PI 
 
 
 m^m^m": 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 GAELIC GEAMMAR 
 
 IX FOUE PAETS 
 
 L Of Proxxtxciatiox and 
 
 Orthography 
 IL. Of the Parts of Speech 
 
 III. Of Syntax 
 lY. Of Derivation and 
 Composition 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXAXDEE STEWAET 
 
 MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL 
 SONOBART MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND 
 
 IRo^al Celtic Society BDitiou* 
 
 FOUBTH EDITION EEVISED. 
 WITH preface by THE RET. DR M'LAUCHLAN 
 
 6o>TOS roTJ^OK TTHRART 
 
 EDIXBUEGH 
 JOHN GEAXT, GEOEGE IV. BEIDGE 
 
 1892 
 
 BOSTON C0LLE9t UBRI^W 
 CHESTNUT HILL. M4RS. 
 
S7<? 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language 
 by the Eev. Dr Stewart of Moulin has been out of 
 print. This has been a source of regret to scholars and 
 students of that tongue. Not but that there are other 
 Grammars of real value, which it would be unjust either 
 to ignore or to depreciate, and which have served, and 
 are ser\dng, an excellent purpose in connection with 
 Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has 
 peculiar features of its own which give it a permanent 
 value. It is distinguished by its simplicity, conciseness, 
 and philosophical accuracy. No Grammar of any lan- 
 guage bears on its pages the marks of real and profound 
 scholarship, in so far as it goes, more thaa does the 
 Grammar of Dr Stewart. One cannot read a sentence 
 of it without seeing how carefully he had collected his 
 materials, and with what judgment, caution, and saga- 
 city he has compared them and drawn his conclusions. 
 His discussions upon the Article, the Noun, the Verb, 
 and the Preposition, are ample evidence of this. It is 
 no doubt true that a much fuller discussion is, with the 
 more abundant resources of modern scholarship, com- 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 petent and desirable, but, so far as he goes, Dr Stewart's 
 treatment of the subject is of a masterly character. 
 
 That there are defects to be foand in the work is 
 very true. On the subject of Syntax his disquisitions 
 are deficient in fulness, and there is a want of 
 grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first 
 thought desirable by the publishers and their advisers 
 to remedy these defects by introducing fuller notices 
 on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable number 
 of grammatical exercises from other sources open to 
 them. But it was finally deemed best in every view of 
 it to give Stewart's work just as he had left it, and that 
 is done here with the exception of a list of subscribers* 
 names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and 
 Stewart are doing the literary community a service in 
 republishing this volume, and thanks are specially due 
 to the Eoyal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a society 
 which has done much to foster the interests of education 
 in the Highlands, and which has given substantial aid 
 towards the accomplishment of this undertaking. 
 
 Thos. M'Lauchlan. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1st August 1876. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 
 Of Pronundation and Orthography, 
 
 1 
 
 
 PAET II. 
 
 
 
 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 Chap. 
 
 I.— Of the Article, . . . . 
 
 87 
 
 Chap. 
 
 II.— Of Nouns, .... 
 
 37 
 
 
 Of Gender, .... 
 
 38 
 
 
 Of Declension, . , . , 
 
 43 
 
 Chap. 
 
 III.— Of Adjectives, 
 
 55 
 
 
 Of Numeral Adjectives, 
 
 59 
 
 Chap. 
 
 lY. — Of Pronouns, . . , , . 
 
 61 
 
 Chap. 
 
 y._Of Verbs, 
 
 65 
 
 
 Formation of the Tenses, 
 
 76 
 
 
 Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, 
 
 85 
 
 
 Irregular Yerhs, 
 
 95 
 
 
 Defective Yerbs, 
 
 99 
 
 
 Reciprocating state of Verbs, . 
 
 102 
 
 
 Impersonal use of Yerbs, 
 
 105 
 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs, 
 
 107 
 
 Chap. 
 
 YL— Of Adverbs, .... 
 
 109 
 
 Chap. 
 
 YII. — Of Prepositions, 
 
 116 
 
 
 Idiomatic phrases, 
 
 125 
 
 Chap. 
 
 YIII. — Of Conjunctions, 
 
 134 
 
 Chap. 
 
 IX. — Of Interjections, 
 
 136 
 
V3 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAET III. 
 
 OF SYNTAX. 
 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Chap. I.— Of Concord, .... 
 
 137 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, 
 
 137 
 
 Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, 
 
 141 
 
 Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Ante 
 
 
 cedent, .... 
 
 146 
 
 Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Yerb with its Nominative 
 
 149 
 
 Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, 
 
 152 
 
 CiiAP. II.— Of Government, . . . . , 
 
 154 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, . 
 
 154 
 
 Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, 
 
 159 
 
 Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, 
 
 159 
 
 Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, 
 
 160 
 
 Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, 
 
 160 
 
 Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, 
 
 162 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 
 OF DERIVxVTION AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 
 CiiAP. I. — Of Derivation, . . • - , 
 
 164 
 
 Chap. II.— Of Composition, . . . , , 
 
 168 
 
 Exercises in Reading, &c., » « 
 
 175 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be 
 variously appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the 
 vain endeavour to restore vigour to a decaying superannuated 
 language. Those who reckon the extirpation of the GaeHc a 
 necessary step toward that general extension of the English 
 which they deem essential to the political interest of the 
 Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to 
 retard its extinction. Those who consider that there are many 
 parts of the Highlands, where the inhabitants can, at present, 
 receive no useful knowledge whatever except through the 
 channel of their native tongue, will probably be of opinion 
 that the Gaelic ought at least to be tolerated. Yet these too 
 may condemn as useless, if not ultimately detrimental, any 
 attempt to cultivate its powers, or to prolong its existence. 
 Others will entertain a different opinion. They will judge 
 from experience, as well as from the nature of the case, that 
 no measure merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder 
 the progress of the English language over the Highlands ; 
 while general convenience and emolument, not to mention 
 private emulation and vanity, conspire to facilitate its intro 
 duction, and prompt the natives to its acquisition. They 
 
VUl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 will perceive at the same time, that while the Gaelic continues 
 to be the common speech of multitudes, — while the knowledge 
 of many important facts, of many necessary arts, of morals, 
 of religion, and of the laws of the land, can be conveyed to 
 them only by means of this language, — it must be of material 
 service to preserve it in such a state of cultivation and purity, 
 as that it may be fully adequate to these valuable ends ; in 
 a word, that while it is a living language, it may answer the 
 purpose of a living language. 
 
 To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the 
 whole kingdom, it may not be impertinent to suggest one 
 remark. The more that the human mind is enlightened, the 
 more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions in knowledge. 
 The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge 
 can be conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the 
 Gaelic language. By learning to read and to understand 
 what he reads, in his native tongue, an appetite is generated 
 for those stores of science which are accessible to him only 
 through the medium of the English language. Hence an 
 acquaintance with the English is found to be necessary for 
 enabling him to gratify his desire after further attainments. 
 The study of it becomes, of course, an object of importance ; 
 it is commenced, and prosecuted with increasing diligence. 
 These premises seem to warrant a conclusion which might at 
 first appear paradoxical, that^ by cultivating the Gaelic, you 
 effectually, though indirectly, promote the study and diffuse 
 the knowledge of the English. 
 
 To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the 
 medium through which their instructions are communicated 
 be properly adapted to that use, and that they be enabled to 
 avail themselves of it in the fittest manner. A language 
 destitute of grammatical regularity can possess neither per- 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 spicuity nor precision, and must therefore be very inadequate 
 to the purpose of conveying one's thoughts. The Gaelic is 
 in manifest danger of falling into this discreditable condition, 
 from the disuse of old idioms and distinctions, and the admis- 
 sion of modern corruptions, unless means be applied to pre- 
 vent its degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot 
 express himself with precision without a correct knowledge 
 of grammar. When he is conscious of his ignorance in this 
 respect, he must deliver himself sometimes ambiguously or 
 erroneously, always with diffidence and hesitation ; whereas 
 one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and 
 phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to 
 utter his thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect. 
 A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the 
 hearer also, to enable him to apprehend the full import and 
 the precise force of the words of the speaker. Among the 
 readers of Gaelic, who are every day becoming more numerous, 
 those only who have studied it grammatically are qualified to 
 understand accurately what they read, and to explain it dis- 
 tinctly to others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively 
 few ever arrive at a correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of 
 grammar, without the help of a treatise composed for the 
 purpose. Whoever, therefore, allows that the Gaelic must 
 be employed in communicating to a large body of people the 
 knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, will 
 readily admit the extensive utility of investigating and 
 unfolding its grammatical principles. Impressed with this 
 conviction, I have been induced to offer to the public the 
 following attempt to develop the grammar of the Scottish 
 Gaelic. 
 
 While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to 
 those who wish to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 they already possess, I have also kept in view the gratification 
 of others, who do not understand the Gaelic, hut yet may he 
 desirous to examine the structure and properties of this 
 ancient language. To serve hoth these purposes, I have occa- 
 sionally introduced such ohservations on the analogy hetween 
 the Gaelic idiom and that of some other tongues, particularly 
 the Hehrew, as a moderate knowledge of these enahled me to 
 collect. The Irish dialect of the Gaelic is the nearest cognate 
 of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate acquaintance with its 
 vocahles and structure, hoth ancient and modern, would have 
 heen of considerahle use. This I cannot pretend to have 
 acquired. I have not failed, however, to consult, and to 
 derive some advantage from such Irish philologists as were 
 accessihle to me, particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, Yallancey, 
 and Lhuyd. To these very respectahle names I have to add 
 that of the Eev. Dr ]S'eilson, author of " An Introduction to 
 the Irish Language," Duhlin, 1808; and E. O'C., author of 
 " A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," Dublin, 1808; to the 
 latter of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured stric- 
 tures, and some flattering compliments, which, however 
 unmerited, it were unhandsome not to acknowledge. I know 
 but one publication professedly on the subject of Gaelic 
 grammar ^vritten by a Scotsman*. I have consulted it also, 
 but in this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge. 
 
 With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients 
 in the Gaelic, and who may cast an eye on this volume, less 
 with a view to learn than to criticise, while I profess a due 
 deference to their judgment, and declare my anxiety to obtain 
 their favourable suffrage, I must take the liberty to entreat 
 their attention to the following considerations. 
 
 * Analysis of the Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in 
 modern times with a truly philosophical spirit, and has been 
 settled on rational and stable principles; yet, in applying 
 these principles to explain the grammar of a particular 
 language, the divisions, the arrangements, and the rules to be 
 given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. One 
 set of rules may be equally just with another. For what is 
 it that grammatical rules do*? They bring into view the 
 various parts, inflections, or, as they may be termed, the 
 phenomena of a language, and class them together in a cer- 
 tain order. If these phenomena be all brought forward, and 
 stated according as they actually appear in the language, the 
 rules may be said to be both just and complete. Different 
 sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a different order, 
 and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, on 
 a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most 
 nearly the order of nature, or the process of the mind in 
 forming the several inflections; or rather, perhaps, to that 
 system which, from its simplicity, or clear and comprehensive 
 arrangement, is most fitted to assist the memory in acquiring 
 and retaining the parts of speech with their several inflections. 
 
 In distributing the various parts of language into their 
 several classes, and imposing names on them, we ought always 
 to be guided by the nature of that language, and to guard 
 against adopting, with inconsiderate servility, the distribu- 
 tions and technical terms of another. This caution is the 
 more necessary because, in our researches into the grammar 
 of any particular tongue, we are apt to follow implicitly the 
 order of the Latin grammar, on which we have been long 
 accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are ever ready 
 to erect into a model for the grammar of all languages. To 
 force the several parts of speech into moulds formed for the 
 
Xll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 idioms of the Latin tongue, and to frame them so as to suit 
 a nomenclature adapted to the peculiarities of Latin grammar, 
 must have the effect of disguising or concealing the pecu- 
 liarities, and confounding the true distinctions, which belong 
 to the language under discussion. 
 
 Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here 
 suggested ought never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to 
 reject indiscriminately all the forms and terms introduced 
 into the grammar of other languages. Where the same 
 classifications which have been employed in the grammar of 
 the Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit the 
 Gaelic also, it is but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt 
 these, and apply to them the same names which are already 
 familiar to us. 
 
 In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, 
 I have endeavoured to conform to these general views. The 
 field of investigation was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. 
 My task was not to fill up or improve the plan of any former 
 writer, but to form a plan for myself. In the several depart- 
 ments of my subject that distribution was adopted which, 
 after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there 
 were terms already in use in the grammars of other languages 
 that suited tolerably well the divisions which it was found 
 requisite to make, I chose to adopt these, rather than load 
 the treatise with novel or uncommon terms. If their import 
 was not sufficiently obvious already, it was explained, either 
 by particular description, or by reference to the use of these 
 terms in other grammars. In some instances it was found 
 necessary to employ less common terms, but in the choice of 
 these I endeavoured to avoid the affectation of technical nicety. 
 I am far from being persuaded that I am so fortunate as to 
 have hit on the best possible plan. I am certain that it must 
 
INTRODUCTION. XIU 
 
 be far from complete. To such charges a first essay must 
 necessarily be found liable. Still there is room to hope that 
 the work may not prove wholly useless or unacceptable. 
 Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do a service 
 of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits 
 of my labour to such as may choose to make use of them. 
 It has been, if I mistake not, the misfortune of Gaelic gram- 
 mar that its ablest friends have done nothing directly in its 
 support, because they were apprehensive that they could not 
 do everything. 
 
 I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties 
 of dialect used in different parts of the Highlands, may have 
 left me unacquainted with some genuine Gaelic idioms which 
 ouc^ht to be noticed in a work of this kind. The same cause 
 may have led me to assert some things in too general terms, 
 not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions 
 which may be found in use in some particular districts. I 
 respectfully invite, and will thankfully receive, the correction 
 of any person whose more accurate and extensive information 
 enables him to supply my omissions, or to rectify my mistakes. 
 
 In a few particulars I have differed from some of the 
 highest living authorities, — I mean those gentlemen whose 
 superior abilities are so conspicuous in the masterly transla- 
 tion of the sacred Scriptures with which the Highlands of 
 Scotland are now blessed.^ Here I have been careful to 
 
 * A few examples of what I conceived to be deviations from gramma- 
 tical propriety are given from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the 
 translation of the Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the exception- 
 able passages in those Books have been changed in the second edition from 
 what they were as they came out of the hands of the original translator. 
 The criticism on those passages is, however, allowed to remain in this edi- 
 tion of the Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic Prophets is 
 still in the hands of many, and because it often happens that ' ' we can best 
 teach what is right by showing what is wrong." — Lowth. 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 state the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In 
 doing this, I would always be understood to advance my 
 opinion and propose my reasons with the view of suggesting 
 them to the consideration of my countrymen, rather than in 
 the expectation of having my conclusions universally sus- 
 tained and adopted. 
 
 Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some 
 may have formed to themselves arrangements on the subjects 
 different from mine. Of these I have to request that they 
 do not form a hasty judgment of the work from a partial 
 inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ 
 from their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with 
 a patient perusal of the whole, and a candid comparison of 
 the several parts of the system with each other. To a judi- 
 cious critic, some faults and many defects may appear, and 
 several improvements will occur. On this supposition, I have 
 one request more to make : that he join his efforts with mine 
 in serving a common cause, interesting to our country, and 
 dear to every patriotic Highlander. 
 
ADVEETISEMEXT 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the 
 author has endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in 
 his power, from books, observation, and the communications of 
 some literary friends, to whom he is indebted for several judi- 
 cious remarks. In comparing the opinions of different critics, 
 it was not to be expected that all should be found to agree 
 together. It sometimes happened that one approved what 
 another would have rejected. If the author has not adopted 
 every hint that was offered him, but used the privilege of ex- 
 ercising his own judgment, the responsibility must rest with 
 himself. He hopes those gentlemen who most obligingly 
 favoured him with their remarks will forgive him for men- 
 tioning their names, for he is unwilling to withhold from 
 the public the satisfaction of knowing that he has had the 
 best assistance which his country could afford him in com- 
 piling and modeUing his work. He thankfully acknowledges 
 his obligations to the Eev. Dr Eobertson, of Callander ; Dr 
 Graham, of Aberfoyle ; Dr Stuart, of Luss : Dr Macleod, of 
 Kihnarnock ; and Mr Irvine, of Little Dunkeld. 
 
 From these sources of emendation, omissions have been 
 
XVI ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 supplied, idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, 
 some alterations have been made by simplifying or compress- 
 ing particular parts, and new examples and illustrations have 
 been introduced throughout, according as the advantages 
 which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his know- 
 ledge of the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, 
 his former judgments. He thought it might be acceptable 
 to Gaelic scholars to have a few lessons subjoined as exercises 
 in translating and analysing. For this purpose he has 
 selected some specimens of original prose composition, ex- 
 tracted from unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest 
 Gaelic books that are known to be extant. These specimens, 
 short as they are, may suffice to exhibit something of the 
 powers and elegances of the language in its native purity, un- 
 mixed ^vith foreign words and idioms, as well as to show the 
 manner in which it was written two or three centuries ago. 
 
 The present edition owes its existence to the generous 
 patronage of Sir John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick. Bart., 
 to w^hom the author is happy in avowing his obligations for 
 the unsolicited and liberal encouragement given him in the 
 execution and publication of his work. To the same gentleman 
 he is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record 
 the names of those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in con- 
 cert witli the honourable baronet, and at his suggestion, 
 though residing in the remote provinces of India, yet mind- 
 ful of their country's fame, contributed a liberal sum of money 
 for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for publish- 
 ing the poems of Ossian in their original language. It is 
 owing, in a principal degree, to their munificent aid, that 
 the anxious expectation of the public has been at last so 
 richly gratified by Sir John Sinclair's elegant and elaborate 
 edition of the poems of thai tender and lofty bard. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GEAMMAE. 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, 
 d, e, f, g, h, i, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are 
 vowels, Si, e, i, o, u ; the rest consonants. 
 
 In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their 
 several combinations, such obstacles lie in the way that 
 complete success is not to be expected. In order to explain, 
 in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the only- 
 obvious method is to represent them by the letters com- 
 monly employed to exhibit similar sounds in some well- 
 known living language. But there are sounds in the 
 Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, 
 nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the 
 same combination of letters does not invariably represent the 
 same sound in one age that it did in a former, or that it 
 may do in the next. And this may be equally true of the 
 letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught ; 
 and of the letters of any other language, by whose sounds 
 the powers of the former are to be explained. A diversity 
 of pronunciation is very distinguishable also in different dis- 
 tricts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering the 
 same words written in the same manner. Though the 
 powers of the letters, then, may be explained to a certain 
 degree of accuracy, yet much will still remain to be learned 
 by the information of the ear alone. 
 
 A 
 
2 OF PRONUNCIATION [Pari I. 
 
 Althougli tne chief use of the vowels be to represent the 
 vocal sounds of speech, and that of the consonants to repre- 
 sent its articulations y yet, as in many languages, so in Gaelic, 
 the consonants sometimes serve to modify the sound of the 
 vowels with which they are combined ; while, on the other 
 hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants 
 by which they are preceded or followed. 
 
 It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel 
 should be employed, not to represent a vocal sound, but to 
 modify an articulation. Yet examples are to be found in 
 modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, 
 sergeant, the e has no other effect than to give g its soft 
 sound; and in guest, guide, the u only serves to give g its 
 hard sound. So in the Italian words giorno, giusto, and many 
 others, the i only qualifies the sound of the preceding con- 
 sonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen to take 
 place frequently in Gaelic orthography. 
 
 Eesides the common division of the letters into Vowels and 
 Consonants, it is found convenient to adopt some further 
 subdivisions. 
 
 The Vowels are divided into h^oad and small : a, o, u, 
 are called hroad vowels ; e, i, small vowels. 
 
 The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Liquids: 
 Mutes, b, c, d, f, g, m, p, t ^ Liquids, 1, n, r, s (a). They are 
 also divided into Lahials^ Palatals, and Linguals, so named 
 from the organs employed in pronouncing them : Labials, b, 
 f, m, p ; Palatals, c, g ; Linguals, d, 1, n, r, s, t. 
 
 The aspirate h is not included in any of these divisions 
 
 (&). 
 
 {a) It will immediately occur to any grammarian that there is a slight 
 difference between this and the common division into mutes and liquids, 
 by the letter m being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. 
 This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement ; as the accidents 
 of the letter m are, in Gaelic, the same with those of the mute, not of the 
 liquid consonants. For a like reason, s is included in the class of liquids. 
 
 (6) Writers, who have touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, follow- 
 ing the Irish grammarians, have divided the consonants further into 
 nvutahle and immutable. The former name has been given to consonants 
 Vhich, in writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter h ; and 
 the latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS (c). 
 
 All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A 
 long vowel is often marked with an accent, especially when 
 the quantity of the vowel determines the meaning of the 
 word ; as, has death, sail the heel, caraid a pair, rls again, 
 mo more, Ion a marsh ; which are distinguished by the 
 accent alone from has the ]jcihn of the hand, sail a learn, 
 caraid a friend, ris to, Ion the elk. 
 
 All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have some- 
 what of a nasal sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, 
 n, nn. '^o vowels are doubled in the same syllable like ee, 
 00, in English. 
 
 In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words com- 
 pounded with a preposition, the accent falls on the first 
 syllable (d). The other syllables are short and unaccented, 
 and the vowels in that situation have in general the same 
 short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad 
 vowels in these syllables are often used indiscriminately 
 
 There are no quiescent final vowels, 
 
 A. 
 
 A has three sounds. 
 
 1. The first is both long and short : long, like a in the 
 English words far, star; as, ar slaughter, ath a ford, gradh 
 
 combined with h. But, in fact, "both classes of consonants are alike mutable 
 in their pronunciation ; and their mutation ought to have been marked in 
 the orthography, though it has not. This defect in Gaelic orthography 
 has been often observed and regretted, though it has never been corrected. 
 Rather than continue a distinction which has no foundation in the structure 
 of the language, I venture to discard the division of mn.tdble and immutable 
 consonants, as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner. 
 
 (c) In explaining the sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the 
 very correct and acute remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic 
 version of the New Testament, 1767. 
 
 (c?) If it be thought that this renders the language too monotonous, it 
 may be observed, on the other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and 
 obscurities in rapid speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of 
 polysyllables. Declaimers, of either sex, have oft-en found theii advantage 
 in this circumstance. 
 
4 OF PRONUNCIATION . [Part I. 
 
 (ovSy siruicli oppress; short, like a in that; as, cath a battle, 
 alt a joint J abuich ripe. 
 
 2. Eoth long and short, before dh and gh. This sound 
 has none like it in English. Long, as, adhbhar a cause, 
 adhradh worship ; short, as, lagh a law, magh a field, adharc 
 a horn, 
 
 3. Short and obscure, like e in mother; as, an, a the^ ar 
 our, ma if, and in the plural termination a or an. 
 
 E. 
 
 E has three sounds. 
 
 1. Both long and short : long, like e in where, there; as, 
 h, se he^ re during. This e is generally marked with a 
 grave accent. Short, like e in me^; as, le with, leth 7iaZ/. 
 
 2. Long, as, re the moon, ce the earth, an d6 yesterday. 
 This e is commonly marked with an acute accent. 
 
 3. Short, like e in mother; as, duine a man, ceannuichte 
 bought, 
 
 L 
 
 J has two sounds. 
 
 1. Both long and short, like ee in seem : long, as, mln 
 smooth, righ a hing ; short, as, min meal, crith trem- 
 bling. 
 
 2, Short and obscure, like i in this; as, is am, art, &c, 
 
 0, 
 
 has three sounds. 
 
 1. Both long and short : long, somewhat like o in more; 
 as, m6r great, br gold, d6chas expectation ; short, like o in 
 hot; as, mo my, do thy, dochann harm. 
 
 2. Both long and short : long, nearly like o in old ; as, 
 lom hare, toll a hole ; short, as, lomadh making hare, 
 tolladh horing. 
 
 3. Both long and short, like (2) a {e) : long, as, foghlum 
 to learn ; short, as, roghuinn choice, logh to forgive, 
 
 (e) That is the second sound assigned, to a. 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 6 
 
 XT. 
 
 U has one sound, both long and short, like oo in fool : 
 long, as, iir fresh, iiraich to reneio ; short, as, ubh an egg, 
 urras a surety. 
 
 OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic : ae, 
 ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, eu ; ia, io, iu ; oi ; ua, uL Of these, ao, eu, 
 ia, ua, are always long ; the others are sometimes long, some- 
 times short. 
 
 Ae. 
 
 The sound of ae is made up of (1) a long, and (1) e short. 
 This diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael a Gaul or 
 Highlander, and Gaelic the Gaelic language (/). 
 
 Ai. 
 
 The sound of ai is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or like that of the former. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) a and (1) i: the a long, the i short ; 
 as, faidh a jprophet ; the a short, the i short ; as, claidheamh 
 a sword, 
 
 2. Made up of (2) a and (1) i: the a long, the i short ; 
 as, saighde arrows. 
 
 Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i often 
 loses its sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the 
 following consonant {g) ; hence, 
 
 3. Like (1) a alone : long, as, faisg squeeze, failte 
 salutation ; short, as, glaic a hollow, tais soft, 
 
 4. Like (2) a alone : short, as, airm arms, gairm a call. 
 
 Ao. 
 
 1. The sound of ao is like (2) a, long : as, caora a sheep, 
 faobhar the edge of a tool, saothair labour. 
 
 (/) The plural of la or latha a day^ is sometimes written laeth ; but it 
 is doubtful how far this is a proper mode of writing it. 
 
 {g) The effect of the vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining 
 consonants will be explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals. 
 
6 . OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I, 
 
 Ea. 
 
 The sound of ea is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or like that of one of them. 
 
 1. Made up of (2) e and (1) a: e very short, a long, 
 as, heann a summit, pinnade, feall deceit ; a short, as, meal to 
 enjoy, speal a scythe. 
 
 Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the a fre- 
 quently loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the fol- 
 lowing consonant ; hence, 
 
 2. Like (1) e, long : as, dean do ; short, as, fear a man, 
 bean a woman, 
 
 3. Like (2) e, long : as, easlan sick ; short, as, fead 
 whistle. 
 
 After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the e loses its 
 sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant ; 
 hence, 
 
 4. Like (1) a, long : as, c^ard an artificer ; short, as, geal 
 white. 
 
 5. Like (3) a, short : as, itheadh eating, coireach faulty, 
 
 Ei. 
 
 The sound of ei is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or like that of e alone. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) <s and (1) ^ .* e long, i short, as, sgeimh 
 beauty ; e short, as, meidh a balance. 
 
 2. Made up of (2) e and (1) i: e long, i short, as, feidh 
 deer ; e short, as, greigh a herd, stud. 
 
 Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses 
 its sound, and. only qualifies that of the following consonant ; 
 hence, 
 
 3. Like (1) e alone : long, as, meise of a plate. 
 
 4. Like (2) e alone: long, as, eigin necessity; short, as, 
 eich horses. 
 
 Eg 
 
 The sound of eo is either made up of the sounds of both 
 vowels, or like that of o alone. 
 
Part l] AND OKTHOGRAPHY. 71 
 
 1. Made up of (2) e and (1) o: e very short, o long, as, 
 beo alive, eolas hioidedge ; o short, as, beothail lively. 
 
 After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the e loses its 
 sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant ; 
 hence, 
 
 2. Like (1) o : long, as, leomhann a lion ; short, as, deoch 
 drink. 
 
 Eu. 
 
 The sound of eu is like (2) e alone : long, as, teum to bite, 
 gleus trim, entertainment. 
 
 One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in 
 the pronunciation of the diphthong eu, which, instead of 
 being pronounced like long e, is over all the Is'orth High- 
 lands commonly pronounced like ia; as, nial, ian, fiar, for 
 neul, eun, feur. 
 
 Ia. 
 
 The sound of ia is made up of the sounds of both the 
 vowels. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) i and (1) a : both of equal length, as, 
 fial liheral, iar icest. 
 
 2. Made up of (1) ^ and (2) a : of equal length, as, fiadh 
 a deer, ciall common sense. 
 
 Lq cia which ? iad they, ia is often found like (1) e. 
 
 lo. 
 
 The sound of io is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or lil^e one of them alone. 
 
 1, Made up of (1) i and (3) o: z'long, o short, as, diol to 
 pay, fior true; i short, as, iolach a shout, ionnsuidh an 
 attack. 
 
 Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the o sometimes 
 loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following con- 
 sonant ; hence, 
 
 2. Like (1) i : long, as, iodhol an idol ; short, as, crios a 
 girdle, biorach pointed. 
 
 After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i some- 
 
8 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I. 
 
 times loses its sound, and only qualifies tliat of the preceding 
 consonant ; hence, 
 
 3. Like u in fun^ short and obscure: as, cionta guilty 
 tiondadh to turn, 
 
 lu. 
 
 The sound of iu is either made up of the sound of both 
 the vowels, or like u alone. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) i and (1) ^^: i short, u long, as, fiii 
 worthy ; u short, as, iuchair a key. 
 
 After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its 
 sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant ; 
 hence, 
 
 2. Like (1) u: long, as, diii worst part, refuse; short, 
 as, tiugh thick, giuthas fir, 
 
 Gi. 
 
 The sound of oi is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or like that of o alone. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) o and (1) ^: o long, i short, as, 6igh 
 a virgin ; o short, as, troidh a foot, 
 
 2. Made up of (3) o and (1) ^; o long, i short, as, oidhche 
 night. 
 
 Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses its 
 sound, and only qualifies that of the follomng consonant ; 
 hence. 
 
 (3.) Like (1) o long: as, m6id more; short, as, toic 
 wealth. 
 
 4. Like (2) o long : as, foid a turf ; short, as, fois rest, 
 
 5. Like (3) o short; as, coileach a cock, doire a wood, 
 
 Ua. 
 
 The sound of ua is made up of the sounds of both the 
 vowels. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) ^ and (1) a, equally long; as, cuan 
 the sea, fuar cold, 
 
 2. Made up of (1) ^^ and (2) a; as, tuadh a hatchet^ 
 BlusLgh peoj)le. 
 
Part I.] AND OKTHOGrvAPHY. 9 
 
 Ui. 
 
 The sound of ui is either made up of the sounds of both 
 the vowels, or like that of u alone. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) u and (1) ^.* u long, i short, as, suigh- 
 eag a rasp-herry ; u short, as, buidheann a company. 
 
 Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the i loses 
 its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; 
 hence, 
 
 2. Like {\) tt long: as, diiil expectation, chigjive; short, 
 as, fuil blood, muir the sea. 
 
 OF THE TRIPHTHONGS. 
 
 There are five Triphthongs, in each of which ^ is the last 
 letter : aoi, eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels 
 have the same sounds and powers as when they form a diph- 
 thong. The final i is sounded short ; but before a Palatal 
 or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only 
 qualifies that of the following consonant. 
 
 Aoi. 
 
 1. Made up of ao and (1) i; as, caoidh lamentation, 
 aoibhneas yo?/, laoigh calves. 
 
 2. Like ao ; as, caoineadh wailing, maoile baldness. 
 
 Eoi. 
 
 1. Made up of (2) eo and (1) i ; as, geoigh geese. 
 
 2. Like (1) eo ; as, meoir fingers. 
 
 3. Like (2) eo ; as, deoir tears, treoir ability. 
 
 Lii. 
 
 1. Like (1) ia ; as, fiaire more aicry. 
 
 Iui. 
 1. Like (2) iu ; as, ciiiil of m^isic^ fiiuiche more wet. 
 
10 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION 
 
 [part I. 
 
 1. Made up of (1) ua and (1) i; as, luaithe quicker. 
 
 2. Made up of (2) ita and (1) ^; as, cruaidh hard, fuaim 
 sound. 
 
 3. Like (1) ua ; as, uair time, an hour, cluaise of an ear.^ 
 
 OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from 
 their powers in English. Those called mediae by the writers 
 on Greek grammar, viz., h, d, g, approach nearer in force to 
 the corresponding tenues p, t, c, than they do in English. 
 
 In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, 
 the voice necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, 
 the consonants, though written single, are pronounced with 
 the same degree of force as when written double in English ; 
 as, bradan a salmon, cos a foot ; pronounced braddan, coss. 
 No consonants are written double except Z, n, r, 
 
 A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the 
 Gaelic tongue Qi), The aspirating of a consonant has been 
 
 (h) This propensity is seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic 
 words, which have an evident affinity to words in other languages, where 
 the same consonants are not so aspirated. The following list will suf- 
 ficiently illustrate and confirm the truth of this remark : — 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 G(jelic, 
 
 Aia^\os 
 
 DiaSolus 
 
 Diabhol. 
 
 
 Scri^o* 
 
 Scriobh, write. 
 
 
 Fe&ris* 
 
 Fiabhrus, a fever. 
 
 
 Baculum 
 
 BachoU, a staff. 
 
 Aefca 
 
 Decem 
 
 Deich, ten. 
 
 
 Lorica 
 
 Luireach, a cooi of maiU 
 
 
 Clericus 
 
 Cleireach, a clerk. 
 
 
 Moc^us 
 
 Modh, manner. 
 
 
 Glac^ius 
 
 Claidheamh, a sword. 
 
 Kap^ia 
 KpaBia 
 
 I Corc?-is 
 
 Cridhe, the heart. 
 
 
 Mec^ium. 
 
 Meadhon, middle. 
 
 
 Lauc^o 
 
 Luadh, mention. 
 
 
 Le^o 
 
 Leugh, read. 
 
 
 Gre^-is 
 
 Greigh, a herd. 
 
 ♦ So in French, from Aprilis, AvriUs; habere, avoir; Febris, FihTe; ^irKyKoiroi^ 
 sveque 
 
Pabt I.] AND OrvTHOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 usually marked, in the Irish dialect, by a dot over the 
 letter aspirated ; in the Scottish dialect by writing h after it. 
 All the consonants have their sounds changed by being 
 aspirated, and the effect is different on different consonants. 
 In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed 
 by the same organ. In others the articulation is formed 
 by a different organ. In others the li alone retains its power. 
 And sometimes both the h and the consonant to which it 
 is subjoined become entirely quiescent. 
 
 Greek, 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gcelic, 
 
 Re^-is 
 
 Righ, a king. 
 
 Pla^a 
 
 Plaigh, a plague. 
 
 Sa^tta 
 
 Saighead, an arrow. 
 
 M agister 
 
 Maighistir, master. 
 
 Irua^o 
 
 lonihaigh, an image. 
 
 Pri/nus 
 
 Priomh, chief. 
 
 'Rq-mms 
 
 Ramh, om oar^ 
 
 Si?/iilis 
 
 Samhuil, like. 
 
 Hu??iili3 
 
 Umhal, humble. 
 
 Ca^^ra 
 
 Gabhar, a goa.t. 
 
 Ma^er 
 
 Mathair, mother. 
 
 Eo^a 
 
 Roth, Rath, a wheel. 
 
 'yixito 
 
 Muth, change. 
 
 Mtjttjp 
 
 It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced 
 without aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue ; for vre are 
 told that in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the con- 
 sonants are for the most part -vsTitten without any mark of aspiration. 
 See ** Lhuyd's ArchcTol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1. 
 
 The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a progressive 
 state, in a few vocables which are pronounced -u-itli an aspiration in some 
 districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or deathach smoke, cun- 
 tart or cunthart danger, ta or tha am, art, tu or thu thou, troimh or 
 throimh through, tar or thar oxer, am beil or am bheil is there t dom or 
 domh to me, &c. Has not this remission or suppression of the articula- 
 tions the effect of enfeebling the speech, by mollifying its bones and 
 relaxing its nerves ? Ought not therefore the progi^ess of this corruption 
 to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated articulations in those instances 
 where universal practice has not entirely superseded them, and even by 
 restoring them in some instances, where the loss of them has been 
 attended with manifest inconvenience ? It is shameful to see how many 
 monosyllables, once distinguished by their articulations, have in process of 
 time, by dropping these articulations, come to be represented by the 
 solitary vowel a, to the no small confusion of the language and embar- 
 rassment of the reader. The place of the absent consonant is often 
 supplied, indeed, in ^mting, by an apostrophe. This, however, is at best 
 but an imperfect and precarious expedient. 
 
12 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part L 
 
 In treating of the consonants separately, it will be con- 
 venient to depart a little from the alphabetical order of the 
 letters, and to consider first the Labials^ next the Palatals^ 
 and lastly the Linguals, 
 
 LABIA.LS. 
 
 P. 
 
 1. Plain. Like jp in English ; as, poll a j^ooZ, pill return, 
 
 2. Aspirated. Like ph or / in English ; as, a' phuill of the 
 pool, phill returned (^). 
 
 B. 
 
 1. Plain. Like h in English ; as, baile a town, beo alke, 
 
 2. Aspirated. Like v in English ; as, bhuail struck. In 
 the end of a syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, 
 and often passes into the vocal sound of u (Jc) ; as in marbh 
 (Z) dead, garbh rough, dabhach a vat, 
 
 M. 
 
 1. Plain. Like m in English ; as, mac a son, cam crooked, 
 
 2. Aspirated. Somewhat like v in English, but more 
 feeble and nasal; as, mhathair mother, lamh the hand. 
 The sound mh has the same relation to that of bh, as the 
 sound of m has to that of h. Sometimes, like hh, it becomes 
 a vocal sound like a nasal u; as, in damh an ox, samhradh 
 summer: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble 
 as not to be perceived ; as, comhradh speech, domhainn deep. 
 
 {%) Ph is found in no Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few 
 words transplanted from the Greek or the Hebrew, in which ph represents 
 the Greek (/>, or the Hebrew D. It might perhaps be more proper to 
 represent Q by ^ rather than ph ; and to represent <p by /, as the Italians 
 have done in filosofia, filologia, &c., by which some ambiguities and 
 anomalies in declension would be avoided. 
 
 {k) The affinity between the sounds of v and u is observable in many 
 languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greok, and Latin. 
 
 {I) Agreeably to the like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word 
 marw, the Manks rrmrroo^ 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 1 . Plain. Like / in English ; as, faigh to get, ibid a turf, 
 
 2. Aspirated. Quiescent ; as, fheara men. In fliuair 
 found y the aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced 
 as if written huair. It is probable that it was originally 
 written and pronounced fuair (?/z) ; that huair is but a 
 provincial pronunciation (n) ; and that to adapt the spelling 
 in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be 
 written fhuair. 
 
 PALATALS AND LIXGUALS. 
 
 In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has 
 been often taken of the powers of certain vowels in modi- 
 fying the sound of the adjoining consonants. This refers 
 to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and Lingual 
 consonants, whether ^;/rt2?i or asjnrated. The difference be- 
 tween these two modes of pronunciation is, in some conson- 
 ants, abundantly striking ; in others it is minute, but suffi- 
 ciently discernible to an ear accustomed to the Gaelic. The 
 one of these modes of articulation belongs to Palatals and 
 Linguals, chiefly when connected with a hroad votcel; the 
 other belongs to them when connected with a smcdl vowel. 
 Hence, the former may be called the hroad sound, the latter 
 the small sound of a Palatal or a Lingual, 
 
 These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may 
 be known, for the most part, by the relative situation of the 
 letters. 
 
 C. 
 
 L Plain. Broad: like c in comSy curb; as, ciil tlie hacJi, 
 cridhe the heart, 
 
 (m) It is still pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so 
 ^^Titten in Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18,19; John ii. 14, viii. 
 62, 53. 
 
 (ti) So fathast yet, fein self, are in some places pronounced as if they 
 began T\ith an h instead of an/. The latter word is, by the ^Manks, 
 written bene. 
 
14 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I. 
 
 2. Small: like c in care, cure; as^ taic support^ circe of a 
 hen (o), 
 
 3. Aspirated. Broad : like the Greek ^f ^s pronounced 
 in Scotland, in x^P^j ^s, croch to hang, chaidli went. 
 
 4. Small : like ^ in x^^''^ ^^> ^^^ 6'7^.aZZ see, eich horses, 
 
 G. 
 
 1. Plain. Broad: like ^ in ^o, rogue; as, gabh ^o /aZ^e, 
 glor speech, bog sq/i^. 
 
 2. Small: like ^ in give, fatigue ; as, gin to produce , tliig 
 sT^aZZ come, tilg Zo throw. 
 
 3. Aspirated. Broad: has no sound like it in English ; 
 ghabh ZooZ:, ghleidh ^e^Z. 
 
 4. Small: nearly like ^ in young; as, ghin j9rocZz^ce6Z. 
 
 5. Gh in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ 
 a king, tiugh thick, fuigheall remainder. 
 
 T. 
 
 1. Plain. Broad: nearly like t in tone, bottom; as, tog 
 to raise, trom heavy, brat a covering. 
 
 (o) Over a considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to aspira- 
 tion, which has been already remarked, has affixed to c, in the end of a 
 word, or of an accented syllable, the sound of chc; as, mac a son, tore a 
 hoar, acain moaning ; pronounced often machc, torchc, achcain. 
 
 There is reason to believe that this compound sound of chc was not 
 known of old, but is a modern corruption. For, 
 
 This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts 
 the c retains its proper sound in all situations. 
 
 If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, it 
 is highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by a 
 combination of letters, such as chc ; especially as we find that the same 
 sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, but by a 
 combination, as in the case of chd. Why should it be thought that boo a 
 buck, and bochd poor, were originally pronounced alike, when they are 
 distinguished both in writing and signification ? 
 
 The word pS^ a sack, has been transplanted from the Hebrew into many 
 languages, among the rest the Gaelic, where it has been always written 
 sac, although now pronounced sachc. In none of ihe other languages in 
 which the word is used (except the Welsh alone), has the final palatal 
 been aspirated. It would appear therefore that the sound sachc is a 
 departure from the original Gaelic pronunciation. The same change may 
 have happened in the pronunciation of other wordsj in which the plain c 
 is now aspirated, though it may not have been so originally. 
 
Part l] 
 
 AND ORTHOGEAPHY. 
 
 15 
 
 2. Small: like ch in cheek, choose; as, tinn sickj caiUte 
 lost. 
 
 3. Aspirated. Like h in house; as, thig shall come, throisg 
 fasted, maith good. 
 
 4. Quiescent : in the micklle of a polysyllable, in the end 
 of a long syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular 
 verbs when preceded by d' ; as, snitheach {p) watery, sith 
 peace, an d' thug e ? did he give ? also in the pronoun thusa 
 thou. 
 
 D. 
 
 1. Plain. Broad: nearly like d in dojie; as, dol goi?ig, 
 dlu near, close, ciod what, 
 
 2. Small: like ^ in Juiie, jewel; as, diu refuse, maide a 
 5^ic^, airde height, 
 
 D, after c/^, is commonly sounded like c; as, bochd poar, 
 proaounced as if written bochc (g). 
 
 (p) Though th be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the 
 North and Central Highlands, yet it is, -snth more propriety, pronounced, 
 in the West Highlands, as an aspiration ; as, athair father, mathanas 
 pardon, pronounced a-hair, mahanas. 
 
 {q) I am informed that this pronunciation of did is not universal ; but 
 that in some districts, particularly the East Highlands, the d has here, as 
 in other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the 
 instances in which chd occurs, the ancient Irish wrote ct. This spelling 
 corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a manifest affinity to 
 Gaelic words of the same signification ; which, it is therefore presumable, 
 were aU originally pronounced, as they were written, without an aspira- 
 tion, such as, 
 
 Latin. 
 Noct-u Noct-is, &c 
 Oct-o 
 
 Benedict-um 
 Maledict-um 
 Euct-us 
 Intellect-US 
 Lact-is, -i, &c. 
 Dict-o, -are, ko, 
 Eego 
 Rect-um 
 
 Old French. 
 Nuict 
 Huict 
 Benoict 
 Maudict 
 
 Gaelic. 
 an nochd, to night, 
 Ochd, eight. 
 Beannachd, blessing, 
 Mallaehd, cursing. 
 Biiichd, evomition. 
 Intleachd, contrivanccm 
 Lachd, milk. 
 Deachd, to dictate. 
 
 Keachd, a law, institution. 
 
 From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original c was con- 
 verted into ch, and the words w^ere -smtten -svith cht, as in the Irish acht 
 hut, &c., or with the slight change of t into d, as in ochd, &c. This is th© 
 
16 OF PRONUNCIATION [Paet I. 
 
 3. Aspirated (r). Broad: like broad gh^ as, dhruid did 
 shut, gradh love. 
 
 4. Small: like small gh; as, dhearc looked. 
 
 5. Quiescent; as, faidh a prophet, cridhe a heart, radh 
 saying^ bualadh striking. 
 
 EXILE. — Tlie consonants c, g, t, d, have their small 
 sounds when, in the same syllahle, they are preceded, or imme- 
 diately followed, hy a SMALL vowel; in all other sitiuitions 
 they have their broad sound. 
 
 S. 
 
 1. Plain. Broad: like s in sun, this; as, speal a scythe, 
 cas a foot, siiil an eye, scian a knife. 
 
 2. Small : like sh in show, rash ; as, bris to break, seimh 
 quiet, sniomh to twine, steidh foundation. 
 
 3. Aspirated : like h in. him ; as, sbuidh sat, shrann 
 snorted. Before I and n, it is almost, if not altogether, 
 quiescent ; as, shlanuich healed, shniomli twisted. S fol- 
 lowed by a mute consonant is never aspirated. 
 
 EXILE. — S has its small sound, ivheii, in the same syllable^ 
 it is p/receded or followed by a small vowel, icith or without 
 an intervening Lingual. In all other situations it has its 
 BROAD sound. Except. S is broad in is am. It is small 
 in so this, sud yon. It is customary to give s its broad sound 
 in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends with 
 T, in which case the r also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn 
 we put, air son on account. 
 
 opinion of O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic root of the 
 Latin lectio — the aspirate h is but a late invention. — O'Br. Ir. Diet voc. 
 leeht. In process of time the true sound of eht or chd was confounded 
 with the kindred sound of chc, which was commonly, though corruptly, 
 given to final c. 
 
 (r) It is certain that the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the 
 Saxon d] or th in thou; as the natural sound of t aspirated is that of th in 
 think. This articulation, from whatever cause, has not been admitted into 
 the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it is used in the kindred 
 dialects of Gomwall and Wales. 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY 17 
 
 Of L, N, E. 
 
 A distinction between a consonant when plain^ and the 
 same consonant when aspirated, has been easily traced thus 
 tar. This distinction readily discovers itself, not only in 
 the pronunciation and orthography, but also (as will be seen 
 in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. It 
 takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been 
 already considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, 
 Z, riy r, a corresponding distinction will be found to take place 
 in their pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they 
 suffer by inflection. This close correspondence between the 
 changes incident to Z, n, r, and the changes \vhich the other 
 consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason for still 
 using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, 
 though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applic- 
 able to these three consonants as to the rest. The powers 
 of Z, n, r, shall accordingly be explained under the divisions 
 Ijlain and aspirated , broad and small. 
 
 1. Plain. Broad: has no sound like it in English; lorn 
 harCj labhair spcalz^ mall slotc, alt a joint, aid a hrook, flat a 
 rod, dlu near. 
 
 2. Small: like II in millio7i ; as, linn an age, lion fill^ 
 pill to return, slighe a way. 
 
 3. Aspirated. Broad : like I in loom, fool ; as, labhair 
 spoke, lom feminine of lorn hare, mol to praise, dhlii feminine 
 of dlii near. 
 
 4. Small : nearly like I in limh, fill ; as, a linn liU age, 
 lion filled, mil honey, dligheach due, lawful, 
 
 N. 
 
 I. Plain. Broad: has no sound like it in English; nuadh 
 new, naisg hind, lann a blade, earn a heap of stones. 
 
 2.. Small : like n ill the second syllable of opinion ; as, 
 nigh washf binn melodious, cuirn heap^s of stones. 
 
 B 
 
18 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part 1. 
 
 3. Aspirated. Broad : like n in no^ on ; as, nuadh fem- 
 minine of nuadh new, naisg hound, shnamh swain, sean old 
 (s), chon of dogs, dan a poem, 
 
 4. Small : like n in keen, near ; as, nigh washed, shniomh 
 twisted, coin dogs, dain poems. 
 
 In an when followed by a Palatal, the n is pronounced 
 like ng in English ; as, an gille tlie lad, an comhnuidh always, 
 
 N, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like 
 r (t) ; as in mnathan women, cnatan a cold, an t-snath of 
 the yarn ; pronounced mrathan, cratan, &c. 
 
 1. Plain. If early like r in roar ; as, ruadh reddish, righ 
 a king, ruith run, torr a heap, ceartas justice. 
 
 2. Aspirated. Broad: nearly like r in rear; as, car a 
 tuniy ruith ran, ni6r ^?'ea^. 
 
 3. Small: has no sound like it in English; a righ 
 king, seirbhe satiety, m6ir gen. of mor great. 
 
 The plain, aspirated, broad, and small sounds of these 
 Linguals are not distinguished in writing ; but they may, 
 for the most part, be known from the relative position of 
 the letters, 
 
 EULE. — L, N, E, have their plain sound when, in the 
 same syllable, tliey are immediately preceded by a plain 
 Liquid, or immediately followed by a plain Lingual; also 
 in the beginning of certain cases and tenses ; in all other 
 situations, they ha.ve their aspirated sound. They have 
 their small sound when, in the same syllable^ they are pre- 
 ceded or followed by a small vowel, loith or without an inter^ 
 vening Liquid; in other situations, they have their broad 
 sound, 
 
 (s) In sean old, the n has its plain sound when the following word begins 
 with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that situation seann; 
 as, seann duiiie an old man, an t-seann tiomnaidh of the old TestamenU 
 
 (t) So in Latin, canmen from cano was pronounced, and then written 
 (^mnen ; genmen from the obsolete y^v^a passed into gcrincnt 
 
Part I.] 
 
 AND OKTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 19 
 
 H 
 
 H is never used as an independent radical letter. When 
 prefixed to a word beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced 
 like h in how ; as, na h-6ighean the virgins^ na h-oidhche of 
 the night » 
 
 The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the 
 letters, both singly and in their several combinations. The 
 first column contains the letters whose sound is to be 
 exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of 
 different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second 
 column explains the sounds by examples or by references. 
 The third column contains Gaelic words, with their transla- 
 tion, in which the several sounds are exemplified. 
 
 la 
 
 2a 
 
 3a 
 
 le 
 
 2e 
 3e 
 
 li 
 
 21 
 
 lo 
 
 2o 
 
 3o 
 
 (long 
 
 t short 
 
 rlong 
 
 ( short 
 
 short 
 
 i long 
 
 { short 
 
 long 
 
 short 
 
 see 
 
 far star 
 that 
 
 similar 
 
 there 
 
 met 
 
 mother 
 
 this 
 
 short 
 [ long more 
 I short hob 
 \ long ) 
 [ short) 
 r long ) . 
 { short J '^-'^ 
 
 old 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 kr slaughter, kih a ford, 
 
 ar to plow, abuich ripe. 
 
 adhradh icorship, adhbhar reason. 
 
 adharc a horn, adhart a holster. 
 
 ma if, an the, a his, her. 
 
 e se he, gne sort^ kind, 
 
 le with, leth half 
 
 an de yesterday, ce the earth. 
 
 duine a man, briste hrokeru 
 ( min smooth, righ a king, 
 (jdin meal, crith a shaking » 
 
 is am, art, is, 
 
 m6r great. Ion food. 
 
 mo my, do thyy Ion the auzle. 
 
 lom bare, toll a hole, 
 
 lomadh making bare^ 
 
 roghnuich to choose. 
 
 roghuinu choice. 
 
20 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION 
 
 [Part I. 
 
 lu 
 
 Hong ) 
 ( short J 
 
 fool 
 
 {ir fresh, sugh juice. 
 ubli an egg, tur quite. 
 
 1 ae 
 
 1 ai 
 
 2 ai 
 
 3 ai 
 
 4 ai 
 1 ao 
 
 1 ea 
 
 2 ea 
 
 3 ea 
 
 4 ea 
 
 5 ea 
 
 1 ei 
 
 2 ei 
 
 3 ei 
 
 4 ei 
 
 1 80 
 
 2 60 
 
 1 eu 
 
 1 ia 
 
 2 ia 
 
 1 io 
 
 2 io 
 
 3 io 
 
 1 iu 
 
 2 iu 
 
 1 oi 
 
 2 oi 
 
 3 oi 
 
 4 oi 
 
 5 oi 
 
 1 iia 
 
 2 ua 
 
 (1) a (2) e 
 
 (1) a (1) i 
 
 (2) a (1) i 
 (l)a 
 (2) 
 {'^) 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 {'^) 
 (0 
 (3) 
 (1) 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 (2) 
 
 (1) 
 
 (1) 
 
 (1) 
 
 (1) 
 
 a 
 a 
 e 
 e 
 e 
 a 
 a 
 e 
 e 
 e 
 e 
 e 
 
 
 
 e 
 (1) i (1) a 
 (1) i (2) a 
 (1) i (3) o 
 
 iun 
 
 (l)iu 
 u 
 
 (1) o (1) i 
 (3) o (1) i 
 
 (1)0 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) o 
 u {l)a 
 u 
 
 Diphthongs. 
 
 laeth days. 
 
 f aidli a prophet, claidlieamb a sword, 
 saidhbliir, rich. 
 faisg squeeze, tais soft. 
 airm arms, gairm to call. 
 faobliar edge of an instrument, 
 beann ap)innacle, meal enjoy. 
 dean to do, make, bean a icoman. 
 easlan sich, fead whistle. 
 ceard an artificer, geal white. 
 coireach faulty. 
 
 sgeimh beauty, meidh a balance. 
 feidh deer, greigh a herd. 
 meise of a plate. 
 eigin necessity, eicli horses. 
 beo a?/?;e, beothail lively. 
 leomliann a lion, deoch a drink. 
 teum to bite, gleus trim. 
 fial liberal, fiar oblique. 
 fiadh a c^e?', biadh/o^c?. 
 diol f(9 ^:)a?/, iolach a spout. 
 iodhol an idol, crios a girdle. 
 cionta guilt, 
 fill worth, iucbair a key. 
 dill refuse, tiiigb. f7?.2c^. 
 oigb a virgin, troidh afoot. 
 oidhche night 
 moid more, toic wealth. 
 foid a ^z^?/, fois ?'e5f. 
 coileach a cock, goirid short. 
 cuan the sea, fuath hatred. 
 (2) a tuadh a hatchet, sluagh people. 
 
Faet 1.1 AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 1 ui u (1) i siiigheah a rasyherry, buidheann 
 
 a company, 
 
 2 ui u dtiil expectation, foil hlood. 
 
 
 
 Triphthongs. 
 
 1 aoi (1) ao 
 
 (1) 
 
 i caoidb lamentation. 
 
 2 abi (1) ao 
 
 
 caoin mild, saoil to think. 
 
 1 eoi (2) eo 
 
 (1) 
 
 i geoigb geese. 
 
 2 eoi (1) eo 
 
 
 meoir fingers. 
 
 3 eoi (2) eo 
 
 
 deoir tears. 
 
 1 iai (1) ia 
 
 
 fiaire more ohlique. 
 
 1 iui (2) iu 
 
 
 ciiiil of music. 
 
 1 uai (1) ua 
 
 0) 
 
 i luaitbe quicker. 
 
 2 uai (2) ua 
 
 (1) 
 
 i cruaidb Aarc?, fuaim sound. 
 
 3 uai (1) ua 
 
 
 gluais f6> Two-ye, uair ^me. 
 
 Consonants 
 Labials. 
 
 1 p part 
 
 
 poll « 2^00?, streap to climb. 
 
 2 ph PhiHp 
 
 
 pbill returned. 
 
 1 b boil 
 
 
 baile a ^ote'?^, breab ^o kick. 
 
 2 bh vile 
 
 
 bbuail strtick, gabb ^o take. 
 
 1 m my 
 
 
 mor ^reaf, anam ??/e, soul 
 
 2 mh 
 
 
 mhothmch. perceiced, damb aw ojr. 
 
 1 f feel 
 
 
 fill to fold. 
 
 2 fb quiescent 
 
 fbeara men. 
 
 
 
 Palatcds. 
 
 1 c cock 
 
 
 can to say, sing, creid to believe. 
 
 2 c kick 
 
 
 ceann e/i^, head, reic ^o ^e/Z. 
 
 3 cb x^ipo- 
 
 
 cbaidb icent, racb ^o. 
 
 4 cb )(€LfJL(jJV 
 
 
 cbi 5^aZZ see, cricbe o/ a boundary. 
 
 1 g go 
 
 
 gabb ^0 faA*6, rag 5^2]^. 
 
22 OF PRONUNCIATION [Parf I. 
 
 geinne a wedge, ruig to reach. 
 ghabh tooh^ ghleidh kept, 
 gheibh will get. 
 righ a king, eluagh people. 
 
 Lmguals, 
 
 tog to raise, slat a rod, 
 
 tinn sick, aite a place. 
 
 thainig came. 
 
 maith good, fath occasion, 
 
 dol going, dragh trouble. 
 
 diom resentment, maide a ^ifi^jA:. 
 
 dhall blind. 
 
 dhearc looked. 
 
 radh saying, bualadh threshing. 
 
 sannt desire, sloe a ^^Y. 
 
 seimh gentle, so ^/^^5. 
 
 shuidh 5a^, shaoil thought. 
 
 lorn Sarg, slat a rod, moll cArr^i 
 
 linn a?z age, caillte lost, 
 
 blath blossom, shlanuich healed. 
 
 leiim leaped, shleamhnuich sHvped. 
 
 crann a ^ree, naomh holy, naisg 
 
 eeinn ^o sing, nigh w?a57^, 
 
 fan ;fo stay, naisg bound, 
 
 coin c?o^5, nigh washed. 
 
 fearr better, righ a ^m^, ruith 
 
 run. 
 fear a maw, ruith ran. 
 fir 7nen, a righ /i://?^, treoir 
 
 strength. 
 
 There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages 
 a written language. It is equally certain that its orthography, 
 since it was first committed to writing, has undergone 
 
 2 
 
 g 
 
 give 
 
 3 
 
 gt 
 
 
 4 
 
 gh 
 
 you 
 
 5 
 
 quiescent 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 tone 
 
 2 t 
 
 chin 
 
 3 
 
 th 
 
 have 
 
 4 
 
 th 
 
 quiescent 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 done 
 
 2 
 
 d 
 
 join 
 
 3 dh 
 
 (3)gh 
 
 4 
 
 dh 
 
 (4)^ gh 
 
 5 
 
 dh 
 
 quiescent 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 so 
 
 2 
 
 s 
 
 show 
 
 3 sh 
 
 how 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 million 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 look 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 believe 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 opinion 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 no 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 near 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 roar 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 rear 
 
 3 
 
 r 
 
 
Part 1.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 considerable changes. In this respect it lias shared the 
 common fate of all written languages. 
 
 In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, 
 by alphabetical characters, it is probable that the principle 
 which regulated the system of orthography was, that every 
 elementary sound should be represented by a corresponding 
 character, either simple or compounded, and that the 
 same sound should be represented by the same character. 
 If different sounds were represented by the same letter; 
 if the same sound were represented by different letters ; 
 if more letters were employed then were necessary to exhibit 
 the sound ; or if any sound were not represented by a 
 coiTesponding character; then the written language would 
 not be an adequate representation of the spolien. It is hardly 
 to be supposed that, in the first rude attempts at alphabetical 
 writing, the principle above laid down could be strictly and 
 uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the course 
 of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about 
 considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of 
 ear, and increasing attention to euplionia ; contractions and 
 elisions brought into vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity 
 of colloquial speech, or by the practice of popular speakers ; 
 above all, the mixture of the speech of different nations 
 would introduce numberless varieties into the pronunciation. 
 Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere to 
 the original orthography for the sake of retaining the 
 radical parts, and preserving the etymon of vocables 
 undisguised, and for maintaining an uniformity in the 
 mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation 
 and the orthography would disagree in many instances, 
 till at length it would be found expedient to alter the 
 orthography, and to adapt it to such changes in the speech 
 or spoken language as loug use had established, in order 
 to maintain wliat was most necessary of all, a due correspond- 
 ence between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing 
 the same language. 
 
 It will probably be found on inquiry that in all language^ 
 when the speccli has undergone material and striking cliangei^, 
 
24 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part J. 
 
 the written language also has varied in a considerable degree 
 in conformity to these changes, but that it has not scrupu- 
 lously kept pace with the spoken language in every smaller 
 variation. The written language of the Greeks suffered 
 many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was 
 spoken and the days of Demosthenes. The various modes 
 of pronunciation used in the different districts of Greece are 
 marked by a diversity in the orthography of the written language. 
 The writing of the Latin underwent considerable alterations 
 between the era of the Decemviri and the Augustan age, 
 corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken 
 place during that interval in speaking the Latin. English 
 and French books printed within the last century exhibit 
 a mode of orthography very different from what is found in 
 books printed two or three hundred years ago. These 
 instances show the tendency which the written language has 
 to follow the lead of the spoken language, and to maintain a 
 certain degree of conformity to those modes of pronunciation 
 which are from time to time adopted by those who speak it. 
 
 On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced 
 from any living language to prove that the written language 
 does not adapt itself, on all occasions and with strict 
 uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are written 
 differently which are pronounced alike. The same combina- 
 tions of letters, in different, situations, represent different 
 sounds. Letters are retained in writing, serving to point 
 out the derivations of words, after they have been entirely 
 dropped in speaking. 
 
 From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that 
 written language generally follows the spoken language through 
 its various revolutions, but still at a certain distance, — 
 not dropping so far behind as to lose sight of its precursor, 
 nor following so close as to be led through all its fantastic 
 deviations. 
 
 Here a question occurs of importance in settling the ortho- 
 graphy of any particular tongue : How near ought the 
 written language to correspond to the spoken^ and where 
 may a disagreement between them be allowed with pro- 
 
Part I.] AND OKTHOGRAPHY. 2§ 
 
 priety 1 The following observations may sen^e to' throw 
 some light on the subject of this question, though by no 
 means sufficient to furnish a complete answer. 
 
 It is obvious that in speech the articulations (which are 
 represented by consonants in writing) are the least liable to 
 variation. Voicel sounds are continually varying. In this 
 variety chiefly consists that diversity of tone and dialect 
 which is found in the speech of different districts of the 
 same country, where the same w^ords are spoken. The 
 changes, too, which are introduced by time fall with greater 
 effect on the vowel sounds than on the articulations. This 
 circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any 
 deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different 
 ages. St Jerome makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, 
 which is applicable, in some measure, to the pronunciation 
 of all languages : " Xec refert utrum Salem aut Salim 
 nominetur ; cum vocalibus in medio Uteris perraro utantur 
 Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac varietate regionum, 
 eadem verba diversis sonis atque accentibus proferantur. " It 
 may be observed that the superior stability of the articula- 
 tions above the vowel sounds is the natui-al consequence of 
 the position of the organs of speech in uttering them. The 
 different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by 
 minute changes in the conformation of the organs ; those of 
 the articulations are made by more distinct and operose 
 inflections of the organs. 
 
 It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the ele- 
 mentary constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel 
 sounds, the articulations are, in their own nature, ESSE^N"- 
 TIAL, PERMAXEXT, and PREDOMIXAXT ; the vowel 
 soundsy comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, 
 FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. 
 
 Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech 
 seem to be uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation 
 they occur, as the same organs are employed for all. In 
 forming the common articulations of speech, as different 
 organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes 
 felt in making a transition from one articulation to another. 
 
26 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I. 
 
 Thus a difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing 
 certain words, where the general analogy of inflection or of 
 collocation has brought together articulations which do 
 not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of departing 
 in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or 
 displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake 
 of ease and convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the 
 ear from an offensive discordant sound. Departures are 
 made from the general rules of speech in the case of the 
 vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds 
 with examples. These departures, however, seem to have 
 been made from a desire ta indulge the ear in certain 
 national predilections or aversions which it had conceived 
 with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anoma- 
 lies of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned 
 anomalous, it will be found that such of them as affect the 
 articulations have, for the most part, been adopted for the 
 purpose of ease and convenience in pronunciation ; while 
 those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded from 
 the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring 
 from a cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform 
 in its operation ; the latter, from a cause local and temporary 
 in its nature, and variable in its operation. 
 
 If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all 
 polished tongues, an agreement will be found among those 
 irregularities wliich affect the articulations, that is not so 
 observable in those which affect the vowel sounds. There 
 is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made 
 between different languages, this v/ould accordingly be found 
 to be the case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech 
 a deference has been usually paid to the articulations which 
 has not been paid to the vowel sounds, inasmuch as the 
 latter have been changed from the state in which the struc- 
 ture of each tongue had at lirst placed them, frequently and 
 from peculiar taste or humour ; the former more rarely, 
 and for the most part from necessity. If this observation 
 be found to be well supported, we shall have the sanction of 
 general practice in favour of the conclusion that was formerly 
 
BOSTON COLLEOE LIBRARY 
 CHcSTNUT HILL, ^'.<»^, 
 
 P^ET I.] AXD OKTHOGKAPHl? 27 
 
 diaTvn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., tliat the 
 articulations are ESSENTIAL, PEEMAXEXT, and PEE- 
 DOMIXAXT ', the vowel sounds ADJUXCTI^Tl, ELUC- 
 TUATIXG, and SEEYILE. 
 
 If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are per- 
 petually varying in the mouths of different speakers, from 
 causes which either elude our search, or, when discovered, are 
 seen to be of small importance, may we not judge that it 
 would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make 
 Writipg follow all these minute variations ; and that, how- 
 ever it may happen that the same vowel sound may be repre- 
 sented in many instances by different letters, and different 
 vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this disagreement 
 between Sj^eech and Writing must be connived at, for the 
 sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it 
 can be preserved, in the icritien language ? If it appear, again, 
 that the variations from the established analogy which are 
 made on the articulations are less frequent, and proceed from 
 causes ob^aous and cogent, ought not these variations to be 
 exhibited ll writing, for preserving that general corre- 
 spondence between the wiitten and the spoken language 
 which ought to be preserved, as far a.s the limited powers 
 of letters will permit, and without which the words I 
 speak and those I wiite do not belong to the same 
 language ? 
 
 One exception from this principle seems allowable in the 
 case of Cjuiescent consonants. It may be inferred, from the 
 practice of all living languages, that consonants whereof the 
 corresponding articulations have been suppressed in speak- 
 ing may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when 
 they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or 
 the radical part of declinable words. But this exception 
 ought to be allowed only to a moderate extent, for the 
 reasons already assigned ; to which it may be added, that the 
 far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be easily 
 discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in 
 the written any more than in the spoken language to point 
 them out. 
 
28 OF PliONUNCIA^TION [Part I. 
 
 These observations being premised, I shall proceed to 
 explain the present state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall 
 endeavour to assist the reader in forming a judgment of its 
 merit, and how far it may admit of improvement. 
 
 I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in 
 orthography, that each letter or combination of letters in the 
 written language ought always to denote one and the same 
 sound. From the explanation that has been given of the 
 powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle 
 has been regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one 
 of the letters represents more than one sound, yet there is an 
 evident affinity between the several sounds of the same letter. 
 And it may be readily allowed that less confusion and incon- 
 venience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by the 
 same letter, than would have taken place had the characters 
 been multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one 
 could have been appropriated to each minute variety of 
 sound. 
 
 It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, 
 that in the case of the consonants Z, n, r, the distinction 
 between their plain and their aspirated state is not marked 
 in writing, but that in both states the consonant is written 
 in one way. In the middle and end of words, as has been 
 shown, this distinction may be known from the relative 
 situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases 
 and tenses of declinable words, it may often be known from 
 their grammatical connection, but is not marked by any 
 graphical index whatever. The proper reading is to be 
 determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the sense 
 being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to 
 discover how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing 
 neglected to mark such a material distinction. Inconveniencies 
 and ambiguities not unfrequently arise from this cause, which 
 have been long felt and regretted. Is there room to hope 
 that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedy- 
 ing this defect ? The method I would suggest is the most 
 simple and obvious of any. It is to annex to the initial ?, 7^, 
 and r, in their aspirated state, the letter /?, just as has been 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 
 
 done to all the other consonants. The analogy of orthography 
 would thus be maintained, the system of inflection would be 
 more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform process 
 in Writing as it is in Speech, and errors in reading and 
 ambiguities in syntax would be avoided (zi), 
 
 II. Another principle of authority in regulating ortho- 
 graphy is, that each sound ought always to be represented 
 by one and the same letter, or combination of letters. The 
 deviations from this rule in Gaelic are extremely few. The 
 sound of ao is represented sometimes by a alone, sometimes 
 by alone. The sound of gh is represented also by dh ; 
 and final c often, though corruptly, represents the same sound 
 with chd. 
 
 III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more 
 letters ought to be employed than are necessary to represerit 
 the sound. There are probabl}" few polished languages in 
 which departures from this rule are not found in abundance. 
 Reasons have been already mentioned which render it 
 expedient to retain letters in writing many words, after the 
 corresponding sounds have been dropped in pronouncing the 
 same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels and consonants, 
 are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent 
 letters have no sound themselves, they are not always T\^th- 
 out eflect in pronunciation, as they often determine the 
 sound of other letters. ^Most, if not all, the quiescent vowels 
 seem to have been introduced for this purpose. They ascer- 
 tain the broad or the small sound of the adjoining con- 
 
 (u) Auotlier mode, proposed by a learned con-espondent, of marking the 
 distinction in the sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter 
 double, thus 11, nn, rr, when its sound is the same -vsith that which is 
 represented by those double letters in the end of a syllable ; and when the 
 sound is otherwise, to vrrite the letter single; as, llamh hund, Y^onjill, mo 
 lamh my Imiul, lion mi 1 filled. 
 
 It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an alteration 
 as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather to be he]d as 
 fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy ditiusion of the Gaelic 
 Scriptures over the Highlands. 
 
30 OF PRONUNCIATION [Paet I. 
 
 sonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating 
 of the vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as 
 has been sho^wn, has its broad sound, both when preceded 
 and when followed by a broad vowel ; and in like manner 
 has its small sound, both when preceded and when followed 
 by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel 
 of one quality, and followed by one of a different quality, 
 the reader, it has been thought, might be doubtful whether 
 that consonant ought to be pronounced with its broad or 
 with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained in 
 Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of 
 one syllable and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable 
 must be both of the same quaHty (x). To the extensive 
 application and the rigid observance of this rule it is owing 
 that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is sufficient 
 to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous 
 vowels, when used in their quiescent capacity, are often 
 exchanged for each other, or written indiscriminately {y). 
 From the former of these cu'cumstances, most of the words 
 in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels; 
 from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in 
 some respects, arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial 
 correction of these blemishes must be desirable. It may 
 therefore be worth while to examine this long established 
 canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether 
 it has not been extended farther than is necessary, and 
 whether it ought not in many cases to be set aside. 
 
 We have seen that the Labials hy m, /, p, whether aspi- 
 rated or not, have no distinction of broad and small sound. 
 
 (a) Leathan re Leathan, is Cool re Caol. 
 
 Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I 
 have found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into 
 the Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels 
 ought to he observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. 
 Indeed, none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a 
 broad and of a small vowel^OG the sound of an adjacent consonant. From 
 this circuBastance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason 
 for the rule in qi^^stion, the only probable one that has yet occurred to me. 
 
 iy) As deanuiljh or deHuait^ do ye, beaunuich or beann^ieli hless. 
 
Part L] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 81 
 
 It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either pre- 
 llxed or postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, 
 abuich rijjGy gabhaidh will talcc, chromainn / would how, 
 ciomaich captives, have been written with a 'broad vowel in 
 the second syllable, corresponding to the broad vowel in the 
 first syllable ; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, chrominn, 
 ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepq»sitive syllable 
 im, when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in 
 imlich to lick, imcheist perplexitxj. But when the first 
 vowel of the following syllable is broad, it has been the 
 practice to insert an o before the m, as in iomlan complete, 
 iomghaoth a ivliirhvind, iomluasg agitation. Yet the inserted 
 o serves no purpose^ either in respect of derivation, of 
 inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application 
 of the rule in question appears most unequivocally in words 
 derived from other languages. From the Latin words imago 
 templum, lihe}\ are formed in Gaelic iomhaigh, teampull, 
 leabhar. ^Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under 
 consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad 
 vowel in the first syllable of these w^ords, where it serves 
 neither to guide the pronunciation, nor to point out the deri- 
 vation. 
 
 Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems 
 to be wholly unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word 
 are separated by a quiescent consonant. Thus in gleidheadh 
 Jieeping, itheadh eating, buidheann a company, dlighecah 
 lawful, the aspirated consonants in the middle are altogether 
 quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is 
 sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. IN'o good reason, ^ 
 then, appears for writing a small vowel in the second 
 syllable. 
 
 Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the corre- 
 spondence of vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of 
 syllables divided by Labials, or by quiescent consonants. If 
 we examine further into the application of this rule, w^e shall 
 find more cases in which it may be safely set aside. 
 
 Many of tlie inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by 
 adding one or more syllables to the root. The final con- 
 
32: OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I. 
 
 sonant of the root must always be considered as belonging 
 to the radical part, not to the adjected termination. The 
 sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to be 
 determined by the quality of the vow^el which precedes it in 
 the same syllable, not by the quality of that which follows 
 it in the next syllable. It seems, therefore, unnecessary to 
 employ any more vowels in the adjected syllable than what 
 are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The rule 
 under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to 
 the orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a 
 supernumerary vowel has been thrown into the termination, 
 whenever that was requisite to preserve the supposed 
 necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, 
 in forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, 
 the syllables an and ihh are added to the singular, which 
 letters fully express the true sound of these terminations. 
 If the last vowel of the nominative singular is broad, an 
 alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an hands, 
 cluas-an ears. But if the last vowel be small, an e is thrown 
 into the termination ; as, siiil-ean eyes, sroin-ean noses. Now 
 if it be observed that, in the two last examples, the small 
 sound of the I and n in the root is determined by the pre- 
 ceding small vowel i, with which they are necessarily con- 
 nected in one syllable, and that the letters an fully repre- 
 sent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that 
 the e in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in 
 forming the dative plural : if the last vowel of the root be 
 small, ihh is added ; as, siiil-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last 
 vowel of the root is broad, the termination is written aibh ; 
 as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the a, for the reason already 
 assigned, is totally useless. 
 
 These observations apply wdth equal justness to the tenses 
 of verbs, as will be seen by comparing the following examples : 
 creid-idh will believe, stad-aidh will stoj) ; chreid-inn / would 
 helieve, stad-ainn / would sto}j ; creid-eam let me believe, 
 stad-am let me stop ; ci'eid-ibh believe ye, stad-aibh sfo/? ye. 
 
 The same observations may be further applied to deriva- 
 tive words, formed by adding to their primitives the syllables 
 
Part I.] AND OliTHOGRAPHY. 33 
 
 acli, acJid, ag, an, ail, as ; in all which e has been unneces- 
 sarily introduced, when the last vowel of the preceding 
 syllable was small ; as, sannt-ach covetous, toil-each willing ; 
 naomh-achd holiness, doimhn-eachd dex)tli ; sruth-an a 
 rivulet, cuil-ean a whelp ; cauch-ag a little cup, cail-eag a 
 girl; fear-ail manly, ceiivd-eil friendly (2); cesLTt-OiS justice, 
 caird-eas friendship. 
 
 The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish 
 this general conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel 
 serves neither to exhibit the vocal sound, nor to modify the 
 articulations of the syllable to ivhicli it belongs^ it may be 
 reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. There 
 seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system 
 of Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable 
 number of quiescent vowels (a), 
 
 (z) It is worthy of remark that in such words as caird-eil friendly, slaint- 
 eil salutary, the substitution of e in place of a in the termination, both 
 misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation of the syllable. The 
 sound of this termination as in fear-ail manly, ban-ail icomaoily, is properly 
 represented by ail. This syllable is an abbreviation of amhuil like, which 
 is commonly written in its full form by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, &c. It 
 corresponds exactly to the English termination like, in soldier-like, oficer- 
 like, which is abridged to ly, as manly, friendly. By -^Titing eil instead 
 of ail, w^e almost lose sight of amhuil altogether. 
 
 {a) From the extracts of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, 
 Vallancey. and others, it appears that the rule concerning the correspondence 
 of vowels in contiguous syllables, was by no means so generally observed 
 once as it is now. It was gradually extended by the more modern Irish 
 writers, from whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously adopted by 
 the Scottish writers in its present and imwarrantable latitude. The rule 
 we have been considering has been reprobated in strong terms by some of 
 the most judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author of an 
 Irish Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an Irish 
 Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish antiquities, 
 from whom I qaote the folloAving passages : — " This Rule [of dividing one 
 syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated consonant] together with 
 that of substituting small or broad vowels in the latter syllables, to cor- 
 respond with the vowel immediately follomng the consonant in the pre- 
 ceding syllable, has been very destructive to the original and radical 
 purity of the Irish language." Vallancey'' s Ir. Gram. Chap. III. letter A. 
 "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by our bards and rhymers, I 
 mean that which is called Caol le caol, agus Leathan le leathan, has been 
 w^oefully destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish 
 language. This latter (much of a more modern invention than the former, 
 for our old manuscripts show no regard to it) imports and prescribes that 
 
 C 
 
34 OF PRONUNCIATION [Part I. 
 
 Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in 
 Gaelic are d, f, g, s, t, in their aspirated state. When these 
 occur in the inflections of declinable words, serving to indi- 
 cate the Eoot, or in derivatives, serving to point out the 
 primitive word, the omission of them might, on the whole, 
 be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their 
 absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pro- 
 nunciation, yet it would be rash to discard them in writing, 
 as they often serve to show the affinity of the words in which 
 they are found to others in different languages, or in different 
 dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of the consonant 
 in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its articulation 
 is either attenuated or wholly suppressed. 
 
 The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided 
 bringing into apposition two vowels which belong to differ- 
 ent syllables. For this purpose they have sometimes intro- 
 duced a quiescent consonant into the middle of compound 
 or of inflected words ; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail kindly, 
 made up of gne and ail; beothail lively, made up of beo and 
 and ail ; diathan gods, from the singular dia ; lathaibh days, 
 from the singular la, &c. It may at least bear a question, 
 whether it would not be better to allow the vowels to denote 
 the sound of the word by their own powers, without the 
 intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in 
 
 two vowels, thus forming, or contributing to form, two different syllables, 
 should both be of the same denomination or class of either broad or 
 small vowels, and this without any regard to the primitive elementary 
 structure of the word." O'Briens Ir. Diet. Remarks on A. "The 
 words hiran and hiranach changed sometimes into hioran and hioranach 
 by the abusive rule of Leathan le leathan.^' Id. in voc. Fear. The opinion 
 of Lhuyd on this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be sub- 
 joined to those of Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to 
 show that this judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. 
 ** As for passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, 
 I chose rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason 
 that old men who formerly ^vrote arget silver, instead of airgiod as we now 
 write it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of words, &c. And I ^ 
 do not know that it was ever done in any other language, unless by some 
 particular persons who, through mistake or ignorance, were guilty of it.' 
 Archceol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Diet, translated in Bjp. Nicolsons Irish His- 
 torical Library. 
 
Part I.] AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 35 
 
 mnaibh women, deibh god&, rather tlian insert consonants 
 which have nothing to do with either the radical or the 
 superadded articulations of the word. 
 
 From the want of an established standard in orthography, 
 the wiiters of Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent 
 consonants occurred, must have been often doubtful which 
 of two or three consonants was the proper one, and may 
 therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same 
 word. Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same 
 words wi'itten by different writers, and even at different 
 times by the same writer, with different quiescent consonants. 
 This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, or does 
 it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who 
 judge of the language only from its appearance in writing, 
 have taken occasion to vilify it, as unfixed and nonsensical 
 (h). A proper attention to the affinity which the Scottish 
 Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to other 
 dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix. the ortho- 
 graphy in some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become 
 variable (c). 
 
 lY. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought 
 to regulate orthography, is that every sound ought to be 
 represented by a corresponding character. From this rule 
 there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as there is no 
 sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, 
 
 (&) Piukerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland. 
 
 (c) E.g.^ troidh a foot, has been written troidh or troigh, either of 
 which corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. 
 In Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and 
 the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to 
 determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. 
 For a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write traidh shore^ 
 rather than traigh, the common way of spelling the word, for we find the 
 Irish fonnerly wrote traidh, and the Welsh traeth. Claidheamh a s^cord, 
 since the final articulation was wholly dropped, has been sometimes 
 written claidhe. The mode of writing it still with a final labial, though 
 quiescent, will probably be thought the more proper of the two, when it 
 is considered that claidheamh is the cognate, or ratlier the same word vaih. 
 the Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and the French glaive. 
 
36 OF PRONUNCIATION AND OETHOGEAPHY [Part L 
 
 exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic 
 orthography is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency 
 of letters. 
 
 A few observations on the mode of writing some particular 
 words, or particular parts of speech, remain to be brought 
 forward in the sequel of this work, which it would be pre- 
 mature to introduce here. 
 
 The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish 
 orthography, till after the middle of the last century. How- 
 ever that system may suit the dialect of Ireland, it certainly 
 is not adapted to the Gaelic of this country. In the Gaelic 
 translation of the Xew Testament, printed in 1767, not only 
 were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been 
 admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the 
 language adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, 
 but the orthography also was adapted to the language. In 
 later publications, the manner of writing the language was 
 gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version of 
 the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, 
 both of style and orthography, still more agreeable to the 
 purest Scottish idiom, and has a just title to be acknow- 
 ledged as the standard in both. Little seems to be now 
 wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic 
 such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and 
 ensure its stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained 
 by a judicious regard to the separate, and especially the 
 relative powers of the letters, to the most commxon and 
 approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the 
 Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, 
 to the analogy of inflection and derivation, and, above all, 
 to the authority of some generally received standard, to which 
 pre-eminence the late Gaelic version of the Scriptures has 
 the only indisputable claim. 
 
PAET 11. 
 
 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided 
 and arranged as follows : — ^ Article, Xoun, Adjective, Pronoun. 
 Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 0^ 
 these, the first five are declinable ; the other four are inde- 
 clinable. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite 
 article the. There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corres- 
 ponding to the English a or an. The inflections of the 
 article are but few. They depend on the gender, the 
 number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed. 
 Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, 
 as follows: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 Masc. Sf Fern. 
 
 Nom an, am 
 
 an, a' 
 
 
 na 
 
 Gen. an, a' 
 
 na 
 
 
 nan, nam 
 
 Dat. an, a,' n' 
 
 an, a; 
 
 'n' 
 
 na 
 
 In the singular, final n oi the article is sometimes cut off, 
 and its absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens 
 to the initial a of the dative singular. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 OF NOUNS. 
 A KouN is the Name of any person, object, or thing what- 
 soever, that we have occasion to mention. In treating of 
 
33 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 this Part of Speech, we have to consider the Gender aad 
 the Declension of !N^ouns. 
 
 Of Gender. 
 
 In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and 
 obvious distinction of Sex in the animal world suggested the 
 expediency of inventing names, not only for the particular 
 species of animals, but also for distinguishing their Sex. 
 Such are m>, femina; hull, cow, coileacJi^ cearc, &c. To 
 mark at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the 
 same word, with a slight change on its form, was applied to 
 both sexes : as eqiius, equa ; lion, lioness; oglach, hanoglach, 
 Tn most languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, not 
 only thus by the form of the noun, but further by the form 
 of the adjective connected with the noun. Most adjectives 
 were furnished with two forms, the one of which indicated 
 its connection with the name of a male, the other its con- 
 nection with the name of a female. The one was called by 
 grammarians the masculine gender, the other the feminine 
 gender of the adjective. Adjectives possessing thus a two- 
 fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other 
 of these forms, with whatever noun they happened to be 
 conjoined. Even nouns significant of inanimate objects 
 came thus to possess one mark of nouns discriminative of 
 Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective 
 of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any 
 noun was observed to be usually coupled with an adjective 
 of the masculine gender, it was termed by grammarians a 
 ^masculine noun ; if it was found usually coupled with 
 an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a femi- 
 nine noun. Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine 
 and feminine came to be noted, and this also was called 
 gender. 
 
 It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in 
 two different acceptations. When applied to an adjective, 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 39 
 
 it signifies a certain /orm, by which bonus is distinguished 
 from bona. When applied to a noun, it signifies a certain 
 relation of the word to the attributives connected with it, by 
 which amor is distinguished from cupido. As Sex is a 
 natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender 
 is a grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names 
 of objects whether animate or inanimate. The gender of 
 nouns is not, properly speaking, indicated ; it is constituted 
 by that of the attributives conjoined with them. If there 
 were no distinction of gender in adjectives, participles, &c. 
 there could be none in nouns. When we say that amor is a 
 noun of the masculine gender, and cupido a noun of the 
 feminine gender, we do not mean to intimate any distinction 
 between the things signified by these nouns ; we mean nothing 
 more than to state a grammatical fact, viz., that an adjective 
 connected with amor is always of the same form as when 
 joined to a noun denoting a male, and that an adjective con- 
 nected ^\ii\icupido is always of the same form as when joined 
 to a noun denoting a female (d), 
 
 {d) I flatter myself that all my readers, who are acquainted'with any 
 of the ancient or the modern languages which have a distinction of gender 
 in their attributives, ^vill readily perceive that the import of the term Gender, 
 in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated 
 above. The same term has been introduced into the grammar of 
 the English Tongue, rather improperly, because in an acceptation 
 different from what it bears in the grammar of all other languages. 
 In English there is no distinction of gender competent to Articles, 
 Adjectives, or Participles. When a noun is said to be of the masculine 
 gender, the meaning can only be that the object denoted by it is of the 
 male sex. Tims in the English grammars, gender signifies a quality of 
 the object named, while in other grammars it signifies a quality of the 
 name given to the object. The varieties of who, Schick, and he, she, it, 
 refer not to what is properly called the gender of the antecedent noun, but 
 to the Sex real or attributed, or the absence of Sex, of the object signified 
 by the antecedent. This is in efi'ect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, 
 who affirm that in English the pronouns v:ho, he, she, imply an express 
 personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the 
 objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more 
 strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as prince, 
 princess ; lion, lioness, which are all discriminative of Sex. It seems 
 therefore to be a mis-stated compliment which is usually paid to the 
 English, when it is said that " this is the only language which has adapted 
 
40 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that 
 denoted an object devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to 
 guess what views might have determined the speaker to use 
 the adjective in one gender rather than in the other. 
 Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by the 
 noun. Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some 
 resemblance to the qualities characteristic of Sex in living 
 creatures. In many instances, the form of the noun seems 
 to have decided the point. It must be confessed that in 
 this mental process, the judgment has been often swayed by 
 trivial circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At 
 least it cannot be denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns 
 whatever are ranked under the class of masculines or of 
 feminines, the gender of each has been fixed by a procedure 
 whereof the grounds cannot now be fully investigated or 
 ascertained. I^either the natural nor artificial qualities or 
 uses of the things named, nor the form of the names given 
 them, furnish any invariable rule by which the gender of 
 nouns may be known. It ought to be remembered, however, 
 that the Gaelic is far from being singular in this respect. 
 The oldest language with which we are acquainted, as well 
 as some of the most polished modern tongues, stand in the 
 same predicament. 
 
 The following observations may serve to give some idea of 
 the analogy of gender in Gaelic nouns ; though they do not 
 furnish a complete set of rules sufficient to ascertain the gender 
 of every noun : — 
 
 the gender of its nouns to the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that 
 it has adapted the Form of some of the most common names of living 
 creatures, and of a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of male, 
 and fetnale, and inanimate, while it has left its nouns without any mark 
 characteristic of gender. The same thing must necessarily happen to any 
 language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and feminine in its 
 attributives. If all languages had been constructed on this plan, it may 
 confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term gender would never 
 have come into use. The compliment intended, and due to the English, 
 might have been more correctly expressed, by saying that " it is the only 
 language that has rejected the unphilosophical distinction of gender, by 
 making its attributives, in this respect, all indeclinable." 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 41 
 
 Masculines. Xouns signifying males are masculines ; as, 
 fear a man, righ a king, sagart a priest, tarbh a hull, cu a 
 dog. 
 
 Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either 
 Sex, are masculine, even when the individual objects they 
 denote are mentioned as being of the female Sex ; as, laogh 
 a calf, isean a gosling, uan a lamb, &c. (e). 
 
 Diminutives in an ; as, rothan a Utile wheel y dealgan a 
 little pin, &c. 
 
 Derivatives in as, which are, for the most part, abstract 
 nouns; diS, Qdiu:lQdiS> friendship, naimhdeas enmity, ciuineas 
 calmness, breitheamhnas judgment, ceartas justice, maitheas 
 goodness, &c. 
 
 Derivatives in air, ach, iche, which are, for the most part, 
 agents; as, cealgair a deceiver, sealgair a huntsraan, dorsair 
 a door-keeper, marcach a rider, maraiche a sailor, coisiche 
 a foot traveller, Szq. 
 
 Xames of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland ; 
 as, darach oak, giuthas nr, uimhseann ash. 
 
 Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are 
 masculine. 
 
 Feminines. Xouns signifying females are feminine ; as, 
 bean a xcoman, mathair a mother, bo a cow, &c. Except 
 bainionnach or boirionnach a female, mart a cow, capull 
 a horse or mare, but commonly a mare, which are masculine, 
 and caileann or cailinn a damsel, masculine or feminiue. (/) 
 Mark, vi. 28. 
 
 (e) Uan beag bainiorm, 2 Sam. xii. 3. Nnmb. vi. 14. So leomhann 
 boirioim, Ezek. xix. 1. 
 
 (/) It must appear singularly strange that any nouns which signify 
 females exclusively should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainion- 
 nach, is derived from the adjective bainionn, female, "which is formed from 
 bean, the appropriate term for a icoman. Yet this noun bainionnach, or 
 boirionnach, a female, is masculine, to aU grammatical intents and purposes. 
 We say boirionnach coir, a civil woman, am boirionnach maiseach, the 
 handsome icoman. 
 
 The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its significa- 
 tion, but by its determination, for most Derivatives in ach are masculines; 
 as, oganach a young man, marcach a horseman, Albanach a Scotsman^ io 
 
42 OF THE PARTS [Paet IL 
 
 Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when 
 the individual spoken of is characterised as a male ; as, gabhar 
 fhirionn, a he-goat. Psal. 1. 9. 
 
 JSTames of countries ; as, Albainn Scotland, Eirinn Ireland, 
 
 iN'ames of musical instruments ; as, clarsach a harp, piob, 
 a pipe, 
 
 ]N"ames of the heavenly bodies ; as, Grian sun, Gealach 
 moon, 
 
 !N'ames of diseases ; as, teasach a fever, d! ghriuthach the 
 measles, a' bhreac the small-pox, a' bhuidheach the jaundice, 
 a! bhuinneach, a diarrhoea, &c. 
 
 Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, 
 giuthasach a fir wood, iugharach a yew copse, seileach a 
 loillow copse, droighneach a thorny brake. 
 
 Diminutives in a^ or og ; as, caileag a girl, cuachag a 
 little cup. 
 
 Derivatives in achd ; as, iomlanachd fulness, doillearachd 
 duskiness, doimhneachd depth, rioghachd kingdom, sinn- 
 sireachd ancestry, &c. 
 
 Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives ; as, 
 doille hlindness, gile whiteness, leisge laziness, buidhre 
 deafness, &c. 
 
 Many monosyllables in ua followed by one or more con- 
 sonants are feminine ; as, bruach a lank, cruach a heajj, 
 cuach a cup, cluas an ear, gruag the hair of the head, sguab 
 a sheaf, tuadh a hatchet, tuath peasantry. 
 
 Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, 
 except those in air and iche, already noticed, are feminine. 
 
 A few nouns are of either gender ; Salm a Psalm, creidimh 
 belief, are used as masculine nouns in some places, and 
 feminine in others. Cruinne the globe, talamb the earth, 
 land, are masculine in the nominative ; as, an cruinne-ce 
 the globe of the earth, Psal. Ixxxix. 11., xc. 2. — D. Buchan. 
 1767. p. 12. 15; an talamh tioram the dryland, Psal. xcv. 
 
 So in Latin-, mancipium, scortum, though applied to persons, follow the 
 gender of rVe^r iermination. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 43 
 
 5. The same nouns are generally feminine in the genitive ; 
 as, g\i crich na cruinne to the extremity of the world. Psal. 
 xix. 4.; aghaidh na talmhainn the face of the earth. Gen. i. 
 29. Acts Kvii. 24. 
 
 Of Declension. 
 
 Xouns undergo certain changes significant of [N'umber and 
 of Eelation. 
 
 The forms significant of iN'umher are two : the Singular, 
 which denotes one ; and the Plural, which denotes any 
 number greater than one. 
 
 The changes expressive of Eelation are made on nouns in 
 two ways : 1. On the beginning of the noun ; 2. On its ter- 
 mination. The relations denoted by changes on the termin- 
 ation are different from those denoted by changes on the 
 beginning ; they have no necessary connection together ; the 
 one may take place in absence of the other. It seems pro- 
 per, therefore, to class the changes on the termination by 
 themselves in one division, and give it a name, and to class 
 the changes on the beginning also by themselves in another 
 division, and give It a different name. As the changes on 
 the termination denote, in general, the same relations which 
 are denoted by the Greek and Latin cases, that seems a 
 sufficient reason for adopting the term case into the Gaelic 
 Grammar, and applying it, as in the Greek and Latin, to 
 signify "the changes made on the termination of nouns or 
 adjectives^to mark relation" {g). According to this description 
 of them, there are four cases in Gaelic. These may be 
 
 {g) It was necessary to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the 
 beginning and those on the termination as unconnected independent 
 acczVZe?i^, which ought to be viewed separately; because many wlio have 
 happened to turn their thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun 
 have got a habit of conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute 
 their united aid toward the forming the cases of nouns. This is blending 
 together things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It 
 has therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two 
 accidents of nouns, and to limit the term case to those changes which 
 are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which take place at 
 the beginning. 
 
44 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 named, like the corresponding cases in Latin, the Nominative, 
 the Genitive, the Dative, and the Vocative, (h) The Nom- 
 inative is used when any person or thing is mentioned as 
 the subject of a proposition or question, or as the object of an 
 action or affection. The Genitive corresponds to an English 
 noun preceded by of. The Dative is used only after a pre- 
 position. The Vocative is employed when a person or thing 
 is addressed. 
 
 The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by 
 aspirating an initial consonant; that is, writing h after it. 
 This may be called the Aspirated form of the noun. The 
 aspirated form extends to all the cases and numbers. A 
 noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by aspiration, 
 is in the Primary form. 
 
 The accidents of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A 
 noun is declined by N"umber, Case, and Initial form. The 
 Numbers are two : Singular and Plural. The Cases are 
 four : Nominative, Genitive, Dative, and Vocative. The 
 Initial form is twofold : the Primary form, and the Aspi- 
 rated form peculiar to nouns beginning with a consonant. 
 
 In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed 
 to depend more on the last vowel of the nominative than on 
 
 {h) It is to be observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely 
 because they are already familiar, not because they all denominate correctly 
 the relations expressed by the cases to which they are respectively applied. 
 There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gl-aelic different from the Nomi- 
 native ; neither is there any Ablative different from the Dative. For this 
 reason, it is not only unnecessary^ but erroneous, to reckon up six Cases in 
 Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, but by the Prepositions 
 prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the common and proper use 
 of the term Case. And if the new use of that term is to be adopted, then 
 the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to have as many Cases 
 as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, besides a Dative do 
 Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an Impositive Case air 
 Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am Bard, a Precursive 
 Toimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very correctly reckoned only 
 five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in French [See Moore, Murray, 
 Buffier, &c.] because the variations in the form of the Noun extend no 
 farther. Surely nothing but an early and inveterate prepossession in 
 favour of the arrangements of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested 
 the idea of Six Cases in Gaelic or in English. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 45 
 
 the final letter. Hence the last vowel of the nominative, or 
 in general of any declinable word, may be called the char- 
 acteristic vowel. The division of the vowels into hroad and 
 small suggests the distribution of nouns into two Declensions, 
 distinguished by the quality of the characteristic vowel. The 
 first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the char- 
 acteristic vowel is hroad ; the second Declension comprehends 
 those nouns whereof the characteristic vowel is small. 
 
 The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns 
 of the 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 Bard, mas. a Poet. 
 
 Singidar, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nam. Bard 
 
 Baird 
 
 Gen. Baird 
 
 Bard 
 
 Dat. Bard 
 
 Bardaibh 
 
 Vac. Bhaird 
 
 Bharda 
 
 Cluas, fem. 
 
 an Ear. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nam. Cluas 
 
 Cluasan 
 
 Gen. Cluaise 
 
 Cluas 
 
 Dat. Cluais 
 
 Cluasaibh 
 
 Voc. Chluas 
 
 Chluasa 
 
 Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension. 
 
 Singidar Numher. 
 
 General Ride for forming the Genitive. — The Genitive is 
 formed from the !N'ominative, by inserting i after the charac- 
 teristic vowel, as, bas mas. death, Gen. sing, bais ; fuaran 
 m. a fountain, g. s. f uarain ; clarsach f. a harp, g. s. clarsaich. 
 Feminine monosyllables like^vise add a short e to the Komi- 
 native ; as, cluas f. an ear, g. s. cluaise ; lamh a hand, g. s. 
 laimhe {i). 
 
 (i) It is not improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few 
 
46 OF THE PARTS [Pakt II. 
 
 Particular Rules for the Genitive. — 1 If tlie nominative 
 ends in a vowel, the genitive is like the nominative ; as, tr4 
 m. a time or season, g. s. tra ; so also beatha f . life, cro m. 
 a sheepfold, cliu m. fame, duine a man, Donncha Duncan, a 
 man's name, and many others. Except "bo f. a cow, g. s. 
 boin ; cu tn. a dog, g. s. coin ; bru 1 the helly, g. s. broinn 
 or bronn. 
 
 2. IN'ouns ending in chd or rr have the genitive like the 
 nominative; as, uchd m. the hreast, slioohd m. offspring, 
 feachd m. a host, reachd m. statute, cleachd m. hahit^ beachd 
 m. vision, smachd m. authority, fuachd m. coldy sprochd m. 
 gloom, beannachd m. a blessing, naomhachd f. holiness, earr 
 m. the tail, torr m. a heap. Except slochd g. s. sluichd m. a 
 pit, unless this word should rather be written sloe, like boc, 
 enoc, soc. 
 
 3. Monosyllables ending in gh or th add a for the genitive j 
 as, lagh m. law, g. s. lagha ; roth m. a tcheel, g. s. rotha ; sruth 
 m. a stream, g. s. srutha. Except agh m. felicity, grace, ar 
 charm, g. s. aigh {j). 
 
 4. Monosyllables characterised by io either drop the o or 
 add a for the genitive ; as, siol m. seed, g. s. sil ; lion m. a. 
 net, g. s. lin ; crioch f . a boundary, g. s. crich ; cioch f. the 
 pap, g. s. ciche ; fion m. wine, g. s. fiona, crios m. a girdle, g. 
 s. criosa; fiodh m. timber, g. s, fiodha. Except Criost or 
 Criosd m. Christ, which has the gen. like the nominative. 
 
 5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is a or 
 0, change it into u and insert i after it ; as, gob m. the bill of 
 a bird, g. s. guib ; crodh m. kine, g. s. cruidh ; bolg or balg 
 m. a bag, g. s. builg ; clog or clag m. a bell, g. s. cluig ; lorg 
 f. a staff, g. s. luirge ; long f . a ship, g. s. luinge ; alt m. a 
 
 irregular ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as e or a, in forming 
 tlie genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed the 
 genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from 
 sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy 
 of inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an e in 
 the genitive. 
 
 (j) It is probable that this noun should rather be written adh. See 
 M*Farlane's Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, in loco. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 47 
 
 ooint, g. s. uilt; alld m. a rivulet, g. s. uilld; car m. a turn, g. 
 s. cuir ; cam m. a heap of stones, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol 
 m. music, g. s. ciuil ; seol m. a sail, g. s. siuil. Except 
 nouns in on and a few feminines, which follow the general 
 rule ; as, bron m. sorrow, g. s. broin ; Ion m. food, g. s. loin; 
 cloch or clach f. a stone, g. s. cloiche ; cos or cas f. the foot, 
 g. s. coise ; brog f. a shoe, g. s. broige. So also clann f. 
 children, g. s. cloinne ; crann m. a tree, g. s. croinn. Mac 
 m. a son, has its g. s. niic. 
 
 6. Polysyllables characterised by ea change ea into i ; as, 
 fitheach m. a raven, g. s. fithich ; cailleach f. an old woman, 
 g. s. caillich (fi). These two suffer a syncope, and add e ; 
 buidheann f. a company, g. s. buidhne ; sitheann f. venison, 
 g. s. sithne. 
 
 Of monosyllables characterised by ea, some throw away a 
 and insert i ; as, each m. a horse, g. s. eich j beann f. a peak, 
 g. s. beinne : fearg f. anger, g. s. feirge. Some change ea 
 into ^; as, breac m. a trout, g. s. brie; fear m. a man, g. s. 
 fir; ceann m. a head, end, g. s. cinn ; preas m. a hush, g. s. 
 pris; breac f. the small-pox, g. s. brice; cearc f. a hen, g. s. 
 circe; leac f. a flag, g. s. lice. Gleann m. a valley, adds e, g. 
 s. glinne. Some add a to the nominative ; as, speal m. a 
 scythe, g. s. speala. Dream i, people, race, gean m. humour, 
 have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. deceit ^ g. s. 
 foill or feill. Geagh m. a goose, makes g. s. geoigh, 
 
 {k) Derivatives in an and ag sliould form their genitive according to the 
 general Rule, ain, aig j and in pronunciation they do so. When the 
 syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the Rule of ' Caol re 
 caol' has introduced an e into the final syllable, which is then wTitten ean eag. 
 In this case ^sTiters have been puzzled how to form the genitive. The termi- 
 nations eain^ eaig, would evidently contain too many vowels for a short 
 syllable." To reduce this awkward number of vowels they have commonly 
 thrown out the a, the only letter which properly expressed the vocal sound of 
 the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a mote, they formed the gen. sing, 
 caimein ; from cuilean m. a whelp, g. s. cuilein ; from duileag f. a leaf, g. s. 
 duileig ; from caileag f. a girl, g. s. caileig. Had they not yielded too far to 
 the encroachments of the Rule of ' Caol re caol* they wouldjhave wTitten both 
 the nom. and the gen. of these and similar nouns more simply and more 
 justly, thus : caiman, g.s. caimain ; cuilan, g. s. cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig ; 
 cailag, g. s. cailaig. 
 
48 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 7. Xouns in eu followed by a liquid, change u into o and 
 insert i after it ; as, neul m. a cloud, g. s. neoil ; eun m. a 
 hird, g. s. eoin ; feur m. grass, g. s. f eoir ; meur m. a finger, 
 g. s. meoir ; leus m. a torch, g. s. leois. Eeul m. the mouth, 
 g. s. beil or beoil ; sgeul. m. a tale, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other 
 nouns characterised by eu add a for the gen., as, trend m. a 
 flock, g. s. treuda ; feum m. use, need, g. s. feuma ; beum m. 
 a stroke, g. s. beuma. Meud m. hulk, bene m. a roar, freumh 
 
 f. a. fibre, root, hardly admit of a, but have their gen. rather 
 like the nom. 
 
 8. Monosyllables characterised by ia change ia into ei ; as, 
 sliabh m. a moor, g. s. sleibh ; fiadh m. a deer, g. s. feidh ; 
 biadh m. food, g. s. beidh or bidh ; iasg m. fish, g. s. eifg ; 
 grian f. the sun, g. s. greine ; sgiatli £ a wing, g. s. sgeithe. 
 Except Dia m. God, g. s. De ; sgian f. a knife, g. s. sgine. 
 
 Piuthar f. a sister, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. a child, 
 
 g. s. leinibh ; ceathramh m. a fourth 'part, g. s. ceithrimh, 
 leabaidh or leaba f. a hed, g. s. leapa ; talamh m. earth, g. s. 
 talmhainn. 
 
 The Dative singular of masculine nouns is like the nomi- 
 native ; of feminine nouns, is like the genitive ; as, tobar m. 
 a loell, d. s. tobar ; clarsach f. a harp, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich ; 
 misneach f. courage, g. s. and d. s. misnich. 
 
 Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns. — 
 1. If e was added to the nominative in forming the genitive, 
 it is thrown away in the dative ; as, slat f. a rod, g. s. slaite 
 — d. s. slait ; grian f. the sun, g. s. greine, d. s. grein. 
 
 2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the 
 genitive, or if the last vowel of the genitive is broad, the 
 dative is like the nominative ; as, buidheann f. a company, 
 g. s. buidhne, d. s. buidheann ; piuthar f. a sister, g. s. peathar, 
 d. s. piuthar. 
 
 The Vocative of masc. nouns is like the genitive ; of 
 feminine nouns is like the nominative ] as, bas m. death, g. 
 s. bais, V. f. bhais ; cu m. a dog, g. s. coin, v. s. choin ; grian f. 
 the sun, v. s. ghaoth. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 49 
 
 Plural Number, 
 
 Nominative. Masculine nouns which insert i in the gen. 
 sing, have their nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. 
 a servant, g. s. oglaich, n. p. oglaich ; fear m. a man, g. s. 
 and n. p. fir. Many of these form their nom. plur. also by 
 adding a short a to the nominative singular. Other masculine 
 nouns, and all feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in a, 
 to which n is added, euphonioi causa, before an initial vowel 
 
 (I). 
 
 Particular Rules for forming the Xom. Plur. in a or an. 
 
 1. By adding a to the nom. singular ; as, dubhar m. a 
 shadow, n. p. dubhara ; rioghachd f. a kingdom, n. p, 
 rioghachdan. Under this Eule, some nouns suffer a syncope ; 
 as, dorus m. a door, n. p. dorsa for dorusa. 
 
 2. I^ouns ending in I or nn, often insert t before a \ as, 
 reul m. a star, n. p. reulta ; beann f. a pinnacle, n. p. 
 beannta. So Ion m. a marsh, n. p. 16intean. 
 
 3. Some nouns in ar drop the a, and add to the nom. 
 sing, the syllable aich ; and then the final a becomes e, to 
 correspond to the preceding small vowel ; as, leabhar m. a 
 hook, n. p. leabhraiche ; tobar m. a well, n. p. tobraiche ; 
 lann. f. an enclosure, inserts d, n. p. lanndaiche. Piuthar f. 
 a sister, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche ; so 
 leaba f. a bed, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. a staff, 
 n. p. batacha ; la or latha a day, n. p. lathachan or 
 laithean. 
 
 4. Some polysyllables in ach add e or can to the genitive 
 singular ; as, muUach m. summit, g. s. mullaich, n. p. 
 mullaichean ; otrach m. a dunghill, n. p. otraichean ; clarsach 
 f. a harp, n. p. clarsaichean ; deudach f. the jaw, n. p. 
 deudaichean. So sliabh m. a moor, g. s. sleibh, with t 
 
 (I) In many instances, the Plural termination a is oftener written with 
 this final n than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination 
 is small, the termination a or an is very needlessly written e or ean, to 
 preserve the correspondence of vowels. 
 
 D 
 
50 OF THE PARTS [Part IL 
 
 inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. a ham, g. s. sabhuil, n. p. 
 gaibhlean, contracted for sabbuilean. 
 
 The following JS'ouns form their iN'ominative Plural irregu- 
 larly : Dia m. God, n. p. dee or diathan ; scian f. a knife, 
 n. p. sceana or scinichean ; sluagh m. ioeo])le, n. p. sloigh ; 
 bo. f. a cow, n. p. ba. 
 
 Genitive. 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their 
 nominative plural like the genitive singular, have the geni- 
 tive plural like the nominative singular; as, geug f. a hranch, 
 g. p. geug; coimhearsnach m. a neiglibour, g. s. and n. p. 
 coimhearsnach. 
 
 2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in a 
 or an, form the genitive like the nominative ; leabhar m. 
 a hook, n. p. fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or feara. 
 
 Cu m. a dog has its g. p. con ; caora f. a slieejp, g. p. 
 caorach ; sluagh m. ])eo]^le, g. p. sluagh or slogh. 
 
 Dative, The dative plural is formed either from the 
 nominative singular or from the nominative plural. If the 
 nominative plural ends in a consonant, the dative plural 
 is formed by adding ihli to the nominative singular; as, 
 crann m. a tree, n. p. croinn, d. p. crannaibh ; mac m. a son, 
 n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the nominative plural ends in 
 a vowel, the final vowel is changed into ihh ; as, tobar a icell, 
 n. p. tobraiche, d. p. tobraichibh. 
 
 2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which 
 have their nominative plural like the genitive singular, form 
 their dative plural like the nominative plural ; as, damh an 
 ox, g. s. and n. p. daimh, d. p. daimh, not damhaibh ; fiadh 
 m. a deer, g. s. and n. p. and d. p. feidh. So sluagh m. 
 people, host, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. and d. p. sloigh. !N'ouns 
 ending in ch, of three or more syllables, form their dative 
 plural like the nominative plural, rather than in ihh ; as, 
 coimhearsnach m. a neighhour, d. p. coimhearsnaich rather 
 than coimhearsnachaibh ; phairiseach m. a Pharisee, d. p. 
 phairisich rather than phairseachaibh. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH 61 
 
 Vocative, The vocative plural is like the nominative 
 plural, terminating in a, but seldom in an; as, fear m. a mauy 
 n. p. fir or feara, v. p. fheara ; oglach m. a servant, n. p. 
 oglaich, V. p. oglacha. Except perhaps monosyllables which 
 never form their nominative plural in a, nor their dative 
 plural in ihh ; as, damh m. an ox, n. p. daimh, v. p. dhaimh ; 
 a shloigh, Eom. xv. 11. 
 
 The irregular noun Bean f. a woman, is declined thus : 
 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 Nom, Bean Mnai, mnathan 
 
 Gen, Mna Ban 
 
 Dat, Mnaoi Mnathaibh 
 
 Voc. Bhean. Mhnathan. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 Cealgair, mas. a deceiver. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Cealgair Cealgaire 
 
 Gen. Cealgair Cealgair 
 
 Dat. Cealgair Cealgairibh 
 
 Voc. Chealgair. Chealgaire. 
 
 Clais, fem. a gully. 
 
 Nom. Clais Claisean 
 
 Gen. Claise Clais 
 
 Dat. Clais Claisibh 
 
 Voc. Chlais. Chlaise. 
 
 Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension. 
 Singular Number, 
 
 General Rule for the Genitive. The genitive of polysyl- 
 lables is like the nominative ; of monosyllables is made by 
 adding e to the nominative ; as, caraid m. a friend, g. s. 
 caraid; aimsir f. time, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. a house, g. s. 
 tighe; ainm m. a name, g. s. ainme ; im m. butter, g. s. ime; 
 craig f. a rock, g. s. craige. 
 
62 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 Particular Rules for the Genitive, 1. Feminine nouns in 
 ail and air drop the i and add ach; if the nominative be a 
 polysyllable, ai is thrown away ; as, sail f. a beam, g. s. 
 salach ; dail f . aj^lain^ g. s. dalach; lair f. a mare, g. s. larach ; 
 cat hair f. a seat^ g. s. cathrach ; nathair f. a serpent, g. s. 
 nathrach ; lasair f . a flame, g. s. lasrach. To these add c6ir 
 f. right, g. s. c6rach or c6ire. 
 
 2. Monosyllables characterised by oi drop i and add a \ 
 as, feoil f. flesh, g. s. feola ; toin f. bottom, g. s. t6na ; sr6in 
 
 f. the nose, g. s. sroine or sr6na. 
 
 3. Monosyllables characterised by ui change ui into a or 
 0, and add a ; as, muir f. the sea, g. s. mara ; f nil f. blood, 
 
 g. s. fola or fala ; druim f. a ridge, g. s. droma. Except 
 siiil f. the eye) g. s. siila ; cuid f . a part, g. s. codach or 
 cuid. 
 
 4. A few feminine polysyllables in eir form their geni- 
 tive like monosyllables ; as, inneir f. dung, g. s. inneire ; 
 suipeir f. supper, g. s. suipeire. 
 
 5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their 
 genitive like monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. 
 Sometimes the characteristic vowel is retained, and some- 
 times it is thrown away, the final e of the genitive being 
 converted into a, when requisite to suit an antecedent broad 
 vowel. 
 
 Amhainn, f. a river, g. s. aimhne, co/i^rac^ec? /or amhainne 
 Aojhainn ) » . , , . 
 
 A^hann ) ^' ^ ^^^' ^' ^* ^^S^^®' aghamne 
 
 Banais f. a wedding, g. s. bainse, banaise 
 
 Coluinn f. the body, g. s. colna, colla coluinne 
 
 Duthaich f. a country, g. s. duthcha, ...duthaiche 
 
 Fiacail f. a tooth, g. s. fiacla, fiacaile 
 
 Gamhuinn m. a steer, g. s. gamhna, gamhuinne 
 
 Gualainn f . the shoidder, g. s. guaille, gualainne 
 
 Madainn f. morning, g. s. maidne, madainne 
 
 Obair f . work, g. s. oibre, obaire 
 
 Uilinn f . the elbow, g. s. uillne, uilinne 
 
Paet II.] OF SPEECH. 53 
 
 6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping 
 the characteristic small vowel ; athair m. a father, g. s. 
 athar; mathair f. a mother, g. s. mathair; brathair m. a 
 brother, g. s. brathar ; narohaid m. an enemy, g. s. namhad. 
 Cnaimh m. a hone, g. s. cnamha ; uaimh f. a cave, g. s. 
 uamha. Mil f. honey, has g. s. meala. 
 
 7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their 
 genitive like the nominative ; as, ni m. a thing, ti m. a person, 
 r6 m. the moon; to which add righ m. a king. 
 
 Dative, The dative singular is like the nominative j as, 
 duine m. a man, d. s. duine: madainn f. morning, d. s. 
 madainn. 
 
 Vocative, The vocative singular is like the nominative, 
 as, caraid m. friend, v. s. charaid ; mathair £ mother, v. 
 s. mhathair. 
 
 Plural Number, 
 
 Nominative, — General Rule, The nominative plural is 
 formed by adding to the nominative singular a or an, writ- 
 ten e or ean to correspond to a preceding small vowel ; as, 
 piobair m. a piper, n. p. piobairean ; aimsir f. time, season, 
 n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in the 
 nominative plural ; as, caraid m. a friend, n. p. cMrdean ; 
 naimhaid m. an enemy, n. p. naimhdean ; fiacail f. a tooth, 
 n. p. fiaclan. 
 
 Particular Rules, 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant 
 is I or n, insert t in the nominative plural ; as, tuil f. a flood, 
 n. p. tuilte j smuain f. thought, n. p. smuaintean ; coille f. . 
 a wood, n. p. coilltean ; aithne f. a command, n. p. aithnte. 
 The t is aspirated in dail f. a jplain, n. p. dailthean ; sail f . a. 
 beam, n. p. sailthean. 
 
 2. Some nouns in air, chiefly such as form their genitive 
 singular in ach, retain the same syllable in 4ihe nominative 
 plural, and insert i after a ; as, 
 
 Cathair, f. a seat, g. s. cathrach, n. p. cathraichean. 
 Lasair, f . a flame, g. s. lasrach, n. p. lasraichean. 
 Nathair, f. a serpent, g. s. nathrach, n. p. nathraichean. 
 
54 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 So also cuid f. a part, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. 
 codaichean ; athair m. a father, n. p. aithrichean ; mathair f. 
 a mother, n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. a 
 river, n. p. aimhnichean ; uisge m. water, n. p. uisgeachan ; 
 cridhe m. the heart, n. p. cridheachan. 
 
 The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly • 
 duine m. a man, n. p. daoine ; righ m. a hing, n. p. righre ; 
 ni m. a thing, n. p. nithe; cliamhuinn m. a son-in-law, or 
 hrother-in-laio, n. p. cleamhna. 
 
 Genitive, The genitive plural of monosyllables and mas- 
 culine polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, 
 and like the nominative plural ; as, righ m. a hing, g. p. righ 
 or righre. The genitive plural of feminine polysyllables is 
 like the nominative plural only; as, amhainn f. a river, g. p. 
 aimhnichean. Suil f. the eye, has its g. p. sM. 
 
 Dative, The dative plural is formed from the nominative 
 plural by changing the final vowel into ihh ; as, coluinn f. 
 the body, n. p. coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. tJie 
 heart, n. p. cridheacha, d. p. cridheachaibh. 
 
 Vocative, The vocative plural is like the nominative plural ; 
 as, duine m. a m.an, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine. 
 
 Rnal a or e in all the singular cases of polysyllables is oc- 
 casionally cut off, especially in verse ; as, leab bed, teang 
 tongue, coill wood, cridh heart 
 
 Of the Initial form of Nouns. 
 
 In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit 
 of the aspirated form. In the vocative singular and plural 
 the aspirated form alone is used, except in nouns beginning 
 with a lingual, which are generally in the primary form, when 
 preceded by a lingual ; as, a sheann duine old man, ]S"ouns 
 beginning with s followed by a mute consonant have no 
 aspirated form, because s in that situation does not admit of 
 the aspirate. In nouns beginning with I, n, r, a distinction 
 is uniformly observed in pronouncing the initial consonant, 
 corresponding precisely to the distinction of primary and 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 65 
 
 aspirated forms in nouns beginning with other consonants. 
 This distinction has already been fully stated in treating of 
 pronunciation. 
 
 The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been 
 abeady mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the 
 Gaelic. When the numerals fichead ticenty, ceud a hundred^ 
 mile a thousand, are prefixed to a noun, the noun is not put 
 in the plural, but in the singular number, and admits no 
 variation of case. The termination of a noun preceded by 
 da two, is the same with that of the dative singular, except 
 when the noun is governed in the genitive case, and then it 
 is put in the genitive plural {m) \ when preceded by fichead, 
 ceud, &c., the termination is that of the nominative singular ; 
 thus da laimh two JiandSy da chluais two ears, da fhear two 
 men, fichead lamh twenty hands, ceud fear a hundred men, 
 mile caoraa thousand sheej), deich mile bliadhna ten thousand 
 years {n), 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express 
 some quality of the person or thing signified by the noun. 
 
 Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to 
 other words. These changes are made, like those on nouns, 
 partly on the beginning, and partly on the termination, and 
 may be fitly denominated by the same names. The changes 
 on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial consonant. 
 The numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished 
 by changes on the termination. The gender is marked partly 
 by the initial form, partly by the termination. 
 
 Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, 
 
 (m) We are informed by E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in 
 the Irish Dialect, and it appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, 
 air son mo dha shiil, for my tico eyes. — Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott, versions. 
 
 («) So in Hebrew, we find a noun in the singular number joined with 
 tioenty^ thirty, a hundred, a thousand, &c. 
 
56 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 in most of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first 
 declension, and may be termed Adjectives of the first 
 declension. Those adjectives whereof the characteristic 
 vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second 
 declension. 
 
 JExample of Adject i 
 
 ves of the First Declension, 
 
 M6r, great. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Com. Gend, 
 
 Nom. Mor, 
 
 Mhor, 
 
 Mora. 
 
 Gen, Mhoir, 
 
 Moire, 
 
 Mora. 
 
 Dat, Mor, 
 
 Mhoir, 
 
 Mora. 
 
 Voc, Mhoir, 
 
 Mhor, 
 
 Mora. 
 
 Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension, 
 
 Singular, 
 
 Nominative. The feminine gender is, in termination, like 
 the masculine. 
 
 The other cases, both mas. and fern., are formed from the 
 nominative, according to the rules already given for forming 
 the cases of nouns of the first declension. Take the follow- 
 ing examples in adjectives : — 
 
 Genitive. — General rule, Marbh dead^ g. s. m. mhairbh, f. 
 mairbhe ; dubh hlach, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe ; fadalach 
 tedious, g. s. m. fhadalaich, f. fadalaich. 
 
 Particular rules, 1. Sona happy, g. s. m. shona, f. sona ; 
 aosda aged, g. s. m. and f. aosda ; beo alive, g. s. m. bheo, f. 
 beo. 
 
 2. Bochd j^oor, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd ; gearr short, g. 
 s. m. ghearr. f. gearr. 
 
 3. Biedigh. fine, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha. 
 
 4. Crion little, diminutive, g. s. m. chrin, f. crine. 
 
 5. Donn hroivn, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne ; gorm blue, g. 
 s. m. ghuirm, f. guirme ; lorn hare^ g. s. m. luim, f . luime. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 57 
 
 But dall blind, g. s. m. dhoill, f. doille ; mall slow, g. s. hl 
 mhoill, f. moille ; like the nouns crann, clann. 
 
 6. Cinnteach certain, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich ; 
 maiseach beautiful, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc 
 rare, g. s. ni. theirc, f. teirce; dearg red, g. s. m. dheirg, f. 
 deirge ] deas ready, g. s. m. dheis, f. deise. Breac speckled, 
 g. s. m, bhric, f. brice ; geal icliite, g. m. ghil, f. gile. 
 
 7. Geur sharp, g. s. m. gheir, f. geire ; like the nouns breug, 
 
 8. Liath hoary, g. s. m. leith, f. leithe ; dian keen, g. s. m. 
 dhein, f. deine. 
 
 Irregulars. Odhar pale, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar 
 deaf, g. s. m. bhuidhir, f. buidhir. 
 
 Dative. — General rule, Uasal noble, d. s. m. uasal f. 
 uasail ; bodhar deaf, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir. 
 
 Particular rule, 1. Trom heavy, d. s. m. trom, f. thruim. 
 
 Vocative, Eeag small, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed 
 by adding a to the nom. sing. ; in Polysyllables, it is like 
 the nom. sing ; as, crom crooked, pL croma ; tuirseach melan- 
 choly, pi. tuirseach. 
 
 A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, 
 and suffer a contraction ; as, reamhar fat, pi. reamhra, con 
 tracted for reamhara. Gen. xli. 20. 
 
 Adjectives of the Second Declension. 
 
 All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are 
 formed according to the general rules for nouns of the second 
 declension ; that is, Monosyllables add e for the gen. sing, 
 fem. and for the plural cases ; Polysyllables are like the nom, 
 sing, throughout. 
 
 In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables 
 sometimes suffer a contraction in the plural ; as, mills sweet, 
 pi. milse contracted for milise. 
 
68 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [part ir. 
 
 Of the Initial Form of Adjectives. 
 Adjectives admit the aspirated form through all the 
 Numbers and Cases. In Adjectives beginning with a Labial 
 or a Palatal, the aspirated form alone is used in the gen. 
 and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and voc. sing, feminine. 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives, 
 
 There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may 
 be called the First and the Second Comparative, 
 
 The First Comparative is formed from the gen. sing. mas. 
 by adding e; as, geal white, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile ; 
 ciontach gvMt^j, g. s. m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some 
 Adjectives suffer a contraction in the Comparative ; as, bodhar 
 deaf, comp. buidhre for buidhke ; boidheach pretty, comp. 
 boidhche for boidhiche. 
 
 If the last letter of the gen. be a, it is changed into e, and 
 i inserted before the last consonant ; as, fada long, g. s. m. 
 fada, comp. faide ; tana thin, g. s. m. tana, comp. taine. 
 
 The Second Comparative is formed from the first, by 
 changing final e into id ; as, trom heavy, 1. comp. truime, 2. 
 comp. truimid ; tiugh thick, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. 
 tiuighid. Many Adjectives, especially Polysyllables, do not 
 admit of the Second Comparative. 
 
 Both these forms of Comparison have an asjnrated as well 
 as a primary form, but are otherwise indeclinable. 
 
 The following Adjectives are compared irregularly. 
 
 Positive, 
 
 1. Comp, 
 
 2. Comp. 
 
 Math, maith, good, 
 
 fearr. 
 
 feaird. 
 
 01c, had, evil, 
 
 miosa, 
 
 misd. 
 
 Mor, great. 
 
 mo, 
 
 m6id. 
 
 Beag, small. 
 
 lugha, 
 
 lughaid. 
 
 Goirid, gearr, short, 
 
 giorra, 
 
 giorraid. 
 
 Duilich, difficidt, 
 
 dorra. 
 
 
 Teath, hot. 
 
 teoithe. 
 
 teoithid. 
 
 Leathan, broad, 
 
 leatha, leithne. 
 
 
 Pogus, near, 
 
 foisge. 
 
 
Part IL] OF SPEECH. 59 
 
 Ckirdeach, akiriy cira. 
 
 Furas, easy^ fhusa. 
 
 Toigh, deavy docha. 
 
 lonmhuaui, beloved, < f^^ 
 
 ( lonnsa. 
 
 To these may be added the nouns — 
 
 Moran a great number or quantity, and Tuilleadh more. 
 
 The Superlative, which is but a particular mode of ex- 
 pressing comparison, is the same in form with Ihe First 
 Comparative. 
 
 An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting 
 one of the particles ro, gl^, before the Positive ; as, ro ghlic 
 very tcise, gle gheal very white. The same effect is produced 
 by prefixing fior true, skr exceeding, &c., which words are, in 
 that case, used adverbially; as, fior mhaiseach truly beautiful, 
 sar mhaith exceedingly good. 
 
 Cardinal Numbers. 
 
 1 Aon, a h-aon, one. 
 
 40 Da fhichead. 
 
 2 Da, a dhk 
 
 50 Deich is dk fhichead. 
 
 3 TrL 
 
 60 Tri fichead. 
 
 4 Ceithir. 
 
 100 Ceud. 
 
 5 Cuig. 
 
 200 Da cheud. 
 
 6 Se, sia. 
 
 300 Tri ceud. 
 
 7 Seachd 
 
 400 Ceithir cheud. 
 
 8 Ochd. 
 
 500 Cuig ceud. 
 
 9 Kaoi. 
 
 1,000 Mile. 
 
 10 Deich. 
 
 2,000 Da mhile. 
 
 11 Aon deug. 
 
 3,000 Tri mile. 
 
 12 A dha dheug. 
 
 10,000 Deich mile. 
 
 13 Tri deug. 
 
 20,000 Fichead mile. 
 
 20 Fichead. 
 
 100,000 Ceud mile. 
 
 2 J Aon thar fhichead. 
 
 200,000 Da cheud mile. 
 
 22 Dha 'ar fhichead. 
 
 1,000,000 Deich ceud mile, 
 
 23 Tri 'ar fhichead. 
 
 Mile de mhiltibh. 
 
 30 Deich 'ar fhichead. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 31 Aon deug thar fhichead. 
 
60 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun, 
 
 Of the mas. gender. Of the fern, gender. 
 
 1 Aon fhear, one man, Aon chlach, one stone, 
 
 2 Da fhear. Dk chloich. 
 
 3 Tri fir. Tri clachan. 
 
 10 Deich fir. Deich clachan. 
 
 11 Aon fhear deug. Aon chlach dheug. 
 
 12 Da fhear dheng. Da chloicli dheug. 
 
 13 Tri fir dheug. Tri clachan deug. 
 
 20 Fichead fear. Fichead clach. 
 
 21 Aon fhear thar fhichead. Aon chlach thar fhichead. 
 
 22 Da fhear thar fhichead. Da chloich thar fhichead. 
 
 23 Tri fir fhichead. Tri clacha fichead. 
 
 30 Deich fir fhichead. Deich clacha fichead. 
 
 31 Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead.Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead. 
 
 40 Da fhichead fear. Da fhichead clach. 
 
 41 Fear is da fhichead. Clach is da fhichead. 
 
 42 Da fhear is da fhichead. Da chloich is da fhichead. 
 50 Deich is da fhichead fear. Deich is da fhichead clach. 
 60 Tri fichead fear. Tri fichead clach. 
 
 70 Tri fichead fear agus deich. Tri fichead clach agus deich. 
 
 100 Ceud fear. Ceud clach. 
 
 101 Ceud fear agus a h-aon.Ceud clach agus a h-aon. 
 309 Tri cheud fear. Tri cheud clach. 
 
 1,000 Mile fear. Mile clach. 
 
 10,000 Deich mile fear, &c. Deich mile clach, &c. 
 
 Ordinal Numbers, 
 
 1 An ceud fhear, the first man; a' cheud chlach, the first 
 
 2 An dara fear. \stone, 
 
 3 An treas fear, an tri-amh fear. 
 
 4 An ceathramh fear. 
 
 5 An cuigeamh fear. 
 
 6 An seathamh fear. 
 
 7 An seachdamh fear. 
 
 8 An t-ochdamh fear. 
 
Fart II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 61 
 
 9 An naothamh fear. 
 
 10 An deiclieamh fear. 
 
 11 An t-aon fear deug. 
 
 12 An dara fear deug. 
 
 20 Am ficheadamh fear. 
 
 21 An t-aon fhear fichead. 
 
 22 An dara fear fichead. 
 
 31 An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead. 
 40 An da fhicheadamh fear. 
 60 An tri ficheadamh fear. 
 
 100 An ceudamh fear. 
 
 101 An t-aon fhear thar cheud. 
 
 200 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud. 
 200 An da cheudamh fear. 
 1000 Am mileamh fear, &c. 
 
 The following numeral Xouns are applied only to persons : — 
 
 Dithis, two persons, 
 
 Triuir. 
 
 Ceathrar. 
 
 Cuignear. 
 Seanar. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 
 Seachdnar. 
 Ochdnar. 
 Xaoinar. 
 Deichnar. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 OF PROXOUXS. 
 
 The Pronouns are, for the most part, words used instead 
 of nouns. They may be arranged under the following 
 divisions : Personal, Possessive, Eelative, Demonstrative, 
 Interrogative, Indefinite, Compound. 
 
 The Personal Pronouns are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d 
 persons. They have a Singular and a Plural Xumber, a 
 Simple and an Emphatic Eorm. They are declined 
 thus : — 
 
62 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Singular, Plural, 
 
 Simple Form. Einiyhat. F. Simple F. Emphat 
 
 1. Mi, mhi, /, ??i^, Mise, mhise. Sinn, we j us y Sinne. 
 
 2. ^ rpi ' ,7' ' VTusa, thusa. Sibh, ye, you, Sibhse. 
 
 '^'f.''^' lEsan. 
 Ji., hi77i, j 
 
 I, si, she, ) J ( Tad, siad, they \ ^ . . v 
 
 J, her, r^^' \ lad, them, / ^^"^^^"^ ^""^ 
 
 The Pronoun 'sibh.' you, of the plural number is used almost 
 universally in addressing a single person of superior rank or 
 of greater age; while Hu' thou, of the singular number is 
 used in addressing an inferior or an equal. But the degree 
 of seniority or of superiority, which is understood to entitle 
 a person to this token of respect, varies in different parts of 
 the Highlands (p). The Supreme Being is always addressed 
 by the pronoun 'tu' thou, of the singular number. 
 
 The Possessive Pronouns correspond to the Personal Pro- 
 nouns, and, like them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, 
 and 3d persons singular, and 1st, 2d, and 3d persons plural. 
 They have an Emphatic Form, which is made by connecting 
 the syllable sa with the possessive pronoun of the 1st, 2d, 
 
 (0) The Pronouns tu thou, se he, si she, siad they, are not employed, 
 like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive verb. Hence 
 the incorrectness of the following expression in most editions of the Gaelic 
 Psalms : Se chrunas tic le coron graidh, Psal. ciii. 4., which translated 
 literally signifies, it is lie vjhom thou wilt crown, &c. To express the true 
 sense, viz., it is he who will crown thee, it ought to have been, se chrunas 
 thu le coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a slanuichtas thu, I am the 
 Lord that healeth thee, Exod. xv. 26 ; Ma ta e ann a fhreagaireas thu. If 
 there he any that will atiswer thee, Job v. 1 ; Co e a bhrathas thu? Who 
 is he that will betray thee? John xxi. 20., Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 
 29. 
 
 (p) This use of the Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a 
 modem innovation, for there is nothing like it found in the more ancient 
 Gaelic compositions, nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. 
 As this idiom seems, however, to be employed in conversation with 
 increasing frequency, it will probably lose by degrees its present import, 
 and will come to be used as the common mode of addressing any individual ; 
 in the same manner as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and 
 other European languages. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 63 
 
 and 3d persons singular, and 2d person plural ; ne with that 
 of the 1st person plural, and san with that of the 3d person 
 plural. These syllables are placed immediately after the 
 nouns to which the possessive pronouns are prefixed, and 
 connected by a hyphen. 
 
 These Pronouns are as follow : — 
 Simple, Emphatic. Simple. Emphatic, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 . Mo, my, mo mhac-sa 1 . Ar, our, ar mac-ne 
 
 2. Do, thy, do sa 2. Bhur, ur, your, bhur — sa 
 
 „ f A, his, a mhac-sa, san 
 
 A, her J a mac-sa, san 
 
 [ 3. An, am, their, an, am — sa san 
 
 If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic 
 syllable is affixed to the adjective; as, do lamh gheal-sa 
 thy luhite hand. 
 
 The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a 
 vowel, commonly lose the o, whose absence is marked by an 
 apostrophe ; as, m' aimn my name ; d' athair (^) thy father. 
 The same pronouns when preceded by the preposition ann 
 «?i, suffer a transposition of their letters, and are written am, 
 ad, one broad vowel being substituted for another ; as, ann ad 
 chridhe in thy hearty 1 Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire in my 
 thoughts. 
 
 The possessive pronoun a his, is often suppressed alto- 
 gether after a vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimh- 
 earsnaich, no oglach, no bhanoglach, no dhamh, no asal, covet 
 not thy neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or his maid-ser- 
 vant, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and similar instances, as 
 the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially when the 
 noun begins with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with cer- 
 tainty from any other part of the sentence, perhaps it might 
 
 (q) There seems hardly a suflBcient reason for changing the d in this 
 situation into t, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach tJnj scrxant, 
 &c. The d corresponds sufficiently to the pronunciation, and being the 
 constituent consonant of the pronoun, it ought not to be changed for 
 another. 
 
64 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 be an improvement to retain the pronoun, even at the expense 
 of cutting off the final vowel of the preceding word ; as, n' a 
 oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, &c. In many cases, however, this 
 appears hardly practicable; as, cha bheo athair Ms father is 
 not alive, which could not with any propriety be written cha 
 bheo a athair (r). 
 
 The word fein corresponding to the English words self, 
 own, is subjoined occasionally both to the personal and pos- 
 sessive pronouns : thus mi fein myself, mise fein I myself, 
 thu fein tayself, thusa fein thou thyself, or thy own selfy mo 
 shluagh fein my own people. 
 
 The other Pronouns are as follow : — 
 
 Relative, Demonstrative. Interrogative. 
 
 N.A^ivho,ivhich,that, So, this, these, Co? who? 
 G.&D. An, Sin, that, those, Cia.^ which? 
 
 Nach, who not, Sud (s), ud, yon, Ciod, creud? what ? 
 
 which not, 
 Na, that which, 
 what (t). 
 
 Indefinite, Compound, 
 
 Elgin, some. E so, this one, m. E sud, yon one, m. 
 
 p. , , > whoever (u), I so, this one, f. I sud, yon one, f. 
 
 (r) The Irish are not so much at a loss to avoid a hiatus , as they often 
 use na for a his ; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes 
 judiciously adopted ; as, 
 
 An talamh tioram le na laimh 
 
 Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5. 
 
 (5) In the North Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid. 
 
 (t) This Pronoun occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu 
 after what you have heard ; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, bring 
 what you have. It seems to be contracted for an ni a the thing which. 
 
 {u) There is reason to think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b* e. 
 Of the former I find no satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is literally 
 which it he, or which it were ; which is just the French qui que ce soit, 
 qui que ce filt expressed in English by one word whosoever ^ whichsoever. 
 We find cia used in this sense and connection, Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 
 1753, Gach uile rioghachd mar an ceadn' cia h-iomdha bhi siad ann. All 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 65 
 
 Eile, other. lad so, these, lad sud, yov, pi. 
 
 Gach, yach, I e sin, thut one, m. Cacli eile, the rest. 
 
 C/aciij J every \P^)> \ 
 
 Cach, others, the rest. lad sin, zf/io^e. Cach a cheile, each. 
 
 Ciiid, S07/16. o^Aer (^). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 A woKD that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer an}i:hing, is 
 called a Verb. 
 
 The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by 
 Voices, Moods, Tenses, Xumbers, and Persons. 
 
 The Voices are two : Active and Passive. 
 
 The Moods are five : the Affirmative or Indicative, the 
 Negative or Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, 
 and the Infinitive. Many, but not all. Transitive Verbs have 
 a Passive Participle. 
 
 The Tenses are three : the Present, the Preterite, and the 
 Future. 
 
 The Numbers are two : Singular and PluraL 
 
 The Persons are three : First, Second, and Third. The dis- 
 
 kingdoms likeioUe^ however numerous they he. See also Gren. xliv. 9, Rom. 
 ii. 1. 
 
 (x) This pronoun is found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's *' Archoeol. 
 Brit." Tit. I. page 20. col. 2. ceach ; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine ; cecha 
 bliadna each year. So also O'Brien, cach all, every, like the French chague. 
 "Irish Diet." voc. cach. 
 
 (y) The pronouns cach eile and cach a cheile are hardly known in Perth- 
 shii'e. Instead of the former, they use the single word c^ch pronounced 
 long, and declined like a noun of the singular number ; and instead of the 
 latter, a cheile, as in this example, choinnich iad a cheile ; thuit cuid, 
 agus theich each, they met^cach other ; some fell, and the restfied. Here 
 cach may be considered as a simple pronoun ; but the first clause, choinnich 
 iad a cheile, they met his felloio, hardly admits of any satisfactory anal3'sis. 
 The phrases, in fact, seem to be elliptical, and to be expressed more fully, 
 according to the practice of other districts, thus : choinnich iad cach a 
 chiele ; thuit, cuid, agus theich each eile. Xow, if cach be nothing else 
 than gach every, (a conjecture supported by the short pronunciation of the 
 a, as well as by the authorities adduced in the preceding note,) the expres- 
 sions may be easily analysed : choinnich iad gach [aon] a cheile ; thuit 
 cui'l, agus theich gach [aon] eile ; they met every [one] his fellow ; so//>. 
 fell, and every other [one]jied. See 1 Thess. v. 11, 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [Part II. 
 
 tinction of number and person takes place only in a few 
 tenses. 
 
 The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by 
 changes at the beginning, and on the termination. 
 
 The changes on the termination are made according to one 
 model, and by the same rules. But for the sake of stating 
 some diversity in the initial changes, it may be convenient to 
 arrange the verbs in two conjugations, whereof the first com- 
 prehends those verbs which begin with a consonant, the 
 second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. Verbs begin- 
 ning with /, followed by a vowel, are ranged under the second 
 conjugation, along with verbs beginning with a vowel. 
 
 The verb Bi he, which is used as an auxiliary to other 
 verbs, is declined as follows : — 
 
 Bi, he. 
 Affirmative or Indicative Mood, 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1. Ta mi, / am 
 
 Bha mi, / was, 
 
 Bithidh mi, I will he, 
 
 2. Tathu, 
 
 Bha thu. 
 
 Bithidh tu, 
 
 3. Tae; 
 
 Bha e; 
 
 Bithidh se ; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Plur, 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1. Ta sinn. 
 
 Bha sinn, 
 
 Bithidh sinn. 
 
 2. Ta sibh, 
 
 Bha sibh, 
 
 Bithidh sibh. 
 
 3. Taiad. 
 
 Bha iad. 
 
 Bithidh siad. 
 
 Negative or Interrogative Mood, 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 
 1 Bheil 
 
 mi, / am not, 
 
 Eobh mi, / was not. 
 
 ni 
 
 2 Bheil 
 
 thu, 
 
 Eobh thu, 
 
 cha 
 
 3 Bheil 
 
 e; 
 
 Eobh e; 
 
 nach - 
 
 
 Plur, 
 
 Plur, 
 
 mur, 
 
 1 Bheil 
 
 sinn, 
 
 Eobh sinn, 
 
 &c. 
 
 2 Bheil sibh, 
 
 Eobh sibh. 
 
 
 3 Bheil iad. 
 
 Eobh iad. 
 
Pakt II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 67 
 
 Future. 
 Sing. 
 f Bi mi, / shall not he, 
 j^i Bi thu, 
 
 cha ^i se ; 
 nach -J Plm\ 
 
 mur, Bi sinn, 
 &c. Ei sibh, 
 Bi siad. 
 
 SuhJ7inctive Mood. 
 Preterite or Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. 
 Bhithinn, I would be, 
 Bhitheadh tu, 
 Bhitheadh e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Bhitheadheamaid, 
 Bhitheadh sinn, 
 Bhitheadh sibh, 
 Bhitheadh iad. 
 
 Imperative Mood, 
 
 Sing. 
 Bitheam, let me he, 
 Bi, bi thusa, 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing. 
 Ma bhitheas mi, If I shall he, 
 Bhitheas tu, 
 Bhitheas e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Bhitheas sinn, 
 
 Bhitheas sibh, 
 Bhitheas iad. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Bith, being, 
 do bhith, ) 
 
 to he. 
 
 Bitheadh e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Bitheamaid, 
 Bithibh, 
 Bitheadh iad. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. 
 Ta mi iar bith, 
 / have been, ike. 
 
 to he. 
 
 a bhith, 
 
 gu bhith, 
 
 gu bith, 
 
 iar bhith, 
 
 iar bith, 
 
 o bhith, from being, &c. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 } 
 
 > after being, been, 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 
 Sing. 
 Bha mi iar bith, 
 / had been, &c. 
 
 Sing. 
 Bithidh mi iar bith, 
 1 shall have been, &c. 
 
68 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 ni, (B 
 &c. \ I 
 
 Negative Mood, 
 Sing, Sing, Sing, 
 
 Bheil mi iar bith, Robh mi iar bith, Bi mi air bith, 
 have not been, I had not been, I shall not have been. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood, 
 Preterite or Pluperfect. Future. 
 
 Sing, Sing, 
 
 1 Bliithinn iar bith, I should Ma bhitheas mi iar bith, If I 
 have been, ^c, shall have been, ^c. 
 
 The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one 
 of many instances where there appears reason to complain of 
 the propensity remarked in Part I. in those who speak the 
 Gaelic, to attenuate its articulations by aspiration. Another 
 corrupt way of writing ta which has become common, is ata. 
 This has probably taken its rise from uniting the relative to 
 the verb ; as, an uair ata mi; instead of an uair ata, &c., mar 
 a ta, &c. Or perhaps it may have proceeded from a too com- 
 pliant regard to a provincial pronunciation. 
 
 The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal 
 participle ro, the same with do, and bha, throwing away the 
 last vowel ; ro bha, robh. 
 
 The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing, and 3d per. 
 plur. are frequently incorporated into one word, and written 
 taim I am, taid they are. 
 
 The pres. neg. loses the initial bh after the participle cha 
 not, mur if not, nach that not; n is inserted, euphoniae causa, 
 betwixt the participle cha and the verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 
 'eil, nach 'eil. This Tense is often pronounced beil after the 
 participle am ; as, am beil e 1 is it ? 
 
 In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the 
 common verbal participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, 
 or cha d'robh mi, / ivas not. 
 
 Initial b of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle 
 cha not ; as, cha bhi. 
 
 Initial bh of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the 
 
Pabt II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 69 
 
 participles ni not, mur if not, nach that 7iof, gu that, nam if ; 
 as, mur bithinn, nam bitheadh tu. 
 
 The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by 
 changing ithea into io ; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c. 
 
 Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. 
 They are here given complete, because they correspond to the 
 analogy of other verbs ; and show how accurately the various 
 modifications of time may be expressed by the substantive 
 verb itsel£ 
 
 Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail to 
 eirike. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 Affirmative or Indicative Moods, 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 ^ Sing. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1 Do bhuail mi, / stinick, 
 
 Buailidh mi, I vjill strike, 
 
 Bhuail mi. 
 
 
 2 Bhuail thu, 
 
 Buailidh tu, 
 
 3 Bhuail e; 
 
 Buailidh se ; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Bhuail sinn, 
 
 Buailidh sinn. 
 
 2 Bhuail sibh. 
 
 Buailidh sibh, 
 
 3 Bhuail iad. 
 
 Buailidh siad. 
 
 Negative or 
 
 Interrogative Mood. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Si?ig. 
 
 
 1 Do bhuail mi, / struck Buail rai, / will not strike 
 
 
 not, 
 
 
 m 
 cha 
 nach - 
 mur 
 
 2 Do bhuail thu. 
 
 Buail thu, 
 
 3 Do bhuail e; 
 
 Buail e; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 (fee. 
 
 1 Do bhuail sinn, 
 
 Buail sinn, 
 
 
 2 Do bhuail sibh, 
 
 Buail sibh. 
 
 
 3 Do bhuail iad. 
 
 Buail iad. 
 
70 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [part II. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood, 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Sing, Sing. 
 
 1 Bhuailinn, I would strike, Ma bhuaileas mi, If I shall 
 
 strike, 
 
 2 Bhuaileadh tu, 
 
 3 Bhuaileadh e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Bhuaileamaid, 
 Bhuaileadh sinn, 
 
 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, 
 
 3 Bhuaileadh iad. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Sing. 
 
 1 Buaileam, let me strike^ 
 
 2 Buail, 
 
 3 Buaileadh e ; 
 
 Plur 
 
 1 Buaileamaid, 
 
 2 Buailibh, 
 
 3 Buaileadh iad. 
 
 Bhuaileas tu, 
 Bhuaileas e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Bhuaileas sinn, 
 
 Bhuaileas sinn, 
 Bhuaileas iad. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Bualadh, striking, 
 ag hvidildLdih, a-striking, striking^ 
 iar bualadh, struck, 
 do bhualadh, ) , , .^ 
 abhualadh, ]i'' '^^^^^ 
 ri bualadh, at striking, 
 le bualadh, vrith striking, 
 o bhualadh, from striking, 
 &c. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 1. Comp, 1. Comp. 
 
 Ta mi ag bualadh, Bha mi ag bualadh, 
 
 I am striking, &c. 1 was striking, &c. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1 Comjx 
 Bithidh mi ag bualadh, 
 / will be striking, &c. 
 
Part II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 71^ 
 
 Present. 
 
 2 Com}). 
 Ta mi iar bualadh, 
 / have dtrncA'j &c. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 Bha mi iar bualadh, 
 / had struck. &c. 
 
 m 
 
 cha 
 
 nach 
 
 mur, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Future. 
 
 2 Comp. 
 
 Bithidh mi iar bualadh, 
 
 / will have struck, &c. 
 
 Negative Mood 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 1. Corap, 1. Comp. 
 
 Bheil mi ag bualadh, Eobh mi ag bualadh, 
 
 / am not striking, kQ. I was not striking, kc. 
 Future, 
 
 1. Comp, 
 
 Bi mi ag bualadh, 
 
 / will not he striking, (fee. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 2. Comp. 2. Comp, 
 
 Bheil mi iar bualadh, Pobh mi iar bualadh, 
 
 / have not struck, ka, I had not struck, (fee. 
 
 Future. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 
 Bi mi iar bualadh, 
 I will not have struck, (fee. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 1. Comp. 
 Bhithinn ag bualadh, 
 / would he striking, &q. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 Bhithinn iar bualadh, 
 I would have struck, &q. 
 
 Suhjunctive Mood. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1. Comp. 
 
 Ms. bhitheas mi ag bualadh, 
 If I shall he striking, &c. 
 
 2. Comp, 
 
 ]\[a bhitheas mi iar bualadh, 
 It I shall Imve struck, etc. 
 
72 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [Paet IL 
 
 Imperative Mood, 
 1. Comp, 
 Bitheam ag bualadh, 
 Let me he striking, cfec. 
 
 2. Comp, 
 Bitheam iar bualadh, 
 Let me have struck^ &c. 
 
 Infinitive Mood, 
 
 1. Comp, 
 Do bhith ag bualadh, 
 To he striking, &c. 
 Iar bith ag bualadh, 
 Been striking, &c. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 
 Do bhith iar bualadh, 
 To have heen striking, &c 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Do bhuaileadh mi, / was 
 
 struck, 
 Bhuaileadh mi, 
 Bhuaileadh thu, 
 Bhuaileadh e; 
 
 Plar, 
 Bhuaileadh, sinn, 
 Bhuaileadh sibh, 
 Bhuaileadh iad. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirmative Mood 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Future. 
 Sing, 
 Buailear mi, / shall he struck. 
 
 Buailear thu, 
 Buailear e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Buailear sinn, 
 Buailear sibh, 
 Buailear iad. 
 
 ni 
 cha 
 nach 
 mur^ 
 
 Negative Mood, 
 Preterite. 
 Sing, 
 ^ 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, 
 was not struck, 
 
 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, 
 
 3 Do bhuaileadh e ; 
 
 Plur, 
 
 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, 
 
 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, 
 
 3 Do bhuaileadh iad. 
 
 Future. 
 Sing. 
 Buailear mi, / shall not he 
 
 struck, 
 Buailear thu, 
 Buailear e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 Buailear sinn, 
 Buailear sibh, 
 Buailear iad. 
 
Paet II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 73 
 
 SuhJuTictive Mood, 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Sing. Sing. 
 
 1 Bhuailteadh mi, I would he Ma bhuailear mi, If I shall he 
 
 sfnicA', struck. 
 
 2 Bhuailteadh thu, Bhuailear thu, 
 
 3 Bhuailteadh e ; Bhuailear e ; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, 
 
 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, 
 
 3 Bhuailteadh iad. 
 
 Phcr. 
 Bhuailear sinn, 
 Bhuailear sibh, 
 Bhuailear iad. 
 
 Imperative Mood, 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1 Buailtear mi. Let me be struck, 1 Buailtear sinn. 
 
 2 Buailtear thu, 
 
 3 Buailtear e. 
 
 2 Buailtear sibh, 
 
 3 Buailtear iad. 
 
 Participle. 
 Buailte, stimck. 
 
 Compound Tenses 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 1. Comp. 1. Comp. 
 
 Ta mi buailte, / am struck, &c. Bha mi buailte, I was struck, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Future. 
 1. Comp. 
 Bithidh mi buailte, I shall he struck, t^^c 
 
74 
 
 OF THE PAKTS 
 
 [Part II. 
 
 Present. 
 
 2. Comp, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, 
 
 I have been struck, 
 
 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, 
 
 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh ; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Ta Sinn iar ar bualadh, 
 
 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, 
 
 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. 
 
 Preterite. 
 2. Comp. 
 Sing, 
 Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, 
 
 / had been struck, 
 Bha thu iar do bhualadh, 
 Bha se iar a bhualadh ; 
 
 Plur, 
 Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, 
 Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, 
 Bha siad iar am bualadh. 
 
 Future, 
 2. Comp, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 1 Bithidh mi iar m o bhualadh, 
 
 2 Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh, 
 
 3 Bithidh se iar a bhualadh; 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh, 
 
 2 Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh, 
 
 3 Bithidh siad iar am bualadh. 
 
 / shall have been struck* 
 
 Present. 
 1. Comp. 
 Ni bheil mi buailte, 
 / am not struck, &c. 
 
 Negative Mood. 
 
 Preterite. 
 1. Comp, 
 Ni'n robh mi buailte, 
 / was not struck, &c. 
 
 Future. 
 1. Comp. 
 Ni*m bi mi buailte, / shall not be struck, &c. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 2. Comp. 2. Comp. 
 
 Ni' m bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, 
 
 / have not been struck, &c. / had not been struck, &c. 
 
Part II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 75 
 
 Future. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 
 Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh, I shall not have been struck, &c. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 1. Comp» 
 Bhithinn buailte, 
 
 / would he struck^ &c. 
 
 2. Com]). 
 Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, 
 / would have been struck^ &c, 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1. Comp. 
 Ma bhitheas mi buailte, 
 
 If I shall be struck, &c. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 Mabhitheas miiar mo bhualadh, 
 
 If I shall have been struck, &c. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 1. Comp. 
 Bitheam buailte, 
 Let me be struck, &c, 
 
 2. Comp). 
 Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, 
 Let me have been struck, &c. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 1. Comp. 
 Do bhith buailte. 
 To be struck, &c. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 
 Do bhith iar mo bhualadh, 
 To have been struck, &c. 
 
 Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 
 Orduich, to appoint. 
 
 Affirmat 
 
 Negat. 
 
 Subjunct. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Simple Tenses 
 
 Preterite. 
 Dh'orduich, 
 D'orduich, 
 Dh'orduichinn. 
 
 Imperat. Orduicheam. 
 
 Future. 
 Orduichidh, 
 Orduich, 
 Dh^orduicheas. 
 Infinit, Orduchadh. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirmat. 
 Negat. 
 Subjunct. 
 Imperat. 
 
 Dh'orduicheadh, Orduichear, 
 D'orduicheadh, Orduichear, 
 Dh'orduichteadh. Dh'orduicheas. 
 Orduichear. Particip, Orduichte. 
 
76 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [Paet 11. 
 
 Afirmat, 
 
 Negat, 
 
 Suhjand. 
 
 Folaich, to hide. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. 
 Dh'fholaich, 
 D'fholaich, 
 Dh'fholaichinn. 
 
 Imperat. Folaicheam. 
 
 Future. 
 Folaichidh, 
 Folaich, 
 Dh'fholaicheas. 
 Infinite Folachadh. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Afirmat. Dh'fholaiclieadh, Folaichear, 
 
 Negat D'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, 
 
 Subjunct Dh'fholaichteadh. Dh'fholaichear. 
 
 Imperat, Folaichtear. Particip. Folaichte. 
 
 The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of 
 the Verb Buail in the first Conjugation, being formed exactly 
 in the same manner. 
 
 Formation op the Tenses. 
 Of the Initial Form, 
 
 An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, 
 through all the Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite 
 Subjunctive after the Particles ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. 
 An initial Consonant is occasionally aspirated in the Future 
 Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, indicating their 
 connection with the preceding word. 
 
 In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Afi*. 
 and Neg. Active and Passive. However, it often is, and 
 always may be, omitted before the Pret. Aff. It is some- 
 times omitted in the Pret. I^eg. in verse, and in com- 
 mon conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same 
 Particle do is prefixed to the Preterite through all the 
 Moods and Voices, and to the Fut. Subj. excepting only the 
 Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. In this 
 
Part II.] OF srEECII. 77 
 
 Conjugation, do always loses the o to avoid a hiatus, and 
 the d is aspirated in the Affirm, and Subjunct. Moods {z). 
 
 Of the Termination, 
 
 In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Eoot 
 are, strictly speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a 
 small vowel. But where the first vowel of the Termination 
 does not correspond in quality to the last vowel of the Eoot, 
 it has become the constant practice to insert in the Termina- 
 tion a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to produce this 
 correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into 
 the Terminations even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to 
 the uniformity of inflection, and of no use to ascertain 
 either the sense or the pronunciation (a). In the foregoing 
 examples of regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography 
 has been followed, but in the following rules the simple 
 Terminations only are specified. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 The Theme or Eoot of the Verb is ahvays found in the 
 second Per. sing, of the imperative. 
 
 The Preterite Affirm, and ]N"egat. is like the Eoot, and 
 has no distinction of ISTumber or Person. In most of the 
 editions of the Gaelic Psalms, some inflections of the Pre- 
 
 (z) In the older Irish MSS. the Particle do appears under a variety of 
 forms. In one MS. of high antiquity it is often -written clno. This seems 
 to be its oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a 
 vowel, and the n being pronounced and then -svritten r, (See Part I. p. 19.) 
 the word was written doro. (See Astles Hist, of the Orig. and Progr. of 
 JVriting^page 126^ Irish Specime7iy JVo.6.) The Consonants were some- 
 times transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle became 
 nod (0 BrierCs Ir. Diet. vac. Sasat, Treas,) and rod id. voc, Ascaim. Fial.) 
 Sometimes one of the syllables only was retained ; hence no {O'Br. voc. 
 No,) ro {id. voc. Ro,) and do in common use. Do likewise suffered a trans- 
 position of letters, and was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. voc. Do.) 
 
 (a) This con^espondence of the Termination with the Root was over- 
 looked in the older editions of the Gaelic Psalms ; as prouutidh, cuirfar, 
 molfidh, innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c. 
 
78 OF THE PARTS [Pabt II. 
 
 terite have been admitted, with good effect, from the Irish 
 Verb ; such as, bhuaileas I struck, bhuailis thou didst strike^ 
 bhuaileamar we struck, bhuaileadar they struck. The Pret. 
 Subj. is formed by adding to the Eoot inn for the first pers. 
 sing., and adh for the other persons. The first pers. pi or. 
 also terminates in amaid. 
 
 The Future Affirm, adds idh to the Eoot ; in the ]N"egat. 
 it is like the Eoot ; and in the Subjunct. it adds as. A 
 poetic Future Tense terminating in ann or onn, is frequent in 
 the Gaelic Psalms ; as, gairionn will call, seasfann will stand, 
 do bheirionn, will give, &c. The Future has no distinction of 
 I^umber or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm, 
 and JSTegat. in many Verbs was formerly ^cZ^, like the Irish ; 
 of which many examples occur in the earlier editions of the 
 Gaelic Psalms. In later Gaelic publications, the / has been 
 uniformly set aside (h). The Termination of the first pers. 
 and third pers. plur. is often incorporated with the 
 corresponding Pronoun ; as, seinnam cliu / will sing praise, 
 Psal. Ixi. 8., M fuigham has, ach mairfam beo, / shall not die, 
 but shall remain alive, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, geillfid, innsid, 
 they will eat, they will submit, they will tell, Ps. xxiL 26, 29, 
 31. (c). 
 
 (b) The disposition in the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this instance, 
 been rather unfortunate ; as the want of the /weakens the sound of the 
 word, and often occasions a hiatus. There seems a propriety in retain- 
 ing the/ of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute ; as, cuirfidh, 
 mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for these words lose 
 much in sound and emphasis by being changed into caithidh, mairidh, 
 &c. 
 
 (c) The incorporation of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest 
 improvement, and has gradually taken place in almost all the polished 
 languages. There is incomparably more beauty and force in expressing 
 the energy of the Verb, with its personal relation and concomitant circum- 
 stances, in one word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and auxiliaries. 
 The latter mode may have a slight advantage in point of precision, but the 
 former is greatly superior in elegance and strength. The structure of the 
 Latin and Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, affords a striking 
 illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing can be worse 
 managed than the French Verb ; which, though it possesses a competent 
 variety of personal inflections, yet loses all the benefit of them by the 
 perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns. 
 
PaFwT II.] OF SPEECH. 79 
 
 In the Imperative Mood, the second pars. sing, is the 
 Eoot of the Verb. The other persons are distinguished by 
 these Terminations ; 1st pers. sing, am, 3d pers. sing, adh, 
 1st pers. plur. amaid, 2d pers. plur. ihh, 3d pers. plur. adh. 
 
 The Terminations pecuHar to the 1st pers. sing, and plur. 
 of the Pret. Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of 
 the Personal Pronouns ; as does also the Termination of the 
 2d pers. plur. of the Imperative. 
 
 The Infinitive is variously formed. 
 
 General Rule, The Infinitive is formed by adding adh 
 to the Eoot ; as, aom how, incline, Infin. aomadh ; ith eat, 
 Infin. itheadh. 
 
 1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, 
 aud are commonly used in their contracted form ; as, 
 
 Imper. Infin. 
 
 Caomhain, spare^ Caomhnadh. 
 
 Coisin, loin, Coisneadh, Cosnadh, 
 
 Diobair, deprive, Diobradh. 
 
 F6gair, remove, r6gradh. 
 
 Poghain, suffice, Poghnadh. 
 
 Posgail, open, Posgladh. 
 
 Innis, tell, Innseadh. 
 
 lobair, sacrifice, lobradh. 
 
 Mosgail, awake, Mosgladh. 
 
 Seachain, avoid, Seachnadh. 
 
 Tionsgain, begin, TionsgnadL 
 
 Togaii', desire, Togradh. 
 
 Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming 
 
 In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be 
 inferred that the former, having less of inflection or incorporation than the 
 latter, differs less from the parent tongue, and is an older branch of the 
 Celtic, than its sister dialect. It were unfair, however, to deny that the 
 Irish have improved the Verb, by giving a greater variety of inflection to 
 its Nunibers and Persons, as well as by introducing a simple Present Tense. 
 The authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic Psalms were sensible of 
 the advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in these respects, and did not 
 scruple to borrow an idiom which has given grace and dignity to many of 
 their verses. 
 
80 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 [part ir. 
 
 the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Sub- 
 junctive, and in the Imperative Mood; as, innis tell, Infin. 
 innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. 
 innseam, innseamaid, innsibh. 
 
 2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infitiitive 
 like the Eoot ; as, 
 
 Caoidh, lament. 01, drink. 
 
 Dearmad, neglect. Ruith, run 
 
 Fas, grow. Snamh, swim. 
 
 Gairmj call. Sniomh, ticine. 
 
 Meas, estimate. 
 
 3. Polysyllables in ch^ whose characteristic Vowel is small, 
 either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and 
 add adh] as, 
 
 Ceannaich, buy, Ceannachadh. 
 
 Smuainich, think, Smuaineachadh. 
 
 Most Monosyllables in sg, and a few others, follow the 
 same Eule ; as, 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Injin. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Coisg, cheeky 
 
 Cosgadh. 
 
 ^NTaisg, hind, 
 
 Nasgadh. 
 
 Faisg, wring. 
 
 Fasgadh. 
 
 Paisg, wrap. 
 
 Pasgadh. 
 
 Loisg, hum, 
 
 Losgadh. 
 
 Blais, taste, 
 
 Blasadtu 
 
 Luaisg, roch. 
 
 Luasgadh. 
 
 Buail, strike. 
 
 Bualadh. 
 
 4. Many Verbs, whose 
 
 characteristic Vowel is small, 
 
 either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel, with- 
 
 out adding adh . 
 
 ;as. 
 
 
 
 Imper, 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Amhairc, look, 
 
 Amharc. 
 
 lomain, drive, 
 
 loman. 
 
 Amais, reach, 
 
 Amas. 
 
 Leighis, cure, 
 
 Leigheas. 
 
 Caill, lose. 
 
 Call. 
 
 Sguir, cease. 
 
 Sgur. 
 
 Ceangail, hind, 
 
 Ceangal. 
 
 Siubhail, travel. 
 
 SiubhaL 
 
 Cuir, put, 
 
 Cur. 
 
 Tachrais, wind, 
 
 Tachras. 
 
 Coimhid, keep. 
 
 Coimhead. 
 
 Tiondaidh, turn, 
 
 Tiondadk 
 
 Fulaing, suffer. 
 
 Fulang. 
 
 Toirmisg, forhid^ 
 
 , Toirmeasg, 
 
 Fuirich, stay, 
 
 Fuireach. 
 
 Toinail, gather. 
 
 Toinal, 
 
 Guil, weep, 
 
 Gul. 
 
 Tionsgail, contrive, TionsgaL 
 
'ART II.J OF SPEECH. 
 
 5. The following Verbs 
 
 in ai> add t to the Root : — 
 
 Imper, 
 
 Infin, 
 
 Agair, claim, 
 
 Agairt. 
 
 Bagair, threaten, 
 
 Bagairt. 
 
 Casgair, slaughter, 
 
 Casgairt. 
 
 Freagair, answer, 
 
 Freagairt. 
 
 lomair, iise. 
 
 lomairt. 
 
 Labhair, speak. 
 
 Labhairt. 
 
 Lomair, shear, 
 
 Lomairt. 
 
 Saltair, trample. 
 
 Saltairt. 
 
 Tabhair, give, 
 
 Tabhairfc. 
 
 Tachair, meet, 
 
 Tachairt. 
 
 6. These Monosyllables 
 
 add sinn to the Eoot : — 
 
 Beir, hear, 
 
 Eeirsinn. 
 
 Creid, believe, 
 
 Creidsinn. 
 
 Faic, see. 
 
 Faicsinn. 
 
 Goir, crow. 
 
 Goirsinn. 
 
 Mair, continue, 
 
 Mairsinn. 
 
 Saoil, thinh. 
 
 Saoilsinn. 
 
 Treig, forsake. 
 
 Treigsinn. 
 
 Tuig, understand, 
 
 Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil. 
 
 Euig, reach, 
 
 Euigsinn, or Euigheachd. 
 
 7. These Monosyllables j 
 
 idd tuinn or tinn to the Eoot:- 
 
 Bean, touch, 
 
 Beantuinn, 
 
 Buin, take away. 
 
 Buntuinn. 
 
 Can, say, sing, 
 
 Cantuinn. 
 
 Cinn, grow. 
 
 Cinn tinn. 
 
 Cluinn, hear, 
 
 Cluinntinn. 
 
 Fan, stay, 
 
 Fantuinn. 
 
 Gin, produce, 
 
 Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin. 
 
 Lean, follow. 
 
 Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin. 
 
 Meal, e?2;*oy, 
 
 ]\real tuinn. 
 
 Pill, return, 
 
 Pilltinn. 
 
 Seall, Zo(9^, 
 
 Sealltuinn. 
 
 81 
 
82 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 8. The following Monosyllables add ail to tlie Eoot: — 
 Im]ier. Infin. Imper, Injin. 
 
 Cum, liold^ Cumail. I^eag, cast down, Leagail. 
 
 Gabh, take, Gabhail. Tog, raise, Togail. 
 
 Fag, leave, Fagail. Tuig, understand, Tuigeil. 
 
 9. These Monosyllables add amh to the Eoot : — 
 
 Imper, Infin, 
 
 Caith, spend, Caitheamh. 
 
 Dean, do, make, Deanamh. 
 
 Feith, wait, Feitheamh. 
 
 Seas, stand, Seasamh. 
 
 10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly : — 
 
 Beuc, roar, Beucaich. 
 
 Biiir, bellow, Biiirich. 
 
 Geum, low, Geumnaich. 
 
 Glaodh, cry, Glaodhaich. 
 
 Caisd, listen, Caisdeachd. 
 
 Eisd, hearken, Eisdeachd. 
 
 Marcaich, ride, Marcachd. 
 
 Thig, come, Teachd, tighinn. 
 
 Faigh, j^/ic?, Faghail, faotainn. 
 
 Eirich, rise, Eirigh. 
 
 larr, request, larraidli. 
 
 Taisg, lay up, Tasgaidh. 
 
 Coidil, sleep, Codal. 
 
 Fuaigh, sew, Fuaghal. 
 
 Gluais, move, Gluasad, gluasachd, 
 
 Tuit, fall, Tuiteam. 
 
 Teirig, wear out, Teireachduinn. 
 
 Teasairg, deliver, Teasairgin. 
 
 Compound Tenses, 
 
 The compound Tenses of the first order are made up of the 
 
 several simple Tenses of the auxiliary verb Ei he, and the 
 
 Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag at Between two 
 
 Consonants, ag commonly loses the g, and is written a ; as, 
 
PaUT II.] OF SPEECH. 83 
 
 ta iad a' deanamh they are doing. Between two Vowels, the 
 a is dropped, and the g is retained ; as, ta mi 'g iamiidh I 
 am ashing. AVhen preceded by a Consonant, and followed 
 by a Vowel, the Preposition is written entire ; as, ta iad ag 
 ianuidh they are asking. AVhen preceded by a Vowel, and 
 followed by a Consonant, it is often suppressed altogether ; 
 as, ta mi deanamh / am doing (d). 
 
 The compound Tenses of the second order are made up of 
 the simple Tenses of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the 
 Preposition iar after (e). 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 The Preterite Afiirm. and Xegat. is formed from the same 
 Tense in the Active, by adding adh. The Preter. Subj. adds 
 teadh. 
 
 The Future is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the 
 Terminations in the Affirm, and Subj. into ar, (more properly 
 far, as of old) and adding the same syllable in the 
 Negative. 
 
 The Imperative is formed from the Imperat. Act. by 
 adding to the second pers. sing, tar, thar, or ar. (/) 
 
 {d) Such at least is the common practice in writing, in compliance with 
 the common mode of colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better 
 to retain the full form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and 
 always in writing. It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical 
 articulations, especially in writing ; and particularly to avoid every 
 unnecessary use of the monosyllable a, which, it must be confessed, recurs 
 in too many senses. 
 
 (e) The Preposition iar has here been improperly confonnded Tsith air on. 
 I have ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in 
 common use in the Irish dialect, signif>-ing after. Thus, iar sin after that, 
 iar ieaghadh an tshoisgeil after reading the Gospel, iar sleachdadh do 
 niomlan after all have kneeled down, iar seasamh suas after standing up, 
 &c. See " Irish Book of Common Prayer." Air, when applied to time, sig- 
 nifies not after, but at or on : air an am so, air an uair so at this time, 
 air an la sin on tJiat day. There is therefore sufficient reason to l^elieve 
 that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word ; and that it has been 
 corruptly supplanted by air. 
 
 (/) The Imperative seems to have been anciently formed by adding tar 
 to the Root. Thijs form is stiU retained in Ireland, and in some parts of 
 
84 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 The Participle is formed by adding te to the Eoot {g). 
 
 There is no distinction of !N"umber or Person in the Tenses 
 of the Passive Voice. 
 
 Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a 
 like syncope in the Pret. Aff. and Xeg. throughout the 
 Future Tense, and in the Imperative. 
 
 Compound Tense, 
 
 The compound Tenses of tlie first order are made up of the 
 simple Tenses of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle. 
 
 Scotland, chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual ; as, buailtear, deantar. 
 (See the Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the 
 Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." IMatt. vi. 10. Luke xi. 2.) 
 In other verbs, the t seems to have been dropped in pronunciation. It 
 was, however, retained by the Irish in -vrnting, but with an aspiration to 
 indicate its being quiescent ; thus, togthar, teilgthear. ** Ir. X. T." Matt. 
 xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, I\Iatt. xx^^i. 22. So also the " Gaelic 
 N. T. " 3 767, deanthar, Matt. vi. 10, Luke xi. 2. In the later publica- 
 tions the t has been omitted altogether, with what propriety may be well 
 doubted. 
 
 {g) To preserve a due correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. 
 Part, should always terminate in te, for in this part of the verb, the t 
 has always its small sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic 
 vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part, ta; as, 
 togta raised^, crochta suspended. This is done in direct opposition to the 
 pronunciation, merely out of regard to the Irish Rule of Leathan ri leathan, 
 which in this case, as in many others, has been permitted to mar the 
 genuine orthography. 
 
 When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a Liquid, 
 the final consonant coalesces so closely with the t of the Pass. Part, that 
 the small sound of the latter necessarily occasions the like sound in 
 pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small sound of the Liquid is 
 properly represented in writing, by an i inserted before it. Thus, ol drinh. 
 Pass. Part, oilte ; pronnpM^/zfZ, proinnte ; crann 5a?'. crainnte ; sparr r«?7i, 
 spairrte ; trus paxk, truiste. But when the verb ends in a nmte, whether 
 plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence between its final consonant 
 and the adjected t of the Participle. The final consonant if it be pronounced 
 retains its broad sound. There is no good reason for maintaining a 
 correspondence of vowels in the Participle, which ought therefore to be 
 written, as it is pronounced, without regard to Leatha/n ri leatlicui ; as, tog 
 raise, Pass. Part, togte ; croch tiang, crochte ; sath thrust, sathte ; cnamh 
 chevj, cnamhte. 
 
 The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in 
 which the t of the termination is always pronounced with its small sound, 
 and should therefore be followed by a small vowel in writing ; as, thogteadh, 
 chrochteadh, not thogtadli, chrochtadh. 
 
Part IL] OF SPEECH. 85 
 
 The compound Tenses of the second order are made up of 
 the simple Tenses of Bl and the Infinitive preceded by the 
 Preposition iar and the Possessive Pronoun corresponding in 
 Person to the Pronoun, or to the Xoun, which is th^ Nom- 
 inative to the verb. 
 
 Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses, 
 
 The Affirmative or Indicative Mood expresses affirmation, 
 and is used in affirmative propositions only ; as, Do bhuail 
 mi / struck, bha mi ag bualadh / teas striking. 
 
 The Negative or Interrogative Mood is used in negative 
 propositions and interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni 
 not, cha not, nach icliich not, that not, not ? mur if not; also, 
 gu, gur, that, an, am, whether used relatively or interroga- 
 tively ; as, cha d'f holaich mi I did not hide, mur buail sinn if 
 ice shall not strike, nach robh iad that they icere not, gu robh 
 iad that they ivere ; am buail mi? shall I strike? It is used 
 in the Future Tense after ged although ; as, ged bhuail e mi, 
 though he strike me (h). 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood is used in the Preterite, either with 
 or without conjunctions ; as, bhuailinn / u'ould strike, na'm, 
 mur, nach, &c., buailinn if, unless, ^'c, I should strike. In 
 the Future it is used only after the conjunctions ma if, o, o'n 
 since, and the Eelative a expressed or understood; as, ma 
 bhuaileas mi if I shall strike, am fear a bhuaileasmi the man 
 
 (h) In all regular verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the 
 Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite 
 Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly^ 
 marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal 
 sound. In the Fut. Xeg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut short 
 by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a speaker 
 in reply to a command or a request ; by their very structure, the former 
 expresses the softness of compliance ; and the latter, the abruptness of a 
 refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such verbs as these, 
 tog sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is expressed by togaidh, 
 gabhaidh, ithidh ; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha ghabh, cha n-ith. May 
 not this peculiar variety of form in the same Tense, when denoting affirma- 
 tion, and when denoting negation, be reckoned among the characteristic 
 marks of an original language ? 
 
86 OF THE PAKTS [Part II. 
 
 who will strike me, or the man whom I shall strike; an uair a 
 bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi the time \iii\ which I shall 
 strike, i. e., ivhen I shall strike ; c'uin [cia uine] a bhuaileas 
 mi] what [is] the time [in] which I shall strike ? i. e., when 
 shall I strike ? 
 
 The Imperative Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, 
 command, or request; as, buaileam let me strike, buailibh 
 strike ye. 
 
 The Infinitive (i) is, in all respects, a noun, denoting the 
 action or energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a 
 Preposition which marks the time of the action ; as, ag 
 bualadh at striking, am bualadh the striking, the threshing. 
 It assumes a regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh ; 
 as, urlar-bualaidh a threshing floor. The Infinitive some- 
 times loses the termination, and is regularly declined in its 
 abridged form ; thus, cruinnich assemble, inf. cruinneach-adh 
 per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. cruinnich ; hence, aite-cruinnich 
 a place of meeting. Acts xix. 29, 31, so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. 
 xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm XXX. 10, liv. 4, ionad-foluich, Psalm 
 xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich. Matt. v. 31 {k). 
 
 There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speak' 
 ing, be denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded 
 by the Preposition ag at, corresponds in meaning to the pre- 
 sent Participle ; and preceded by iar after, it corresponds to 
 the participle of the past time ; as, ag bualadh at striking, or 
 striking ; iar bualadh after striking, or struck (I). 
 
 (i) This part of the verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears 
 a closer resemblance to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive ; and might 
 have been properly named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later 
 Irish Grammarians have already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose 
 to continue the same appellation rather than change it. 
 
 (Jc) The Editor of the Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, 
 as it would seem, that cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, 
 restored the gen. of the full form of the Infinitive ; but in order to reduce 
 it to two syllables, so as to suit the verse, he threw out the middle syllable, 
 and wrote cuid'idh. 
 
 (l) I have met with persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who 
 contended that such expressions as — ta mi deanamh I am doing, ta e bualadh 
 he is striking (see page 83), are complete without any Preposition under- 
 stood ; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are not infinitives or 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 87 
 
 Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposi- 
 tion ag before them, and may be considered as Infinitives of 
 Verbs, whereof the other parts are not in use ; as, ag atharrais 
 mimicking, ag gaireachdaich laughing, a' fanoid, a' maga ih 
 mocking, jeering, 
 
 nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With much deference to 
 such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which appear to me to suj)- 
 port the contrary opinion. 
 
 1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with that 
 of the Infinitive. 
 
 2. If the words deanamh, hualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real 
 Participles, then in aU similar instances, it would be not only unnecessary, 
 but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at aU. But this is far 
 from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, the preposition 
 ag or its unequivocal representative g is indispensable ; as, ta iad ag 
 iaiTuidh, ta mi 'g iamiidh. Shall we say, then, that verbs beginning vdih. a 
 consonant have a present participle, while those that begin with a vowel 
 have none ? But even this distinction falls to the ground, when it is con- 
 sidered that in many phrases which involve a verb begiiming with a con- 
 sonant, the preposition ag stands forth to \'iew, and can on no account be 
 suppressed; as, ta iad g a bhualadh they are striking hira^ ta e 'g ar bualadh 
 he is striking us. From these particulars it may be inferred that the 
 preposition ag must always precede the infinitive, in order to complete the 
 phrase which corresponds to the English or Latin pres. participle ; and 
 that in those cases where the preposition has been dropped, the omission 
 has been owing to the rapidity or carelessness of colloquial pronunciation. 
 
 3. A stiU stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may be 
 derived from the regimen of the phi'ase in question. The infinitive of a 
 transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, 
 which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an 
 invariable rule of Gaelic Sjmtax ; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na 
 spreidhe, ice are going to seek the cattle ; ta iad ag iomain na spreidhe, they 
 are driving the cattle; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na spreidhe, they have 
 gathered the cattle. This regimen can be accounted for on no other 
 principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing word is a noun, as the 
 infinitive is confessed to be. Xow, it happens that the supposed participle ^ 
 has the very same regimen, and governs the genitive as uniformly as the 
 same word would have done, when the presence of a preposition demon- 
 strated it to be a noun ; so, ta mi bualadh an doruis, i am knocking the 
 door; ta thu deanamh an uilc, you are doing mischiej. The inference is, 
 that even in these situations, the words — bualadh, deanamh, though accom- 
 panied with no preposition, are still genuine nouns, and are nothing else 
 than the infinitives of their respective verbs, with the preposition ag under- 
 stood before each of them. 
 
 4 The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of 
 respectable grammarians, afi"ords collateral support to the opinion here 
 defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, 
 though he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic verb. 
 
88 OF THE PARTS [Part II 
 
 The Participle passive is an adjective, denoting the com- 
 pletion of the action or energy expressed by the verb ; as, 
 arbhar buailte threshed corn. 
 
 The Simple Tenses which belong to all verbs are the Pre- 
 terite or Future, besides which the verb Bi to he, and the 
 defective verb Is I am, have a Present Tense (m). 
 
 The Present expresses present existence, state, or energy. 
 
 The Preterite Affirmative and Negative expresses past time 
 indefinitely. The Preterite Suhjunctive corresponds to the 
 English Tenses formed by the auxiliaries would, could, &c. 
 In general it denotes that the action or energy of the verb 
 takes place eventually or conditionally. The Pret. AfP. or 
 
 because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin verb which 
 has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this participle, not as a 
 single word, but a composite expression ; made up of a preposition and 
 that part of the verb which is here called the infinitive. The phrase is 
 fully and justly exhibited, but it is -wrong named ; unless it be allowed to 
 extend the name of Participle to such phrases as inter ainhvlandum, 
 €v TO? Tr€pnrar€Lv. — Lhuyd, in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with 
 his usual accuracy, that the Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of 
 the British, sometimes serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin ; and by the 
 help of the participle a [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room of the 
 participle of the present tense, &c. Archseol. Brit." page 245, col. 3. 
 This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The infinitive, 
 with the particle, ag before it, siq')2olies the room of the present Participle. 
 The same judicious \\Titer repeats this observation in his "Introduction to 
 the Irish or Ancient Scottish Language " : The Participle of the Present Tense 
 is supplied by the Participle ag before the Infinitive j\Iood ; as, ag radh 
 saying, ag cainnt talking, ag teagasg teaching, ag dul going, &c. *' Arch. 
 Brit." page 303, coL 2. 
 
 (m) It may appear a strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, except- 
 ing the substantive verbs Bi, Is, have no simple Present Tense. Yet this 
 is manifestly the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects (see 
 "Arch. Brit." page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may be added 
 the Manks. Creidim / believe, guidheam I pray, with perhaps one or two 
 more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been imported 
 from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to our dialect. 
 The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of resemblance 
 between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb. 
 
 I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the follow- 
 ing important remark ; that the want of the simple Present Tense in all 
 the British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while the 
 Irish has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the 
 Irish is a dialect of later gro^^i:h ; that the British Gaelic is its parent 
 tongue ; and consequently that Britain is the mother country of Ireland. 
 
Part IL] OF SPEECH. 89 
 
 Neg. is used sometimes in this sense, like the English, when 
 thePret. Subj. occurred in the preceding claase of a sentence , 
 as, na'm biodh tiis* an so, cha d' fhuair mo bhrathair has, if 
 thou liadst been here, my brother had not [woidd not have] 
 died ; mur bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a nis air 
 pilltinn air ar n-ais, if ive had not lingered, we had [should 
 have] noio returned, Gen. xliii. 10. 
 
 The Future makes future time indefinitely. This Tense is 
 used in a peculiar sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action 
 or event takes place uniformly, habitually, according to 
 ordinary practice, or the course of nature. Thus ; Blessed 
 is he that considereth the poor, expressed according to the 
 Gaelic idiom, would be. Blessed is he that will consider, (fee, 
 A wise son maJceth a glad father, in Gaelic would run, A wise 
 son vnll inaJie, &c. Your patient, I am told, is in a bad way? 
 he neither enjoys rest, nor takes medicine, ^ay, his situation 
 is worse than you know of ; yesterday, he became delirious, 
 and is now almost unmanageable; he tosses his arms, and endea- 
 vours to beat every one within his reach. In Gaelic, ivill enjoy 
 — will take — loill toss — id ill endeavour. In like manner, a great 
 many Gaelic Proverbs express a general truth by means of 
 the Futore tense ; e.g., bithidh diiil ri fear feachd, ach cha 
 bhi diiil ri fear lie. There is hope that a man may return from 
 war, hid there is no hope that a man may return from the 
 gy-ave ; literally, there will be hope — there icill be no hope. 
 Teirgidh gach ni r' a chaitheamh, every thing wears out in the 
 using literally, — icill icear out {n). 
 
 The Compound Tenses mark different modifications of time, 
 
 {n) From observing the same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it 
 is natiiriilly inferred that it \ri\\ happen again. When an event is predicted 
 it is supposed that the speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge 
 appears, infers the future happening of the event from its having already 
 happened in many instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply fore- 
 tells, conveys to the hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already 
 taken place frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is 
 used with precisely the same eftect. In the law of Jehovah he loill medi- 
 tate ; i.e., he does meditate habitually. Psal. i. 2. See also Psal. 2dii. 1 ; 
 Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., passim. 
 
90 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 which will be easily understood by analysing their component 
 parts. 
 
 In the Active Voice, the compound tenses of the first order 
 denote that the action is going on, but not completed at the 
 time specified by the auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts ; as, ta 
 mi ag bualadh, I am at striking, i.e., I am striking ; bha mi 
 ag buaiadh an de, / was striTcing yesterday. 
 
 Those of the second order denote that the action is newly 
 completed and past, at the time marked by the auxiliary 
 verb; ta mi iar bualadh, / am after striking, i.e., / have 
 struck, Je viens de fra'pi:)er ; Bha mi iar bualadh, I icas strik- 
 ing, i.e., I had struck. 
 
 In the Passive Voice, the compound tenses of the first order 
 denote that the action is finished at the time marked by the 
 auxiliary verb ; ta mi buailte, I am struck. 
 
 Those of the second order denote that the action is newly 
 -finished at the time marked by the auxiliary (o) ; ta mi iar 
 mo bhualadh, / am after my striking, or, I am after the strilc- 
 ing of me, which has always a passive signification ; that is, 
 it is always understood, from this form of expression, that 
 striking is the action of some agent different from the person 
 struck. It is equivalent to I have been struck, Je viens cVetre 
 frappe, 
 
 A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these 
 last, having the preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes 
 used, and in a passive sense, denoting that the action is going 
 on at the time marked by the auxiliary; as, tha 'n tigh 'g a 
 thogail, the house is at its building, i.e., a-luilding ; sea 
 bliadhna agus da f hichead bha 'n teampuU 'g a thogail, forty 
 and six years was this temple in building. John ii. 20, 1 Kings 
 vi. 7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, the cows were a-milking ; 
 bidh deudaichean 'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' Collect." p. 82. So 
 
 (o) Thougli this be the precise import of the Compound Tenses of the 
 second order, yet they are not strictly confined to the point of time stated 
 above ; but are often used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, 
 they supply the place of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those 
 verbs which have no passive participle. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 91 
 
 in English, the book is a-printing ; the deed's a-doing now, 
 ** Douglas," Act 1. 
 
 The following scheme shows the different modifications of 
 time, as expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, 
 brought together into one view, and compared with the cor- 
 responding Tenses of the Greek Verb in IMoor's Greek Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative or Affirmatwe Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Ta mi ag bualadh, rvirroi, I strike, or am striking. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Bha mi ag bualadh, irvTrrov, I was striking. 
 
 Future. 
 Biiailidh mi 
 
 I will strike, or be strik- 
 
 Baaihdh mi \ r T '11 
 
 Bithidh mi ag bual- > rvij/o), < 
 
 adh, J ^ ^^^' 
 
 Aorist or Preterite. 
 Bhuail mi, . irvif/a, I struck. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Ta mi iar bualadh rcrrt^a, I have struck. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 Bha mi iar bualadh, eVcTix^eti/, I had struck. 
 
 Inteirogative or Negative Mood, 
 Present. 
 Am bheil mi ag bualadh^ Am I striking? 
 
 Imperfect. 
 An robh mi ag bualadh 1 AYas I striking 1 
 
 Future. 
 Am buail mi] Shall I strike] 
 
92 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 Aorist or Preterite. 
 An do bhuail mi? Did I strike ] 
 
 Perfect. 
 Am bheil mi iar bualadh ? Have I struck ? 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 An robh mi iar bualadb 1 Had I struck ] 
 
 Subjunctive Mood, 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 luai mn, , ,, i Itvittov dv, I would strike. 
 
 Bnitmnn ag bualadn, J 
 
 Future. 
 Ma bhuaileas mi, If I shall strike. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 Bhithinn iar bualadh, irv\j/a dv, I would have struck 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Buaileam, Let me strike. 
 
 Buail, TVTTT^, Strike. 
 
 Infinitive Mood, 
 Am bualadh, to rvTrrecv, The striking. 
 
 A' bhualaidh, tov rvTrreiv, Of the striking. 
 
 Ag bualadh, iv rw rvTrreiv, A-striking. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative or Affirmative Mood, 
 
 Present. 
 Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, rvTrTOfxai, I am in striking {p). 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Bha mi'g am bhualadh, cTVTTTOfjirjv, I was in striking. 
 
 (p) See Moor. So tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, the house is in building. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Bithidh mi'buailte, } "<^^'?'^°^'^' I shall be struck. 
 
 Aorist or Preterite. 
 Bhuaileadh mi, irvcfiOrjVj I was struck. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Ta mi buailte, \ 
 
 Ta mi iar mo bhual- ^ '^^'^H-f^^^^'^ I i i^q^^q j^een struck. 
 adh, j ''^'^ > 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 Blia mi buailte, \ 
 
 Bha mi iar mo bhual- > ^^^/^/^^^^ 1 1 had been struck. 
 adh, j ^^^' ^ 
 
 Interrogative or Negative Mood. 
 
 Future. 
 Am buailear mi 1 Shall I be struck ] 
 
 Aorist or Preterite. 
 An do bhuaileadh mi ? Was I struck 1 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Am bheil mi buailte ? ) ^-. ^ _ , , « 
 
 A \.r, '^ •• -ui, 1 ju (1 > Have I been struck ? 
 
 Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh 1 I 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 An robh mi buailte 1 
 An robh mi iar mo bhualadh ? 
 
 > Had I been struck ] 
 
 Subjunctive Mood, 
 Imperfect. 
 Bhuailteadh mi, IrviTToix-qv dv, I should be struck. 
 
 Future. 
 Ma bhuailtear im' If T shall be struck. 
 
M OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Bhithinn buailte, ^ ^ t v u i, -u 
 
 ,., .^, . . ' , ./I > fl should have been 
 
 Ehithinn lar mo V €Tv(f>drjv av,< f v 
 
 bhualadh, j 
 
 Imperative Mood, 
 Buailtear mi, Let me be struck. 
 
 Buailtear thu, tvtttov, Be thou struck. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Participle. 
 Buailte, T€TVfXfjL€vo<s Struck. 
 
 It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see 
 how correctly the various modifications of time, as dis- 
 tinguished and arranged by Mr Harris, are expressed in the 
 Gaelic verb, by the auxiliaries, bi be, and dol going See 
 Hermes B. I. c. 7. 
 
 Aorist of the Present. 
 TvTTTu), I strike, 
 
 Aorist of the Past. 
 Ervij/ay I struck, Bhuail mi« 
 
 Aorist of the Future. 
 Tv\l/o)f I shall strike, Buailidh mi. 
 
 Inceptive Present. 
 McXXo) TVTTTeLv, I am going to strike, Ta mi dol a bhualadh. 
 
 Middle or extended Present. 
 Tvyxayoi TVTTTii^Vy I am striking, Ta mi ag bualadh. 
 
 Completive Present. 
 Ten;(/)a, I have struck, Ta mi iar bualadh. 
 
 Inceptive Past. 
 EueXAov TVTTTuv, I was going to strike, Bha mi dol a bhualadh. 
 
Part IL] OF SPEECH. 95 
 
 Middle or extended Past. 
 ErvTrrov, I was striking, Bha mi ag bualadh. 
 
 Completive Past. 
 ETeTV(j>€LVy I had struck, Bha mi iar bualadh 
 
 Inceptive Future. 
 
 MeXXrjo-o) TVTTTc.Lv, I shall be going to Bithidh mi dol a 
 strike, bhualadh. 
 
 Middle or extended Future. 
 
 Eo-ofjiaL TVTTTijJv, I shall be striking, Bithidh mi ag bual- 
 adh. 
 
 Completive Future. 
 
 Eorofiat T€rt'^aj5, I shall have struck, Bithidh mi iar bual- 
 adh. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation. 
 
 Beir, 
 
 hear. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Affirm. Do rug, 
 Negat D' rug, 
 Buhjunct. Bheiiinn, 
 Imperat. Beii^eam. 
 
 Beuidli. 
 Beir. 
 Bheireas. 
 Infill. Beii'si: 
 
 PASSIVE 
 
 VOICE. 
 
 Affirm. Do rugadh, 
 Negat, D' nigadh, 
 Suhjund. Bheirteadh, 
 Imperat, Beirthear 
 
 Beirear. 
 Beirear. 
 Bheirear. 
 
96 OF THE PAETS [Part II. 
 
 Cluinn, hear, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Affirm, Do chuala, CluinnidlL 
 
 Negat, Cuala, Cluinn. 
 
 Suhjunct. Chluinnin, Chluinneas. 
 
 Imperat, Cluinneam. Infin. Cluinntinn. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirm. Do Chualadli, Cluinnear. 
 
 Negat. Cualadh, Cluinnear. 
 
 Buhjund. Chluinnteadh, Chluinnear. 
 Imperat. Cluinntear. 
 
 Dean, do or make. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Affirm, Do rinn, Xi. 
 
 Negat. D' rinn, Dean. 
 
 Suhjunct. Dheanainn, Ni. 
 
 Imperat, Deanam. Infin. Deanamh. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirm, Do rinneadh, iXithear. 
 
 Negat. D' rinneadh, Deanar. 
 
 Suhjunct. Dheantadh, Xithear. 
 
 Imperat, Deantar. Particip, Deanta. 
 
 Each, go, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Affirm, Do chaidh, Theid. 
 
 Negat, Deachaidh, Teid {q), 
 
 Suhjunct. Ptachainn, Theid. 
 
 Imperat. Ptacham. Infin. Del. 
 
 (2) Teid fhe Fut. Xegat. of Each to^o, has been generally ^tvritten 
 
Part II.] 
 
 .] OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 Euig, 
 
 reach. 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Affirm. Do rainig, 
 Negat D' rainig, 
 Sahjunct. Euiginn, 
 
 
 Euigidh. 
 
 Euig. 
 
 Euigeas. 
 
 97 
 
 Imperat, Euigeam. Infin. Euigsinn, ruigheachd. 
 Tabhair, (r) give. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Affirm, Do thug, 
 
 Bheir. 
 
 Negat, D' thug. 
 
 Tabhair. 
 
 Subjunct. Bheirinn, tabhairinn, 
 
 Bheir. 
 
 Imperat Tabhaiream, thugan 
 
 I. Injin. Tabhairt. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 
 Affirm, Do thugadh, 
 
 Bheirear. 
 
 Negat. D' thugadh. 
 
 Tabhairear. 
 
 Subjunct, Bheirteadh, tugtadh. 
 
 Bheirear. 
 
 Imperai. Thugthar. 
 
 
 Thig, come. 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future, 
 
 Affirm, Do thainig, 
 
 Thig. 
 
 Negat, D* thainig, 
 
 Tig (i). 
 
 Subjunct, Thiginn, 
 
 Thig. 
 
 Imperat, Thigeam. Injin, Tighinn, teachd. 
 
 d'theid ; from an opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that Tense 
 is do theid. Yet as 1^ie participle do is never found prefixed to the Future 
 Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the analogy of 
 conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form teid. See " Gael. New 
 Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different mode of writing 
 this tense has been adopted in the edition of the *1Gael. Bible," Edin. 1807, 
 where we uniformly find dtheid, dthoir, dthig. 
 
 (r) Throughout the verb tabhair, the syllables ahhair are often contracted 
 into oir J as, toir, toirinn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes written d'thoir, 
 d'thoirinn ; rather improperly. See the last note (q). 
 
 (s) Tig rathei than d'thig. See the last note {<i). 
 
98 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 
 Abair, (t) say, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 AMrm. Thubhairt, dubhairt, Their. 
 
 Negat Dubhairt, Abair. 
 
 Suhjunct Theirinn, abairinn, Their. 
 
 Imperat, Abaiream. Infin, Eadh. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirm. Dubhradh, Theirear, 
 
 Negat. Dubhradh, Abairear. 
 
 Suhjunct. Theirteadh, abairteadh, Theirear, 
 Imperat. Abairear (u). 
 
 Faic, see. 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Affirm. Do chunnaic, 
 
 Chi. 
 
 Negat. Faca, 
 
 Faic. 
 
 Suhjunct. Chithinn, faicinn, 
 
 Chi. 
 
 Imperat. Faiceam. Infin. Faicsinn. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 Affirm. Do chunnacadh, Chithear. 
 
 NegaJt. Facadh, Faicear. 
 
 Suhjunct. Chiteadh, faicteadh, Chithear. 
 Imperat. Faicthear. Infin. Faicsinn. 
 
 (t) k Pres. Aff. of this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in 
 the G. SS. Deiream I say^ deir e he saith, deir iad they say. 
 
 {u) Dubhairt, dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, 
 abaiream, abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar. 
 
Part II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 99 
 
 Faigh, get. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Preterite. 
 Affinn, Fhuair, 
 Negat. D'fhuair, 
 
 Future. 
 Gheibh. 
 Faigh. 
 
 Subjunct Glieibhiun, faighinn, Gheibh. 
 
 Imperat, Faigheam. Infiri, Faghail, faotainn. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Affirm. Fhuaradh, Gheibhear. 
 
 Negat. D' fhuaradh, Faighear. 
 
 Subjunct. Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, Gheibhear. 
 Imperat. Faightear. 
 
 The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double 
 Preterite Subjuuctive. The latter form of it, which is de- 
 rived regularly from the Eoot, is used after the same particles 
 which are prefixed to the !N'egative Mood, viz. ni, cha, nach, 
 mur, gu, an, am. 
 
 Of Defective Yerbs. 
 
 The following defective verbs are in common use. 
 
 Arsa said, quotha indeclinable ; used only in the Pret. Aff. 
 through all the persons ; arsa Donull, quoth Donald. 
 
 Tiucainn come along, tiucainnibh come ye along, used only 
 in the 2d pers. sing, and plur. of the Imperative. 
 
 Theab mi / icas near to, I had almost ; used through all 
 the persons of the Pret. Aff. and ^N'eg. ; as, theab iad bhith 
 caillte they had nearly perished. 
 
 Is mi / am, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are 
 declined as follows : — 
 
100 
 
 
 OF THE PARTS [Paet IL 
 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1 Is mi, I am, it is 
 
 I. 
 
 Ba mhi, I was, it was I. 
 
 2 Is tu. 
 
 
 Bu tu. 
 
 3 Ise. 
 
 
 B'e. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 Is sinn. 
 
 
 Bu sinn. 
 
 2 Is sibh. 
 
 
 Bu sibh. 
 
 3 Is iad. 
 
 
 B' iad. 
 
 
 N&gatwe Mood. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 ^ 1 mi, / am 
 
 not, &c. 
 
 Bu mhi, I teas not, &c. 
 
 
 2 tu. 
 
 
 Bu tu. 
 
 ni, 
 
 3 e. 
 
 
 B'e. 
 
 cha, 
 nacli, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 &c. 
 
 1 sinn. 
 
 
 Bu sinn. 
 
 
 2 sibh. 
 
 
 Bu sibh. 
 
 
 ^ 3 iad. 
 
 
 B' iad. 
 
 
 Suhjund 
 
 ive Mood. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1 :Ma 's mi, If I be, 
 
 it he I. 
 
 JSTam bu mhi, If I were, if 
 icere I. 
 
 2 'stu. 
 
 
 Butu. 
 
 3 'se. 
 
 
 B'e. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1 's siim. 
 
 
 Bu sinn. 
 
 2 *s sibh. 
 
 
 Bu sibh. 
 
 3 's iac 
 
 L 
 
 
 B' iad. 
 
 The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are 
 the two syllables is and hu. Each of these syllables com- 
 
Part II. J OF SPEECH. 101. 
 
 monly loses the vowel when it comes in apposition with 
 another vowel. 
 
 It is remarkable, that in the Pres. IN'eg. the Verb 
 disappears altogether, and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, 
 nach, gur, &c., and the subsequent Pronoun, or JS'oun, are 
 always understood to convey a proposition, or a question, 
 as unequivocally as though a Verb had been expressed ; as, 
 cha tu thou art not, nach e ? is he not ? is it not he ? am mise e ] 
 is it I? cha luchd-brathaidh sinn ice are not sjoies, Gen. 
 xlii. 31. Amm6thusana Abraham? Art thou greater than 
 Abraham? gur c6ir urnuigh a dheanamh that it is proper 
 to pray, Luke xviii. 1 (x), 
 
 {x) It may appear an odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the 
 most common phrases, a proposition or question should thus be expressed 
 without the least trace of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the Substan- 
 tive Verb is binder stood, for then there would be no impropriety in express- 
 ing it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the idiom 
 and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these phrases. 
 It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe that in the 
 ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or clauses of 
 sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without occasioning 
 any obscurity or ambiguity ; and this in Prose as well as in Verse. Thus 
 in Hebrew ; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's sons — we [are] 
 true men — thy servants [are] twelve brethren — the youngest [is] with his 
 father — ye [are] spies — &c. 
 
 *OvK ayaOou iroXvKoipaPLT]. — Iliad, B. 204. 
 
 KaKa Kepdea la arrjcri. — Hes. E. Kai H. d, 
 iyco Se tlsov raxuTrei^r/s. — Theoc. Idyl. 7. 
 
 Et mi genus ab Jove summo. — Virg. jEn. VI. 123. 
 
 Variumet mutabile semper Femina. — JEn. IV. 569. 
 
 Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita ; nuUus locus amicitiae. Cic. de 
 Amic. 15. 
 
 Fennis mira feritas, foeda paupertas ; non arma, non equi, non penates ; 
 victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus ; sola in sagittis spes, &c. — 
 Tacit, de. inor. Germ. Cap. ult. In these and the like examples, the 
 Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if uith less elegance, yet 
 without grammatical impropriety. What has been frequently done in other 
 languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been adopted, in certain phrases, as 
 an invariable mode of speech. 
 
 The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English ; as, 
 
 ** In A\'inter a^vful thou." — Thomson, 
 " A ministering angel thou." — Scott 
 ''A cruel sister she." — Mallet, 
 
102 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 Of the Eeciprocating State of Verbs. 
 
 Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, 
 either Personal or Possessive, that it shall denote the agent 
 to be also the object of the action. This may be called the 
 reciprocating state of the Yerb. It is declined as follows : — 
 
 Buail thu fein, strike thyself, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Simple Tenses. 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Sing, Sing, 
 
 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Buailidh mi mi fein, 
 Bhuail mi mi fein, / will strike myself. 
 
 I struck myself, 
 
 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, Buailidh tu thu fein. 
 
 3 Do bhuail se e fein ; Buailidh se e fein. 
 
 Plur, Plur, 
 
 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, Buailidh sinn sinn fein. 
 
 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, Buailidh sibh sibh fein. 
 
 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. Buailidh siad iad fein. 
 
 Negative Mood. 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 Sing, Sing. 
 
 cha, ( 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Bhuail mi mi fein, 
 
 ! 
 
 &c. ( / struck not myself. I shall not strike myself 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Sing. Sing. 
 
 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein, 
 
 / would strike myself I shall strike myself 
 
Part II.} OF SPEECH. 103 
 
 Lnj^erative Mood. 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1 Buaileam mi feiiv, Buaileamaid sinn fein. 
 
 Let me strike myself, 
 
 2 Buail thu fein. Buailibli sibh fein. 
 
 3 Jjuaileadh e e fein. Buaileadh iad iad fein. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 'g am bhualadh fein, striking myself. 
 'g ad bliualadli fein, striking thyself. 
 'g a bhualadh fein, striking himself. 
 'g ar bualadh fein, striking ourselves. 
 'g 'ur bualadh fein, striking yourselves. 
 'g am bualadh fein, stinking themselves. 
 iar mo bhualadh fein, after striking myself Sec. 
 gu mo bhualadh fein, to strike myself, ^'c. 
 
 Compound Tenses. 
 
 Affirmative Mood. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 1. Cornp. 1. Comp. 
 
 Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, 
 
 I am striking myself . I was striking myself. 
 
 Future. 
 
 ^ 1. Comp. 
 
 Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein, 
 / icill he striking myself. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 2. Comp. 2. Comp. 
 
 Ta mi iar mo, S:q. Bha mi iar mo. &c. 
 / have struck myself: I had struck myself 
 
104 OF THE PARTS [Paut 11 
 
 Future. 
 2. Com]?, 
 Bidh mi iar mo, &c. 
 / shall have struck, fee. 
 
 Negative Mood, 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 1. Comp, 1. Camp, 
 
 M bheil mi 'g am, &c. W\ robh mi 'g am, &c. 
 
 I am not striking myself, I was not striking myself. 
 
 Future. 
 
 1. Comp, 
 
 Nfm bi mi 'g am bbualadb feiii. 
 I shall not he striking myself. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 
 2. Com^p. 2. Comp. 
 
 Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. M robh mi iar mo, &c. 
 
 / have not struck myself. I had not struck myself. 
 
 Future. 
 
 2. Comp. 
 Ni^m bi mi iar mo, &c. 
 
 / shall not have struck myself. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Preterite. Future. 
 
 1. Comp, 1. Comp, 
 Bhithinn 'g am, &c. Ma bhitheas mi 'g am, 
 
 / icould he striking, &c. // / shall he striking, &c. 
 
 2. Comp. 2. Comp. 
 Bhithinn iar mo, &c. Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c. 
 
 / would have struck^ &c. If I shall have struck, &c. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 105 
 
 Imperative Mood, Ivfinitlve Mood. 
 
 1. Camp, Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein, 
 
 To he strUcing myself, 
 Bitheam'g am bhualadh fein, lar bith 'g am bhualadh fein. 
 Let ine he strlkimj myself. To have been striking mijself. 
 
 From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in 
 its reciprocating state, retains its original form throughout 
 its several Moods, Tenses, and Persons. In the simple Tenses, 
 the Personal Pronoun immediately follo\sdng the Verb is the 
 Nominative to the Verb. The same pronoun repeated is to 
 be understood as in the objective state. The word fein, corre- 
 sponding to the English self accompanies the last Pronoun. 
 
 In the compound Tenses, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is 
 placed first; then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nom- 
 inative ; then the Prep, ag abridged to 'g in the compound 
 Tenses of the first order, iar in those of the second order ; 
 after which follows the Possessive Pronoun, corresponding in 
 Person to that which is the Nominative to the Verb ; and 
 lastly the Infinitive, which is the- noun to the Possessive 
 Pronoun. Mo and do are here changed, by Metathesis and 
 the substitution of one broad vowel for another, into am and 
 ad. Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, / am 
 at my oxen striking, i.e., I am at the striking of myself, 
 equivalent to, / am striking myself. The reciprocal fein 
 is sometimes omitted in the compound Tenses, but is 
 generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent their being 
 mistaken for the same persons when used without recip- 
 rocation : ta e 'g a bhualadh, he is striking him, ta e 'g a 
 bhualadh fein, he is striking himself. 
 
 Of the Impeesoxal Use of Verbs. 
 
 Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of 
 a Passive Voice, yet are used impersonally in the 3d Pers. 
 Sing, of the Passive Tenses. This impersonal use of the 
 Passive of intransitive Verbs is founded on the same prin- 
 ciple with the Latin Impersonals concurritur, pugnatum est, 
 
106 OF THE PARTS [Part IT. 
 
 &c., which are equivalent to concur sus fit, pugna facta est. 
 So in Gaelic, gluaisfear learn, / loill move, Psal. cxvi. 9 ; 
 gluaisfear leo, they will move, Psal. cxix. 3 ; ghuileadh leinn, 
 we did weep, flebatur a nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 
 1787; cha bhithear saor o pheacadh, there wanteth not sin, 
 Prov. X. 19. 
 
 To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain 
 part of the Verb which has not yet been mentioned. It 
 resembles in form the Put. ^Negat. Passive ; buailear, faicear, 
 faighear, &c. In signification, it is Active, Present, and 
 Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when the speaker 
 wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences 
 narrated as present, and passing actually in view, instead of 
 the Preterite Tenses, he adopts the Part of the Yerb now 
 described, employing it in an impersonal acceptation, with- 
 out a Nominative to it expressed. One or two examples 
 will serve to exhibit the use and effect of this anomalous 
 Tense: — Shuidh an 6g bhean air sgeir, is a siiil air an lear. 
 Chunnaic i long a' teachd air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' 
 aithnich i aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe 'n a com. Gun 
 mhoille gun tamh, huailear dh' fhios na traighe ; ^%v.^ faighear 
 an laoch, 's a dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus : The 
 young woman sat on a rock, and her eye on the sea. She 
 spied a ship coming on the tops of the waves. She per- 
 ceived the likeness of her lover, and her heart bounded in 
 her breast. Without delay or stop, she hastens to the shore ; 
 and finds the hero, with his men around him. Again : 
 Mar sin chuir sinn an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' 
 imich sinn air ar turns. bha sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, 
 gahhar suas gu mullach an t-sleibh, direar an tulach gu grad, 
 agus seallar mu 'n cuairt air gach toabh. Faicear thall fa 'r 
 comhair sruth cas ag ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. Thus 
 we passed the night. In the morning we pursued our 
 journey. As we were strangers in the land, we strike up to 
 the top of the moor, ascend the hill with speed, and look 
 around us on every side. We see over against us a rapid 
 stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 107 
 
 The scrupulons chastenesss of style maintained in the 
 Gaelic version of the Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded 
 this form of expression. It is, however, universally known 
 and acknowledged, as an established idioia of the Gaelic, 
 very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and in 
 animaced narration almost indispensable (?/). 
 
 Of Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 It has been already shown how bi he, is used as an 
 Auxiliary in the declension of all verbs. There are two 
 other verbs which are occasionally employed in a similar 
 capacity ; the one with an Active the other with a Passive 
 effect. These are dean to do or make, and rach to go. 
 
 The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive 
 of any verb, correspond to the English auxiliary do^ did. It 
 sometimes adds to the emphasis, but not to the sense. The 
 following are examples of this Auxiliary combined with the 
 Infinitive of an Intransitive verb : — Einn e seasamh he made 
 standing, i.e., he did stand ; dean suidhe make sitting, i.e., 
 sit dotcn ; dheanainn gul agus caoidh / would make weeping 
 
 {y) The effect of this Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not 
 precisely, the same with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin ; as 
 in these passages : 
 
 " misere discedere quaerens, 
 
 Ire modo ocius ; interdum consistere ; in aurem 
 
 Dicer e nescio quid puero." Hor, Sat. 1. 8. ■??. 9. 
 
 " At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoni?eque phalanges 
 Ingenti trepidare metu ; pars vertere terga, 
 Ceu quondam petiere rates ; pars tollere vocem." 
 
 JEneid. VI. 492. ^ 
 
 " nihil illi tendere contra ; 
 
 Sed celerare fugam in sylvas, ^ifidere nocti.' 
 
 ^neid. IX. 378. 
 
 " Tarquinius fateri amorem, orare, miscere precibus minas, versare in 
 omnes partes muliebrem animum." — Liv. I. 58. 
 
 " Neque post id locorum Jugurthae dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere : neque 
 loco, neque mortali cuiquam, auttempori satis credere; cives, hostes, juxta 
 metuere ; circumspectare Omnia, et omni strepitu pavescere; alio atque alio 
 loco, saepe contra decus regium, noctu requiescere; interdum somno excitus, 
 arreptis armis, tumultum facere ; ita formidine quasi vecordia exagitarV' 
 — Sail. Bell. Jmjur. 72. 
 
108 OF THE PARTS 4^-^^^ U. 
 
 and lamentation, i.e., I would weep and lament. The same 
 arrangement takes place when the Auxiliary is combined 
 with the Infinitive of a Transitive verb, accompanied by a 
 possessive pronoun ; as, rinn e mo bhualadh he made my 
 striking, i.e., he made \or caused'] the striking of me, or, he 
 did strike me ; cha dean mi do mholadh, I will not make your 
 -praising, i.e., I will not praise you ; dean do gharadh, make 
 your warming, dean do gharadh fein, make your oion loarraing, 
 i.e., warm yourself. 
 
 The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive 
 of a transitive verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the 
 verb ; as, chaidh mo bhualadh my striking went, i.e., came to 
 pass, or happened, equivalent to I was struck; rachadh do 
 mharbhadh your killing ivould happen, i.e., you loould he 
 killed. 
 
 In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is 
 combined with a transitive verb, as above, the possessive 
 pronoun may be exchanged for the corresponding personal 
 pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by the preposition 
 do before the Infinitive. The preposition in this case is 
 attenuated into a, which, before a verb of the second con- 
 jugation is dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh 
 he struck me, rinn e mis' a bhualadh he struck me, chaidh 
 mo bhualadh / was struck, chaidh mis ' a bhualadh / myself 
 was struck. In like manner, a noun, or a demonstrative 
 pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; 
 as, chaidh an ceannard a mharbhadh (z), agus na daoine 
 chur san ruaig, the leader was killed, and the men put to 
 flight ; theid am buachaill a bhualadh, agus an trend a 
 sgapadh, the shepherd will he smitten, and the sheep scattered ; 
 is math a chaidh sin innseadh dhuit, that was well told 
 you. 
 
 (z) *'An ceannard a mharbhadh " may be considered as the nominative to 
 the verb chaidh ; and so in similar plirases ; much in the same way as we 
 find in Latin, an Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nomi- 
 native to a verb; as,"7io?/imemhominis incommodo suum o.ugere commodum 
 est contra naturam." Cic. de. Offic. III. 5. " Turpe est eos qui bene nati 
 sunt turpiter vivere." 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 109 
 
 CHAPTEE Yl. 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a 
 single indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any- 
 other circumstance or modification of an action or attribute. 
 The number of simple Adverbs in Gaelic is but small. 
 Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, are 
 sufiiciently numerous. Any adjective may be converted 
 into an adverbial expression, by prefixing to it the preposition 
 gu to; as, firinneach true, gu firinneach [corresponding^ to 
 [what is] true, Kara to aky]Oe<;, i.e., truly. Adverbs of this form 
 need not be enumerated. It may be useful, however, to give a 
 list of other adverbs and adverbial phrases, most commonly 
 in use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal trans- 
 lation of their component parts, and also the English 
 expression which corresponds most nearly to the sense of 
 the Gaelic phrase. 
 
 Adverbs of Time. 
 
 A cheana ; already, truly. 
 
 A chianamh ; a little while ago. 
 
 A chlisge ; quickly, in a trice. 
 
 A choidhche, 
 
 Choidh; 
 
 A nis, ) 
 
 A ris 
 
 \\n \ 
 
 seldom, 
 
 > for ever. 
 
 Pdthist-^^^^^"- 
 
 Ainmic, ) 
 
 Ainmeach ; ) ' 
 
 Air ball ; on \tlie'\ sjyot, immediately. 
 
 Air dheireadh ; hindmost. 
 
 Air thoiseach; foremost. 
 
 Air tus ; in the beginning, at first. 
 
 Air uairibh ; at times, sometimes. 
 
110 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Am bliadhna ; this year. 
 
 Am feadh ; whilst. 
 
 Am feasd ; for ever. 
 
 Am maireach ; to-morrow. 
 
 An ceart uair ; the ver^y hour, presently. 
 
 An comhnuidh ; i?i continuation, continually. 
 
 An de ; yesterday. 
 
 An deigh laimh ; behind hand, afterwards. 
 
 An diugh ; the [present] day, to-day (a). 
 
 A *• f>i 'ih' I ^^^ ^fi^'^ time, the day after to-morrow. 
 An noehd ; the [present] night, to-night. 
 An raoir, ) . , ^ 
 
 An sin ; in that [time], then. 
 
 An trath ; th.e time, when. 
 
 An trath so, ) ,., . ,. . . 
 
 A f '^ ' . \ ^'^^ t^'ine, at present. 
 
 An uair ; the time, when. 
 
 An uiridh ; last year. 
 
 Aon uair ; 07ie time, once. 
 
 Cia f hada ; how long. 
 
 Cia minic, ) i r. 
 
 ^. ^ . > how often. 
 Gia trie ; J 
 
 C'uine ; what time, when. 
 
 Dh' oidhche ; by night (5). 
 Do ghnath ; [acco7^ding] to custom, always. 
 Fa dheoidh ; at the end, at last. 
 Pathast, ].,..-, 
 
 >yet, stil 
 
 r6s; 
 
 (a) ^0 in Hebrew, the article prefixed to the nouns day, night, imports 
 the present clay or night. See Exod. xiv. 13. 
 
 (6) Perhaps the proper Prep, in these phrases is de, not do — see the Pre- 
 positions in the next Chap. — as we find the same Prep, similarly applied 
 in other languages ; de nuit hy night, John iii. 2 ; de nocte, Hor. Epis. 1. 
 2, 32; de tertia rigilia, Ca3S. B. G. 
 
Part IL] OF SPEECH. Ill 
 
 r 1 "hi • t-h • I general confiagration, for ever. 
 
 Gu dilinu (c); to the expiration of time, or till tlie deluge, for ever. 
 
 Gu minic ; often. 
 
 Gu siorruidh ; to ever-jio icing, for ever. 
 
 Ga suthainn ; for ever. 
 
 Gu trie ; often. 
 
 Idir ; at all. 
 
 Mar tha ; as it is, already. 
 
 Mu dlieireadh ] at last. 
 
 O cheann tamuill ; a while ago. 
 
 O chian ; from far, of old, long ago. 
 
 Ee seal, \ 
 
 -D' 4. -n . < lor a time. 
 
 Ee tamuill j J 
 
 Eiamh ; ever, said of past time only. 
 
 Eoimh laimh ; before hand. 
 
 Uair eigin ; some time. 
 
 Adverbs of Place. 
 
 ^, ' I on this side, here below. 
 Bhos j J 
 
 A leth taobh ; to one side, aside. 
 
 . . I [ without, out. 
 A muigh ; ) 
 
 A mhan (d) ; downwards, down. 
 
 An aird ; to the height, upwards, up. 
 
 ^ Vf ^^' \ to this side, 
 rsall; J 
 
 A nuas ; from above, down hither. 
 
 -yrr ^^ ^ ^ to the otlier side, 
 
 isull, nunn 
 
 -.]' 
 
 (c) These expressions are affirmeei, not "u-ithout reason, to refer to the 
 supposed destruction of the Avorld by fire, or by water ; events wliich were 
 considered as immeasurably remote. (See Smith's *'Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). 
 Another explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of 
 dith, want, failure, and linn an age ; qu. ahsumptio sccculi. 
 
 {d) Perhaps am fan, from fan or fanadh a descent (See Lhuyd's "x\rcb. 
 Brit." tit. X. in loco.) 
 
> (e) within, in. 
 
 112 OF THE PARTS [Paet IL 
 
 A thaobh ; aside. 
 
 Air aghaidh, ) r.z. i v- ^ i 
 
 Airadhart; \ on [the] face, ior^-<.vd. 
 
 Air ais ; backwards. 
 
 Air dheireadh ; hindmost. 
 
 Air thoiseach ; foremost. 
 
 ^'^^^^' lafar 
 An cem ; J 
 
 An gar ; close to. 
 
 An laimh ; in hand, in custody. 
 
 An sin ; in that [place], there. 
 
 An so j in this [place], here. 
 
 An sud ; in yon [place], yonder. 
 
 An taice ; close adjoining, in contact. 
 
 Asteach, 
 
 Astigh ; 
 
 C aite ; what jplace, where. 
 
 Cia an taobh ; what side, whither. 
 
 C ionadh ; what place, whither. 
 
 Fad as ; afar off. 
 
 Fad air astar ; far away. 
 
 Far ; where, — relatively. 
 
 Fogus, } 
 
 . £ ^ near. 
 
 Am fogus ; J 
 
 H-uig' agus uaith ; to and fro. 
 
 T ' \ below there, below yonder, 
 loras; J ' "^ 
 
 Le leathad ; hy a descent, downwards. 
 
 Leis ; along loith it, down a stream, declivity, &a 
 
 Mu 'n cuairt ; hy the circuit, around. 
 
 Ei bruthach ; to an ascent, upwards. 
 
 Ris ; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered, 
 
 Seachad ; past , aside. 
 
 Sios, a sios ; downwards. 
 
 Suas, a suas j upwards. 
 
 (e) i.e. anns an teacli, anns an tigh, in the houbse. So in Hebrew, JT'ZID 
 loithin, Gen. vi, 14. 
 
Paut II.] OF SPEECIL 113 
 
 Shios; below there, below yonder. 
 
 Shuas ; above there, above yonder, 
 
 Tarsuing ; across. 
 
 Thairis ; over. 
 
 Thall ; on the other side. 
 
 Uthard ; above there, above yonder. 
 
 Deas (/) ; south. 
 Gu deas ; southward. 
 A deas ; from the south. 
 
 lar {g\ 
 
 Siar; / ^'^^^' 
 
 Gus an aird an iar ; westward. 
 
 O'n iar ; from the west. 
 
 Tuath ; north. 
 
 Gu tuath ; northward. 
 
 A tuath ; from the north. 
 
 Ear, Gir, Soir j east. 
 
 Gus an aird an ear ; eastward. 
 
 O'n ear ; from the east. 
 
 Adverts of Manner » 
 Air achd ; in a manner. 
 
 Air a' chuthach, ) ., . , , , , 
 4. 1 ., . > distracted, mad. 
 
 Air chall ; lost. 
 
 Air choir ; aright. 
 
 Air chor ; in a manner. 
 
 Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow. 
 
 Air chuairt ; sojourning. 
 
 Air chuimhne ; in remembrance. 
 
 Air eigin ; with difficulity, scarcely. 
 
 Air fogradh ; in exile, in a fugitive state. 
 
 ir) Deas, applied to the hand, signifies the right hand. So in Hebrew, 
 T*D^ signifies the right hand and the South. 
 
 (g) Iar, as a Preposition, signifies after or behind. Id like manner in 
 Hebrew, "IJIS signifies a/terj or the West. 
 
 n 
 
114 OF THE PARTS [Paet IL 
 
 Air ghleus ; in trim. 
 
 Air iomadan ; adrift. 
 
 Air iomroU ; astray. 
 
 Air iunndrain ; amissing. 
 
 ( trimmed iov action, as a bow bent, a firelock 
 
 ° ' 1 cocked, &c. 
 
 Air leth ; apart, separately. 
 
 Air seacharan ; astray. 
 
 Air sgeul ; found, not lost. 
 
 Ambain; only. 
 
 Amhuil, ) ... 
 
 AmWudh; j^'^^^'' 
 
 Am bidbeantas ; customarily, babitually. 
 
 Am feabbas ; convalescent, improving. 
 
 An coinnimb a cbinn ; beadlong. 
 
 An coinnimb a cbiiil ; backwards. 
 
 An deidb, ) , . 
 , 11 • I cicsirous, enamoured* 
 
 An nasgaidb ; for notbing, gratis. 
 
 An t6ir ; in pursuit. 
 
 Araonj togetber. 
 
 As an agbaidb; out of the face, to tbe face, outrigbt. 
 
 As a cbeile ; loosened, disjointed. 
 
 Car air cbar ; rolling, tumbling over and over. 
 
 Cia mar ; as how, bow. 
 
 C arson ; on account of what, wby, wberefore. 
 
 C ionnas; what manner, bow. 
 
 Cba, cbo; not. 
 
 Comlila (A), mar cbombla, ) ,, 
 
 Cuideachd; } together, m company. 
 
 C'uime; for wbat, wby. 
 
 Do dbeoin, a dbeoin ; spontaneously, intentionally, 
 
 Db' aindeoin ; against one's will. 
 
 Do dbitb, a dbitb ; a-wanting. 
 
 Do rireadb ; really, actually, indeed 
 
 {h) Probably co luath equally quick, with equal pace 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 115 
 
 Fa leth ; severally, individually. 
 
 Gle; very. 
 
 Gu beachd ; to ohservatioriy evidently, clearly. 
 
 Gu buileach ; to effect, thorouglily, wholly. 
 
 Gu dearbh ; to conviction, truly, certainly. 
 
 Gu deimhin ; to assurance, assuredly, verily. 
 
 Gu leir ; altogether. 
 
 Gu leor ; to sufficiency, enough. 
 
 Gun amharus; loithoid doubt, doubtless. 
 
 Gun chaird j without rest, incessantly, without hesitation. 
 
 Leth mar leth ; half and half. 
 
 Le cheile ; icitli each other, together. 
 
 Maraon ; as one, together, in concert. 
 
 Mar an ceudna ; in like manner, likewise. 
 
 Mar sin ; as that, in that manner. 
 
 Mar so ; as this, thus. 
 
 Mar sud ; a^ yon, in yon manner. 
 
 Mu seach ; in return, alternately. 
 
 Xa, Xar ; let not, — used optatively, or imperatively. 
 
 !N'ach ; that not, who not, not ? 
 
 Ni; not. 
 
 Ni h-eadh {i) ; it is not so. 
 
 Os aird ; openly. 
 
 Os barr ; on top, besides. 
 
 Os iosal ; secretly, covertly. 
 
 Eo j very. 
 
 Roirah a cheile; prematurely, too hastily. 
 
 Seadh {%) ; it is so. 
 
 Thar a cheile, ) • -,• . • p • ^- -, , 
 
 Troimh a cheile ; | ^^ ^^""'''^'^ '^ confusiuu, stirred about. 
 
 Theagamh; perhaps. 
 
 Uidh air 'n uidh ; starje hy stage, gradually. 
 
 (0 The probable analysis of seadh is, is e, it is, pronounced in ono 
 syllable, 's e. When this syllable was used as a re?]~onsive, and not followed 
 by any other word ; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a faint 
 articulation. This was represented in -vmting by the gentle aspirate dh ; 
 and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like manner ni h- 
 eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, it is net. 
 
116 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, 
 most of them monosyllables, employed to mark relation. 
 Eelation is also expressed by combinations of words which 
 often correspond to simple prepositions in other languages. 
 These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the 
 prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepo- 
 sitions properly so called, which are all simple ; secondly, 
 improper Prepositions, which, with one or two exceptions, 
 seem all to be made up of a simple Preposition and a ^N'oun, 
 
 Proper Prepositions. 
 Aig, Ag, at Gu, Gus, to. Eoimh, before. 
 
 Air, on. Gun, loithout. Tar, Thar, over, accross, 
 
 Ann, in. lar, after. Tre, ^ 
 
 As, A, out of. Le, Leis, with, by. Troimh, I through, 
 De, of. INIar, like to, Throimh, j 
 
 Do, to. Mu, about. Seach, past, in compari- 
 
 Eadar, between. 0, Ua, from. [son with. 
 
 Fa, ujjon. Os, above. 
 
 Fuidh, Fo, under. Ee, Ei, Eis, to. 
 
 The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an 
 eolas, in knowledge; ann an gliocas, in wisdom. The final n 
 or nn is changed into m before a labial; as, am measg, 
 among; ann am meadhon, in midst. Before the Article or the 
 Eelative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an toiseach, 
 171 the beginning; an cor anns am bheil e, the condition in ivhich 
 he is ; and in this situation the letters ann are often dropped, 
 and the s alone retained, 's an toiseach, in the beginning. 
 
 De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. 
 The reasons which have induced me to assign it a place among 
 the prepositions will be mentioned in treating of the combina- 
 tions of the Proper Prepositions with the Personal Pronouns. 
 
 The Preposition do, like the verbal particle, and the Pos- 
 sessive Pronoun of the same sound, lo jes the o before a vowel, 
 and the consonant is aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, to Scot- 
 
Taet II.] OF SPEECH. 117 
 
 land. It is also preceded sometimes by the vowel a when it 
 follows a filial consonant : as, dol a dh' Eirin, going to Ireland. 
 This a seems to be nothing else than the vowel of do trans- 
 posed; just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in certain 
 situations transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, 
 perhaps it would be ad^-isible to join the a, in writing, to the 
 dh thus, dol adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous 
 a appearing as a separate inexplicable word. The same re marks 
 apply to the prep, de ; e.g., armailt mhor de dliaoinibh agus a 
 dh eachaibh, a greed army of men and of horses, Ian do [de] 
 reubainn agus a dli' aingidheachd,/'?^// of ravining and icidced- 
 ness, Luke xi. 39. Do, as has been already observed, often loses 
 the d altogether, and is written a; as, dol a Dhuneidin, going 
 to Edinburgh. When the preposition is thus robbed of its ar- 
 ticulation, and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another 
 corruption very naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the 
 consonant, is discarded, not only in speaking, but even in 
 writing; as, chaidh e Dhuneidin, he ivent to Edinburgh ; 
 chaidh e thir eile, he went to another leind; where the nouns ap- 
 pear in their aspirated form, without any word to govern them. 
 
 Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. 
 That fa signifies ui^on, is manifest from such phrases as fa 
 'n bhord, upon the board, said of a dead body stretched upon 
 a board; leigeader fa lar, dropjjed on the ground, Carswell : fa 
 'n adhbhar ud, on that account, equivalent to air an adhbhar 
 ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. 2, metr. version. 
 
 The reason for admitting iar after, has been abeady given 
 in treating of the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. Y. 
 
 The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns 
 will be shown in treating of Syntax. The manner of combin- 
 ing them with the personal pronouns must be explained in 
 this place, because in that connection they appear in a form 
 somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper Pre- 
 position is joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating 
 both into one word, commonly with some change on the 
 Preposition, or on the Pronoun, or on both. 
 
 The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of 
 combination, incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns : 
 
118 
 
 Prep. 
 
 Air; 
 
 OF THE PARTS 
 
 Singular. 
 IH Pers. 2d Pers. 
 
 [Part II. 
 
 agam, 
 at me, 
 
 oria, 
 
 agad, 
 at thee. 
 
 ort. 
 
 Ann; 
 
 annam, 
 
 annad, 
 
 As; 
 
 asam, 
 
 asad, 
 
 De; 
 
 dhiom, 
 
 dhiot, 
 
 Do; 
 
 ( dhomh, ) 
 ( dhom, / 
 
 dhuit, 
 
 Eadar; 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Fo, Fuidh ; 
 
 fodham, 
 
 fodhad, 
 
 Gu; 
 
 h-ugam, 
 
 h-ugad, 
 
 Le; 
 
 learn. 
 
 leat, 
 
 Mu; 
 
 a mam, 
 
 umad, 
 
 0, Ua; 
 
 uam, 
 
 uait, 
 
 Ee, Ei; 
 
 riam, 
 
 riut, 
 
 Roimh; 
 
 romham, 
 
 romhad. 
 
 Thar; 
 
 tharam, 
 
 tharad, 
 
 Troimh ; 
 
 tromham, 
 
 tromhad, 
 
 3d Pers. 
 
 m. aige, 
 
 at him; 
 
 f. aice, 
 
 at her. 
 
 m. air. 
 
 f . oirre. 
 uirre, 
 orra. 
 ( m. ann. 
 ( f. innte. 
 J m. as. 
 ( f. aisde. 
 ( m. dhetlx, 
 I f. dh'i. 
 
 m. dha, 
 1 f. dh'i. 
 
 i 
 
 f m. fodha. 
 I f. fuidhpe 
 J m. h-uige. 
 I f. h-uice. 
 ( m. leis. 
 ( f. leatha. 
 ( m. uime. 
 ( f. uimpe. 
 f m. uaith. 
 ( f. uaipe. 
 ( m. ris. 
 ( f. rithe. 
 J m. roimh !j, 
 ( f. roimpe. 
 f. thairte. 
 f m. troimh 9, 
 ( f. troimpe. 
 
Part II.] 
 
 OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 1st Pers, 
 
 Plural 
 2d Pers. 
 
 Zd Per 
 
 againn, 
 at lis. 
 
 agaibh, 
 at ijou. 
 
 aca, 
 at them. 
 
 119 
 
 oirnn, 
 
 oirbh, 
 
 orra. 
 
 annainn, 
 
 annaibh, 
 
 annta. 
 
 asainn, 
 
 asaibh, 
 
 asda. 
 
 dhinn, 
 
 dbibh, 
 
 dhiu. 
 
 dliuinn, 
 
 dhuibh, 
 
 dboibL 
 
 eadarainn, 
 
 eadaraibb^ 
 
 eatorra. 
 
 fodbainn, 
 
 fodbaibh. 
 
 fodbpa. 
 
 h-ugainn, 
 
 b-ugaibh, 
 
 h-uca. 
 
 leinn, 
 
 leibb, 
 
 leo. 
 
 umaiiin, 
 
 umaibh, 
 
 umpa. 
 
 uainn, 
 
 uaibb. 
 
 uapa. 
 
 ruinn, 
 
 ribb. 
 
 riiu 
 
 romhainn, 
 
 romhaibh, 
 
 rompa. 
 
 tharuinn, 
 
 tharuibh, 
 
 tbarta. 
 
 tromhainn, 
 
 trombaibh, 
 
 trompa. 
 
120 OF THE PAUTS [Part II. 
 
 In most of these comj^ound terms, the fragments of the 
 Pronouns which enter into their composition, especially those 
 of the first and second Persons, are very conspicuous (j). 
 These fragments take after them occasionally the emphatic 
 syllables sa, san^ 7^e, in the same manner as the Personal 
 Pronouns themselves do ; as, agamsa at ME, aigesan at HIM, 
 uainne from US. 
 
 The two prepositions de and do have long been confounded 
 together, both being written do. It can hardly be supposed 
 that the composite words dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have 
 been distinguished from dhomh, dhuit, c^c, by orthography, 
 pronunciation, and signification, if the Prepositions, as well 
 as the Pronouns, which enter into the composition of these 
 words, had been originally the same. In dhiom, &c., the initial 
 Consonant is always followed by a small vowel. In dhomh, 
 &c., with one exception, it is followed by a broad vowel. 
 Hence it is presumable that the Preposition which is the 
 root of dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after d, 
 whereas the root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after d. 
 De is a preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has 
 many marks of affinity with the Gaelic), in the same sense 
 which must have belonged to the root of dhiom, &c. , in Gaelic. 
 The preposition in question itself occurs in Irish, in the name 
 given to a Colony which is supposed to have settled in Ireland, 
 A.M. 2540, called Tuath de Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." 
 tit. X. voc. Tuath ; also Miss Brooke's " Eeliques of Irisl 
 Poetry," p. 102.) These facts afford more than a presumption 
 that the true root of the Composite dhiom, &c., is de, and 
 that it signifies of. It has therefore appeared proper to 
 separate it from do, and to assign to each its appropriate? 
 meaning {k). 
 
 (j) This mode of incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pro- 
 nouns will remind the Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in 
 Hebrew and other Eastern languages. The close resemblance between the 
 Gaelic and many of the Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an 
 almost conclusive proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the 
 parent stock than any other living European language. 
 
 (k) " In corroboration of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 121 
 
 Dhiom, dhiot, Sec, and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with 
 a plain d after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c. 
 
 Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular 
 number, but written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, heticeeu 
 me and thee. 
 
 In combining gu and mu with the pronouns, the letters 
 of the Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written ug, 
 um. The former of these was long written with cli pre- 
 fixed, thus chugam, kd. The translators of the Scriptures, 
 observing that cli neither corresponded to the pronunciation, 
 nor made part of the radical Preposition, exchanged it for 
 th, and wrote thugam. The tl\, being no more than a simple 
 aspiration, corresponds indeed to the common mode of pro- 
 nouncing the word. Yet it may well be questioned whether 
 the ^, even though aspirated, ought to have a place, if ^ be 
 the only radical consonant belonging to the Preposition. 
 The component parts of the word might be exhibited with less 
 disguise, and the common pronunciation (whether correct or 
 not), also represented, by retaining the li alone, and connect- 
 ing it with the Preposition by a hyphen, as when written 
 before a Xoun; thus h-ugam, h-ugaibh, &c. 
 
 Improper Prepositions. 
 
 Air cheann; at \tlie\ end, against a certain time. 
 
 \. ^ ^ ' \ throughout, during. 
 Air fad ; J 
 
 Air muin; on tM hack, mounted on. 
 
 Air sgath; for the sake, on pretence. 
 
 Air son ; on account. 
 
 Air toir ; in pursuit. 
 
 Air beulaobh; on the fore side, before. 
 
 Air culaobh ; on the hack side, behind. 
 
 Am fochair ; in irresence. 
 
 Am measg; in the mixture, amidst, among. 
 
 de in old MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place." — E. O'C.^s 
 " Grammar of the Iriih Gaelic." Dublin, 1S08. 
 
122 OF THE PARTS [Paet IL 
 
 An aghaidh, in the face, against, in opposition. 
 
 An ceann ; in the end, at the expiration. 
 
 An comhail, 
 
 An coinnimh ; 
 
 An cois, 
 
 A chois J 
 
 An dail ; in the rencounter, to meet. 
 
 An diaigh, 
 
 An deigh, f probably for 
 
 An deaghaidh, J an deireadh; 
 
 An deis, / 
 
 An eiric; in return, in requital. 
 
 \in meeting, to meet, 
 . \ >at the foot, near to, hard by. 
 
 )r 1 
 
 > in the end, after. 
 
 Am fianuis, ) . 
 lir ; / ^^ 
 
 AnlathairJ^^P^^^^^^^- 
 
 An lorg ; in the track, in consequence. 
 
 As eugais, \ . , ... . 
 
 A vi, -j-u >in want, y^iihovit. 
 As easbnuidn ; j ' 
 
 As leth ; in behalf, for the sake. 
 
 A los ; in order to, with the intention of. 
 
 Car j during. 
 
 Do bhrigh, a bhrigh ; hy virtue, because* 
 
 Do ch6ir, a choir; to the presence, near, implying motion. 
 
 Do chum, a chum (l) ; to, towards, in ord^r to. 
 
 Do dhith, a dhifch, ) ^ 
 
 Dh' easbhuidh ; / ^^ ^^^ ' 
 
 Dh' fhios ; to the knowledge, to. 
 
 Dh^ ionnsuidh, to the approach, or onset, toward. 
 
 Do r^ir, a reir ; according to. 
 
 Do thaobh, a thaobh ; on the side, with respect, concerning. 
 
 Fa chilis ; by reason, because. 
 
 Fa chomhair ; opposite. 
 
 Mu choinnimh ; opposite, over against. 
 
 Mu thimchoill, timchioll ; hy the circuit, around. 
 
 bharr, bharr ; from the top, off. 
 
 Os ceann ; on the top, above, atop, 
 
 if) In many places, this Prep, is pronounced hnn. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 123 
 
 Ee ; duration, during. 
 
 Tar^is ; after {m). 
 
 Trid ; through, by means. 
 
 It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper 
 Prepositions are compounded ; and comprehend, as one of 
 their component parts, a ISToun, which is preceded by a simple 
 or Proper Preposition ; like the English, on account^ with 
 respect^ &c. The words ceann, aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, 
 &c., are known to be real Nouns, because they are employed 
 in that capacity in other connections, as well as in the phrases 
 here enumerated. The case is not so clear with regard to son, 
 cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in the above phrases ; 
 but it is probable that these are nouns likewise, and that, when 
 combined with simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases 
 of precisely the same structure with the rest of the foregoing 
 list (?^). Comhair is probably comh-aire mutual attention. 
 Bail and coir, in the sense of proximity, are found in their 
 compounds comh-dhail and fo chair [fa ch6ir.] Toir, in like 
 manner, in its derivative toireachd, the act of pursuing, Dh* 
 fhios, to the knowledge, must have been originally applied to 
 persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs : beir mo 
 shoiridh le diirachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., hear my good 
 wishes with cordiality to the knoivledge of the maid, &c.,i.e., 
 present my affectionate regards, &c. This appropriate mean- 
 ing and use of the phrase came by degrees to be overlooked ; 
 and it was employed, promiscuously with do chum and dh* 
 ionnsuidh, to signify unto in a more general sense. If this 
 analysis of the expression be just, then ghios (o) must be 
 deemed only a difierent, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' 
 fhios. 
 
 In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost 
 
 (m) Tar ^is, on the track or footstep. See O'Brien's ** Ir. Diet." voc. ^is. 
 
 {n) On cousulting O'Brien's " Ir. Diet." we find son translated j^ro/?^ 
 advantage, cum a Jight, combat, reir 2oill, desire. From these significations 
 the common meaning of air son, do chum, do reir, may perhaps be derived 
 ■without much violence. 
 
 (o) See Gaelic Poems published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8,9, 178, 291. 
 
124 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 always been written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the 
 same noun is uniformly written ceann. ^Yhence has arisen 
 this diversity in the orthography of a simple monosyllable ? 
 And is it maintained upon just grounds 1 It must have 
 proceeded either from a persuasion that there are two distinct 
 nouns signifying top, one of which is to be written ceann, 
 and the other cionn (p) ; or from an opinion that, granting 
 the two words to be the same individual noun, yet it is 
 proper to distinguish its meaning when used in the capacity 
 of a prepositioii, from its meaning in other situations, by 
 spelling it in different ways. I know of no good argument 
 in support of the former of these two opinions ; nor has it 
 probably been ever maintained. The latter opinion, which 
 seems to be the real one. is founded on a principle subversive 
 of the analogy and stability of written language, namely, 
 that the various significations of the same word are to be 
 distinguished in writing, by changing its letters, the con- 
 stituent elements of the word. The variation in question, 
 instead of serving to point out the meaning of a word or 
 phrase in one place, from its known meaning in another 
 connection, tends directly to disguise it ; and to mislead the 
 reader into a belief that the words, which are thus presented 
 to him under different forms, are themselves radically and 
 essentially different. If the same word has been employed 
 to denote several things somewhat different from each other, 
 that does by no means appear a sufficient reason why the 
 writers of the language should make as many words of one 
 (2). 
 
 (p) There is in Gaelic a Noun cion or cionn, signifying caicse ; which 
 occurs in the expressions a chionn gu hecoMse tlmt, cion-fath a reason or 
 ground. But this word is entirely different from ceann end or top. 
 
 (q) Some confusion has been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin 
 language, by imposing different grammatical names on words, according to 
 the connection in which they stood, while they retained their form and 
 their signification unchanged ; as in calling quod at one time a Relative 
 Pronoun, at another time a Conjunction ; post in one situation a Preposition, 
 in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for distinguish- 
 ing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. Accordingly 
 an accent, or some such mark, was, m writing or printing, placed over th<* 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 125 
 
 The use of the proper Prepositions has been already shown 
 in tbe composition of adverbial phrases, and of the improper 
 Prepositions. The following examples show the further use 
 of them in connection with jN"ouns and Verbs, and in some 
 idiomatic expressions which do not always admit of being 
 literally rendered in English. 
 
 Ag, aig. 
 At: aig an dorus, at the door ; aig an tigh, at the house^ at 
 
 home. 
 By reason of : aig ro mheud aighir 's a sholais, by reason of his 
 great joy and satisfaction, Smith's Seann dana, p. 9 ; 
 ag meud a mhiann through intense desire, Psal. 
 Ixxxiv. 2, metr. vers.; ag lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 
 5. 
 Signifying possession : tha tuill aig na sionnaich, the foxes 
 have holes ; bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, a 
 certain man had tivo sons; cha n'eil fhios agam, / 
 have not the knowledge of it, I do not know it. 
 Chaidh agam air, I have prevailed over him, Psal. xiii. 4, metr. 
 
 vers. 
 Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs : ag imeachd, a-walking, 
 v^dking. 
 
 Air. 
 On, upon: air an L^r, on the ground ; air an la sin, on that 
 day ; air an adhbhar sin, on that account, for that 
 reason. 
 
 the last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned its 
 secondary use ; while, in its primary nse, it was written without any 
 distinguishing mark. So the conjunction quod was distinguished from the 
 relative gi^ofZ ; and the adverb ^905^ from the preposition j^os^. The distinc- 
 tion was erroneous ; but the expedient employed to mark it was, at least, 
 harmless. The word was left unaltered and undisguised ; and thus succeed- 
 ing grammarians had it the more in their power to prove that the relative 
 quod and the conjunction quod are, and have ever been, in reality, one 
 and the same part of speech. It would have been justly thought a bold 
 and unwarrantable step, had the older grammarians gone so far as to alter 
 the letters of the word, in order to mark a distinction of their own 
 creation. 
 
126 OF THE PARTS [Paet II. 
 
 Denoting claim of debt : ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, pmj 
 me what tliou owest me, Matt, xviii. 28 ; cia meud 
 ata aig mo thighearn ortsa ] how much owest thou 
 unto my lord ? Luke xvi. 57. (r) 
 
 Denoting an oath : air m' f hocal, upon my word ; air laimh d' 
 athar *s do sheanathar, hy the hand of your father 
 and grandfather. 
 
 Tha eagal,mulad, sgios, ocras, &c., air, he is afraid, sad,fatirjued, 
 hungry, &c. 
 
 Thig mo bheul air do cbeartas, is air do chliu, my mouth 
 shall speah of thy justice and thy praise, Psal. xxxv. 
 28. metr. j tliig mo bheul air gliocas, ray mouth shall 
 speak of wisdom, Psal. xlix. 3, metr. v.; sin ciiis air 
 am bheil mi nis a' teachd, that is the matter of which 
 I am now to treat. 
 
 Tog ort, rouse thyself bestir thyself, Psal. Ixxiv. 22, metr. v, 
 
 Chaidh agam air, I prevailed over him, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; 
 'S ann ormsa chaidh, it was I that was worsted. 
 
 Thug e am monadh air, he hetooJc himself to the mountain. 
 
 In respect of : cha 'n f haca mi an samhuil air olcas, / never saw 
 their like for hadness, Gen. xli. 1 9 ; air a lughad, how- 
 ever small it he. 
 
 Joined with, accompanied hy: moran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, 
 much iromvith little ec?^e,M^Intyre's Songs. Oidhche 
 bha mi 'n a theach, air mhoran bidh 's air bheagan 
 eudaich, I was a night in his house, with plenty of 
 
 (r) From this use of the preposition air arises the equivoque so 
 huraorously turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, 
 as related in the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scot- 
 land on the authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append, p. 95. Macpherson 
 asked Maccodrum, "Am bheil dad agad air an Fheinn ?" literally, "Have you 
 anything on the Fingalians ?" intending to inquire whether the latter had 
 any poems in his possession on the subject of the Fingalian histoiy and 
 exploits. The expression partakes much more of the English than of the 
 Gaelic idiom. Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense 
 that the querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its 
 true Gaelic acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, " Bheil dad agam 
 air an Fheinn ? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na 
 c6irichean." *' Have I any claim on the Fingalians ? If ever I had, it is 
 long since I lost my voucher." 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 127 
 
 food^ hut scanty clothing ; air letli laimh, having 
 
 hut one hand. 
 Denoting measure or dimension : da throidh air airde, two 
 
 feet ill height, 
 01c air mhath leat e, whether you take it icell or ill, 
 
 Ann, ann an, anns. 
 
 In. ; Anns an tigh, in the house; anns an oidliche, in the night ; 
 ann an d5clias, in hope ; anns a' bliarail sin, of that 
 opinion. 
 
 Denoting existence : ta abliainn ann, there is a river, Psal. 
 xlvi. 4, metr. ; nach bitliinn ann ni 's mo, that I 
 should not be any more ; b' fhearr a bhi marbh na 
 ann, it were better to he dead than to be alive ; ciod 
 a th' ann? lohat is it ? is mise th' ann, it is I ; mar 
 gu b' ann, as it icere ; tha e n a dhuine ionraic, he 
 is a just man ; tha i 'n a bantraich, she is a icidow 
 
 Marking emphasis : is ann air eigin a thar e as, it teas with 
 difficulty he got off; an aite seasamh is ann a theich 
 iad, instead of standing (Jceeping their ground) they 
 fled ; nach freagair thu ] f hreagair mi ann, will you 
 not answer ? I have answered. 
 
 As. 
 
 Out of : as an duthaich, out of the country. 
 
 Denoting extinction : tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, the 
 lights or the fire, is gone out. 
 
 As an alt, out of joint; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as an 
 uilinn, &c., dislocated in the shoulder, hip, elbow- 
 joint, 
 
 (5) This use of the preposition ann in conjunction with a possessive 
 Pronoun, is nearly akin to that of the Hebrew ^, [for] in such expressions 
 as these : ' He hath made me [for] a father to Pliaraoh, and [for] lord of 
 all his house ;" rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am thigheani os 
 ceann a thighe uile, Gen. xlv. 8. ' Thou hast taken the wife of Uriah to 
 be [for] thy wife ;' ghabh thu bean Uriah gu hi 'n a mnaoi dhuit fein. 
 2 Sam, xii. 10 
 
128 OF THE PARTS [Part Ih 
 
 Chaidh e as, he escajyed. 
 Cuir as da, destroy him, or it, 
 Chaidh as da, he is perished, undone^ 
 Thug e na buinn as, he scampered off, 
 Dubh as, hlot out, 
 
 De. 
 
 Of: Armailt mhor de dhaomibh agus a dh* eachaibh, a great 
 
 army of men and horses. 
 Off: Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, the branches were 
 lopped off'; thug iad an ceann deth, they beheaded 
 him, 
 Dh aon run, ^vith one consent, with one purpose ; dh* 
 
 aon bharail, with one mind, judgment, 
 A Ik agus a dh' oidhche, i.e., cle i^ agus de oidhche, 
 
 by day and by night. Lab. de nocte, Hor. 
 Saidhbhreas m6r d'a mheud, riches however great, 
 Psal. cxix. 14, metr. 
 
 Do. 
 
 To : Tabhair dhomh, give to me, give me ; thug sinn a bos 
 min do Dhearg, we gave her soft hand to Dargo, 
 
 Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, that befell him. sud- 
 denly. Mar sin duinne gu latha, so it fared tcith u^ 
 till day, so we passed the night; ma 's olc dhomh, 
 cha n-fhearr dhoibh, if it goes ill loith me, they fare 
 no better, 
 
 Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, oiie day as I travel- 
 led the hills; latha dhuinn air machair Alba, (57?e 
 day when we were in the lowlands of Scotland ; on 
 Scotia^ s plains, 
 
 Eadar. 
 
 Between : eadar an dorus agas an ursainn, betiueen the door and 
 the post, 
 Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, a 
 quarrel arose betwixt me and my neighbour. 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 129 
 
 Eadar mh6r agus bheag, loth great and small, Fsal. 
 ' xlix. 2, metr. ; Eev. xix. 5, eadar bhochdagus noclid, 
 
 both tlie^oor and the naked. 
 
 Fa. 
 
 Upon : Fa 'n bliord, upon the hoard ; leigeadar fa lar, icas 
 dropped on the ground, omitted, neglected. Carswel. 
 Fa'n adhbhar ud, on that account; creud fa 'n abradli 
 iad? wherefore should they say ? 
 Fa sheachd, seven times, Psal. vii. 6, metr. ; fa clieud, 
 a hundred times, Psal. Ixii. 9, metr. 
 
 Fuidh, fo. 
 Under : Fuidh 'n bhord, under the hoard; fuidh bhlath in 
 hlossom ; tha an t-arbhar fo dheis, the corn is in the 
 ear ; fuidh smuairean, under concern ; fo ghruaim, 
 gloomy \ fo mhi-ghean, in h ad humour ; fuidh mhi- 
 chliu, under had report. 
 Denoting intention or purpose : air bhi f uidhe, it 
 being his purpose. Acts xx. 7 ; tha tighinn f odham, 
 it is my intention or inclination 
 
 Gu, Gus. 
 To: thigh gu tigh, from house to house ; gii crich mo 
 shaoghail fein, to the end of my life ; gns an crion 
 gu luaithre a' chlach, until the stone shall crumUe 
 to dust. Sm. Seann dana. 
 
 A' bhliadhna gus an am so, this time twelvemonth, 
 a year ago ; a sheachduin gus an de, yesterday se' en- 
 night. 
 
 ^lile gu leth, a mile and a half', bliadhna gu leth, 
 a year and a half. 
 
 Gun. 
 Without: Gun amhaTMs, without douht; gunbhrogan, without 
 shoes ; gun fhios, without hioidtdge, unwittingly ; 
 gun fhios nach faic thu e, in case you may see him, 
 
 I 
 
130 OF THE PAKTS [Part IT. 
 
 if perhaps you may see him ; gun f hios am laic 
 thu e, '// perhaps you may not see him. Gun 
 chomas aig air, without his heing able to prevent it, 
 or avoid it; involuntarily. Gniomh gun chomain, 
 an unmerited, or unprovoked deed. Dli' aithn e dha 
 gun sin a dheanamh, he ordered him not to do that. 
 Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a philltinn, they were 
 warned not to return. 
 
 lar. 
 
 After: lar sin, after that ; iar leughadh. an t-Soisgeil, after 
 the reading of the Gospel ; iar tuiteam sios da aig 
 a chosaibh, having fallen down at his feet; bha mi 
 iar mo mhealladh, / teas received. 
 
 Lg; leis. 
 With : Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mhoir, / went with the 
 multitude. 
 
 Denoting the instrument : mharbh e Eoin leis a* 
 chlaidheamh, he killed John with the sword. 
 
 Denoting the agent : thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an tore, 
 the boar was measured by Diannid. 
 
 Denoting possession : is le Donull an leabhar, the 
 book is Donald's ; cha leis e, it is not Ms. 
 
 Denoting opinion or feeling : is fada leam an la gu 
 h-oidhche, / think the day long, or tedious, till night 
 come ; is cruaidh leam do chor, / think your case a 
 hard one; is docha leam, / think it probable ; is 
 doilich leam, I am sorry ; is aithreach leis, he repents. 
 Along: leis an t-sruth along the stream ; leis an leathad, 
 down the declivity. 
 
 Leig leam, let me alone ; leig leis, let him alone, 
 
 Mu. 
 
 About: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, unnding about his head; 
 labhair e mu ludas, he spoke about Jtidas ; nuair 
 smachduichear duine leat mu 'lochd, ichen thou cor- 
 
Part 11.] OF SPEECH. 131 
 
 redest a man for his sin, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr. ; 
 sud am fath mu'n goir a' chorr, that Is the reason of 
 the heron's cry. Seaiin dana. Sud fath mu *n 
 guidheann ort na naoimli, for this reason will the 
 saints make supplication to Thee. 
 
 O. 
 From : bhaile gu baile, from town to toiun ; o mhadaiiin 
 gu feasgar, from, morning to evening ; o 'n la thain- 
 ig mi dhachaidh, from the day that I came home ; 
 'n la, is often abridged into la; as, la thainig mi 
 dhachaidh, since I came home. 
 Since, because : thugamaid nil* oirnn a' bhauais, o fhuair 
 sinn cuireadh dhol ann, let us all to the wedding, 
 since we have been bidden to it. 
 Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted 
 by alg : na tha uainn 's a b' fheairrd sinn againn, 
 2vhat tee leant and should be tlte better for having. 
 Implying desire: ciod tha uait] luhat icould you have? 
 Tha claidheamh nam, / luant a sword. 
 
 Os. 
 
 A hove : Mar togam os m' nil' aoibhneas ard cathair lerusaleim, 
 if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy, Psal. 
 cxxxvii. 6, metr. ; os mo cheann, above me, over me, 
 
 Ei, ris. 
 To : cosmhuil ri mac righ, like to the son of a king ; chuir 
 iad teine ris an tigh, they set fire to the house. 
 
 Maille ri, together with. 
 
 Laimh ris a' bhalla^ nigh to the wall 
 
 Ei la gaoithe, on a day of wind ; ri fad mo r6 's mo 
 la, during all the days of my life ; ri linn Eigh 
 Uilliam, in the reign of King William. 
 
 Na bi rium, dorUt molest me. 
 
 Feuch ris, try It. 
 
 Cuir ris, ply your work, exert yourself ; cuirear na 
 
132 OF THE PARTS [Part II. 
 
 nithe so ribh, these things shall he added unto you^ 
 Matt. vi. 33. Tha an Spiorad ag cur ruinn na saorsa, 
 the Spirit applieth to us the redemption, Assemb. 
 Sh. Catech. 
 Exposed : tha an craicionn ris, the skin is exposed, or bare; leig 
 ris, expose or make manifest.' 
 
 Eoimh. 
 
 Be/ore: roimh 'n charbad, before the chariot; roimh 'n chamh- 
 
 air, before the dawn; roimh na h-nile nithibh, before, 
 
 in preference to, all thvtigs ; chuir mi romham, I set 
 
 before me, purposed, intended, 
 
 Imich romhad, go forward; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, he 
 
 went his way, he ivent off, 
 
 Seach. 
 
 Past : chaidh e seach an dorus, he passed by the door. 
 In comparison with : is trom d! chlach seach a' chloineag, the 
 stone is heavy compared ivith the down. 
 
 Tar, thar. 
 
 Over, across : chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, he 
 went over the river, over the mountain ; tha sin thar 
 m' eolas, thar mo bheachd, &c., that is beyond my 
 knowledge, beyond my comprehension, &c. 
 
 Tre, troimh, throimh. ' 
 
 Through : tre nisge is tre theine, through loater and through 
 fire. 
 
 Of Inseparable Prepositions. 
 
 The following initial syllables, used only in composition, 
 are prefixed to nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter 
 their signification : — 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 133 
 
 An (t), Di, Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Xeo : — Privative syllables 
 signifying ?wf, or serving to change the signification 
 of the words to which they are prefixed into its con- 
 trary; as, socair ease, anshocair distress, uneasiness; 
 ciontach guilty, dichiontach innocent; treabh to 
 cultivate, dithreabh an uncultivated place, a desert ; 
 dionach tiglit, close, aodionach leaky ; c6ir justice, 
 eucoir injustice; slan v:liole, in health, easlan sick; 
 caraid a friend, eascaraid an enemy ; buidheachas 
 gratitude, mibhuidheachas ingratitude ; claon awry, 
 neochlaon unhiassed, impartial; duine a man^ 
 neodhuine a icorthless unnatural creature. 
 
 An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or 
 * faulty excess ; as, tighearnas dominion, aintighearn- 
 as tyranny ; tromaich to make heavy, antromaich 
 to make very heavy, to aggravate; teas heat, ainteas 
 excessive heat ; miann desire, ainmhiann inordinate 
 desire, lust, 
 
 Ais, ath, again, hack ; as, eirigh rising, aiseirigh resurrec- 
 tion ; beachd vieic, ath-bheachd retrospect ; fas 
 groivth, ath-fhas after-growth. 
 
 Bith, continually ; as, bithdheanamh doing continually, busy; 
 am bithdheantas incessantly. 
 
 Co, com, comh, con, together, equally, mutually ; as, 
 gleacadh fighting, co-ghleacadh fighting together ; 
 lion to fill, colion to fulfil, accomjjlish ; ith to eat , 
 comith eating together; radh saying, comhradh 
 conversation, speech; trom weight, cothrom equal 
 iceight, equity ; aois oxje, comhaois a contemporary. 
 
 Im, about, round, entire ; as, Ikn full, iomlan quite complete; 
 gaoth wind, iom^h?iot\i a whirlwind ; slainte health, 
 iom-shlamte perfect Jiealth. 
 
 (t) This syllable assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or con- 
 sonant an, as, anshocair ; before a small vowel or consonant ai7i, as, 
 aineolach ignorant, aindeoin unwillingness ; before a labial am or aim, as, 
 aimbeartach j^oor ; sometimes with the m aspirated, as, aimhleas detriment, 
 rxdn, aimh-leathan narrow. 
 
134 OE THE PAKTS [Part IL 
 
 In, or ion, worthy] as. ion-mholta worthy to he praised ; ion- 
 roghnuidh worthy to he chosen^ Psal. xxv. 12, metr. 
 vers. 
 
 So, easily, gently ; as, faicsin seeing, so-fhaicsin easily seen; 
 sion weather, soinion [so-shion] calm weather ; 
 sgeul a tale, soisgeul a good tale, gospel. 
 
 Do, with difficulty, evil ; as, tuigsin understanding, do-thuig- 
 ^\TL difficult to he understood; doimon sto7'my wea- 
 ther ; heart deed, exploit, do-bheart evil deed. 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not 
 only those single Particles which are usually denominated 
 Conjunctions ; but also the most common phrases which are 
 used as Conjunctions to connect either words or sentences. 
 
 Acb ; but. 
 
 Agus, is ; and. 
 
 A chionn gu ; because that. 
 
 A chum as gu ; in order that. 
 
 A chum as nach ; that not. 
 
 Air chor as gu ; so that. 
 
 Air eagal gu, \ . . ,7 . i x 
 T^» 1 > for fear thcd,\Qs\H 
 
 D eagal gu ; j -^ ^ ' 
 
 Air son gu, \ 
 
 -r>, , 1 . 1 > by reason that 
 
 Du bhngh gu; J -^ 
 
 Bheil fhios, '1 f hois'? is there knowledge? is it known"? au 
 
 expression of curiosity, or desire to know. 
 
 Co ; as. 
 
 Ged, giodh ; although {u). 
 
 (u) The conjunction ged loses the d when written before an adjective of 
 a personal pronoun ; as, ge binn do ghuth, though your voice he sweet ; 
 ge h-ard Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6. 
 
 The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge 
 to be the entire Conjunction, and that d is the verbal particle do. This ha?5 
 led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do alters the senfe 
 
Part II.] OF SPEECH. 135 
 
 Ged tha, ge ta ; tliowjh it he, iiotwithstanding- 
 
 Gidheadh : yet, nevertheless. 
 
 Gil, gur ; that. 
 
 Gim fhios ; icitliout hioidedrje, it being uncertain whether 
 
 or not, in case not. 
 lonnas gu ; insomuch that, so that. 
 
 from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge do ghluais mi, 
 Deut. xxix. 19, is given as the translation of though 1 walk, i.e. though 
 I shall walk ; but in reality it signifies though I did walk, for do ghluais 
 is past tense. It ought to be ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh thu 
 mi, Judg. xiii. 16, though you detain me, ought rather to be ged ghleidh 
 thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, though they cry to me, is 
 not agreeable to the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged ghlaodh iad 
 rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh fheudainnse muinghin bhi agam, 
 Phil. iii. 4, though I might have confidence. Here the verbal particle is 
 doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical precision. 
 Let it be ^^Titten ged dh fheudainnse, and the phrase is correct. Ge do 's 
 eigindomh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, though I must suffer death: ge 
 do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, though the number 
 of the children of Israel he, &c. The present tenses is and tha 
 never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, ged tha, is liable to no 
 objection. At other times, when the do appeared indisputably out of place, 
 the d has been dismissed altogether, contrary to usual mode of pronuncia- 
 tion ; as, ge nach eil. Acts x\i.i. 27, 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the common 
 pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, ge d' nach duin' an t-aodach, &c. 
 ge d' nach biodh ann achanrigh &c. (M'Intosh's "Gael, Prov." pp. 35, 36), 
 where the d is retained even before nach, because such is the constant way 
 of pronouncing the phrase. 
 
 These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the 
 high regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely ventured 
 to point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the constituent 
 letters of the conjunction in question. It would appear that d was 
 originally a radical letter of the word ; that through time it came, like 
 many other consonants, to be aspirated ; and by degrees became, in some 
 situations, quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This manner of writing 
 the word is adopted by the translator of Baxter's "Call." One of its com- 
 pounds is always ^v^itten gidheadh. In these, the d is preserved, though 
 in its aspirated state. In Scotland it is still pronounced, in most situations, 
 ged, ^^'ithout aspirating the d at all. These circumstances put together 
 seem to prove the final (^ is a radical constituent letter of this Conjunc- 
 tion. 
 
 I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the Gaelio 
 Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, acknowledged the 
 justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing note. It is judged 
 expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, lest the authority of 
 that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form of speech which is 
 confessed to be faulty. 
 
136 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Part II. 
 
 Ma; if. 
 
 Mar ; as, like as. 
 
 Mar sud agus ; so also. 
 
 Ma seadh, \ 
 
 Ma ta ; j ^-^ ^^' ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^' ^^^'^ 
 
 Mur ; if not. 
 
 Mur bhiodh gu ; were it not that. 
 
 Mus an, mu 'n ; before that, lest. 
 
 Na; than. 
 
 Nach ; that not. 
 
 !N'a'n, na'm; if. 
 
 ISTo; or. 
 
 ; since, because. 
 
 Oir; for. 
 
 Os barr ; moreover. 
 
 Sol, suil ; before that. 
 
 Tuille eile ; further. 
 
 Uime sin ; therefore. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various 
 emotions or sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most 
 part provincial, and arbitrary. Only one or two single 
 vocables, and a few phrases, require to be noticed under this 
 division. 
 
 Och ! Ochan ! alas ! 
 
 Ochan nan och ! alas and weU-a-day t 
 
 Fire faire ! what a pother ! 
 
 Mo thruaighe ! my misery I 1 » • 
 
 Mo chreachadh ! my despoiling! ] 
 
 Mo naire ! my shame, for shame ! fy ! 
 
 H-ugad, at you, take care of yourself, gardez-vous. 
 
 Feuch ! behold ! lo ! 
 
PAET TIL 
 
 OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in 
 a sentence ; and teaches the proper method of expressing 
 their connection by the Collection and the Form of the words. 
 Gaelic Syntax may be conveniently enough explained under 
 the common divisions of Concord and Government. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 OF CONCORD. 
 
 Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the 
 Article with its JS'oun -, — of an Adjective with its !N"oun ; — 
 of a Pronoun with its Antecedent ; — of a Verb with its 
 Nominative ; — and of one Xoun with another. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Of the Agreement of the Article with a Noun. 
 
 Collocation, 
 The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to 
 it, unless when an Adjective intervenes. 
 
 Form. 
 The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and 
 Case. Final n is changed into m before a plain Labial ; as, 
 am baile the town, am fear the man. It is usually cut off 
 before an aspirated Palatal, or Labial, excepting fh ; as, a' 
 chaora the sheep, a' mhuc the sow, a' choin of the dog. In the 
 Dat. Sing, initial a is cut off after a Preposition ending in a 
 Vowel; as, do 'n chloich to the stone (v). 
 
 h) To avoid, as far as may be, the too frequent use of a by itself, perhaps 
 it would he better always to write the article full, an or am r and to appfy 
 
138 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers 
 some changes in Initial Form : — 1. With regard to Nouns 
 beginning with a Consonant, the aspirated form is assumed 
 by a mas. Noun in the gen. and dat. singular ; by a fem. noun 
 in the notn. and dat. singular. If the Noun begins with s 
 followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead of having the s 
 aspirated, t is inserted between the Article and the Noun, in 
 the foresaid cases ; and the s becomes entirely quiescent (w), 
 2. With regard to Nouns beginniug with a Vowel, ^ or /i is in- 
 serted between the Article and the Noun in certain Cases, viz. 
 t in the Nom. sing, of mas. Nouns, h in the gen. sing, of fem. 
 Nouns, and h in the nom. and dat. plur. of Nouns of either 
 gender. Throughout the other sing, and plur. Cases, all 
 Nouns retain their Primary form. 
 
 The following examples show all the varieties that take 
 place in declining a Noun with the Article. 
 
 Nouns heglnning with a Labial or a Palaiah 
 
 Bard, mas. a Poet, 
 Sing, Plur, 
 
 N, am Bard, na Baird, 
 
 6r. a' Bhaird, nam Bard, 
 
 D. a'j 'n Bhard {x), na Bardaibh. 
 
 Cluas, fem. an Ear, 
 Sing, Plur. 
 
 N. a' Chluas, na Cluasan, 
 
 G. na Cluaise, nan Cluas, 
 
 D. a', 'n Chluais. na Cluasaibh. 
 
 the above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to regulate the pro- 
 nunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish publications, have the 
 article written almost always full, in situations where, according to the 
 latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated. 
 
 {w) The practice of suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in certain 
 situations, and supplying its place by another of a softer sound, is carried 
 to a much greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed edipsis by the 
 Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention to euphonia. 
 
 {x) The Dat. case is always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n 
 bhard, aig na bardaibh ; in declining a Noun with the article, any Proper 
 Preposition may be supplied before the Dative case. 
 
Part III.] OF S\3TAX. 139 
 
 Xuuns heginning with f. 
 
 Fleasgach, m. a Bachelor, 
 
 Sing, Plur. 
 
 N, am ileasgach, na Fleasgaich, 
 
 G, an Fhleasgaich, nam Fleasgach, 
 
 D, an, 'n Fhleasgach. na Fleasgaich. 
 
 Foid. f. a Turf, 
 
 Sing. Plur, 
 
 N, an Fhoid, na Foidean, 
 
 G, na Foide, nam Fold, 
 
 D, an, 'n Fhoid. na Foidibh. 
 
 Nouns beginning with a Lingual, 
 
 Dorus, m. a Door. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 N. an Dorus, na Dorsan, 
 
 G, An Domis, nan Dorsa, 
 
 D. an, 'n Dorus, na Dorsaibh. 
 
 Teasach, f. a Fever. 
 
 Sing. Plur, 
 
 N. an Teasach, na Teasaichean, 
 
 G. na Teasaich, nan Teasach, 
 
 D. an, 'n Teasaich. na Teasaichibh. 
 
 Nouns beginning with s. 
 Sloe, mas. a Pit, 
 
 Sing, Plur, 
 
 N, an Sloe, na Sluic, 
 
 G, an t-Sluic, nan Sloe, 
 
 D. an, 'n t-Sloc. na Slocaibh. 
 
140 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 Siiil, fern, an Eye. 
 
 Sing. Plur, 
 
 N, an t-Suil, na Suilean, 
 
 G. na Sula nan Sul, 
 
 D, an, 'n t-Suil. na Suilibh. 
 
 Nouns beginning loith a Vowel. 
 
 Tasg, m. a Fish. 
 
 Sing, Plur, 
 
 N. an t-Iasg, na h-Iasga, 
 
 G. an Eisg, nan lasg, 
 
 Z). an, 'n lasg. na h-Iasgaibh. 
 
 Adharc, f. a Horn, 
 
 Sing, Plur. 
 
 N, an Adharc, na li-Adhaircean, 
 
 G. na h-Adhairc, nan Adharc, 
 
 D. an, 'n Adhairc. na h-Adhaircibh. 
 
 The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by 
 the Article, follows the same rules with the initial Form of 
 Nouns. 
 
 Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to 
 ascertain individual objects, it is used in Gaelic — 
 
 1. Before a ISToun followed by the Pronouns so, sin, or 
 ud; as, am fear so, this man; an tigh ud, yon house, 
 
 2. Before a Noun preceded by the Yerb is and an Ad- 
 jective ; as, is maith an sealgair e, he is a good huntsman; 
 bu luath an coisiche e, he teas a swift footman, 
 
 3. Before some names of countries ; as, righ na Spainne, 
 the king of Spain; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, he tvent to France ; 
 but righ Bhreatain, the king of Britain; chaidh e dh' Eirin, he 
 zvent to Ireland, without the Article. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 141 
 
 Section IL 
 Of the Agreement of an Adjective with a ^oun. 
 
 Collocation, 
 
 When an Adjective and the ^oun which it qualifies are 
 in the same clause or member of a sentence, the Adjective 
 is usually placed after its Xoun ; as, ceann liath, a hoary 
 head; duine ro ghlic, a very wise man. If they be in dif- 
 ferent clauses, or if the one be in the subject, and the other 
 in the predicate of a proposition, this rule does not apply ; 
 as, is glic an duine sin, that is a loise man; cha truagh learn 
 do chor, I do not thinli your case unfortunate, 
 
 1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which 
 add, iomadh many, gach every, are placed before their Xouns; 
 as, tri lathan, three days; an treas latha, the third day ; iomadh 
 duine, many a man; gach eun g' a nead, every bird to its nest. 
 — Except such instances as the following : Eigh Tearlach a 
 h-Aon, King CJiarles the First; Eigh Seumas a Cuig, Kiii^ 
 James the Fifth, 
 
 2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed 
 before their nouns; as, mo lamh, my hand. The interro- 
 gatives co, cia, &c., are placed before their nouns, with the 
 article intervening ; as, cia am fear? ichich man ? 
 
 3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed 
 before their JS'ouns; as, deadh dhuine, a good man; droch 
 ghniomh, a had action; seann sluagh, old people. Such 
 Adjectives, placed before their Kouns, often combine with 
 them, so as to represent one complex idea, rather than two 
 distinct ones ; and the adjective and noun, in that situation, 
 may rather be considered as one complex term, than as two 
 distinct words, and written accordingly; as, oigfhear, a young 
 man; ogbhean, a young woman; garbhchriochan, rude re- 
 gions (y). 
 
 iy) So in English, Grandfather, Highlands, sometimes ; in Latin, Res- 
 pMica, Decemviri ; in Italian, Pnmareray in French, Bonheur, Malheur, 
 
142 OF SYNTAX. Part III. J 
 
 Form.^ 
 
 Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, 
 yet its Form is not always determined by the i^oun whose 
 signification it modifies. The Form of the Adjective de- 
 pends on its Noun, when it immediately follows the JSToun, 
 or only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, 
 gle, &c., and when both the [N'oun and the Adjective are in 
 the Subject or both in the Predicate, or in the same clause 
 or member of a sentence. In all other situations, the form 
 of the Adjective does in no respect depend on the JSToun ; or, 
 in other Tvoixis, the Adjective does not agree with the iN'oun (z). 
 
 To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be at- 
 tentively considered : — Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, / dislike 
 the cold wind ; is beag orm f uaim na gaoithe f uaire, / dislike 
 the sound of the cold wind ; is beag orm seasamh anns a' 
 ghaoith fhuair, I dislike standing in the cold wind. In 
 these examples, the Adjective and the Xoun are both in the 
 same clause or member of a sentence, and therefore they must 
 agree together. In the following examples the Adjective and 
 the Noun do not necessarily agree together : — Is fuar a' ghaoth 
 d tuath, cold is the wind from the north; is trie leis a' ghaoith 
 a tuath bhi fuar, it is usual for the wind from the north to he 
 cold. In these examples, the Noun is In the Subject, and the 
 Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition. 
 
 &c. from being an adjective and a noun, came to be considered as a single 
 complex term, or a compound word, and to be written accordingly. 
 
 A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the 
 collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is ordinarily 
 placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is by a kind of 
 poetical inversion ; dorchadas tiugh, des tenehres epaisses ; by inversion, 
 tiugh dhorchadas, d' ejjaisses tenehres ; fear mor, un homme grand ; 
 by inversion, in a metaphorical sense, mor fhear, un grand homme. A 
 Numeral Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun ; as also 
 iomadh, plusieurs; except when joined to a proper name, where the 
 Cardinal is used for the Ordinal ; Seumas a Ceithir, Jaques Quatre. 
 
 {z) The same seems to be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's 
 **Arch. Brit." p. 243, col. 3. 
 
 When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of termina- 
 tion ; as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, the Lord will descend with 
 a great shout, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, as the voice of a great 
 multitvjde, Rev. xix. 6. 
 
Part TIT.] OF SYNTAX 143 
 
 The grammatical distinction observable in tlie following 
 examples is agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety: — 
 Einn mis an scian gheur, I made ilie shar}) knife: here the 
 Adjective agrees with the Xoun, for it modifies the Xoun, 
 distinguishing that knife from others. Einn mis an scian 
 geur, / made the hiife sharp: here the Adjective does not 
 agree with the Xoun, for it modifies not the Xoun but the 
 Verb. It does not characterize the ohject on which the 
 operation is performed, but it combines with the Verb in 
 specifying the nature of the operation performed. The expres- 
 sion is equivalent to gheuraich mi an scian, / sharpened the 
 knife. So also, mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fhuar, I felt the cold 
 wind ; but mhothaich mi a' ghaoth f uar, / felt the mnd 
 cold. In the former of these examples the Adjective 
 modifies the [N'oun, and agrees with it ; in the latter it does 
 not agree with the Xoun, for its use is to modify the Verb, 
 or to specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, 
 dh' fhag iad an obair criochnaichte, they left the icork finished ; 
 fhuaradh an 5igh sinte, marbh, the maid ic as found stretched 
 out dead. And so in other similar instances. 
 
 1. When an Adjective and Xoun are so situated and re- 
 lated, that an agreement takes place between them, then 
 the Adjective agrees with its noun in Gender, Xumber, 
 and Case. A Xoun preceded by the JS'umeral da two, 
 though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of 
 Part II. Chap I.] takes an Adjective in the Plural ; as, 
 da iasg bheaga, tivo small fishes, John, vi. 9. The Initial 
 Form of the Adjective depends partly on the Gender of the 
 iS'oun, partly on its Termination, and partly on its being pre- 
 ceded by the Article. 
 
 The following examples of an Adjective declined along 
 with its Noun, exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as 
 well as in the Termination of the Adjective : — 
 
14^1 OF SYNTAX. [Part IH 
 
 MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 Fear m6r, mas. a Great Man. 
 
 Without the Article, 
 Sing, riur. 
 
 N, Fear m6r, Fir mhora, 
 
 G. Fir mh6ir, Fheara in6ra, 
 
 D. Fear in6r, Fearaibh mora, 
 
 F. Fhir mhoir. Fheara mora. 
 
 With the Article, 
 N, Am Fear m6r, Xa Fir mli6ra, 
 
 G, An Fhir mhoir, !N'am Fear m6ra. 
 D. An Fhear mh6r. Na Fearaibh m6ra. 
 
 Slat gheal, fern, a white rod. 
 
 Without the Article, 
 N, Slat gheal, Slafcan geala, 
 
 G, Slaite gile, Shlatan geala, 
 
 D, Slait ghil, Slataibh geala, 
 
 V. Shlat gheaL Shlata geala. 
 
 With the Article. 
 
 N. An t-Slat gheal, K'a Slatan geala, 
 
 G. N'a Slaite gile, IsTan Slata geala, 
 
 D. An t-Slait ghil. Na Slataibh geala. 
 
 POLYSYLLABLES. 
 
 Oglach dileas, m. a Faithful Servant. 
 
 Without the Article, 
 
 N, Oglach dileas, Oglaich dhileaS; 
 
 G. Oglaich dhilis, Oglach dileas, 
 
 D. Oglach dileas, Oglachaibh dileas, 
 
 F. Oglaich dhilis. Osrlacha dileas. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 1 15 
 
 With the Article, 
 N, An t-Oglach dileas, !N'a h-Oglaich dhileas. 
 
 G. An Oglaich dhilis, !N'an Oglach dileas. 
 
 D, An Oglach dhileas, Na h-Oglachaibh dileas. 
 
 Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. a Tuneful Harp, 
 
 Without the Article, 
 N, Clarsach fhonnmhor, Clarsaichean fonnmhor. 
 
 G. Clarsaich fonnmhoir, Chlarsach fonnmhor. 
 
 D. Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. 
 
 V. Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Chlarsaiche fonnmhor. 
 
 With the Article, 
 N, A! Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor. 
 G, INa Clarsaich fonnmhoir, Nan Clarsach fonnmhor. 
 D, A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnoir, Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. 
 
 An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by 
 a Xoun terminating in a Lingual, retains its primary Form 
 in all the Singular cases ; for the sake, it would seem, of 
 preserving the agreeable sound arising from the coalescence 
 of the two Linguals ; as, nighean donn a brown maid, instead 
 of nighean dhonn ; a' choin duibh of the hlacJc dog, instead of 
 a! choin dhuibh ; air a' chois deis on his right foot^ instead of 
 air a chois dheis. 
 
 IL A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspi- 
 rated Form ; as, ard bheann a high hill, cruaidh dheuchainn 
 a hard trial, 
 
 1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form ; 
 as, tri meoir three fingers ; to which add iomadh many, gach 
 every ; as, iomadh fear ma^iy a man; gach craobh every tree, 
 — Except aon one, da tivo ; ceud first ; as, aon f hear one man, 
 da chraoibh two trees. 
 
 2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive 
 Pronouns, a her, ar our, bbur your, an their, is in the primary 
 
 K 
 
146 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 Form; as, a mathair her mother, ar brathair our brother. 
 When the Possessive Pronoun a her, precedes a !N^oun or an 
 Adjective beginning with a vowel, h is inserted between them; 
 as, a h-athair, her father, a h-aon mhac her only son. The 
 Possessive Pronouns ar our, bhur your, usually take n between 
 them and the following N^oun or Adjective beginning with a 
 vowel ; as, ar n-athair our father, bhur n-aran your bread. 
 Perhaps a distinction ought to made, by inserting n only 
 after ar, and not after bhur {d). This would serve often to 
 distinguish the one word from the other in speaking, where 
 they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced 
 ur. 
 
 3. A I^oun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an 
 Adjective ending in n, is in the primary Porm ; as, aon duine 
 one man, seaun sluagh old people. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Of the Agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent. 
 
 The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the Number 
 of their Antecedents, i.e. of the Xouns which they represent. 
 Those of the 3d Pers. Sing, follow also the Gender of their 
 antecedent; as, sheas a'bhean aig a chosaibh, agus thoisich i air 
 am fiiuchadh leis a deuraibh, agus thiormaich i lad le gruaig 
 a cinn, the woman stood at his feet, and she began to ivet them 
 toith her tears, and she wiped tliem with the hair of her head, 
 Luke vii. 38. They follow, however, not the Gender of the 
 Antecedent, but the sex of the creature signified by the 
 Antecedent, in those words in which Sex and Gender disagree^ 
 as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an ceudn' do sholair nead dh'i fein 
 the sioalloio too hath provided a nest for herself, Psal. Ixxxiv. 
 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe a swalloiv, is a mas. ^^Toun, as appears 
 by the mas. Article : but as it is the dam that is spoken of, 
 the reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. 
 gender. Ta gliocas air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn Wisdom, 
 
 (d) Thus, bhur inntinu your mind, Acts xv. 24. 
 
Tart III.] OF SYNTAX. 147 
 
 isjtibtified hy her children, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. 
 noun ; but as Wisdom is here personitied as a female, the 
 regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted to that idea 
 (e). See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this sentence Och nach b* 
 i mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun i is cor- 
 rectly put in the fem. gender, as referring to the fern, noun 
 madainn ; while the latter pron. e is put in the mas. gend. 
 because referring to no expressed antecedent. 
 
 If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, 
 the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. Sing, masculine ; as, dh' ith na 
 ba caola suas na ba reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra e, 
 the lean cattle ate up the fat cattle^ and could not he knoicn hy 
 them. 
 
 If the Antecedent be a collective Xoun, the Pronoun is of 
 the 3d Pers. Plur. as, thoir aithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m 
 bris iad asteach charge the people lest they hreaJc in, Exod. xix. 
 21. 
 
 An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks 
 a question without the intervention of the Substantive verb ; 
 as, comisel icho [am'] I? co iad na daoine sin ? who [art] 
 those men ? cia i a' cheud aithne ] which [is] the first command- 
 ment ? In interrogations of this form, the noun is some- 
 times preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and sometimes not ; 
 as, CO e am fear] who [is] the man? co am fear] tchat 
 man? Co am fear] is evidently an incomplete sentence, 
 like what man ? in English. The ellipsis may be 
 supplied thus ; co e am fear a ta thu ciallachadh ] icho is the 
 man ichom you mean ? This example may be abridged into 
 another common interrogation, in which the Interrogative is 
 immediately followed by the Eelative ; as, co a ta thu cial- 
 lachadh ] icho [is he] whom you mean ? ciod a ta thu faicinn? 
 lohat [is it] that you see? 
 
 In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun 
 and a ^oun, as, co e am fear sin] if the Noun be restricted in 
 
 (e) This, however, does not happen invariably. AVliere the Sex, though 
 specified, is overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive 
 Pronouns follow the Gender of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3. 
 
14S OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 its signification by some other words connected with it, such 
 as the Article, an Adjective, another !N'oun in the Genitive, 
 or a relative clause, then the Pronoun usually follows the 
 Gender of the [N'oun, or the Sex of the object signified by the 
 !N'oun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co e am 
 fear a theid a suas ? who is the man that shall ascend ? co i 
 am boirionnach sin? ivho is that woman ? cia i a' cheud aithne] 
 which is the first commandment ? If the Xoun be not so re- 
 stricted, the Pronoun is of the raasculine gender ; as, ciod e 
 uchdmhacachd ^ what is adoption ? ciod e urnuigh ] what is 
 prayer ? (/) 
 
 (f) I am aware of the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety 
 of such expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd ? ciod e Urnuigh ? as, the 
 nouns uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender ; and 
 as this assertion stands opposed to tlie respectable authority of the Editor 
 of the Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i 
 urnuigh ? &c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive 
 reader. 
 
 In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer 
 to some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject 
 of the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference to 
 any genus or species he pleases. If I ask ' Who was Alexander ?' the 
 Interrogative who refers to the species man^ of which Alexander, the subject 
 of the query, is understood to have been an individual. The question is 
 equivalent to ' What man was Alexander ?' If I ask 'What is Man V the 
 Interrogative what refers to the genus of Existence or Being, of which Man 
 is considered as a subordinate genus or species. The question is the 
 same with ' What Being is Man V I may also ask ' What vras 
 Alexander V Here the Interrogative what refers to some genus or species 
 of which Alexander is conceived to have been an individual, though the 
 particular genus intended by the querist is left to be gathered from^ the 
 tenor of the preceding discourse. It would be improper, however, to say 
 * Who is man ?' as the Interrogative refers to no higher genus than that 
 expressed by the word Man. It is the same as if one should ask ' What 
 man is Man V 
 
 In the question * What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to learn 
 the meaning of the term Prayer. The Interrogative what refers to the 
 genus of Existence, as in the question * What is Man ?' not to the word 
 Prayer, which is the subject of the query. It is equivalent to * What is 
 [that thing which is named] Prayer V In those languages where a variety 
 of gender is prevalent, this reference of the Interrogative is more con- 
 spicuously marked. A Latin writer would say * Qi'Ad est Oratio*?' A 
 Frenchman, 'Qu' est-ce que la Priere ?' These questions, in a complete 
 
 * See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin Rudiments, 
 where many similar expressions occur; as Quid est fides? 'Quid est Lex? Quid est 
 Baptismus? 'Quid Sacramenta? <fec.' 
 
PART III.] OF SYNTAX. 149 
 
 Section IY, 
 
 Of the Agreement of a Yerbwith its ]^ominative. 
 
 As the Yerb has no variation of form corresponding to the 
 Person or !N'umber of its Xominative, the connection between 
 a Yerb and its !N'orainative can be marked only by its colloca- 
 tion. Little variety therefore is allowed in this respect. The 
 Nominative, whether Xoun or Pronoun, is ordinarily placed 
 after the Yerb; as, ta mi I am, rugadh duine-cloinne a man- 
 child is horn (g). The Article or an Adjective, is frequently 
 
 form, would run thus ; ' Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio ?' * Qu' est-ce 
 que [I'on appelle] la Priere V On the same principle, and in the same sense, 
 a Gaelic writer must say, * Ciod e urnuigh V the Interrogative Ciod e re- 
 ferring not to urnuigh but to some higher genus. The expression, when 
 completed, is ' Ciod e [sin de 'n goirear] urnuigh V 
 
 Is there then no case in wlilch the Interrogative may follow the gender 
 of the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, by 
 a general tenn, limited in its signification by a noun, adjective, relative 
 clause, &c. ; the reference of the Interrogative is often, though not always 
 not necessarily, made to that term in its general acceptation, and consequently 
 be ' What is the Lord's Prayer ?' Here the subject of the query is not 
 Prayer^ but an individual of that species, denoted by the term prayer 
 limited in its signification by another noun. The Interrogative ^uhat may 
 refer, as in the former examples, to the genus of Existence ; or it may refer 
 to the species Prayer^ of which the sul.iject of the query is an individual. 
 That is, I may be understood to ask either 'What is that thing which is 
 called the Lord's Prayer ?' or 'What is that prayer which is called the Lord's 
 Prayer V A Latin writer would say, in the former sense, ' Quid est Oratio 
 Dominica* ?' in the latter sense, 'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica V The former 
 of these expressions is resolvable into ' Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio 
 Dominica? 'the latter into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The same 
 diversity of expression would be used in French : ' Qu' est-ce que I'Oraison 
 Dominicale?' and 'Quelle est I'Oraison Dominicale ?' The former resolvable, 
 into 'Qu' est-ce que [I'on appelle] I'Oraison Dominicale? the latter into 
 'Quelle [oraison] est I'Oraison Dominicale ? So also in Gaelic, 'Ciod e 
 Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to ' Ciod e [sin de'n goirear] Urnuigh 
 an Tighearna ?' or, which will occur oftener, ' Ciod i Urnuigh an Tig- 
 hearna ?' equivalent to ' Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n goirear] Urnuigh 
 an Tighearna V 
 
 (g) The same arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and 
 seems the natural and ordinary collocation of the Yerb and its Xoun in 
 that language. When the Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it 
 will generally be found that the Noun does not immediately connect with 
 the Verb as the Nominative to it, but rather stands in an absolute state; 
 
 • So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Cocna?' 
 
150 OF SYNTAX. [Paet III. 
 
 placedbetweenthe Verb and its Nominative; as, thainig an uair, 
 the hour is come ; aithrisear iomadh droch sgeul, many an evil 
 tale will he told. Sometimes, but more rarely, circumstances 
 are expressed beween the Verb and its JN^ominative ; as, 
 rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an 
 Slanuighear, tliere is horn to us, this day, in David^s town, 
 the Saviour, 
 
 The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can 
 never, even in poetry, he placed between the Yerb and its 
 ISTominative, without altering the sense. Hence the arrange- 
 ment in the following passages is incorrect: — Ghabh domblas 
 agus fiongeuriad, they took gall and vinegar, ^^Buch. Gael. 
 Poems," Edin. 1 767. p. 14. The collocation should have been 
 ghabh iad domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-ce, the world 
 heard it, id. p. 15, ought to have been, do chual an cruinne-ce 
 e. So also, do ghabh truaighe, losa dhoibh, Jesus took pity 
 
 and that it is brought forward in that state by itself to excite attention, 
 and denotes some kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noim. Take 
 the following examples for illustration : Gen. i. 1, 5. * In the beginning 
 God created [qTI^J^ ^"12 in the natural order] the Heaven and the Earth.' 
 nmn rnxm '•> ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Earth was, &c., but 'and with respect to the 
 Earth, it was without form,' &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic : *agus an talamh 
 bha e gun dealbh,' &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord w^ent his way 
 [n^n^ n^^l ^^ ^^^ natural order] as soon as he had left communing wdth 
 Abraham;' HC^ CDn^lSnij not simply 'and Abraham returned,' &c., but 
 and Abraham — he too returned to his place.* In Gaelic, * agus Abraham, 
 phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25. — Gen. iii. 12. ' And the 
 man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, yp rUD^ ^IH ^^^ 
 it was that gave me of the tree, and I did eat.' Gen. iii. 13. 'And the 
 woman said, >^5<t^n t^^^J^J ^^^ merely ' the Serpent beguiled me,' but Hhe 
 Serpent was the cause; it beguiled me, and I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. 
 * Jehovah — he will fight for you ; but as for you, ye shall hold your peace.' 
 This kind of emphasis is correctly expressed in the Eng. translation of 
 Psal. Ix. 12, 'for he it is that shall tread, down our enemies.* Without 
 multiplying examples, I shall only observe that it must be difficult for the 
 English reader to conceive that the Noun denoting the subject of a pro- 
 position, when placed after its Verb, should be in the natural order ; and 
 when placed before its Verb, should be in an inverted order of the words. 
 To a person well aquainted with the Gaelic, this idiom is familiar ; and 
 therefore it is the easier for him to apprehend the effect of such an arrange- 
 ment in any other language. For want of attending to this peculiarity in 
 the structure of the Hebrew, much of that force and emphasis, which in 
 other languages would be expressed by various particles, but in Hebrew 
 depend on the collocation alone, must pass unobserved and unfelt. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX 151 
 
 on them. Matt. xx. 34, Irish vers. It ought to have been, do 
 ghabh losa tniaighe^ &c. (li). 
 
 The Relatives a iclio^ nach iclio not^ are always put before 
 the verb; as, am fear athuit, the man iclio fell ; am fear nach 
 dean beud, the man icho will not commit a fault. 
 
 In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the 
 Nominative is sometimes placed before the Verb ; as doimh- 
 neachd na talmhain ta 'n a laimh, in his hand is the depth of 
 the earth, Psal. xcv. 4. 
 
 Oigh cha tig le clar 'n an comhdhail. 
 
 No virgin with harp icill come to meet them. 
 
 Smith's '^Ant. GaL Poems," p. 285. 
 
 Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas, 
 Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh. 
 
 Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my 
 remembrance the form of my love. Id. p. 30. 
 
 An la sin cha tigh gu brath, 
 
 A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath. 
 
 That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of 
 my love to the North. Fingal 11. 192. 
 
 Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamhj 
 Mo lann do neach beo cha gheilL 
 
 In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man 
 shall yield. Fing II. 203. This inversion is never admitted 
 into plain discourse or unimpassioned narrative. 
 
 In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations 
 supply the place of the Personal Pronouns, no Xominative is 
 expressed along with the Verb. In all the other Persons of 
 the Verb, a Xoun or a Pronoun is commonly expressed as its 
 Xominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the Xom- 
 inative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach 
 
 {h) I am happy to be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by 
 E. 0"C., author of a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, ISOS, who informs us that 
 tTuaighe is here the Nominative, and losa the Accusative case ; and that 
 tile meaning is not Jesiis took pity on them, \)\xipity seized Jesiis for them. 
 
152 OF SYNTAX, [Paet IIL 
 
 gabh 'nnair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair 's aill, the man who 
 will not take when \he'\ can get, will not get when \lie\ wishes, 
 
 A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit? 
 Game, why stoodst ? Gaul, why didst fall ? 
 
 Smithes '^ Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153. 
 
 The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the 
 Agent ; in which case the Preposition do is either expressed 
 or understood before the Infinitive ; as, feuch, cia meud a 
 mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh ann sith ! hehold how 
 great a good it is, that brethren dwell in ]oeaceI Psal. cxxxiii, 
 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile dhuibhse, 
 my abiding in the flesh is more needflul for you, Phil. i. 24, 
 Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail De, agus a 
 fhrithealadh do bhordaibh, it is not meet that we should 
 leave the word of God, and serve tables. Acts vi. 2. The Pre- 
 position do, being softened as usual into a, readily disappears 
 after a Yowel ; as, air son mi bhi a ris a lathair maille ribh, by 
 my being again present with you, Phil. i. 26 (z). 
 
 Section V. 
 
 Of the Agreement of one Koun with Another. 
 
 When in the same sentence two or more N'ouns, applied 
 as names to the same object, stand in the same grammatical 
 relation to other words, it should naturally be expected that 
 their Form, in so far as it depends on that relation, should 
 be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same 
 object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree 
 in Case. This accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. 
 In Gaelic, where a variety of form gives room for the appli- 
 cation of the same rule, it has been followed in some instances; 
 as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, Duncan the son of 
 
 ii) This construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by 
 the Accusative of the Agent. 
 
 Mene desistere vietam, 
 
 Nee posse Italia Teucroinim avertere regem ? 
 
 I. ^nid 28. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 153 
 
 Colin the son of Donald; where the words Chailain and mhic 
 denoting the same person, and being alike related to the pre- 
 ceding Noun mac are on that account both in the same Case. 
 It must be acknowledged, however, that this rule, obvious 
 and natural as it is, has not been uniformly observed by the 
 speakers of Gaelic. For example ; instead of mac loseiph an 
 t-saoir, the son of Joseph the carpenter, many would more 
 readily say, mac loseiph an saor; instead of thuit e le laimh 
 Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, he fell hy the hand of Oscar 
 tJie hold hero, it would rather be said, thuit e le laimh Oscair 
 an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of 
 expression may perhaps be defended on the ground of its 
 being elliptical; and the ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac 
 loseiph [is e sin] an saor; laimh Oscair [neach is e] an laoch 
 cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in favour of the rule 
 in question, that the observance of it serves to mark the 
 relation of the I^ouns to each other, which w^ould otherwise 
 remain, in many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the 
 foregoing examples, if we should reject the rule, and write 
 mac loseiph an saor; it would be impossible to know, from 
 the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son were the 
 carpenter. 
 
 The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced pro- 
 bably by the reasonableness and utility of the rule under 
 consideration, by the example of the most polished Tongues, 
 and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some phrases, have 
 uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was 
 in the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 
 1 Kings ii. 7; righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12 ; 
 do thaobh Eheniamin am brathar, Judg. xxi. 6 ; ag gabhail 
 nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a* cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. 
 The rule seems to have been disregarded when the leading 
 Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Euth iv. 5 
 Acts xiii. 33. 
 
154 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 CHAPTEE IL 
 
 OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Under this head is to be explained the Government of 
 ^N'ouns, of Adjectives, of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Con- 
 junctions. 
 
 Section I. 
 Of the Government of ISTouns. 
 
 One [N'oun governs another in the Genitive, The l^oun 
 governed is always placed after that which governs it; as, 
 ceann tighe, the head of a house or family ; solus na greine, 
 light of the sun; bainne ghabhar milk of goats. 
 
 The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves 
 [N'ouns, (See Part II. Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner 
 the Genitive of their object; as, ag cur sil, sowing seed; a dh' 
 fhaicinnant-sluaigh, to see the^people; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, 
 after reading the gospel (k). 
 
 Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is 
 common to the Gaelic with many other languages, should 
 ever be set aside, yet it has been set aside in speaking, and 
 sometimes in writing Gaelic. 
 
 1. AVhen the iN'oun governed does in its turn govern 
 another Noun in the Genitive, the former is often put in the 
 iSTominative instead of the Genitive case. The following 
 instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic Scriptures : — Guth 
 briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, the voice of tlie 
 words of the people, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a'gharaidh, 
 instead of, chraobhan, of the fruit of the trees of the garden, 
 
 (k) So in English, the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used 
 instead of the Present Participle, and followed by the Prei^osition of; as, 
 Hhe woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10. 
 
 some sad drops 
 
 Wept at completing of the mortal sin. 
 
 "Parad. Lost." 
 
 See more examples, Num. xiii. 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, xxxv, 
 14, Ezek. xxxix. 12. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 155 
 
 Gen. iii. 2 ; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, for thighean, devour- 
 ing widoioi houses, Matt, xxiii. 14; ag nochdadh obair an lagha, 
 for oibre, slioicing the icork of the law, Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhn- 
 eachadh gun sgur obair bbur creidimb, agus saothair bbur 
 graidh, for oibre, saoit]lreacb,reme77^&e7•^^^^ loithout ceasing your 
 work of faith, and labour of love, 1 Thess. i. 3; trid full is 
 fearta Chriost, through the blood and merits of Christ, Gael. 
 Paraph. 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. 13; 
 ag kiteach sliabh Shioin, forsleibh, inhabiting the hill of Zion, 
 Psal. ix. 11. metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, 
 according to the usage of the language, but changed to oibre, 
 in Edit. 1796, to suit the Grammatical Rule (/). For the 
 most part, however, the general rule, even in these circum- 
 stances^ is followed; as, guth fola do bhrathar, the voice of thy 
 hrother^s blood, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn duthcha cloinne a shluaigh 
 the river of the land of the children of his people, Numb, 
 xxii. 5; a*'nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo thighearna, to icash 
 the feet of the servants of my lord, 1 Sam. xxv. 41. 
 
 2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions 
 to the rule: — Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 
 1 Chron. xxi. 20; leanabaibh mac. Matt. ii. 16. In the 
 following similar instances, the rule is observed : — Dithis mhac, 
 Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; ceathrar fhear. Acts 
 xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona. Acts xxi. 9. 
 
 The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the 
 infinitive, as in that of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive 
 be in that grammatical relation to a preceding Noun which 
 would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when itself 
 also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains 
 the form of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, 
 gnathachadh, briseadh, admit of a regular Genitive, naomh- 
 achaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the following examples, 
 
 {I) On the same principle it is that in some compound words, composed 
 of two Nouns whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the 
 former Noun is seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na- 
 bainse, thehrides name; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainni mna- 
 na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone wliich 
 supports a hearth fire. 
 
156 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 these Infinitives, because they govern a subsequent Noun in 
 the Genitive, are themselves in the ^N'ominative, though their 
 relation to the preceding word naturally requires their being 
 put in the Genitive Case. Tha an treas aithne a' toirmeasg 
 mi-naomhacha6?A no mi-ghnathacha<i/i ni sam bith, &c., the 
 third commandment forhids the jjrojaning or the abusing of 
 any thing, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, Answer to Q. 
 55. Ged fheud luchdbriseaiiA na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. 
 Q. 56., though the transgressors of this commandment may 
 escape, &c. Cuis crathai^ cinn is c^'s>adh beil, Psal. xxii. 7, 
 as it is in the older edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh 
 leugha(i/i anlagha, after the reading of the Law, Acts. xiii. 15; 
 luchd Gximadh uilc, Eom. i. 30 {m). 
 
 The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded 
 
 (m) These examples suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this 
 idiom of Gaelic Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute 
 much to the perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. ^"S'Tien 
 a compound term occurs, made up of a Noun and an Infinite governed by 
 that Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in 
 the Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. 
 If it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the former part of 
 the compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the 
 Genitive Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the loMer part 
 of the compound word, then, agreeably to the construction exemplified in 
 the above passages, that latter part, which is here supposed to be an Infini- 
 tive, should fall back into the Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimhzd an 
 Righ, the King's store house, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the 
 former term of the compound word ; but tigh comhead an ionmhais, John 
 viii. 20, the house for keeping the treasure, where ionmhais is governed by 
 coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive. 
 So luchd-coimhid, Matt, xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is governed ; but 
 fear-coimhead a' phriosuin. Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where the last Noun is 
 governed in the Genitive by coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nomina- 
 tive. So also fear-coimhid, Psal. cxxi. 3, but fear-coimhead Israeli, Psal. 
 cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. Tigh-bearraidh nam buachaillean, the shearing -house 
 belonging to the shepherds, 2 King, x. 12, but tigh-bearradh nan caorach, 
 the house for shearing the sheep. Luchd-brathaidh an Righ the King's 
 spies ; but luchd-brathadh an Righ, the betrayers of the King. Luchd- 
 mort-aidh Heroid, assassins employed by Herod ; but luchd-mortodh Eoin, 
 the murderers of John, 
 
 I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the trans- 
 lators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being suggested, 
 on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and because it is 
 supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic language. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 157 
 
 by a Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited 
 state as if it governed a Noun in the Genitive Case ; as, a 
 chum am marbhadh 's na beanntaibh, to kill them in the 
 mountains, Exod. xxxii., not marbhazdh, which is the Case 
 regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g iarraidh do mharbhadh] 
 John vii. 20, not do mharbhazdh. Thug iad leo e chum a 
 cheusac^/i. Matt, xxvii. 31. Chum an cruinneachatZA gucath. 
 Eev. XX. 8 (7i). 
 
 This coincidence in the Eegimen of the Infinitive in two 
 similar situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, 
 and when limited by a subsequent Xoun, furnishes no slight 
 argument in support of the construction defended above, of 
 putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when itself governs a 
 !N'oun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably 
 put in the j^om. when limited in its signification by a Possess. 
 Pronoun. 
 
 When one Xoun governs another in the Genitive, the 
 Article is never joined to both, even though each be limited 
 in its signification; as, mac an righ, the son of the king, not 
 am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, the south side of the 
 town, not an taobh deas a' bhaile (o). For the most part, the 
 Article is thus joined to the latter !N'oun. Sometimes it is 
 joined to the former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, the head of 
 the family; an ceann iuil, the pilot; but in such instances the 
 two Nouns figure as one complex term, like paterfamilias, 
 rather than as two terms. The following examples, in which 
 the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally repug- 
 nant to the Gaelic idiom : cuimhneachadh nan ciiig aran nan 
 ciiig mile, Matt. xvi. 9 ; nan seachd aran 7ian ceithir mile, 
 Matt. xvi. 10 {p), 
 
 (n) For this reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum fl 
 losgaidh, 1 Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh. 
 
 {o) The same peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, 
 and constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two 
 languages. See Buxt. Thes. Gram, Eeb. Lib. 11. Cap. V. 
 
 (p) This solecism is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic 
 translation. The Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version 
 and in the Scottish Gaelic version of 17G7, a similar instance occurs in 
 
158 OF SYNTAX. [Pakt IH. 
 
 A Possessive Pronoun joined to the !N'oun governed ex- 
 cludes, in like manner, the Article from the Xoun governing; 
 as, barr-iall a bhroige, the latchet of his shoe, not am barr-iall 
 a bhr6ige; obair bhur lamh, the work of your hands, not an 
 obair bhur lamh. 
 
 The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes 
 in the Aspirated Form. 
 
 Proper Xames of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated 
 Form; as,brathair Dhonuill,Z)o??aZ(i'5 brother; uaigh Choluim, 
 Columha-s grave. Except when a final and an initial Lingual 
 meet ; as, clann Donuill, Donald's descendants; beinn JJeirg 
 Dargds hill. 
 
 When both Xouns are Appellatives, and no word inter- 
 venes between them, the initial Form of the latter Xoun 
 follows, for the most part, that of an Adjective agreeing with 
 the former ]^oun. See p. 144. 
 
 Thus, d' a gharadh /iona, g' a gharadh /iona, without the 
 Article, Matt. xx. 1,2, like do dhuine 7?zaith; but do 'n gharadh 
 /Aiona, with the Article v, 4, 7, like do 'n duine wraith. 
 So we should say do 'n ard fhear-c/duil, rather than do 'n 
 ard fhear-ciuil, as in the title of many of the Psalms. 
 
 Except. — If the latter Noun denote an individual of a 
 species, that is, if it take the Article a before it in English, 
 it is put in the primary form, although the former Xoun be 
 feminine ; as, su.il caraid, the eye of a friend, not siiil c/iaraid, 
 like suil mJior; duals /aidh, a projAefs reward, Matt. x. 4, 
 not duais/Aaidh, like duals rahh^. Chum maitheanais ^j^eacaidh, 
 Acts, ii. 38, signifies /(9r the remission of a sin; rather chuiu 
 maitheanais ^^/leacaidh for the remission of sin. 
 
 Acts, ii. 20, an la mor agus oirdheirc sin an Tighearna. In the Scottish 
 edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting the first Article. 
 It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other hand, the Article, 
 which had been rightly left out in the Edition of 1767, is properly intro- 
 duced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, an cupan so an Tighearna. 
 It is proper to mention that, in the passage last quoted, the first article om 
 had crept, by mistake, into a part of the imiDression 1796, but was corrected 
 in the remaining part. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. 159 
 
 Section II. 
 Op the Government of Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, Ian uamhainn 
 full of dread, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, satisfied with 
 meat. 
 
 The first Comparative takes the Particle na than, before 
 the foUo^ving Xoun ; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, ichiter 
 than the snow ; b' fhaide gach mios na bliadhna, each month 
 seemed longer than a year. Smith's " Ant. Poems," p. 9. 
 
 The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi 
 so, I am the better for this; bu mhisd e am buille sin, he teas 
 the worse for that blow; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, /Ae 
 body is not the heavier for its understanding. 
 
 Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe of; 
 as, am fear a 's kirde dhe 'n triuir, the man who is tallest of the 
 three, the tallest man of the three. 
 
 Section III. 
 Of the Government of Verbs. 
 
 A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative 
 or Objective Case; as, mharbh iad an righ, they killed the 
 king ; na buail mi, do not strike me. The object is commonly 
 placed after the Verb, but never between the Verb and its 
 Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. lY,] Sometimes 
 the object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; 
 as, mise chuir e ris ann am aite, agus esan chroch e, me he 
 put again in my place, and him he hanged, Gen. xli. 13. An 
 t-eachagus a mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, thehorse and his 
 rider hath he cast into the sea, Exod. xv. I. 
 
 Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their 
 object; as, iarr air DonuU, desire Donald] labhairri Donull, 
 speak to Donald ; leig le Donull, let Doncdd ahne ; beannuich 
 do Dhonull, salute Donald; fiosraich de Dhonull, enquire of 
 Doncdd, 
 
160 OF SYNTAX. [Part III. 
 
 Bu was, requires the following initial Consonant to be 
 aspirated ; as, bu mhaith dhuit, it was good for you ; bu 
 cbruaidh an gnothuch, it was a hard case ; except initial c?, 
 and t which are not aspirated ; as, bu dual duit, it was natural 
 for you ; bu troni an eallach, the burden was heavy ; bu ghearr 
 a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, short was her course, and sad was her 
 sfoj-y. Smith's ^*Ant. Poems." 
 
 Section IY, 
 Of the Government of Adverbs. 
 
 The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary. 
 
 The Adverbs ro, gle, very, are placed before the Adjectives 
 they modify, and require the following initial Consonant to 
 be aspirated ; as, ro bheag, very little; gle gheal, very white. 
 
 The Negative cha or cho not, when follow^ed by a word 
 beginning with a Labial or Palatal, requires the initial 
 Consonant to be aspirated ; as, cha mhor e, it is not great ; 
 cha bhuail mi, / will not strike ; cha chuala mi, / did not hear ; 
 but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated ; as, cha dean mi, 
 I will not do; cha tog e, he loill not raise; cha soirbhich iad, 
 they will not ^jrcsper, N is inserted between cha and an 
 initial Vowel or an aspirated /; as, cha n-e, it is not ; cha 
 n-eigin, it is not necessary; cha n-fhaca mi, / saw not. 
 
 The Negative ni requires h before an initial Vowel ; as, 
 ni h-iad, they are not; ni h-eudar, it may not. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 Of the Government of Prepositions. 
 
 The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative ; as, 
 aig mo chois, at my foot; air mo laimh, on my hand. They are 
 always placed before the word they govern. The following 
 Prepositions require the Noun governed to be put in the 
 Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, 
 tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form ; 
 as air, bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, on the extremities of the 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. ICl 
 
 wings of the ivind, Tsol. xviii. 10. Gun governs either the 
 Nominative or Dative ; as, gun chrioch, without end, Heb. vii. 
 16; gun cheill, to Ithout understanding, Psal. xxxii. 9; gun 
 chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or gu, when prefixed to 
 a Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative case ; 
 as, mar nighin, as a daughter, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn 
 mh6ir, like a great river, Psal. cv. 41; gu crich mo shaoghail 
 fein, to the end oj my life-time, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. 
 But if the Article be joined to the Noun, it is governed in the 
 Nominative; as, mar a' ghrian, lilie the sun, Psal. Ixxxix. 36, 
 37; gus an sruth, to the stream, Deut. iii. 16 ; gus a' chrioch 
 to the end, Heb. iii. 6, 14. Eadar governs the Nom.; as, eadar 
 a' chraobh agus a* chlach, between the tree and the stone. 
 Eadar, when signifying between, requires the Primary Form ; 
 as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, between a master and a 
 servant; when it signifies both, it requires the Aspirated Form; 
 as, eadar shean agus 6g, both old and young ; eadar fheara 
 agus mhnai, both men and icomen, Acts viii. 12. 
 
 The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Mono- 
 syllables an, am, a\ The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, 
 le, ri, often take an /z. before an initial Yowel; as, a h-Eirin, 
 out of Ireland; guh-ealamh, readily ; le h-eagal, with fear. 
 
 The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in 
 the Genitive; as, air feadh na tire, throughout the land; an 
 aghaidh an t-sluaigh, against tlie people ; re nah-uine, during 
 the time. It is manifest that this Genitive is governed by the 
 Noun feadh, aghaidh, r6, &c., which is always included in the 
 Preposition. See Part II. Chap. YII. 
 
 Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; 
 and then they have no regimen ; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, 
 to carry the table, Exod. xxv. 27 ; luath chumfuil a dhortadh, 
 swift to shed blood, Horn. iii. 15. Edit. 1767; an deigh an obair 
 a chriochnachadh^ after finishing the work. 
 
162 OF SYNTAX. [Part IIL 
 
 Section YI. 
 Of the Government of Conjunctions. 
 
 The Coiijunctions agus and, no or, couple the same Cases 
 of Nouns; as, air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, through rocks 
 and woods ; ag reubadh nam bruach 's nan crann, tearing the 
 hanks and the trees. When two or more Nouns, coupled by 
 a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a Preposition, 
 it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun ; as, air 
 fad agus air lend, in length and in breadth ; 'n an cridhe, 'n 
 an cainnt, agus 'n am beus, in their heart, in their speech, and 
 in their hehaviour, 
 
 Co as, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the 
 initial consonant of the Adj. to be aspirated ; as, co mhaith, 
 as good, co ghrinn, as fine. But sometimes we find co mor, as 
 great, co buan, as duroMe, &c., without the aspirate. Some- 
 times the aspirate is transferred from the Adj. to the Conjunct, 
 as, cho beag, as little, for co bheag. In the North Highlands, 
 an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Compari- 
 tive form j as, co miosa, as had ; co treise, as strong. 
 
 The Conjunctions mur if not, gu, gur that, are always joined 
 to the Negative Mood; as, mur 'eilmi, if I he not ; gu robh 
 e, that he was. M or n is often inserted, euijhonioe causa, 
 between gu and an initial Consonant ; viz., m before a Labial, 
 n before a Palatal or Lingual ; as, gu-m faca tu, that you saw ; 
 gu-n dubhairt iad, that they said (q). 
 
 The Conjunctions ma if, o, o'n because, since, are joined to 
 the Pres. and Pret. Affirmative, and Put. Subjunctive; as, 
 ma ta e, if he he; o'n tha e, siJice he is ; ma bhuail e, if he 
 struck ; o'n bhuail e, because he struck; ma bhuaileas tu, if 
 you strike ; o bhitheas sinn, since we shall be. 
 
 Na'm, na'n if, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. 
 
 {q) The inserted m or ti is generally written with an apostrophe before it, 
 thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here suppressed 
 in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this apostrophe, 
 which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has teen needlessly and 
 improperly introduced. 
 
Part III.] OF SYNTAX. ' 163 
 
 The initial Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after 
 this Conjunction ; as, na'm bithinn, ij I were; nan tuiteadh 
 a* chraobh, if the tree should fall. 
 
 Ged although y is used before the Present and Preterite 
 Affirmative, the Put. Xegative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; 
 as, ged tha e, though he be ; ged bha mi, though I was ; ge do 
 bhuail thu mi, though you struck me ; ged bhuail thu mi, 
 though you strike live; ged. bheireadh e diiiomh., though he 
 should give me (r), 
 
 (r) I much doubt the propriety of joiniDg the Conjunction ged to the 
 Fut. Affirm. ; as, ge do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, though all men 
 shall be ojrended, Matt. xx\i. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na 
 h-uile dhaoine, kc. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper ; as, ge do 
 ghlaodhas iad rium, though they shall cry to me, Jer. xi. 21, Edit. 17S6. 
 Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So also, ged eirich 
 dragh, 's ged bhagair bas, though trouble shall arise, and though death shall 
 iJireaten, Gael. Pai'aph. xlvii. 7. Edin. 17S7. See page 134. Note {x)^ 
 
PAET IV. 
 OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 OF DERIYATIOK 
 
 The Parts of Speech v/hich are formed by derivation from 
 other words are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are 
 chiefly derived from Nouns and Adjectives, and a few from 
 Verbs. 
 
 I. Nouns. 
 Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to 
 the varieties of their termination. 
 
 1. Abstract Nouns in ds^ formed from Adjectives or 
 Nouns ; as, from ceart just, ceartas justice ; from diomhan 
 idle, vain, diomhanas idleness, vanity; from caraid a friend, 
 cairdeas contracted for caraideas friendslvqo ; from namhaid 
 an enemy, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas enmity. 
 
 2. Abstract Nouns in achd, formed from Adjectives, and 
 sometimes, though more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, 
 from naomh holy, naomhachd holiness; from domhain deep, 
 doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd depth; from 
 righ a king, rioghachd a kingdom; coimhid to keej), coim- 
 headachd keeping ; clachair a mason, clachaireachd mason- 
 work; gobhain a smith, goibhneachd contracted for gobh- 
 aineachd iron-iuork, or rather the trade or occupation of a 
 s^mith, 
 
 3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjec- 
 tives, by adding e; as, from dall gen. doill blind, doille 
 blindness; from geal gen. gil white, gile whiteness; from 
 leasg gen, leisg lazy, leisge laziness; tearc gen. teirc rare, 
 teirce farity; trom gen. truim heavy, truime heaviness; 
 truagh gen. truaigh unhappy, truaighe misery ; uasal gen. 
 
Part IV.] OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 165 
 
 uasail nolle, uasaile contr. uaisle or by nietath. uailse 
 
 7loMlif7/. 
 
 4. Abstract Xouns in ad, formed from the Comparative of 
 Adjectives, and used in speaking of the degree of a quality; 
 as, gilead ivhiteness, boidhchead heauty, doimhnead de2')tli, 
 lughad smallness, tainead thinness; these are construed with 
 the Prepositions de, air; as, cha n-fhaca mi a samhuil air 
 bhoidhchead, I have not seen lier match for beauty ; air a lughad 
 or d' a lughad, however small it he. 
 
 5. Nouns in air or oir, ach, iche, derived, most of them, 
 from nouns, and signifying persons or agents; as, piobair a 
 player on the jnpe, from piob a pipe; clarsair a player on the 
 harp, from clarsach a liarp; cealgair or cealgoir a deceiver, 
 from cealg deceit; sealgair or sealgoir a huntsman, from sealg 
 hunting ; marcach a rider, from marc a horse; athach a man 
 of terror, a gigantic figure, from atha fear; oibriche a work- 
 man, from obair work; sgeulaiche a reciter of tales, from 
 sgeul a tale; ceannaiche a merchant, from ceannaich to 
 buy (s). 
 
 6. Diminutives in an, and in ag or og, formed from Nouns 
 or Adjectives; as, lochan a smcdl lake, from loch a lake, 
 from braid theft, bradag a thievish girl; from ciar dark- 
 coloured, ciarag a little dark-coloured creature. These 
 Diminutives are often formed from the Genitive of their 
 Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir grass, feoirnean a 2:>ile of 
 grass; moll gen. muill chaff, muillean a pj article of chaff\' folt 
 gen. fuilt hair, fuiltean a single hair; clag gen. cluig a bell, 
 cluigean a little bell; gual gen. guail coal, guailnean a cinder; 
 smiir gen. smuir dust, smiiirnean a particle of dust, a mote; 
 cloimh plumage, cloimhneag a small feather, a flake of snoiv. 
 
 Some Nouns are formed in an, which are not Diminutives; 
 as, from liib to bend, liiban a boio; from buail to heat, thresh, 
 
 (s) The terminations «/r, oir, seem from their signification as well as form, 
 to be nothing else than fear man, in its aspirated form fhear. From these 
 terminations are derived the Latin terminations or, orator, doctor, &c., aHus 
 sicarius,essedarius, &c. ; the French eur, vengeur, createur, kc. ; aire, com- 
 missaire, notaire, kc.,ter, chevalier, charretier, &c. ; the English er, maker, 
 lover, &c., rt7'y, prebendary, antiq^uary, &c., eer, volunteer, &c. 
 
166 OF DEKIVATION [Part IV. 
 
 buailtean a heater, or thresher, applied to that part of the flail 
 which threshes out the grain. 
 
 7. Collective ^N'ouns in ridh or n, derived from l^ouns oi 
 Adjectives; as, from og young, oigridh youth, in the collective 
 sense of the word; from mac a son, macruidh sons, young 
 men, Psal. cxlviii. 12; (t) from laoch a hero, laochruidh a 
 hand of heroes, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's Paraph, vi. 15, 
 from ceol music, ceolraidh the muses. A. Macdonald's Songs, 
 p. 7, from cos the foot, coisridh infantry, a party on foot, 
 M'Intyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas a lad, gasradh 
 a hand of domestic attendants. O'Brien's Ir. Diet. voc. gas; 
 eachradh, eachruith cavalry. Pingal. lY. 299, Carthon, 59. 
 — This termination is probably the iN'oun ruith a troop. See 
 Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc. {u) 
 
 8. E'ouns in ach, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper 
 JS'ames, thus; from Donull Donald, is formed Donullach a 
 man of the name of Macdonald; from Griogar Gregor, 
 Griogarach a Macgregor ; so Leodach a Macleod, Granntach 
 a Grant, &c., from Albainn Scotland, Albannach a Scotsman; 
 from Eirin Ireland, Eirineach an Irishman. These !N^ouns 
 form their Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, 
 Eirinich. So the following Gentile I^ouns, which occur in 
 the Gaelic Scriptures, are regularly formed from their respec- 
 tive Primitives, Partuich Parthians, Medich Medes, Elamuich 
 Elamites, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich Macedonians, 2 Cor. 
 ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 
 28. (.•). 
 
 {t) Timcheal na macraidhe heside the young men, Lhuyd, O'Brien, voc. 
 timcheal. This passage proves macraidh to he a singular Noun of the 
 fern, gender, not, as might he thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, 
 madraidh, &c. , may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular 
 Numher than as plurals. 
 
 (u) The same termination having the same import, is found in the French 
 words cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, yeomanry. 
 
 (v) In the Gaelic N.Test, the Gentile Nouns KopivQios, TaXarai, Ecpeaioi, 
 are rendered Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. Would it not 
 he agreeable to the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write Corintich, Galataich, 
 Ephesich, subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to the Primitive, rather 
 than by introducing the syllable an, to form a Derivative of a mixed and 
 redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly foreign ? The word Saniari- 
 
Part IV.] AND COMPOSITION. 167 
 
 9. Collective Nouns in ach; as, duille a leaf, duilleach 
 foliage; giuthas fir, giuthasach a fir loood; iughar yeio, 
 iugharach a yeio copse; fiadh a deer, fiadhach deer, a herd 
 of deer; crion diminutive, shrunk, crionach decayed wood. 
 
 II. Adjectives. 
 
 1. Adjectives in ach, formed generally from iN'ouns; as, 
 from firinn truth, firinneach true, faithful; from sunnt glee, 
 sunntach cheerful; cradb ^am, craiteach gainful; togradh 
 desire, togarrach willing, desirous. 
 
 2. Adjectives in mhor or or, derived from !N'ouns; as, 
 from adh felicity, adhmlior happy, blessed; from feoil 
 flesh, feolmhor carnal; from neart strength, neartmhor 
 strong, 
 
 3. Adjectives in ail derived from Xouns; as, from fear 
 man, fearail manfid; from caraid a friend, cairdail contr. 
 for caraidail friendly ; from namhaid an enemy, naimhdail 
 contr. for namhaidail hostile; from surd alertness, surdail 
 alert (w), 
 
 4. A few Adjectives in ta or da, derived from ]N"ounsj as, 
 Gaelta belonging to the Gael; Eireanda Irish; Eomlianta 
 Roman; Kirk, fireanta righteous. Matt, xxiii. 35. 
 
 III. Verbs. 
 
 Verbs in ich, for the most part Transitive, and implying 
 causation, derived from Xouns or Adjectives ; as, from geal 
 
 tanaich, Jolin iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, having no fewer than tl^ree 
 Gentile Terminations. From ^afiapeia is formed, agreeably to the 
 Greek mode of derivation, 'SafiapeLrai. To this the Latins added their own 
 termination, and wrote Samaritani; which the Irish lengthened out still 
 further into Samaritanaich. The proper Gaelic derivation would be 
 Samaraich, like Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. The Irish Galileanach is, 
 in the Scottish Translation 1796, properly changed into Galileach, Acts 
 V. 37. 
 
 {w) The termination ail is a contraction for amhuil like. In Irish this 
 termination is generally -vNTitten full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &:c. From 
 the Gaelic termination ail, is derived the Latin termination aJis, fatalis, 
 hospitalis, &c., whence the English al, final, conditional, &c. See page 35. 
 Note {y). 
 
168 OF DERIVATION [Paet IV. 
 
 white, gealaich ^(9 icliiten ; naomh lioly, xid,o\£^d!\Qh to sanctify ; 
 cruinn round, cruinnich to gather together ; lamh the hand, 
 laimhsich to handle ; cuimhne memory, cuimhnich to remem- 
 her. A few are Intransitive ; as, from critli tremor, criotlmuich 
 to tremhle ; fann feeble, fannuich to faint. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component 
 parts, exclusive of the derivative terminations enumerated in 
 the preceding Chapter. Of these component parts, the 
 former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the latter 
 the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, 
 that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which 
 must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root. 
 
 In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix 
 to the term denoting the principal idea the word denoting 
 the accessory idea or circumstance by which the signification 
 of the principal word is modified. Accordingly we find 
 I^ouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to them 
 a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition. 
 
 In forming compound words, a Rule of very general 
 application is, that when the Subjunctive term begins with a 
 Consonant, it is aspirated. From this Rule, however, are to 
 be excepted, 1. Words beginning with s followed by a mute, 
 which never admit the aspirate ; 2. Words beginning w^ith a 
 Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in n; 3. A few other 
 instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between 
 the Consonants thus brought into apposition, which would 
 be violated if either of them were aspirated. 
 
 These observations will be found exemplified in the follow- 
 ing Compounds; — 
 
Part IV.] AND COMPOSITION. 169 
 
 I. Words Compouxded with a Xoux prefixed. 
 Nouns Comiiounded icitJi a Noun. 
 
 Beart dress, equipage, ceann head — ceann-Llieart head-dress, 
 
 armour for the head. 
 Fainn a ring, cluas the ear — cluas-fhainn an ear-ring. 
 Galar a distemjjer, crith shaking — critli-ghalar distemper 
 
 attended with shalung, the palsy. 
 Oglach a servant, bean (in composition, ban) a woman — 
 
 banoglach a female servant. 
 Faidh a prophet, ban-fhaidli a prophetess. 
 Tighearn a lord, bainti^hearn a lady. 
 
 Adjectives Compounded icith a. Noun. 
 
 Geal white, bian the shin — biangheal ivhite-sTxinned. 
 
 Lorn hare, cas the foot — caslom hare-foot ; ceann the head — 
 
 ceannlom hare-headed. 
 Biorach pointed, sharp, cluas the ear — cluasbhiorach having 
 
 pointed ears. 
 
 Verbs Coinpounded with a Noun. 
 
 Luaisg to rock or toss, tonn a wave^ — tonn-kiaisg to toss on 
 the waves. 
 
 Sleamhnuich to slide, ciil the hack — cul-sleamhniiich to hack- 
 slide. 
 
 Folaich to hide, feall deceit — feall-fholaich to lie in u'ait. 
 
 II. Words Compounded with an Adjective prefixed. 
 Nouns Compounded with an Adjective. 
 
 Uisge water, fior true, genuine — fioruisge spring-wed tr, 
 
 Airgiod silver, beo alive — beo-airgiod quick-silver. 
 
 Sgolt a crack, crion shrunk, decayed — crionsgolt a fissure in 
 
 wood caused hy drought or decay. 
 Criochan bounds, regions, garbh rough — garbhchriochan rude 
 
 mountainous regions. 
 
170 OF DERIVATION [Part IV 
 
 Adjectives Compounded vntli an Adjective, 
 Donn hroivn, dubh black — dubh-dhonn darJc-broivn, 
 Gorm blue, dubh black — dubh-ghorm dark-blue. 
 Briathrach (not in use) from briathar a word, deas ready — 
 
 deas-bhriathrach of ready speech, eloquent 
 Seallach (not in use) from sealladh sight, geur sharp — geur« 
 
 sheallach sharp-sighted. 
 
 Verbs Compounded with an Adjective, 
 
 Euith to run, dian keen, eager — dian-ruifch. to run eagerly. 
 Lean to folloio, geur sharp, severe — geur-lean to persecute, 
 Buail to strike, trom heavy — trom-buail to smite sore, dis- 
 comfit. 
 Ceangail to bind, dliith closer — dliitb-clieangail to bind fast. 
 
 III. Words Compounded with a Verb prefixed. 
 
 Art a stone, tarruing to draw — tarruing-art load-stone. 
 Siiil the eye, meall to beguile — meall-shuil a leering eye. 
 
 IV. Words Compounded with a Preposition. 
 
 Eadh a saying, roimh before — roimh-radh preface, prologue. 
 Solus light, eadar between — eadar-sholus twilight. 
 Minich to explain, eadar-mhinich to interpret. 
 Gearr to cut, timchioU about — timchioU-ghearr circumcise. 
 Lot to wound, troimh through — troimh-lot to stab, pierce 
 through. 
 Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Pre- 
 position are already given in Part 11. Chap. YII. 
 
 Compound ^ouns retain the gender of the principal ^ouns 
 in their simple state. Thus crith-ghalar^<2^5?/, is masculine, 
 because the principal !N"oun, Galar distemper, is masculine, 
 although the accessary IN'oun crith, by which galar is qualified, 
 be feminine. So cis-mhaor is masculine though cis be a 
 feminine J^oun, Luke xviii. 1 1 ; cis-mheasadh ought also to 
 be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Ifouns compounded with 
 
Part IV.] AND COMPOSITION. 171 
 
 Bean womcni, wliich are all feminine, though the simple 
 principal Noun be masculine, because the compound word 
 denotes an object of the female sex ; as, oglach a servant^ 
 masculine, but banoglach a maid-servant^ feminine, caraid a 
 friend, masculine, bancharaid a female friend, feminine. 
 
 Compound words are declined in the same manner as if 
 they were uncompounded. 
 
 In writing compound words, the component parts are 
 sometimes separated by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The 
 use of the hyphen does not seem to be regulated by any 
 uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in 
 apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable ; 
 because, by the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Yowels, 
 belonging to different syllables, are scarcely ever placed next 
 to each other without some mark of separation {x). Thus so- 
 aomaidh, easily induced, proioense ; so-iomchair, easily carried; 
 do-innsidh, difficult to he told; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, 
 &c., without the hyphen. 
 
 It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic 
 Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in 
 pronouncing compound words, the accent is placed on the 
 first syllable, the two terms appear to be completely incor- 
 porated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent 
 is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on 
 the first .syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem 
 to retain their respective powers, and to produce their efiect 
 separately, and instead of being incorporated into one word, 
 to be rather collaterally connected. A rule may then be 
 derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen in 
 wrriting Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the 
 component parts, w^hen the Prepositive term is not accented. 
 Thus it is proposed to write aineolach ignorant, antromaich 
 to exaggerate, comhradh conversation, dobheart a had action, 
 
 {x) Two or three exceptions from this nile occur ; as the Plurals die 
 gods, mnai women, lai days. But these are so irregular in their form as well 
 <is spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, and their place 
 supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan or lathachan. 
 
172 OF DERIVATION [Paet IV. 
 
 soisgeul Gospel J baiioglach a maidservant, (fcc, without a 
 hyphen ; but to write an-fhiosrach unacquainted, ban- 
 f hiosaiche a female fortune-teller, co-f hreagarach corresponding, 
 so-fhaicsin easily seen, &c., with a hyphen (jj). By this rule, 
 a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing 
 and the pronunciation, but likewise between the written lan- 
 guage and the ideas expressed by it. A complex idea, whose 
 parts are most closely united in the mind, is thus denoted by 
 one undivided word; w^hereas an idea composed of parts more 
 loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the com- 
 ponent parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to 
 the eye. Thus also the Gaelic scholar would have one uniform 
 direction to follow in reading, viz. , to place the accent always 
 on the first syllable of an undivided word, or member of a 
 word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the 
 case already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as 
 beo-airgiod quicksilver. 
 
 Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjec- 
 tive preceding a J^oun can never, but in the case just men- 
 tioned, be connected w^ith it by a hyphen. For if the accent 
 be wholly transferred from the IN'oun to the Adjective, then 
 they are to be written as one undivided word; as, garbhchrioch- 
 an highlands; but if the accent be not so transferred, the 
 Adjective and the ^N'oun are to be written as two separate 
 words; as, seann duine an old man, deagh chomhairle good 
 advice, droch sgeul a had tale. 
 
 It not unfrequently happens that two ]^ouns, w^hereof the 
 one qualifies the meaning of the other, and connected by the 
 common grammatical relation of the one governing the other 
 in the Genitive, come through use to be considered as denot- 
 ing only one complex object. The two !N'ouns in this case 
 are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form 
 a Compound of a looser structure than those which have been 
 considered. Such are ceann-cinnidh, the head of a tribe or 
 
 (y) As if we should write in English impious impotent, without a 
 hyphen ; but im-penitent, im-probable, with a hyphen. 
 
Part IV.] AND COMPOSITION. 173 
 
 dan ; ceann-tighe, the liead of a family; ceann-feadhna, tliQ 
 leader of an army; fear-turnis, a traveller; luchd-faire, 
 watchmen; iobairt-pheacaidh, a sin-offering; urlar-bualaidh, 
 a threshing-floor; ieav-hamse, a bridegroom; crith-tlialmhain, 
 a7i earth-quake ; crios-guailne, a shoulder-belt, Sec. In writ 
 ing Compound !Nouns of this description, the two ^N'ouns are 
 never written in one undivided word, but always separated 
 by a hypen. It comes to be a question, however, in many 
 instances of one Xoiin governing another in the Genitive, 
 whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound 
 term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, 
 or whether they are to be written separately, without any 
 such mark of composition. An observation that was made 
 in treating of the Government of Xouns may help us to an 
 answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It 
 was remarked that when one Xoun governed another in the 
 Genitive, the Article was never joined to both ; that for the 
 most part, it was joined to the Xoun governed, but sometimes 
 to the ^N'oun governing ; that in the latter case, the two 
 !N"ouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one 
 complex idea. If this last remark hold true, it may be laid 
 down as a rule that in every instance of a Xoun governing 
 another in the Genitive, w^here the Article is or may be pre- 
 fixed to the governing Noun, there the two Xouns ought to 
 be connected by a hyphen in writing ; otherwise not. Thus 
 we can say, without impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, the com- 
 mander ; an luchd-coimhid, the keepers; and the Xouns are 
 accordingly considered as Compounds, and written with a 
 hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the lan- 
 guage to say, am mullach craige, the top of a rock; an 
 t-uachdar talmhain, the surface of the ground. Accordingly 
 it would be improper to write a hyphen between the Xouns 
 in these and similar examples. 
 
 The difierent effects of these two modes of writing, with 
 or without the hyphen, is very observable in such instances 
 as the following: — Ainm duthcha, the name of a country, as 
 Scotland, Argyle, See.] ainm-duthcha, a country name, or 
 
174 OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [Part IV. 
 
 patronymic, as Scotsman, Highlander, &c.; clanii Donuill, 
 Donald's children; clann-Donuill, the Macdonalds, 
 
 Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explain- 
 ing the structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its 
 inflections, construction, and collocation, this cannot be said 
 to be the case with regard to Etymology. Much has been 
 attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing 
 single vocables, particularly names of places. But this 
 analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way 
 of random conjecture than by a judicious regard to the 
 analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion for 
 analysing has even induced some to assert that all true 
 Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Poly- 
 syllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore 
 that there is room to search for their etymon. This seems to 
 be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless and rather 
 chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by 
 which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into com- 
 ponent parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I 
 have thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify 
 those general principals of Etymology which are obvious and 
 unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and 
 derivation of those classes of words v/hereof the analysis may 
 be traced with some probability of success. 
 
EXERCISES 
 
 IN 
 
 READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. 
 
 From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment, by 
 D. Smith, M.D. 
 
 Theid an deadh sliaiglidear gu h-aobhach suilbliear an dail 
 gach tuiteamais a thig *n a chranuchur. Ach 's e a's nos 
 do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach 
 laimh; beadaidh ri linn socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimh- 
 neisj lag-chhdbeach ri h-am cruachais, agus diblidh ri 
 h-uchd feunia. 
 
 In English, 
 
 The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerful- 
 ness, to any service that falls in his way. But it is the 
 practice of the bad soldier to be complaining and grumbling 
 on all occasions ; saucy in time of ease, and peevish in return 
 for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble in 
 encountering exigency. 
 
 Analysis, 
 
 Theid, 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb Each, 
 
 go- 
 
 An, Norn. sing, of the Article an, the. 
 
 Deadh, An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its 
 Noun. 
 
 Shaighdear, Nom. sing, of the mas. noun saighdear, a sol- 
 dier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the 
 Adj. deadh. Gram. p. 145. 
 
176 EXERCISES IN READING, 
 
 Gu. A proper Preposition, to, for. 
 
 Aohhachli, An Adject, of the first Declension, joyous, 
 having an h before it, because preceded by the 
 Prep. gu. Gram. p. 161. Gu h-aobhacJi^ jo jinYLj, 
 cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109. 
 
 Suilhhear, An Adject, cheerful. Gu is to be supplied 
 from the former phrase; gu suilhhear, cheerfully, 
 an adverbial phrase. 
 
 An dail. An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to 
 encounter ; made up of the proper Prep, ann, in, 
 and the iN'oun dail^ meeting. Gram. p. 121. 
 
 Gach, An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every. 
 
 Tulteamais. Gen. sing, of the mas. ]N"oun tuiteamas, an oc- 
 currence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the 
 improp. Prep, an dail (Gram. p. 161), derived 
 from the Verb tulf, Infinitive tuiteam, to fall, 
 befal. 
 
 A. Nom. sing. Eelative Pronoun, who, which. 
 
 Thig. Put. Affirm, of the irregular Verb thig, come. 
 
 ^iV. Contracted for ann, sl proper Prep., in. 
 
 A, Possessive Pronoun, his. 
 
 Chrannchur, Mas. jS'oun, a lot ; governed in the Dat. by 
 the Prep, ann ; in the aspirated form after the ad- 
 ject. Pron. a, ^his' — compounded of cra/zTz, a lot, 
 and cur, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb cuir^ 
 to put, cast. 
 
 Aeh. Conjunction, but. Hebr. ^^^. 
 
 '/S. for is, Pres. Indie, of the Verb is, I am. 
 ^S G a^siih [that] which is. 
 
 Nbs. ISToun mas., custom, habit. 
 
 Do, Prep. to. 
 
 An. the article, the. 
 
 Drocli. indeclinable Adject, bad ; always placed before its 
 I^oun. 
 
 Shaighdear. mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative 
 by the Prep, do; in the aspir. form after the Adject. 
 droch 
 
EXPLAI^^KG, A^'D a:salyzikg. 1 77 
 
 A bill, for do hid or do hh'dh, Infinit. of the irregular Verb 
 ht^ to be. 
 
 Gearan. Infin. of the obsolete Verb gearaiii, to complain, 
 ag being understood ; ag gearan equivalent to 
 a present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. 
 86. 
 
 ^S. for agus, conjunction, and. 
 
 A' talacli, for ag talach, complaining, repining; Infin. of 
 the obsolete Verb talaich, to complain of a thing 
 or person. 
 
 Air. Prep. on. 
 
 Gach. Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every. 
 
 Lctimh, dat. sing, of the fern. !N'oun Icimh, a hand ; governed 
 in the Dat. by the Prep, air, or. Air gach laimh, 
 on every hand. 
 
 Beadaidh. Adject, nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petu- 
 lant. 
 
 Ri. Prep, to, at. 
 
 Linn. Noun fem. an age, period, season. Ri linn, during 
 the time of any event, or currency of any period ; 
 ri linn Fliearghuis, in the time, or reign of Fergus; 
 gu faigheamaid sltli r' ar linn, that we may have 
 peace in our time. 
 
 Socair. Koun fem., ease, conveniency ; governed in the Gen. 
 by the [N'oun linn. 
 
 Is. for agus, Conjunct, and. 
 
 Diomhach, or diiimach. Adject, displeased, indignant ; de- 
 rived from the Xoun diom or diitm, indignation. 
 
 Ann. Prep, governing the Dat. in. 
 
 Elric. Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the 
 Dat. by the Prep. ann. 
 
 Caoimhneis. Gen. sing, of the mas. Noun caoimhneas, kind- 
 ness ; governed in the Gen. by the noun eiric . 
 derived from the Adject, caomh, gentle, kind. 
 
 Lng-chridheacli. Adject, faint-hearted ; compounded of the 
 Adject, lag, weak, and cridhe, the heart. 
 
 Ri. Prep, to at. 
 
178 EXERCISES IK READING, 
 
 Am, Noun masc, time ; governed in the Dat. case by tlie 
 
 Prep. W, and preceded by h. Gram. p. 161. 
 Cruachais. Gen. sing, of the mas. Noun cruachas, hardship, 
 
 strait ; governed in the Gen. by the noun am; 
 
 compounded of the Adject, cruaidh, hard, and cas^ 
 
 danger, extremity. 
 Agus. Conjunct., and. 
 Dlhlldh. Adject., feeble, silly. 
 Uchd. Noun mas. breast, chest ; hence it signifies an ascent, 
 
 a steep ; in the Dat. case, preceded by h, after the 
 
 Prep, ri : ri h-uchd, in ascending, breasting, 
 
 encountering, assailing. 
 Feuma, Gen. sing, of the Noun mas. feum, necessity, exigency; 
 
 governed in the Gen. by the Noun uchd. 
 
 Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend, 
 
 Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn 
 Fhinn agus a threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an 
 gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an am sin 'n a thigheadas 
 samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turns d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh 
 iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt 
 agus caol choiroan. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche 
 agus gach fear a thachair 'n an coir. Ann an gleann nan 
 cuach agus nan Ion, chunnaic buth taobh sruthain ; chaidh 
 a steach, dh' iarr deoch ; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne 
 snuadh a dh' fhailteachadh an turuis le sith. Thug i biadh 
 dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri 61 ; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt 
 thla. Bhuail gaol o a siiil an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis 
 cia as doibh. ^'Thainig sinn o thir nan crann, far an Honor 
 sonn — mac righ Lochlainn mise — m' ainm Garbh na'm b' 
 aill leat — esan Dual, o thir nam beann, a thuinich ann 
 iVlbainn o thuath-— a ghabhail cairdeis gun sgath agus 
 aoidheachd o 'n ard righ Fionn, sud fath ar turuis a Chiabh 
 na maise — ciod am ')ealach am buail sinn ? seol ar cos gu 
 teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar iiil, is gabh duals." " Duals 
 
EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. 179 
 
 cha do ghahh mi riamh, ars an nighean bu bhlaithe suil 's 
 bu deirge gruaidh ; cha b' e sud abbaist Theadhaich nam 
 beann ^ilde, 'g am bu Honor daimbeach 'n a tballa, 'g am bu 
 trie tathaicb o thuath — ni mise dbuibli iul.'' Gu gleann-sitb 
 tbarladb na fir ; gleann an trie guth feidh is loin ; gleann 
 nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan srutb ri uisg is 
 gaoith. Thachair orra buagbar bho, is rinn dhoibli iiil ; 
 tbug dboibb sgeul air dutbaicb nan creag, air fir agus air 
 mnaibb, air fas shliabli agus cliarn, air neart feacbd, air 
 rian nan arm, air miann sloigh, agus craobbthuinidb nam 
 riann. 
 
 In English. 
 
 Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal 
 and his brave warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal 
 was at that time in his summer residence at Buchanti. On 
 their journey thither, they took a view of every valley and 
 open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked in- 
 formation of every passenger and person that came in their 
 way. In the glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a 
 cottage by the side of a rivulet. They entered ; asked 
 drink ; a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly 
 bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to 
 drink. In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love 
 from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he told whence 
 they were. " We are come from the land of Pines, where 
 many a hero dwells — the son of Lochlin's king am I — my 
 name is Garva, be pleased to know — my comrade is Dual, 
 from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of 
 Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friend- 
 ship of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our 
 journey, Lady fair [z); say, by what pass shall we 
 shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of Fingal, 
 De our guide, and accept a reward." "Eeward I never took," 
 said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek ; ** such was 
 not the manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds : 
 
 {z) beautiful ringlet. 
 
180 EXERCISES IN BEADING, 
 
 many were the guests ia his hall, frequent his visitors from 
 the ^orth, — I will be your guide." The chiefs reach Glen- 
 shee, where is heard the frequent voice of deer and elk ; 
 glen of green mounts and cliffs ; glen of many streams in 
 time of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and 
 directed their course. He gave the information concerning 
 the country of rocks ; concerning its inhabitants male and 
 female ; the produce of moor and mount ; the military force , 
 the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the 
 people ; and the pedigree of the Fingalians. 
 
 Extract from BisJiop Carsuel's Gaelic translation of the 
 Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, ^-c, used in the Be- 
 formed Church of Scotland ; Printed in the year 1567. 
 
 {From the Epistle Dedicatory,) 
 
 Acht ata ni cheana is raor an leathtrom agas anuireas- 
 bhuidh ata riamh orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an 
 gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do 
 chur agclo riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & adteangtha 
 fein agclo ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & 
 ata uireasbhuidh is m6 ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan 
 an Biobla naomhtha do bheith agcl6 gaoidheilge againd, 
 marta se agcl6 laidne agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile 
 osin amach, agas f6s gan seanchus arsean no ar sindsear do 
 bheith mar an gcedna agcl6 againd riamh, acht ge ik cuid 
 eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobh- 
 tha aleabhruibh lamh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & 
 ollamhan, agas asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re 
 sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain an neithe buailtear sa 
 chlo araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach en ni dhd 
 mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas 
 andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do 
 lucht deachtaidh agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigb na gaoidh- 
 eilge, gurab m6 is mian leo agas gurab mo ghnathuidheas 
 siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha brecracha saotrh- 
 
EXPLAI^T^"G, AND ANALYZING. 181 
 
 alta do cumadh ar thuathaibh dedhanond agas ar mhacaibli 
 mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona 
 fhianaibh agas ar mboran eile nach airbhim agas nach 
 indisim andso do chumhdach, agas do choimhleasiighagh, 
 do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigb an tsaoghail dfhaghail 
 doibhfein, ina briathra disle D6 agas slighthe foirfe na 
 firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chunhdacb. 
 
 English Translation, 
 
 [From the Report of the Committee of the Highland 
 Society of Scotland, appointed to inquire into the 
 nature and authenticity of the Poems of Ossian.] 
 
 Eut there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of 
 Scotland and Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the 
 world, that our Gaelic language has never yet been printed, 
 as the language of every other race of men has been. And we 
 labour under a disadvantage which is still greater than every 
 other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed 
 in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and 
 in every other language ; and also that we have never yet had 
 any account printed of the antiquities of our country, or of 
 our ancestors ; for though we have some accounts of the 
 Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, and 
 in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is 
 great labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the 
 work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. 
 And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance 
 and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the 
 Gaelic language, that, with the view of obtaining for them- 
 selves the vain rewards of this world, they are more desirous, 
 and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, 
 worldly histories, concerning the Tuath de dannan, and con 
 cerning warriors and champions, and Fingal the son of 
 Cumhal, with his heroes, and concerning many others which 
 
182 EXEKCISES IN READING. 
 
 f 
 
 I will not at present enumerate or mention, in order to main- 
 tain or reprove, than to write and teach and maintain the 
 faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth (a). 
 
 From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Booh of Psalnis 
 in Gaelic, by Mr Egbert Kirk, Minister of the Gospel 
 at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684. 
 
 Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach 
 mion-fhiaitheas Ian dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol 
 naomhtha. jMur abholghort Eden, lionta do chrannaibh 
 brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamh- 
 ail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liagh- 
 ais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach 
 be6 chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is 
 Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbh- 
 uileach do sheinn ; & ata Daibhidh do ghn4 mar fhear don 
 chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard- 
 Ei . , . Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, 
 dioghlum ughdairidh an uile chdll, ar sheann6s, phriomli 
 chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cl6- 
 bhuailte : achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, bridh na 
 nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata 
 mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch 
 dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse 
 a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar 
 bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam 
 oraibhse a Uaisle, & a Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun 
 
 {a) The above is the passage so often referred to in the controversy concer- 
 ning the antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the 
 zealous Bishop to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him 
 to divert the minds of the people from those important religious truths to 
 which he piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But what- 
 ever may be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to the 
 existence of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people ; and 
 proves that the rehearsal of t\iose compo^\itions was a common and favourite 
 entertainment with the peopl Uhroughou Uhe Highlands at the time when 
 he lived 
 
EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. 183 
 
 bheith murtliacharain ar luaidrean anunn & a nail go sbailpe 
 breigi ; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, deagh-fhreumh- 
 aighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar 
 fhuraileas na psalma : Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don 
 clioir; call & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir. 
 
 Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu dan, 
 
 Le Pdn glan diagha duisg iad thall; 
 Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn, 
 
 Ar Gharbh cbriocba, 's Indseadh gall. 
 
 In English. 
 
 The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resound- 
 ing with sacred melody is almost a little Heaven full of 
 angels. As the Garden of Eden, replenished with trees of life 
 of potent efficacy, and with medicinal plan ts, so is this Book 
 of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for all the 
 diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it 
 contains are the Harp ; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings 
 the praise of the great wonder-working God ; and David is 
 ever one of the company who are thus employed in sweetly 
 and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty King. . . . 
 I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every 
 kind, who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive 
 religion, and the history of the Gaels, both in manuscript 
 and in print : but the star and light by which I steered was 
 the sense of the Psalms themselves. ]!^ow, then, my very 
 dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior 
 bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work can- 
 didly, without regarding the meanness and insignificancy of 
 the w^orkman. I beseech you, men of high and of low degree 
 alike, that you be not, like weak silly creatures, tossed to and 
 fro by false conceits ; but with firm, resolute, well-established 
 hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these 
 Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying 
 with w^hat is right, loss and disgrace in declining to what is 
 wrom^. 
 
15^4 EXERCISES IN READING, ETC. 
 
 Little Volume, move boldly on ; 
 
 In pure godly strains awaken yonder people ; 
 
 Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians, 
 
 The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers {b), 
 
 (bj i,e,i the Hebrides. 
 
 PTIINTEI) BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBUBGIL 
 

 Date Due 
 
 
 mrr?q'1h 
 
 
 
 
 m~3v, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7, ^V\J\ 
 
 *" \ 
 
 
 
 jflNK'5: 
 
 OOf 
 
 
 
 : rl 
 
 f ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 npT "^ 
 
 
 
 
 Ul# 1 .;;• 
 
 ') \\M 
 
 
 j 
 
 flpf^ 
 
 10 1370 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 HiM^ 
 
 HI? 
 
 
 / 
 
 VK 
 
 
 / 
 
 NOV -5 
 
 1996 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 m 
 
 i9a)fl» 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
BOSTON COLLEGE 
 
 3 9031 01192469 3 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS 
 CHESTNUT HILL. MASS. 
 
 Books m,y be kept for two weeks ar,d may be 
 renewed for the same period, unless reserved. 
 
 Two cents a day is charged for each book kept 
 overtime. 
 
 If you cannot find what you want, ask the 
 Librarian who will be glad to help you. 
 
 The borrower is responsible for books drawn 
 on h.s card and for all fines accruing on the same.