprise 
 the Brazilian Republic. A coffee exhibit was the principal feature 
 of the interior, aside from decorations. 
 
 The Venezuela Building was externally pretty as a bit of 
 architecture, colored a delicate gray, and relieved with green and 
 gilt. Here also coffee was served to thousands every day. 
 
 Hayti had a large building, interesting, but very plain. There 
 was a comprehensive exhibit of the natural resources and arts of the 
 island, and many historical relics. Woven textiles and fabrics of 
 many tints were displayed, and also field products and metals, and 
 thirty-four different kinds of coffee. 
 
 One of the most attractive places at the Exposition was the 
 “ White Horse Inn.” This was an exact reproduction of the English 
 hostelry made famous by Dickens in the “ Pickwick Papers.” Over 
 the main entrance was the old sign of the original house, a life-size 
 figure of a white horse. A wide hall led into a square court around 
 which, at the second story, ran a rustic balcony, where tables were 
 set, and where a band of music played constantly. Genuine English 
 maids served edibles and drinks supposed to be peculiarly British. 
 In the bar and restaurant were large brick fireplaces, adorned with 
 portraits of Dickens, Pickwick, Sam Weller and other characters 
 taken from the immortal “ Papers.” 
 
 Not far from the Inn was a French bakery where, in the pres¬ 
 ence of patrons, all kinds of bread and cakes were made in great 
 ovens, larger than any in France. Here food was served by French 
 maids rarely clad in the dainty apparel of their country. 
 
 The most impressive exhibit of the south end of the Park, how¬ 
 ever, was that of the Krupps, who showed the largest gun in the 
 world. The Krupp pavilion consisted of an iron hall, 196 feet long 
 and 82 feet wide, made by Germans. The structure was ornamented 
 with square towers and panels decorated with coats of arms of 
 Westphalia and Rhineland. On the cornice of the building were 
 . shields bearing the coats of arms of the different States of Germany. 
 Sixteen monster guns lined the west side of the interior, and from 
 the centre of this line towered the gigantic barrel of the thunderer, 
 17 feet in diameter. Its total length was 46 feet, and it had 120 
 grooves in rifling. The barrel, which had the immense weight of 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 783 
 
 121 tons, was supported by a front pivot carriage with a weight of 
 projectile of 2,205 pounds. The gun was made in 1886, and has 
 since been fired in sixteen rounds with full charges. A steel armor 
 shell with the above mentioned initial velocity, can perforate a 
 wrought iron plate three and a quarter feet in thickness, at a range 
 of two-thirds of a mile. The gun can also send a ball or shell fifteen 
 miles. The great exhibit cost nearly $1,000,000. 
 
 The Leather and Shoe Trades Building was 575 feet long and 
 150 feet wide. It was built entirely of wood, and lighted by five 
 hundred and twenty windows and skylights. It contained all the 
 domestic exhibits of leather, boots and shoes, rubbers, and displays of 
 all the foreign countries exhibiting at the Exposition. A model 
 shoe-factory was here in operation, and more than a thousand pairs 
 of shoes were manufactured daily during the Fair. 
 
 Another very pretty structure was in the north end of the 
 grounds, and known as the “ Merchant Tailors.” It cost $30,000. 
 This amount was raised by voluntary subscriptions from leading 
 merchant tailors in the United States. It was built in the form of a 
 Greek temple, a reproduction of the Erectheum, at Athens, finished 
 about 410 B. C., planned by Pericles, and erected under the super¬ 
 vision of Phidias, the great Greek sculptor. The interior of the 
 main room was octagonal in shape, the walls beautifully finished in 
 cream and gold, and decorated with mural paintings, representing 
 the eight historical periods of dress: first, Adam and Eve, making 
 aprons of leaves; second, a barbarian scene ; third, Egyptian ; fourth, 
 classical Greek ; fifth, mediaeval; sixth, Renaissance ; seventh, Louis 
 the XIY to XVI; eighth, modern. 
 
 Not far away from the large Terminal Station, which cost $400,- 
 000, was the Cold Storage Building, which was destroyed by fire on 
 the 10th of July, and where twenty-one people, mostly firemen, 
 perished in the flames. 
 
 The Intramural Railway was an elevated electric railway, nearly 
 four miles in length, which ran trains every ten minutes each way at 
 ten cents a trip, and carried as many as seventy thousand people in 
 one day. Its car-house and power-house was east of the dairy barns. 
 The loops made by the high iron track of this road were regarded as 
 marvels by the visitors at the Fair. 
 
 Close to a structure known as the Vermont maple sugar and 
 syrup stand, was a cluster of a hundred windmills, representing as 
 many makers in the United States. The old Dutch windmill was an 
 exact copy of one which has stood in Amsterdam since 1806. Parts 
 
784 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of it were from the original mill. In the same vicinity were the 
 remarkable sewage system, pumping-works, and the Indian School 
 Building; the latter a typical Government structure, containing a 
 bevy of Indian children from Dakota and other reservations. 
 
 There were more than six hundred places in Jackson Park where 
 water, flowers and eatables were for sale. Some of the buildings not 
 yet spoken of were the New England Claim Bake, a large restaurant 
 where baked clams were served by the bushel or peck; the Puck 
 Building; White Star Line Pavilion; Department of Public Com¬ 
 fort; Emergency Hospital; Woman’s Hospital; Cafe de la Marine; 
 and the Merck Pharmacy. 
 
 There were more than a million vegetable growths on the 
 Wooded Island, one of the gems of the Fair. This island, or these 
 islands — made plural by lagoons dividing them —-were fringed with 
 shrubbery and wild flowers. In the waters were all sorts of aquatic 
 plants. There were planted 12,618 trees, 50,644 shrubs, 151,894 
 hardy perennial and miscellaneous plants, 186,678 aquatic and semi- 
 aquatic, 3,300 ferns, 9,582 vines and ornamental grasses, 60,000 wil¬ 
 low, 114,920 bulbs, and native plants by the car-load. The inner 
 portion was laid out in flower-beds and a rose-garden, where 50,000 
 roses were in flower in June and July. There were thirty-five speci¬ 
 mens of sunflowers. The rhododendron exhibit during June was gor¬ 
 geous and luxuriant. Some of these plants were ten feet high. Five 
 hundred clusters of the dazzling blossoms, grouped in an oval mound, 
 was a sight of unsurpassed beauty. At the end of the island was a 
 hunter’s cabin, a novelty to younger visitors. At the northern end 
 was the Hoodi, or Japanese Building or Temple, erected as a perma¬ 
 nent ornament at the Peak. The Wooded Island was indeed a Mecca 
 to the fatigued sight-seer, as he rested his eyes on the cool, green 
 beauty of its lawns, or pleasurably feasted them on the magnificent 
 floral display. At night, the scene was fairy-land. Tiny globules of 
 glass of all colors were hung among the shrubs, trees and flowers, 
 everywhere, and the candles inside them lighted. No pen can de¬ 
 scribe the quiet and exquisite beauty of this dainty spot; it was, 
 indeed, a glimpse of paradise. 
 
 Perhaps nothing at the World’s Columbian Exposition was so 
 impressive in its beauty as the Greek Peristyle. This white and 
 stately portico separated the lagoon of the Court of Honor from the 
 waters of the lake. Nothing like it had ever before been attempted. 
 It was 600 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 60 feet high. The grand 
 
CONNECTICUT BUILDING. 
 
NEW YORK BUILDING. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA BUILDING. 
 
MAINE BUILDING. 
 
VERMONT BUILDING. 
 
NEW JERSEY BUILDING. 
 
 DELAWARE BUILDING. 
 
 

 MASSACHUSETTS BUILDING. 
 
 VIRGINIA BUILDING 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 785 
 
 arch way which formed the connecting portal was dedicated to Colum¬ 
 bus, and was inscribed with tiie names of the world’s great explorers. 
 The Peristyle was crowned with statuary, and bore forty-eight col¬ 
 umns, representing the States and Territories, and carrying their 
 respective coats-of-arms. The cost of the commanding structure, with 
 that of the Music Hall and Casino which it joined, Avas $300,000. 
 No prettier stretch of scene could have been found in all of Jackson 
 Park than that seen from the Peristyle, or from a brilliantly canopied 
 gondola in the Court d’Honneur, especially at night, when the Basin 
 was necklaced with a double chain of brilliants, and all the surround 
 ing buildings ablaze with electric lights. 
 
 The lagoon and water system at the Fair was a marvel of suc¬ 
 cess, but the statuary was still, more remarkable. It was made prin¬ 
 cipally of “ staff.” This was a new material, used first in coating the 
 buildings at the Paris Exposition of 1889. It has the properties of 
 both plaster and cement, and can easily be worked into any required 
 design. In hardening, it shows an ivory-like surface, which may be 
 colored in any tint. This it was which made the buildings look like 
 veritable marble palaces, and gave the name of “ White City ” to the 
 Fair. To be sure, distance lent enchantment to the statuary, but it 
 was, nevertheless, most impressive. 
 
 Among the State buildings and exhibits Illinois stood first. Her 
 structure was the largest of its kind on the grounds. It was a fair in 
 itself. All the State departments were represented, and the exhibits 
 told the history of Illinois in a pictorial way. Maine expended 
 $20,000 on its building — octagonal in form, hospitable to all. New 
 Hampshire, the Granite State, had an imitation Swiss cottage, cost¬ 
 ing $9,000. Vermont expended $8,000 in a picturesque white build¬ 
 ing, with marble fountains and Greek windows. It was small, but 
 its Pompeiian style and classic detail furnished a unique contrast to 
 the other buildings. Rhode Island erected her building at a cost of 
 $7,000. It was Greek, with Ionic columns and entablature, and 
 French windows. The Connecticut Building, costing $12,500, was 
 a type of the old Connecticut colonial residence. It had circular 
 windows on the north and south, and a circular piazza in the rear. 
 
 New York had the handsomest State building on the grounds. 
 It was third in size, but occupied the finest position, just north of the 
 Art Palace. The architectural style of the structure was that of a 
 huge summer-house, or villa, in the st}de of the Italian Renaissance. ' 
 It was three stories high, its roof ornamented with small bay-trees, 
 confined by a heavy balustrade. There were circular porticos on 
 
786 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 either side of the main building, where fountains played surrounded 
 by flowering plants. A broad flight of steps led to this attractive 
 mansion, with its blue and white awnings, and were usually crowded 
 with people. The cost of this edifice was $150,000. 
 
 Pennsylvania’s- Building was modelled after Independence Hall, 
 old-fashioned in style, very large, with a clock in its dome. Inside 
 
 its main hall was the famous 
 cracked Liberty Bell, which 
 had been brought from its 
 place in Philadelphia. The 
 building was supplied with 
 8D0 electric lights, and cost 
 $90,000. 
 
 The New Jersey Build¬ 
 ing was colonial, and cost 
 $19,000. It was plain, but 
 dainty and tasteful inside. 
 Delaware expended $7,500 
 on its building, which was 
 constructed wholly of na¬ 
 tive woods and materials. 
 Massachusetts, at an ex¬ 
 pense of 50,000, copied for 
 its State building the old 
 John Hancock residence of 
 
 LIBERTY BELL. . 
 
 Boston. It was strictly 
 colonial in all its aspects, and surrounded by a terrace. There 
 were old-fashioned flowers and flower-beds in the yard, and a grand¬ 
 father’s clock in the hall. Virginia reproduced Mount Vernon, the 
 home of Washington. It was admirably done, and attracted large 
 crowds of people. The interior of the building was also a reproduc¬ 
 tion. West Virginia erected an attractive colonial building, which 
 cost $20,000. That of Maryland cost $12,000. 
 
 The Southern States were well represented, but Florida did the 
 most unique thing. At a cost of $20,000 that State reproduced Fort 
 Marion, St. Augustine, which proved a great attraction. This fort 
 is perhaps the oldest structure in North America, and an architect¬ 
 ural specimen of the days when the Spanish held supremacy in the 
 New World. The erection of the original fort was begun in 1720, 
 and continued for one hundred years. To equip it as a garrison re¬ 
 quired one hundred guns and one thousand men. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 787 
 
 The Louisiana structure was an exact counterpart of a well-to-do- 
 Creole house. Texas expended 830,000 on a pretty building in 
 Southern style, the money for which was raised by the women of the 
 Lone Star State. 
 
 Kentucky expended 820,000 on a building suggestive of the 
 better class of Kentucky homesteads, and surrounded by broad piaz¬ 
 zas. Arkansas and Missouri had beautiful buildings, costing 815,000 
 and 845,000 respectively. The joint building erected by the Territo¬ 
 ries of Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma attracted much.atten¬ 
 tion. It was two stories high, the lower being supported by Doric 
 columns. 
 
 The States bordering on the Great Lakes all did themselves 
 honor in their respective structures. Ohio was represented by a build¬ 
 ing costing 880,000, a type of the Italian Renaissance, and looking 
 something like the State Capitol of Columbus. Buck-eyes moulded 
 into, stucco formed the decorations of the main interior hall. 
 
 The Indiana Building cost 865,000. From its beautiful location 
 could be seen the Wooded Island, and the romantic lagoon. It was 
 French-Gothic in design, with cathedral windows, turrets and towers, 
 the latter of oolitic limestone taken from its State quarries at Bed¬ 
 ford. Michigan expended 850,000 in a splendid structure. Wiscon¬ 
 sin erected a brown-stone building at a cost of 830,000. 
 
 Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, the four great wheat and 
 corn producing States, had good buildings costing 830,000, 835,000, 
 825,000 and 820,000 respectively, and each containing fine exhibits 
 of grain. Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Ore¬ 
 gon and Nevada, the two Dakotas and Utah had each an admirable 
 building, t}'pical of Western progress, and exhibiting State products. 
 California erected one of the most noted buildings of all. It was 
 picturesque, the exterior being of plain plaster artificially cracked, 
 and seemed to look like an old adobe mission house. The Ionic col¬ 
 onnade in the south front, was reproduced from the Mission at Santa 
 Barbara; the belfry, towers and domes being imitated from other 
 famous missions of the Golden State. The exhibits were as wonder¬ 
 ful as the structure was unique and interesting. 
 
 The so-called Midway Plaisance at the World’s Fair, was always 
 crowded, whatever the weather. There never was, perhaps in all 
 history, such a rendezvous as this of all nations. The Plaisance was 
 a mile in length, and an eighth of a mile in width. On either side 
 of the broad street were representatives of forty-eight races, including 
 
788 
 
 history of the united states. 
 
 Arabians, Chinese, Turks, Moors, Persians, Bedouins, Dahomeyans, 
 Japanese, Laplanders, Soudanese, South Sea Islanders, and nearly all 
 the Europeans. All languages were spoken in this modern Babel. 
 These people came not thousands of miles from their places of nativ¬ 
 ity merely as an interesting and picturesque feature of the World’s 
 Columbian Exposition, but for gain. Money was the all-absorbing 
 aim of the Midway Plaisance and its motley assemblage. Nearly all 
 of them Avere Avily professional or travelling showmen out of the 
 East. 
 
 In the Algerian village or the Soudanese theatre one might see 
 dances of all descriptions never hitherto witnessed in America. Here 
 in the Plaisance the visitor could go in a feAV minutes from the Alge¬ 
 rian desert to the Lapland village. Children of the tropics sat side 
 by side Avith children of the regions of eternal siioav. In the village 
 referred to, were tAventy or more Lapps and a herd of reindeer. The 
 Lapps are not a handsome race. They ha\ T e broad faces and high 
 cheek-bones, Avith short chins. Their eyes are small and their noses 
 flat and retroussS. At the Midway, the visitor might witness at an 
 expense of ten dollars Avhat it would require a considerable fraction 
 of a fortune to observe in travelling around the Avorld. 
 
 One of the great attractions Avas the “ Street of Cairo ” with its 
 one hundred and eighty men, women and children, theatres, camels, 
 dogs and donkeys. It Avas located about the middle of the thorough¬ 
 fare, and Avas a combination of the principal architectural features of 
 the old city of Cairo, in Egypt. The street Avas very crooked. The 
 lower floors of the old buildings on either side were given up to 
 business purposes, and the upper part used as chvellings. There was 
 a mosque, a theatre where strange dances Avere performed, and many 
 reproductions of famous building in old Cairo. The shops were filled 
 with everything produced in the valley of the Nile. 
 
 The Soudanese in their village performed a dance in which seA r - 
 eral generations figured. The Nubians in their hut also contorted 
 their forms to the movement of music. They Avear their hair in a 
 most peculiar style, as they have done for four thousand years ; their 
 locks were copiously greased Avith perfumed oil. 
 
 West of the Street of Cairo Avas the Temple of Luxor, an exact 
 reproduction of that famous place of Avorship near Thebes, built by 
 Amenophis III, and made famous by Rameses II. 0\'er the door A\ r as 
 the winged disk, illustrating the flight of life. At each front corner 
 Avas a monolithic obelisk seventy-fwe feet high. Near these Avere 
 tAvo large statues of Rameses II, and on each side of the doorway an 
 
MARYLAND BUILDING, 
 
LOUISIANA BUILDING, 
 
INDIANA BUILDING. 
 
KENTUCKY BUILDING. 
 
JOINT TERRITORIAL BUILDING, 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMIN I SLR A TION. 
 
 789 
 
 Egyptian sphinx. On the inside, the altar was a facsimile of the 
 altars of Isis, with native women playing harps on either hand. 
 There was also exhibited in this temple facsimiles of the most 
 famous Egyptian mummies. 
 
 The Turkish village represented parts of Constantinople on the 
 Bosphorus. In the square of approach to the village was set up an 
 obelisk, a counterpart of one erected by the Romans in Constan¬ 
 tinople before, the time of the Emperor Constantine. Within the 
 village was represented the tent of the Shah of Persia, which was 
 worth $5,000,000, visitors were informed, because of its extraordinary 
 tapestries. One of the most striking objects of the Midway was to 
 be seen in this village. It was a mosque dedicated to- Allah, which 
 Christians dared not enter. Its dome-like roof and graceful minarets 
 were objects of comment with all siglit-seers. The shrine in the in¬ 
 terior was exceptionally mystic and beautiful. There was also a 
 theatre in this village, where choruses of the Orient danced and sung. 
 The music was made by a manjereh with a daoul obligato. The 
 former was a long-drawn-out flageolet, and the latter a huge kettle¬ 
 drum pounded by a strong Turk. The sounds were weird, but not 
 enchanting. 
 
 The Moorish Palace was another great attraction of the Midway. 
 It was filled with crystal mazes and all sorts of optical illusions, ex¬ 
 cellent wax figures, mirrored labyrinths, cafes and “ La Dijonnaise.” 
 The latter was the identical guillotine that did such bloody work in 
 the days of the first French revolution; its blade ended the life of 
 Marie Antoinette. 
 
 There were two Irish villages — Blarney Castle and the Village 
 of Irish Industries, and Donegal Castle. In the former was a portion 
 of the original Blarney stone, which hundreds climbed up to kiss. 
 The latter castle was not so striking as the former, but contained Irish 
 industries, Irish cooking and Irish maids. 
 
 The quaint buildings of the Javanese were quite a resort for 
 people. These were constructed of bamboo, and were occupied by 
 about one hundred little people from Java. They had a theatre, a 
 large chimpanzee in a cage, and other characteristic attractions. The 
 South Sea Islanders had a great exhibit on the Plaisance, where they 
 performed the cannibal and war dances. They served, also, a pecu¬ 
 liar drink made from the root of the pepper-tree, called kava. 
 
 The German village became famous. In this was the typical 
 town-hall of Hesse, around which clustered cottages from Westphalia 
 and the Black Forest, Bavaria and the Rhine. The music here was 
 of the highest excellence. 
 
790 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Old Vienna was another attractive spot. It had forty shops of 
 all sorts, and represented the old parts of the imperial city of Aus¬ 
 tria. The cookery was noted, and the orchestra of the finest reputa¬ 
 tion. As many as four thousand people might be admitted to the old 
 village at one time. Its charm was its antiquity. The reproductions 
 were chiefly of Gorber and Bogner Streets, Vienna, built two hun¬ 
 dred years ago. The village cost $125,000. 
 
 The Chinese village was peculiar and unique, containing a native 
 theatre. There was an electric scenic theatre, a charming place for 
 visitors. The performances here given were purely electrical, repre¬ 
 senting a Swiss scene, daybreak, a storm, and sunset with the rising 
 moon. Across the way from this was a Panorama of the Alps, which 
 was grand to behold — afterwards receiving a medal. 
 
 The Libbey Glass Works had a factory complete on the Midway, 
 which was one of the most interesting features of the Fair. The 
 work of glass-weaving and glass-blowing was shown to the public in 
 all the wonderful processes of those arts. 
 
 The Ferris Wheel, a vast periphery of carriage-boxes for passen¬ 
 gers, was the Eiffel Tower of the Exposition of 1893. It was 250 
 feet in diameter, and from the ground to the apex 270 feet. It cost 
 $400,000, and was the largest piece of revolving machinery in the 
 world. It was an architectural marvel, requiring 1,700 tons of steel 
 in its construction. To this we should add Hagenbeck’s Menagerie, 
 the Dahomey village, and the Arabian village, all of which attracted 
 crowds of visitors. There were besides, many other places of inter¬ 
 est on the famous Midway Plaisance, which was thronged all summer 
 with sight-seers, gathered from every quarter of the habitable globe. 
 
 . The various Congresses held during the Columbian Exposition 
 were one of its most important and beneficial features. International 
 meetings were conducted by the ladies during all the months of the 
 Fair, but among the most important of the large assemblies were the 
 following : 
 
 (1) The Congress of Peace at Washington Hall, which occu¬ 
 pied a week in the month of August, a kind of soldiers’ reunion, 
 with an excellent closing address by Dr. Moxom, of Boston. 
 
 (2) The Congress of the Colored Races, held for a day or two 
 at the Art Institute, with Fred Douglas as presiding officer. 
 
 (3) The Congress of Science and Philosophy also convened in 
 August — a body divided into the fifteen sections — astronomy, 
 chemistry, pharmacy, electricity, meteorology, geology, philosophy, 
 physical science, anthropology, zoology, social and economic science, 
 
MINNESOTA BUILDING. 
 
 IOWA BUILDING, 
 
NEBRASKA BUILDING. 
 
COLORADO BUILDING, 
 
WASHINGTON BUILDING. 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 731 
 
 statistics, revenue, taxation, profit-sharing, etc. The acutest thinkers 
 of the day took part in the exercises. Among these were Dr. Elisha 
 Gray, Thomas A. Edison, and Dr. von Helmholtz, of Germany. 
 
 (4) The Congress of Geography was also full of interest. At 
 this, Paul de Chaillu, the distinguished traveller and writer, was 
 present, and delivered an address. 
 
 (5) The Parliament of Religions began its sessions early in 
 September, and continued three weeks. It was attended by eminent 
 men of all denominations and faiths. The meetings brought together 
 the grandest and ablest speakers, and elicited the most profound 
 learning of all. Nothing of like character had ever been known 
 before among the nations. 
 
 The principal cities of the United States had each its “ day ” at 
 the Exposition. The attendance on these special occasions ranged 
 from about 50,000 to nearly 1,000,000 human beings. Chicago’s 
 day marked a total attendance of 754,261, exceeding anything ever 
 known in the way of an assembled multitude. The greatest attend¬ 
 ance at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia had been 257,590, 
 and was called extraordinary. The great day at Paris in 1889, was 
 when 397,150 persons passed through the Exposition gates. At 
 Chicago three-quarters of a million people moved at will in Jackson 
 Park, and not a single person was seriously injured! The parades 
 by day and the pyrotechnic display at night, surpassed anything be¬ 
 fore attempted or achieved by mankind. Thus October 9, 1893, the 
 day assigned to Chicago, was the high-water mark of the World’s 
 Columbian Exposition. 
 
 The closing of the great Fair took place October 30, 1893, and the 
 demolition of the buildings was at once begun. On that exquisite 
 spot of beauty and verdure, the Wooded Island, the first shadow of 
 doom fell; there the destruction was begun; in the very heart of the 
 fairy scenes of the summer. 
 
 On the 28th of October, the ladies held their last meeting in the 
 Woman’s Building. Here around the Lady Managers were grouped 
 representative women from every State in the Union, and every 
 country on the globe. Susan B. Anthony, Mary Love Dickinson 
 and many other famous women made addresses. Mrs. Palmer then 
 spoke some words of farewell, and Paul de Chaillu addressed the 
 assembly on the subject of women in foreign lands. 
 
 There occurred on the 28th also, a remarkable gathering of 
 mayors of many cities, and the fearful and unexpected tragedy of the 
 assassination of Honorable Carter H. Harrison, Mayor of Chicago. 
 
792 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 This event seemed to mar all the closing festivities. Only a few 
 hours before, he had addressed his colleagues from all over the 
 United States. He was shot three times in his own home by Eugene 
 Prendergast, and died in twenty minutes. In his address he had 
 gloried in Chicago and the Exposition, and had made the following 
 glowing prophecy: 
 
 “ I, myself, have taken a new lease of life; and I believe I shall 
 see the day when Chicago will be the greatest city in America, and 
 the third on the face of the globe.” 
 
 Despite the funeral pall which the death of Carter Harrison 
 caused to envelop the city and grounds, the World’s Columbian Ex¬ 
 position was officially closed Monday, October 30, 1893. All con¬ 
 templated music, orations and fireworks were abandoned; but never¬ 
 theless, 208,173 persons were present within the gates. The great 
 search-lights, scattered through Jackson Park, went out forever; the 
 fountains ceased to play; and the flags were taken down from the 
 buildings, over which they had waved so proudly. 
 
 The admission-fee at the Fair was fifty cents for an adult, and 
 twenty-five cents for children. The only time a reduction was made 
 in this rate was during one week in October, when Chicago public- 
 school children were given a holiday, and the price of admission for 
 all children under eighteen years of age was reduced to ten cents. 
 The attendance of children reached on a single day the number of 
 65,199. The total number of passes and complimentary cards issued 
 during the months of the Exposition was 6,059,380. The World’s 
 Columbian Exposition had proved to be the greatest event of the 
 closing decade pf the century. 
 
 The History of Our Country has thus been recited from its 
 discovery by the adventurers at the close of the fifteenth century 
 down to the year 1894. The Quadricentennial Story is com¬ 
 plete The four centuries of time through which we have passed 
 since the unveiling of the continent, have brought us the experience 
 of the ages, and, let us hope, the wisdom and virtues of the greatest 
 nations of the earth. Our Republic has passed through stormy times, 
 but lias come at last in full splendor and with uplifted banners, to the 
 great anniversary which has commemorated the discovery of the New 
 World As a united nation, we are already well advanced into the 
 second century of our existence. Peace and tranquillity are abroad. 
 Clouds of distrust and war have sunk behind the horizon. Here, 
 at least, the equality of all men in rights and privileges before the law 
 
SOUTH DAKOTA BUILDING, 
 
CALIFORNIA BUILDING 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 793 
 
 has been written with an iron pen in the constitution of our country. 
 The Union of the States has been consecrated anew within our mem¬ 
 ories by the blood of patriots and the tears of the lowly. Best of all, 
 the temple of Freedom reared by our patriot Fathers still stands in 
 undiminished glory. The Past has taught its Lesson, the 
 Present has its Duty, and the Future its Hope. 
 
794 
 
 HIST0R1 OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 W HAT, then, of the outlook for the American Republic? What 
 shall another century bring forth ? What is to be the destiny 
 of this vigorous, aggressive, self-governing Anglo-American race? 
 Ho w will the picture, so well begun, be completed by the annalists 
 of posterity ? Is it the sad fate of humanity, after all its struggles, 
 toils, and sighing, to turn forever round and round in the same 
 beaten circle, climbing the long ascent from the degradation of sav¬ 
 age life to the heights of national renown only to descend again 
 into the fenlands of despair? Is Lord Byron’s gloomy picture of 
 th£ rise and fall of nations indeed a true portrayal of the order of the 
 world ?— 
 
 Here is the moral of all human tales,— 
 
 ’Tis but the same rehearsal of the past, 
 
 First freedom and then glory — when that fails. 
 
 Wealth, vice, corruption, barbarism at last; 
 
 And History with all her volumes vast 
 Hath but one page! 
 
 Or has the human race, breaking the bonds of its servitude and es¬ 
 caping at last from its long imprisonment, struck out across the fields 
 of sublime possibility the promised pathway leading to the final tri¬ 
 umph? There are still doubts and fears — perplexities, anxieties, and 
 sometimes anguish—arising in the soul of the philanthropist as he 
 turns his gaze to the future. But there are hopes also, grounds of 
 confidence, au spicious omens, tokens of the substantial victory of truth, 
 inspirations of faith welling up in the heart of the watcher as he scans 
 the dappled horizon of the coming day. 
 
 As to present achievement the American people have far sur¬ 
 passed the expectations of the fathers. The visions and dreams of the 
 Revolutionary patriots have been eclipsed by the luster of actual ac¬ 
 complishment. The territorial domains of the Republic enclose the 
 grandest belt of forest, valley, and plain that the world has in it. 
 Since the beginning of time no other people have possessed such a 
 territory—so rich in resources, so varied in products, so magnificent 
 in physical aspect. Soil and climate, the distribution of woods and 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 795 
 
 lakes and rivers, the interposition of mountain ranges, and the fertil¬ 
 ity of valley and prairie, here contribute to give to man a many-sided 
 and powerful development. Here he finds bays for his shipping, 
 rivers for his steamers, fields for his plow, iron for his forge, gold for 
 his cupidity, landscapes for his pencil, sunshine enough for song, and 
 snow enough for courage. Nor has the Anglo-American failed to profit 
 by the advantages of his surroundings. He has planted a free gov¬ 
 ernment on the largest and most liberal scale known in history. He 
 has espoused the cause of liberty and right. He has fought like a 
 hero for the freedom and equality of all men. He has projected a 
 civilization which, though as yet but dimly traced in outline, is the 
 vastest and grandest in the world. Better than all, he believes in the 
 times to come. So long as man is anxious about the future the fu¬ 
 ture is secure. Only when he falls into apathy, sleeps at his post, and 
 cares no longer for the morrow, is the world in danger of relapse and 
 barbarism. 
 
 To the thoughtful student of history several things seem neces¬ 
 sary to the perpetuity and complete success of American institutions. 
 The first of these is the prevalence of the Idea of National Unity. 
 Of this spake Washington in his Farewell Address, warning his coun¬ 
 trymen in solemn words to preserve and defend that government which 
 constituted them one people. Of this wrote Hamilton and Adams. 
 For this pleaded Webster in his great orations. Upon this the far- 
 seeing statesmen of the present day, rising above the strifes of party 
 and the turmoils of war, plant themselves as the one thing vital in 
 American politics. The idea that the United States are one Nation , 
 and not thirty-eight nations, is the grand cardinal doctrine of a sound 
 political faith. State pride and sectional attachment are natural pas¬ 
 sions in the human breast, and are so near akin to patriotism as to be 
 distinguished from it only in the court of a higher reason. But there 
 is a nobler love of country — a patriotism that rises above all places 
 and sections, that knows no County, no State, no North, no South, but 
 only native land; that claims no mountain slope; that clings to no 
 river bank; that worships no range of hills; but lifts the aspiring eye 
 to a continent redeemed from barbarism by common sacrifices and 
 made sacred by the shedding of kindred blood. Such a patriotism is 
 the cable and sheet-anchor of our hope. 
 
 A second requisite for the preservation of American institutions 
 is the Universal Secular Education of the People. Monarchies 
 govern their subjects by authority a»id precedent; republics by right 
 reason and free will. Whether one method or the other will be better, 
 49 
 
796 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 turns wholly upon the intelligence of the governed. If th& subject 
 have not the knowledge and discipline necessary to govern himself, it 
 is better that a king, in whom some skill in the science of government 
 is presupposed, should rule him. As between two stupendous evils, 
 the rational tyranny of the intelligent few is preferable to the fufious 
 and’ irrational tyranny of the ignorant many. No force which has 
 moved among men, impelling to bad action, inspiring to crime, o\-er- 
 turning order, tearing away the bulwarks of liberty and right, a^d 
 converting civilization into a waste, has been so full of evil and so 
 powerful to destroy as a blind, ignorant, and factious democracy. A 
 republic without intelligence — even a high degree of intelligence- -is 
 a paradox and an impossibility. What means that principle of the 
 Declaration of Independence which declares the consent of the gov¬ 
 erned to be the true foundation of all just authority? What kind of 
 “consent” is referred to? Manifestly not the passive and unresisting 
 acquiescence of the mind which, like the potter’s clay, receives what¬ 
 ever is impressed upon it; but that active, thinking, resolute, conscious, 
 personal consent which distinguishes the true freeman from the puppet. 
 When the people of the United States rise to the heights of this noble 
 and intelligent self-assertion, the occupation of the party leader — most 
 despicable of all the tyrants—will be gone forever; and in order that 
 the people may ascend to that high plane, the means by which intel¬ 
 ligence is fostered, right reason exalted, and a calm and rational pub¬ 
 lic opinion produced, must be universally secured. The public Free 
 School is the fountain whose streams shall make glad all the lands 
 of liberty. We must educate or perish. 
 
 A third thing necessary to the perpetuity of American liberties 
 is Toleration — toleration in the broadest and most glorious sense. 
 In the colonial times intolerance embittered the lives of our fathers. 
 Until the present day the baleful shadow has been upon the land. 
 The proscriptive vices of the Middle Age have flowed down with the 
 blood of the race and tainted the life that now is, with a suspicion and 
 distrust of freedom. Liberty in the minds of men has meant the privi¬ 
 lege of agreeing with the majority. Men have desired free thought, 
 but fear has stood at the door. It remains for the United States to 
 build a highway, broad and free, into every field of liberal inquiry, 
 and to make the poorest of men who walks therein, more secure in life 
 and reputation than the soldier who sleeps behind the rampart. Pro¬ 
 scription has no part nor lot in the American system. The stake, the 
 gibbet, and the rack, thumb-screws, sword, and pillory, have no place 
 on this side of the sea. Nature is diversified; so are human faculties, 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 797 
 
 beliefs, and practices. Essential freedom is the right to differ; and 
 that right must be sacredly respected. Nor must the privilege of dis¬ 
 sent be conceded with coldness and disdain, but openly, cordially, and 
 with good will. No loss of rank, abatement of character, or ostracism 
 from society must darken the pathway of the humblest of the seekers 
 after truth. The right of free thought, free inquiry, and free speech, 
 is as clear as the noonday and bounteous as the air and ocean. With¬ 
 out a full and cheerful recognition of this right, America is only a 
 name, her glory a dream, her institutions a mockery. 
 
 The fourth idea, essential to the welfare and stability of the Re¬ 
 public, is the Nobility of Labor. It is the mission of the United 
 States to ennoble toil and honor the toiler. In other lands to labor 
 has been considered the lot of serfs and peasants; to gather the fruits 
 and consume them in luxury and war, the business of the great. 
 Since the medieval times European society has been organized on the 
 basis of a nobility and a people. To be a nobleman was to be distin¬ 
 guished from the people; to be one of the people was to be forever 
 debarred from nobility. Thus has been set on human industry the 
 stigma of perpetual disgrace. Something of this has been transmitted 
 to the new civilization in the West — a certain disposition to renew 
 the old order of lord and laborer. Let the odious distinction perish: 
 the true lord is the laborer and the true laborer the lord. It is the 
 genius of American institutions, in the fullness of time, to wipe the 
 last opprobrious stain from the brow of toil and to crown the toiler 
 with the dignity, luster, and honor of a full and perfect manhood. 
 
 The scroll of the century is rolled together. The work is done. 
 Peace to the memory of the fathers! Green be the graves where 
 sleep the warriors, patriots, and sages! Calm be the resting-place of 
 all the brave and true! Gentle be the summer rains on famous fields 
 where armies met in battle! Forgotten be the animosities and heart¬ 
 burnings of the strife! Sacred be the trusts committed to our oare, 
 and bright the visions of the coming agesl 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 &IR JOHN MANDEVTLLE’S ARGUMENT ON THE FIGURE 
 
 OF THE EARTH. 
 
 [Since the paragraph in the text has been the subject of some doubts and criticism, 
 the original of Sir John Mandeville’s argument is here appended. The orthography 
 and phraseology are not more quaint than the logic is invincible. In order that the ar¬ 
 gument may be more easily followed and clearly understood, a translation or paraphrase, 
 is added. It must not be forgotten that the date of Sir John’s book is 1356—a hundred 
 and thirty-six years before the discovery of America by Columbus.— The Author.] 
 
 In that Lond, ne in many othere bezonde that, no man may see the Sterre trans- 
 montane, that is clept the Sterre of the See, that is unmevable, and that is toward the 
 Northe, that we clepen the Lode Sterre. But men seen another Sterre, the contrarie to 
 him, that is toward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. And right as the Schip men 
 taken here Avys here, and governe hem be the Lode Sterre, right so don Schip men 
 bezonde the parties, be the Sterre of the Southe, the whiche Sterre apperethe not to us. 
 And this Sterre, that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the Lode Sterre, ne apperethe 
 not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the Lond and the See ben 
 of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the Firmament schewethe in o Contree, 
 that schewethe not in another Contree. And men may well preven be experience and 
 sotyle compassement of Wytt, that zif a man fond passages be Schippes, that wolde go 
 to serchen the World, men myghte go be Schippe alle aboute the World, and aboven 
 and benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have seyn. For I have 
 ben toward the parties of Braban, and beho’den the Astrolabre,* that the Sterre that is 
 clept the Transmontayne, is 53 Degrees highe. And more forthere in Almayne and 
 Bewme, it hathe 58 Degrees. And more fort’ie toward the parties septemtrioneles, it is 
 62 Degrees of heghte, and certeyn Mynutes. For I my self have mesured it by the 
 Astrolabre. Now schulle ze knowe, that azen the Transmontayne, is the tother Sterre, 
 that is clept Antartyke; as I have seyd before. And tho 2 Sterres ne meeven nevere. 
 And be hem turnethe alle the Firmament, righte as dothe a Wheel, that turnethe be 
 his Axille Tree: so that tho Sterres beren the Firmament in 2 egalle parties; so that 
 it hathe als mochel aboven, as it hathe benethen. Aftre this, I have gon toward the 
 parties meridionales, that is toward the Southe: and I have founden, that in Lybye, 
 men seen first the Sterre Antartyk. And so fer I have gon more forthe in tho Contrees, 
 that I have founde that Sterre more highe; so that toward the highe Lybye, it is 18 
 Degrees of heghte, and certeyn Minutes (of the whiche, 60 Minutes maken a Degree). 
 Aftre goynge be See and be Londe, toward this Contree, of that I have spoke, and to 
 other Yles and Londes bezonde that Contree, I have founden the Sterre Antartyk of 33 
 Degrees of heghte, and mo mynutes. And zif I hadde had Companve and Schippynge, 
 for to go more bezonde, I trowe wel in certeyn, that wee scholde have seen alle the 
 
 *In Manderille’s time, Astronomers had attained but very little accuracy in taking observations. 
 
 798 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 799 
 
 roundnesse of the Firmament alle aboute. ****** Be the whiche I seye 
 zou certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the Erthe of alle the World, as wel undre 
 as aboven, and turnen azen to his Contree, that hadde Companye and Schippynge and 
 Conduyt: and alle weyes he scholde fynde Men, Londes, and Yles, als wel as in this 
 Contree. For zee wyten welle, that thei that ben toward the Antartyk, thei ben 
 •treghte, feet azen feet of hem, that dwellen undre transmontane; als wel as wee and 
 thei that dwellyn under us, ben feet azenst feet. For alle the parties of See and of 
 Lond han here appositees, habitables or trepassables, and thei of this half and bezond 
 half. ****** And whan men gon bezonde tho iourneyes, toward Ynde and 
 to the foreyn Yles, alle is envyronynge the roundnesse of the Erthe and of the See, 
 undre oure Contrees on this half. And therfore hathe it befallen many tymes of o 
 thing, that I have herd cownted, whan I was zong; how a worthi man departed som- 
 tyme from oure Contrees, for to go serche the "World. And so he passed Ynde, and the 
 Y'les bezonde Ynde, where ben mo than 5000 YYes: and so longe he wente be See and 
 Lond, and so enviround the World be many seysons, that he fond an Yle, where he 
 herde speke his owne Langage, callynge on Oxen in the Plowghe, suche Wordes as men 
 speken to Bestes in his owne Contree: whereof he hadde gret Mervayle: for he knewe 
 not how it myghte be. But I seye, that he had gon so longe, be Londe and be See, that 
 he had envyround alle the erthe, that he was comen azen envirounynge, that is to seye, 
 goynge aboute, unto his owne Marches, zif he wolde have passed forthe, til he had 
 founden his Contree and his owne knouleche. But he turned azen from tliens, from 
 whens he was come fro; and so he loste moche peynefulle labour, as him self seyde, a 
 gret while aftre, that he was comen horn. For it befelle aftre, that he wente in to Nor- 
 weye; and there Tempest of the See toke him ; and he arryved in an Yle; and whan 
 he was in that Yle, he knew wel, that it was the Yle, where he had herd speke his owne 
 Langage before, and the callynge of the Oxen at the Plowghe: and that was possible 
 thinge. But how it semethe to symple men unlerned, that men ne mowe not go undre 
 the Erthe, and also that men scholde falle toward the Hevene, from undre! But that 
 may not be, upon lesse, than wee mowe falle toward Hevene, fro the Erthe, where wee 
 ben. For fro what partie of the Erthe, that men duelle, outher aboven or benethen, it 
 semethe alweys to hem that duellen, that thei gon more righte than ony other folk. 
 And righte as it semethe to us, that thei ben undre us, righte so it semethe hem, that 
 wee ben undre hem. For zif a man myghte falle fro the Erthe unto the Firmament; 
 be grettere resoun, the Erthe and the See, that ben so grete and so hevy, scholde fallen 
 to the Firmament: but that may not be. * * * And alle be it that it be possible 
 thing, that men may so envyronne alle the World, natheles of a 1000 persones, on ne 
 myghte not happen to returnen in to his Contree. For, for the gretnesse of the Erthe 
 and of the See, men may go be a 1000 and a 1000 other weyes, that no man cowde redye 
 him perfitely toward the parties that he cam fro, but zif it were be aventure and happ, or 
 be the grace of God. For the Erthe is fulle large and fulle gret, and holt in roundnesse 
 and aboute envyroun, be aboven and be benethen 20425 Myles, aftre the opynyoun of 
 the olde wise Astronomeres. And here Seyenges I repreve noughte. But aftre my lytylle 
 wytt, it semethe me, savynge here reverence, that it is more. And for to have bettere 
 understondynge, I seye thus, Be ther ymagyned a Figure that hathe a gret Compas; 
 and aboute the poynt of the gret Compas, that is clept the Centre, be made another 
 litille Compas: than aftre, be the gret Compas devised be Lines in manve parties; and 
 that alle the Lynes meeten at the Centre; so that in as many parties, as the grete 
 Compas schal be departed, in als manye schalle be departed the litille, that is aboute 
 the Centre, alle be it that the spaces ben lesse. Now thanne, be the gret compas 
 represented for the firmament, and the litille compas represented for the Erthe. Now 
 thanne the Firmament is devysed, be Astronomeres, in 12 Signes; and every Signe ia 
 
800 
 
 MANDEVILLE'S ARGUMENT. 
 
 devysed in 30 Degrees, that is 360 Degrees, that the Firmament hathe ahoven. Also, 
 be the Erthe devysed in als many parties, as the Firmament; and lat every partye an- 
 swere to a Degree of the Firmament: and wytethe it wel, that aftre the Auctoures of 
 Astronomye, 700 Furlonges of Erthe answeren to a Degree of the Firmament; and tho 
 ben 87 Miles and 4 Furlonges. Now be that here multiplyed by 360 sithes; and than 
 tliei ben 31500 Myles, every of 8 Furlonges, aftre Myles of oure Contree. So moche 
 hathe the Erthe in roundnesse, and of heghte enviroun, aftre myn opynyoun and myn 
 xmdirstondynge. 
 
 [paraphrase.] 
 
 In that land and in others beyond no man may see the fixed star of the North which 
 we call the Lode Star. But there men see another star called the Antarctic, opposite to the 
 star of the North. And just as mariners in this hemisphere take their reckoning and 
 govern their course by the North Star, so do the mariners of the South by the Antarctic. 
 But the star of the North appears not to the people of the South. Wherefore men may 
 easily perceive that the land and the sea are of round shape and figure. For that part of the 
 firmament which is seen in one country is not seen in another. And men may prove 
 both by experience and sound reasoning that if a man, having passage by ship, should 
 go to search the world, he might with his vessel sail around the world, both above and under it. 
 This proposition I prove as follows: I have myself in Prussia seen the North Star Dy 
 the astrolabe fifty-three degrees above the horizon. Further on in Bohemia it rises to 
 the height of fifty-eight degrees. And still farther northward it is sixty-two degrees 
 and some minutes high. I myself have so measured it. Now the South Pole Star is, 
 as I have said, opposite the North Pole Star. And about these poles the whole celestial 
 sphere revolves like a wheel about the axle; and the firmament is thus divided into 
 two equal parts. From the North I have turned southward, passed the equator, and 
 found that in Lybia the Antarctic Star first appears above the horizon. Farther on in 
 those lands that star rises higher, until in southern Lybia it reaches the height of 
 eighteen degrees and certain minutes, sixty minutes making a degree. After going 
 by sea and by land towards that country [Australia perhaps] of which I have spoken, 
 I have found the Antarctic Star more than thirty-three degrees above the horizon. 
 And if I had had company and shipping to go still farther, 1 know of a certainty that I should 
 have seen the whole circumference of the heavens. * * * * * * And I repeat that mm 
 may environ the whole world, as well under as above, and return to their own country, if they had 
 company, and ships, and conduct. And always, as well as in their own land shall they find 
 inhabited continents and islands. For know you well that they who dwell in the 
 southern hemisphere are feet against feet of them who dwell in the northern hemi¬ 
 sphere, jwsi as we and they that dwell under us are feet to feet. For every part of the sea and 
 the land hath its antipode. ***** Moreover when men go on a journey toward 
 India and the foreign islands, they do, on the whole route, circle the circumference of 
 the earth, even to those countries which are under us. And therefore hath that same 
 thing, which I heard recited when I was young, happened many times. Howbeit, upon 
 a time, a worthy man departed from our country to explore the world. And so he 
 passed India and the islands beyond India—more than five thousand in number—and 
 so long he went by sea and land, environing the world for many seasons, that he found 
 an island where he heard them speaking his own language, hallooing at the oxen in 
 the plow with the identical words spoken to beasts in his own country. Forsooth, he 
 was astonished; for he knew not how the thing might happen. But I assure you that 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 801 
 
 he had gone so far by land and sea that he had actually gone around the world and 
 was come again through the long circuit to his own district. It only remained for him 
 to go forth and find his particular neighborhood. Unfortunately he turned from the 
 coast which he had reached, and thereby lost all his painful labor, as he himself after¬ 
 wards acknowledged when he returned home. For it happened by and by that he 
 went into Norway, being driven thither by a storm; and there he recognized an island 
 as being the same in which he had heard men calling the oxen in his own tongue: 
 and that was a possible thing. And yet it seemeth to simple unlearned rustics that 
 men may not go around the world, and if they did they would fall off! But that absurd 
 thing never could happen unless we ourselves from where we are should fall toward 
 heaven 1 Eor upon what part soever of the earth men dwell, whether above or under, 
 it always seemeth to them that they walk more perpendicularly than other folks I And 
 just as it seemeth to us that our antipodes are under us head downwards, just so it 
 seemeth to them that we are under them head downwards. If a man might fall from 
 the earth towards heaven, by much more reason the earth itself, being so heavy, should 
 fall to heaven—an impossible thing. ***** Perhaps of a thousand men who 
 should go around the world, not one might succeed in returning to his own particular 
 neighborhood. For the earth is indeed a body of great size, its circumference being—• 
 according to the old wise astronomers—twenty thousand four hundred and twenty-five 
 miles. And I do not reject their estimates: but according to my judgment, saving their 
 reverence, the circumference of the earth is somewhat more than that. And in order to have 
 a clearer understanding of the matter, I use the following demonstration: Let there be 
 imagined a great sphere, and about the point called the center another smaller sphere. 
 Then from different parts of the great sphere let lines be drawn meeting at the center. 
 It is clear that by this means the two spheres will be divided into an equal number of 
 parts having the same relation to each other; but between the divisions on the smaller 
 sphere the absolute space will be less. Now the great sphere represents the heavens 
 and the smaller sphere the earth. But the firmament is divided by astronomers into 
 twelve Signs, and each Sign iuto thirty degrees, making three hundred and sixty de¬ 
 grees in all. On the surface of the earth there will be, of course, divisions exactly cor¬ 
 responding to those of the celestial sphere, every line, degree and zone of the latter 
 answering to a line, degree or zone of the former. And now know well that according 
 to the authors of astronomy * seven hundred furlongs, or eighty-seven miles and four fur¬ 
 longs, answer to a degree of the firmament. Multiplying eighty-seven and a half miles 
 by three hundred and sixty—the number of degrees in the firmament—we have thirty- 
 one thousand five hundred English miles. And this according to my belief and dem¬ 
 onstration is the true measurement of the circumference of the earth. 
 
 * An everlasting shame be to the “ olde wise Astronomeres ”! If they had given Sir John the cor¬ 
 rect measurement of a degree of latitude, he would not have missed the circumference of the world 
 by a* much as ten miles l His argument is absolutely correct This, too, in A. D. 1856. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 A PLAN OF PERPETUAL UNION, 
 
 FOR 
 
 ms majesty’s colonies in north America: 
 
 PROPOSED BY BENJ. FRANKLIN, 
 
 AND 
 
 Adopted by the Colonial Convention at Albany, July 10th, 1754. 
 
 [This document will be found of special interest as containing the germ of the 
 Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States. It should be 
 remembered that this “ Plan of Union,” though adopted by the Congress at Albany— 
 only the delegates from Connecticut dissenting—was rejected both by the colonial 
 assemblies and the British Board of Trade,—by the former as being too despotic a 
 constitution and by the latter as a piece of high handed presumption.— The Author.] 
 
 That the general government of His Majesty’s Colonies in North America be 
 administered by a President-General, to be appointed and supported by the crown ; and 
 a Grand Council, to be chosen by the representatives of the people of the several colonies 
 met in their respective Assemblies; 
 
 Who shall meet for the first time at the city of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, being 
 called by the President-General as soon as conveniently may be after his appointment; 
 
 That there shall be a new election of the members of the Grand Council every three 
 years; and on the death or resignation of any member, his place should be supplied by a 
 new choice at the next sitting of the Assembly of the colony he represented; 
 
 That after the first three years, when the proportion of money arising out of each 
 colony to the general treasury can be known, the number of members to be chosen for 
 each colony shall from time to time, in all ensuing elections, be regulated by that propor¬ 
 tion, yet so as that the number to be chosen by any one province be not more than seven, 
 nor less than two; 
 
 That the Grand Council shall meet once in every year, and oftener if occasion require, 
 at such time and place as they shall adjourn to at the last preceding meeting, or as they 
 shall be called to meet at by the President-General on any emergency; he having first 
 obtained in writing the consent of seven of the members to such call, and sent due and 
 timely notice to the whole; 
 
 That the Grand Council have power to choose their speaker; and shall neither be 
 dissolved, prorogued, nor continued sitting longer than six weeks at one time, without 
 their own consent or the special command of the crown ; 
 
 That the members of the Grand Council shall be allowed for their service ten shil¬ 
 lings per diem, during their session and journey to and from the place of meeting; twenty 
 miles to be reckoned a day’s journey; 
 
 That the assent of the President-General be requisite to all acts of the Grand 
 Council, and that it be his office and duty to cause them to be carried into execution: 
 
 That the President-General, with the advice of the Grand Council, hold or direct all 
 
 802 
 
FRANKLIN'S CONSTITUTION. 
 
 803 
 
 Indian treaties, in which the general interest of the colonies may be concerned; and 
 make peace or declare war with Indian nations; 
 
 That they make such laws as they judge necessary for regulating all Indian trade; 
 
 That they make all purchases, from Indians for the crown, of lands not now within 
 the bounds of particular colonies, or that shall not be within their bounds, when some of 
 them are reduced to more convenient dimensions; 
 
 That they make new settlements on such purchases, by granting lands in the king’s 
 name, reserving a quit-rent to the crown for the use of the general treasury; 
 
 That they make laws for regulating and governing such new settlements, till the 
 crown shall think fit to form them into particular governments; 
 
 That they raise and pay soldiers and build forts for the defence of any of the colo¬ 
 nies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts and protect the trade on the ocean, 
 lakes, or great rivers; but they shall not impress men in any colony, without the consent 
 of the legislature; 
 
 That for these purposes they have power to make laws, and lay and levy such 
 general duties, imposts, or taxes, as to them shall appear most equal and just (considering 
 the ability and other circumstances of the inhabitants in the several colonies,) and such 
 as maybe collected with the least inconvenience to the people; rather discouraging luxury, 
 than loading industry with unnecessary burthens; 
 
 That they may appoint a General Treasurer and Particular Treasurer in each gov¬ 
 ernment, when necessary; and from time to time may order the sums in the treasuries of 
 each government into the general treasury, or draw on them for special payments, as they 
 find most convenient; 
 
 Yet no money to issue but by joint orders of the President-General and Grand 
 Council; except where sums have been appropriated to particular purposes, and 
 the President-General is previously empowered by an act to draw such sums; 
 
 That the general accounts shall be yearly settled and reported to the several 
 Assemblies; 
 
 That a quorum of the Grand Council, empowered to act with the President-General, 
 do consist of twenty-five members; among whom there shall be one or more from a ma¬ 
 jority of the colonies; 
 
 That the laws made by them for the purposes aforesaid shall not be repugnant, but, 
 as near as may be, agreeable to the laws of England, and shall be transmitted to the 
 King in Council for approbation, as soon as may be after their passing; and if not disap¬ 
 proved within three years after presentation, to remain in force; 
 
 That, in case of the death of the President-General, the Speaker of the Grand Council 
 for the time being shall succeed, and be vested with the same powers and authorities to 
 continue till the King’s pleasure be know; 
 
 That all military commission officers, whether for land or sea service, to act under 
 this general constitution, shall be nominated by the President-General; but the appro¬ 
 bation of the Grand Council is to be obtained, before they receive their commissions; and 
 all civil officers are to be nominated by the Grand Council, and to receive the President- 
 General’s approbation before they officiate; 
 
 But, in case of vacancy by death or removal of any officer *nvil or military under 
 this constitution, the Governor of the province in which such vacancy happens, may 
 appoint, till the pleasure of the President-General and Grand Council can be known; 
 
 That the particular military as well as civil establishments in each colony remain 
 in their present state, the general constitution notwithstanding; and that on sudden 
 emergencies any colony may defend itself; and lay the accounts of expense thence 
 arising before the President-General and General Council, who may allow and order 
 payment of the same, as far as they judge such accounts just and reasonable. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 Adopted by Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 
 A DECLARATION by the representatives of the united states of 
 AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve 
 the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the 
 powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
 nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they 
 are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, 
 liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are insti¬ 
 tuted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, 
 whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the 
 people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on 
 such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
 likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that govern¬ 
 ments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accord¬ 
 ingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils 
 are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus¬ 
 tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
 object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it i9 
 their duty, to throw off such a government, and to provide new guards for their future 
 security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the 
 necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history 
 of the present King of Grea Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all 
 having in direct ol ct the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To 
 prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world:— 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public 
 good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
 unless suspended in their operations, till his assent should be obtained; and, when so 
 suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He ha refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, 
 unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a 
 right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and dis¬ 
 tant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing the* 
 into compliance with his measures. 
 
 804 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 805 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness, 
 his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; 
 whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
 large, for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dan¬ 
 gers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose, 
 obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to 
 encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations 
 of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to laws for 
 establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and 
 the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass 
 our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of 
 our legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our consti¬ 
 tution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended 
 legislation:— 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 
 
 For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they 
 should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences; 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establish¬ 
 ing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at 
 once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
 Colonies; 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, funda¬ 
 mentally, the powers of our governments; 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power 
 to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging 
 war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed 
 the lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the 
 works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and 
 perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of 
 a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms 
 against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
 themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on 
 the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of war¬ 
 fare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 
 
 47 
 
80G 
 
 APPENDIX 0. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most hum¬ 
 ble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered by repeated injury. A prince 
 whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be 
 the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned 
 them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
 jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
 settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we 
 have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
 which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
 been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in 
 the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of 
 mankind, enemies in war; in peace, friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general 
 congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of 
 our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these Colo¬ 
 nies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to 
 be, I ree and Independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, 
 and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as Free and Independent States, they have 
 full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do 
 all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support 
 of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we 
 mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
 John Hancock. 
 
 New Hampshire. —Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. 
 
 Masschusetts Bay. —Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge 
 Gerry. 
 
 Rhode Island, etc. —Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 
 
 Connecticut. —Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver 
 Wolcott. 
 
 New York. —William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. 
 
 New Jersey. —Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John 
 Hart, Abraham Clark. 
 
 Pennsylvania. —Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, 
 George Clymer, James Smith, George Tavlor, James Wilson, George Ross. 
 
 Delaware. —Csesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M’Kean. 
 
 Maryland. —Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of 
 Carrollton. 
 
 Virginia. —George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Har¬ 
 rison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 
 
 North Carolina. —William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 
 
 South Carolina. —Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia. —Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 [The Articles of Confederation were drawn up by a committee of gentlemen, wh® 
 were appointed by Congress for this purpose, June 12, 1776, and finally adopted, No¬ 
 vember 15, 1777. The committee were Messrs. Bartlett, Samuel Adams, Hopkins, Sher¬ 
 man, R. R. Livingston, Dickinson, M’Kean, Stone, Nelson, Howes, E. Rutledge, and 
 Gwinnet.] 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION. 
 
 Between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plan¬ 
 tations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 
 
 ARTICLE i. 
 
 The style of this confederacy shall be, “ The United States' of America.” 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, 
 jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United 
 States in Congress assembled. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each 
 other, for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and 
 general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or 
 attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or 
 any other pretence whatever. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1.—The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse 
 among the people of the different States in this union, the free inhabitants of each of 
 these States—paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted—shall be entitled 
 to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of 
 each State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State, and shall 
 enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, 
 impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants thereof respectively; provided, that 
 such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported 
 into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also, 
 that no imposition, duties, or restriction, shall be laid by any State on the property of 
 the United States, or either of them. 
 
 Sec. 2.—If any person, guilty of, or charged with treason, felony, or other high 
 misdemeanor, in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United 
 States, he shall, upon the demand of the Governor or executive power of the State 
 from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his 
 otfence. 
 
 807 
 
808 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Sec. 3. Full faith and credit shall be given, in each of these States, to the records, 
 acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. 
 
 AunciJ. v. 
 
 Section 1.—For the more convenient management of the general interests of the 
 United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature 
 of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November in every 
 year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any 
 time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year. 
 
 Sec. 2.—No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than 
 seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three 
 years, in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of 
 holding any office under the United States, for which he, or any other for his benefit, 
 receives any salary, fees, or emolument, of any kind. 
 
 Sec. 3. —Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and 
 while they act as members of the committee of these States. 
 
 Sec. 4.—In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each 
 State shall have one vote. 
 
 Sec. 5. —Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or 
 questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be 
 protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments during the time of their 
 going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of 
 the peace. 
 
 article vi. 
 
 Section 1.—No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assem¬ 
 bled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any confer¬ 
 ence, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any king, prince, or State, nor shall any person 
 holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of 
 any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
 foreign state; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant 
 any title of nobility. 
 
 Sec. 2.—No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or alli¬ 
 ance whatever, between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress 
 assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, 
 and how long it shall continue. 
 
 Sec. 3. —No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any 
 stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any 
 king, prince, or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the 
 courts of France and Spain. 
 
 Sec. 4.—No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except 
 such number only as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assem¬ 
 bled, for the defence of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up 
 by any State, in time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of the United 
 States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for 
 the defence of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and 
 disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly 
 have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper 
 quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. 
 
 Sec. 5.—No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States 
 in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have 
 received certain advice of a resolution being formed by -o ,tion of Indians to invade 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 809 
 
 such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of delay till the United States 
 in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any 
 ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration 
 of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom 
 or State, and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such 
 regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless 
 such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that 
 occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until tiie United States la 
 Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 When land forces are raised by any State for the common defence, all officers of or 
 under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respect¬ 
 ively by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, 
 and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common 
 defence or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, 
 shall he defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several 
 States, in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted to or surveyed 
 for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be esti¬ 
 mated, according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled shall, from 
 time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid 
 and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within 
 the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 Section 1. —The United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole and 
 exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases men¬ 
 tioned in the sixth article, of sending and receiving ambassadors; entering into treaties 
 and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legisla¬ 
 tive power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and 
 duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the 
 exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever; ol 
 establishing rules for deciding in all cases what captures on land or water shall be legal, 
 and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United 
 States shall be divided or appropriated; of granting letters of marque and reprisal in 
 times of peace; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on 
 the high seas; and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in 
 all cases of .capture; provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge 
 of any of the said courts. 
 
 Sec. 2.—The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on 
 appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arise between 
 two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever; 
 which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following: Whenever the 
 legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with 
 another, shall present a petition to Congress, stating the matter in question, and pray¬ 
 ing for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative 
 or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the 
 appearance of tin*, parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint. 
 
810 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and deter¬ 
 mining the matter in question; but if they can not agree, Congress shall name three 
 persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party 
 shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be 
 reduced to thirteen ; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine 
 names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot; 
 and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be commis¬ 
 sioners or judges to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major 
 part of the judges, who shall hear the cause, shall agree in the determination: and if 
 either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons 
 which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Con¬ 
 gress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of 
 Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgment and 
 sentence of the court, to be appointed in the manner before prescribed, shall be final 
 and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such 
 court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed 
 to pronounce sentence, or judgment, whichshall in like manner be final and decisive; the 
 judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, 
 and lodged among the acts of Congress, for the security of the parties concerned: pro¬ 
 vided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be 
 administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State where the 
 cause shall be tried, “ well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according 
 to the best of his judgment, without favor, affection, or hope of reward.” Provided, also, 
 that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 3. —All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under dif¬ 
 ferent grants of two or more States, whose jurisdiction, as they may respect such lands, 
 and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them 
 being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of 
 jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, 
 be finally determined, as near as may be, in the same manner as is before prescribed for 
 deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. 
 
 Sec. 4.—The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and 
 exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own 
 authority, or by that of the respective States; fixing the standard of weights and meas¬ 
 ures throughout the United States; regulating the trade, and managing all affairs with 
 the Indians, not members of any of the States; provided that the legislative right of 
 any State, within its own limits, be not infringed or violated; establishing and regu¬ 
 lating post offices from one State to another throughout all the United States, and 
 exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same, as may be requisite to 
 defray the expenses of the said office; appointing all officers of the land forces in the 
 service of the United States, excepting regimental officers; appointing all the officers 
 of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United 
 States; making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval 
 forces, and directing their operations. 
 
 Sec. 5.—The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint 
 a committee to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated, “A Committee of the 
 States ,” and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other com¬ 
 mittees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the 
 United States under their direction; to appoint one of their number to preside; pro¬ 
 vided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year 
 in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 811 
 
 the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying 
 the public expenses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United States, 
 transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money 
 so borrowed or emitted; to build and equip a navy; to agree upon the number of land 
 forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the 
 number of white inhabitants in such State, which requisition shall be binding; and 
 thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the 
 men, clothe, arm, and equip 'them, in a soldier-like manner, at the expense of the 
 United States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march 
 to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress 
 assembled; but if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of 
 circumstances, judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a 
 Smaller number than its quota, and that any other State should raise a greater number 
 of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, 
 armed, and equipped, in the same manner as the quota of such State, unless the legis¬ 
 lature of such State shall judge that such extra number can not be safely spared out erf 
 the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip, as many of such 
 extra number a$ they judge can be safely spared, and the officer’s and men so clothed, 
 armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed 
 on by the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Sec. 6. —The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor 
 'grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or 
 alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and 
 expenses necessary for the defence and welfare of the United States, or any of them, 
 nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate 
 money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or the 
 number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the 
 army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other 
 point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes of a 
 majority of the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Sec. 7. —The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any 
 time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of 
 adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish 
 the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, 
 alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas 
 and nays of the delegates of each State, on any question, shall be entered on the journal, 
 when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his 
 or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such 
 parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. 
 
 ARTICLE x. 
 
 The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute* 
 in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States, in Con¬ 
 gress assembled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think expedient 
 to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the 
 exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States, in the 
 Congress of the United States assembled, is requisite. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 Canada, acceding to this Confederation, and joining in the measures oi the United 
 States, shall be admitted into and entitled to all the advantages of this Union: But 
 
 50 
 
812 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by 
 nine States. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts contracted by or under the 
 authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the 
 present Confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United 
 States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States and the public f^ith 
 are hereby solemnly pledged. 
 
 ARTICLE xm. 
 
 Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress 
 assembled, in all questions which by this Confederation are submitted to them. And 
 the articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and 
 the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in 
 any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, 
 and be afterwards confirmed by the legislature of every State. 
 
 And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the world to incline the hearts 
 of the legislatures we respective.y represent in Congress to approve of, and to authorize 
 us to ratify the said Articles of Con ederation and Perpetual Union, Know ye, that we, 
 the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that # 
 purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, 
 fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confed* 
 eration and Perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein con¬ 
 tained. And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective 
 constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Con¬ 
 gress assembled, in all questions which by the said Confederation are submitted to 
 them; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we 
 respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we 
 have hereunto set our hands in Congress. 
 
 Done at Philadelphia , in the State of Pennsylvania, the 9th day of July, in the year of our Lord 
 
 1778, and in the third year of the Independence of America. 
 
 New Hampshire. —Josiah Bartlett, John Wentworth, Jr. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay. —John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Francis 
 Dana, James Lovel, Samuel Holton. 
 
 Bhode Island, etc. —William Ellery, Henry Marchant, John Collins. 
 
 Connecticut. —Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Titus Hos 
 mer, Andrew Adams. 
 
 New York. —James Duane, Francis Lewis, William Duer, Gouverneur Morris. 
 
 New Jersey. —John Witherspoon, Nath. Scudder. 
 
 Pennsylvania. —Robert Morris, Daniel Roberdeau, Jona Bayard Smith, William 
 Clingan, Joseph Reed. 
 
 Delaware. —Thomas M'Kean, John Dickinson, Nicholas Van Dyke. 
 
 Maryland. —John Hanson, Daniel Carroll. 
 
 Virginia. —Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas Adams, John Harvie, 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee. 
 
 North Carolina. —John Penn, Cons. Harnett, John Williams. 
 
 South Carolina. —Henry Laurens, Wm. Henry Drayton, John Matthews, Richard 
 Hutson, Thomas Heyward, Jr. 
 
 Georgia. —John Walton, Edward Telfair, Edward Lang worthy. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish 
 justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the gen¬ 
 eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
 and establish this Constitution for the United States of North America. 
 
 ARTICLE i. 
 
 Section 1.—All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con¬ 
 gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives. 
 
 Sec. 2.—The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State 
 shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
 State legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age oi 
 twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
 not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States 
 which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which 
 shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
 bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of 
 all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the 
 first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of 
 ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives 
 shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand ; but each State shall have at least one 
 representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
 shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts, eight, Rhode Island and Providence 
 Plantations, one, Connecticut, five, New York, six, New Jersey, four, Pennsylvania, 
 eight, Delaware, one, Maryland, six, Virginia, ten, North Carolina, five, South Carolina, 
 five, and Georgia, three. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive 
 authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and 
 shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. 3.—The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from 
 each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have 
 one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, 
 they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the 
 senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the 
 
 813 
 
814 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 •econd class, at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expira¬ 
 tion of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if 
 vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
 any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next 
 meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, 
 and been nine years a'citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall 
 have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the 
 absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office as President of the 
 United States. 
 
 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for 
 that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
 States is tried, the chie.f-justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without 
 the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from 
 office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under 
 the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to 
 indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Sec. 4.—The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and rep¬ 
 resentatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Con¬ 
 gress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places 
 of choosing senators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at* least once in every year; and such meeting 
 shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a dif¬ 
 ferent day. 
 
 Sec. 5.—Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications 
 of its own members; and a majority of'each shall constitute a quorum to do business; 
 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel 
 the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each 
 house may provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for 
 disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish 
 the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas 
 and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one- 
 fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the 
 other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
 two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6.—The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their 
 services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. 
 They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged 
 from arrest during their attendance on the session of their respective houses, and in 
 going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate in either house, 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be 
 appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have 
 bee»> created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; 
 
APPENDIX E. 815 
 
 *,nd no person lidding any office under the United States shall be a member of either 
 house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7.—All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representa¬ 
 tives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, 
 ehall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he 
 approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house 
 in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
 journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that 
 house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall b„ sent, together with the objections, to the 
 •other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds 
 of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such cases, the votes of both houses 
 shall be determined by yeas and nays; and th: names of the persons voting for and 
 against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
 shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall 
 have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed 
 it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall 
 not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House 
 of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be 
 presented to the President of the United States; and, before the same shall take effect, 
 shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two- 
 tliirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limita¬ 
 tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. —The Congress shall have power :— 
 
 To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide 
 for the common defence and general welfare, of the United States; but all duties, 
 imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States: 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and 
 •with the Indian tribes : 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of 
 bankruptcies throughout the United States: 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard 
 of weights and measures: 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of 
 the United States: 
 
 To establish post-offices and post-roads : 
 
 To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited 
 times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and 
 discoveries: • 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court: 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
 offences against the law of nations: 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rule,: concerning 
 •captures on land and water: 
 
 To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be 
 for a longer term than two years: 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy • 
 
 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
 forces: 
 
816 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress 
 Insurrections, and repel invasions: 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing 
 such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
 the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training 
 the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress: 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not 
 exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance 
 of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
 which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
 other needful buildings:—And 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution 
 the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the govern¬ 
 ment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9.—The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the States now 
 existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to 
 the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax, or duty, may be imposed on 
 such importation, not exceeding ten dollars ior each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in 
 cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census, 
 or enumeration, hereinbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference 
 shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
 those of another; nor shall vessels bound to ux from one State be obliged to enter, clear 
 or pay duties, in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations 
 made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
 all public money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding 
 any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
 accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, 
 prince, or foreign state. 
 
 Sec. 10.—No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing 
 but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, 
 ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of 
 nobility. 
 
 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on 
 imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspec¬ 
 tion laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports 
 or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws 
 shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without 
 the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time 
 of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign 
 power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will 
 not admit of delay. 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 817 
 
 ARTICLE n. 
 
 Section 1 . —The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
 States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, jmd together 
 with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows:— 
 
 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a 
 number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to 
 which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or 
 person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
 an elector. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two per¬ 
 sons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them¬ 
 selves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
 votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
 of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The 
 president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates; and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the 
 greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such 
 majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
 immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a 
 majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like manner, 
 choose the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
 States; the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose 
 shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States; and a majority of 
 all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 
 President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be Vice- 
 President. But, if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
 shall choose from them,,by ballot, the Vice-President. 
 
 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on 
 which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the 
 time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; 
 neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age 
 of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or 
 inability to discharge the powers or duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on 
 the Vice-President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, 
 death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring 
 what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
 the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which 
 shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have 
 been elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
 the United States or any of them. 
 
 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
 affirmation:— 
 
 “I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of Pres¬ 
 ident of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and 
 defend the Constitution of the United States.” 
 
818 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 2. —The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the 
 United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service 
 of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in 
 each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences 
 against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
 treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and. 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint, ambassadors, other 
 public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and ail other officers of the 
 United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
 shall be established by law : but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of 
 such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, 
 or in the heads of departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during 
 the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of 
 their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. —He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state 
 of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge 
 necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or 
 either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time 
 of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
 receive ambassadors and other public ministers; lie shall take care that the laws be 
 faithfully executed; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4.—Tne President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, 
 shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, 
 or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Section 1.—The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in a Supreme 
 Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
 establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their oflees 
 during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compen¬ 
 sation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2.—The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising 
 under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which 
 shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
 ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to contro¬ 
 versies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or 
 more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different 
 States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
 States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
 subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in 
 which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
 all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdic¬ 
 tion both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the 
 Congress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and 
 such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 819 
 
 but, when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as 
 the Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. —Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against 
 them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and co afort. No person shall 
 be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses 10 the same overt act, 
 or on confession in open court. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but nc 
 attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during 
 the life of the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1.—Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen¬ 
 eral laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be 
 proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. —The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities 
 of citizens in the several States. 
 
 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee 
 from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
 of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having 
 jurisdiction of the crime. , 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping 
 into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged 
 from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom 
 such service or labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. —New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but 
 no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; 
 nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, 
 without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well of the 
 Congress. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regu¬ 
 lations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and 
 nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
 United States, or of any particular State. 
 
 Sec. 4.—The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a repub¬ 
 lican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on 
 application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be 
 convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 article v. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary. 6hall 
 propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of 
 two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
 which, i~i either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Consti¬ 
 tution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by con¬ 
 ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be 
 proposed by the Congress; Provided, that no amendment, which may be made prior to 
 the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and 
 fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its 
 consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
820 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before tbe adoption of this Con¬ 
 stitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under 
 the Confederation. 
 
 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursu¬ 
 ance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
 United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall 
 be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not¬ 
 withstanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several 
 State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
 and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con¬ 
 stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office 
 or public trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the estab¬ 
 lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States ■present , the seventeenth day of Sep 
 
 tember, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the 
 
 Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have 
 
 hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 George Washington, President, 
 
 and Deputy from Virginia. 
 
 New Hampshire. —John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
 
 Massachusetts. —Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. , 
 
 Connecticut. —William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
 
 New York. —Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 New Jersey. —William Livingston, David Bearly, William Patterson, Jonathan 
 Dayton. 
 
 Pennsylvania. —Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clv- 
 mer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. 
 
 Delaware. —George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bas¬ 
 sett, Jacob Broom. 
 
 Maryland. —James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. 
 
 Virginia. —John Blair, James Madison, Jr. 
 
 North Carolina. —William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. 
 
 South Carolina. —John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinck 
 ney, Pierce Butler. 
 
 Georgia. —William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 
 
 Attest; 
 
 William Jackson, Secretary. 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 821 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
 the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the 
 right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
 grievances. 
 
 article n. 
 
 A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of 
 the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent 
 of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, 
 against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants 
 shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
 describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. 
 
 article v. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless 
 on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 
 naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger; 
 nor shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
 or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; 
 nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall pri¬ 
 vate property be taken for public use without just compensation. 
 
 article vi. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and 
 public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have 
 been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to 
 be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit¬ 
 nesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor- 
 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, 
 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be other¬ 
 wise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the 
 common law. 
 
 48 
 
822 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and 
 unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to 
 deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE x. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited 
 by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit 
 in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
 of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 article xn. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President 
 and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State 
 with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and 
 in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct 
 lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, 
 and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
 sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the 
 Senate; the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
 Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the per¬ 
 son having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have 
 such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three 
 on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
 immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall 
 be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for 
 this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a 
 majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Repre¬ 
 sentatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
 them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
 as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the Pres¬ 
 ident. 
 
 The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the 
 Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
 and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
 Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
 necessary to a choice. 
 
 But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible 
 to that of Vice-President of the United States. 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 823 
 
 ARTICLE Xin. 
 
 Section 1.—Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
 crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
 States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2.—Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate leg¬ 
 islation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. 
 
 Section 1 . —All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to 
 the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they 
 reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
 or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person 
 of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within 
 its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Sec. 2.—Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according 
 to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, 
 excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for choice of 
 electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Con¬ 
 gress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature 
 thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State being twenty-one years 
 of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation 
 in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in 
 the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number 
 of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 Sec. 3. —No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, or elector of 
 President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United 
 States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Con¬ 
 gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as 
 an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United 
 States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or 
 comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of*eaeh 
 house, remove such disability. 
 
 Sec. 4.—The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, 
 including debts incurred for payment of pensions, and bounties for services in suppress¬ 
 ing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, 
 nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection 
 or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
 slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sec. 5.—The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the 
 provisions of this Article. 
 
 article xv. 
 
 Section 1.—The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
 or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous 
 condition of servitude. 
 
 Sec. 2.—The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate 
 legislation. 
 
APPENDIX F 
 
 WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 Friends and Fellow-Citizens:— 
 
 The period for a new election of a citizen to administer tlie executive government 
 of the United States being not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your 
 thoughts must be employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that 
 important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more dis¬ 
 tinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I 
 have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a 
 choice is to be made. 
 
 I beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured that this resolution 
 has not been taken without a strict regard to all the considerations appertaining to the 
 relation which hinds a dutiful citizen to his country; and that, in withdrawing the 
 tender of service, which silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no 
 diminution of zeal for your future interest; no deficiency of grateful respect for your 
 past kindness; but am supported by a full conviction that the step is compatible 
 with both. 
 
 The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in, the office to which your suffrages 
 have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of inclination to the opinion of 
 duty, and to a deference for what appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that 
 it would have been much earlier in my power, consistently with motives which I was 
 not at liberty to disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had been reluc¬ 
 tantly drawn. The strength of my inclination to do this, previous to the last election, 
 had even led to the preparation of an address to declare it to you; but mature reflec¬ 
 tion on the then perplexed and critical posture of our affairs with foreign nations, and 
 the unanimous advice of persons entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon 
 the idea. 
 
 I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, no longer 
 renders the pursuit of inclination incompatible with the sentiment of duty or propriety; 
 and am persuaded, whatever partiality may be retained for my services, that, in the 
 present circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove of my determination to 
 retire. 
 
 The impressions with which I first undertook the arduous trust were explained on 
 the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I will only say that I have, with 
 good intentions, contributed towards the organization and administration of the gov¬ 
 ernment the best exertions of which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not uncon¬ 
 scious in the outset of the inferiority of any qualifications, experience, in my own eyes— 
 perhaps still more in the eyes of others—has strengthened the motives to diffidence of 
 myself; and every day the increasing weight of years admonishes me, more and more, 
 that the shade of retirement is as necessary to me as it will be welcome. Satisfied that 
 if any circumstances have given peculiar value to my services they were temporary, I 
 
 824 
 
APPENDIX F. 395 
 
 have the consolation to believe that, while choice and prudence invite me to quit the 
 political scene, patriotism does not forbid it. 
 
 In looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate the career of ray 
 public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that 
 debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has con¬ 
 ferred upon me; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me; 
 and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attach¬ 
 ment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. 
 If benefits have resulted to our country irom these services, let it always be remembered 
 to your pu-aise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that, under circumstances 
 in which the passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead; amidst 
 appearances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging; in situations 
 in which, not unfrequently, want of success has countenanced the spirit of criticism— 
 the constancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of 
 the plans, by which they were effected. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall 
 carry it with me to my grave, as a strong incitement to unceasing wishes, that Heaven 
 may continue to you the choicest tokens of its beneficence; that your union and broth¬ 
 erly affection may be perpetual; that the free Constitution, which is the work of your 
 hands, may be sacredly maintained; that its administration, in every department, may 
 be stamped with wisdom and virtue; that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these 
 States, under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete, by so careful a preserva¬ 
 tion and so prudent a use of this blessing as will acquire to them the glory of recom¬ 
 mending it to the applause, the affection, and adoption of every nation which is yet 
 a stranger to it. 
 
 Here, perhaps, I ought to stop; but a solicitude for your welfare, which can not 
 end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger natural to that solicitude, urge 
 me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to 
 recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much 
 reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to 
 the permanency of your felicity as a people. These will be offered to you with the 
 more freedom,-as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting 
 friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias*his counsels; nor can I forget, 
 as an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a former and 
 not dissimilar occasion. 
 
 Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recom¬ 
 mendation of mine is necessaiy to fortify or confirm the attachment. 
 
 The Unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to 
 you. It is justly so; for it.is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence— 
 the support of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your 
 prosperity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee 
 that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many 
 artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth; as this is the 
 point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external ene¬ 
 mies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) 
 directed—it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value 
 of your National Union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should 
 cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves 
 to think and speak of it as the palladium oi y T our political safety and prosperity; 
 watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may 
 suggest even a suspicion that it can, in any event, be abandoned; and indignantly 
 frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our 
 
826 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the 
 Various parts. 
 
 For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest. Citizens by birth 
 or choice, of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections. 
 The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always 
 exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local dis¬ 
 criminations. With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, 
 habits, and political principles. You have, in a common cause, fought and triumphed 
 together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels and 
 joint efforts—of common dangers, sufferings, and successes. 
 
 But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to your 
 sensibility, are greatly outweighed by those which apply more immediately to your 
 interest: here every portion of our country finds the most commanding motives for 
 carefully guarding and preserving the union of the whole. 
 
 The North, in an unrestrained intercourse with the South, protected by the equal 
 laws of a common government, finds, in the productions of the latter, great additional 
 resources of maritime and commercial enterprise, and precious materials of manu¬ 
 facturing industry. The South, in the same intercourse, benefiting by the agency of 
 the North, sees its agriculture grow, and its commerce expand. Turning partly into its 
 own channels the seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; 
 and while it contributes, in different way , to nourish and increase the general mass of 
 the national navigation, it looks forward to the protection of a maritime strength to 
 which itself is unequally adapted. The East, in a like intercourse with the West, already 
 finds, and in the progressive improvement of interior communications, by land and 
 water, will more and more find a valuable vent for the commodities which it brings 
 from abroad, or manufactures at home. The West derives from the East supplies 
 requisite to its growth and comfort—and what is perhaps of still greater consequence, 
 it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its own pro¬ 
 ductions to the weight, influence, and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side 
 of the Union, directed by an indissoluble community of interest as oue nation. Any 
 other tenure by which the West can hold this essential advantage, whether derived 
 from its own separate strength, or from an apostate and unnatural connection with any 
 foreign power, must be intrinsically precarious. 
 
 While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular 
 interest in Union, all the parts combined can not fail to find in the united mass of 
 mean’s and efforts, greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security 
 from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations; 
 and what is of inestimable value, they must derive from Union an exemption from 
 those broils and wars between themselves, which so frequently afflict neighboring 
 countries, not tied together by the same government; which their own rivalships alone 
 would be sufficient to produce, but which opposite foreign alliances, attachments, and 
 intrigues would stimulate and embitter. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity 
 of those overgrown military establishments, which under any form of government are 
 inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to Repub¬ 
 lican Liberty. In this sense it is, that your Union ought to be considered as the main 
 prop of your liberty, and that the love of the one ought to endear to you the preserva¬ 
 tion of the other. 
 
 These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and virtuous 
 mind, and exhibit the continuance of the Union as a primary object of patriotic desire. 
 Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere? Let 
 experience solve it. To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal. Wo 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 81T 
 
 are authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole, with the auxiliary 
 agency of governments for the respective subdivisions, will afford a happy issue 
 to the experiment. It is well worth a fair and full experiment. With such pow¬ 
 erful and obvious motives to Union affecting all parts of our country, while expe¬ 
 rience shall not have demonstrated its impracticability, there will always be reason 
 to distrust the patriotism of those who in any quarter may endeavor to weaken 
 its bands. 
 
 In contemplating the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter oi 
 serious concern, that any ground should have been furnished for characterizing parties 
 by geographical discriminations —Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western; whence 
 designing men may endeavor to excite a belief that there is a real difference of local inter¬ 
 ests and views. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence, within particular 
 districts, is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts. You can not shield 
 yourselves too much against the jealousies and heart-burnings which spring from these 
 misrepresentations; they tend to render alien to each other those who ought to be 
 bound together by fraternal affection. The inhabitants of our Western country have 
 lately had a useful lesson on this head: they have seen, in the negotiation by the exec¬ 
 utive, and in the unanimous ratification by the Senate, 01 the treaty with Spain, and 
 in the universal satisfaction at the event throughout the United States, a decisive proof 
 how unfounded were the suspicions propagated among them of a policy in the general 
 government, and in the Atlantic States, unfriendly to their interests in regard to the 
 Mississippi: they have been witnesses to the formation o. two treaties, that with Great 
 Britain and that with Spain, which secure to them every thing they could desire, 
 in respect to our foreign relations, towards confirming their prosperity. Will it not 
 be their wisdom to rely for the preservation of these advantages on the Union by 
 which they were procured? Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, 
 if such there are, who would sever them from their brethren, and connect them 
 with aliens? 
 
 To the efficacy and permanency of your Union, a government for the whole is 
 indispensable. No alliances, however strict, between the parts can be an adequate 
 substitute; they must inevitably experience the infractions and interruptions which 
 all alliances in all times have experienced. Sensible of this momentous truth, you 
 have improved upon your first essay, by the adoption of a Constitution of government 
 better calculated than your former for an intimate Union, and for the efficacious man¬ 
 agement of your common concerns. This government, the offspring of your own 
 choice, uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon full investigation and mature delib'- 
 eration, completely free in its principles, in the distribution of its powers, uniting 
 security with energy, and containing within itself a provision for its own amendment, 
 has a just claim to your confidence and your support. Bespect for its authority, com¬ 
 pliance with its laws, acquiescence in its measures, are duties enjoined by the funda¬ 
 mental maxims of true liberty. The basis of our political systems is the right of ,the 
 people to make, and to alter their constitutions of government. But the constitution 
 which at any time exists, until changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole 
 people, is sacredly obligatory upon all. The very idea of the power and the right of 
 the people to establish government, presupposes the duty of every individual to obey 
 the established government. 
 
 All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and associations, 
 under whatever plausible character, with the real design to direct, control, counteract, 
 or awe the regular deliberation and action of he constituted authorities, are destructive 
 of this fundamental principle, and of fats’ jndency. They serve to organize faction, 
 to give it an artificial and extraordinary lorce—to put in the place of the delegated 
 ol 
 
828 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 will of the nation, the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minor¬ 
 ity of the community ; and, according to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to 
 make the public administration the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous 
 projects of faction, rather than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans digested 
 by common councils and modified by mutual interests. 
 
 However combinations or associations of the above description may now and then 
 answer popular ends, they are likely, in the course of time and things, to become 
 potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be ena¬ 
 bled to subvert the power of the people, and to usurp for themselves the reins of 
 government; destroying afterward the very engines which have lifted them to unjust 
 dominion. 
 
 Towards the preservation of your government, and the permanency of your present 
 happy state, it is requisite, not only that you steadily discountenance irregular 
 opposition to its acknowledged authority, but also that you resist with care the 
 spirit of innovation upon its principles, however specious the pretexts. One metli t 
 of assault may be to effect in the forms of the Constitution alterations which w... 
 impair the energy of the system, and thus to undermine what can not be direct iy 
 overthrown. In all the changes to which you may be invited, remember that time 
 and habit are at least as necessary to fix the true character of governments, as 
 of other human institutions; that experience is the surest standard by which to test 
 the real tendency of the existing constitution of a country—that facility in changes 
 upon the credit of mere hypothesis and opinion, exposes to perpetual change from 
 the endless variety of hypothesis and opinion; and remember, especially, that for 
 the efficient management of your common interests, in a country so extensive as 
 ours, a government of as much vigor as is consistent with the perfect security of 
 liberty, is indispensable. Liberty itself will find in such a government, with powers 
 properly distributed and adjusted, its surest guardian. It is, indeed, little else 
 than a name, where the government is too feeble to withstand the enterprises of fac¬ 
 tion, to confine each member of the society within the limits prescribed by the laws, 
 and to maintain all in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the rights of person and 
 property. 
 
 I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state, with particular 
 reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations.. Let me now take 
 a more comprehensive view, and warn you- in the most solemn manner against the 
 baneful effects of the spirit of party, generally. 
 
 This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the 
 strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all govern¬ 
 ments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed ; but in those of the popular form, it 
 is seen in its greatest rankness, and it is truly their worst enemy. 
 
 The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of 
 revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpe¬ 
 trated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at 
 length to a more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries w'hich 
 result, gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute 
 power of an individual; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more 
 able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of 
 his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty. 
 
 Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind (which, nevertheless, ought 
 not to be entirely out of sight), the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of 
 party are sufficient to make it the interest and the duty of a wise people to discourage 
 and restrain it. 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 829 
 
 It serves always to distract the public councils, and enfeeble the public adminis¬ 
 tration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and "false alarms; kin¬ 
 dles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. 
 It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to 
 the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and 
 the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. 
 
 There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the ad¬ 
 ministration of government, and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within 
 certain limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism 
 may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of 
 the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encour¬ 
 aged. From their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that 
 spirit for every salutary purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the effort 
 ought to be, by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it. A fire not.to be 
 quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, in¬ 
 stead of warming, it should consume. 
 
 It is important, likewise, that the habits, of thinking, in a free country, should 
 inspire caution in those intrusted with its administration, to confine themselves within 
 their respective constitutional spheres, avoiding in the exercise of the powers of one 
 department to encroach upon another. The spirit of encroachment tends to con¬ 
 solidate the powers of all the departments in one, and thus to create, whatever the form 
 of government, a real despotism. A just estimate of that love of power, and prone¬ 
 ness to abuse it, which predominates in the human heart, is sufficient to satisfy us 
 of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in the exercise 
 of political power, by dividing and distributing it into different depositories, and 
 constituting each the guardian of the public weal against invasions by the others, 
 has been evinced by experiments ancient and modern; some of them in our country 
 and under our own eyes. To preserve them must be as necessary as to institute them. 
 If, in the opinion of the people, the distribution or modification of the constitutional 
 powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way 
 which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for 
 though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary 
 weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly 
 overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any 
 time yield. 
 
 Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and 
 morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of 
 patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these 
 firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the 
 pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. A volume could not trace all their 
 connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the 
 security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert 
 the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let us 
 with caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. 
 Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar 
 structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can 
 prevail in exclusion of religious principle. 
 
 It is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular 
 government. The rule indeed extends with more or less force to every species of free 
 government. Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts 
 to shake the foundation of the fabric? 
 
830 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general dif¬ 
 fusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to 
 public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. 
 
 As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public credit. One 
 method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, avoiding occasions of ex¬ 
 pense by cultivating peace; but remembering also that timely disbursements to prepare 
 for danger, frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it; avoiding like¬ 
 wise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vig¬ 
 orous exertions in time of peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may 
 have occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we our¬ 
 selves ought to bear. The execution of these maxims belongs to your Representatives, 
 but it is necessary that public opinion should co-operate. To facilitate to them the 
 performance of their duty, it is essential that you should practically bear in mind, that 
 toward the payment of debts there must be revenue; that to have revenue there must be 
 taxes; that no taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and 
 unpleasant; that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of the proper 
 objects (which is always a choice of difficulties) ought to be a decisive motive for a 
 candid construction of the conduct of the government in making it, and for a spirit of 
 acquiescence in the measures for obtaining revenue which the public exigencies may at 
 any time dictate. 
 
 Observe good faith and justice towards all nations, cultivate peace and harmony with 
 all; religion and morality enjoin this conduct, and can it be that good policy does not 
 equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a 
 great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people 
 always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt but that in the 
 course of time and things, the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any temporary 
 advantage which might he lost by a steady adherence to it? Can it be that Providence 
 has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue? The experiment, 
 at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas! is it 
 rendered impossible by its vices? 
 
 In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that permanent, 
 inyeterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others, 
 should be excluded ; and that in place of them just and amicable feelings towards all 
 should be cultivated. The nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred or 
 an habitual fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity or its affec¬ 
 tion, either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interests. Antip¬ 
 athy in one nation against another, disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, 
 to lay hold of slight causes of umbrage, and to be haughty and intractable, when 
 accidental or trifling occasions of dispute occur. Hence frequent collisions, obstinate, 
 envenomed, and bloody contests. The nation, prompted by ill-will and resentment, 
 sometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. 
 The government sometimes participates in the national propensity, and adopts through 
 passion what reason would reject; at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation 
 subservient to projects of hostility instigated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and 
 pernicious motives. The peace often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of nations has 
 been the victim. 
 
 So, likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety 
 of evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary 
 common interest in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one 
 the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels 
 and wars of the latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 #il 
 
 to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt 
 doubly to injure the nation making the concessions, by unnecessarily parting with 
 what ought to have been retained; and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a dispo¬ 
 sition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld. And 
 it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to 
 the favorite nation) facility to betray or sacrifice the interests of their own country, 
 without odium, sometimes even with popularity; gilding with the appearance of a 
 virtuous sense of obligation a commendable deference for public opinion, or a laudable 
 zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption, or 
 infatuation. 
 
 As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments are 
 particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. How many 
 opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic factions; to practice the arts of 
 sedition, to mislead public opinion, to influence or awe the public councils! Such an 
 attachment of a small and weak, towards a great and powerful nation, dooms the former 
 to be the satellite of the latter. Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I 
 conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens,) the jealousy of a free people ought to be 
 constantly awake; since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of 
 the most baneful foes of Republican Government. But that jealousy be useful must 
 be impartial; else it becomes the instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead 
 of a defence against it. Excessive partiality for one foreign nation, and excessive 
 dislike of another, cause those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and 
 serve to veil and even second the arts of influence on the other. Beal patriots, who 
 may resist the intrigues of the favorite, are liable to become suspected and odious; 
 while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the people, to surrender 
 their interest. 
 
 The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is, in extending our 
 commercial relations, to have with them as little 'political connection as possible. So 
 far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. 
 Here let us stop. 
 
 Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote 
 relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are 
 essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to impli¬ 
 cate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordi¬ 
 nary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. 
 
 Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different 
 course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, the period is 
 not far off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance; when we 
 take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve 
 upon to be scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations, under the impossi¬ 
 bility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provo¬ 
 cation ; when we may choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, shall 
 counsel. 
 
 Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation ? Why quit your own to 
 stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part 
 of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rival- 
 ship, interest, humor, or caprice? 
 
 It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of 
 the foreign world—so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it; for let me not 
 be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements. I hold 
 the maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always 
 
832 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 the best policy. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their 
 genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary, and would be unwise to extend 
 them. 
 
 Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a respectable 
 defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emer¬ 
 gencies. 
 
 Harmony, and liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, 
 humanity, and interest. 
 
 But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and impartial hand; neither 
 seeking nor granting exclusive favors or preferences;—consulting the natural course 
 of things; diffusing and diversifying by gentle means the streams of commerce, but 
 forcing nothing; establishing, with powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable 
 course, to define the rights of our merchants, and to enable the government to support 
 them, conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual 
 opinion will permit, but’temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned 
 or varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate; constantly keeping in view, 
 that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors from another; that it 
 must pay with a portion of its independence for whatever it may accept under that char¬ 
 acter; that by such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having given 
 equivalents for nominal favors, and yet of being reproached with ingratitude for not 
 giving more. There can be no greater error than to expect, or calculate upon, real 
 favors from nation to nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, which a just 
 pride ought to discard. 
 
 In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and affectionate friend., 
 I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish—that 
 they will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the 
 course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. But if I may even flatter my¬ 
 self that they may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good; that they 
 may now and then recur to moderate the fury of party spirit, to warn against the mis¬ 
 chiefs of foreign intrigue, to guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism ; this 
 hope will be a full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare by which they have 
 been dictated. 
 
 How far in the discharge of my official duties I have been guided by the principles 
 which have been delineated, the public records and other evidences of ray conduct must 
 witness to you and to the world. To myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that 
 I have at least believed myself to be guided by them. • 
 
 In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of the 22d 
 of April, 1793, is the index to my plan. Sanctioned by your approving voice, and 
 by that of your Representatives in both Houses of Congress, the spirit of that measure 
 has continually governed me, uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me 
 from it. 
 
 After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could obtain, I was 
 well satisfied that our country, under all the circumstances of the case, had a right to 
 take, and was bound in duty and interest to take, a neutral position. Having taken it, 
 I determined, as far as should depend upon me, to maintain it with moderation, perse¬ 
 verance, and firmness. 
 
 The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary 
 on this occasion to detail. I will only observe, that, according to my understanding of 
 the matter, that right, so far from being denied by any of the belligerent Powers, has 
 been virtually admitted by all. 
 
 The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without any thing more. 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 833 
 
 from the obligation which justice and humanity imposes on every nation, in cases in 
 which it is free to act to maintain inviolate the relations of peace and amity towards 
 other nalions. 
 
 The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be referred 
 to your own reflections and experience. With me, a predominant motive has been 
 to endeavor to gain time to our country to settle and mature its yet recent insti¬ 
 tutions, and to progress, without interruption, to that degree of strength and con¬ 
 sistency which is necessary to give it, humanly speaking, the command of its own 
 fortunes. 
 
 Though, in reviewing the incidents o, my administration, I am unconscious oi 
 intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects, not to think it prob¬ 
 able that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently 
 beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall 
 also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indul¬ 
 gence; and that after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright 
 zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must 
 soon be to the mansions of rest. 
 
 Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent 
 love towards it, which is so natural to a man who views in it the native soil of him¬ 
 self and his progenitors for several generations; I anticipate with pleasing expec¬ 
 tation that retreat, in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet 
 enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of 
 good laws under a free government—the ever favorite object of my heart, and the 
 happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. 
 
 G- Washiitgtok. 
 
 Uiuted States, 17 th September, 1796 . 
 
APPENDIX O 
 
 THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 
 
 » 
 
 BY THE PRESIDENT OE THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 [If the Emancipation Proclamation is to be regarded as the cause of the freedom 
 of the African race in the United States, then indeed must it be considered as among 
 the most important documents known in history: perhaps the most important of all. 
 The truer view of the case,.however, seems to be this: The inexorable Logic of 
 Events was rapidly bringing about the emancipation of the slaves. The National 
 government fell under a stringent necessity to strike a blow at the labor system of 
 the Southern States. With every struggle of the war the sentiment of abolition at 
 the North rose higher and higher. The President himself and the chief supporters 
 of his administration had for years made no concealment of their desire that all men 
 every-where should be free. The occasion was at hand. Mr. Lincoln seized and 
 generalized the facts, embodied them in his owa words, and became for all time 
 the oracle and interpreter of National Necessity .— The Author.] 
 
 Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord on» 
 thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation w r as issued by the President 
 of the United States, containing among other things the following, to wit: 
 
 “That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated 
 part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
 States, shall be then, thenceforward and forever free, and the executive government of 
 the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize 
 and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such 
 persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. 
 
 “ That the executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclama¬ 
 tion, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof 
 respectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that 
 any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in 
 the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a 
 majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the 
 absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such 
 State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States.” 
 
 Now, therefore, T, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue 
 of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the 
 United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government 
 of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said 
 
 834 
 
APPENDIX G. 
 
 835 
 
 rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly 
 proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day the first above- 
 mentioned, order and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people 
 thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, 
 to wit: 
 
 Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, 
 Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, 
 Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mis¬ 
 sissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and 
 Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the 
 counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and 
 Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts 
 are, for the present, left precisely as if this Proclamation were not issued. 
 
 And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare 
 that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and 
 henceforward shall be free; and that the executive government of the United States, 
 including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the 
 freedom of said persons. 
 
 And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all 
 violence, unless in necessary self-defence, and I recommend to them that in all cases, 
 when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 
 
 And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition 
 will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, 
 stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. 
 
 And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the 
 Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind 
 and the gracious favor of Almighty God. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the 
 United States to be affixed. 
 
 Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our 
 [ L. s. ] Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence 
 
 of the United States the eighty-seventh. 
 
 By the President: 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. . 
 
 William H. Seward, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
PRONTOTCIATIOlSr OF PROPER IsTAMES. 
 
 [E., English; F., French; S., Spanish; P., Portugese; It., Italian; G., German; N., Norse; 8w. 
 Swedish; Pol., Polish; L., Latin; I., Indian.] 
 
 Abenaki [I.], 8,b-e-nah-kl. 
 
 Abercrombie [E.], ftb-er-kruin-bi. 
 
 Adet [F.], ah-da. 
 
 Adolphus [L.], a-dol-fus. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle [F.], aks-lah-shah-pfil. 
 Algonquin [I.], &I-g6n-kbu. 
 
 Almonte [S.], al-mon-te. 
 
 Alvarado [S.], al-va-rali-dO. 
 
 Ambrister [E.], hm-bris-ter. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci [It.], ali-mer-e-gO ves- 
 poot-che. 
 
 Amidas [E.], um-id-S.s. 
 
 Ampudia [S.], am-poo-di-a. 
 
 Andre [F.], iin-dra. 
 
 Antietam [E.], an-te-t2,m. 
 
 Antonio de Espego [S.], ahn-to-m-O da es- 
 pa-hc. 
 
 Arbuthnot [E.], ahr-buth-not. 
 
 Arista [S.], ah-ris-ta. 
 
 Armada [S.], ahr-mah-da. 
 
 Ashe [E.], ftsh. 
 
 Au Glaize [F.], C-glaz. 
 
 Ayavalia [S.], l-ah-vakl-yil. 
 
 Ayotla [S.], I-ot-la. 
 
 Aztecs [I.], Sz-teks. 
 
 Bahia [S.], bah-e-a. 
 
 Balfour [E.], bal-foor. 
 
 Barron [E.], bahr-ron. 
 
 Baum [E.], bavin. 
 
 Baumarchais [F.], bo-mahr-sha. 
 
 Bayard [E.^, bi-ahrd. 
 
 Beaujeu [F.], b5-zhii. 
 
 Beauregard [F.] } bo-ra-gahrd. 
 
 Beau-Sejout [F.], bO-sa-zhoor. 
 
 Bellomont [E.], bvl-o-mont. 
 
 Bernard [E.], ber-nahrtl. 
 
 Bienville [F.], be-ong-vel. 
 
 Blennerhassett [E.], blen-ner-h&s-sfit. 
 
 Blyth [E.], hlith. 
 
 Boscawen [E.], bos-kaw-en. 
 
 Buddhist [Sanscrit], bood-dist. 
 
 Bulkeley [E.], bulk-li. 
 
 Burgoyne [E.], bur-goin 
 Cabot [E.], kftb-5t. 
 
 Cadwallader [E.], k5.d-wahl-ia-d§r. 
 Canonchet [I.], ka-non-shet. 
 
 Canonicus [I.], ka-non-i-kus. 
 
 Canseau [F.], k&n-s5. 
 
 Carleton [E.] kahrl-tun. 
 
 Cartier [F.], kahr-ti-a. 
 
 Casimer [Sw.], kits-i-rnSr. 
 
 Castin [F.], kas-tfin. 
 
 Chabot [F.], sha-bo. 
 
 Cham [Tartar], kftin. 
 
 Champe [EJ, kfimp. 
 
 Champlain [F.], sh&m-pllla. 
 
 836 
 
 Chapultepec [S.], kah-pool-t5-pSk. 
 Chaudiere [F.], sho-de-ar. 
 
 Chauncey [E.], eliawn-.se. 
 
 Cherbourg [F.], sher-boorg. 
 
 Cherokee [I.], chfer-O-ke. 
 
 Chickamauga [E.], chik-a-maw-gA 
 Chickasaws [1.], chik-a-sawz. 
 
 Chicora [S.], che-ko-ra. 
 
 Chignecto [I.], she-nek-tO. 
 
 Chihuahau [S.], she-wali-wah. 
 
 Choctaws [I.], chok-tawz. 
 
 Christison [Sw.], krls-tl-suo. 
 
 Christophe [S.], kris-to-fe. 
 
 Chrysler [E.], kris-ler. 
 
 Churubusco [S.], koo-roo-boos-kO. 
 Clarendon [E.], klhr en-dun. 
 
 Cochrane [E.], kok-ran. 
 
 Coligni [F.], ko-len-ye. 
 
 Columbus [L.], kO-luin-bus. 
 
 Comancbes [I.], kO-m&n-chez. 
 
 Conde [F.], kon-da. 
 
 Contreras [S.], kon-tra-ras. 
 
 Copernicus [L.], ko-per-m-kus. 
 
 Copley [E.], kop-le. 
 
 Corees [I.], ko-rez. 
 
 Cornwallis [E.], kawrn-wahl-lis. 
 
 Credit Mobilier [F.], cra-di-mC-bil-I-Sj; 
 Croghan [E.], krog-han. 
 
 Dacres [E.], dilk-erz. 
 
 Dahlgren [E.], d&l-gren. 
 
 Darrah [E.], dalir-rah. 
 
 D’Anville [F.], dong-vel. 
 
 D’Aubrey [F.J, dG-bra. 
 
 Daye [E.], da. 
 
 De Barras [F.], du bahr-rafcu 
 Decatur [E.], de-ka-tur. 
 
 De Fleury [F.J, du flur-L 
 De Grasse [F.J, du grds. 
 
 De Kalb [F.J, du kahlb. 
 
 Delaplace [F.], du-l&plftg. 
 
 De Monts [F.], du ■nong. 
 
 D’Estaing [F.], da-stdng. 
 
 De Ternay [F.], du ter-na. 
 
 De Vaca [S.], da vali-kA 
 De Vergor [F.], du-var-gor. 
 
 De Villiers [F.j, du-vel-yar. 
 
 De Vries [F.], du vrez. 
 
 Dieskau [F.], de-es-ko. 
 
 Dominic de Gourges [F.], dO-min-Bk dfl 
 goorg. 
 
 Dongan [E.], diin-g&n. 
 
 Doniphan [E.], don-i-fan. 
 
 Dupont [E.], du-pont. 
 
 Du Quesne [F.], de-kan. 
 
 Dvar [E.], di-Sir. 
 
 Eldorado [S.], el-dO-rah-dO. 
 
PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES. 
 
 837 
 
 Elkswatawa [I.], elks-wah-tah-wah. 
 Emucfau [I.], e-mook-faw. 
 
 Endicott [E.], en-di-kot. 
 
 Ericsson [E.], er-Iks-sun. 
 
 Erskine [E.], er-slun. 
 
 Esopus [E.], e-so-pus. 
 
 Esquimaux [I.], es-ki-mSz. 
 
 Farragut [E.] falir-ra-gu. 
 
 Ferdinand de Soto [S.], fer-di-nahnd da 
 so-to. 
 
 Ferdinand Gorges [E.], fer-dl-nand gor-jez. 
 Ferdinand Magellen [P.], fer-di-nand ma- 
 jel-lan. 
 
 Ferguson [E.], fur-gu-sun. 
 
 Fernandez de Cordova [S.], fer-nahn-deth 
 da kor-do-va. 
 
 Fernando Cortez [S.], fer-nahn-d<3 kor-teth. 
 Fouchet [F.], foo-sha. 
 
 Fraser [E.], tra-zer. 
 
 Freneau [E.], fre-no. 
 
 Frobisher [E.], frob-Ish-er. 
 
 Frontenac [F.], fron-te-n&k. 
 
 Gabarus [E.], ga-bdr-us. 
 
 Galileo [It.], gah-ll-la-o. 
 
 Gambier [F.], gahm-bi-a. 
 
 Ganowanian [I.], galm-5-wahn-I.an. 
 Gaspar Cortereal [P.], gahs-palir kOr-td-ra- 
 altl. 
 
 Gaspe [F.], gas-pa. 
 
 Gawen [E.j, gaw-en. 
 
 Genet [F.L zhe-na. 
 
 Gillis [G.J, gil-lis. 
 
 Gladwyn [E.], gldd-win. 
 
 Gloucester [E.], glos-ter. 
 
 Godyn [El], go-din. 
 
 Goffe [E.], gawf. 
 
 Gorgeana [E.], gor-je-dn-a. 
 
 Gosnold [E.], gos-nOld. 
 
 ^oulburn [E.], gool-burn. 
 
 Grierson [E.], grer-sun. 
 
 Grijalva [S.], gre-halil-va. 
 
 Guerriere [F.], ger-rl-ar. 
 
 Gustavus [L.], gus-ta-vus. 
 
 Hakluyt [E.], hdk-loot. 
 
 Havre de Grace [F.], hahver-du-grds. 
 Hayne [E.], han. 
 
 Heister [G.], hls-ter. 
 
 Herjr'.fson [N.], har-yoolf-s5n. 
 
 Herkimer [E.], hur-ki-mer. 
 
 Hertel [F.], her-tel. 
 
 Hochelaga [I.], hok-e-lah-ga. 
 
 Hosset [G.], hos-set. 
 
 Houston [E.], hows-tun. 
 
 Hovenden [E.], ho-ven-den. 
 
 Hugenots [F.], hu-ge-nots. 
 
 Iroquois [I.], ir-0-kwal». 
 
 Isabella [S.], iz-a-bSl-la. 
 
 Isle-aux-Noix [F.], el-O-nooah. 
 
 Iuka [E.], !-yoo-ka. 
 
 Jameson [E.], jdin-e-sun. 
 
 Joris [G.], yo-ris. 
 
 Juan Ponce de Leon [S.], hwahn pon*tha 
 da la-on. 
 
 49 
 
 Juarez [S.], bwaw-rgth. 
 
 Jumonville [F.], zhe-mong-vel. 
 Kamtchatkans [I.], kam-tchdt-k&nz. 
 Kearney [E.], kahr-ne. 
 
 Kearsarge [E.], kalir-sahr-gS, or kftr-eahij 
 Kieft [E.], keft. 
 
 Klamaths [I.], kldm-aths. 
 
 Knowlton [E.], nol-tun. 
 
 Knyphausen [G.], nep-how-sen. 
 
 Kosciusko [Pol.], kds-sl-tts-ko. 
 
 Kossuth [G.], k5s-shoot. 
 
 Koszta [Hungarian], kot-ta. 
 
 La Colle [F.], la-kol. 
 
 La Fayette [F.], la-fa-et. 
 
 La Fitte [F.], la-fit. 
 
 La Roche [F.], la-rosh. 
 
 La Roque [F.], la-rok. 
 
 La Salle [F.], la-sdl. 
 
 Lathrop [E.], la-thrup. 
 
 Laudonniere [F.], lo-dSn-ni-ar. 
 
 Laurie [E.], law-rl. 
 
 La Vega [S.], lab va-ga. 
 
 Le Bceuf [F.], lu-buf. 
 
 Leddra [E.], led-ra. 
 
 Ledyard [E.], Ied-yahrd. 
 
 Leisler [G.], lis-ler. 
 
 Leitch [E ], lech. 
 
 Leverett [E.], lev-er-et. 
 
 Leyden [G ], 11-den. 
 
 Lief Erickson [N.], lef 6r-ik-sun. 
 
 Lionel [E.], ll-o-nel. 
 
 Lopez [S.], lo-peth. 
 
 Loudoun [E.], loo-<loon. 
 
 Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon [S.], loo-kahe 
 vahs-keth da Il-yon. 
 
 Liitzen [G.], letz-en. 
 
 Luzerne [Swiss], loo-zern. 
 
 Maedonough [E.], mak-don-(5. 
 
 Macdougall [E.], mak-doo-gal. 
 
 Macomb [E.], ma-kom. 
 
 Magaw [E.], ma-gaw. 
 
 Mandeville [E.], mfin-de-vll. 
 
 Manteo [I.], malin-te-o. 
 
 Manuel [P.], malin-oo-al. 
 
 Markham [E.], niahrk-am. 
 
 Marlborough [E], mahrl-bru. 
 
 Massasoit [I.], mas-sds-O-it. 
 
 Mather [E.], mdthe-er. 
 
 Matoaka [I.], mat-5-dk-a. 
 
 Matthews [E.], mdth-uz. 
 
 Maurepas [F.], mO-re-pah. 
 
 Maximilian [G.], max-i-mil-ydn. 
 McCullough [E.], mak-kul-lc. 
 
 McIntosh [E.], mdk-in-tosh. 
 
 Meacham [E.], me-cham. • 
 
 Meigs [E.], raegz. 
 
 Meta Incognita [L.], me-ta in-c6g-nI-tS» 
 Miantonomoh [I.], mi-an-t5-no-m0. 
 Micanopy [I.], mI-kfin-6-pi. 
 
 Minuit [G.], mln-oo-xt. 
 
 Mohegan [I.], mo-he-gdn. 
 
 Monckton [E.], munk-tun. 
 
 Monk [E.], miink. 
 
838 
 
 PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES. 
 
 Montcalm [F.], mont-kahm. 
 
 Monteano [S.], mOn-ta-ahn-O. 
 
 Montezuma [I.], mon-te-zoo-mS,. 
 Montmorenci [F.], mont-mO-ren-si. 
 
 Mosley [E.], inos-le. 
 
 Moultrie [E.], mol-tri. 
 
 Nairne [E.], narn. 
 
 Nassau [F.], nas-so. 
 
 Naumkeag [1.], nawm-ke-fig. 
 
 Nipmucks [I.], nip-muks. 
 
 Nueces [S.], nwa-ses. 
 
 Ocklawaha [I.], ok-la-wah-hah. 
 
 Odeneal [E.], o-den-el. 
 
 Oglethorpe [E.], o-gel-thorp. 
 
 O’Hara [E.], O-halir-ra. 
 
 Ojeda [S.], O-ha-da. 
 
 Okeechobee [I.], O-kg-cho-be. 
 
 Oldham [E.], old-am. 
 
 Olustee [E.], O-lus-te. 
 
 Opecancanough [I.], 0-pe-k&n-k&n-6. 
 Orapax [I.], or-a pakx. 
 
 Osceola [I.], os-se-o-la. 
 
 Oswald [E.], os-wawld. 
 
 Ouatanon [I.], waht-a-n5n. 
 
 Oxenstiern [Sw.], oks-en-stgrn. 
 
 Pamphilo de Narvaez [_S.], pahm-fe-lO da 
 nahr-vali-eth. 
 
 Pascua Florida [L.], pahs-koo-a flor-x-da. 
 Pauw [Gr.], paw. 
 
 Pedro Menendez [S.]. pa-drO ma-len-deth. 
 Peraaquid [I.], pem-a-kwld. 
 
 Pepperell [E.], pep-per-el. 
 
 Pequod [I.], pe-kwod. 
 
 X eroic [S.J, pa-ro-te. 
 
 Pigot [E.], pig-ot. 
 
 Pinta [S.], pen-ta. 
 
 Pitcairn [E.], pit-karn. 
 
 Pizarro [S.], pe-tlialir-rO. 
 
 Pocahontas [I.], pok-a-hon-t&s. 
 
 Poictiers [F.J, pwah-te-h. 
 
 Point au Trembles [F.], pwan to tratambl. 
 Pontchartrain [F.], pOn-shahr-tran. 
 Poutrincourt [F.], poo-tran-koor. 
 Powhatan [I.], pow-hat-an. 
 
 Presque Isle [F.J. presk el. 
 
 Prevost [E.], prev-5st. 
 
 Prideaux [F.l, pre-do. 
 
 Pulaski [Pol ], poo-lahs-kT. 
 
 Quantrell [E.", kwahn-trel. 
 
 Queretaro [S.], ka-ra-tali-rO. 
 
 Rahl [Gr.], ralil. 
 
 Releigh [E.J, raw-11. 
 
 Rate li tie [E.j, rdt-kllf. 
 
 Rawdon [E.], raw-dun. 
 
 Raymbault [F.J, ram-bd. 
 
 Revere [E.J, re-ver. 
 
 Riall [E.], rl-al. 
 
 Ribault [F.], re-bo. 
 
 Roberval [F.J, rOb-er-vakl. 
 
 Rochambeau [F.], rO-sham-bd, 
 
 Rochelle [F.], rO-shel. 
 
 Roderigo Triana [S.], rOd-re-gO trfi-ab-nS.. 
 Rosecrans [G.j, rds-e krahns. 
 
 Ryswick [G.], res-wlk. 
 
 Saltillo [S.], sahl-tel-yO. 
 
 Samosset [I.], sftm-O-set. 
 
 Santa Maria [S.], sahn-ta mah-re-4. 
 Sassacus [I.], s&s-sak-us. 
 
 Sayle [E.J, sal. 
 
 Schuyler [E.J, skl-ler. 
 
 Selish [I.], se-llsh. 
 
 Seminoles [1.], sem-i-nOlz. 
 
 Sheaflfe [G.j, shfif-l'e. 
 
 Shoshonees [I.], shO-sho-ngs. 
 
 Sicklemore [E.J, sik-el-mOr. 
 
 Sloughter [E.J, slo-ter. 
 
 Squanto [1.], skwahn-tO. 
 
 St. Croix [F.J, sant-kroi. 
 
 Steuben [G.], stu-ben. 
 
 Stirling [E.J, stur-llng. 
 
 St. Leger [F.J, san la-zha. 
 
 Stoughton [E.J, sto-tun. 
 
 St. Pierre [F.], san pg-ar. 
 
 Stuyvesant [G.J, sti-ves ant. 
 
 Subercase [F.], se-bgr-kahs. 
 
 Talladega [I.], tahl-la-de-ga. 
 
 Tamaulipas [S.J, tahm-aw-le-p3,s. 
 Tanacharisson [L.J, tan-a-k&r-xs-sun. 
 Tecumtha [I.J, te-kum-tha. 
 
 Theresa [G.J, tgr-es-a. 
 
 Thorfinn Karlsefne [N.J, tor-fin kahrk 
 sef-ne. 
 
 Thorstein Erickson [N.J, tor-stln Sr-lk-sun. 
 Tituba [I.J, tl-too-ba. 
 
 Tohopeka [I.J, tO-hO-pe-ka. 
 
 Tomo-Chichi [I.J, to-mO-cbe-chl 
 Van Rensselaer [E.J, van rens-se-lahr. 
 Van Twiller [G.J, van twel-ler. 
 
 Vasco de Gama [P.J, vahs-ko da gab-mil 
 Vasco Nunez de Ralboa |_S.], vahs-ko uooi 
 yeth da babl-bo-a. 
 
 Vaudreuil [F.J, vo-dru-el. 
 
 Vaughan [E.J, vawn. 
 
 Vergennes [F.J, ver-zlien. 
 
 Verhulst [G.J, var hoolst. 
 
 Verrazzani [It.], ver-rat-tsah-ni. 
 
 Waimnan [E.], wan-man. 
 
 Walloons [G.J, wahl-loonz. 
 
 Wampanoags [I.J, wahm-pan-o-agt 
 Warwick [E.J, wahr-rlck. 
 
 Waymouth [E.J, wa-mutb. 
 
 Welde [E.J, wel-de. 
 
 Weitzei [G.], wlt-zel. 
 
 Whalley [E.j, bwabl-ll. 
 
 Whinyates [E.J, hwin-vata. 
 
 Whitefield [E.J, hwit-fgld. 
 
 Wingina [I.J, wxn-ge-na. 
 
 Worcester [E.J, woos-tgr 
 Wouter [G.J, woo-ter. 
 
 Xeres [S.J, ha-reth. 
 
 Yamacraws [I.J, yahm-a-kraws. 
 
 Yeamans [E.J, ye-m&nz. 
 
 Yeardley [E.J, yurd-11. 
 
 Yougbiogheny [I.], yoh-hC-gd**L 
 Yuset [Moorish], yoo-sel’. 
 
 Zenger [G.J, zfen-ger. 
 
POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES ACCORD¬ 
 ING TO THE CENSUS OF 1890, WITH 
 COMPARATIVE TABLES. 
 
 Presidents of the United States—1789-1892. 
 
 839 
 
840 
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890, 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 INCREASE FROM 1880 
 TO 1890. 
 
 1890 
 
 1880 
 
 1870 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 PERCENT¬ 
 
 AGE. 
 
 United States. 
 
 62,622,250 
 
 60,155,783 
 
 38,558,371 
 
 12,466,467 
 
 24.86 
 
 North Atlantic division . 
 
 17,401,545 
 
 14,507,407 
 
 12,298,730 
 
 2,894,138 
 
 19.95 
 
 Maine. 
 
 661,086 
 
 648,936 
 
 626,915 
 
 12,150 
 
 1.87 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 376,530 
 
 346,991 
 
 318,300 
 
 29,539 
 
 8.51 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 332,422 
 
 332,286 
 
 330,551 
 
 136 
 
 0.04 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 2,238,943 
 
 1,783,085 
 
 1,457,351 
 
 455,858 
 
 25.57 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 345,506 
 
 276,531 
 
 217,353 
 
 68,975 
 
 24.94 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 746,258 
 
 622,700 
 
 537,454 
 
 123,558 
 
 19.84 
 
 New-York. 
 
 5,997,853 
 
 6,082,871 
 
 4,382,759 
 
 914,982 
 
 18.00 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 1,444,933 
 
 1,131,116 
 
 906,096 
 
 313,817 
 
 27.74 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 5,258,014 
 
 4,282,891 
 
 3,521,951 
 
 975,123 
 
 22JT7 
 
 South Atlantic division . 
 
 8,857,920 
 
 7,597,197 
 
 5,853,610 
 
 1,260,723 
 
 16.59 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 168,493 
 
 146,608 
 
 125,015 
 
 21,885 
 
 14.93 
 
 Maryland... 
 
 1,042,390 
 
 934,943 
 
 780,894 
 
 107,447 
 
 11.49 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 230,392 
 
 177,624 
 
 131,700 
 
 52,768 
 
 29.71 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 1,512,565 
 
 1,225,163 
 
 143,415 
 
 9.48 
 
 West Virginia.. 
 
 762,794 
 
 618,457 
 
 442,014 
 
 144,337 
 
 23.34 
 
 North Carolina. .. 
 
 1,617,947 
 
 1,399,750 
 
 1,071,361 
 
 218,197 
 
 15.59 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 995,577 
 
 705,606 
 
 155,572 
 
 15.63 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 1,837,353 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 1,184,109 
 
 295,173 
 
 19.14 
 
 Florida. 
 
 391,422 
 
 269,493 
 
 187,748 
 
 121,929 
 
 45.24 
 
 Northern Central division.... 
 
 22,362,279 
 
 17,364,111 
 
 12,981,111 
 
 4,998,168 
 
 28.78 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 3,198,062 
 
 2,665,260 
 
 474,254 
 
 14.83 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 1,680,637 
 
 214,103 
 
 10.82 
 
 Illinois . 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 3,077,871 
 
 2,539,891 
 
 748,480 
 
 24.32 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 1,636,937 
 
 1,184,059 
 
 456,952 
 
 27.92 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 1,315,497 
 
 1,054,670 
 
 371,383 
 
 28.23 
 
 Minnesota . 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 780,773 
 
 439,706 
 
 621,053 
 
 66.74 
 
 Iowa . 
 
 1,911,896 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 1,194,020 
 
 287,281 
 
 17.68 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 2,168,380 
 
 1,721,295 
 
 510,804 
 
 23.56 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 182,719 
 
 36,909 
 
 
 5 145,810 
 
 395.05 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 328,808 
 
 98,268 
 
 
 l 230,540 
 
 234.60 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 1,058,910 
 
 452,402 
 
 122,993 
 
 606,508 
 
 134.06 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 1,427,096 
 
 996,096 
 
 364,399 
 
 431,000 
 
 43.27 
 
 Southern Central division.... 
 
 10,972,893 
 
 8,919,371 
 
 * 6,434,410 
 
 2,053,522 
 
 23.02 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 1,321,011 
 
 209,945 
 
 12.73 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 1,767,518 
 
 1,542,359 
 
 1,258,520 
 
 225,159 
 
 14.60 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 996,992 
 
 250,512 
 
 19.84 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 1,289,600 
 
 1,131,597 
 
 827,922 
 
 158,003 
 
 13.96 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 1,118,587 
 
 939,946 
 
 726,915 
 
 178,641 
 
 19.01 
 
 Texas . 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 1,591,749 
 
 818,579 
 
 643,774 
 
 40.44 
 
 Indian Territory* * * § . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 t 61,834 
 
 
 
 61,834 
 
 
 Arkansas . 
 
 1,128J79 
 
 802,525 
 
 484,471 
 
 325^654 
 
 40.58 
 
 Western division. 
 
 3,027,613 
 
 1,767,697 
 
 990,510 
 
 1,259,916 
 
 71.27 
 
 Montana. 
 
 132,159 
 
 39,159 
 
 20,595 
 
 93,000 
 
 237.49 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 60,705 
 
 20,789 
 
 9,118 
 
 39,916 
 
 192.01 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 412,198 
 
 194,327 
 
 39,864 
 
 217,871 
 
 112.12 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 153,593 
 
 119,565 
 
 91,874 
 
 34,028 
 
 28.46 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 69,620 
 
 40,440 
 
 9,658 
 
 19,180 
 
 47.43 
 
 Utah . 
 
 207,905 
 
 143,963 
 
 86,786 
 
 63,942 
 
 44.42 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 45,761 
 
 62,266 
 
 42,491 
 
 § 16,505 
 
 § 26.51 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 84,385 
 
 32,610 
 
 14,999 
 
 51,775 
 
 158.77 
 
 Alaska J. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Washington. 
 
 349,390 
 
 75,116 
 
 23,955 
 
 274,274 
 
 365.13 
 
 Orevon . 
 
 313,767 
 
 174,768 
 
 90,923 
 
 138,999 
 
 79.53 
 
 California. 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 864,694 
 
 560,247 
 
 343,436 
 
 39.72 
 
 * The number of white persons in the Indian Territory is not included in this table, as the cen¬ 
 sus of Indians and other persons on Indian reservations, which was made a subject of special 
 investigation by Jaw, has not yet been completed, 
 
 t Including 5,338 persons in Greer County (in Indian Territory), claimed by Texas. 
 
 t The number of white persons in Alaska is not included in this table, as the census of Alaska, 
 which was made a subject of special investigation by law, has not yet been completed. 
 
 § Decrease. 
 
POPULATION OF CITIES. 
 
 841 
 
 The following tables give the population of important towns and cities in 1880 and the popula¬ 
 tion of the same in 1890 . 
 
 ALABAMA — 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 1890 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 too . 
 
 .. 26,241 
 
 ILLINOIS — 
 
 
 
 
 Huntsville . 
 
 4,977 . 
 
 4,635 
 
 Alton. 
 
 8,975 
 
 
 10,184 
 
 Mobile . 
 
 29,132 . 
 
 31,822 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 19 534 . 
 
 Montgomery. 
 
 16;713 . 
 
 .. 21,790 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 2,639 
 
 
 3,6i3 
 
 Selma. 
 
 7,529 . 
 
 7,626 
 
 Belleville. 
 
 . .. 10,683 
 
 
 15,360 
 
 ARIZONA — (Prescott) 
 
 
 
 Belvidere . 
 
 2,951 
 
 
 3,863 
 
 Tucson . 
 
 7,007 . 
 
 5,095 
 
 Bloomington . 
 
 ... 17,180 
 
 * 
 
 22,242 
 
 ARKANSAS — 
 
 
 
 Cairo . 
 
 9,011 
 
 
 10,044 
 
 Helena . 
 
 3,624 . 
 
 5,185 
 
 Canton . 
 
 3,762 
 
 
 5,589 
 
 Little Rock. 
 
 13,138 . 
 
 .. 26,500 
 
 Centralia . 
 
 3,621 
 
 
 4,762 
 
 Texarkana . 
 
 3,223 . 
 
 3,486 
 
 Champaign . 
 
 5,103 
 
 
 5,827 
 
 CALIFORNIA — 
 
 
 
 Charleston. 
 
 2,867 
 
 
 4,135 
 
 Alameda . 
 
 5,708 . 
 
 
 Chicago 
 
 fiO.8,185 
 
 
 1 OQQ 188 
 
 Eureka . 
 
 4,834 
 
 Collinsville .... 
 
 2,887 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fresno . 
 
 1,112 . 
 
 .. 10,796 
 
 Clinton . 
 
 2,709 
 
 
 2,596 
 
 Los Angeles . 
 
 11,183 . 
 
 .. 50,394 
 
 Danville . 
 
 7,733 
 
 
 11,528 
 
 Marysville . 
 
 4,321 . 
 
 3,936 
 
 Decatur. 
 
 9,547 
 
 
 16,841 
 
 Napa City. 
 
 
 4,387 
 
 Dixon .. 
 
 
 
 n 149 
 
 Oakland'. 
 
 34,555 . 
 
 .. 48,590 
 
 East St. Louis. 
 
 9,185 
 
 
 15,156 
 
 Petaluma. 
 
 
 3,686 
 
 Edwardsville . 
 
 2,887 
 
 
 3,579 
 
 Sacramento . 
 
 21,420 . 
 
 .. 26,272 
 
 Elgin . 
 
 8,787 
 
 
 17,425 
 
 San Diego . 
 
 2,637 . 
 
 16,153 
 
 Effingham . 
 
 3,065 
 
 
 3,260 
 
 San Francisco . 
 
 233,959 . 
 
 .. 297,990 
 
 Freeport . 
 
 8,516 
 
 
 10,159 
 
 San Jos6 . 
 
 12,567 . 
 
 .. 18,027 
 
 Galena . 
 
 6,541 
 
 
 6,406 
 
 Santa Rosa . 
 
 3,616 . 
 
 5,216 
 
 Galesburg . 
 
 ... 11,437 
 
 
 16,212 
 
 Stockton . 
 
 10,282 . 
 
 14,376 
 
 Jacksonville . 
 
 10,927 
 
 
 12,357 
 
 Vallejo . 
 
 5,987 . 
 
 5,904 
 
 Jersey ville . 
 
 2,894 
 
 .... 
 
 3,204 
 
 COLORADO— 
 
 
 
 Joliet . 
 
 ... 11,657 
 
 
 27,407 
 
 Colorado Springs . 
 
 4,226 . 
 
 . . 11,200 
 
 Kankakee. 
 
 5,651 
 
 
 7,300 
 
 Denver. 
 
 35,629 . 
 
 .. 106,670 
 
 Kewanee. 
 
 2,704 
 
 
 4,554 
 
 Leadville. 
 
 14,820 . 
 
 .. 11,159 
 
 La Salle . 
 
 7,847 
 
 
 11,610 
 
 Pueblo . 
 
 3,217 . 
 
 .. 28,128 
 
 Lincoln . 
 
 5,639 
 
 
 6,125 
 
 CONNECTICUT — 
 
 
 
 Litchheld . 
 
 
 
 5,798 
 
 Bridgeport . 
 
 27,643 . 
 
 .. 48,856 
 
 Mattoon . 
 
 5,737 
 
 
 6,829 
 
 Bristol . 
 
 5,347 . 
 
 7,374 
 
 Moline . 
 
 7,800 
 
 
 11,995 
 
 Danbury . 
 
 11,666 . 
 
 . . 19,385 
 
 Monmouth . 
 
 5,000 
 
 .... 
 
 5,837 
 
 Greenwich —. 
 
 7,892 . 
 
 .. 10,120 
 
 Morrison . 
 
 1,981 
 
 .... 
 
 2,500 
 
 Groton . 
 
 5,128 . 
 
 6,511 
 
 Nashville . 
 
 2,222 
 
 
 2,083 
 
 liurllord . 
 
 42,015 . 
 
 .. 53,182 
 
 Olney . 
 
 3,512 
 
 
 3,828 
 
 Manchester . 
 
 6,462 . 
 
 8,217 
 
 Ottawa . 
 
 7,834 
 
 
 9,971 
 
 Meriden . 
 
 15,540 . 
 
 .. 21,230 
 
 Paris. 
 
 4,373 
 
 
 5,049 
 
 Middletown. 
 
 6,826 . 
 
 9,012 
 
 Pana . 
 
 3,009 
 
 
 5,067 
 
 Naugatuck. 
 
 4,274 . 
 
 6.219 
 
 Peoria . 
 
 ... 29,259 
 
 
 40,758 
 
 New Britain . 
 
 11,800 . 
 
 19,010 
 
 Pontiac . 
 
 2,242 
 
 .... 
 
 3,200 
 
 New Haven . 
 
 62.8S2 . 
 
 .. 85,981 
 
 Ouincy . 
 
 ... 27,268 
 
 
 31,478 
 
 New London . 
 
 10,537 . 
 
 .. 13,759 
 
 Rockford . 
 
 ... 13,129 
 
 
 23,589 
 
 Norwalk . 
 
 5,308 . 
 
 7,739 
 
 Rock Island . 
 
 ... 11,659 
 
 
 13,596 
 
 Norwich . 
 
 15,112 . 
 
 .. 16,192 
 
 Shelby ville . 
 
 2,939 
 
 
 3,162 
 
 Plainfield . 
 
 4,021 . 
 
 4,519 
 
 Sandwich . 
 
 2,352 
 
 
 2,505 
 
 Portland . 
 
 4,157 . 
 
 4,682 
 
 Springfield . 
 
 ... 19,743 
 
 
 24,852 
 
 Putnam . 
 
 5,827 . 
 
 6,511 
 
 Sterling. 
 
 
 .... 
 
 5,822 
 
 Southington. 
 
 5,411 . 
 
 5,499 
 
 Streator. 
 
 5,157 
 
 
 9,671 
 
 Stafford . 
 
 4,455 
 
 
 Waukegan . 
 
 4,012 
 
 
 5,345 
 
 Stamford . 
 
 11,297 . 
 
 .. 13,685 
 
 INDIANA— 
 
 
 
 Thompson . 
 
 5,051 . 
 
 5,593 
 
 Auderson . 
 
 4,126 
 
 
 10,759 
 
 Vernon . 
 
 6,915 . 
 
 8,807 
 
 Aurora . 
 
 4,435 
 
 
 3,928 
 
 Wallingford . 
 
 4,686 . 
 
 6,538 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 3,441 
 
 
 5.902 
 
 Waterbury . 
 
 17,806 . 
 
 .. 28,591 
 
 Columbus . 
 
 4,813 
 
 
 6,705 
 
 DELAWARE — (Dover) 
 
 
 
 Crawfordsville .... 
 
 5,251 
 
 
 6,086 
 
 Wilmington . 
 
 42,478 . 
 
 .. 61,437 
 
 Elkhart . 
 
 6,953 
 
 
 11,489 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA — 
 
 
 Evansville . 
 
 
 
 50,674 
 
 Washington . 
 
 147,293 . 
 
 .. 229,796 
 
 Fort Wayne . 
 
 ... 26,880 
 
 
 35,349 
 
 FLORIDA- 
 
 
 
 Frankfort . 
 
 2,803 
 
 
 5,918 
 
 Jacksonville. 
 
 7,650 . 
 
 .. 17,139 
 
 Franklin . 
 
 3,116 
 
 
 3,783 
 
 Key West . 
 
 6,890 . 
 
 .. 16,058 
 
 Goshen . 
 
 4,123 
 
 
 6,027 
 
 Pensacola . 
 
 6,845 . 
 
 .. 11,751 
 
 Greensburg . 
 
 3,138 
 
 
 3,581 
 
 Tallahassee . 
 
 
 2,933 
 
 Huntington . 
 
 3,174 
 
 .... 
 
 7,300 
 
 GEORGIA— 
 
 
 
 Indianapolis . 
 
 ... 75,056 
 
 
 107,445 
 
 Athens . 
 
 6,099 . 
 
 8,627 
 
 Jeffersonville . 
 
 9,357 
 
 
 11,274 
 
 Atlanta . 
 
 37,409 . 
 
 .. 65,515 
 
 Kokomo . 
 
 4,042 
 
 
 8,224 
 
 Augusta . 
 
 21,891 . 
 
 .. 33,150 
 
 Lafayette . 
 
 ... 14,860 
 
 .... 
 
 16,283 
 
 Brunswick . 
 
 2,891 . 
 
 8,403 
 
 La Porte . 
 
 
 
 7,122 
 
 Columbus . 
 
 10,123 . 
 
 .. 18,650 
 
 Lawrenceburg . 
 
 4,668 
 
 
 4,280 
 
 Dalton . 
 
 . 
 
 3,030 
 
 Logansport. 
 
 . . . 11,198 
 
 .... 
 
 13,798 
 
 Macon . 
 
 12,479 . 
 
 .. 22,698 
 
 Madison . 
 
 8,945 
 
 
 8,923 
 
 Milledgeville . 
 
 
 3,306 
 
 Michigan City . 
 
 7,366 
 
 
 10,704 
 
 Rome . 
 
 3,877 . 
 
 6,950 
 
 Mishawaka . 
 
 2,640 
 
 .... 
 
 3,369 
 
 Savannah . 
 
 30,709 . 
 
 .. 41,762 
 
 Mount Vernon . 
 
 
 . . . . 
 
 4,710 
 
842 
 
 POPULATION OF CITIES, 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 Muncie. 
 
 
 . 12,883 
 
 Bangor. 
 
 16,856 .. 
 
 . 19,090 
 
 New Albany. 
 
 
 . 21,000 
 
 Bath. 
 
 7,874 .. 
 
 8,713 
 
 Peru. 
 
 
 6,730 
 
 Belfast. 
 
 5,308 .. 
 
 5,235 
 
 Plymouth. 
 
 
 2,723 
 
 Biddeford. 
 
 12,651 .. 
 
 . 14,418 
 
 Princeton. 
 
 
 6,494 
 
 Brunswick . 
 
 5,384 .. 
 
 6,998 
 
 Richmond. 
 
 .. 12,472 .. 
 
 . 161849 
 
 Calais. 
 
 6,173 .. 
 
 7,227 
 
 Seymour. 
 
 4,250 .. 
 
 5,307 
 
 Camden. 
 
 4,386 .. 
 
 4,621 
 
 South Beud. 
 
 
 . 21,786 
 
 Cape Elizabeth. 
 
 5,302 .. 
 
 5,209 
 
 Terre Haute. 
 
 26,042 .. 
 
 . 31,000 
 
 Deering. 
 
 4,324 .. 
 
 5,337 
 
 Valparaiso. 
 
 4,461 .. 
 
 5,083 
 
 Eastport. 
 
 4,006 .. 
 
 4,899 
 
 Vincennes. 
 
 7,680 .. 
 
 8,815 
 
 Ellsworth. 
 
 5,052 .. 
 
 4,784 
 
 Wabash. 
 
 3,800 .. 
 
 5,196 
 
 Gardiner. 
 
 4,439 .. 
 
 5,484 
 
 Washington. 
 
 4,323 .. 
 
 6,052 
 
 Lewiston. 
 
 19,083 .. 
 
 . 21,668 
 
 Warsaw. 
 
 3,123 .. 
 
 3,559 
 
 Portland. 
 
 33,810 .. 
 
 . 36,608 
 
 IOWA — 
 
 
 
 Rockland. 
 
 7,599 .. 
 
 8,137 
 
 Boone . 
 
 3,330 .. 
 
 6,518 
 
 Saco. 
 
 6,389 .. 
 
 6,075 
 
 Burlington. 
 
 .. 19,450 .. 
 
 . 26,000 
 
 Water ville. 
 
 4,672 .. 
 
 7,091 
 
 Cedar Falls . 
 
 3,020 .. 
 
 3,598 
 
 MARYLAND — 
 
 
 
 Cedar Rapids. 
 
 10,104 .. 
 
 . 17,977 
 
 Annapolis. 
 
 6,642 .. 
 
 7,625 
 
 Charles City. 
 
 2,421 .. 
 
 2,798 
 
 Baltimore . 
 
 332,313 .. 
 
 . 433,547 
 
 Clinton. 
 
 9,052 .. 
 
 . 14,000 
 
 Cumberland. 
 
 10,693 .. 
 
 10,030 
 
 Council Bluffs. 
 
 .. 18,063 .. 
 
 . 21,388 
 
 Frederick. 
 
 8,659 .. 
 
 9,621 
 
 Creston. 
 
 5,081 .. 
 
 7,119 
 
 Hagerstown. 
 
 6,627 .. 
 
 . 11,698 
 
 Davenport. 
 
 .. 21,831 .. 
 
 . 25,161 
 
 Havre de Grace. 
 
 2,816 .. 
 
 3,219 
 
 lies homes. 
 
 .. 22,408 .. 
 
 . 60,067 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 2,581 .. 
 
 2,905 
 
 Dubuque. 
 
 .. 22,254 .. 
 
 . 30,147 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS — 
 
 
 
 Fairfield. 
 
 3,086 .. 
 
 3,379 
 
 Abington. 
 
 3,697 .. 
 
 4,244 
 
 Fort Madison. 
 
 4,679 .. 
 
 7,906 
 
 Adams. 
 
 5,591 .. 
 
 9,217 
 
 Grinnell. 
 
 2,415 .. 
 
 3,327 
 
 Amesbury. 
 
 3,355 .. 
 
 9,797 
 
 Iowa City. 
 
 7,123 .. 
 
 5,628 
 
 Amherst . 
 
 4,298 . . 
 
 4,501 
 
 Keokuk. 
 
 .. 12,117 .. 
 
 . 14,075 
 
 Andover. 
 
 5,169 .. 
 
 6,127 
 
 Lyons . 
 
 4,095 .. 
 
 5,791 
 
 Arlington. 
 
 4,100 . . 
 
 5,625 
 
 Marshalltown. 
 
 6,240 .. 
 
 9,308 
 
 Athol.. 
 
 4,307 .. 
 
 6,318 
 
 Mason City. 
 
 2,510 .. 
 
 4,002 
 
 Attleborough. 
 
 11,111 .. 
 
 7,57t 
 
 Mount Pleasant.... 
 
 4,410 . . 
 
 4,918 
 
 Barnstable. 
 
 4,242 .. 
 
 4,022 
 
 Muscatine. 
 
 8,295 .. 
 
 . 11,432 
 
 Beverly. 
 
 8,456 .. 
 
 . 10,795 
 
 Newton. 
 
 2,607 .. 
 
 2,563 
 
 Blackstone. 
 
 4,907 .. 
 
 6,137 
 
 Oskaloosa. 
 
 4,598 .. 
 
 7,300 
 
 Boston . 
 
 362,839 .. 
 
 . 446,507 
 
 Ottumwa. 
 
 9,004 . . 
 
 14,500 
 
 Braintree. 
 
 
 4,848 
 
 Sioux City. 
 
 7,366 .. 
 
 . 37,862 
 
 Brockton . 
 
 13,608 .. 
 
 . 27,278 
 
 Waterloo. 
 
 5,630 .. 
 
 6,679 
 
 Bridgewater. 
 
 
 3,652 
 
 KANSAS — 
 
 
 
 Brookline.. 
 
 8,057 .. 
 
 . 12,076 
 
 Atchison. 
 
 .. 15,105 .. 
 
 . 14,222 
 
 Cambridge. 
 
 52,669 .. 
 
 . 69,837 
 
 Emporia. 
 
 4,631 . . 
 
 7,550 
 
 Canton . 
 
 4,516 .. 
 
 4,521 
 
 Fort Scott. 
 
 5,372 .. 
 
 11,837 
 
 Chelsea. 
 
 21,782 .. 
 
 . 27,850 
 
 Independence. 
 
 3,128 . . 
 
 3,121 
 
 Chicopee. 
 
 11,286 .. 
 
 . 14,007 
 
 Junction City. 
 
 2,684 .. 
 
 4,477 
 
 Clinton . 
 
 8,029 .. 
 
 . 10,379 
 
 Lawrence. 
 
 8,510 . . 
 
 9,975 
 
 Danvers. 
 
 6,598 .. 
 
 7,446 
 
 Leavenworth. 
 
 .. 16,546 .. 
 
 . 21,613 
 
 Dedham. 
 
 6,233 .. 
 
 7,116 
 
 Manhattan. 
 
 2,105 .. 
 
 2,972 
 
 Deerfield . 
 
 .. , , 
 
 2,905 
 
 Newton. 
 
 2,601 .. 
 
 5,602 
 
 Easthampton. 
 
 4,206 .. 
 
 4,381 
 
 Olathe. 
 
 2,285 .. 
 
 3,290 
 
 Everett. 
 
 4,159 .. 
 
 . 11,040 
 
 Osage City. 
 
 2,098 .. 
 
 3,222 
 
 Fall River. 
 
 48,961 .. 
 
 . 74,351 
 
 Oswego. 
 
 2,351 .. 
 
 2,522 
 
 Fitchburg. 
 
 12,429 .. 
 
 . 22,007 
 
 Ottawa.. 
 
 4,032- .. 
 
 6,271 
 
 Framington. 
 
 6,235 .. 
 
 9,636 
 
 Parsons . 
 
 4,199 .. 
 
 6,736 
 
 Franklin. 
 
 4,051 .. 
 
 4,824 
 
 Salina. 
 
 3,111 .. 
 
 6,031 
 
 Gardner. 
 
 4,988 .. 
 
 8,386 
 
 Topeka . 
 
 .. 15,452 .. 
 
 31,809 
 
 Gloucester. 
 
 19,329 .. 
 
 . 21,262 
 
 Wichita . 
 
 4,911 .. 
 
 24,000 
 
 Grafton. 
 
 4,030 .. 
 
 4,989 
 
 KENTUCKY— 
 
 
 
 Great Barrington .... 
 
 4,663 .. 
 
 4,607 
 
 Bowling Green .... 
 
 5,114 .. 
 
 7,722 
 
 Haverhill. 
 
 18,472 .. 
 
 . 27,322 
 
 Covington. 
 
 .. 29,720 .. 
 
 . 37,375 
 
 Hingham. 
 
 4,485 .. 
 
 4,517 
 
 Danville. 
 
 3,074 .. 
 
 3,765 
 
 Holyoke . 
 
 21,915 .. 
 
 . 35,528 
 
 Frankfort . 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 Hopkinton. 
 
 4,601 .. 
 
 4,078 
 
 Henderson. 
 
 5,365 .. 
 
 9,500 
 
 Hudson. 
 
 3,739 .. 
 
 4,666 
 
 Hopkinsville. 
 
 4,229 .. 
 
 6,457 
 
 Hyde Park. 
 
 7,088 .. 
 
 10,200 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 .. 16,656 .. 
 
 . 22,355 
 
 Lawrence. 
 
 39,151 .. 
 
 44,559 
 
 Louisville. 
 
 .. 123,758 .. 
 
 . 161,005 
 
 Lee. 
 
 3,939 .. 
 
 3,778 
 
 Maysville. 
 
 5,220 .. 
 
 6,350 
 
 Leominster. 
 
 5,772 .. 
 
 7,266 
 
 Newport. 
 
 .. 20,433 .. 
 
 24,938 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 
 3,197 
 
 Owensboro. 
 
 6,231 .. 
 
 9,918 
 
 Lowell. 
 
 59,475 .. 
 
 77,605 
 
 Paducah. 
 
 8,036 .. 
 
 . 13,024 
 
 Lynn. 
 
 38,274 .. 
 
 . 55,684 
 
 Taris. 
 
 3,204 .. 
 
 5,505 
 
 Malden. 
 
 12,017 .. 
 
 . 22,984 
 
 Richmond. 
 
 2,909 .. 
 
 4,737 
 
 Marblehead. 
 
 7,467 .. 
 
 8,200 
 
 LOUISIANA — 
 
 
 
 Marlborough. 
 
 10,127 .. 
 
 . 13,788 
 
 Baton Rouge. 
 
 
 10,397 
 
 Medford. 
 
 7,573 .. 
 
 . 10,052 
 
 New Orleans . 
 
 .. 216,090 .. 
 
 . 241,995 
 
 Melrose. 
 
 4,560 .. 
 
 8,500 
 
 Shreveport. 
 
 8,009 .. 
 
 . 11,482 
 
 Methuen. 
 
 4,392 .. 
 
 4,807 
 
 MAINE — 
 
 
 
 Middleborough. 
 
 6,237 .. 
 
 6,052 
 
 Auburn. 
 
 9,555 . . 
 
 11,228 
 
 Milford. 
 
 9,310 .. 
 
 8,769 
 
 Augusta . 
 
 
 . 10,521 
 
 Millbury. 
 
 4,741 .. 
 
 . 4,427 
 
POPULATION OF CITIES. 
 
 8-13 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Montague. 
 
 Nantucket. 
 
 Natick. 
 
 NeecLham. 
 
 New Bedford. 
 
 Newburyport .... 
 
 Newton. 
 
 North Adams 
 Northampton 
 
 Northb ridge. 
 
 North Brookfield 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Palmer. 
 
 Peabody. 
 
 Pittsfield. 
 
 Plymouth. 
 
 Provincetown 
 
 Quincy. 
 
 Beading. 
 
 Randolph. 
 
 Revere . 
 
 Rockland.... 
 
 Salem. 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 Saugus . 
 
 Somerville. 
 
 Southbridge. 
 
 South Hadley 
 
 Spencer . 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 Stoneham. 
 
 Stoughton. 
 
 Taunton. 
 
 Wakefield. 
 
 Waltham. 
 
 Ware. 
 
 Warren. 
 
 Watertown. 
 
 Webster. 
 
 Westborough. 
 
 Westfield. 
 
 West Springfield. 
 
 Winchester. 
 
 Weymouth. 
 
 Williamstown 
 
 Winchendon. 
 
 Woburn. 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 MICHIGAN — 
 
 Adrian. 
 
 Allegan. 
 
 Alpena . 
 
 Ann Arbor. 
 
 Battle Creek. 
 
 Bay City. 
 
 Cadillac. 
 
 Cheboygan. 
 
 Cold water. 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 East Saginaw 
 
 Flint. 
 
 Grand Haven 
 Grand Rapids.... 
 
 Greenville. 
 
 Hastings. 
 
 Hillsdale. 
 
 Ionia. 
 
 Ishpeming. 
 
 Jackson . 
 
 Kalamazoo. 
 
 Laming. 
 
 Ludington. 
 
 Manistee. 
 
 Marquette. 
 
 Marshall. 
 
 Menominee. 
 
 Monroe. 
 
 Muskegon. 
 
 Niles. 
 
 Pontiac. 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 . 
 
 4,278 
 
 4,875 .. 
 
 6,292 
 
 . 
 
 3,268 
 
 8,479 .. 
 
 9,116 
 
 5,252 .. 
 
 3,034 
 
 26,845 .. 
 
 . 40,705 
 
 13,538 .. 
 
 . 13,914 
 
 16,995 .. 
 
 . 24,357 
 
 10,191 .. 
 
 16,067 
 
 12,172 .. 
 
 . 14,961 
 
 4,053 .. 
 
 4,603 
 
 4,459 .. 
 
 3,859 
 
 .. 
 
 4,563 
 
 5,504 ... 
 
 6,898 
 
 9,028 .. 
 
 . 10,123 
 
 13,364 .. 
 
 17,252 
 
 7.093 .. 
 
 7,292 
 
 4,346 .. 
 
 4,642 
 
 10,570 .. 
 
 . 16,711 
 
 . 
 
 4,081 
 
 4,027 .. 
 
 3,943 
 
 .. 
 
 5,664 
 
 4,553 .. 
 
 6,206 
 
 27,563 .. 
 
 . 30,735 
 
 4,079 .. 
 
 1,306 
 
 
 3,671 
 
 24,933 .. 
 
 . 40,117 
 
 6,464 .. 
 
 7,744 
 
 3,538 .. 
 
 4,253 
 
 7,466 .. 
 
 8,730 
 
 33,340 .. 
 
 . 44,164 
 
 4,890 .. 
 
 6,140 
 
 4,875 .. 
 
 4,850 
 
 21,213 .. 
 
 . 25,389 
 
 5,547 .. 
 
 6,970 
 
 11,712 .. 
 
 . 18,522 
 
 4,817 .. 
 
 7,329 
 
 •. 
 
 4,678 
 
 5,426 .. 
 
 7,058 
 
 6,696 .. 
 
 7,030 
 
 5,214 .. 
 
 5,229 
 
 7,587 .. 
 
 9,798 
 
 4,149 .. 
 
 5,075 
 
 . 
 
 4,853 
 
 10,570 .. 
 
 . 10,843 
 
 3,394 .. 
 
 4,226 
 
 3,722 .. 
 
 4,388 
 
 10,931 .. 
 
 . 13,491 
 
 58,291 .. 
 
 . 84,536 
 
 7,849 .. 
 
 9,239 
 
 2,305 .. 
 
 2,663 
 
 6,153 .. 
 
 . 11,228 
 
 8,061 .. 
 
 9,509 
 
 7,063 .. 
 
 . 13,090 
 
 20,693 .. 
 
 . 27,826 
 
 . 
 
 4,455 
 
 2,269 .. 
 
 6,244 
 
 4,681 .. 
 
 5,462 
 
 116,340 .. 
 
 . 205,669 
 
 19,016 .. 
 
 . 46,137 
 
 8,409 .. 
 
 9,845 
 
 4,862 .. 
 
 4,988 
 
 32,016 .. 
 
 . 64,147 
 
 3,144 .. 
 
 3,048 
 
 2,531 .. 
 
 2,951 
 
 
 3,920 
 
 4,190 .. 
 
 
 6,039 .. 
 
 . 11,184 
 
 16,105 .. 
 
 . 20,779 
 
 8,057 .. 
 
 . 17,857 
 
 8,319 .. 
 
 12,630 
 
 4,190 .. 
 
 7,499 
 
 6,930 .. 
 
 . 12,799 
 
 4,690 .. 
 
 9,096 
 
 .... 
 
 3,957 
 
 3,288 .. 
 
 . 10,606 
 
 4,930 .. 
 
 5,246 
 
 11,262 .. 
 
 . 22,668 
 
 4,197 .. 
 
 4,195 
 
 4,509 .. 
 
 , 6,243 
 
 Port Huron. 
 
 Saginaw. 
 
 Three Rivers. 
 
 West Bay City. 
 
 Wyandotte. 
 
 Ypsilanti. 
 
 MINNESOTA — 
 
 Austin. 
 
 Duluth. 
 
 Faribault. 
 
 Hastings. 
 
 Mankato. 
 
 Minneapolis. 
 
 New Ulm . 
 
 Red Wing. 
 
 Rochester. 
 
 Saint Paul. 
 
 Saint Peter. 
 
 Stillwater.. 
 
 Winona. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI — 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 Meridian. 
 
 Natchez .. 
 
 Vicksburg. 
 
 Yazoo City... 
 
 MISSOURI — 
 
 Booneville. 
 
 Brookfield.. 
 
 Cape Girardeau. 
 
 Carthage.. 
 
 Carrollton . 
 
 Clinton.. 
 
 Fulton City. 
 
 Hannibal. 
 
 Holden. 
 
 Independence. 
 
 Jefferson City. 
 
 Joplin. 
 
 Kausas City.. 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 Louisiana.. 
 
 Marshall . 
 
 Macon City.. 
 
 Moberly. 
 
 Maryville. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Saint Charles. 
 
 Saint J oseph. 
 
 Saint Louis. 
 
 Sedalia. 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 Warrensburg. 
 
 NEBRASKA — 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 Fremont. 
 
 Hastings. 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Nebraska City. 
 
 Omaha.. 
 
 Plattsmouth. 
 
 NEVADA— 
 
 Carson City.. 
 
 Virginia City. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE — 
 
 Claremont. 
 
 Concord.. 
 
 Dover.. 
 
 Keene. 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 Nashua. 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 Rochester. 
 
 Somersworth.. 
 
 NEW JERSEY — 
 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Bayonne .. 
 
 Bordentown.. 
 
 Bridgeton. 
 
 Burlington . 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 8,883 
 
 13,519 
 
 10,525 .... 
 
 46,215 
 
 2,525 .... 
 
 3,122 
 
 6,397 .... 
 
 12,910 
 
 3,631 .... 
 
 3,798 
 
 4,984 .... 
 
 6,128 
 
 2,305 .... 
 
 3,901 
 
 5,415 .... 
 
 32,725 
 
 5,425 .... 
 
 6,524 
 
 3,809 .... 
 
 3,691 
 
 5,550 .... 
 
 8,805 
 
 46,887 .... 
 
 164,738 
 
 2,471 .... 
 
 3,741 
 
 5,876 .... 
 
 6,277 
 
 5,103 .... 
 
 5,321 
 
 41,473 .... 
 
 133,156 
 
 3,436 .... 
 
 3,671 
 
 9,055 .... 
 
 11,239 
 
 10,208 .... 
 
 18,208 
 
 3,955 .... 
 
 4,552 
 
 6,204 .... 
 
 6,041 
 
 4,008 .... 
 
 10,889 
 
 7,058 .... 
 
 10,132 
 
 11,814 .... 
 
 13,298 
 
 2,542 .... 
 
 5,247 
 
 3,854 .... 
 
 4,132 
 
 2,264 .... 
 
 4,534 
 
 3,889 .... 
 
 4,288 
 
 4,167 .... 
 
 7,962 
 
 2,313 .... 
 
 3,858 
 
 2,868 .... 
 
 4,689 
 
 2,409 .... 
 
 4,289 
 
 11,074 .... 
 
 12,816 
 
 2,014 .... 
 
 2,515 
 
 3,146 .... 
 
 6,373 
 
 5,271 .... 
 
 6,732 
 
 7,038 .... 
 
 9,190 
 
 55,785 .... 
 
 132,416 
 
 3,996 .... 
 
 4,538 
 
 4,325 .... 
 
 5,071 
 
 2,701 .... 
 
 4,258 
 
 3,046 .... 
 
 3,350 
 
 6,070 .... 
 
 8,213 
 
 3,485 .... 
 
 4.017 
 
 3,835 .... 
 
 4,789 
 
 5,014 .... 
 
 6,500 
 
 32,431 .... 
 
 52,811 
 
 350,518 .... 
 
 460,357 
 
 9,561 .... 
 
 14,511 
 
 6,522 
 
 21,842 
 
 4,049 .... 
 
 4,682 
 
 2,131 .... 
 
 3,118 
 
 3,013 .... 
 
 6,654 
 
 2,817 .... 
 
 13,793 
 
 13,003 .... 
 
 55,491 
 
 4,183 .... 
 
 11,472 
 
 30,518 .... 
 
 139,526 
 
 4,175 .... 
 
 8,403 
 
 4,229 .... 
 
 4,080 
 
 10,917 .... 
 
 6,377 
 
 4,704 .... 
 
 5,553 
 
 13,843 .... 
 
 16,948 
 
 11,687 .... 
 
 12,779 
 
 6,784 .... 
 
 7,439 
 
 32,630 .... 
 
 43,983 
 
 13,397 .... 
 
 19,266 
 
 9,690 .... 
 
 9,811 
 
 6,784 .... 
 
 7,113 
 
 6,586 .... 
 
 6,447 
 
 5,477 .... 
 
 13,038 
 
 9,372 .... 
 
 18,996 
 
 4,258 .... 
 
 5,045 
 
 8,722 .... 
 
 11,471 
 
 6,090 .... 
 
 8,198 
 
 52 
 
844 
 
 POPULATION OF CITIEIES, 
 
 1880 
 
 Camden. 41,659 
 
 Elizabeth. 28,229 
 
 Gloucester City. 5,347 
 
 Hackensack. 4,248 
 
 Harrison. 6,898 
 
 Hoboken. 30,999 
 
 Jersey City. 120,722 
 
 Lambertville. 4,183 
 
 Millville. 7,660 
 
 Morristown. 6,418 
 
 Newark. 136,508 
 
 New Brunswick. 17,166 
 
 Orange. 13,207 
 
 Passaic. 6,532 
 
 Patersou. 51,031 
 
 Perth Amboy. 4,808 
 
 Phillipsburg. 7,181 
 
 Plaintield. 8,125 
 
 Kakway. 6,455 
 
 Salem . 5,036 
 
 Trenton. 29,910 
 
 Yinelaud. 2,519 
 
 Washington. 2,142 
 
 NEW MEXICO — 
 
 Santa Fe. 6,635 
 
 NEW YORK — 
 
 Albany. 90,758 
 
 Amsterdam. 9,466 
 
 Auburn. 21,924 
 
 Batavia. 4,845 
 
 Binghamton. 17,317 
 
 Brooklyn. 566,663 
 
 Buffalo. 155,134 
 
 Canandaigua. 5,726 
 
 Catskill. 4,320 
 
 Cohoes. 19,416 
 
 College Point. 4,192 
 
 Corning. 4,802 
 
 Cortland. 4,050 
 
 Dunkirk. 7,248 
 
 Elmira... 20,541 
 
 Fredonia.• 
 
 Fulton. 
 
 Geneva... 6,878 
 
 # Glens Falls. 4,900 
 
 Gloversvillo. 7,133 
 
 Greenbush. 3,295 
 
 g reen Island. 4,160 
 
 oosick Falls. 4,530 
 
 Hornellsville.. 8,195 
 
 Hudson. 8,670 
 
 Ithaca. 9,105 
 
 Jamestown. 9,357 
 
 Johnstown. 5,013 
 
 Kingston. 18,344 
 
 Lansingburg. 7,432 
 
 Little Falls. 6,910 
 
 Lockport. 13,522 
 
 Long Island City. 17,129 
 
 Malone. 4,193 
 
 Middletown. 8,494 
 
 New Brighton . 12,679 
 
 Newburgh. 18,049 
 
 New York.1,206,299 
 
 Ogdensburg. 10,341 
 
 Oswego.... 21,116 
 
 Owego. 5,525 
 
 Peekskill...... 6,893 
 
 Port Henry. 2,494 
 
 Port Jervis. 8,678 
 
 Poughkeepsie. 20,207 
 
 Rochester. 89,366 
 
 Rome. 12,194 
 
 Saratoga Springs. 8,421 
 
 Schenectady. 13,655 
 
 Sing Sing. 6,578 
 
 Syracuse... 51,792 
 
 Tarrytown. 2,684 
 
 Trov. 56,747 
 
 Utica. :T.. 33,914 
 
 Waterto wn. 10,697 
 
 1890 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 58,274 
 
 West Troy . 
 
 8,820 
 
 .'... 12,942 
 
 37,670 
 
 Whitehall. 
 
 4,270 
 
 5,346 
 
 6,563 
 
 Yhmkers.. 
 
 18,892 
 
 .... 31,949 
 
 6,000 
 
 8,528 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA— 
 Asheville. . 
 
 2,616 
 
 . ... 10,433 
 
 43,561 . 
 
 Charlotte.. 
 
 7,094 
 
 . ... 11,555 
 
 163,987 
 
 Fayetteville . 
 
 3,485 
 
 4,220 
 
 4,138 
 
 Greensborough . 
 
 3,124 
 
 3,317 
 
 9,957 
 
 ItaleigH . 
 
 9,265 
 
 .... 12,798 
 
 8,500 
 
 Salisbury . 
 
 2,723 
 
 4,436 
 
 181,518 
 
 Wilmington . 
 
 17,350 
 
 .... 20,008 
 
 18,459 
 
 Winston . 
 
 2,854 
 
 7,988 
 
 18,774 
 
 13,027 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA— 
 Bismarck. 
 
 1,758 
 
 2,260 
 
 7 8,3j8 
 9,476 
 8,622 
 
 Fargo .. 
 
 2,693 
 
 6,613 
 
 Grand Forks . 
 
 1,705 
 
 4,963 
 
 11,250 
 
 7,095 
 
 5,512 
 
 58,488 
 
 4,068 
 
 2,830 
 
 OHIO — 
 
 Akron . 
 
 16,512 
 
 .... 27,702 
 
 Alliance . 
 
 4,636 
 
 7,598 
 
 Ashland . 
 
 3,004 
 
 3,563 
 
 Ashtabula. 
 
 4,445 
 
 8,316 
 
 Bellaire. 
 
 8,025 
 
 9,901 
 
 Cambridge.. 
 
 2,883 
 
 4,345 
 
 6,713 
 
 Canton . 
 
 12,258 
 
 .... 26,327 
 
 Cliilicothe . 
 
 10,938 
 
 .... 11,256 
 
 94,640 
 
 17,264 
 
 25,887 
 
 7,200 
 
 36,093 
 
 804,377 
 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 255,139 
 
 .... 296,309 
 
 Circleville. 
 
 6,046 
 
 6,675 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 160,146 
 
 .... 261,546 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 51,647 
 
 .... 90,398 
 
 Coshocton. 
 
 3,044 
 
 3,725 
 
 Dayton . 
 
 38,678 
 
 .... 68,568 
 
 254^457 
 
 5,847 
 
 4,915 
 
 22,432 
 
 Defiance . 
 
 5,907 
 
 7,386 
 
 Delaware . 
 
 6,894 
 
 8,202 
 
 East Liverpool . 
 
 5,668 
 
 .... 10,947 
 
 Elyria . 
 
 4,777 
 
 5,530 
 
 5,500 
 
 Findlay . 
 
 4,633 
 
 .... 16,000 
 
 8^520 
 
 8,561 
 
 9,402 
 
 28,070 
 
 3,390 
 
 4,208 
 
 6,500 
 
 5,600 
 
 Fremont . 
 
 8,446 
 
 7,140 
 
 Gallipolis . 
 
 4,400 
 
 4,550 
 
 Greenville . 
 
 3,535 
 
 5,539 
 
 Hamilton . 
 
 12,122 
 
 .... 17,519 
 
 Ironton . 
 
 8,857 
 
 .... 10,922 
 
 Lancaster . 
 
 6,803 
 
 8,297 
 
 Lebanon . 
 
 
 3,174 
 
 Lima. 
 
 7,567 
 
 .... 15,970 
 
 13,796 
 
 7,287 
 
 4,403 
 
 3,684 
 
 London. 
 
 3,067 
 
 3,292 
 
 Mansfield. 
 
 9,859 
 
 .... 13,542 
 
 Marietta. 
 
 6,444 
 
 8,308 
 
 Marion. 
 
 3,899 
 
 8,308 
 
 10,948 
 
 9,885 
 
 11,557 
 
 15,991 
 
 Massillon. 
 
 6,836 
 
 .... 10,058 
 
 Middletown. 
 
 4,538 
 
 7,673 
 
 6,016 
 
 Mount Vernon. 
 
 5,249 
 
 Napoleon. 
 
 3,032 
 
 2,764 
 
 10,851 
 
 Nelsonville. 
 
 3,095 
 
 4,547 
 
 21,181 
 
 10,523 
 
 9,000 
 
 16,003 
 
 Newark. 
 
 9,600 
 
 .... 14,369 
 
 Norwalk . 
 
 5,704 
 
 7,268 
 
 Oberlin . 
 
 3,242 
 
 4,330 
 
 Piqua . 
 
 6,031 
 
 9,069 
 
 30^396 
 
 8,774 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 11,321 
 
 .... 12,387 
 
 Sandusky . 
 
 15,838 
 
 .... 19,234 
 
 1L918 
 
 Sidney . 
 
 3,823 
 
 4,903 
 
 19,000 
 
 Springfield . 
 
 20,730 
 
 .... 32,135 
 
 23,263 
 
 Steubenville . 
 
 12,093 
 
 .... 13,363 
 
 ,513,501 
 
 Tiffin . 
 
 7,879 
 
 .... 10,772 
 
 11,667 
 
 Toledo . 
 
 50,137 
 
 .... 82,652 
 
 21,826 
 
 Trov . 
 
 3,803 
 
 4,590 
 
 5,147 
 
 Urbana . 
 
 6,252 
 
 6,498 
 
 10.020 
 
 2,436 
 
 7,217 
 
 Van Wert. 
 
 4,079 
 
 5,548 
 
 Warren. 
 
 4,428 
 
 6,086 
 
 Wapakoneta. 
 
 2,765 
 
 3,616 
 
 22,836 
 
 Washington. 
 
 3,798 
 
 6,793 
 
 138,327 
 
 Wooster. 
 
 6,840 
 
 6,050 
 
 14,980 
 
 13,124 
 
 Xenia. 
 
 7,026 
 
 8,145 
 
 Youngstown. 
 
 15,435 
 
 .... 33,199 
 
 18,392 
 
 Zanesville. 
 
 18,113 
 
 .... 21,117 
 
 10,072 
 
 87,877 
 
 OREGON — 
 
 Astoria . 
 
 2,803 
 
 7,071 
 
 3,901 
 
 East Portland. 
 
 2,934 
 
 .... 10,481 
 
 60,699 
 
 Eugene. 
 
 1,117 
 
 3,958 
 
 44,001 
 
 Portland. 
 
 17,577 
 
 .... 47,294 
 
 14,740 
 
 Salem. 
 
 2,538 
 
 4,515 
 
POPULATION OF CITIES. . 845 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 --- 
 
 1890 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA- 
 
 ( Harrisburg 
 
 
 Providence . 
 
 104,857 
 
 
 
 132,043 
 
 Allegheny. 
 
 .... 78,682 .. 
 
 . 104,967 
 
 Westerly. 
 
 6,104 
 
 
 
 6,333 
 
 Allentown. 
 
 .... 18,063 .. 
 
 . 25,183 
 
 Woonsocket. 
 
 16,050 
 
 
 
 20,769 
 
 Altoona. 
 
 .... 19,710 .. 
 
 . 30,269 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Archbald. 
 
 3,049 .. 
 
 4,028 
 
 Charleston. 
 
 49,984 
 
 
 
 54,692 
 
 Ashland. 
 
 .... 6,052 .. 
 
 
 Columbia. 
 
 10,036 
 
 
 
 14 508 
 
 Ashley . 
 
 2^799 . . 
 
 3,192 
 
 Greenville. 
 
 6,160 
 
 
 
 8*340 
 
 Beaver Falls. 
 
 6,104 .. 
 
 9,734 
 
 Spartanburg. 
 
 3,253 
 
 
 
 6,532 
 
 Bethlehem. 
 
 6,193 .. 
 
 6,750 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bloomsburg. 
 
 3,702 .. 
 
 4,659 
 
 Deadwood . 
 
 3,777 
 
 
 
 2,366 
 
 Bradford. 
 
 _ 9,197 .. 
 
 10,478 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 200 
 
 Bristol. 
 
 6^273 .. 
 
 6,537 
 
 Yankton . 
 
 3,431 
 
 
 
 4,700 
 
 Butler . 
 
 3,163 .. 
 
 8,715 
 
 TENNESSEE — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbondale . 
 
 7,714 .. 
 
 10,826 
 
 Chattanooga. 
 
 12,892 
 
 
 
 29,109 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 6,209 . . 
 
 8,031 
 
 Clarksville. 
 
 3,880 
 
 
 
 8,053 
 
 Catasauqua. 
 
 3,065 .. 
 
 3,703 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 5,377 
 
 
 
 10,056 
 
 Chambersburg... 
 
 6,877 .. 
 
 8,006 
 
 Knoxville. 
 
 9,693 
 
 
 
 22,447 
 
 Chester. 
 
 14,997 .. 
 
 . 20,167 
 
 Memphis. 
 
 33,592 
 
 
 
 64,586 
 
 Coatesvllle. 
 
 2,766 ... 
 
 3,680 
 
 Nashville . 
 
 43,350 
 
 
 
 76,309 
 
 Columbia. 
 
 8,312 .. 
 
 . 10,597 
 
 TEXAS— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conshohocken .... 
 
 4,561 .. 
 
 5,469 
 
 Austin. 
 
 10,013 
 
 
 
 15,325 
 
 Corry. 
 
 5,277 .. 
 
 5,671 
 
 Brenham. 
 
 4,101 
 
 
 
 4,683 
 
 Danville. 
 
 8,346 .. 
 
 9,073 
 
 Corsicana. 
 
 3,373 
 
 
 
 8,278 
 
 DuBois. 
 
 2,718 .. 
 
 6,137 
 
 Dallas. 
 
 10,358 
 
 
 
 38,140 
 
 Dunmore. 
 
 5,151 .. 
 
 8,288 
 
 Fort Worth . 
 
 6,663 
 
 
 
 20,725 
 
 Easton. 
 
 .... 11,924 .. 
 
 . 14,185 
 
 Gainesville. 
 
 2,667 
 
 
 
 6,563 
 
 Erie. 
 
 .... 27,737 .. 
 
 39,699 
 
 Galveston. 
 
 22,248 
 
 
 
 29,118 
 
 Franklin. .... 
 
 5,010 .. 
 
 6,220 
 
 Houston. 
 
 16,513 
 
 
 
 27,598 
 
 Gettysburg. 
 
 2,814 .. 
 
 3,180 
 
 Huntsville. 
 
 2,536 
 
 
 
 2,271 
 
 Gilberton. 
 
 3,098 .. 
 
 3,668 
 
 Laredo . 
 
 3,521 
 
 
 
 11,313 
 
 Greenville. 
 
 3,007 .. 
 
 3,637 
 
 Marshall. 
 
 5,624 
 
 
 
 7,196 
 
 Hazleton. 
 
 6,935 .. 
 
 . 11,681 
 
 Paris. 
 
 3,980 
 
 
 
 8,258 
 
 Huntingdon. 
 
 4,125 .. 
 
 6,062 
 
 San Antonio. 
 
 20,550 
 
 
 
 38,681 
 
 Johnstown. 
 
 8,380 .. 
 
 . 23,653 
 
 Sherman. 
 
 6,093 
 
 
 
 7,338 
 
 Kittanning. 
 
 2,624 .. 
 
 3,095 
 
 Waco. 
 
 7,295 
 
 
 
 14,485 
 
 Lancaster. 
 
 .... 25,769 .. 
 
 . 32,090 
 
 UTAH — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lebanon . 
 
 8,778 .. 
 
 14,754 
 
 Logan . 
 
 3,396 
 
 
 
 4,624 
 
 Lewisburg. 
 
 3,080 .. 
 
 3,205 
 
 Ogden. 
 
 6,069 
 
 . 
 
 
 18,269 
 
 Lewiston. 
 
 
 3,288 
 
 Provo City. 
 
 3,432 
 
 
 
 5,153 
 
 Lock Haven ,.... 
 
 
 7,350 
 
 Salt Lake City . 
 
 20,768 
 
 
 
 44,771 
 
 McKeesnort. 
 
 8.212 .. 
 
 . 20,711 
 
 VERMONT— (Montpelier ) 
 
 
 
 
 Mahanoy City .... 
 
 ”.181 .. 
 
 . 11,291 
 
 Brattleboro. 
 
 5,880 
 
 
 
 6,859 
 
 Marietta. 
 
 ESI? .. 
 
 2,385 
 
 Burlington. 
 
 11,365 
 
 
 
 14,566 
 
 Mauch Chunk.... 
 
 _ 3,752 .. 
 
 4,098 
 
 Rutland. 
 
 12,149 
 
 
 
 11,770 
 
 Meadville. 
 
 8.8^ .. 
 
 9,502 
 
 VIRGINIA — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mecbanicsburg ... 
 
 3,018 .. 
 
 3,690 
 
 Alexandria. 
 
 13,659 
 
 . 
 
 
 14,318 
 
 Miuersville. 
 
 3,249 .. 
 
 3,502 
 
 Danville. 
 
 7,526 
 
 
 
 10,285 
 
 New Ca.at.1a... 
 
 _ 8,418 .. 
 
 11,581 
 
 Fredericksburg. 
 
 5,010 
 
 
 
 4,517 
 
 New Brighton. 
 
 31653 .. 
 
 5^603 
 
 Hampton _ K. . 
 
 2^684 
 
 
 
 6,538 
 
 Norristown . 
 
 .... 13,063 .. 
 
 . 19,750 
 
 Lynchburg. 
 
 15,959 
 
 
 
 19,779 
 
 Oil City. 
 
 7,315 .. 
 
 10,943 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 5,729 
 
 
 
 9,229 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 .... 847,170 .. 
 
 . 1,046,252 
 
 Norfolk . 
 
 21,966 
 
 
 
 34,986 
 
 Phoenix ville. 
 
 6,682 .. 
 
 8,508 
 
 Petersburg. 
 
 21,656 
 
 
 
 23,317 
 
 Pittsburg. 
 
 .... 156,389 .. 
 
 . 238,473 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 11,390 
 
 . 
 
 
 12,345 
 
 Pittston. 
 
 7,472 .. 
 
 10,295 
 
 Richmond . 
 
 63,600 
 
 
 
 80,838 
 
 Pottstown. 
 
 5,305 .. 
 
 . 13,201 
 
 Staunton . 
 
 6,664 
 
 
 
 6,921 
 
 Pottsville. 
 
 13,253 .. 
 
 . 14,194 
 
 Winchester. 
 
 4,958 
 
 . 
 
 
 4,957 
 
 Reading. 
 
 .... 43,278 .. 
 
 58.926 
 
 WASHINGTON — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rochester. 
 
 2,552 .. 
 
 3,635 
 
 Colfax. 
 
 444 
 
 . 
 
 
 2,253 
 
 
 4,149 
 
 6,950 
 
 Ellonsburg. 
 
 
 
 
 2,758 
 
 
 45,850 
 
 83^450 
 
 Fair Haven. 
 
 
 
 
 4^273 
 
 Shamokin. 
 
 8,184 .. 
 
 . 14^339 
 
 Olymnia . 
 
 1,232 
 
 . 
 
 
 4',696 
 
 fiharrm 
 
 5,684 .. 
 
 7,447 
 
 Port Townsend. 
 
 917 
 
 
 
 4,498 
 
 
 3,466 .. 
 
 4^897 
 
 Seattle . 
 
 3,533 
 
 
 
 43^914 
 
 Shenandoah. 
 
 .... 10,147 . . 
 
 . 13^445 
 
 Snohomish. 
 
 149 
 
 
 
 2^003 
 
 South Bethlehem 
 
 4,925 .. 
 
 . 10,386 
 
 Spokane Falls. 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 22,626 
 
 South Easton. 
 
 4,534 .. 
 
 5,616 
 
 Tacoma. 
 
 1,098 
 
 . 
 
 
 35,858 
 
 Sunbury . 
 
 4,077 .. 
 
 5,892 
 
 Vancouver. 
 
 1,722 
 
 
 
 2,849 
 
 Tamaqua. 
 
 5,730 . . 
 
 4,632 
 
 Walla Walla . 
 
 3,588 
 
 . 
 
 
 7,239 
 
 
 9,046 .. 
 
 8,010 
 
 Whatcom. 
 
 
 
 
 3,677 
 
 To wanda. 
 
 3,814 .. 
 
 4J65 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA— 
 
 
 
 
 Warren. 
 
 2,810 .. 
 
 5,288 
 
 Charleston . 
 
 4,192 
 
 
 
 7,257 
 
 Washington. 
 
 4,292 .. 
 
 7,045 
 
 Martinsburg. 
 
 6,335 
 
 . 
 
 
 7,207 
 
 West Chester. 
 
 7,046 .. 
 
 7,965 
 
 Parkersburg. 
 
 6,582 
 
 . 
 
 
 9,389 
 
 Wilkesbarre. 
 
 .... 23,339 .. 
 
 . 37,557 
 
 Wheeling. 
 
 30,737 
 
 
 
 35,052 
 
 Williamsport. 
 
 .... 18,934 .. 
 
 . 27,107 
 
 WISCONSIN — 
 
 
 
 
 
 York. 
 
 .... 13,940 . . 
 
 . 20,849 
 
 Appleton . 
 
 8,005 
 
 . 
 
 
 11,825 
 
 RHODE ISLAND — 
 
 
 
 Baraboo.. 
 
 3,266 
 
 
 
 4{602 
 
 
 6,028 . . 
 
 5,475 
 
 Beloit . 
 
 4,790 
 
 
 
 6,276 
 
 Newport . 
 
 .... 15,693 . . 
 
 . 19^449 
 
 Eau Claire. 
 
 10,119 
 
 . 
 
 
 17,438 
 
 Pawtucket. 
 
 .... 19,030 .. 
 
 . 27,502 
 
 Fond du Lac. 
 
 13,094 
 
 • 
 
 
 11,942 
 
846 
 
 POPULATION OF CITIES. 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 Green Bay. 
 
 
 8,922 
 
 Hudson. 
 
 
 2,882 
 
 Janesville. 
 
 . 9,018 
 
 .... 10,631 
 
 Kenosha . 
 
 
 6,529 
 
 La Crosse. 
 
 
 .... 25,053 
 
 Mailison. 
 
 
 13,392 
 
 Manitowoc. 
 
 
 7,525 
 
 Milwaukee. 
 
 
 .... 204,150 
 
 Monroe. 
 
 
 3,865 
 
 Neennli . 
 
 . 4,202 
 
 5,076 
 
 Oconto . 
 
 
 5,221 
 
 Oshkosh. 
 
 . 15,748 
 
 .... 22,752 
 
 Platteville. 
 
 . 2,687 
 
 2,740 
 
 Portage. 
 
 . 4,346 
 
 6,130 
 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 Prairie du Chien.... 
 
 2,777 .... 
 
 3,122 
 
 Racine. 
 
 16,031 .... 
 
 21,022 
 
 Ripon . 
 
 3,117 .... 
 
 3,354 
 
 Sheboygan ... 
 
 7,314 .... 
 
 16,341 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 2,387 .... 
 
 2,795 
 
 Steven’s Point. 
 
 4,449 .... 
 
 7,888 
 
 Superior. 
 
 665 .... 
 
 13,000 
 
 Two Rivers. 
 
 2,052 .... 
 
 2,870 
 
 Watertown. 
 
 7,883 .... 
 
 8,870 
 
 Waukesha. 
 
 2,969 .... 
 
 7,475 
 
 Wausau. 
 
 WYOMING — 
 
 4,277 .... 
 
 9,251 
 
 Clieyenne . 
 
 3,456 .... 
 
 11,693 
 
 Laramie City. 
 
 2,696 .... 
 
 6,395 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON.... 
 
 JOHN ADAMS. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
 JAMES MADISON. 
 
 JAMES MONROE. 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON. 
 
 MARTIN VAN BUREN ...... 
 
 WILLIAM H. HARRISON... 
 
 JOHN TYLER. 
 
 JAMES KNOX POLK. 
 
 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 
 
 MILLARD FILLMORE. 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 ABRAIIAM LINCOLN. 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 RUTHERFORD B. IIAYES. 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 CHESTER A. ARTHCR. 
 
 GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 9.1773. 
 4,1841. 
 
 Born in Westmoreland Co., Va. . Feb. 22, 1732. 
 
 Died in Mount Vernon. Dec. 14, 1799. 
 
 Inaugurated.April 30, 1789 1797. 
 
 Born in Braintree (now Quincy), Mass. Oct. 19, 1735. 
 
 Died in Quincy. July 4, 1826. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1797-1801. 
 
 Born inShadwell, Albemarle Co., Va.. April 2, 1743. 
 
 Died in Monticello, Va.. July 4, 1826. 
 
 Inaugurated. '....March 4,1801-1809. 
 
 Born in King George, Va. March 16, 1751. 
 
 Died in Montpelier, Va. June 28, 1836 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1809-1817. 
 
 Born in Westmoreland Co., Va. April 28,1759. 
 
 Died in New York. July 4,1831. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1817-1825. 
 
 Born in Braintree, Mass. July 11,1767. 
 
 Died in Washington, D. C. . Feb. 23, 1848. 
 
 Inaugurated. March 4, 1825-1829. 
 
 Bom in Waxhaw Settlement, N. C. March 15, 1767. 
 
 Died in the “ Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn. . June 8,1845. 
 
 Inaugurated. .March 4, 1829-1837, 
 
 Born in Kinderliook, N. Y. Dec. 6,1782. 
 
 Died in Kinderhook, N. Y.. July 24,1862. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1837-1841. 
 
 Born in Berkeley, Va. Feb. 
 
 Died in Washington, D.C. April 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1841. 
 
 Born in Charles City Co., Va.. March 29,1790. 
 
 Died in Richmond, Va. Jan. 17,1862. 
 
 Inaugurated.April 4,1841-1845. 
 
 Born in Mecklenburg Co., N. C. Nov. 2, 1795. 
 
 Died in Nashville, Tenn. June 16, 1849. 
 
 Inaagurated.March 4, 1845-1819. 
 
 Born in Orange Co., Va. Sept. 
 
 Died in Washington, D. C. July 
 
 Inaugurated. March 5, 1849-1851. 
 
 Born in Locke, CayugaCo., N. Y. Jan. 7, 1800. 
 
 Died in Buffalo, N. Y. . March 8,1874. 
 
 Inaugurated.July 10,1850-1853. 
 
 Bom in Hillsborough, N. H . Nov. 
 
 Died in Concord, N. H . Oct. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1853-1857. 
 
 Bora in Stony Batter, Franklin Co., Pa. April 22,1791. 
 
 Died in Lancaster, Pa. June 1, 1868. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4,1857-1861. 
 
 Bom in Hardin Co. (now Lame), Ivy.. Feb. 2,1869. 
 
 Died in Washington, D. C. April 16,1865. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 14, 1861-1865. 
 
 Bora in Raleigh, N. C .. Dec. 
 
 Died in Greenville, Tenn. July 
 
 Inaugurated.April 15, 1865-1869. 
 
 Bora in Point Pleasant, Ohio. 
 
 Died at Mount Gregor, N. Y. 
 
 Inaugurated .March 4, 1869-1877. 
 
 Born in Delaware, Ohio. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4. 1877-1881. 
 
 Born in Orange, Ohio . 
 
 Died in Elberon, Long Branch, N. J . 
 
 Inaugurated. ..March 4, 1881. 
 
 Bora in Fairfield, Franklin Co., Vt. 
 
 Died at 123 Lexington Ave., N Y. City. 
 
 Inaugurated.September 20, 1881-1885. 
 
 Born in Caldwell, N. J... March 18,1837. 
 
 Inaugurated.March 4, 1885-1889. 
 
 Bora in North Bend, Ohio. Aug. 20,1833. 
 
 Inaugurated..........March 4.1889. 
 
 24. 1784. 
 9, i860. 
 
 23, 1804. 
 8,1869. 
 
 29,1808. 
 31, 1875. 
 
 April 27,1822. 
 July 23, 1885. 
 
 Oct. 4, 1822. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 19,1831. 
 19, 1881, 
 
 6, 1830. 
 18, 1886. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 AX 
 
 ABENAKIS, The, 
 
 War with, 148, 154. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, GENERAL, 
 
 Expedition of against Ticonderoga, 871, 
 ACADIA. 
 
 Name of, 75; ruin of, 261-264. 
 
 ADAMS, John, 
 
 Predicts American Independence, 286; nom¬ 
 inates Washington for general-in-chief, 301; 
 member of committee to draft Declaration, 
 300; commissioner to Paris, 354; Vice-Presi¬ 
 dent, 362; sketch of, 372; administration of, 
 372-376; death of, 424. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy. 
 
 Secretary of State, 417; elected President, 423; 
 sketch of, 423; administration of, 423-426; 
 death of, 461. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, 
 
 Speaks out for liberty, 295. 
 
 ADET, M„ 
 
 Evil influence of in United States, 373. 
 ADOLPHUS, Gustayus, 
 
 Plans an American colony, 164. 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
 
 Treaty of, 158. 
 
 ALABAMA, 
 
 Admission of, 420. 
 
 ALABAMA, The, 
 
 Career of, 533. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS, THE, 
 
 Settlement of, 556. 
 
 ALASKA, 
 
 Purchase of, 547. 
 
 ALGIERS, 
 
 Tribute paid to, 370; brought to terms, 416. 
 ALGONQUINS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 42 and Map I. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, 
 
 Expedition of against Ticonderoga, 298. 
 AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTION, 
 
 Notice of. 361; passage of Fourteenth and Fif¬ 
 teenth, 553. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, 
 
 Letter of, 701. 
 
 AMHERST, General, 
 
 Commander-in-chief in America, 273. 
 
 AMIDAS. Philip, 
 
 Vovage of, 81. 
 
 AMNESTY PROCLAMATION, THE, 
 
 Account of, 544. 
 
 ANDERSON, ROBERT. 
 
 At Fort Sumter, 484. 
 
 ANDre, John, 
 
 Connection of with Arnold’s treason, 344; ex¬ 
 ecution of, 345. 
 
 ANDROS, Sir Edmund, 
 
 Career of in America, 123,146,147,174,191,197, 
 200, 207. 
 
 ANTI ET AM. 
 
 Battle of, 506. 
 
 ANTI-FEDERALIST PARTY, THE, 
 
 Rise of, 359. 
 
 ARCHDALE, JOHN, 
 
 Governor of South Carolina, 234. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS, 
 
 Account of, 467. 
 
 ARGALL, Samuel, 
 
 Expeditions of, 108,109. 
 
 ARKANSAS, 
 
 Organization of, 420; admission of, 435. 
 
 847 
 
 ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE, 
 
 Mentioned, 83. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, 
 
 At Ticonderoga, 299; at Quebec, 303; heroism 
 of at Saratoga, 323; treason of, 343; In Vir¬ 
 ginia, 346. 
 
 ARREARS OF PENSIONS ACT, 
 
 Account of, 684. 
 
 ARTHUR, Chester A., 
 
 Vice-President, 643; becomes President, 652; 
 administration of, 662-671. 
 
 ATLANTA, 
 
 Capture of, 526. 
 
 BACON, Nathaniel, 
 
 Rebellion of, 120. 
 
 BALBOA, 
 
 Discovery of the Pacific by, 57. 
 
 BALTIMORE, 
 
 Siege of, 410; attack on Union soldiers in, 485. 
 BALTIMORE, The LORDS. 
 
 Colonize Maryland, 217. 
 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Organization of, 366; expiration of charter of, 
 415; re-chartering of vetoed by Jackson, 427; 
 new charter of vetoed by Tyler, 441. 
 
 BANKS, N. P., 
 
 In West Virginia, 502; in command of the Red 
 River expedition, 524. 
 
 BARCLAY, Robert, 
 
 Governor of New Jersey, 207. 
 
 BARLOW. Arthur, 
 
 Voyage of, 81. 
 
 BAXTER. George, 
 
 Bearer of charter of Rhode Island, 107, 
 BAYARD, Thomas F., 
 
 Secretary of State, 673. 
 
 BEECHER, HENRY WARD, 
 
 Notice and death of, 681. 
 
 BELL, Professor a. G., 
 
 Inventor of telephone, 625. 
 
 BELLOMONT, Earl of. 
 
 Governor of New York, 179. 
 
 BENNINGTON, 
 
 Battle of, 322. 
 
 BENTON, Thomas H„ 
 
 Procures the expunging of resolutions of cen¬ 
 sure against Jackson, 432. 
 
 BERKELEY, Sir William, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 116; vengeance of, 121.; 
 proprietor of New Jersey, 203. 
 
 BLACK FRIDAY, 
 
 Story of, 553. 
 
 BLACK HAWK WAR, THE, 
 
 Account of, 429. 
 
 BLAINE, James G-, 
 
 Candidate for the presidency. 669; Secretary cf 
 State, 648 ; a second time, 697 ; favors Pan- 
 BLOCKADE [American Congress, 725. 
 
 The question of in Europe, 384, 385. 
 BOBADILLA, 
 
 Mentioned, 56. 
 
 BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, 
 
 Policy of toward the United States, 374; sella 
 Louisiana, 378: measures of against Great 
 Britain, 383; issues Milan Decree, 386; In¬ 
 vasion of Russia by, 393. 
 
 BONAPARTE, LOUIS NAPOLEOK, 
 
 Intrigue of respecting Mexico, 545. 
 
848 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BOONE, DANIEL, 
 
 Colonizes Kentucky, 36. . 
 
 BOOTH, John Wilkes, 
 
 Assassination of Lincoln by, 542. 
 
 BOSTON, 
 
 Founded, 127; occupied by the British army, 
 293; massacre at, 293; siege of, 298-307; evac¬ 
 uation of, 307; great Are in, 558. 
 
 BOURNE, Sylvester, 
 
 Mentioned, 703. 
 
 ' BRADDOCK, EDWARD, 
 
 Campaign of, 258-261 ; death of, 261. 
 BRADFORD, WILLIAM, 
 
 Governor of Massachusetts, 124. 
 
 BRAGG, Braxton, 
 
 At Murfreesborougb, 500; at Chickamauga, 514; 
 at Lookout and Missionary Ridge, 514, 515. 
 BRANDYWINE, 
 
 Battle of, 324. 
 
 BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN C., 
 
 Vice-President, 474; in command in the Shen¬ 
 andoah Valley, 536. 
 
 BROOKLYN BRIDGE, THE, 
 
 Building of, 661-602. 
 
 BROOKS, John A., 
 
 Candidate for the Vice-Presidency, 694. 
 BROWN, John, 
 
 Insurrection led by, 478. 
 
 BRYANT, William Cullen, 
 
 Death of, 639. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James, 
 
 Part of in Ostend Manifesto, 472; President, 
 474; sketch of, 474; administration of, 474-482. 
 BUENA VISTA, 
 
 Battle of, 453. 
 
 BULL RUN, 
 
 Battle of, 491; second battle of, 505. 
 
 BUNKER HILL, 
 
 Fortification of by Americans, 299; battle of, 
 300. 
 
 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT, THE, 
 
 History of, 443. 
 
 BURGESSES, House of, 
 
 Establishment of, 110; scene in, 289. 
 BURGOYNE, General, 
 
 Invasion of, 321; at Bemis’s Heights, 323; 
 capitulation of, 324. 
 
 BURNSIDE, Ambrose E., 
 
 In command of army, 509; at Fredericksburg, 
 509 ; death of, 678. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, 
 
 Elected Vice-President, 376; kills Hamilton, 
 382 ; conspiracy of, 383. 
 
 BUTLER, B. F., 
 
 At New Orleans, 498; at Fort Fisher, 532; at 
 Bermuda Hundred, 536. 
 
 O 
 
 CABINET. The, 
 
 Organization of, 364. 
 
 CABLE, The Atlantic, 
 
 Laying of, 476, 545. 
 
 CABOT, John, 
 
 Voyage of, 76. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, 
 
 Voyage and explorations of, 77. 
 
 CALHOUN, John C., 
 
 In Congress, 391; secretary of war, 417; Vice- 
 President, 423; as a nullifler, 429; death of, 
 467. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, 
 
 Discovery of gold in, 459; organization of, 463; 
 admission of, 464. 
 
 CALIFORNIANS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 CALVERT, SIR GEORGE, 
 
 Sketch of, 217. 
 
 CALVERT, Sir Cecil, 
 
 Colonizes Maryland, 218. 
 
 CAMDEN, 
 
 Battle of, 341. 
 
 CANADIAN INSURRECTION, THE, 
 
 Account of, 438. 
 
 CANONCHET, 
 
 Notice of, 141 ; execution of, 14&. 
 
 CANONICUS, 
 
 Notice of, 129. 
 
 CAPE BRETON, 
 
 Conquest of, 157, 158. 
 
 CARTERET, Sir GEORGE, 
 
 Proprietor of New Jersey, 203. 
 
 CARTIER, James, 
 
 Voyage of, 71. 
 
 CARVER, John, 
 
 Leader of the Pilgrims, 91 ; death of, 123. 
 CENSUS, 
 
 Of 1790 ind 1800,375; of 1810,390; of 1840,439; 
 of 1870, 555 ; of 1880, 646 ; of 1890, 732. 
 CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, 
 Account of, 697-723. 
 
 CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 
 Account of, 563-631. 
 
 CERRO GORDO, 
 
 Battle of, 455. 
 
 CHAM PE, Sergeant John, 
 
 Attempt of to capture Arnold, 346. 
 
 CHAMPION HILLS, 
 
 Battle of, 512. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, Samuel, 
 
 Career of in America, 75, 76. 
 
 CHA NCELLORSVILLE, 
 
 Battle of, 518. 
 
 CHAPULTEPEC, 
 
 Battle of, 456. 
 
 CHARLES I., 
 
 Relations of with American colonies. See 
 
 Massachusetts and Virginia. 
 
 CHARLES II., 
 
 Relations of with American colonies. See 
 Massachusetts and Virginia. 
 
 CHARLESTON, 
 
 Founding of, 231; taken bv the British, 340; 
 evacuation of, 351; siege of, 51»: capture of. 
 529; earthquake of, 688. 
 
 CHARTER OF NEW ENGLAND, 
 
 Account of, 126. 
 
 CHARTER OAK, THE, 
 
 Story of, 147, 191. 
 
 CHASE, Salmon P., 
 
 Secretary of the treasury, 484; presides at th« 
 impeachment trial of Johnson, 551: death of 
 562. 
 
 CHEROKEES, THE. 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map I.; wa« 
 with, 27'6 ; difficulties with, 430. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE, Bay OF, 
 
 Exploration of by John Smith, 103. 
 CHESAPEAKE, THE, 
 
 Affair of. 385. 
 
 CHICAGO, 
 
 Burning of, 557. 
 
 CHICKAMAUGA, 
 
 Battle of, 514. 
 
 CHICORA, Old name of Carolina, 62. 
 
 CHILI, Dangerous complication of with the 
 CHINESE EMBASSY, [U. S., 736. 
 
 Establishment of at Washington, 639. 
 CHIPPEWA, 
 
 Battle of, 407. 
 
 CHURUBUSCO, 
 
 Battle of, 456. 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL, THE, 
 
 Passage of, 548. 
 
 CIVIL WAR, The, 
 
 Causes of, 486-489; history cf, 490-b40. 
 CITIZENSHIP, 
 
 English views of, 384. 
 
 CLARKE, John, 
 
 Colonizes Rhode Island, 194; services c t, 19& 
 CLARKE, William, 
 
 Exploring expedition of, 382. 
 
* 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 849 
 
 i 
 
 CLAYBORNE, William, 
 
 Career of in Maryland, 216-223. 
 
 CLAY, Henry, 
 
 In Congress, 391; Influence of, 421; se¬ 
 cures passage of Omnibus Bill, 465; death of, 
 468. 
 
 CLEVELAND, GROVER, 
 
 Elected President, 669; sketch of, 672; admin¬ 
 istration of, 672-695; renominated for the 
 presidency, 693. 
 
 CLINTON, George, 
 
 Vice-President, 382. 
 
 CLINTON. Sir Henry, 
 
 Attempt of to save Burgoyne, 323; commander- 
 in-chief of British army, 330. 
 
 CODDINGTON, WILLIAM, 
 
 Sets up Israel in Rhode Island, 195. 
 
 COLFAX, Schuyler, 
 
 Vice-President, 551. 
 
 COLIGNI, 
 
 Mentioned, 73. 
 
 COLLEGES, 
 
 Number and Character of before Revolution, 
 282. 
 
 COLONIES, The American, 
 
 Reflections on character of, 245; number and 
 extent of, 280; population of, 280; tendency 
 toward unity, 280; education in, 282; printing 
 and book’s in, 282; post-oflflces and roads in, 
 283; industries of, 284; reflections on, 284; dis¬ 
 pute of with England, 285-296; independence 
 of, 309, 355. 
 
 COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The, 
 
 Organization of, 416. 
 
 COLORADO, 
 
 Admission of, 561. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District of, 
 
 Organization of. 416. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher, 
 
 Sketch of, 55; discovery of America by, 55; 
 misfortunes of, 56. 
 
 COMANCHES, THE, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 CONCORD, 
 
 Founding of, 130; battle of, 298. 
 CONFEDERATION. THE, 
 
 History of, 356-358; Articles of, Appendix E. 
 CONGRESS, The First Colonial, 
 
 Meeting of, 291. 
 
 CONGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION, 
 
 Assembling of, 296. 
 
 CONKLING, ROSCOE, 685. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 
 
 Colonization of, 130; history of, 184-192. 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Analysis of, 360; adoption ot by the States, 361; 
 Text of. Appendix F. 
 
 CONSTITUTION, THE, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 COOPER, Sir ASHLEY, 
 
 Proprietor of Carolina, 225. 
 
 CORDOVA, 
 
 Explorations of, 58. 
 
 CORINTH, 
 
 Battle of, 499. 
 
 CORNBURY, Lord, 
 
 Governor of New York, 179. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, LORD, 
 
 Pursues Washington across New Jersey, 314; 
 considers the war ended, 315; returns to the 
 work, 317 ; at Princeton, 318; at Brandywine, 
 325; in Carolina, 374; in Virginia, 352; surren¬ 
 der of, 353. 
 
 CORTEREAL, GASPAR, 
 
 Voyages of, 69. 
 
 CORTEZ, Fernando, 
 
 Conquest of Mexico by, 58-61. 
 
 COTTON GIN, THE, 
 
 As a factor of the Civil War, 487. 
 
 CRANFIELD. EDWARD, 
 
 Governor of New Hampshire, 145; career of in 
 the province, 200. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER, THE, 
 
 Uproar concerning, 560. • 
 
 CREEKS, The, 
 
 War with, 403; difficulties with, 424. 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, 
 
 Relations of with Virginia, 115-118; favors 
 New England, 135. 
 
 CROWN POINT, 
 
 Expediton of Johnson against, 265. 
 
 CUBA, 
 
 Difficulties concerning, 466. 
 
 ID 
 
 DAKOTAS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map L 
 DALE, Sir Thomas, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 107. 
 
 DARE, Virginia, 
 
 Birth mentioned, 83. 
 
 DARRAH, Lydia, 
 
 Story of, 327. 
 
 DAVIS, Jefferson, 
 
 President of the Confederacy, 481; sketch of, 
 492; flight of, 538; capture and trial of, 540. 
 DAYE, Stephen, 
 
 First printer in America, 132. 
 
 DEARBORN, Henry, 
 
 Commander-in-chief of American army, 393, 
 DE AYLLON, 
 
 Discovery of Carolina by, 62. 
 
 DECATUR, Commodore, 
 
 In the Mediterranean, 415. 
 
 DE GAMA, 
 
 Circumnavigation of Africa by, 78. 
 
 DE GOURGES, 
 
 Settles w r ith the Spaniards, 74. 
 
 De KALB, Baron, 
 
 Fights for Liberty, 320; killed, 342. 
 DELAWARE, 
 
 Colonization of, 165; secession of from Penn, 
 sylvania, 213. 
 
 De LEON, Ponce, 
 
 Discovery of Florida by, 57. 
 
 DEMAGOGUES, 
 
 Influence of, 489. 
 
 DEMOCRATIC PARTY, THE, 
 
 Comes into power, 376; notice of, 428. 
 
 DE MONTS, 
 
 In America, 75. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 Instituted, 695. 
 
 DEPENDENT PENSION BILL, 
 
 Account of, 684. 
 
 DEPEW, Chauncey M., 
 
 Delivers centennial oration, 717. 
 
 De SOTO, Ferdinand, 
 
 Explorations, 64-67; discovery of Mississippi, 65; 
 DETROIT, 
 
 Capture of by the British, 395. 
 
 DONIPHAN, Colonel, 
 
 Campaign of, 453. 
 
 DORR INSURRECTION, THE, 
 
 Account of, 442. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen A., 
 
 Favors popular sovereignty, 472. 
 
 DRAFT, The, 
 
 Ordered by Congress, 522. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, 
 
 Career of, 80; carries off Raleigh’s colony, 82. 
 DRED SCOTT DECISION, THE, 
 
 History of, 474. 
 
 m 
 
 EAST' INDIA COMPANY, THE DUTCH, 
 
 Mentioned, 92. 
 
 EDISON, Thomas A., 
 
 Inventor of telephone, phonograph, and elec¬ 
 tric light, 655, 656, 659. 
 
 
850 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UN r TED STATES. 
 
 EDUCATION, 
 
 Favored by the Puritans, 159 ; character and 
 extent of in the colonies, 282; necessary to 
 perpetuity of American institutions, 642. 
 EGAN, PATRICK, 
 
 American Minister to Chili, 737. 
 ELECTIONS BILL OF 18S0, 
 
 Discussion of in Congress, 730. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT, The, 
 
 Introduction of, 657-660. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Quefn, Death of. 84. 
 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, The, 
 Issued by Lincoln, 511; text of. Appendix II. 
 EMBARGO ACT, Thf, 
 
 Passage of, 385; ridicule of, 386. 
 ERICKSON, Lief, 
 
 Discovery of America by, 51. 
 
 ERICKSON, Thoewaid and Thorstein, 
 Mentioned, 51,52. 
 
 ERICSSON, John, 
 
 Invention of Monitor bv, 497. 
 
 ESPEG 1, Founder of Santa F<i, 68. 
 ESQUIMAUX, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 42. and Map I. 
 EUTAW SPRINGS, Battle of, 351. 
 
 IF 1 
 
 FAIR OAK 4, Battle of, 503. 
 
 FARRAGUT, ADMIRAL, . _ t 
 
 On the Mississippi, 498; capture of Mobile by. 
 531. 
 
 FEDERALIST PARTY, THE, 
 
 Rise of, 359; overthrow of, 375. 
 
 FENDALL, JOSIAS, 
 
 Governor of Maryland, 223. 
 
 FIELD, CYRUS W., 
 
 Laying of Atlantic cable by, 476, 545. 
 FIFTY-FIRST CONGRESS, 
 
 Work of, 727. 
 
 FILLMORE, MILLARD, 
 
 Vice-President, 462 ; became President, 465; 
 wise measures recommended by, 466. 
 FINANCIAL CRISP, 
 
 Of 1819, 419; of 1837, 437; of 1873, 560. 
 
 FISK, Clinton B., 
 
 Candidate for the Presidency, 694. 
 
 FIVE FORKS, 
 
 Battle of, 538 
 FLETCHER, BENJAMIN, 
 
 Governor of New York, 178. 
 
 FLORIDA, 
 
 Colonization of, 68; cession of, 419. 
 
 FORREST, N. B„ 
 
 Raid of through Tennessee and Kentucky, 
 523. 
 
 FORT DONELSON, 
 
 Capture of, 496. 
 
 FORT Du QUESNE. See F(/rt Pitt. 
 
 FORT FISHER, 
 
 Capture of, 532. 
 
 FORT JACKSON, 
 
 Capture of, 498. 
 
 FORT LE BfEUF, 
 
 Affairs at, 253. 
 
 FORT MCHENRY, 
 
 Defense of, 411. 
 
 FORT MEIGS, 
 
 Siege of, 401. 
 
 FORT' MIFFLIN, 
 
 Defense of, 326. 
 
 FORT MOULTRIE, 
 
 Attack on, 307, 
 
 FORT ORANGE (NASSAU), 
 
 Building of, 94, 162. 
 
 FORT NASSAU, 
 
 Built, 203, 
 
 FORT NECESSITY, 
 
 Built and defended by Washington, 255,256. 
 FORT PITT, 
 
 Built, 254; captured by French. 254 ; retaken. 
 272. 
 
 FOHTS 
 
 A list of at the beginning of the War of 1814 
 
 396. 
 
 FORT ST. PHILIP, 
 
 Capture of, 498. 
 
 FORT SUMTER, 
 
 Bombardment of, 484. 
 
 FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 
 
 Sie of, 269. 
 
 FRANCE, 
 
 Possessions of in America, 2?n; incites the col¬ 
 onies, 285; alliance with, 328-330; difflcultiea 
 with, 373. 
 
 FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, 
 
 Plans Union for America, 257; editor of New 
 England Cnurant, 282; favors liberty, 289; at 
 the court of Louis XVI., 329; sketch of, 329. 
 FREDERICKSBURG, 
 
 Battle of, 509. 
 
 FREE COINAGE OF SILVER. 
 
 Question of, before Congress, 730. 
 
 FREE TRADE, 
 
 Doctrine ot. Explained, 663-064 
 FREMONT, JOHN C„ 
 
 Explorations of, 452. 
 
 FRENCH, THE, 
 
 Explorations of in America, 70-76 ; 218,249; 
 trading-posts of, 249; claim the Ohio Valley, 
 251. 
 
 FROBISHER, MARTIN, 
 
 Voyages of, 79. 
 
 FRCLIC, THE, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, 
 
 Invents steam-boat and torpedo, 386,887. 
 
 G- 
 
 GADSDEN PURCHASE, THE, 470. 
 
 GAGE, General, 
 
 Occupies Boston, 293; career of, 297-301. 
 GARFIELD, JAMES A., 
 
 Elected President, 643; sketch of, 647; admin¬ 
 istration of, 647-649; assassination and death 
 of, 650, 651. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, 
 
 In command of the Army of the North, 833 ;lo 
 the cabal against Washington, 328. 
 
 GATES, Sir Thomas, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 106. 
 
 GENET, Citizen, 
 
 Career of in the United States, 368. 
 
 GEORGE III., 
 
 Character of, 286. 
 
 GEORGIA, 
 
 Colonization of, 238; history of, 238-246. 
 Gerry, elbridge. 
 
 Embassy of to France, 873; Vice-President, 394 
 GETTYSBURG. 
 
 Battle of, 520. 
 
 GHENT, 
 
 Treaty of, 414. 
 
 GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY, 
 
 Career of, 80. 
 
 GIST, Christopher, 
 
 Expedition of to the Ohio, 251. 
 
 GOLD, 
 
 Discovery of in California, 459. 
 
 GORGES, Ferdinand, 
 
 Proprietor of New Hampshire, 198. 
 
 GOSNOLD, Bartholomew, 
 
 New route of to America, 84. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF UNITED STATES, 
 
 Account of institution of, 356-364 ; 701-709, 
 GRANT Ulysses S., 
 
 At Do riel-on, 496; at Pittsburg Landing, 497; 
 at Vicksburg, 512; commander-in-chief, 525; 
 in the Wilderness, 535; besieges Petersburg, 
 536; in pursuit of Lee, 538-540 ; President, 551; 
 sketch of, 552; administration of, 552-632; tour 
 of. 645. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 851 
 
 GRAY, Elisha P., 
 
 Inventor of telephone, 655. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, 
 
 Colonizes America, 76-91,95-245; grants of ter¬ 
 ritory by, see Map III; extent of possessions 
 (1655), see Map IV; oppresses the colonies, 
 285-296; treaty with, 854; troubles with, 869; 
 doctrine of respecting neutrals, 384. 
 
 GREELEY, HORACE, 
 
 Notice of, 558. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, 
 
 Saves the army at Brandywine, 825; splendid 
 campaigns of in the Carolina^, 847-851. 
 GRENVILLE, Sir Richard, 
 
 In command of Raleigh's fleet. 82. 
 
 GRIJALVA, 
 
 Explorations of, 58. 
 
 GUERRIERE, The, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 GUILFORD COURT-HOUSE, 
 
 Battle of, 349. 
 
 ZE3T 
 
 HALF-MOON, THE, 
 
 Voyages of, 93-94. 
 
 HALIFAX FISHERY AWARD, 
 
 History of, 638, 639. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, 
 
 Builder of Fort Washington, 814; defender of 
 the Constitution, 360; sec’yof the treasury, 364; 
 first major-gen. of the army, 8*8; killed by 
 Burr. 382. 
 
 HANCOCK, Winfield S., 
 
 Notice and death of, 678. 
 
 HARMAR, General, 
 
 Expedition of, 366. 
 
 HARPER’S FERRY, 
 
 Destruction of arsenal at, 485. 
 
 HARRISON, Benjamin, 
 
 Elected President. 694; sketch of, 696-697; ad¬ 
 ministration of, 696; at centennial celebration, 
 711-715. 
 
 HARRISON. William Henry, 
 
 Governor of Indiana, 390; at Tippecanoe, 391; 
 in command in the West, 400; President, 439 
 sketch of, 440; administration of, 440; death of, 
 441. 
 
 HARTFORD CONVENTION, 412. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE, 132. 
 
 HAYES, Rutherford B., 
 
 Elected President, 633; sketch of, 683 ; admin- 
 istra 'on of, 643-646. 
 
 HAYNE, Senator, Debate with Webster, 429. 
 HAY’l I, Claims recognition, 417. 
 
 HELPER, Hinton Rowan, 
 
 Promotes inter-continental communication, 
 HENDRICKS, Thomas A.. [725. 
 
 Elected Vice-President, 669; death of, 678. 
 HENRY, Patrick, 
 
 Mak ’'s so e remarks In the House of Burgesses, 
 289; leads the people, 803; opposes the Consti¬ 
 tution, 362. 
 
 HERJULFSON, 
 
 Me ti ned, 61. 
 
 HESSIANS, The, 
 
 Hire,- to fight America, 308; overpowered at 
 Trenton, 316. 
 
 HOBKIRK’SHILL, 
 
 Battle of, 350. 
 
 HOOD, J. B., 
 
 Driven from Atlanta, 526: defeated at Nash¬ 
 ville, 527. 
 
 HOOKER, Joseph, 
 
 At Lookout Mountain, 515; in command of the 
 Army of the Potomac, 518; at Cbancellorsville, 
 518, death of, 678. 
 
 HORNET, The, 
 
 Affair oi, 405, 
 
 HOUSTON, Sam, 
 
 Sketch of, 477. 
 
 HOWE, General, 
 
 In command at Boston, 306; negotiates «tta 
 Washington, 310; sends a fleet up the Hudson, 
 
 HUDSON, Sir Henry, 
 
 Efforts to reach the Indies, 92; explorations la 
 America, 92; death of, 94; character Of, 160. 
 HUGUENOTS, THE, 
 
 Mentioned. 67; in Florida, 67; destruction at, 
 68; persecution of in France, 232. 
 
 HULL, William, 
 
 Disastrous campaign of, 894. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, 
 
 Cited, 54. 
 
 HURON-IROQUOIS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Ma/O L 
 HUTCHINSON, ANNE, 
 
 Heresy of, 131; au exile to Rhode bland. Hit 
 
 death of, 166. 
 
 X 
 
 ICELANDERS. The, 
 
 I ’Iscovery of America by, 51. 
 
 IDAHO, Admission of, 732. 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 Organization and admission of, 426. 
 IMPORTATION ACT, THE, 
 
 Passage of, 287. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT, 
 
 Right of claimed by Great Britain, 893. 
 INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 Declaration of, 309 and Appendix D; achieve 
 ment of, 355; centennial of, 563-631 ; epoch of 
 discussc', 698-7C1. 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Organisation of, 378; admission of, 416. 
 INDIANS, THE, 
 
 Name of, 41; origin of, 41; ethnology of, 42; 
 families of, 42; Imraci eristics of, 44,45; family 
 organization of, 45; civil government among, 
 46; religion of, 40 ; arts of, 47; language of, 
 47; writing of, 48: personal appearance of, 49; 
 marners and customs of, 49. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. THE, 
 
 Organization of, 430. 
 
 INTERIOR, Department of. 
 
 Establishment of, 462. 
 
 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, 
 
 Question of, 418. 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE, THE, 
 
 Account of, 541. 
 
 INTERSTATE COMMERCE BILL, 
 
 Account of. 685 686. 
 
 IROQUOIS. The 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map I; tr a its 
 with, 175. 
 
 IRVING. Washington, 
 
 Relation of to American Literature, 477, 
 ISABFXLA, Favor of to Columbus, 55. 
 
 ITALY, 
 
 Dangerous complication with, 735. 
 
 ITATA, The, Affair of, 737. 
 
 J 
 
 JACKSON, ANDREW, 
 
 In command against the Creeks, 403; at New 
 Orleans, 412; against the Seminoles,419; elected 
 President, 426, sketch of, 426; administration 
 of, 426-436; censured by Congress, 432; Fare¬ 
 well Address of, 4^5; death of, 461. 
 
 JACKSON, STONEWALL, 
 
 At Cedar Moun.ain, 505; at Fredericksburg, 
 509 ; at Cbancellorsville, 518; death of, 518. 
 JAMES II., 
 
 Relations i with American colonies. See 
 Massachusetts and Virginia. 
 
 JAMESTOWN, 
 
 Founding of, 87; affairs at, 95-118. 
 
 JAPAN, 
 
 Opening of intercourse with, 47flt 
 
852 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 JAVA, THE, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 JAY COOKE AND COMPANY, 
 
 Failure of, 560. 
 
 JAY, John, 
 
 Defends the Constitution, 359: appointed chief- 
 justice, 364, negotiates treaty, 369. 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, 
 
 Author of the Declaration, 309, drafts ordi¬ 
 nance for the North-western Territory, 359; 
 opposes the Constitution, 362; Secretary of 
 State, 364; Vice-Presideut, 371; elected Presi¬ 
 dent, 376; sketch of, 376; administration of, 
 376-388 ; death of, 424. 
 
 JESUITS. The, 
 
 Discoveries and explorations of, 248, 249. 
 JOHNSON, Andrew, 
 
 Elected Vice-President, 441; becomes Presi¬ 
 dent, 544; sketch of, 544; administration of, 
 544-551; impeachment of, 550. 
 
 JOHNSTON, Joseph e.. 
 
 At Manassas, 491; wounded, 503; generalship 
 of, 530; surrender of, 530; death of, 734. 
 
 TZ. 
 
 KANSAS, 
 
 Troubles in, 473. 
 
 kansas-nebraska bill, the. 
 
 Account of, 473. 
 
 KEARNEY, PHILIP, 
 
 Expedition of to California, 452: killed at Chan- 
 ‘ tilly, 506. 
 
 KEARSARGE, THE, 
 
 Destruction of the Alabama by, 534. 
 KENESAW MOUNTAIN, 
 
 Battle of, 525. 
 
 KENTUCKY, 
 
 Colonization of, 367; admission of, 367. 
 
 KIDD, William, 
 
 Career of, 179. 
 
 KIEFT, Sir William, 
 
 Governor of New Netherland, 165. 
 KILPATRICK, H. J„ 
 
 Fight of with Hampton, 529. 
 
 KLAMATIS, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map L 
 KOSSUTH, Louis, 
 
 Visit of to the United States, 467. 
 
 KOSZTA, Martin, 
 
 Affair of, 471. 
 
 Ij 
 
 LABOR TROUBLES, 
 
 Account of, 634-636 ; 679-683-4. 
 
 LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE, 
 
 Gives himself to the cause of liberty, 820cam¬ 
 paign of in Virginia, 352; visit of to America, 
 42. 
 
 LANE, Ralph, 
 
 Governor of Raleigh, 82. 
 
 La ROCHE, Marquis of. 
 
 Plans a colony, 74. 
 
 LA SALLE, ROBERT DE, 
 
 Explorations of, 248. 
 
 LAUDONNIERRE, 
 
 In Florida, 74. 
 
 LAWRENCE, CAPTAIN, 
 
 Death of, 406. 
 
 LEE, Charles, 
 
 Conduct of as a general, 815; disobedience of 
 at Monmouth, 331 ; dismissal of from service, 
 331. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, 
 
 Resolutions of Independence offered by, 309. 
 
 LEE, Robert E., 
 
 In W. Virginia, 490; commander-in-chief of 
 the Confederates, 503; invades Maryland, 506; 
 at Antietam, 506; at Fredericksburg, 509: at 
 Chancellorsville, 518; invades Pennsylvania, 
 519; at Gettysburg, 520; in the Wilderness, 
 535; retreat of from Richmond, 538; surrender 
 of, 540; death of, 562. 
 
 LEISLER, Jacob, 
 
 Leader of insurrection in New York, 1761, 
 LEOPARD, The, 
 
 Affair of, 385. 
 
 LEWIS, Captain, 
 
 Exploring expedition of, 882. 
 
 LEWISTOWN, 
 
 Founding of, 163. 
 
 LEXINGTON, 
 
 Battle of, 298. 
 
 LIFE-SAVING SERVICE, 
 
 Establishment of, 640. 
 
 LINCOLN, Abraham, 
 
 Elected President, 479; sketch of, 482; admin¬ 
 istration of, 482-543; issues Emancipation Proc¬ 
 lamation, 511; re-elected, 541; assassination 
 of, 542; character of, 542, 543. 
 
 LITTLE BELT, THE, 
 
 Affair of, 391. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, EDWARD, 
 
 Agent to purchase Louisiana, 378, 
 
 LOCKE, John, 
 
 Prepares the Grand Model, 225. 
 
 LOGAN, John A., 
 
 Notice and death of, 679. 
 
 LONDON COMPANY, 
 
 Organization of, 85; grant to, 85 and Mdjp III I 
 charter of, 86; fleet sent to America by, 80. 
 LONG ISLAND, 
 
 Battle of, 311. 
 
 LONGSTREET, GENERAL, 
 
 See Lee's campaigns. 
 
 LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. 
 
 Storming of, 515. 
 
 LOUDOUN, LORD, 
 
 Career of in America, 267-270. 
 
 LOUISBURG, 
 
 Siege of, 157, 158. 
 
 LOUISIANA, 
 
 Purchase of, 378; boundary of, 878; discord 
 
 LUNDY’S LANE, 
 
 Battle of, 408, 
 
 LYON, Nathaniel, 
 
 In Missouri, 492. 
 
 IMI ' 
 
 MacDONOUGH, Commodore, 
 
 At Plattsbuig, 409. 
 
 MADISON, James, 
 
 Favors Constitution, 362; elected President, 
 388; sketch of. 3**; administration of, 388-416; 
 unwarlike disposition of, 392 ; death of, 435. 
 MAFIA SOCIETY, 
 
 Work of at New Orleans, 734. 
 
 MAGELLAN, FERDINAND, 
 
 Circumnavigation of globe by, 61. 
 
 MAINE, 
 
 Colonization of, 136 ; admission of, 421. 
 MALIETOA, 
 
 King of Samoa, 723, 724. 
 
 MALVERN HILL, 
 
 Battle of, 504. 
 
 MANASSAS, 
 
 Battle of, 491. 
 
 MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN, 
 
 On the figure of the earth, 54, and Appci* 
 (l ice ^4 
 
 MANHATTAN ISLAND, 
 
 Purchase of, 162. 
 
 MARION, Francis, 
 
 * Career of, 341, 342,350. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 853 
 
 MARSHALL, John, 
 
 Embassy of to France, 878: In the chief- 
 
 justiceship, 379. 
 
 MARYLAND, 
 
 Colonization of, 216; history of, 216-224. 
 MASON, J. M., 
 
 Embassador of the Confederacy, 494; capture 
 of, 494; liberation of, 495. 
 
 MASONIAN DIFFICULTIES, The, 
 
 Concerning New Hampshire, 198-202. 
 MATAAFA, Leader in Samoa, 723, 724. 
 MATHER, Cotton, 
 
 Responsible for witchcraft atrocities, 151-153. 
 MATT A, M. A., 
 
 Chilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 739. 
 MAY Cornelius, 
 
 Governor of New Netherland, 1G2. 
 MCCLELLAN, GEORGE B., 
 
 Campaign of in West Virginia, 490: in com¬ 
 mand of the Army of the Potomac. 494; penin¬ 
 sular campaign of, 502-505: at Antietam, 506; 
 superseded, 509; candidate for the presidency, 
 541; death of, 678. 
 
 MEADE, George G., 
 
 At Fredericksburg, 509; in command of the 
 Army of the Potomac, 520; at Gettysburg, 
 520; in the Wilderness, 535; death of, 562, 
 678. 
 
 MEIGS, Colonel, 
 
 Exploit of at Sag Harbor, 819. 
 
 MELENDEZ, Pedro, 
 
 Career of in Florida, 67. 
 
 MERRIMAC, The, 
 
 Fight of with the Monitor, 498. 
 MIANTONOMOH, 
 
 Relations of with Roger Williams, 194. 
 MICHIGAN, 
 
 Organization of, 382; admission of, 435. 
 
 MILL SPRING, 
 
 Battle of, 496. 
 
 MINNESOTA, 
 
 Admission of, 477. 
 
 MINUIT, Peter, 
 
 Governor of New Netherland, 162. 
 MISSIONARY RIDGE, 
 
 Storming of, 516. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, 
 
 Organization and admission of, 418. 
 
 MISSOURI, 
 
 Organization of, 420; admission of, 421. 
 MISSOURI COMPROMISE, The, 
 
 History of, 421. 
 
 MOBILIANS, THE, 
 
 Territor 1 position of, 43 and Map L 
 MODOCS, The, 
 
 War with, 559. 
 
 MONITOR, The, 
 
 Fight of with the Merrimac, 498. 
 
 MONMOUTH, 
 
 Battle of, 331. 
 
 MONROE, James, 
 
 Agent to purchase Louisiana, 878; elected 
 President, 416; sketch of, 416; administration 
 of, 416-42.,,; death of, 435. 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, THE, 
 
 Proclamation of, 422, 
 
 MONTANA, 
 
 Admission of, 695. 
 
 MONTEREY, 
 
 Storming of, 451. 
 
 MONTEZUMA, 
 
 Account of, 58-61. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, RICHARD, 
 
 Expedition of against Canada, 803; death of, 
 804; sketch of, 305. 
 
 MONTREAL, 
 
 Name of, 72; expedition against, 156. 
 MORGAN, Daniel, 
 
 At Bemis’s Heights, 323; at the Cowpens, 
 347* 
 
 MORGAN, John, 
 
 Raid of into Indiana and Ohio, 517. 
 
 MORGAN, William, 
 
 Disappearance of, 425. 
 
 MORMONS, THE, 
 
 Account of, 444; rebellion of. 475. 
 
 MORRIS, Robert, 
 
 Devotes his fortune to liberty, 816: appointed 
 secretary of finance, 346: brought to rats. 
 
 358. 
 
 MORRIS, T. A., 
 
 Campaign of in West Virginia, 490t 
 MORSE, S. F. B., 
 
 Invention of telegraph by, 446. 
 
 MORTON, Oliver P., 
 
 Sketch of, 640; death of, 644. 
 
 MOSCOSO, 
 
 i ,:ces...,r of De Soto, 66. 
 MURFREESBOROUGH, 
 
 Battle of, 500. 
 
 0KT 
 
 NARVAEZ, Pamphilo de, 
 
 Army sent by to Mexico, 60; governor of 
 
 Florida, 63. 
 
 NASHVILLE, 
 
 Siege of, 526. 
 
 ATIONAL DEBT, THB, 
 
 Extent of, 545. 
 
 NEGRO PLOT, THE, 
 
 In New York, 182. 
 
 NEW AMSTERDAM, 
 
 Founding of, 94; history of, 160-171. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND, 
 
 Colonization of, 91, 123, 184,193,198; education 
 in, 282. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, 
 
 Colonization of, 198; history of, 198-208. 
 
 NEW HAVEN, 
 
 Founding of, 188. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, 
 
 Colo .zation of, 203; history of, 203-308 ; dl« 
 visi n of, 205. 
 
 NEW NETHERLAND, 
 
 Name of, 94; history of, 160-171; conquest of, 
 171. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, 
 
 Battle of, 413. 
 
 NEWPORT, Christopher, 
 
 Sent out by London Company, 86. 
 
 NEW SWEDEN, 
 
 History of, 165-169; extent of, Map IV. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Colonization of, 160; history of, 160-183. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY, 
 
 Settlement of, 160; under the Dutch, 160-171; 
 under the English, 171-183; British forces 
 before, 310; captured by British, 313; evacu¬ 
 ation of, 355; Centennial celebration at, 697- 
 723. 
 
 NEZ PERCE INDIANS, The, 
 
 War with, 636. 
 
 NICOLLS, Richard, 
 
 Governor of New York, 172. 
 
 NORSEMEN, The, 
 
 Discovery of America by, 51; character of, 52 
 traces of in Rhode Island, 195. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, 
 
 Colonization of, 224 ; history of, 224-229. 
 NORTH DAKOTA, 
 
 Admission of, 695. 
 
 RTH-EASTERN BOUNDARY, 
 
 Settlement of, 441. 
 
 NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILROAD, THE, 
 
 Account of, 560. 
 
 NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORY, 
 
 Organization of, 359; division of, 877. 
 NULLIFICATION, 
 
 Account of, 428; a cause of tbe Civil War, 
 488. 
 
854 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 
 
 O 
 
 OGLETHORPE, JAMES, 
 
 Sketch of, 238; career of in Georgia, 239-244. 
 OHIO, 
 
 Organization and admission of, 378. 
 
 OHIO COMPANY, THE, 
 
 Grant to, 250. 
 
 OMNIBUS BILL, The, 
 
 History of, 464. 
 
 OPECHANCANOUGH, 
 
 Notices of, 100, 113. 
 
 ORDERS IN COUNCIL, THE. 
 
 Issued, 386; promised repeal of, 389. 
 OREGON BOUNDARY QUESTION, The, 
 Settlement of, 458. 
 
 OSTEND MANIFESTO, THE, 
 
 History of, 472. 
 
 IP 
 
 PACIFIC RAILROAD, The, 
 
 Project of, 469; completion of, 553. 
 
 PALO ALTO, 
 
 Battle of, 450. 
 
 PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, 
 
 Account of, 725. 
 
 PAPER MONEY, 
 
 First used in America, 149. 
 
 PARRIS, Samuel, 
 
 Responsible for witchcraft atrocities, 150-153. 
 PATROONS, the Dutch, 
 
 Colonize New Netherland, 163, 164. 
 
 PAUL JONES, 
 
 Great naval battle of, 338. 
 
 PEACOCK, The, 
 
 Affair of, 405. 
 
 PENN, WILLIAM, 
 
 In New Jersey, 205; proprietor of Pennsylvania, 
 209; sketch of, 210; career of, 210-215. 
 PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 Colonization of, 209 ; history of, 209-215. 
 PENSION LEGISLATION, 
 
 Account of, 684. 
 
 PEPPEREL, Sir William, 
 
 Expedition of against Louisburg, 157. 
 PEQUODS, The, 
 
 War with, 185-188. 
 
 PERRY, Oliver H., 
 
 Victory of on Lake Erie, 401. 
 
 PETERSBURG, 
 
 Siege of, 536, 538. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 Founding of, 212; capture of by the British, 
 325. 
 
 PHILIP, King of the Narragansetts, 
 
 War with, 139-144. 
 
 PHIPPS, Sir William, 
 
 Connection of with Salem witchcraft, 151. 
 PHONOGRAPH, The, 
 
 Invention of, 656, 657. 
 
 PICKETT, General, 
 
 Charge of at Gettysburg, 522. 
 
 PIERCE, Franklin, 
 
 Elected President, 469; sketch of, 469; admin¬ 
 istration of, 469-474. 
 
 PILGRIMS, The, 
 
 See Puritans. 
 
 PINCKNEY, C. C., 
 
 Embassy of to France, 373. 
 
 PITT, William, 
 
 Premier of England, 270; defends America, 
 292. 
 
 PITTSBURG LANDING^ 
 
 Battle of, 497. 
 
 PLYMOUTH, 
 
 Founding of, 91. 
 
 PLYMOUTH COMPANY, THE, 
 
 Organization of, 85; grant to, 85 and Map III. 
 PLYMOUTH COUNCIL, THE, 
 
 Organization of, 85; grant to, 88 and Map III. 
 
 POCAHONTAS, 
 
 Story of, 101-109. 
 
 POLK, James K., 
 
 Elected President, 446; sketch of, 447; admin¬ 
 istration of, 447-462. 
 
 POLK, Leonidas, 
 
 Campaign of in Kentucky, 493. 
 
 PONTIAC, 
 
 Conspiracy of, 277-279. 
 
 POPE, John, Campaign of in Virginia, 505. 
 PORT BILL, The Boston, Passage of, 295. 
 PORTER, Admiral, 
 
 Bombards Vicksburg, 512; at Fort Fisher, 532. 
 PORTER, Albert G.. 
 
 American Minister to Italy, 736. 
 
 PORT ROYAL (ANNAPOLIS), 
 
 Founded, 75; siege of, 155. 
 
 PORTUGUESE, THE, 
 
 Discoveries of in America, 69. 
 
 POSTAL MONEY-ORDER SYSTEM, THE, 
 Establishment of, 546. 
 
 POWHATAN, 
 
 Relations of with the colony at Jamestown, 
 96-112. 
 
 PREBLE, Commodore, 
 
 In the Mediterranean, 380. 
 
 PRESCOTT, General, 
 
 Capture of, 320. 
 
 PRESIDENT, THE, 
 
 Affair of, 391. 
 
 PRINCETON, 
 
 Battle of, 318. 
 
 PRING, Martin, 
 
 Voyage of, 84. 
 
 PRINTING-PRESS, THE, 
 
 In Cambridge, 132; work of in the colonies, 
 282. 
 
 PROHIBITION. 
 
 An issue in politics, 694. 
 
 PROTECTION, 
 
 Doctrine of explained, 663-667, 693. 
 
 PULASKI, Count, 
 
 Honored for services at Brandywine, 325. 
 PURITANS, The, 
 
 Rise of, 88 ; at Leyden, 89; purposes of, 89; 
 voyage of to America, 90; compact of, 91 and 
 Appendix B; colonization of Massachusetts 
 by, 91; character of, 159. 
 
 PUTNAM, Israel, 
 
 Exploit of, 334. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUAKERS, The, 
 
 Arrival of at Boston, 136; persecutions of, 136, 
 137; in New Jersey, 206; colonization of Penn¬ 
 sylvania by, 209-215. 
 
 QUEBEC, 
 
 Founding of, 76; expedition of Walker against, 
 155; capture of by Wolfe, 276; expedition of 
 Arnold against, 303. 
 
 IR. 
 
 RAILROADS, 
 
 Extent in the United States, 556. 
 RAILROAD STRIKE. The, 
 
 History of, 634-636. 
 
 RALEIGH. Sir Walter, 
 
 Attempts to colonize America, 81; founds city 
 of Raleigh. 83. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF SOUTHERN STATES 
 Difficulties concerning, 547, 549, 554. 
 
 RED RIVER EXPEDITION, The, 
 
 Account of, 524. 
 
 REED, Thomas B.. Policy of, as Speaker, 729. 
 RES AC A I)E LA PALMA, 
 
 Battle of. 450. 
 
 RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS, 
 History of, 637-641. 
 
LiVLLX. 
 
 855 
 
 REVERE, Patti, 
 
 Ride of, 297. 
 
 REVOLUTION, The, 
 
 Causes of, 285-296; history of, 297-356. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, 
 
 Colonization of, 193; history of, 193-198; lib¬ 
 eral institutions of, 194; traces of Norsemen in, 
 195; domestic difficulties in, 442. 
 
 RIBAULT, JOHN, 
 
 Voyages of, 73. 
 
 RICHMOND, 
 
 Capital of the Confederacy, 485; evacuated, 
 538. 
 
 ROANOKE ISLAND, 
 
 Attempt to colonize, 81. 
 
 ROBINSON, John, 
 
 Leader of the Pilgrims, 89; counsels of, 125. 
 ROEBLING, J. A. AND W. A., 
 
 Architects of Brooklyn Bridge, 661,662. 
 ROGERS, Major Robert, 
 
 Expedition of, 277. 
 
 ROLFE, John, 
 
 Account of, 108. 
 
 ROSECRANS, W. S., 
 
 At Murfreesborough, 500; at Chlckamauga, 
 
 RYSWICK, 
 
 Treaty of, 150. 
 
 S 
 
 SAG HARBOR, 
 
 Capture of, 319. 
 
 SALEM, 
 
 Founded, 126; witchcraft at, 150-153. 
 
 SAMOA, 
 
 Account of difficulties concerning, 723-724. 
 SAMOSET, 
 
 Visit of to Plymouth, 123. 
 
 SANDER’S CREEK, 
 
 Battle of, 342. 
 
 SANDYS, Sir Edwyn, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 111. 
 
 SANTA ANNA, 
 
 At Buena Vista, 453; at Cerro Gordo, 455; 
 drives from Mexico, 457. 
 
 8ANTO DOMINGO, 
 
 Project to annex, 555. 
 
 SAVANNAH, 
 
 Founding of, 239; conquest of, 333; capture of 
 by Sherman, 527. 
 
 SAYLE, William, 
 
 Governor of South Carolina, 230. 
 
 SCHOFIELD, John M-, 
 
 Commands centennial procession, 718. 
 SCHUYLER. General, 
 
 In command of the Northern army, 321. 
 SCOTT, Winfield, 
 
 At Lundy’s Lane, 408; plans the invasion of 
 Mexico, 450 ; at Vera Cruz, 454; at Cerro Gor¬ 
 do, 455; enters Mexico, 457; commander-in- 
 chief of the Union army, 485. 
 
 SEA-KING. The, 
 
 Character of, 52. 
 
 SECESSION, 
 
 Account of, 480, 485. 
 
 SELISH, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 SEMINOLES, THE, 
 
 War with, 418, 431. 
 
 SEVEN DAYS’ BATTLES, THE, 
 
 Account of, 504. 
 
 SEWARD, William H., 
 
 Secretary of State, 484; diplomacy of 495; at¬ 
 tempted assassination of, 542; death of, 5b2. 
 SEYMOUR, Horatio, 
 
 Notice and death of, 678. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Philip H., 
 
 In the Shenandoah Valley, 587; in pursuit of 
 Lee, 539; in command of army, 671; deaf.*- «.i, 
 733 
 
 SHERMAN, W. T., 
 
 At Chickasaw Bayou, 500; campaign of from 
 Chattanooga to Atlanta, 525, 526 ; march to the 
 sea, 527; from Savannah to Raleigh, 528-530; 
 publishes his Memoirs, o7t; death of, 733. 
 SHIRLEY, Sir William, 
 
 Governor of Massachusets, 264. 
 
 SHOSHONES, THE, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map L 
 SIGEL, Franz, 
 
 In Missouri, 493. 
 
 SILVER, 
 
 Remonetization of, 636. 
 
 SIOUX INDIANS, THE, 
 
 War with, 629, 630. 
 
 SIX NATIONS, THE, 
 
 Treaty with, 181. 
 
 SLAVERY, 
 
 Introduction of, 110; exclusion of from Georgia, 
 240; prohibition of in North-western Territory, 
 359; a cause of the Civil War, 487; abolished 
 by the Emancipation Proclamation, 511; Con¬ 
 gressional abolition of, 544. 
 
 SLIDELL, John, 
 
 Embassador of the Confederacy, 494; capture 
 of, 494; liberation of, 495. 
 
 SLOUGHTER, William, 
 
 Governor of New York, 177. 
 
 SMITH, JOHN, 
 
 Voyages of in New England, 87; captured, 88; 
 troubles of at Jamestown, 96; explores the 
 James, 96; sketch of, 97; captivity of, 99 ; ex¬ 
 ploration of Chesapeake by, 102; president of 
 Virginia, 104; wounded, 105; returns to En¬ 
 gland, 105. 
 
 SMITHSON, James, 
 
 Notice of 460. 
 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, The, 
 Establishment of, 460. 
 
 SMYTH, Alexander, 
 
 In command on the Niagara frontier, 899. 
 SONS OF LIBERTY, 
 
 Organization of, 292. 
 
 SOT H EL, Seth, 
 
 Career of in the Carolinas, 227, 233. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, 
 
 Colonization of, 230; history of, 230-237. 
 SOUTH DAKOTA, 
 
 Admission of, 695. 
 
 SPAIN, 
 
 Discovers and colonizes America, 54-69; pos¬ 
 sessions of in 1665, see Map IV; treaty with, 
 419. 
 
 SPECIE CIRCULAR, The, 
 
 Issued to Jackson, 437; repeal of, 441. 
 SPRINGFIELD, 
 
 Battle of, 493. 
 
 SQUANTO, 
 
 The Interpreter, 124. 
 
 STAMP ACT, 
 
 Passage of, 289; provisions of, 289; repeal of, 
 292. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, 
 
 General of New England, 123 ; mentioned, 125. 
 STANTON, Edwin M., 
 
 Secretary of War, 484; death of, 561. 
 
 STAR ROUTE CONSPIRACY, THE, 
 
 Account of, 753, 754. 
 
 STATE RIGHTS, THE DOCTRINE OF, 
 
 Advocated in South Carolina, 429; a cause of 
 the Civil War, 486; as affecting the future, 642. 
 ST. AUGUSTINE, 
 
 Founding of, C8. 
 
 ST. CLAIR, ARTHUR, 
 
 At Ticonderoga, 321; governor of North-west¬ 
 ern Territory, 359; expedition of, 366. 
 STEAM-BOAT, THE, 
 
 Invention of, 386. 
 
 STEPHENS, Alexander H., 
 
 Opposes secession, 480; Vice-President of the 
 Confederacy, 481 ; author of War Between the 
 States. 674. 
 

DOES NOT CIRCULATE 
 
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