— , — i'"»HfHliB ^^^S^^^B^ F ft«-^^ A TEXT -BOOK OF DOMESTIC SGIENCii MATILDA €.. CAMPBELL A TEXTBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO A TEXTBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS BY MATILDA G. CAMPBELL f INSTRUCTOR IN HOME ECONOMICS, JESUP W. SCOTT HIGH SCHOOL, TOLEDO OHIO, LECTURER ON HOME ECONOMICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SUMMER SCHOOL, 1911 BOSTON COLLfiGE LIBRARY CHE8TNUT HILL, MASS. Neto gork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 All rights reserved Copyright, 1913, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. NoriDDOti ^rfgg J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE This textbook has been compiled in response to an ever increasing demand from instructors of Domestic Science for a book which can be placed in the hands of the student to use as a laboratory manual in the school, and as a practical cook- book in the home. To this end facts already being taught in well-established schools of Domestic Science have here been arranged in a concise manner, but much has been omitted that the instruc- tor will necessarily supply according to the needs of her school and locality. Sanitation, chemistry of cleaning, shelter, and many other subjects included under the term Domestic Sci- ence have not been considered here, as a proper treatment of them would produce suiBcient material for another textbook. The contents of this book are confined largely to the sub- jects of food and nutrition and the application of heat to foods. Although the study of the natural sciences should be correlated with a course in Domestic Science, the text has not presupposed much knowledge of chemistry, physics, etc., on the part of the student. In view of the varying conditions that prevail in domestic science courses it has not been thought best to introduce any discussion of methods of instruction, but the arrangement and presentation of lessons has been left to the discretion of the instructor. It is earnestly hoped that the text will prove of genuine assistance to classes which are now overburdened with note- taking in gathering the fundamental principles of the science of food and nutrition. The author wishes to acknowledge a debt of gratitude to various standard authorities, freely quoted in the text. v Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/textbookofdomestOOcamp TABLE OF CONTENTS T. II. III. IV. V. vi. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV, XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. The Relation of Food to the Body . Air and Combustion ..... Classification of Foods — Carbohydrates Vegetables . Sugar and Fruits Food Preservation Soups Protein — Eggs . Protein — Composition and Preparation of Meat Protein — Poultry and FiSh . Protein — Milk and Milk Products Water and Beverages Leavening — Batters and Doughs Leavening — Breads .... Fats — Frying and Pastry Cakes and Puddings . . . Mineral Foods — Salads . Gelatine and Frozen Desserts Invalid Cookery . . Table Service Diet and Nutrition .... 1 7 18 30 43 50 59 68 77 100 108 115 123 132 143 156 168 177 184 191 196 TEXTBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE CHAPTER I THE RELATION OF FOOD TO THE BODY Foods are substances which, when taken into. the body, provide it with heat and other forms of energy, and furnish it with material for growth and repair. In the case of a grown person, foods supply the fuel necessary for various bodily activities — ■ for walking, for mounting stairs, for lift- ing weights; and they keep the bodily machinery in repair. In the case of a growing person, they also supply materials for building up the bodily machinery. In order to understand how food can serve the body in the ways mentioned, it is necessary to know something about the composition of the body and also about the composition of food. Both, however, are exceedingly complex, and even those who are devoting their lives to the study of foods in their relation to the body have still much to discover upon the subject. The science of nutrition is a growing science, about which we hope in time to know much more than we do at present. As we study the substances found in nature we find that they are composed of elements which combine to form many compounds. An element may be defined as a sub- stance which has never been divided into anything simpler than itself. A compound is a substance which is composed of two or more elements. In all nature chemists have as B 1 2 DOMESTIC SCIENCE yet discovered only about eighty elements and of these all compounds are made up. In the body there are known to be fifteen elements, which are combined to form over one hundred compounds. E LEMENTS PRESENT IN THE HUMAN BODY (H. C. SHERMAN) 1. Oxygen 6. Phosphorus 11. Magnesium 2. Carbon 7. Potassium 12. Iron 3. Hydrogen 8. Sulphur 13. Iodine 4. Nitrogen 9. Sodium 14. Fluorine 5. Calcium 10. Chlorine 15. SiUcon The body is constantly undergoing changes by which complex compounds are broken down, and new, simpler compounds are formed and are given off through the lungs and skin, from the kidneys, and otherwise. The result of this is that new material, containing the same elements as the compounds constantly excreted, must be supplied to the body in the form of food. A well-known chemist has re- ferred to the material which the body can use for repair and building of tissues as its " building stones." These " build- ing stones " must not only contain the elements of which the body is composed, but they must also be in a form in which the body can utilize them. In order to prepare the " building stones " to repair the body and to furnish it with fuel, many of them must first be changed by heat in the process of cooking, and they are all acted upon by the digestive juices after being taken into the body. All changes of matter are of two kinds, physical and chemi- cal. A physical change is one that does not cause a change in the composition of a substance, as the dissolving of sugar THE RELATION OF FOOD TO THE BODY 3 in water, for the water being evaporated, the sugar will re- tain its physical properties. Note. — Student make a list of physical changes. A chemical change is one that causes a change in the com- position of a substance, as, for example, the burning of sugar, when it loses all its physical properties. Note. — Student make a list of chemical changes. The science of chemistry has to do with chemical changes. The science of physics has to do with physical changes. In the preparation of food, and in its digestion, assimi- lation, and excretion from the body, a series of very com- plex chemical and physical changes occurs. Among the most important and most abundant of the elements found in the body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur. Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas and is the great supporter of life and combustion. It forms one-fifth of the volume of air and eight-ninths of the weight of water. ' It is a very active element, uniting with all other elements but one. It is more abundantly distributed in nature than any other element and forms about 66 per cent of the human body. Note. — Teacher prepare oxygen and perform some simple ex- periments to illustrate its properties, using any standard Chemistry as a guide. Carbon is an odorless and tasteless solid. It is found in nature in a nearly pure state in several different forms. The diamond, hard coal, and graphite, while having vastly dif- ferent physical properties, are almost pure carbon. All living organisms, both animal and vegetable, contain carbon, and over one hundred thousand carbon compounds have 4 DOMESTIC SCIENCE been artificially prepared in the laboratory. Under certain circumstances carbon unites chemically with oxygen, form- ing carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (CO2). Heat is given off during this change. Carbon and its compounds form the larger part of fuels and of fuel- or heat-giving foods. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas and is the lightest substance known. It burns easily, or unites chemi- cally with oxygen, forming water (H2O), heat being given off during this change. Hydrogen burns in the body, but the heat is not intense. Hydrogen, as well as carbon, is found in fuels and in fuel foods ; in general, the higher the percentage of hydrogen in a food, the greater the amount of heat it yields when it burns. Note. — Teacher prepare hydrogen and perform some simple experiments to illustrate its properties, using a standard Chemistry as a guide. Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It forms about four-fifths of the atmosphere. It is an inert gas and forms compounds which easily decompose, a process which, as we shall see later, is due to the action of tiny living organ- isms called bacteria. Nitrogen is present in the protoplasm, the jellylike content of cells of plants and animals, and is an essential constituent of all living organisms. The human body contains about 2.4 per cent of nitrogen, which is obtained from certain foods that furnish nitrogen in a form that the body can digest and assimilate. Prominent among these foods are meat, eggs, fish, milk, etc. ; without a cer- tain amount of such foods the body would undergo nitrogen starvation. Sulphur is a yellow, combustible solid. It is always present in cell protoplasm in combination with the nitrogen compounds, and is essential for the body. Plants absorb THE RELATION OF FOOD TO THE BODY 5 sulphur compounds, or suli)liat(',s from the; soil, and animals obtain the sulphatc^s which they require from v(^getable foods and from meat, milk, eggs, etc. When foods that contain sulphur decompose under the action of bacteria, the sulphur unites with some of the hydrogen present, form- ing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), the disagreeable odor of which is known in spoiled eggs. Phosphorus is a highly combustible solid and in the pure state it is exceedingly poisonous. In combination in the form of phosphates, it is essential to every living cell in the body and must be supplied to the body by such foods as contain the phosphates in a form in which the body can assimilate them. Among these foods are meat, milk, egg yolk, wheat, grains, and the legumes. Organic and Inorganic Matter. — All matter may be classified as organic or inorganic. All organic substances contain carbon. All substances that are formed during the processes of life are organic and, as before stated, great num- bers of carbon compounds have been artificially prepared. Note. — Student make a list of eight organic substances. Note. — Student make a list of eight inorganic substances. Chemical Symbols. — In writing the names of elements it is often inconvenient to write the full name, hence the ele- ments are designated by their initial letters, or by those of their Latin names. These abbreviations are called symbols and represent one atom of the element and its combining weight. SYMBOLS OF THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY 1. Oxygen . . . . O 5. Calcium ..... Ca 2. Carbon . . . . C 6. Phosphorus . . . . P 3. Hydrogen. . . . H 7. Potassium . . . . K 4. Nitrogen . . . . N 8. Sulphur S 6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 9. Sodium . « . . Na 13. Iodine I 10. Chlorine ... CI 14. Fluorine ..... F 11. Magnesium . . Mg 15. Silicon . . . . . Si 12. Iron Fe Chemical Formulas and Equations. — The combination of symbols which represents the elements found in a molecule of a compound is called a chemical formula. H2O is the formula for a molecule of water, water being composed of two parts by volume of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. CO2 is the formula for carbon dioxide, which is composed of one part by volume of carbon and two parts of oxygen. When a substance undergoes a chemical change, or when two or more elements or compounds unite chemically, these changes may be represented by means of symbols or formulas in the form of an equation : H2 + = H2O C +O2 = CO2 C + = CO (Carbon Monoxide) CHAPTER II AIR AND COMBUSTION Air. — Air is necessary for the support of life and combus- tion. It is a mixture, not a compound; that is, the sub- stances of which it is composed are not chemically combined. It has definite weight. At the sea level the atmosphere exerts a pressure of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, but as the pressure is equal in every direction^ we are not crushed by this weight. Air is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. There are present also varying amounts of car- bon dioxide (CO2), watery vapor, ammonia, dust, bacteria, etc. The nitrogen is not in a form in which it can be util- ized by either plants or animals. Upon the roots of certain plants, as clover, peas, beans, etc., are found nodules contain- ing bacteria which have the power of taking nitrogen from the air and changing it to such compounds of nitrogen as can be utilized by the plant. From these compounds the plant builds complex nitrogenous compounds which it stores in its cells as protein. The oxygen in the air supports combustion. Experiment 1. — Light a sphnt and insert it in a dry, empty test tube. Is the flame extinguished ? Why ? Experiment 2. — Put a lamp chimney over a lighted candle. Admit air from the bottom. Does the candle burn freely? Hold a strip of tissue paper near the bottom of the chimney, and also above the chimney. Explain the cause of movement of the paper. Cover the chimney on top and also exclude air from the bottom. Does the candle continue to burn ? Give reason. 7 8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Experiment 3. — (To be performed by the instructor.) Float a cork with a small piece of phosphorus on it in a pan of water. Ignite the phosphorus and cover it quickly with a bell jar. (A fruit jar may be used.) With what does the phosphorus unite in burning to form the dense white fume ? What becomes of this fume as it disappears ? What part of the jar is filled with water? What component of the air has been burned out ? What com- ponent of the air remains in the jar, preventing the water from filling the entire jar? What proportion of the air is oxj^'gen ? nitrogen ? Experiment 4. — To examine air for dust, bacteria, etc. Put a drop of glycerine on a clean glass microscope shde. Ex- pose to the dust of the room until the next lesson. Cover the glycerine with a cover glass and examine under a microscope, first with a low power and then with a high power. Make a drawing of what you see. Oxidation and Combustion. — Oxidation, or combustion, is the union of oxygen with any other substance. The process may be slow or rapid, but in either case heat is given off, even though not rapidly enough to be perceptible. Example : the rusting of iron is really the burning of iron, but the process is so slow that we do not detect the heat given off. Fuels are composed largely of carbon and hydrogen which, in burning, unite w4th oxygen of the air giving off heat. Products of Combustion. Experiment 5. — Hold a saucer in a candle flame. Note the black deposit that forms on it. What element is present in the candle? What is smoke? Do we get the maximum heat from fuel when smoke is given off during combustion ? Identification Test for Carbon Dioxide. — Put some filtered lime- water in a glass beaker or tumbler. Breathe through a glass tube AIR AND COMBUSTION 9 into the limewater, which will l)ecome cloudy from the carbon dioxide present in the breath exhaled from the lungs. This test is used to identify carbon dioxide, which always causes limewater to become cloudy. An excess of CO2 causes the cloudiness to disappear. Experiment 6. — Hold a bell jar over a burning candle for a short time, collecting any gases which may be given off during com- bustion. Invert the bell jar, pour into it some filtered limewater, cover the jar, and shake well. Does the limewater become cloudy ? What gas was given off during the burning of the candle ? Experiment 7. — Cover a burning candle with a dry bell jar. Note the formation of water on the sides of the jai*. Is the water a product of combustion ? Write the equation for the forming of H2O. Summary of products of combustion : C + = CO, carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas given off in com- bustion when the supply of oxygen is deficient. The blue flame on the surface of a coal fire is burning CO. All stoves should have perfect chimney connections to carry off this poisonous gas. C + O2 = CO2, carbon dioxide. H2 + = H2O, water. Unconsumed carbon = smoke. . ' Mineral matter = ash. Flame. — When two substances unite chemically, and both are gases or vapors at the temperature of combustion, the act of union is accompanied by a flame. When one of the substances remains solid at the temperature of combus- tion, heat and light are given off, but there is no flame. Many substances which are solids or liquids at ordinary temperatures vaporize slowly when at the temperature of burning and hence burn with a flame. The light given by the flame is caused by the glowing, or incandescence, of the solid carbon particles. At a higher temperature the carbon 10 DOMESTIC SCIENCE is quickly and completely burned and gives no light, but burns with a blue flame. When gas is used as a fuel it is mixed with air before burning, in order that it may be diluted, when there will be a more perfect combustion. A gas used as fuel should burn with a blue flame ; a yellow or a smoky flame indicates that the carbon is not being completely consumed and there is an attendant loss of heat. Note. — Students examine carefully a Bunsen or other gas burner, increasing and decreasing the supply of oxygen by opening and closing the mixer. Note the varying color of the flame and the seeming increase or loss of heat. Kindling Point. — Every combustible solid must be raised to a certain temperature, or kindling point, before it will unite rapidly enough with oxygen to produce light. This temperature varies with different substances, but is always the same for the same substance. The kindling point of phosphorus is very low. Ordinary parlor matches are tipped with phosphorus, potassium chlorate, and glue. The heat produced by the friction of striking the match is sufficient to raise the phosphorus to its burning point. The heat produced by the burning of the phosphorus raises the wood of the match to its kindling point, and the match ignites. Note. — Student explain the steps in fire building by which hard coal may be raised to its kindling point. Flash Point. — The temperature to which a fat or oil must be raised before an inflammable vapor is given off is called the flash point. This is a valuable indication of the safety of an oil. Fuels. — A fuel is a combusti])le substance usually com- posed of carbon and hydrogen. AIR AND COMBUSTION 11 Note. — Student prepare a list of fuels — Solids Liquids Gases Note. — Students inspect specimens of hard and soft woods ; charcoal ; peat ; bituminous, anthracite, and cannel coal ; various fuel oils ; alcohols. Students write paper on the "Story of Coal." Students procure the current market price of the various fuels listed above. From the cost of a basket of coal or "bundle of wood," estimate the price paid for a ton of coal and a cord of wood when purchased in small quantities. Heat. — Heat is molecular motion. Sources of heat : 1. Mechanical energy. Produced by friction or by collision. 2. Chemical energy. Produced by combustion or by chemical union of dif- ferent compounds or elements. 3. Electrical energy. As produced by an electric toaster, etc., or by the sun's rays. Heat is transferred from one body to another or to dif- ferent parts of the same body by conduction, convection, and radiation. - Conduction : Experiment 8. — Place rods of wood, metal, and glass on an asbestos mat over a gas burner with the ends of the rods extending beyond the mat. The metal rod will soon become hot, while the other two will not be appreciably heated. Metals are good con- 12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE ductors of heat and cold, glass and wood are poor conductors. Air is a very poor conductor. The conduction of heat consists of the transfer of motion from molecule to molecule. Note. — Students make a list of good conductors ; of poor con- ductors. Why are wooden handles placed upon teakettles, flat-irons, etc. ? Why is the handle of a kettle sometimes made in the form of a spiral ? Why is the outer portion of an ice cream freezer made of wood ? Why is the inner can made of metal ? What is the prin- ciple upon which a tireless cooker is constructed ? a thermos bottle ? How should the oven of a stove be constructed ? Convection: Experiment 9. — Partly fill a glass beaker with water, add one haK teaspoon of sawdust, and heat slowly. A movement will be seen in the sawdust, indicating that the heat sets up currents in the water which have an upward direction immediately over the flame. The water nearest the flame becomes heated and expands; this makes it lighter and it rises, while the cold water of the top takes its place, thus causing the currents noted. This method of heat transference, which takes place in liquids and in gases, is called convection. There are convection currents in the atmosphere, caused by the unequal heating of the earth by the sun. The air over a heated portion of the earth rises, and the cool air rushes in to take its place. Note. — What is the principle of heating a building with a hot- water system ? How should a room be ventilated ? Radiation : Experiment 10. — When you hold your hand in front of a fire, heat travels directly from the fire to the hand. This method of heat transference, in which heat travels in straight lines, or radiates through the atmosphere, is known as radiation. Note. — How is heat transferred in making toast? in broiling? Is there loss of heat from radiation in the ordinary cook stove ? AIR AND COMBUSTION 13 Note. — StiKhnits oxcitnirK^ tlio stovers and i-aujjji^s in us(! in lli(3 domostici s('-icn(H3 la))oratory. Make drawings ol' tiKini, showinj^ the principle of heat conveyance and the system of dampers used for admitting oxygen to the fire and for controlling the heat currents. Bring a detailed drawing of the stove used at home. Test various parts of the school oven with paper or flour, showing in what part of the oven the heat is the most intense. Examine also and make drawings of 1. Gas burners and their mixers. 2. Fireless cookers. 3. Electric stoves. 4. Kerosene stoves. 5. Gasoline stoves. Discuss the evolution of the cook stove. Catalogues showing modern stoves, including gas stoves, electric stoves, etc., should be shown to students or be collected by them. The construction of cook stoves is at present in a transition stage and drawings are not given in this text, as it is hoped soon that the construction of stoves will be materially changed. The loss of heat and the attendant waste of fuel in heating an ordinary oven is very great. It is said that only about seven per cent of the heat is utilized. Modern stoves are now being constructed with non-conducting sub- stances around the air chambers which surround the ovens so that the waste of heat is much reduced. An oven ther- mometer should be placed on every oven to substitute a scien- tific means of regulation for the old-fashioned dependence on " luck " when baking. With gas and electric stoves a ther- mostat should shut off heat when a certain temperature has been attained, the baking being then completed by the re- tained heat of the oven. Cooking is the art of preparing food for the nourishment of the human body by the aid of heat. We cook food to make it more palatable, more digestible, and to destroy any harmful bacteria which it may contain. 14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The processes of cooking may be classed as : 1. Boiling. a. Cooking directly in water. h. Steaming. (1) Moist, cooking in a steamer. (2) Dry, cooking in double boiler. 2. Roasting. a. Roasting in front of open fire. b. Roasting in hot oven. 3. Broiling. a. Broiling over red-hot coals or gas flame. h. Pan-broiling in very hot pan (without fat). 4. Frying. a. Deep frying. h. Sauteing, or frying in small amount of fat. Boiling : Experiment 11. — Put cold water in glass beaker or stewpan. Heat. With thermometer note temperature at which small bub- bles form on the bottom and sides of the beaker and rise to the surface. What are these bubbles ? Where do they break ? Note temperature at which larger bubbles rise ; and also note tempera- ture when the surface of the water is completely agitated. What are these large bubbles ? Where do they break ? What is the tem- perature of simmering water ? of boiling water ? How is the heat of the fire conveyed to the water ? How is the heat conveyed through the water? Note the deposit left on the pan after the water has boiled away; what is this deposit? Give two reasons why boiled water tastes flat. Why should water be freshly boiled for tea and coffee? How can you improve the taste of water which has been boiled ? Experiment 12. — Let water boil gently. Note temperature. Let it boil rapidly. Note temperature. Does water get hotter than its boiling point in an ordinary kettle ? What becomes of the AIR AND COMBUSTION 15 excess heat? What important i)oiiit in the economy of fuel in cooking does this emphasize ? Experiment 13. — A. Put equal amounts of water in two beakers of the same size. Let the water in one beaker boil gently for about five minutes ; in the other let it boil rapidly. Compare the rate of evaporation of the water in the two beakers. B. Put equal amounts of water in two vessels of equal capacity, having one vessel shallow and broad and the other deep and narrow. Boil the water in them for an equal length of time and compare the rate of evaporation in the two vessels. Does the shape of the pan used and the rapidity of boiling have any bearing on practical cookery ? Experiment 14. — Mix ^ cup of sugar and ^ cup of water ; boil and note temperature, with confectioner's or laboratory ther- mometer ; compare boiling point of the mixture with that of boil- ing water. Continue the boiling, noting any change of temperature. Stages in Sugar Boiling : Soft Ball. — At 237° F. drop some of the sugar mixture into ice water. Form it into a ball between the thumb and finger, keeping under the water. Hard Ball. — At 256° F. drop some of the mixture into ice water. Form it into a ball and compare with the soft ball. Soft Crack. — At 290° F. drop some of mixture into ice water. This cracks, but if put between the teeth, will stick. Hard Crack. — At 310° F. drop some of mixture into ice water. This cracks, but does not stick to the teeth. - Continue boiling the syrup until it is a light brown color, or caramel. Pour into a tin pan and let cool. Under what condition does the boiling point of a liquid vary? Explain the value of a thermometer in candy making. 16 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Boiling Point. — The boiling point of water at sea level is 212° Fahrenheit or 100° centigrade. The boiling points of liquids vary both with their composition and with the atmos- pheric pressure. It is necessary for water to overcome the atmospheric pressure before it can be changed to steam. If the altitude increases, as in ascending a mountain, the atmospheric pressure is lessened, hence less heat is required to overcome it, and water boils at a lower temperature. The boiling point of water is decreased 1° F. for each increase of 479 feet in altitude. What is the temperature of boiling water on Mt. Blanc? TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Ts. — Teaspoonful Qt. — Quart Tb. — Tablespoonful Lb. — Pound C. — Cupful Oz. — Ounce Ssp. — Saltspoonful M. — Minute Pt. — Pint H. — Hour Measurements. — All measurements in this book are level. Accurate measuring is necessary to insure uniform success in cookery and to eliminate the element of " luck." The standard measuring cup is one holding one-half pint. The standard tablespoon is one holding one-sixteenth of a cupful. One-half spoonful is measured by dividing the spoonful in two lengthwise. Flour is measured after being sifted once, and is placed in the cup with a spoon that it may not be packed. The flour should be rounded slightly in the cup and then be leveled off with a knife. AIR AND COMBUSTION 17 EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS AND MEASURES To be verified by class or by individual experiment. 4 ssp. = 1 ts. 8 or 9 eggs = 1 lb. 2ts.= 1 tb. 4 c. flour = 1 lb. 16tb.= 1 c. 2 c. butter = 1 lb. 2 gills = 1 c. 2 c. gran, sugar = 1 lb. 2c.= 1 pt. 2| c. pow. sugar = 1 lb. 2 pt. = 1 qt. 2f c. corn meal= 1 lb. 4 qt. = 1 gal. 2 c. raisins = 1 lb. 8 qt. = 1 peck 2 c. chopped meat = 1 lb. 4 pk. = 1 bu. 1 tb. butter = \ oz, 1 tb. sugar = | oz, CHAPTER III CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS — CARBOHYDRATES Classification of Foods and their General Uses in the Body : A. Organic Foods. 1. Carbohydrates. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples. — 1. Starch in cereals, etc. 2. Sugar. 3. Cellulose. Uses in body. — 1. To supply heat and energy. 2. To form fat. 2. Fats. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Examples. — 1. Fat of meats. 2. Cream. 3. Butter. 4. Olive oil, etc. Uses in body. — I. To supply heat and energy. 2. To form fat. 3. Protein. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and sometimes phosphorus. Examples. — 1. Albumen of egg. 2. Casein of milk. 3. Fibrin of meat. 4. Gluten of wheat. 5. Legumen of peas and beans, etc. Uses in body. — 1. To form tissue. 2. To supply heat and energy. 3. To form fat. 18 CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS 19 B. Inorganic Foods. 1. Water. Composed of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O. Uses in body. — 1. Forms two-thirds of body weight. 2. Carrier of nutritive material and of waste products. 2. Mineral Matter. Examples. — 1. Sodium chloride. 2. Phosphate of lime. 3. Compounds of potassium, iron, magnesium, etc. C. Uses in body. — 1. Aid in forming bone, teeth, etc. 2. Assist in digestion. 3. Necessary for tissues, blood, etc. Food Adjuncivs and Accessories. 1. Condiments and Spices. Examples. — 1. Mustard. 2. Pepper. 3. Spices. Uses in body. — 1. Stimulate the appetite. 2. Increase flow of digestive fluids. 2. Vegetable Acids. Examples. — 1 . Citric acid in lemons and oranges. 2. Malic acid in apples. 3. Oxalic acid in rhubarb. 4. Tartaric acid in grapes. 3. Caffeine in tea and coffee. Theobromine in cocoa. 20 DOMESTIC SCIENCE CARBOHYDRATES A carbohydrate is a compound composed of carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen are always present in the same proportion as they are in water — 2:1 (H2O) . Chemical Formula : Cellulose (CeHioOs)^. Starch (CeHioOs)^. Glucose (CeHisOe). Cane Sugar (C12H22O11). The carbohydrates include starches, sugars, and plant fibers, or cellulose. Carbohydrates are found 1. In plants as starches, sugars, and cellulose. 2. In milk as lactose or milk sugar. 3. In the liver of animals as glycogen or animal starch. 4. In body tissues as inosite or muscle sugar. Starch is formed by the chlorophyll of the plant cell, under the action of the sun's rays, from the carbon dioxide of the air and the water drawn from the soil. The process is a complex one, but the net result may be shown by the following equation : carbon dioxide + water = starch + oxygen 6 CO2 +5 H2O = C6H10O5 + 6 O2 or Glucose 6 CO2 + 6 H2O = C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Starch. — Starch is the most abundantly distributed in nature of any of the carbohydrates, for it is the chief form in which plants store their carbohydrate. It is found in fruits, seeds, roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, and leaves of various plants. In the United States the starch of commerce is obtained chiefly from corn. CA HBO 1 1 YD HA TEH, 21 Starch exists in the form of minute granules which are formed in the plant during its growth. The granules are composed of alternate layers of starch and cellulose, those of different plants having characteristic shapes which can be recognized by examination with a microscope. Owing to its wide distribution, and to the fact that it may be easily stored because it does not decompose readily, starch is the cheapest form of food and is often used to excess in the diet. Structure of the Starch Granule. — Examine under the microscope and make drawings of starch granules from corn, potato, wheat. Identification Test for Starch. — Mix a little starch and cold water, boil, and cool. Add a drop of iodine. The blue color which results is characteristic of starch. With raw starch, iodine gives a purple color. Experiment 15. — Test various foods with iodine to ascertain whether they contain starch. Tabulate results. Solubility of Starch. Experiment 16. — Mix \ tsp. starch in | c. cold water. Filter through filter paper. Test the filtrate and also the residue on the paper with iodine for starch. Did the starch pass through the filter ? Is starch soluble in cold water ? Experiment 17. — Mix \ ts. starch in \ c. cold water. Heat to boiling. Filter. Test as above. Did any of the starch pass through the filter? Is starch at least partly soluble in boiling' water ? Examine some of the cooked starch under the microscope. Has any change taken place in the form of the granule? Experiment 18. — Pour boiling water directly upon dry starch. Examine lumps. What caused them to form? Experiment 19. — Mix starch with cold water and stir into boiling water. Did lumps form in the mixture ? Give one method by which lumps may be avoided when starch is used to thicken a mixture, 22 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Dextrin. — Before starch can be absorbed into the blood, to be utilized in giving heat and energy to the body or to be stored as fat, it must first be changed to a soluble carbohy- drate or form of sugar. Before the final change to sugar takes place an intermediate product is formed called dextrin. This has the same chemical formula as starch (CeHioOs)^, but possesses different properties. Dextrin may be formed (1) by the application of heat to dry starch, as in browning of flour ; (2) it is the first change that occurs when the enzymes, ptyalin of saliva, amylopsin of the pancreatic juice, or diastase of sprouting grains, con- vert starch into sugar. Identification Test for Dextrin. — Brown some flour without burn- ing it, add water ; shake well. Add a drop of iodine. The reddish brown color which results is a characteristic test for dextrin. Experiment 20. — Mix some browned flour or well-browned toast with water. Let stand awhile. Filter. Test filtrate for dextrin. Is dextrin soluble in cold water? Does it differ from starch in this respect ? Experiment 21. — Test the brown crust of l^read, and also the white crumb of the center of the loaf, for dextrin. Which is the more soluble, hence the more digestible, the crust or the crumb of bread ? Cellulose. — Cellulose forms the basis of the cell structure of plants. Cotton and linen fiber are nearly pure cellulose. Paper consists largely of cellulose. Cellulose, as a rule, is hard and dense and resists the action of the digestive juices, so that when taken as a food, it is excreted without having been changed by the digestive juices. The cellulose of young and tender plants may be in part digested. Cooking tends to soften cellulose, thus making vc^getables, cereals, CARBOHYDRATES 23 and fruits more digestible ; and it also disintegrates the starch granule, making the starch available as food. While having but little nutritive value, cellulose is very beneficial in the diet, as it is a mechanical stimulus to the action of the large intestine, thus tending to prevent consti- pation. It also absorbs and dilutes the waste products formed during digestion. Uncooked cellulose should not be given in large amounts to young children. METHODS OF USING STARCH AS A THICKENING AGENT Experiment 22. — Method 1. a. Mix 1 tb. flour with 1 tb. water. b. Mix 1 tb. flour with 2 tb. water. c. Mix 1 tb. flour with 3 tb. water. Stir each mixture until it is smooth, noting the time required to obtain results. State the proportion of water to be used with flour to form a smooth paste. Boil I c. water, add some of the boiling water to part (a), stirring constantly. Pour this slowly into the rest of the boiUng water, stirring until it thickens and is smooth. Deduce a rule for using starch in the form of a powder, as a thickening agent. Let mixture cool and note how it forms a starch jelly. Experiment 23. — Method 2. Rub to a smooth paste 1 tb. butter and 1 tb. flour. Boil ^ c. water, pour part of it on the butter and flour mixture to thin it. Pour this slowly into the rest of the boiling water, stirring until it thickens and is smooth. Deduce a rule for using starch as a thickening agent when some fat is used. Experiment 24. — Method 3. Melt 1 tb. butter, add 1 tb. flour ; when well mixed, add ^ c. milk or water, stirring until it thickens and is smooth. Deduce a second rule for thickening with starch when fat is used. Compare results with those of the two previous methods. Which mixture has the smoothest and richest texture? 24 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Experiment 25, — Brown 1 tb. butter, add 1| tb. flour, and then brown them together ; add | c. water or soup stock, and cook until smooth. Deduce method of making a brown sauce. How would you make a brown gravy for meats ? Compare thickness of liquid with the previous experiments. Is more browned flour required for thickening? Why? Meat and Vegetable Sauces are of two general varieties, white and brown, and from these many sauces may be pre- pared by varying the ingredients and the seasonings. General Method of Making Sauces. — Melt the butter in a stewpan or double boiler, add the flour, and when well mixed, add the liquid. If the liquid is hot, add it one-third at a time, cooking each portion till thick and smooth. If the liquid is cold, it may all be added at once, stirring constantly until it thickens and is free from lumps. Add seasoning. This method gives the finest quality of sauce, but methods of thickening 1 or 2 may be used when the liquid is already combined with the meat or vegetable. PROPORTION OF FLOUR FOR SOUPS AND SAUCES 1 tb. flour (J to 1 tb. butter) to 1 c. liquid for cream soups. 2 tb. flour (2 tb. butter) to 1 c. liquid for ordinary white sauce. 3 tb. flour (2 to 3 tb. butter) to 1 c. liquid for white sauce for creamed oysters, etc. 4 tb. flour (2 to 4 tb. butter) to 1 c. liquid for white sauce for croquettes, etc. When flour is browned (dextrinized) for brown sauce, the amount used must be increased J tb. for every cup liquid, as browning causes flour to lose some of its thickening power. CA RBOJI YDRA TES 25 Cornstarch Pudding Ufc'o method 1 of thickening with starch 5 tb. cornstarch 1 pt. scalded milk I c. sugar I ts. salt ■ J c. cold milk | ts. vanilla Scald milk in double boiler. Mix dry ingredients with the cold milk and stir this into remainder of hot milk. Cook fifteen minutes. Add vanilla. Pour into a mold wet in cold water; let stand till cold. Serve with sweetened and flavored cream, with boiled cus- tard, or with cooked fruit. One half square melted chocolate may be added during the cooking. At the end of five minutes remove 1 ts. of mixture, again at end of ten minutes, and at end of fifteen minutes. Compare the taste of the three samples. How long should cornstarch mixtures be cooked ? Whj^ does the pudding thicken as it cools ? CEREALS The grains used chiefly in the United States for breakfast foods are corn, oats, wheat, and rice. Corn is a native American grain and is the most abundant food product grown in the United States. It furnishes more nourishment for the money exffended than most of our other foods and, if well cooked, can be made into many palatable dishes. From corn are prepared cornstarch, corn meal, corn flour, hominy, samp, hulled corn, and some " ready-to-eat " cereals, such as corn flakes. Oats are grown in northern regions and are used exten- sively for porridge and, in Scotland, for oat cakes. The old-fashioned oatmeal, which was sold in uncooked form and had much of the husk left on it, had to be cooked several hours; the modern preparations, such as rolled oats, for example, are steamed and while still moist the grains are 26 DOMESTIC SCIENCE passed between hot rollers; they are, therefore, partially cooked and require less cooking in the home. Oats are rich in fat, and therefore make a good food for winter. Wheat, when finely ground, is the most important of bread stuffs, but it is also used extensively as a breakfast food. Cracked wheat is the crushed grain with part of the bran left on it and should be cooked for several hours. Special parts of the wheat grain are used in preparing va- rious breakfast foods. Some breakfast foods are prepared from a dough made of wheat flour, baked, then dried and toasted. From wheat are prepared graham, entire wheat, and white flour of various grades, many breakfast foods, macaroni, spaghetti, etc. . , Rice is a grass native to India. It is the staple food in all tropical and semi-tropical regions, and is much used else- where. It is said to form the main food of one-third of the human race. Being deficient in fat and protein, it usually is supplemented with foods rich in these two food principles. TABLE OF COMPOSITION OF CEREALS (ATWATER) Entire wheat flour Graham flour White flour (medium) Wheat breakfast food Corn meal . . . . Oat breakfast food Rice Rye flour Macaroni . . . . Water Protein Fat Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 11.4 13.8 1.9 11.3 13.3 2.2 12.0 11.4 1.0 9.6 12.1 1.8 12.5 9.2 1.9 7.7 16.7 7.3 12.3 8.0 0.3 12.9 6.8 0.9 10.3 13.4 0.9 Carbo- ' hydrates Per ct. 71.9 71.4 75.1 75.2 75.4 66.2 79.0 78.7 74.1 Ash Per ct. 1.0 1.8 0.5 1.3 1.0 2.1 0.4 0.7 1.3 CAHHOIIYDHATKH, 27 Cooking of Cereals. — ^Tho chief purposes of cooking cereals iire : (1) To sterilize them. (2) To improve flavor and appearance. (3) To hydrate the starch and cellulose and rupture the tissues, in order to make them more easily digestible. As cereals contain from 66 to 79 per cent of starch and but 7 to 12 per cent of water, they must be cooked in several times their volume of water. Add J ts. salt for every pint of water used. TABLE FOR COOKING CEREALS Amount Dry Amount Time of Cereal Water Cooking Rolled Oats . 1 C. 2c. 1 to f h. Rice ......... 1 C. 2 to 21 c. Ih. Cream of wheat f c. 4 c. f h. Corn meal f c. 4 c. 2h. Coarse oatmeal 1 c. 4 c. 3 1i. General Method of Cooking Cereals. — In the upper part of a double boiler put the required amount of water and salt. When the water boils, add the cereal slowly, stirring constantly. Cook for five minutes directly over the fire. Place the upper boiler in the lower part of double boiler containing boiling water, cover and cook the required time without stirring. All cereals must be thoroughly cooked. Corn Meal Mush Moisten the corn meal with | c. of cold water before stirring it into the boiling water, to avoid having the mixture lumpy. Serve the mush hot, or put into square molds, or baking powder cans, and, when cold, remove from molds, slice, roll in flour, and sauter in hot fat. 28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE To wash Rice. — Always wash rice before using it, by put- ting it into a strainer and putting the strainer in a bowl of cold water, changing the water often until it is clear; this removes the loose starch and prevents the rice from becom- ing pasty in cooking. Baked Rice Steam 1 c. rice, ^ ts. salt in 2j c. stock or water, 1 h. ; add 1 c. tomato, 2 tb. butter, | ts. paprika, or a little chopped green pepper, ^ ts. curry powder. Cook fifteen minutes. Put into buttered bak- ing dish, cover top with buttered crumbs, and bake till brown, about twenty minutes. Curry powder may be omitted and grated cheese to taste added in its place. Home-made " Ready-to-eat " Cereals. — Heat white, rye, or entire- wheat bread slowly in the oven until thoroughly dry and a golden brown in color ; cool and crush with a rolling pin. This is equal in flavor and digestibility to many of the breakfast foods on the market and may be prepared at much less cost. Serve with milk or cream. AMOUNT OF CEREAL OBTAINED FOR TEN CENTS {To be prepared by student) Price PER LB. No. LB. FOE 10 Cents Total Amounts Cereal Protein Fats Carbo- hydrates 1. Cornmeal . . 2. 3. 4. 5. .02 5 % of lb. 46 % of lb. 9.5 % of lb. 377.0 Weigh '' ready-to-eat " breakfast foods and compute CARBOHYDRATE!^^ 29 tlio (n)st per poiiiul p;ii(l for tlu^ corojil wlicii so prepared for the market. To serve Cereals. — As eeroals ar(^ about tliree-fourtlis starcli, it is not necessary to add sugar, which is but another form of carbohydrate, except as a flavor. As they are defi- cient in fat, cream is a valuable addition. Milk increases both the amount of fat and protein. If fruits are served with cereals, they supply organic acids, in which the cereals are deficient, as well as mineral matter and sugar. Fruits to serve with cereals : 1. Baked apples 5. Peaches 2. Stewed prunes 6. Figs or dates, cut in pieces, 3. Berries may be stirred into the 4. Sliced bananas cereal before it is taken from the fire Note. — Put grains of corn, oats, rye, in wet cotton ; place them where they will get sunshine and keep them well moistened until the grains sprout. Note carefully any changes in the grains and in the consistency of their starch content. Why does nature store the various food principles in the grains ? What part of the plant is the grain? Plant some of the grains in earth in flower pots and let them grow to maturity. CHAPTER IV VEGETABLES COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES (ATWATER) Refuse P7 Water Protein 07 Fat or Carbo- hydrates Ash or /o /O yo /o % /O Beans, dried . . . 12.6 22.5 1.8 59.6 3.5 Beans, lima, fresh- shelled .... 68.5 7.1 .7 22.0 1.7 Beans, string 7.0 83.0 2.1 .3 6.9 .7 Beets 20.0 70.0 1.3 .1 7.7 .9 Cabbage .... 15.0 77.7 1.4 .2 4.8 .9 Celery .... 20.0 75.6 .9 .1 2.6 .8 Corn, green edible portion . . . 75.4 3.1 1.1 19.7 .7 Cucumbers . . . 15.0 81.8 .7 2 2.6 .4 Lettuce .... 15.0 80.5 1.0 .2 2.5 .8 Mushrooms . 88.1 3.5 .4 6.8 1.2 Onions 10.0 78.9 1.4 .3 8.9 .5 Parsnips .... 20.0 66.4 1.3 .4 10.8 1.1 Peas, dried . 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 Peas, fresh-shelled 74.6 7.0 .5 16.9 1.0 Potatoes .... 20.0 62.6 1.8 .1 14.7 .8 Rhubarb .... 40.0 56.6 .4 .4 2.2 .4 Sweet potatoes . . 20.0 55.2 1.4 .6 21.9 .9 Spinach .... 92.3 2.1 .3 3.2 2.1 Squash .... 50.0 44.2 .7 2 4.5 .4 Tomatoes . . . 94.3 .9 .4 3.9 .5 Turnips .... 30.0 62.7 .9 .1 5.7 .6 Vegetables, canned . Baked beans 68.9 6.9 2.5 19.6 2.1 Peas, green . 85.3 3.6 .2 9.8 1.1 Corn, green . 76.1 2.8 1.2 19.0 .9 Succotash . . . 75.9 3.6 1.0 18.6 .9 Tomatoes . . . 94.0 1.2 4 .2 4.0 .6 30 ve(1I':tabli^:s 31 AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS OBTAINED FOR TEN CENTS {To he prepared by sludent) Price Vegetable per lb. No. OF Lbs. for 10 cts. Total Amounts Protein % ot lb. Fats Carbohydrates % of lb. % of lb. General Composition of Vegetables. — Vegetable foods, with the exception of cereals, legumes, and nuts, contain a large amount of water, hence a small amount of solid nu- trients. Young, fresh vegetables contain a sufficient amount of water to hydrate the starch and cellulose content, and so may be cooked without the addition of water. Vegetables contain but a small amount of protein, their principal solid being a carbohydrate, either in the form of starch, sugar, pectin, or cellulose. They contain mineral matter which is highly important in the diet. PARTS OF PLANTS USED FOR FOOD Seeds — Peas, beans. Roots — Beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, radishes, sweet potatoes, salsify. Tubers — White potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes. Bulbs — Onions, garlic, shallots. Stems — Asparagus, celery, chives, rhubarb. Leaves — Cabbage, lettuce, Brussels sprouts, beet greens, water cress, spinach. Flowers — Cauliflower. Fruit — Wheat and the grains, cucumbers, tomatoes, egg plant, squash. Fungi — Mushrooms, puff balls. 32 DOMESTIC SCIENCE To prepare Vegetables for Cooking. — Vegetables should be thoroughly cleaned before being cooked. A small scrub- bing brush will help to clean potatoes thoroughly and quickly. If vegetables are wilted, they should be soaked in cold water before cooking. Vegetables that are to be eaten raw, as lettuce and celery, must be cleaned with great care, as the dirt which adheres to them may contain disease-pro- ducing bacteria. Radishes and other small vegetables may be dipped quickly into boiling water to destroy bacteria and then into ice water to make them crisp. Cabbages, cauli- flower, Brussels sprouts should be soaked, heads down, in cold water containing salt or a little vinegar, which will drive out insects that may be present in them. General Method of Cooking Vegetables. — Most of the fresh vegetables should be put into boiling salted water to cook, the amount of water used varying with the amount present in the vegetable to be cooked. Tomatoes do not require the addition of any water, and spinach may be cooked with the water left on the leaves after washing. Green vegetables should boil rapidly during the cooking, but for potatoes the boiling should be gentle, that - the vegetable may not be broken. To prevent them from being watery, the boiling should be uninterrupted. All vegetables should be well cooked, but they should remain firm, except for soups. They should be thoroughly drained, and such vegetables as spinach, cabbage, and turnips should be pressed lightly to remove part of the water. Peas and beans cannot be cooked tender in hard water, hence the salt should be added during the last part of the cooking. A very small amount of soda may be added to the water in which the beans and peas are cooked to soften the water. Vegetables are cooked to soften the cellulose, to cause the starch granules to swell and burst, to coagulate the protein, and to develop flavor. VEGETABLES 33 Potatoes. — Potatoes are native to South America and were brought from there to North America. They were introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, into Ireland by Sir John Hawkins in 1565, and into England by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1586. Potatoes belong botanically to the same family as the tobacco and deadly nightshade. They contain a bitter juice called solanine, which lies in and near the skin. This is drawn out into the water when they are boiled or is given off in the steam when they are baked. For this reason the custom of using for bread making the water in which potatoes have been boiled is not desirable. If potatoes have to stand after being baked, they should be pierced with a fork to allow the steam to escape. As potatoes are deficient both in protein and in fat, they are usually eaten with milk, eggs, etc., and with some form of fat. The protein of potatoes is largely in the form of albumen which, with the mineral matter, is dissolved in the moisture or juice. As albumen is soluble in cold water, there is an appreciable loss of it when the potatoes are peeled, cut in pieces, and soaked in cold wateri When potatoes are placed in boiling water, the starch granules swell and burst and absorb the juice, the albumen coagulates, or is absorbed by the starch, and the mineral matter also is retained. Potatoes should be kept in a dry, cool place, and any sprouts which may appear should be removed. Boiled Potatoes Wash and peel potatoes, put them into boiling salted water, using 1 ts. salt to every quart of water. Cook about thirty minutes or until tender. Drain well. Put the kettle, uncovered, on the back of the stove and shake it gently to allow the steam to escape 34 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and make the potatoes mealy. Cover the kettle with a towel, which will keep them hot and absorb the steam. Mashed Potatoes Mash potatoes in the kettle in which they were boiled, beating until hght with a wire potato masher, and moistening with hot milk. Add 1 or 2 tb. butter, ^ ts. salt, and a speck of pepper to every pint of potatoes. When beaten until white, creamy, and free from lumps, pile them lightly in a warm vegetable dish. Serve very hot. ■ Baked Potatoes Select smooth potatoes of uniform size. Wash and scrub them well. Place in a hot oven and bake until soft, about forty-five minutes. Serve at once in an uncovered dish. If they must stand, pierce with a fork, or break the skin, to let the steam escape. Potatoes are more digestible when baked than when cooked in any other way, as the intense heat changes some of the starch to dextrin, and all the mineral matter and other constituents are retained. Escalloped Potatoes Wash, peel, and shce raw potatoes. Put in layers in a baking dish, sprinkling each layer with salt, pepper, flour, and bits of butter; add milk to nearly cover. Cover the dish and bake 1^ h. or till the potato is soft. Uncover the baking dish during the last half hour of baking to brown the potatoes well. Warmed-over Potatoes (Boiled) Lyonnaise Potatoes 1 pt. cold boiled potatoes, cut into 2 tb. minced onions quarter inch cubes 2 tb. drippings or lard ^ ts. salt 1 tb. chopped parsley § ssp. pepper Sprinkle the potatoes with the salt and pepper. Fry the onion VEGETABLES 35 till a lij>;ht hrowii in the (Irippin-rs, add llu; ])()ta.t()cs; stir with a fork until they arc brown ; add i\\v. i)arsl('y and serve. 1 tb. vinegar may be added. Stewed Potatoes 1 pt. cold boiled potatoes, diced 1 or 2 tb. butter ^ cmilk ^ ts. salt I ssp. pepper 1 ts. chopped parsley Heat the milk, add the butter and seasoning and the potatoes. Simmer gently until the milk is absorbed. Sprinkle with parsley and serve. Creamed Potatoes Cut one scant pint potatoes into one-fourth inch dice, sprinkle them with | ts. salt, ^ ssp. pepper ; add them to 1 c. white sauce, and when well heated, sprinkle with 1 tb. chopped parsley and serve. Potatoes au Gratin Slice 3 c. potatoes, sprinkle with 1 ts. salt and 1 ssp. pepper. Make 1 pt. white sauce. Put potatoes and sauce in alternate layers in a baking dish, having sauce for the top layer. Cover with but- tered crumbs. Bake twenty-five minutes or until brown. Grated cheese, chopped green pepper, sliced hard-boiled eggs, or 1 tb. minced onion may be added to the layers. To butter crumbs. — To 1 tb, melted butter, add | c. fine bread crumbs. Mix well. Hashed Brown Potatoes Chop 1 pt. cold boiled potatoes, season highly with salt and pepper, moisten them with ^ c. white sauce. Put 1 ts. lard and butter mixed in a thick iron frying pan; when hot, put in the potatoes and flatten into a cake. Cook slowly, without stirring, keeping the pan covered until a brown crust forms, about twenty minutes. Fold once and turn on to a hot platter. 36 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Warmed-over Potatoes (Mashed) Shape cold mashed potatoes into small round cakes about one- half inch thick. Brush with milk or egg beaten with a little milk, and bake in a hot oven until brown. Or, roll the cakes in flour and sauter in hot fat, browning both sides. Potato Puff To 1 pt. mashed potatoes, add | c. milk, 2 tb. butter, more salt and pepper if needed, 1 tb. chopped parsley, ^ ts. onion juice, cayenne, or paprika to taste, and 1 beaten egg. Pile lightly in a baking dish and bake in a hot oven until brown, about twenty minutes. Serve in the dish in which it is baked. To chop parsley. — Wash parsley, remove the leaves, and dry in a towel or absorbent paper. Place on a board, gather the leaves closely between thumb and finger, and cut through. If the point of the knife is held firmly on the board, a circular and also a chop- ping motion can be given to it at the same time. To mince onions. — Remove the brown outer ' covering of the onion about halfway down; score the top of the onion in gashes about one-eighth of an inch apart ; score again at a right angle, then slice across the onion. Experiment 26. — Test turnip with iodine for starch. Is the carbohydrate present in the form of starch? Turnips. — Turnips are at their best in the fall and early winter; toward spring they become tough and fibrous and are only good for flavoring and for stews. The flat purple- topped turnip, the rutabaga, a large yellow turnip, and the large French turnip are the best varieties. Turnips should not be overcooked, or they will become dark in color and strong in flavor. The summer turnip, when sliced, can be cooked in thirty minutes, the winter turnip in from forty-five to sixty minutes. VEGETABLES 37 To prepare turnips. — Wash and pare the turnips, and if they are to be boiled and mashed, sUce them. To boil and mash turnips. — Prepare as above and cook in boil- ing salted water until tender. Drain well. Mash with a wooden masher and season with salt, pepper, and butter. Serve at once. Creamed Turnips After washing and peeling, cut the turnips into one-fourth inch dice; cook in boihng salted water until tender. Drain well. To every pint of turnips, add one cup of white sauce. Reheat and serve. Turnip Cups with Creamed Pea Filling Select small, round turnips. Wash, pare, and cut a slice from the large end, so they will stand. Scoop out the inside, forming cups with walls about one-fourth inch thick. Cook in boiling salted water until tender, about thirty minutes. Drain well and fill each cup with peas, heated in a seasoned white sauce. Sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve hot. Experiment 27. — Test carrot with iodine for starch. Is the carbohydrate present in the form of starch ? " Carrots. — When carrots are boiled in water, large amounts of their carbohydrate, in the form of sugar, and of their protein, in the form of albumen, are lost in the water. They are of value as a food because of their flavor and because of their cellulose, which aids in the process of digestion. To prepare carrots. — Carrots need not be peeled ; after being well scrubbed they should be scraped with a knife ; young car- rots may not need even to be scraped. Carrots in Bechamel Sauce Prepare carrots and cut in one-fourth inch dice, or in thin strips about the size of a match and one inch long. Cook in boiling salted 38 DOMESTIC SCIENCE water until tender; drain, and reheat in one-half their bulk of Bechamel Sauce. Bechamel Sauce Melt 2 tb. butter, add 2 tb. flour; stir in 1^ c. milk, as in white sauce ; add \ ts. salt, § ssp. pepper. When it has thickened, add the beaten yolks of 1 or 2 eggs. To add yolk of egg to a hot liquid. — Beat the yolks slightly, add some of the hot liquid to them until thin enough to pour ; stir into the remainder of the hot liquid- and cook until the egg thickens the mixture shghtly, but do not let the mixture boil, or the sauce will separate. Tomatoes. — The tomato is probably a native of Mexico or Peru. There are several varieties, some having red and others having yellow fruit. While the tomato is largely water and hence has a low nutritive value, It forms one of our most useful vegetables. W^hen overcooked, the tomato be- comes dark in color and the flavor is impaired. To prepare tomatoes. — Pour boiling water over them and remove the skins. If they are to be served raw, do not pour the hot water on them, but rub the skin with the back of a knife, when it will come off easily. Stewed Tomatoes Peel tomatoes, slice, and cook until they are tender, which will be about twenty minutes. About five minutes before the cooking is finished, season, using 1 ts. salt, 1 ts. sugar, 1 tb. butter, and ^ ssp. pepper for every quart tomatoes. Small pieces of bread may be added if desired. Creamed Tomatoes Peel and slice two tomatoes, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and sauter in 2 tb. hot butter; when soft, put the slices on a serving dish and keep warm. Put 1 c. milk in the pan in which the toma- VEGETABLES 39 toes wore cookcMl, iJiickcii with 2 tb. flour according to Method 1 for thickening. Season and pour over the tomatoes. Serve hot. 1 pt. milk and 4 tb. flour may be used if more sauce is desired. Stuffed Tomatoes Wipe and remove sUces from the stem ends of six medium-sized - tomatoes. Remove seeds and pulp, salt the insides of the tomatoes well, invert them, and let stand while the other ingredients are being prepared. Cook 1 tb. minced onion and 3 tb. chopped bacon five minutes, add 1^ c. bread crumbs, ^ c. chopped meat, and the tomato pulp and cook five minutes. Season with salt and pepper. One egg slightly beaten may be added. Fill the tomatoes with the mixture, sprinkle with buttered crumbs (and a little sugar, if de- sired), and bake until brown, about twenty minutes. The chopped meat may be omitted. Stuffed Green Peppers Remove the stem end from the peppers and take out all the seeds and partitions. Remove small slices from the blossom ends so that they will stand. Cover peppers with boiling water, allow to stand five minutes and drain. Use the same stuffing as for tomatoes. Bake one-half hour in moderate oven, basting with a little hot water or stock. Boiled rice may be used in place of bread crumbs. Experiment 28. — Test onion with iodine for starch; with Fehling solution for sugar. In what form is the carbohydrate found in onions ? Onions. — The onion is a native of the Himalaya Moun- tains. It contains an essential, volatile oil which gives it the characteristic odor and flavor; when eaten, this oil is absorbed by the blood and brought to the lungs, so the odor will remain for some time on the breath. The onion is con- sidered a wholesome, if not a highly nutritious vegetable and 40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE is of value because of its stimulating action upon the diges- tive tract. Boiled Onions Peel the onions under cold water. Put them into a sauce pan of boiling water, boil five minutes, drain ; cover again with boiling water, cook ten minutes, drain ; re-cover with boiling water, add 1 ts. salt to every quart water and cook until tender, about forty- five minutes. Drain, add milk in desired amount, and thicken with 2 tb. butter and 2 tb. flour (Method 2 for thickening) for every cup milk. Season and serve. Boiled Cabbage Remove outer leaves, cut cabbage in quarters and soak one-half hour in cold water with 1 tb. salt. Put into a large kettle nearly filled with rapidly boiling water, add \ ts. soda. Cook twenty minutes uncovered ; drain, cover again with boiling water, add 1 ts. salt to every quart water. Cook twenty minutes or until tender, but do not overcook. Drain and serve as desired. A white sauce may be poured over it, or salt, pepper, and butter may be added. Escalloped Cabbage Put alternate layers of chopped boiled cabbage, white sauce, and grated cheese in a baking dish. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake twenty minutes, or until brown. Beans. — Beans and peas being richer in protein than any other vegetable food are often used as substitutes for meat ; being deficient in fat, salt pork or some other fat may be added in the cooking. Dried beans are more easily digested if the skin is removed. Beans and peas, as before stated, do not cook tender in hard water and a little soda added to the water in which they are first boiled will help soften them. VEGETABLES 41 Baked Beans Soak 1 qt. pea beans over night. Drain, cover with fresh water, add 1 ssp. soda, and boil about twenty minutes. Drain. Boil | lb. salt pork twenty minutes. In the bottom of a bean pot put 1 whole onion, the salt pork, then the beans. Mix | ts. mustard, 3 ts. salt in I c. molasses and pour over the beans. Cover beans with the water in which the pork has boiled. Cover the crock, closely and bake in a very slow oven from four to six hours. Add water as needed, keeping them nearly covered with water until the last hour of baking. Succotash 1 pt. fresh lima beans 2 tb. butter or 2 oz. salt pork 1 pt. corn cut from cob salt and pepper 1 c. milk Cook beans and pork in boihng water thirty minutes, add | ts. soda, boil one minute, and drain. Remove corn from cob by scoring down the center of each row of kernels, pressing out pulp with the back of the knife, leaving the skins on the cob. Add the corn to the beans, and the milk (and butter if used), and cook fifteen minutes ; add salt and pepper and cook five minutes longer. Serve. Succotash may also be made from dried corn and beans, soaked over night and cooked several hours with a piece of salt pork. Corn Fritters 1 pint corn, grated or removed from cob as above, or if canned, chopped fine. Canned Kornlet is ready to use for fritters. Add to the corn 6 tb. flour, 1 ts. salt, | ssp. pepper, beaten yolks of 2 eggs. If canned corn is used, it may be necessary to add 2 tb. milk. Fold in beaten whites of 2 eggs. Sauter by dropping by tablespoonful into hot lard, browning on both sides. Serve on a warm platter, but do not pile them one on another. One-half ts. baking powder may be substituted for 1 egg. Macaroni. — Macaroni is served as a vegetable. It is 42 DOMESTIC SCIENCE made from a wheat flour rich in gluten. When cooked with cheese and milk, it forms a highly nutritious food. It is the staple food of the Italians. As a preliminary to any of the many methods of preparation, macaroni should be cooked until tender in boiling salted water, which will require about thirty minutes. Baked Macaroni and Cheese Put in a baking dish alternate layers of boiled macaroni, white sauce, and grated cheese. Season the ^auce with salt, cayenne, and mustard. Put buttered crumbs over the top and bake about thirty minutes, or till well browned. Macaroni and Tomato Sauce Reheat boiled macaroni in tomato sauce. Variety can be se- cured by sprinkling the macaroni with grated cheese; or all may be put into a baking dish, covered with buttered crumbs, and baked till brown. Tomato Sauce 1 pt. stewed tomatoes \ bay leaf 1 slice onion 1 sprig parsley Cook ten minutes; strain. Make a sauce, using 2 tb. butter, 2 tb. flour, and the strained tomato, ssp. pepper. CHAPTER V SUGAR AND FRUITS Plants store their carbohydrates in part in the form of sugar. Cane sugar, or sucrose (C12H22O11), was formerly obtained almost entirely from the sugar cane, but now the largest amount of sugar on the market comes from the sugar beet. Chemically, cane sugar and beet sugar have the same properties and cannot be distinguished. In the refining of sugar the juices of the cane or beet are extracted by crush- ing and pressure, and then go through a process of purifica- tion ; the resulting liquid is boiled down to a state of crystal- lization. As all the sugar will not crystallize, this liquid is drained off and constitutes molasses. When heated, cane sugar melts and forms barley sugar, and at a still higher temperature, caramel is formed ; this latter has a brown color and distinctive flavor and is used for coloring and flavoring in cookery. Sugar loses part of its sweetness by this process. Maple sugar (C12H22O11) is obtained by boiling down the sap of the maple tree. Lactose or milk sugar (C12H22O11) is present in the milk of all mammals. It is the form of carbohydrate that is best for a young child until it is a year old. Lactose is obtained commercially from the whey left as a residue in cheese making. It is not as sweet as cane sugar. When milk is modified for infant feeding, lactose is the form of sugar which should be added. Glucose or grape sugar (C6H12O6) is widely distributed in 43 44 DOMESTIC SCIENCE nature and is found in fruits and plant juices, and in small amount in the blood of animals. It is not as sweet as cane sugar and does not crystallize as readily. It is usually sold in the form of a clear, heavy syrup. Glucose is obtained commercially by treating starch with an acid, which causes the following change to take place : CeHioOs + H2O = C6H12O6 Cane sugar is inverted, or changed to glucose, when boiled with an acid. Acid fruits which are cooked for some time with sugar are, therefore, not as sweet as when the same amount of sugar is added after cooking. Glucose will fer- ment with the action of yeast, but cane sugar must first be changed to glucose by the enzyme of yeast before fermenta- tion will take place. Note. — Show samples of cane sugar, beet sugar, milk sugar, glucose. Experiment 29. — Put I c. sugar in an omelet pan and stir over a moderate fire until it melts. Remove a portion of the syrup, which is barley sugar. Continue the heating until the mixture browns slightly. Pour all but a small amount of this on an un- greased tin to cool. This is caramel. Continue heating a small amount of the sugar until it buriis or carbonizes. Experiment 30. — Pour sulphuric acid (H2SO4) on a small amount of dry sugar. The acid will remove the water (H2O). What other element is present in sugar ? Repeat experiment with glucose. Fehling Solution. — Five cubic centimeters of copper sulphate solution, 5 cubic centimeters of alkaline Rochelle salts, 20 cubic cen- timeters of water. Boil all together for two minutes. Identification Test for Glucose. — Fehling solution will change from a blue color to a copper brown when boiled with glu- cose; it will not so change when boiled with sucrose or cane sugar. SUGAR AND FRUITS 45 lOxi'EKiMENT 31. -- Mix u liUJc o;liic()S(« and vvutor. Add a small aiiioimt of Fchliiij^ solutioii and boil. Experiment 32. — Mix a little cano sugar and water. Add a small amount of Fehling solution and boil. There will be no change of color if the sugar is pure and the Fehling solution has been freshly mixed. Experiment 33. — Test the juices of various fruits or small, pieces of vegetables boiled in water with Fehhng solution. In what form of sugar do many of the plants store part of their car- bohydrates ? Candy Making. — See experiments with boiling sugar under " Boiling/' page 15. Fondant Mix 2 c. sugar and f c. water. Put in a stewpan and heat. As it begins to boil, wipe down the sides of the kettle with a wet cloth. Sprinkle on | ts. cream of tartar and let it boil in, but do not stir the syrup. Cover the kettle for a minute or two or until the steam comes out around the cover. Remove cover and cook syrup to 238° F. or until it forms a soft ball when tested in ice water. Pour syrup on a slightly dampened platter and let stand without disturbing until all the heat has left it. Work back and forth with a wooden paddle or knife until the mixture creams. Knead into a smooth ball. Put into a closely covered fruit jar until ready to use. The quality of the fondant improves upon stand- ing, but it must be kept in a cool, dry place and be closely covered. To shape. — Add desired flavoring, nuts, etc., to fondant and knead until mixed. Shape as desired, putting candies as formed on white table oilcloth or on paraffine paper. To coat with chocolate. — Melt unsweetened chocolate over hot water, adding a few shavings of paraffine ; remove from water and let cool a little. Dip fondant balls into it, using a fork ; drain off as much chocolate as possible and put candies on white oilcloth or marble slab. Let stand until firm. 46 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cream Mints Melt fondant over hot water, stirring constantly; flavor with peppermint or wintergreen to taste, and add desired coloring. Drop from the tip of a spoon on to oilcloth or paraffine paper. If the mixture becomes too thick, add a few drops of boiling water. Note. — Weigh candies and compute their cost. FRUITS COMPOSITION OF FRUITS (OLSEN) Water Sugar Protein Acid Ash % % % % % Apples 85.4 11.27 0.64 0.7 0.27 Bananas . . 73.8 21.7 1.17 0.3 0.5 Blackberries . 86.3 10.9 1.3 0.77 0.5 Cranberries . 88.9 9.9 0.4 2.34 0.2 Grapes 80.12 16.5 1.26 0.59 0.5 Huckleberries 81.9 16.5 0.6 0.3 Lemons 88.0 0.37 5.39 Oranges 86.0 5.65 1.35 Peaches . . 88.0 10.8 0.7 0.56 0.7 Pineapples 85.19 • 12.22 0.48 0.77 0.42 Plums . . . 78.4 13.25 0.4 1.0 0.52 Strawberries . 90.0 7.0 0.9 1.1 0.6 Raspberries . 84.0 12.6 1.7 1.48 0.6 Fruits are composed largely of water ; their solids consist of carbohydrates, a small amount of protein, and some mineral matter. Although their food value is low, fruits form a very valuable addition to the diet, for they contain mineral matter in an organic form in which it can be readily absorbed by the system. Their organic acids have medicinal proper- ties and can also be oxidized in the human system to provide heat and other forms of energy. Fruits differ from vege- tables in that their carbohydrates are largely in the form of sugar, hence they can be eaten without cooking ; cooking, SUGAR AND FRUITS 47 however, softens the ('(^llulose, thus making the fruit more digestible. Care and Preparation of Fruits. — Th(^ deeay of fruits is due to the action of bacteria, their wilting to the loss of water ; they should, therefore, be kept in a cool, dry place. Large fruits, as pears and peaches, should be wrapped sepa- rately in paper, that they may not be bruised. Fruits may be kept in good condition for some months by being placed in cold storage. As there is danger of harmful bacteria clinging to fruits, especially to those that have been trans- ported long distances or that have been exposed to the dust of the streets, all fruit that is to be eaten raw should be first carefully washed. Dried fruits regain their original bulk and, in part, their flavor, when soaked in water, and they form a relatively cheap source of fruit supply during the winter months. Pre- served fruits, jams, and jellies also form a valuable addition to the winter diet. Pectin. — Another constituent of fruits is pectin, which causes the juices to form a jelly when boiled with sugar. Pectin is a carbohydrate and is at its best when fruit is just ripe, or a little before it ripens. If fruit is overripe, or if the juice ferments, or if it is boiled too long with the sugar in making jelly, the pectin undergoes a chemical change and loses its power of jellying. Pectin will produce jelly only in the presence of a definite amount of organic acid, one- half per cent of acid being about the amount required to make a good jelly; hence, fruits which contain but little acid must be made into jelly before they are ripe, or be cooked with acid fruits, or some lemon juice or cream of tartar be added to them. Identification Test for Pectin. — Mash the fruit, warm, and strain through a cheesecloth. Put a small amount of juice in a test tube 48 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and add an equal volume of alcohol ; shake well and let stand. The pectin will settle out in a gelatinous precipitate. Experiment 34. — Test various fruits, noting the amount and quality of the precipitate. Apples. — The apple is a native of Asia, the crab apple being the original or wild apple. The Romans. used apples centuries ago. The apple is one of our most wholesome -fruits, eaten either raw or cooked. Some of the best known varieties are named here. Cooking apples: Greening, Northern Spy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush. Eating apples: Snow, Bellflower, Rambo, etc. Apple Sauce Pare and slice 6 tart apples into a granite stewpan; add 1 c. water. Cover kettle and cook until apples are soft, add sugar and nutmeg to taste. Mash, or put through a colander as desired. I ts. butter may be added for flavor. Dried Apple Sauce Pick over and wash the dried apples and soak in cold water over night. Cook until soft in the water in which they were soaked. Mash, sweeten to taste, and flavor with lemon juice. Baked Apples, No. i Select apples of uniform size ; wash and core. Put into baking dish, cover bottom of dish with water. Bake for about thirty minutes, basting occasionally. They may be served with breakfast foods. Baked Apples, No. 2 Core and pare apples; put in a baking dish, fill the centers of the apples with sugar, add a small piece of butter ; cover the bottom SUGAR AND FRUITS 49 of the pan with water. Bake until tender, basting often. After taking from oven, sprinkle lightly with cinnamon and granulated sugar, or put red jelly in the centers. Apple Compote Pare and quarter four apples. Make a syrup with H c. sugar and 1| c. water. Boil five minutes. Cook the apples in the syrup until tender, but do not let the pieces break. Remove the apples and put in a mold. Soak | box gelatine in | c. cold water, add to the hot syrup, and stir till dissolved. Add the juice and grated rind of ^ lemon, pour mixture over the apples, and let stand until firm. Remove from mold and serve with cream sweetened and flavored with vanilla. Cranberries. — Cranberries are the fruit of a small shrub which grows in marshy ground. They ripen in October and are valuable because of their excellent keeping qualities. Some of the best varieties are grown on Cape Cod and in New Jersey. Cranberry bogs are also found in Michigan and other parts of the country. Cranberry Sauce Wash and look over 1 pt. cranberries. Put them in a stewpan with 1 c. sugar and f c. water; cover the pan and let them boil ten minutes without stirring ; remove the scum and let them cool. Cranberry Jelly Wash and look over 1 qt. cranberries. Cook with 2 c. water twenty minutes; strain; add 2 c. sugar and boil five minutes or until it jelhes. Pour into a mold and let stand until it is firm. CHAPTER VI FOOD PRESERVATION Classification of Plants. — 1. Green plants contain chloro- phyll grains in their leaves, which give them the power of converting the carbon dioxide of the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates. They feed upon inorganic sub- stances in the soil in which they grow. 2. Colorless plants or fungi do not contain chlorophyll grains. They feed upon organic substances in presence of warmth and moisture. Classification of Fungi. — 1 . Higher fungi include mush- rooms, toadstools, wood fungi, etc. 2. Molds consist of a dense mass of fibers. They produce spores or reproductive bodies which sometimes float in the air, settle upon organic substances and, if kept warm and moist and out of the sunshine, will grow and produce mold over the surface of the substance upon which they have settled. 3. Yeasts are visible only under the microscope. They are single-celled organisms, oval in shape. They reproduce by budding, producing a change in certain organic substances called alcoholic fermentation, by which alcohol and carbon dioxide are formed. 4. Bacteria are visible only under the microscope. They are much smaller than yeast plants. They are single-celled organisms, round, rod-shape, or spiral. They reproduce by fission, that is, by dividing in the middle, producing two 50 FOOD PRESERVATION 51 imlividuals, or by spore foriiKitioii. Ikictcria are very abundant, being found everywhere. Some arc^ disease- producing ; many are non-disease-producing. Most organic foods are injured or in time destroyed by the presence in them and growth of molds, yeast, and bacteria. To preserve food the growth of these organisms must be pre- vented. Fresh air and sunshine are nature's disinfectants and they check the growth of germs or even destroy them ; hence the necessity of fresh air and sunshine in all parts of a house. Molds, yeast, and bacteria are destroyed by heat and by certain chemicals. Their growth is checked by low tem- perature, by the removal of water, by the aromatic oils of spices, by an excess of sugar or salt, by the presence of smoke, and by certain acids. While such chemicals as for- maldehyde, salicylic acid, benzoate of soda, will preserve foods indefinitely by destroying or checking the growth of germs, their presence even in very small amounts is harmful to the body, hence their use as food preservatives should be forbidden by the Pure Food Laws. Harmless Methods of Food Preservation 1. Canning — destruction of germs by heat and the sub- sequent exclusion of germs. 2. Preserving — destruction of germs by heat and the preventing of their growth by thick sugar syrup. 3. Pickling — prevention of growth of germs by acid and spices. 4. Smoking — prevention of growth of germs by smoke. 5. Salting — prevention of growth of germs by presence of salt. 52 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Cold Storage — prevention of growth of germs by tem- perature of 37° F. 7. Drying — prevention of growth of germs by removing water. Harmful Methods of Food Preservation Use of formaldehyde, salicylic acid, borax, boric acid, ben- zoate of soda, '' canning compounds," and alcohol. Sterilization and Pasteurization. — Sterilization is the com- plete destruction of bacteria. When a thing is free from bacteria and other forms of life, it is sterile, no matter how the condition is brought about. The purpose of pasteurization is to sterilize sufficiently to make a food safe without injuring its flavor or digestibility. Few bacteria can live in a temperature above 157° F. Some bacteria have the power of reproducing by the forming of spores which will resist such heat as may destroy the bacteria themselves. Dry heat destroys bacteria with certainty only at a temperature of 284° F. Pasteurization is the raising of a substance to a tempera- ture of from 155° F. to 170° F. and the maintaining of this temperature for twenty minutes, when the substance should be cooled rapidly ; by this process most of the harmful germs are supposed to be destroyed. Canning and Preserving. — The purpose of canning is to destroy by heat germs already present in the food and to exclude the entrance of other germs. The purpose of pre- serving is to destroy by heat germs already present and to protect the food by means of a thick sugar syrup. The factors most essential in the processes of canning and preserving are (1) the complete sterilization of the food to be FOOD PRESERVATION 53 preserved, (2) the complete sterilization of the cans or jars into which the food is to be placed, (3) the complete sealing of the jars to prevent the entrance of germs. Vegetables contain more spore-forming bacteria than do fruits, hence are more difficult to preserve. Methods of Fruit Preserving : 1. — Prepare fruit, place in jars, fill the jars with syrup, put on the cover lightly. Set the jars in a steamer and cook till the fruit looks clear and is tender. Fill the jars to overflowing with the contents of one of the jars and seal securely. 2. — Make a syrup with desired amount of sugar and water, according to the fruit. Cook the fruit in the syrup until tender; put into sterilized jars, filling the jars to over- flowing with the syrup. Seal securely. Juicy fruits require little or no water. Strawberries are better when no water is added, or when they are cooked in a very heavy syrup. Large hard fruits, such as pears, quinces, etc., require longer cooking ; before being placed in the thick syrup, they should be cooked in a thin syrup or steamed until nearly tender. To Sterilize Jars : Method 1. — Place the jars or glasses in a kettle of cold water, having a folded cloth or layers of paper in the bottom of the kettle to prevent the jars from coming in direct con- tact with the bottom of the kettle. Heat the water slowly to the boiling point. Remove the jars and fill immediately with fruit and syrup. Method 2. — Set the jars in a steamer and steam about fifteen minutes. A large steamer may be improvised by placing a rack in the bottom of a wash boiler and setting the 54 DOMESTIC SCIENCE jars on the rack. Do not wipe the inside of the jars with a towel as germs may be introduced into the jars by this means. Dip rubber rings into boihng water. COST OF PRESERVED FRUITS, ETC. Cost of Fruit used Cost of Sugar used Total Cost No. Cans FILLED Cost per Can Market Price of Similar Can Syrup for Canning and Preserving One-third to 1 pound of sugar for every pound of fruit. For small fruits add 1 to H cups water for every pound of sugar. For large fruits add 2 to 2| cup^ water for every pound of sugar. Boil the sugar and water together for 10 minutes before adding the fruit. Canned Tomatoes Cover tomatoes with boiling water, remove skins and hard stem end; slice and cook twenty minutes or until- soft. Skim during the cooking. Fill sterilized glass jars to overflowing and seal securely. Canned Tomatoes for Soup Wash tomatoes, remove stem ends, but do not peel ; slice and cook until soft. Rub through a wire strainer to remove seeds and skin. Boil the juice and pulp again. Fill sterilized jars and seal securely. FOOD PRESERVATION 55 Preserved Peaches The skins may be removed more easily from ripe peaches if boil- ing water is poured over them, allowing them to stand a few minutes and then placing them in cold water. Make a syrup as directed and either cook the peaches in it, a few at a time, or place peaches in jars and pour the syrup over them, finishing process according to directions given. The flavor of the peaches will be improved if a few of the peach stones are added to the syrup. Pears, plums, etc., may be preserved in the same way. Peel the pears with a silver knife. Do not remove the skins from plums, but prick them with a large needle or fork to prevent skins from bursting. Grape Juice (to be used as a beverage) 8 lb. perfect Concord grapes, — wash and stem. Add 1| qt. water and boil twenty minutes. Strain through a double cheese- cloth. To every quart of juice add | c. sugar. Boil ten minutes, skim; pour into sterihzed jars or bottles, and seal securely. Jelly. — Only those fruit juices which contain at least one-half per cent of acid and one per cent of pectin will form a jelly when cooked with sugar. Almost all fruits contain the requisite amount of pectin, but sweet fruits, such as peaches, pears, blackberries, contain too little acid ; for this reason, acid must be added in order to make them jelly ; an acid fruit, lemon juice, or tartaric acid may be used for this purpose. As before stated, the pectin is in the best condi- tion for jelly making when the fruits are underripe or just ripe. Fruits should not be overripe ; the more perfect the fruit, the clearer will be the jelly. Berries, currants, and grapes require no water. Apples and quinces must be cooked in water before straining. 56 DOMESTIC SCIENCE General Directions for Jelly Making. — Use a porcelain- lined or granite kettle. Drain the fruit juice through a jelly bag made of cotton flannel or double thickness of cheese- cloth. Do not squeeze the bag, but let the juice drip for several hours or over night. Measure equal quantities of juice and sugar. Boil the juice ten to twenty minutes ; add the heated sugar and boil five minutes or until it forms a jelly. Pour into sterilized glasses; let stand twenty-four hours and cover with melted paraffine. Put tin covers on the glasses or cover them with wrapping paper to keep out the dust. Crab Apple Jelly Wash apples, cut in pieces, but do not pare nor remove the seeds. Cover with cold water. Boil until soft. Strain as directed, boil juice twenty minutes, add an equal volume of heated sugar, boil five minutes or until it jeUies. Finish as in directions for jelly making. Grape Jelly Select grapes that are not fully ripe, wash, and remove from stems. Put into a kettle, mash well, and cook about thirty minutes. Strain. Add f c. hot sugar to every c. juice, and proceed as in directions for jelly making. Marmalade, Etc. Plum Conserve 4 qt. plums 3 oranges and 1 lemon chopped 1^ lb. sugar 1 lb. raisins ^ lb. nuts coarsely chopped Remove stones from the plums, add the other ingredients with the exception of the nuts. Cook until it becomes thick ; add the nuts and cook a few minutes longer. Put in glasses and seal as directed. FOOD PRESERVATION 57 Pear Ginger 8 lb. pears 4 lb. sugar 25 cent jar preserved ginger cut fine Peel the pears and cut them fine; add a little water and cook until they soften; add the sugar and the ginger with the juice. Cook until thick like a marmalade. Put in glasses and seal as directed. Grape Jam Wash grapes, remove from stems; squeeze the pulp into a stewpan. Cook pulp and rub through a strainer to remove seeds. Add the grape skins to pulp and f lb. sugar to every pound of fruit. Cook slowly until it thickens. Put in glasses and seal as directed. Spiced Grapes Wash grapes and remove seeds as above. To every 7 lb. grapes (pulp and skins) add 3 lb. sugar, 1 pt. vinegar, ground spices to taste. Boil until the skins are tender and the mixture thickens. Put in glasses, sealing as directed. Peach Marmalade Peel peaches and slice fine. Add 1 pt. sugar to every quart of peaches. Let stand three or four hours ; cook quickly twenty-five minutes. Put in glasses and seal as directed. Pickles Sweet Pickles 7 lb. fruit 3 c. vinegar 3 1 lb. brown sugar | c. spic3 (whole cinnamon, cassia buds, cloves, and allspice) Tie spices in a cheesecloth bag, boil with the sugar and vinegar ten minutes. Add the fruit and cook until fruit is tender. Put in jars, fill with the syrup, and seal. 58 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Small Cucumber Pickles Scrub 2 qt. small cucumbers. Put in a ]3owl with ^ c. salt; cover with boihng water, and let stand over night. Drain. Put in a kettle with ^ pt. small onions, ^ sweet green pepper with seeds removed, 1 c. sugar, and I c. whole spices tied in a bag ; cover with vinegar, let come to boihng point, but do not boil. Seal while hot. Chili Sauce 1 doz. ripe tomatoes peeled and . f c. brown sugar cut up ■ 2 tb. salt 4 good-sized onions chopped fine 1 pt. cider vinegar 3 cucumbers chopped fine ^ 1 tb. mixed ground spices 2 green peppers chopped fine Boil all together slowly for two hours. Put into jars and seal while hot. I CHAPTER VII SOUPS There are in general two types of soup, — those made with meat or fish stocks and those made with milk or cream ; some soups, however, contain both kinds of liquid. CREAM SOUPS Cream soups are prepared like a thin white sauce, to which the vegetable, etc., is added after being mashed and strained. Soups are thickened both to improve the con- sistency and to keep the vegetable from separating from the liquid. To hind or thicken soups. — Melt the required butter, add the flour, and cook until bubbling ceases. Let this mixture cool, add some of the hot soup to make it thin enough to pour, then stir this into the remainder of the hot soup and cook until it thickens and is smooth. Cream Tomato Soup or Mock Bisque Scald 1 qt. milk in double boiler. Bind with 4 tb. butter, 6 tb. flour. Cook 10 minutes. Add 2 ts. salt, | ts. pepper. Cook 1 pt. tomatoes until soft. Strain. Reheat and add I ts. soda. Add to thickened milk and serve immediately. Note for Students. — Why is soda added to the tomato ? Why do you not cook the white sauce and tomato together? 59 60 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cream of Celery Soup 3 c. chopped celery 1 slice onion Cook together in 1 pt. water three quarters to one hour. Rub through a puree strainer. Add water, as it cooks away, to make one pint. Add 3 c. milk. Bind with 4 tb. butter, 5 tb. flour. Cook 10 minutes. Season with 1^ ts. salt, f ts. pepper. Add f ts. beef extract, or cook the celery in water in which chicken or veal has been cooked. Cream of Potato Soup 3 small potatoes, boil and mash. Cook the potatoes until a httle overdone and the soup will not be grainy. Scald 1 qt. milk with 2 slices of onion ; add to the mashed potatoes and strain into the upper part double boiler. Bind with 3 tb. butter, 2 tb. flour. Cook 10 minutes. Add 1^ ts. salt, I ts. celery salt, | ts. pepper, few grains cayenne, 1 ts. chopped parsley. Note to Student. — Why is the amount of flour less than that used in other cream soups ? Clear Tomato Soup 1 qt. tomatoes | bay leaf 1 pt. stock or water 4 peppercorns 1 small onion 2 cloves Sprig of parsley Cook together ten minutes or till tomatoes are soft. Strain. Bind with 3 tb. butter Add 2 ts. salt 3 tb. cornstarch Cook ten minutes SOUPS 61 Cream of Spinach Soup Trim roots and wilted leaves from 2 qt. spinach. Wash spinach well and cook thirty minutes in 2 c. water with 2 slices onion. Rub through puree sieve. Add 3 c. milk. Bind with 4 tb. butter and 5 tb. flour. Season with 1 ts. salt and a speck of cay- enne pepper. Baked Bean Soup 2 c. baked beans 2 c. water 2 shces onion 2 c. tomatoes Cook all ten minutes, press through a strainer. Bind with 2 tb. butter, 3 tb. flour. Season with salt, pepper, celery salt, and paprika. All cream soups are improved if a little whipped cream is added just before they are served, being sure that soup is very hot. SOUPS WITH STOCK Stock is the liquid extract of meat and bone. Proteins present in meat : 1. Albumen. — Soluble in fresh and slightly salted cold water. Coagulates with heat. Builds body tissues. 2. Globulin. — Soluble in slightly salted cold water. Coagulates with heat. Builds body tissues. 3. Extractives. — Give flavor to the meat. Soluble in hot and cold water. Do not coagulate with heat. Do not build body tissues. 4. Collagen of connective tissues. — Forms gelatin when boiled with water. Jellies when cold. Does not build body tissues, but is a '^ protein sparer." Experiment 35. — a. Cut meat in small pieces and soak in cold, shghtly salted water. What color does the water become? 62 DOMESTIC SCIENCE What has been withdrawn from the meat into the water? What effect has cold water upon meat ? How should meat be washed ? h. Remove meat from water and heat the water. Note tem- perature at which flakes form. Boil. What is the scum which forms ? Why has it formed ? What is the cooking temperature for soups? Should the scum which forms in the early stages of soup making be removed in making (a) a highly nutritious soup, {h) a clear soup ? Are clear soups nutritious ? Why ? Experiment 36. — Pour boiling water on mea^. Let stand a few minutes. Cut meat. What effect did the boihng water have upon the surface of the meat? What is the color of the water? Does boiling water draw out th6 juices of meat ? Experiment 37. — Hold a piece of meat directly over a hot fire, as in broiling. Turn often. Place meat on a dish. Cut it. What effect did high temperature of fire have upon the meat ? Com- pare the flavor and color of the meat with boiled meat. What effect does high-temperature cooking have upon the flavor of meat ? Meat is cooked in water : a. In making soup ; all of the nourishment of the meat should be drawn out into the water. h. In stews ; part of the nourishment should be left in the meat. c. For serving meats whole ; all of the nourishment should be retained in the meat. For (a) the meat should be cut in small pieces, put on the stove in cold, slightly salted water, and simmered gently for five or six hours. For (6) the meat should be cut in pieces suitable for serving, covered with boiling water, and then simmered gently for two or three hours, the salt being added when meat is about half cooked. For (c) the meat should be left whole, be plunged into boiling water, allowed to boil five minutes to coagulate the SOUPS 63 protein on the surface, then simmered gently until tender, the salt being added when it is about half cooked. Soup Stock. — The cheapest and toughest cuts of meat may be used in making soups. The hind shin of beef or the rump bone, the knuckle of veal, the neck of mutton, may be used. Left-overs of meats and vegetables may be saved and added to the stock, and the trimmings of meat and bone sent from the butcher's may be used for the same purpose. The soup kettle should be of granite or, if of iron, it should be very smooth or porcelain-lined. The cover of the kettle should fit closely to retain the steam. The scum which rises on the soup consists of the albumen and globulin of the meat and should not be removed. The long-continued action of hot water upon the collagen of the connective tissues will change it to gelatine and the fibers and bones will alone be removed upon straining. The stock should simmer gently for five or six hours, be strained through a colander, and allowed to cool, so that the fat may come to the surface and form a cake, which should be removed before the stock is used. In clear soups, every particle of fat must be removed. A brown stock may be made by browning about one third of the meat and vegetables before adding them to the stock kettle. About two thirds of the meat used should be lean, the other third, bone and fat. Do not wash meat by putting it into water to soak, but wipe thoroughly with a damp cloth before cutting. A general rule for stock : To every pound of meat and bone allow 1 qt. cold water, 1 ts. salt, 4 peppercorns, 4 cloves, I ts. mixed herbs, 1 tb. each vegetable cut fine. 64 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Stock 2 lb. shin of beef 2 ts. salt 2 qt. cold water 4 allspice 6 cloves 1 sprig parsley 8 peppercorns 1 small onion ^ ssp. celery seed ^ small carrot ^ ts. mixed herbs (whole) | small turnip Wipe, and cut the meat into small pieces. Put into the cold water with the vegetables and seasoning, and soak ^ h. before heating ; heat gradually and let simmer 5 or 6 h. Strain and cool quickly. When ready for use, remove all fat ; heat, and season to taste. Brown Soup Stock 4 lb. shin of beef 6 cloves ^ ts. peppercorns | c. each, turnip, carrot, ^ bay leaf onion, and celery cut 4 ts. salt in dice - 4 qt. cold water 2 sprigs parsley Wipe beef. Cut lean meat into inch cubes. Brown one third of meat in hot frying pan in the marrow from bone. Put remainder of meat and bone in soup kettle with water and let stand ^ h. Add browned meat, the vegetables, and seasoning, and heat gradu- ally. Cook slowly 5 or 6 h., keeping just below the boiling point; strain and cool ; remove fat. Tomato Soup 1 pt. stewed and strained 1- pt. stock tomatoes Salt and pepper to taste I ts. sugar Add tomatoes to boiling stock; season, and serve with crou- tons. SOUPS 65 Vegetable Soup 1 qt. stock I c. onion 1 pt. boiling water | c. peas I carrot ^ c. celery ^ turnip ^ c. tomato I potato 1 tbsp. rice Cut vegetables into uniform pieces or chop fine. Boil carrot and turnip, celery, onions, and rice in water 20 m. ; add other vege- tables and cook till tender. Add stock, and salt and pepper to taste. Boil 10 minutes and serve. Bouillon 5 lb. lean beef 1-3 c. each carrot, turnip, 2 lb. bone onion, celery 4 qt. cold water | ts. peppercorns 1 tb. salt Wipe, and cut meat into inch cubes. Put two thirds of meat in soup kettle with bone and water, and soak | h. Brown remainder of meat in marrow from bone, put into the soup kettle, heat slowly and simmer 5 h. Add seasoning and vegetables. Cook 1 h,, strain and cool. Remove every particle of fat and clear. Serve in cups with a sUce of lemon. To clear Soup Allow the white and shell of 1 egg to every quart of stock, season with ^ ssp. celery seed, salt to taste, and add the thinly shaved rind of ^ lemon. Crush the shell, beat the white slightly, and add all to cold stock. Stir constantly till boiling point is reached. Boil 2 m. Set back where it may simmer 20 m. Strain through double thick- ness of cheesecloth. Reheat and serve. 66 DOMESTIC SCIENCE White Soup Stock 3 lb. knuckle veal 1 large stalk of celery 1 lb. lean beef | ts. peppercorns 3 qt. water i bay leaf 1 onion 2 sprigs thyme 6 slices carrot 2 cloves Wipe, and cut meat into small pieces. Break the bone in several places. Put into a soup kettle and cover with cold water. Sim- mer gently for 4 h. Add vegetables and seasoning and simmer 1 h. longer. Strain; when cool, remove fat. ,Corn Soup 1 pt. grated corn or kornlet 4 tb. flour 1 qt. white stock or water 1 ts. chopped onion 1 pt. milk Salt and pepper 3 tb. butter Beaten yolks 1 or 2 eggs Cook the corn and onion in stock or water 20 m. Rub through a sieve and add milk. When boiling, bind with the flour and butter. Add seasoning. Just before serving add the beaten yolks and serve immediately. Cauliflower Soup 4 c. hot white stock 1 bay leaf 1 cauliflower I c. flour 3 tb. butter 2 c. milk 1 slice onion Salt 1 stalk celerj^ Pepper Soak cauhflower, head down, 1 h. in cold water. Cook in boiling salted water 20 m. Reserve a quarter of the flowerets, and rub remaining cauliflower through sieve. Cook onion, celery, bay leaf, in butter 5 m., but do not brown. Remove bay leaf, add flour, and stir into hot stock ; add cauliflower and milk. Season, strain, add flowerets, and reheat. SOUPS 67 Force Meat Balls (to serve with stock soups) Chop cold cooked meat fine ; season highly with salt, pepper, sweet herb, onion, etc. ; moisten with yolk of egg and a little stock or water. Mold into small balls, roll in flour, and brown in hot fat. Serve with soup ; or make larger balls and serve with a tomato sauce as a meat dish. Croutons Cut stale bread in ^ inch slices and remove the crusts. Butter the slices lightly and cut them into ^ inch cubes; bake them till they are a delicate brown. Toast Sticks or Rounds Cut bread into sticks or rounds, spread these with butter, and sprinkle with grated cheese ; bake until the cheese is melted. Serve very hot. Crackers Spread lightly with butter and cook in the oven until they are crisp. Note. — Student write recipes for other cream soups, compar- ing them with those found in standard cook books. CHAPTER VIII PROTEIN— EGGS Protein holds an important place among the food principles, for it is the only one which supplies the nitrogenous materials necessary for the building and repair of the tissues of the body. As the tissues of the body contain nitrogen, foods must be supplied which contain nitrogen in a form in which the body can use it. Protein forms the basis of all living cells, being an essential part of the protoplasm, a jellylike content of the cell. Sugars and starches contain no nitrogen and for this reason obviously cannot serve the important purpose which protein does. Without protein foods the body will weaken and undergo nitrogen starvation, or a breaking down of the tissues. The protein molecules are very complex, containing prob- ably many atoms each of the various elements of which they are composed. While something is known of the ar- rangement of these atoms, much is still to be learned and their chemical formulae have not been determined. Besides their important functions as tissue builders, the proteins serve also as heat-giving foods, as they contain carbon and hydrogen. Some of the substances into which they are changed during digestion are capable of forming fat in the body. To depend chiefly on protein, however, for fuel and for body fat is undesirable for many reasons, one of which is that foods rich in protein are almost always high priced. Fortunately, carbohydrates and fats seem to act to some 68 PROTEIN — EGGS 69 extent as protein sparers, and when they are used in suffi- cient quantity, they prevent undue destruction of protein for the production of heat. Identification Test for Protein. — Put raw white of egg in a saucer. Cut with a pair of scissors until you can take up a spoon- fuL Put I ts. of it in a test tube with a httle water, add a few drops of nitric acid (HNO3). A white precipitate forms which when boiled turns yellow. This yellow color is characteristic of protein. When the mixture is cool, add a few drops of ammonia (NH4OH). An orange-brown color will result. Experiment 38. — Test various foods to detect the presence of protein. Tabulate results. Experiment 39. — Part 1. Prepare raw white of egg by cutting with scissors, and add to a small part of it ten volumes of water ; filter through filter paper. Test the filtrate for protein. Is pro- tein soluble in cold water ? Part 2. Repeat, using boiling water with white of egg. Is albu- men soluble in boiling water ? In cooking meats in water, when should they be placed in cold water ? in boiling water ? Experiment 40. — Remove the residue of egg white left in the filter paper of Part 1 of the previous experiment, and put it in a test tube. Add a weak salt solution; mix well; filter. Test filtrate for protein. Is globuhn soluble in weak salt solution? When should you add salt to water in cooking meats ? Experiment 41. — Effect of heat upon albumen and globulin. Put half the white of an egg in a test tube. Put a thermometer in the tube and place it in a pan of cold water, having water deep enough to surround the egg; heat the water gradually. Note temperature when the first signs of coagulation are seen in the egg. At 180° F. remove some of the albumen ; continue heating to 212° F. Compare the consistency of albumen cooked at 180° F. and 212° F. What is the correct temperature for "soft-cooked" eggs? Experiment 42. — {a) Boil 1 pt. water, place two eggs in it, 70 DOMESTIC SCIENCE remove from fire, keeping kettle ciosely covered to retain heat. At end of six minutes, remove one egg; remove the other at the end of ten minutes. (6) Put an egg in boihng water and let boil three and one-half minutes. Compare the consistency of the three eggs. Is there any dif- ference ? What is the best method for cooking eggs soft ? Experiment 43. — (a) Cook an egg in boiling water for seven or eight minutes. (6) Cook an egg in water just below the boihng point for twenty minutes or longer. Compare (a) and (b). Note difference in consistency of yolks and whites. What is the best method of cooking eggs hard? What effect does the temperature of 212° F. have upon pro- tein? Classification of Proteins. — All proteins contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur ; some contain also phosphorus and iron. However, there are many forms of protein, all possessing widely varied chemical and physical properties. By such experiments as those that have been performed and others much more complicated and extended, scientists have learned enough about these substances to classify them as follows : I. Simple Proteins : A. Albumen, found in egg, blood, milk, etc. Properties : (1) Coagulates with heat (2) Soluble ii^L water (3) Soluble in weak salt solution (4) Insoluble in strong salt solution B. Globulin, found in egg, muscle, blood, milk, etc. Properties : (1) Coagulates with heat (2) Insoluble in water (3) Soluble in weak salt solution (4) Insoluble in strong salt solution PROTEIN — EGGS 71 C. Alcohol-Solublo Protcnns (1) Glutenin and gliadiri, found in wheat, which, when mixed with water, unite to form gluten (2) Legumen of peas and beans D. Albuminoids or proteins found in skeleton and framework. Principal form is collagen, which is found in tho white fibers of connective tissue and which, when boiled with water, forms gelatin Properties : (1) Dissolve in hot water (2) Form a jelly when cold E. Extractives In the animal body proteins are constantly breaking down into simpler substances, some of which contain nitrogen. At the time of killing, some of these nitrogenous sub- stances are in the tissues ; they can be extracted with water and for this reason the name " Extractives " has been given them. As a human food they serve as mild stimulants and also as flavoring materials. It is not thought, however, that they can be used as building stones. If an animal is fed on a diet in which extractives are the only nitrogenous substances, it dies of what is called nitrogen starvation. The extractives are not coagulated by heat ; they will, there- fore, remain in solution when meat juice is heated. Not so, however, the albumen and globuhn of meat juices; they are coagulated at a certain temperature and rise to the surface and form a scum. A beef broth, therefore, in which the proteins have been coagulated and removed by skimming or straining is wholly lacking in tissue-forming substances ; it is mildly stimulating, however, i.e. it spurs on the various processes of the body and may be the means of supplying water in a very acceptable form. II. Conjugated Proteins. — Proteins which contain some other molecule united to the protein molecule 72 DOMESTIC SCIENCE A. Phospho-proteins. — Are compounds of protein with a phos- phorus-containing substance. They are especially adapted to furnish the material for tissue growth. They are present in the casein of milk and vitellin of egg yolk. B. For other forms of protein see '^ Chemistry of Food and NutritioQ," H. C. Sherman. EGGS ,' Embryo or c^erm from I which chicken develops Twisfeol white carols upon which fhe yolkrevolyes-" Shell- Air spofce y--6hm I in Ira fhe^hell Section of a Hen's Egg Composition of Edible Portion of Eggs — {E. C. Sherman) Water, 73.7%; Fat, 10.5%; Protein, 14.8%; Ash, 1.0%. Composition of Yolk of Egg Water, 50.9%; Fat, 31.75%; Protein, 16.2%; Ash, 1.09%. Composition of White of Egg — {Hutchinson) Water, 85.7%; Fat, 0.25%; Protein, 12.6%; Ash, 0.59%. Eggs contain all the elements necessary for the growth of the body, as from the egg the young chick is formed. They are lacking, however, in carbohydrates, so it is better to eat them with bread, rice, potato, or other starchy foods. The PRO TEIN — EGGS 73 yolk of the egg forms a valuable source of iron and phos- phorus for the body. The edible portion of newly laid eggs almost fills the shell, but as the shells are porous the water evaporates, and air, containing decomposing bacteria, takes its place. As it is the presence of these bacteria which causes the egg to spoil, the principle of egg preservation is to prevent the evaporation of water by filling the pores of the shell. This is accomplished by placing the eggs in a solution of water glass. A fresh egg, containing more water than a stale one, will sink in water. To 'preserve eggs in water glass {sodium silicate). — Boil ten to twelve quarts of water, rain water if possible. When cold, add one quart of water glass. Place clean, strictly fresh eggs in crocks, small ends down, and cover them with the water glass mixture. As the eggs will keep fresh for months, they may be preserved when the price is lowest. Price of eggs : . . . . January ... . September . . . . April .... November When eggs are beaten, the tenacity of the albumen causes them to entangle air, thus increasing their bulk many times. In a cake or other mixture subjected to the heat of the oven, the air expands and lightens the mixture. If the egg is to be used to make mixtures light, we beat the egg well. For other purposes, to enrich or thicken mixtures, for example, there is no object in beating it more than enough to break it up and to insure its even distribution. The loss of weight when eggs are boiled is due to elimina- tion of water. The coagulation is a rearrangement of the atoms of the molecule, but there is no change in composition. When eggs are brought into the house, they should be washed and then put into a cool, dark place. They will keep better if perfectly clean, and it is a convenience to have the shells ready for use in clearing coffee. 74 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Soft-cooked Eggs Put eggs into boiling water to well cover them. Remove kettle from stove and place where it will keep warm. Leave the eggs in the water from six to eight minutes. Hard-cooked Eggs Cook eggs in water just below the boiling point for twenty minutes. The yolks will then be dry and mealy and will be easily digested. Creamed Eggs . Cut four hard cooked eggs in halves or quarters and pour over them one cup white sauce. Egg Toast Add the chopped whites of 3 hard-cooked eggs to 1 c. thin white sauce and pour over three slices of toast. Rub the yolks through a strainer over the whole. Reheat in the oven, if necessary. Garnish with parsley and serve. Poached Eggs Have a shallow pan nearly full of boiling salted water. Reduce heat until the water is motionless. Break the eggs into a saucer, one by one, and slip into the hot water. When a film has formed over the yolks and the white is firm, take up with a skimmer and place on pieces of toast of uniform shape and size. Baked Custard 2 c. milk ■ i c. sugar 2 or 3 eggs Pinch of salt Nutmeg Beat eggs slightly, and add to them the sugar and salt. Pour on them the milk. Strain into a buttered mold, add nutmeg. PROTEIN — EGGS 75 Set mold in a pan of hot water. Bake in a slow oven till firm and until a knife inserted will come out clean. Uo not allow the water around the custard to boil, as egg and milk combinations must cook at a low temperature or they will separate and become watery. Allow 2 eggs for cup custards and 3 if baked in a large mold. General Rules for Omelets. — -The pan for an omelet should be very clean and smooth. Allow one tablespoonful of water or milk to each egg used. For creamy omelets, beat the eggs slightly ; for beaten omelets, beat the yolks and whites separately until very light. Chopped meat, chicken, vegetables, cheese, etc., may be spread over an omelet just before folding. 4 eggs 1 ts. salt 4 tb. milk or water \ ssp. pepper Beat eggs slightly, add other ingredients, mix well, and pour into a hot, buttered omelet pan. Lift gently with a fork as it begins to cook, letting the uncooked egg run under. When of a creamy consistency, roll and turn out. Ham Omelet Make the same as creamy omelet, and as soon as it begins to thicken, spread with 3 tb. finely minced ham. Roll and serve. Veal and chicken may be used the same way. Beaten Omelet Beat yolks of two eggs till lemon-colored and thick, add 2 tb. milk, 1 ssp. salt, ^ ssp. pepper, fold in the beaten whites. Pour immediately into hot, buttered omelet pan, let brown on one side slightly, set in the oven to dry on top a little, fold, and turn on to hot platter. 76 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Potato Omelet Chop 2 boiled potatoes fine, brown in 1 tb. hot butter, sprinkle with salt, pepper, and chopped parsley. Keep warm while you make a creamy omelet. When the omelet is partly set, spread potatoes over it, roll, and serve. Spanish Omelet 3 tb. chopped bacon 1 tb. chopped onions 2 tb. chopped green pepper 5 button mushrooms, chopped 1 c. tomatoes Fry bacon, add onion and pepper, and cook till light brown. Add tomatoes and cook till of consistency of white sauce. Add mushrooms and salt to taste. Make a creamy omelet and just before folding spread with this mixture, or pour around a beaten omelet after it is on the platter. CHAPTER IX COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MEATS Farmers' Bulletin No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Beef: Porterhouse steak Sirloin steak . Ribs ... Round . . . Rump . . . Flank . . . Veal : * Leg .... Breast . . . Leg cutlets . Mutton : Leg, hind . . Loin chops . Flank . . . Lamb : Breast . . . Leg, hind . . Pork: Ham (fresh) . Loin chops . Shoulder . . Ham (smoked) Salt pork . . Bacon . . . Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbo- hydrates Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 12.7 12.8 20.8 7.2 20.7 10.2 52.4 54.0 43.8 60.7 45.0 54.0 19.1 16.5 13.9 19.0 13.8 17.0 17.9 16.1 21.2 12.8 20.2 19.0 14.2 21.3 3.4 60.1 52.0 68.3 15.5 15.4 20.1 7.9 11.0 7.5 18.4 16.0 9.9 51.2 42.0 39.0 15.1 13.5 13.8 14.7 28.3 36.9 19.1 17.4 45.5 52.9 15.4 15.9 19.1 13.6 10.7 19.7 12.4 13.6 48.0 41.8 44.9 34.8 7.9 17.4 13.5 13.4 12.0 14.2 1.9 9.1 25.9 24.2 29.8 33.4 86.2 62.2 7.7 Ash Per ct. 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 4.2 3.9 4.1 77 78 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Structure of Meat. — Experiment 44. — Pick apart with needles some of the fibers of uncooked meat. Examine fibers under a microscope. Make drawings, noting the stripes (stria?) on fibers. Describe fibers of meat. The fibers or tubes are held together in bundles by means of connective tissues; these connective tissues consist of collagen, which is converted into gelatine by boiling in water. Thus, in cooking, the connective tissues are changed and the meat becomes more tender. The harder and tougher the connective tissues of the meat, the longer the time which will be required in cooking to change them to gelatine. In tender meats the collagen is changed by the steam formed from the juices of the meat in the processes of boiling and baking, but a large amount of water must be added to very tough meats to bring about this conversion. Hence tough meats must be cooked for a long time in a liberal amount of water and the temperature be kept just below the boiling point, in order that the protein may not be toughened. Tender Meat. — Muscles which are least used by the ani- mal are the most tender, as those of the tenderloin, loin, and ribs. These command the highest market prices. The tube walls of the muscles are thin and delicate and there is little connective tissue. The tougher cuts of meat are equally nutritious and are much cheaper, and may be made into very palatable dishes. Beef. — The best beef is obtained from steers, four to six years old, which are raised in the West and shipped alive to Chicago or some other packing center. After slaughtering, the animal is dressed and divided into quarters, which are placed at once in cold storage in "order that they may cool quickly, for this improves their quality. From the cold storage rooms the beef is shipped in refrigerator cars to COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 79 different parts of the country. Beef should hang from two to four weeks that it may become tender, but is often kept a much longer time without deterioration. BEEF Diagram Showing Bones and the Various Market Cuts (Williams and Fisher) Names of Cuts 1. Sirloin. 2. Porterhouse. 3. Rump. 4. Round. 5. Top sirloin. 6. First prime ribs. 7. Second cut ribs. 8. Chuck ribs. 9. Neck. 10. Brisket. 11. Cross rib. 12. Plate. 13. Navel. 14. Flank. 15. Shoulder. 16. Shin. Food Uses Steaks. (a) Hip bone sirloin, best sirloin steak. (b) Flat bone sirloin, second best sirloin. (c) Round bone sirloin, poorest sirloin. Steaks. (d) Club steak. (e) Tenderloin. Corning. (f) Best corning piece. Steaks and made dishes. Pot roast and steaks. Best roasts. Roasts. Poorer roasts and steaks. Beef tea, stews, or boiling. Corning. Pot roast. Corning. Corning. Stews or boiling. Soup. Soup. 80 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Points to Note in Judging Beef 1. It should be a bright red color after it has been cut a short time. 2. It should be well marbled with yellowish fat. 3. It should have a thick layer of fat overlying the muscles. 4. It should be firm to the touch. 5. It should be free from disagreeable odor. MARKET CUTS OF BEEF Photographs used by permission of Teachers College, ColumMa University First cut Prime Ribs Second cut Prime Ribs Chuck Ribs Blade Ribs COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 81 Porterhouse Steak Small Porterhouse and Club Steak Flat-bone Sirloin Hip Sirloin Wf H ■ i^H o Wmm^ WM B ^1^1 1 M 1 m r^MS M Ifl w W^^^^^ "S^R-^i, '^^ 1. Chuck steak G ^. Skirt Steak 3. Flank Steak 82 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Round Round bone Sirloin VEAL Diagram Showing Bones and the Various Market Cuts (Williams and Fisher) Names of Cuts 1. Loin. 2. Leg. 3. Knuckle. 4. Ribs. .5. Shoulder. ^ 6. Neck. 7. Breast. 8. Sweetbreads. (a) Thymus gland in throat. (b) Pancreas. Food Uses ' Roast and Chops. (a) Best Chops. (b) Poorer Chops. Roast and Steaks. Soup. Chops. Stuffed and Roasted. Stew. Roast, Stew. COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 83 Veal. — Veal is the inoc'it obtaiiKnl from th(^ calf. Tlie flesh should be pink, and the fat white. If the flesh is white, the animal has been bled before being killed, or is too young to be fit for food. Veal may be obtained throughout the year, but is in season in the spring. Side of Veal 1. Neck. 3. Shoulder. ^. Breast. 7. Loin. 9. Leg. 2. Chuck. 4. Fore Shank. 6. Ribs. 8. Flank. 10. Hind Shank. Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, U. S. Dept. Agriculture Veal should be thoroughly cooked and highly seasoned. Being deficient in fat, pork or butter should be used in the cooking. Veal is divided into fore and hind quarters. The fore quarter is divided into the breast, shoulder, ribs, and neck ; the hind quarter into the loin, leg, and knuckle. Cut- lets and fillets are taken from the thick part of the leg, cor- responding to the round of beef. 84 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Mutton and Lamb. — Mutton is the name applied to the meat of sheep. The best mutton comes from a heavy animal about three years old. The flesh should be of a bright red, MUTTON AND LAMB Diagram Showing Bones and Various Market Cuts (Williams and Fisher) Names OF Cuts Food Uses •1. Loin. Chops, (a) Best chops, (b) Poorer chops. 2. Leg. Roast or boiled whole and steaks 3. Ribs. Chops, (c) Best chops. (d) Poorer chops. 4. Shoulder. Stuffed and roasted. 5. Breast. Stew. and the fat hard and white. The meat should hang from two to three weeks to be in the best condition. The strong flavor of mutton may be lessened by removing the pink skin and trimming off the superfluous fat. Mutton ranks with beef in nutritive qualities. COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 85 Lamb is the name applied to the meat of lambs. When killed from six weeks to three months old, it is known as spring lamb, and may be procured as early as February, but Side of Mutton 1. Neck. 2. Chuck. 3. Shovilder. 4. Breast. 5. Loin and Ribs. 6. Leg. Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, U. S. Dept. Agriculture is scarce till March. Lamb may be eaten soon after the animal is killed and dressed. The bones of lamb are pink, while those of mutton are white. Lamb is preferred well done ; mutton is often eaten rare. 86 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Lamb and mutton are divided into two parts by cutting through the backbone, then subdivided into the hind and fore quarter. The ribs and loins are used for chops and roasts. The leg is sold whole for boiling or roasting. The breast is generally used for stews and the neck for broth. Makket Cuts of Lamb and M CTTTON 1 H ■ 1 I li ^^r 7 8 n^ ' "dV ^^w^ ^^J ||Qfe| ^H ■■--I ^^w^ ^I^Mm J^P-I ^^8 ^^Im'^"*^ %, 1 and 2. Rib chops, Frenched, 5 and 6. Rib chops. 3 and 4. Loin chops. 7. Blade shoulder chop. 8. Round-bone shoulder chop. Pork. — Pork is the meat of the hog. It contains more fat than that of any other animal. The lean should be fine- grained and of a pale red color, the fat white, and the skin clear and smooth. Reject the meat if the fat is a yellowish white and full of small kernels, and the flesh soft. The hind legs are salted and sjnoked and are called ham. Sugar-cured hams are the best. The shoulders are also salted and smoked and sold cheaper as '' picnic hams." The ribs and loin are used for chops and roasts. The flank, which lies COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 87 jii.st below tli(^ ribs, is salted mikI smoked and called bacon. The best salt pork eomes from the back on either side of the backbone. The solid fat which lies inside the flank is known as leaf lard. PORK Diagram Showing Bones and Various Market Cuts (Williams and Fisher) Names of Cuts Food Uses 1. Loin. Chops or roast. 2. Ribs. Chops or roast. 3. Ham. Boiled or sliced and broiled, etc. 4. Shoulder or picnic ham. Poorer cut of ham. 5. Breast. Salt pork or bacon. 6. Clear back fat. Salt pork. 7. Jowl. Head cheese, etc. 8. Pigs feet. Pickled. The tenderloins, of which there are two, lie under the backbone and extend from the ribs under the loin. Pork should be thoroughly cooked to be wholesome. It should not be eaten except in cold weather and never by children or people of weak digestion. Note. — Students obtain prices of the various cuts of meat and tabulate them to show, (1) Prices procured by self, from " family" butcher. (2) Highest prices procured by any member of class. (3) Lowest prices procured by any member of class. Each class should visit a local meat market to inspect meat. 88 DOMESTIC SCIENCE General Methods of Cooking Meats : 1. Application of intense heat to keep in the juices and develop flavor. This is suitable for tender meats only. Broiling, roasting. Side of Pork 1. Head. 5. Breast. 2. Shoulder or Picnic ham. ' 6. Ham. 3. Back fat. 7. Ribs. 4. Middle cut. 8. Loin. 2. Cooking in water at low temperature. This is suitable for tough meats, bone, gristle, etc. Soups, stews. 3. Browning or 'searing the meat with high temperature to develop flavor, and then cooking slowly in water to soften the fibers. This is suitable for meats that are neither tender nor very tough. Pot roasts, braising, casserole, etc. COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 89 Stewing. — Stewing is a form of boiling or cooking for a long time, in a small amount of water, at a low temperature. The long-continued action of gentle heat will soften the coarsest fibers and connective tissue of meats, and thus the cheapest cuts of meat may be made palatable. Remnants of meat may be seasoned in various ways, and thus be made savory and attractive. Stews are called by various names, according to the nature of the ingredients, such as ragout, haricot, salmi, chowder, etc. Braising is a form of stewing in a covered pan in an oven. Beef Stew 2 lb. beef 4 small potatoes 1 onion 2 ts. salt I c. carrot and turnip 1 ssp. pepper diced Hot water to cover Wipe the meat, remove from bone, and cut in 2-inch pieces. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and dredge with flour. Melt some of the fat in a frying pan, add meat and the onion sliced, stir con- stantly that the surface may be quickly seared. Put into a kettle ; rinse the frying pan with hot water that none of the goodness may be lost. Add remaining bone and fat, cover with boiling water and boil 5 m., then simmer until the meat is tender, about 3 hours. Add carrot and turnip the last hour. Parboil potatoes and add to stew 20 m. before it is done. Remove large bones and fat, and thicken the stew with 2 tb. flour wet in cold water. Dump- lings may be added 10 m. before the stew is finished. Serve on a warm platter. Dumplings 1 pt. flour 4 ts. baking powder ^ ts. salt About 1 scant c. milk Sift the dry ingredients, stir in the milk slowly, mixing with a knife till a soft dough is formed. Dip a spoon into the boiling stew, 90 DOMESTIC SCIENCE tlicn take up a spoonful of dumi^ling and drop into the stew, letting it rest on the meat and potatoes. Cover closely and steam 10 m. without uncovering. Do not let the stew stop boiling after the dumplings are added. Serve immediately. Veal Stew The breast, neck, and knuckle of veal may be used for stew. Cut 2 lb. of veal in small pieces, remove all fine bone. Cover meat with boiling water, skim as it begins to boil. Add 2 small onions, 2 ts. salt, 1 ssp. pepper. Simmer till tender, about 3 hours. Cut 4 small potatoes in halves, parboil them 5 m., add to the stew. Thicken with 2 tb. flour wet in cold water, add 1 c. cream or milk, and more seasoning if necessary. Dumphngs may be added. Irish Stew 3 lb. neck of mutton 4 potatoes, cut in dice 4 onions 3 pt. hot water Salt and pepper Cut meat into pieces about 1 in. square, cover with the boiling water, add shced onions, 2 ts. salt, and simmer gently 3 h. About 15 m. before the stew is done add potatoes. Season, and serve when potatoes are tender. Dumplings may be added. Braising, Pot Roasts, etc. — Braising is a form of stewing in the oven. Pot roasting is cooking in a kettle on top of the stove, using only a small amount of water. The less tender cuts of meat may be" cooked by either method. The meat is browned first to improve the flavor and is then cooked slowly in a small amount of water, in a closely covered kettle or pan, until tender. Braised Beef Sprinkle | c. each salt pork, carrot, onion, and celery^ cut in dice, in a covered dripping pan, and place 5 lb. beef round, rump, or COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 91 shoulder, on them. Add 1 pt. stock or water, | bay leaf, piece of red pepper or 6 peppercorns, 3 cloves. Dredge meat with flour. Let brown in hot oven. Spread a few more of the vegetable cubes on top, add 2 ts. salt. Cover closely and cook in oven very slowly 4 or 5 hours. Put meat on a platter, thicken the gravy, and serve with the meat. 1 cup tomato may be added when meat is half done. Pot Roast Four to six lb. from the rump, round, or shoulder of beef. Brown the cut sides in a hot kettle in some fat from the beef, add 1 c. hot water, season with salt and pepper, and place on the stove, where it will keep just below the boiling point. Do not let the water cook entirely away, but add only enough to keep the meat from burning. Cover closely and cook till very tender, but do not let it break. Serve hot or cold. When cold it may be cut in quarter inch slices and sauteed in hot butter. Roasting. — Roasting is the process of cooking by the radiant heat of an open fire. It is seldom used now as a method of cookery, as few kitchens are supplied with the necessary apparatus. Roasting has been superseded by baking in an oven, although we still retain the name. Tender meats are most suitable for roasting. The larger the piece of meat, the less the sUrface in proportion to the weight; consequently, evaporation goes on less rapidly in a large piece, and it is more likely to remain juicy than a small one. The meat should be placed in the oven without adding any water. As it begins to brown, baste it with the hot fat that has melted out of the roast into the pan. Add enough boiling water from time to time to just cover the bottom of the pan to assist in basting and to prevent burning. The salt and pepper should be added when the surface is well seared over by heat. 92 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Time-Table for Roasting Beef Allow 15 minutes to each Ibc Mutton ■ . Allow 20 minutes to each lb. Veal Allow 30 minutes to each lb. Pork Allow 30 minutes to each lb. 4 lb. chicken Requires about 2 hours. 2| to 3 lb. fish . . Requires about 1 hour. Roast Beef Wipe meat with wet cloth, place in a dripping pan just large enough to hold it easily. Roast as in directions given. Roast Beef Gravy (Brown Sauce) Pour off all the fat from the dripping pan in which beef has been roasted, with the exception of about 4 tb. Add 5 tb. flour and stir till brown. Add 2 c. hot water. Cook five minutes or till thick and smooth. Season with salt and pepper. Yorkshire Pudding 1 c. milk 1 or 2 eggs 1 c. flour I ts. salt Mix salt and flour. Add milk gradually to form a smooth paste. Then add eggs beaten very light. Cover bottom of a dripping pan with some of the beef fat from the roast. Pour in the mixture one half inch deep. When well risen, baste with the fat from the roast. Bake 30 minutes. Cut in squares for serving. It may be baked in hissing-hot gem pans. Roast Veal The leg, the thickest part of the leg or round, the loin, and ribs are used for roasting. When the leg is used, have it boned at the market. Wipe meat, sprinkle with salt and pepper, stuff, and tie into shape. Place in dripping pan, dredge with flour and place strips of salt pork around it. Bake 30 minutes to the pound, bast- ing every 15 minutes with the fat in the pan, and boiling water. Serve with brown gravy made as for roast beef. COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 93 Roast Mutton Trim off pink skin and sui)crfluous fat. Wipe the meat, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour. Put in a hot oven and baste often, using a little hot water. Roast 20 minutes to the pound. Make a gravy in the pan, as for roast beef. Broiling. — Broiling is derived from the French word " brtiler," meaning to burn. It is cooking directly over a fire, and is the hottest form of cooking. Only the most tender portions of meat and fish are suitable for broiling. The intense heat sears or coagulates the albumen on the outside of the meat and forms a coating which retains the juices of the meat. The secret of success in broiling is fre- quent turning, for by this means the meat is prevented from losing its juices, and also from burning. The free action of the air around the article cooking, combined with the intense heat, gives a flavor that cannot otherwise be obtained. If the fire is not suitable for broiling, the next best process is pan broiling or cooking in a hissing hot frying pan, with- out fat. Lay the meat on the hot pan, sear quickly on one side, turn (without sticking a knife or fork into it, thereby causing the juices to escape) and brown the other side. Turn often during the cooking. This is not frying if properly done, the frying pan, as commonly used, being the abomi- nation of the American kitchen. Time-Table for Broiling Steak, one inch thick 4 to 6 m. Steak, one and one half inch thick 6 to 10 m. Small, thin fish 5 to 8 m. Thick fish 12 to 15 m. Chicken 20 m. 94 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Tlie best cuts for broiling are porterhouse, sirloin, cross cut of rump steak, and second and third cuts from top of round, of tender meat. The flank end of porterhouse may be removed before broiling and used in the soup kettle to prevent waste in broihng. Broiled Steak Wipe the meat carefully with a cloth wet in cold water and trim off superfluous fat. Rub the wires of the broiler with the fat and lay the steak in the broiler, having the thickest part in the center and the fat near the handle. Broil over a clear fire, having the chimney damper open, turning every ten seconds for the first min- ute, or until it is well seared. Hold the broiler farther from the fire and turn occasionally until it is cooked. Place on a warm platter, sprinkle with salt and pepper and bits of butter ; set in the oven a moment to melt the butter. Or, omit seasoning and butter, and spread with lemon butter, or pour a brown mushroom sauce around it. To hroil ivith gas. — Heat the broiling oven. -Lay the meat on the rack and put near the flame at first. Brown both sides, then lower the gas flame, or put the pan farther away from the flame, thus cooking more slowly until meat is done. Turn three or four times during the cooking. Put on a warm platter and season as above. To pan hroil. — Heat a heavy iron pan until a drop of water will rebound in balls from it. Lay the steak or chops directly on the pan without fat. Turn often. Reduce heat and continue cooking until done. Place on a warm platter. A little hot water, butter, salt, and pepper may be added to the pan and then be poured over the meat, for a gravy ; or season as a broiled steak. To cook chops. — Lamb and mutton chops may be broiled in the same manner as beefsteak. Veal chops must be more thoroughly cooked than is possible in broiling, so they must COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 95 1)0 rolled in some form of fat-proof coating and cookcid in hot fat. Pork chops also require long cooking, but they contain (Plough fat in themselves to finish the cooking it they are placed dire(;tly on hot pan. Pork Chops Wipe chops, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and place in a hot frying pan ; reduce heat, cover, cook slowly until tender and well- browned on both sides, about twenty minutes. Veal Chops Trim and wipe the chops or slices from the thick part of the leg. Season with salt and pepper, roll in bread crumbs, then in egg beaten with 1 tb. water, and again in crumbs. Sauter in hot salt pork fat or lard till well browned on both sides. Arrange in a circle about tlie dish, and fill the center with mashed potatoes, peas, tomato sauce, or boiled and seasoned string beans. The chops may also be rolled in flour and cooked as above. Ham Wipe ham, remove the rind. Place ham in a hot frying pan and cook ten minutes or till brown on both sides. Put on a platter and keep warm. Make a gravy by adding 2 tb. flour to the fat in the pan and gradually stirring in 1 c. milk. Or fry eggs in the fat left in the pan and serve with the ham. If cooked too long, ham will become hard and dry. Bacon Remove rind from thin slices of bacon. Put bacon in a fine wire broiler, place over a dripping pan and bake in a hot oven until bacon is crisp and brown, turning once. The, fat which has dripped into the pan may be used for frying. 96 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Lemon Butter 2 tb. butter | tb. lemon juice ^ tb. minced parsley ^ ssp. pepper Mix well and spread on hot broiled steak, chops, or fish, after placing them on the platter. Brown Mushroom Sauce 4 tb. butter 1 pt. hot stock 5 tb. flour Salt and pepper I can mushrooms Brown the butter, add flour and brown, but be careful not to burn. Let cool a little and add the stock griadually. Cook till smooth. Season, add mushrooms, and cook five minutes. 1 tb. Worcestershire sauce or catsup may be added. Baked Breaded Veal and Tomato Sauce One cup bread crumbs, 3tb. chopped salt pork, salt, and pepper. Wipe veal chops or steak and spread with the dressing, after putting in the pan. Bake 30 m. and serve with a sauce. Lamb chops may be prepared in the same way. If the crumbs are too brown before sufficiently baked, baste with a little hot water. Put tomato sauce in the center of the platter and arrange the chops around the edge. Hamburg Steak Chop the round of beef fine and season with salt and pepper, and if desired, a little onion. Make into cakes. Put in a greased broiler and broil over clear coals. Spread with butter. Veal Loaf 2 lb. lean veal chopped with | lb. salt pork. Add 4 butter crackers, rolled, 2 beaten eggs, 2 ts. salt, 1 ssp. pepper, 1 ssp. nutmeg. Pack into a small bread pan and bake slowly 2 hr. It may be served hot with a tomato sauce, or be served cold. COMPOSITION AND PRKPAHATION OF MEATS 97 Dried Beef and Cream \ lb. dried beef, thinly sliced 1 c. milk 2 tb. butter 2 tb. flour Remove the skin and separate meat in pieces. Cover with hot water and let stand 10 m. Drain and fry in the hot butter. Add the milk and when boiling stir in the flour wet in a httle cold milk or water. Cook till smooth. Warmed-over Meats. — To prepare meats for warming over, remove all bone, skin, gristle, and excess of fat from meat. The bone, skin, and gristle may be put in the soup kettle in making stock, and the fat may be tried out for drip- pings. Cook quickly all tender meat, for if kept at boiling point for any length of time, the protein will become tough. Make the tough portions of meat tender by letting them simmer in water. Rice, macaroni, bread crumbs, tomatoes, onions, etc., may be used in combination with different meats, making many palatable dishes. Meat pies may be made, using baking powder biscuit dough or pastry for an upper crust. Hash Chop cooked meat, using a small amount of fat. Add an equal amount of chopped cold boiled potatoes. -Season with salt and pepper and a little chopped onion. Put 2 or 3 tb. hot water in an iron fr3dng pan and 1 tb. drippings. Put in the mixture, cover the pan and let simmer slowly till a brown crust is formed ; about 20 minutes. Do not stir. Fold over, turn out on a warm platter, and garnish with parsley. Cottage Pie Chop cold meat fine. To every cupful add 1 ssp. salt, | ssp. pepper, a pinch of summer savory or thyme, f c. gravy or stock. Put into a baking dish and cover with a crust of mashed potatoes. 98 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Brush with milk and bake in the oven till a golden brown, about twenty minutes. Omit the herb and add 1 ts. finely chopped onion, if Hked. Meat Rechauffe Make a wall of mashed potatoes around a baking dish and fill the center with cooked meat cut in cubes. Pour over the meat a gravy, tomato, or white sauce. Bake till a delicate brown. Gar- nish with parsley. Minced Mutton Chop meat. Put into a frying pan, season with salt, pepper and celery, salt. Dredge well with flour, stir, and add enough stock, or hot water, to make a gravy. Cook about 5 minutes. Pour over slices of toast. Meat Souffle Make 1 c. white sauce, season with a little onion and parsley, add 1 c. finely chopped meat (veal or chicken preferred). Add yolks of two eggs well beaten. Cook 1 m. When cool fold in the beaten whites. Bake in a buttered baking dish about 20 m. in slow oven. Serve immediately. If for lunch, serve with mush- room sauce. White Mushroom Sauce Melt 2 tb. butter, add 2 tb. flour. When bubbling, add slowly f c. milk and \ c. mushroom liquor. Season with salt and pepper. Add \ can of mushrooms, cut fine. When heated, serve. Scalloped Chicken '' Put a layer of chicken cut into small pieces into a baking dish, then a layer of white sauce; repeat, having white sauce "for top layer. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake till brown. Forcemeat Balls See p. 67. COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION OF MEATS 99 Croquettes Sec p. 148. Pressed Chicken Chop cold boiled chicken fine, keeping the light and dark meats separate. Season with salt, celery salt, cayenne. Boil down the liquor in which the chicken was cooked and add to boiling liquid \ box of gelatine which has been soaked in | c. cold water, and moisten the meat with it. Put a layer of dark meat in a square mold, then strips of tongue or ham, a layer of white meat, whole hard-boiled eggs, white meat, tongue, and dark meat as a last layer. Put a heavy weight on top and let stand for several hours. Remove from mold and cut in shces. CHAPTER X POULTRY AND FISH COMPOSITION OF POULTRY (ATWATER) Refuse . Water Protein Fat Ash Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Chicken, broiler . . 41.6 43.7 12.8 1.4 .7 Fowls 25.9 47.1 13.7 12.3 .7 Goose 17.6 38.5 13.4 29.8 .7 Turkey 22.5 42.4 16.1 18.4 .8 To select Poultry. — Soft yellow feet, smooth skin, soft cartilage at end of breastbone, pinfeathers, tender skin under the wing which is easily broken by bending back the wing, — indicate tender poultry. Long hairs, long thin necks, flesh of purplish tinge, hard feet with sharp scales, — indicate tough poultry. Cost of Chicken (Students compile following facts from the weight of chicken used in lesson :) Cost of chicken as purchased . . . '. . . . . . . . Weight of chicken as purchased Cost per pound as purchased . . Weight after dressing Weight of bones <. (obtained after chicken has been cooked) Weight of edible meat . . . . c (difference between dressed meat and weight of bones) Cost per pound of edible meat ........ o „ o 100 POULTRY AND FISH 101 To prepare Poultry for Cooking. — R(3move pinfeathers, singe to remove hairs, over a tb. alcohol burning in a saucer or over a blaze. Cut off head ; cut the skin down the back of the neck, remove windpipe and crop. Cut neck off close to the body, leaving the skin long that it may be folded over on the back of the chicken in cooking. Cut through the skin below the leg joint without cutting the tendons. Place leg at end of board and break the joint ; hold the fowl firmly in left hand and pull off the foot with tendons. In old birds, the tendons must be taken out one at a time, using a steel skewer. Make an incision below the breastbone and with the hand remove the entrails, gizzard, heart, and liver. The last three are called giblets. Do not break the gall bladder, which lies on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver. Remove carefully the lungs and kidneys, which lie in the hollow near the backbone. Remove the oil bag and wash the fowl by letting cold water run through it, but do not let it soak in cold water. Clean the giblets carefully. To cut up a Chicken. — Singe, and remove the pinfeathers. Cut off the legs and wings at the joints. Cut from near the vent, through the membrane lying between the end of the breastbone and the tail, down to the backbone, on either side. Then remove the entrails. Break off the backbone just below the ribs. Cut through the cartilage dividing the ribs, and separate the collar bone from the breast. Methods of Cooking Chickens Young chickens. (1) Broiled, (2) fried, (3) roasted. Old chickens. (1) Roasted, (2) boiled, (3) fricassee, (4) stew, (5) cas- serole. 102 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Roast Chicken Clean and stuff a chicken. Sew up the incisions. Rub all over with salt. Tie it into a compact shape, fastening the legs and wings close to the body ; dredge with flour. Lay strips of salt pork over chicken. Place in a hot oven, and when the flour browns baste with boiling water every 10 m., using more water, if necessary, to prevent burning. Turn the chicken that it may brown evenly. When the breast meat is tender, the chicken is sufficiently cooked. Cook the giblets in water until tender. Stuffing Two c. crumbs, 2 tb. butter, or small piece salt pork chopped, salt, pepper, ma.joram, summer savory, or thyme to taste, | c. boil- ing water. Melt the butter in the water and pour over the crumbs to which seasoning has been added. Chicken Gravy Pour off all but about 4 tb. of fat from the pan in which chicken has been roasted. Add 5 tb. flour; when brown, add 2 c. of the water in which giblets have been boiled. Cook 5 minutes, season with salt and pepper, and if liked, add the giblets finely chopped. Stewed Chicken Dress, clean, and cut up a chicken. Put into a kettle with a few slices of salt pork and barely cover with boiling water. Boil 5 m., then simmer until tender. When about half done add 1 ts. salt. Cook a young chicken about 1^ h., an old one 2 to 2^ h. When done wet 4 tb. flour in cold water to form a smooth paste and stir into the boiling mixture. Season. Add 1 c. cream or milk and 2 tb. butter. When hot serve. Dumplings may be added. Creamed Chicken 1^ c. cold chicken, diced 1 c. white sauce I ts. celery salt I c. mushrooms, sliced Heat the chicken and mushrooms in the sauce over hot water. Serve on toast, in toast boxes, or patty shells. POULTRY AND FISH 103 FISH Composition of Various Fish (Atwater.) Rei^use Proteid Fat Mineral Matter Water Black Bass .... Bluefish Fresh Cod Salt Cod — boneless Mackerel Salmon Trout Whitefisli Lobster 54.8 55.7 52.5 44'6 39.2 48.1 53.5 61.7 9.3 8.3 8 22.2 10 12.4 9.8 10.3 5.9 .8 .5 .2 .3 4.3 8.1 1.1 3. .7 .5 .5 .6 23.1 .7 .9 .6 .7 .8 34.6 40.4 32.5 30.7 Fish should be fresh and be used in season. When fresh, the fish is firm, the eyes bright. White-blooded fish have fat secreted in the liver. Examples : whitefish, cod, had- dock, perch, etc. Red-blooded fish have fat distributed throughout the flesh. Examples : salmon, mackerel, blue- fish, herring. Broiling, boiling, baking, are the most whole- some methods of cooking fish. Broiled Fish Bone the fish, removing the head and tail. Wipe and dry, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Place in greased broiler and broil the flesh side first; then turn and broil the skin side till brown and crisp. Loosen the fish from both sides of the broiler and slip on to a hot platter, flesh side up. Season with salt and pepper and butter, or spread with lemon butter. Garnish with parsley and lemon. Planked Fish Bone a fish. Lay it on a hot hardwood plank, flesh side up. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and bits of butter. Bake on upper 104 DOMESTIC SCIENCE shelf in oven or under a gas broiler, about 30 m. or till brown. Ten minutes before it is done put a border of mashed potatoes around the fish, using a pastry bag and tube. Put plank on a platter and garnish with parsley, shredded lettuce, radishes, lemon fans, etc. Baked Fish Clean, wash, and dry the fish. Do not remove the head or tail. Rub all over with salt, stuff, and sew up. Put two strips of cotton cloth in pan (if you have not a- fish sheet), to help remove the fish when baked. Lay the fish in the pan and skewer into the shape of a letter S. Cut gashes on top and .lay strips of salt pork in them and around the pan. Sprinkle the fish with salt and pepper, and dredge with flour. Put in a iiot oven. When the flour begins to brown, baste with the fat in the pan and boiling water. The fish is done when the flesh separates easily from the bone. Bake about 1 hour. Lift carefully on a hot platter, draw out skewers or strings, and serve with drawn butter or egg sauce. Boiled Fish Add the juice of | lemon or j c. vinegar to the water in which the fish is to be boiled. Put fish on a plate and tie all in a piece of cheesecloth. Put fish in boiling water and let simmer until tne flesh separates easily from the bones. Add 1 tb. salt to water when fish is nearly cooked. Remove from plate and put on a folded napkin on a platter. Serve a sauce separately. Or, omit napkin and pour sauce over and around the fish. Drawn Butter 1 pt. hot water or stock 4 tb. flour 6 tb. butter ^ ts. salt I ssp. pepper Put 4 tb. butter in the pan; when bubbling, but not brown, add the flour. Add hot water a little at a time. When thick and POULTRY AND FISH 105 perfectly smooth add Hcasonirig and remainder of the butter. 8tir till the latter is absorbed. Chopped hard-boiled eggs may be added. Fried Fish Clean fish and wipe as dry as possible. Roll in seasoned crumbs, dip in egg slightly beaten with 1 tb. water, and roll again in crumbs ; or if preferred, dip in corn meal. Cook in a frying pan, in hot fat, till brown on both sides. Large fish should be boned and cut in pieces for serving. To fry in deep fat see page 145. Turbot Steam a whitefish till tender. Remove bones and skin, and flake the fish. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Make a white sauce with 1 pt. milk, 6 tb. flour and 4 tb. butter. Season with salt and pepper. When cool add 1 or 2 beaten eggs, 1 tb. each minced onion and par- sley. Put layers of fish and sauce in a baking dish. Sprinkle top with buttered crumbs and bake till brown. Creamed Codfish Pick salt' codfish in small pieces, cover with cold water, heat, and let simmer till tender. Drain and cover with milk. When boiling thicken with flour and butter rubbed together in the pro- portion of 2 tb. of each to every cup of milk. Just before serving add 1 beaten yolk of egg. Cook 1 m. Fish Balls 1 c. raw salt fish 1 egg well beaten 1 pt. potatoes J ssp. pepper 1 ts. butter More salt if needed Shred the fish. Pare and quarter potatoes. Put fish and pota- toes in stewpan and cover with boiling water. Boil 25 m. or till potatoes are soft. Do not boil too long or they will be soggy. 106 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Drain well. Mash and beat till very light. Add butter and pepper, and when slightly cool, the beaten egg. Shape in a tb. and drop in a kettle of smoking hot fat. Fry only a few at a time, or they will cool the fat. Drain on brown paper. Or, shape into flat cakes, roll in flour, and sauter in hot fat. Salmon in Mold 1 can salmon 4 tb. melted butter 3 eggs, beaten light ^ c. fine bread crumbs Salt, cayenne, parsley . Remove oil, bones and skin from fish. Mince fish fine. Rub in the butter till smooth. Add crumbs to beaten egg. Season the fish. Add eggs and crumbs. Put into a buttered mold, cover the mold, and steam 1 h. Serve with sauce. Sauce for Salmon Make a sauce with 1 c. boiling milk, 1 tb. flour, and 2 tb. butter. Add hquor from the salmon. Season with salt, cayenne, 1 ts. tomato catsup. Just before taking from fire add 1 beaten egg. Sardines on Toast Drain sardines. Cook in a chafing-dish till heated, turning often. Place on small oblong pieces of toast and serve with lemon butter. Or, lay sardines on toast and heat in a moderate oven. Lobster Farci 1 pt. can lobster 4 tb. butter 1 pt. milk 6 tb. flour Salt and cayenne Melt the butter, add flour, and when bubbling add milk gradu- ally. When thick and smooth add lobster, which has been picked fine. Season. Put in buttered shells. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake till brown. POULTRY AND FISH 107 Escalloped Oysters 1 pt. oysters 1| c. crumbs 4 tb. oyster liquor ^ c. butter melted 6 tb. milk or cream Salt and pepper Stir the melted butter into the crumbs. Put a thin layer in bottom of a buttered baking dish, cover with oysters, and sprinkle with salt and pepper, add part of the milk and oyster liquor. Re- peat, and cover the top with crumbs. Bake 40 m. in hot oven. Two layers of oysters are sufficient ; if more be used, the center layer will be underdone. Creamed Oysters Wash, by pouring over them I c. water, and look over 1 c. oysters. Parboil them in the oyster liquor and the water in which they were washed, until the edges curl and the oysters are plump. Drain. Make a white sauce with 3 tb. butter | c. oyster liquor 3 tb; flour ^ ts. salt I c. milk I ssp. pepper Add the parboiled oysters and cook till hot. Serve on toast, in toast boxes, or patty shells. Toast Boxes Cut stale bread into 2 inch cubes, trim the crust, take out the center, leaving the bread in the' form of a box. Brush with melted butter and bake in a quick oven until a light brown. Fill with any creamed mixture. CHAPTER XI MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK (SNYDER) ' Water Fat Casein Albumen Lactose Ash 87.0% 3.5% 3.25%. 0.5% 5.0% 0.75% Milk is the food of the young animal, and hence contains all the nutrients necessary for the support of the body. Owing to the large per cent of water in its composition, milk is a bulky food, and being deficient in starch, is not a satisfactory food for the healthy adult. Milk is a white, opaque liquid. It consists of a bluish white liquid, called serum, in which float globules of fat, which give the milk the appearance of a white liquid. These fat globules are suspended through the milk in the form of an emulsion, fresh milk being the most perfect example of an emulsion. Upon standing, however, the emulsion is broken and the fat rises to the surface in the form of cream. Butter is made by separating the fat from cream by churning, thus completely breaking down the emulsion of fat. Skimmed milk contains practically all the ingredients of whole milk with the exception of the fat, and forms a cheap supply of protein. The protein of the milk is largely in the form of casein, which contains both sulphur and phosphorus. 108 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS 109 Casoiii (coagulates when an acid is added to it, or when an acid is formed in the milk during the process of lactic fermentation. It forms a clot in the stomach by the action of the enzyme rennin, which is secreted by the stomach, and it then digests as a solid food. In cheese making and in the making of junket, a commercial form of rennin obtained from the second stomach of the calf is added to the milk, thus causing it to clot. The addition of limewater, or some cereal water, as barley water, tends to make the casein form a lighter and more digestible clot, hence they are often added to baby foods. The albumen of milk, or lact-albumen, coagulates with heat and forms the scum of boiled milk. Lactose, or milk sugar, is less soluble than cane sugar and does not taste as sweet. It is the sugar which is used in baby foods. It is obtained from the whey left from cheese making after the casein and fat have been removed. The souring of milk is caused by the action of lactic bacilli present in the milk. The bacilli feed upon the lactose changing it to lactic acid, which acid reacts upon the casein, causing it to coagulate, or form a curd. In the large in- testine of the human body are found great numbers of bac- teria which feed upon the food residue present there, forming injurious compounds which are absorbed by the blood, with harmful results. The growth of some of these putrefactive bacteria is thought to be checked by the presence of lactic acid and by the action of lactic bacilli ; hence, sour milk is considered a healthful, as well as a nutritious food. The mineral matter in milk consists largely of the phos- phates and chlorides of soda, lime, and potash. Milk contains large numbers of bacteria. Few bacteria are normally present in fresh milk, but they enter the milk on account of the unsanitary conditions attendant upon 110 DOMESTIC SCIENCE milking and the subsequent care of milk. They reproduce very rapidly if the milk is not cooled. Typhoid fever, chil- dren's summer diseases of the intestines, tuberculosis, and other diseases are often traced to the milk supply; con- sequently, the most cleanly conditions should be insisted upon by the health authorities, in the stable, the care of the cow, cleanliness of the milkers and of all utensils which hold the milk. Milk should be sold only in bottles which are filled and sealed at the dairy, the seal to be broken by the consumer only. Experiment 45. — Put a drop of cream on filter paper ; when dry, note the characteristic grease spot. This is a test for fat. Experiment 46. — Fill a tair cylinder with milk, and determine the specific gravity with a lactometer. Experiment 47. — Examine a drop of milk under microscope. Explain appearance and make a drawing of the fat globules seen. Experiment 48. — To ^ c. milk warmed to 100° F. add | of a rennet tablet dissolved in | ts. water. Mix quickly. Let stand in a warm place until the milk clots. Break the clot lightly and put into a filter paper. Test the curd or casein for protein. (See pro- tein test, page 69.) Experiment 49. — Test the filtrate from above experiment with Fehling solution for sugar. BUTTER Butter is made by separating the fat globules of cream by churning, after the cream has soured from the action of bac- teria. Composition of Butter (J. C. Olsen) Fat Water Salt Sugar 84% 12.8 % • 2% 0.4% MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS HI Butter fat is one of the most palatable, easily digested, and easily assimilated forms of fat. Its flavor is due to bacterial action. In the modern creamery all conditions are most sanitary ; bacteria which give a disagreeable odor and taste to butter are not present. Butter is artificially colored, but the coloring is harmless. Renovated butter is butter which has become rancid and is then subjected to a process of renovation, by which the disagreeable odors and flavors are removed. It is not an unwholesome product, but should not be sold at butter prices. Most states require that it be plainly marked "renovated" or "process" butter. Oleomargarine or Butterine. — The manufacture of these butter substitutes is carried on under government inspection, and the products are clean and wholesome, lacking, however, the dehcate flavor of butter. They are manufactured from a high grade of lard, cottonseed oil, and milk, and a small amount of butter is generally added for flavor. There is no objection to their use in cookery, and when they are sold under their true names and at a reasonable price, they are good substitutes for butter in cooking. Experiment 50. — Foam test to distinguish butter from oleo- margarine. Melt in separate dishes butter, oleomargarine, and renovated butter. The butter boils quietly and produces consider- able foam, while the other two sputter and crackle violently, pro- ducing but little foam. Experiment 51. — Beat one pint of ripened cream with an egg- beater or whip churn until the butter fat separates. Collect these lumps and form into a mass. Wash in cold water to remove any milk ; drain off the water. Add salt to taste. Weigh the butter and estimate the cost. How much cream would be required to make one pound of butter ? What is the composition of butter- milk? 112 DOMESTIC SCIENCE CHEESE Average Composition of Cheese (Atwater) • Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 34.2 % 25.2 % 33.7 % 9 AO/ 3.8% Cheese is made from whole milk, from milk plus cream, from cream, and from skim milk. The casein is precipitated by the action of rennet, forming a curd to which most of the fat attaches itself. The curd is then broken up and the whole heated to about 108° F. The whey is drained off, carrying with it most of the lactose and albumen. The curd is salted and pressed. It is then kept for several weeks or longer to develop flavor, or ripen by the action of bacteria. The texture of the cheese also changes in ripening. As a food, cheese is used in small amounts as a flavor, and in large amounts as a highly nutritive protein food. The lower-priced cheeses are an important source of protein and fat in the diet and make good meat substitutes. It has been shown that cheese is not difficult of digestion for the majority of persons. Experiment 52. — (a) Heat a small piece of cheese in a pan directly over the fire until it melts. Let boil and note results. (6) Melt a similar piece of cheese in a pan over hot water, removing from water as soon as it melts. Compare the texture of results of (a) and (b). Should cheese be cooked at a high or low temperature ? What food principle must be considered in cooking cheese ? The Care of Cheese. — Wrap the cheese in a slightly dampened cloth or in paraffin paper and then in a heavier paper. Cheese molds more readily when it is put in a covered MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS 113 dish with the air excluded. Cheese contains a large per cent of protein, so should not be raised to a high tempera- ture in cooking. Many palatable dishes can be prepared from cheese but since it is deficient in starch, some starchy food is usually added to it, as macaroni, rice, bread, etc. Cottage Cheese Set a dish of thick sour milk in a pan of lukewarm water (100°). When the curd is well set, strain off the whey through a cheese cloth. Work the curd with a fork or potato masher until fine- grained. Season with salt and moisten with cream. Shape into small cakes suitable for ser^dng. Chopped parsley, pimentos, or olives may be added to vary the flavor. Welsh Rarebit No. i I lb. rich cream cheese 1 egg I c. milk or cream 4 sHces of toast or wafers J ts. mustard Speck of cayenne Cut the cheese in small pieces and melt over hot water, in chafing dish or double boiler. Add milk and stir rapidly. Add the season- ing to the beaten egg, stir in slowly and cook till it thickens a little, but do not let it curdle. Pour over the toast or wafers. Welsh Rarebit No. 2 Melt cream cheese in double boiler or chafing dish. Add milk or cream slowly to thin. Season with cayenne and mustard and stir in a beaten egg. When smooth pour over toast or wafers. Do not overcook the cheese. American Rarebit Soak 1 c. grated bread crumbs in 1 c. milk fifteen minutes. Melt 2 tb. butter in chafing-dish, add 1 c. grated or broken cheese. When cheese is melted, add the bread and milk, 1 egg well beaten, salt and cayenne to taste. Stir rapidly, and when smooth serve on toast or crackers. 114 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cheese Fondue 1 c. scalded milk 1 tb. butter 1 c. soft stale bread crumbs ^ ts. salt I lb. mild cheese cut fine I ts. mustard or grated Few grains cayenne Add above ingredients to hot milk. When well mixed, remove from fire and add 2 beaten yolks of eggs. Fold in 2 beaten whites. Put into a buttered earthen baking dish, and bake twenty minutes in a moderate oven. Serve immediately, as it will fall if it stands. CHAPTER XII WATER AND BEVERAGES Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, its chemical formula being H2O. Water is very widely distributed in nature ; it covers three-fourths of the earth's surface, and is present in the soil and rocks and in all animal and vegetable organisms. The human body is composed of about 70 per cent water. The body obtains its water supply from foods and beverages, and a small amount of water is formed chemically in the body by the oxidation of the hydrogen of foods. Water is a very important solvent, dissolving many sub- stances. It also holds many organic substances in suspen- sion. Water which is chemically pure contains no foreign substance of any kind. Distilled water or condensed steam is the only chemically pure water. Water that is hygieni- cally pure contains no substance which is injurious to the health of those drinking it. Harmful or disease-producing bacteria and decaying ani- mal and vegetable matter are the chief sources of water con- tamination, although the presence of many chemicals makes it unfit for drinking. The disease-producing bacteria most commonly found in drinking water are the typhoid bacilli. Many cases of typhoid fever may be traced to the water supply or to milk which has been diluted with impure water. The common house fly has been found to be a carrier of the typhoid bacillus and should never be allowed to settle on food or on utensils which hold it. 115 116 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Sources of Water. — 1. Ram water. 2. Springs. 3. Rivers and lakes. 4. Surface wells. 5. Deep or artesian wells. Rain water takes up the dust and gases from the air, and organic matter from the roofs over which it is collected. The long storing in a cistern gives bacteria opportunity to grow in large numbers, causing the water to be unsafe for drinking purposes. Springs are a source of pure water supply if they are not contaminated by passing through soil which is polluted. Rivers and lakes are a common source of water supply, but they may be made very unfit for drinking if the surface water and sewage from towns and cities is allowed to drain into them. Surface wells are a very unsafe source of drinking water supply, and the water should never be used when ther^ are cesspools, drains, barnyards, or any other sources of contam- ination within a radius of 200 feet of them. Deep artesian wells furnish pure water as a rule, unless the piping is not tightly jointed, when impure water from a subsoil stream near the surface may enter the pipes. Methods of Purification of Water. — 1. Boiling. 2. Filtration. 3. Distillation. Boiling is a certain method of destroying bacteria. If there is the slightest doubt as to the purity of the water, it should be boiled for twenty minutes and then be quickly cooled. It should be put into perfectly clean bottles, tightly stopped, and be placed on or near the ice. Filtration. — The modern filter contains a hollow tube of unglazed porcelain, which is porous and through which the water percolates slowly. All mechanical impurities of the water are deposited on the surface of the tube. These im- purities usually carry the bacteria^ which are thus removed. WATER AND BEVERAGES 117 The tubes should be washed often, and occasionally be re- moved from the filter to be baked or steamed. Charcoal is used in many filters, as it removes all color, odor, and taste from the water by holding back the organic matter; but the charcoal may soon become a source of con- tamination, as bacteria will grow rapidly in the organic matter present. Many cities purify the water supply by precipitating the organic matter present by the addition of iron sulphate, alum, or calcium hydrate. The bacteria are entangled in the precipitate, which is then filtered out by mechanical filtra- tion through sand and gravel. Distillation is the process of condensing steam. The water thus obtained is the only chemically pure water. Ice. — Freezing has little effect upon bacteria except to lessen temporarily their vitality. When the ice melts, the bacteria may again become active. Ice made by artificial means from distilled water is the only pure ice. For cooling drinking water, the water should be placed on the ice and the ice should not be put into the water. Hard and Soft Water. — Soft water is water in which no mineral matter is dissolved. Hard water is water in which such minerals as lime, magnesium, and iron are dissolved. Boiling precipitates some of the mineral matter, thus tend- ing to soften the water. This mineral deposit may be seen on the inside of a teakettle. Hard water that is to be used for cleansing purposes may be softened by the addition of washing soda, borax, ammonia, potash, or soda lye. BEVERAGES Pure water ranks as the first and most important of beverages. An adult should drink about three pints of water a day. Tea and coffee are stimulants, furnishing 118 DOMESTIC SCIENCE no real nutriment to the body, as they give neither heat nor energy, nor do they build tissue. If taken in excess, tea and coffee tend to produce nervousness, insomnia, pal- pitation of the heart, etc. The stimulating property of coffee and tea is due to caffeine. They also contain tannin, an astringent, which is drawn out by boiling and which is injurious to the digestive organs. Tea and coffee should not be given to children. Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and starch, hence have a food value in addition to the milk added in making a beverage. They form a valuable hot beverage for children. Cocoa also contains theobromine, which is of like nature to caffeine, but is a milder and less harmful stimulant. Experiment 53. — (a) Pour 1 c. cold water on | ts. tea. Let stand one-half hour. Strain and heat. (b) Pour 1 c. boiling water on ^ ts. tea. Let stand three minutes in warm place. (c) Pour 1 c. boiling water on | ts. tea and boil five minutes. (d) Put I ts. tea in fine strainer (tea ball) and pour 1 c. boiling water through it. Compare results as to strength, flavor, color. Reserve part of each for the next test. Experiment 54. — Fill four test tubes | full of each of the above solutions, add slowly to each a saturated solution of cupric acetate until the liquid is a light green. Boil. Allow the precipi- tates to settle and compare amounts. This will indicate the relative amounts of tannin present. Which of the above methods should be used in making tea ? Which avoided ? Experiment 55. — (a) Pour ^ c. boiling water through 1 tb. fine coffee placed in a fine strainer, or in cheesecloth. (b) Boil 1 tb. coffee and | c. water ten minutes. Compare results as to flavor and strength. Test results of (a) and (b) as in Experiment 54 for tannin. WATER AND BEVERAGES 119 Experiment 5G. — (a) Pour ] c. boiling watoi- on .' is. tea. (6) Pour I c- liot water on | ts. Uv.i. Let both stand five minutes. (Compare strength, eoh>r, flavor. Which is the best solvent for tea, hot or boiling water ? Are there tea leaves floating on the surface when the hot water is used ? When boiling water is used? Note. — Students bring cost price of several leading brands of tea, coffee, chocolate, and cocoa. Cost of Tea. — Weigh } lb. tea. Measure the number of teaspoonfuls it contains. Estimate the number of cups of tea that may be prepared from 1 lb. Estimate cost per cup of teas of different prices. Cost of Coffee. — ^ Weigh out | lb. coffee. Measure the number of tablespoonfuls in it. Estimate the number of cups of coffee that may be prepared from 1 lb. Estimate cost per cup of different priced coffees. Coffee. — The coffee tree is native to Abyssinia, but is now grown in all tropical countries. The coffee bean is the seed of the tree and is found in the cherry like fruit. When the fruit begins to shrivel on the trees, it is shaken to the ground, is then dried, and the seeds separated by wooden rollers. The green coffee berry has but little flavor, but when roasted a characteristic flavor and odor are developed. Care of Coffeepot. — Never put the coffee or tea pot in the water in which other dishes have been washed. Have a small mop kept especially for the coffeepot. After using, empty the pot, and with clear hot water thoroughly wash the pot and spout, with the aid of the mop. Twice a week fill the pot with cold water, add 1 tb. washing soda, and boil about ten minutes. Rinse well. Never let the brown sedi- ment accumulate in a coffeepot, or the flavor of the finest coffee will be ruined. 120 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Boiled Coffee c. coffee ^ egg ^ c. cold water 3^ c. boiling water Scald a granite ware coffeepot. Wash egg, break, and beat slightly. Add the egg and shell and half the cold water to the coffee. Put into the coffeepot, pour on the boiling water. Place on front of range and boil slowly three to five minutes. Pour some of the cof- fee into a cup to free the spout from grounds, return to the coffee- pot, and repeat. Add remaining cold water, which being heavier than hot water sinks to the bottom carrying the grounds with it, and completes the process of clearing. Place on the back of the range, where it will not boil, for ten minutes. Three eggshells may be used in place of 1 egg. For after-dinner coffee use twice the amount of coffee given in this recipe. Filtered Coffee Use a French coffeepot. Scald it with hot water. • Put 2 round- ing tb. powdered coffee in the bag and pour over it 1 pt. freshly boiling water. Keep the pot hot until the water has filtered through ; pour it off and turn back through the filter again. Less tannin is extracted by this method than by boiling. Tea. — Black tea comes from China, India, and Ceylon. Some of the familiar brands are Oolong, English Breakfast, Formosa, and Orange Pekoe. Black tea is made from the leaves which have been allowed to ferment by exposure to the air before curing. The best green tea comes from Japan. Some of the familiar brands are Gunpowder, Hyson, and Japan. Green tea is made from young leaves of the tea plant, dried quickly by artificial heat. Both black and green tea may be made from the same plant, according to the method of curing. Tea leaves are rich in protein, but when taken as an in- fusion act as a stimulant rather than a nutrient. The tannic WATER AND BEVERAGES 121 acid developed from the tannin by infusion injures the coat- ing of the stomach. Tea should never be boiled nor steeped for any length of time, as the tannic acid will be extracted in greater amount. Freshly boiling water should always be used to pour on the tea. Tea Scald an earthen or china teapot. Put in 1 ts. tea and pour over it 1 pt. freshly boiling water. Let stand five minutes in a warm place. Serve immediately. Russian Tea Serve a slice of lemon in each cup of tea with sugar to taste. In Russia a preserved strawberry is added to each cup. A clove and a cherry may be put in each cup for afternoon tea. Cocoa and Chocolate. — ; The cocoa tree is a native of Mex- ico ; it also grows in Central and South America and the West Indies. Cocoa and chocolate are both prepared from the seeds of the cocoa bean. The fruit is shaped like a large, thick cucumber, and contains from twenty to forty seeds. These are roasted like coffee. The husks or shells are taken off and used in that form as cocoa shells. The various prepara- tions of cocoa are made from the ground beans, from which the fat or oil has been extracted. Chocolate contains a larger proportion of fat, it is mixed with starch and pressed into cakes. Chocolate 1| sq. Baker's chocolate 1 c. water 4 tb. sugar 3 c. milk Add water to the chocolate and stir over the fire till it boils; add sugar and milk. Bring to the boiling point, boil five minutes, whipping with an egg-beater. Serve. 122 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cocoa 3 tb. prepared cocoa 2 c. boiling water 4 tb. sugar 2 c. milk Mix sugar and cocoa, and add | c. of the boiling water to make a smooth paste. Add remaining water and let boil five minutes. Add the milk and when this is scalded, beat with an egg-beater for a few minutes and serve. Note. — Interesting exhibits of cocoa and chocolate may be obtained from chocolate manufacturers. Cost of Cocoa. — Measure the number of teaspoonfuls of cocoa in a box. Estimate the number of cups of cocoa it will make and the cost per cup, including the milk used. Estimate the cost per cup of chocolate. CHAPTER XIII LEAVENING — BATTERS AND DOUGHS Methods of Making Mixtures Light. — L Incorporation of Air. Physical change. — Air expands when heated. Methods: (a) By beating mixture. (b) By adding beaten eggs. 2. Steam. Physical change. — Steam occupies 1600 times more space than the water which produced it. Methods: (a) Moisture, as in pop-overs. (b) Snow pancakes. 3. Fermentation. Chemical change. — CO2 liberated. Methods: (a) Yeast. (6) Salt-rising bread. 4. Acid and Alkali. Chemical change. — CO2 liberated. Methods: (a) Baking powder. (6) Soda and an acid, as cream of tartar, sour milk, molasses. Experiment 57. — Make a solution of | ts. soda and I c. water. Taste. Test with litmus paper. Name some of the properties of an alkali. Test various washing powders with litmus paper. Are they alkalies ? Experiment 58. — Make a solution of 1 slightly rounding ts. of cream of tartar and j c. water. Taste. Test with litmus paper. Name some of the properties of an acid. Test lemon, vinegar, molasses, etc., with htmus paper. Are they acids or alkalies ? 123 124 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Experiment 59. — Put solutions of experiments 57 and 58 together. What causes the effervescence ? Taste. Test with Ht- mus paper. What effect have the acid and alkali had on each other ? Is the result acid or alkaline? What causes the salty taste? What is formed by the union of an acid and alkah ? Experiment 60. — Make a solution of alum and water. Taste. Test with litmus paper. Has the alum an acid or alkaline reaction ? Is it substituted for the cream of tartar or for the soda in baking powder? Add soda to the alum solution; what is the result? What effect did it have upon the tongue? Is alum a healthful ingredient in baking powder? Experiment 61. — Test sour milk with litmus paper. Is it acid or alkaline ? Add a little soda ; what is the result ? Repeat with molasses, brown sugar, chocolate. Experiment 62. — Mix baking powder with water; what is the, result? Warm gently. Is the chemical action increased by heat? Test with litmus paper. Is the reaction either acid or alkaline? Taste. What has been formed by the union of soda and the acid ? Experiment 63. — Pass the gas given off when soda and cream of tartar solutions are put together through limewater ; what gas is formed ? Test the gas given off when baking powder is moistened with water. What gas is generated when an acid is added to bicar- bonate of soda ? Baking Powders. — Baking powder ~ is composed of bi- carbonate of sodium, NaHC02, which has in its composi- tion carbon dioxide and some acid. When the mixture is wet, the acid serves to liberate the carbon dioxide from the sodium bicarbonate. In order to keep those materials dry and to prevent chemical action from taking place before they are used, starch is added and is called a " filler." In cheap baking powders the starch is added in very large amounts. The value of a baking powder depends upon the amount of gas it gives off. Its healthfulness LEAVENING — BATTERS AND DOUGHS 125 (h^pends u])on its freedom from injurious residue left in the food. There are three chisses (jf baking powder upon the market : 1. Cream of Tartar. 2. Phosphate. 3. Alum. Cream of tartar is potassium acid tartrate, KHC4H4O6. It is prepared from the argols which collect on the inside of wine casks. These are then refined and purified and known as cream of tartar. The chemical reaction of cream of tartar baking powder is as follows : potassium acid + bicarbonate = Rochelle + carbon + water tartrate of sodium salt dioxide HKH4C4O6 + NaHCOs = KNaG4H406 + CO2 + H2O There is left as a residue in a loaf of bread made from baking powder more Rochelle salt than is found in a Seidlitz powder ; but the amount eaten at any one time is so small as to have very little physiological effect. Cream of tartar is expensive, so cheaper forms of acid are often used in baking powders. Phosphate Baking Powders. — The acid used is phosphoric acid, which is obtained by .the action of sulphuric acid on ground bone. The phosphate probably has little power to furnish phosphate to the body, not being in a form in which the body can assimilate it. Alum Baking Powders. — These are the most objection- able forms of baking powders, as their residue has an irri- tating effect upon the mucous membranes of the digestive organs. They are very cheap powders, so, unfortunately, they are extensively used. 126 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Bicarbonate of sodium is obtained from common salt, is a very cheap product, and, therefore, is not adulterated. Proportions of acid and alkalies to he used in cooking : 1 ts. soda and 2 slightly rounding ts. of cream of tartar for 1 qt. flour. 2 ts. baking powder for each c. flour. 1 ts. soda for 1 pt. thick sour milk. 1 ts. soda to 1 c. molasses for batters. I ts. soda to 1 c. molasses for a stiff dough. Baking powder may be substituted for cream of tartar and soda, in the proportion of 2 level ts. for each c. flour or meal. Reduce the amount of baking powder by f ts. for each egg added to the mixture. Batters and Doughs. — A batter is a mixture of flour and some, liquid. A thin hatter is made in the proportion of 1 scant measure of liquid to 1 full measure of flour. A drop hatter or muffin mixture is in proportion of 1 scant measure of liquid to 2 full measures of flour. A dough is 1 measure of liquid to 3 scant measures of flour. A sponge is a drop batter to which yeast is added. Construction rule for hakmg powder mixtures: 2 c. flour or 1 c. white and 1 c. rye, graham, etc. ' 4 ts. baking powder ; reduce ^ ts. for each egg added. ^ ts. salt. 1 to 4 tb. shortening. 1 scant c. milk. 1 or 2 eggs, if desired. 1 to 4 tb. sugar. LEAVENI NG — BATTERS AND DOUGHS 127 Baking Powder Biscuit 2 c. flour 2 tb. lard or butter 4 ts. baking powder 1 scant c. milk ^ ts. salt Mix and sift dry ingredients. Work in lard with tips of fingers ; add the milk gradually to form a soft dough, mixing with a knife. Toss on a floured board, roll lightly to f inch thickness. Cut in rounds. Bake in a very hot oven 12 to 15 minutes. For shortcake use 4 tb. shortening. Scones Make as baking powder biscuit, using 4 tb. shortening, and add- ing 1 beaten egg to the milk. Roll dough thin, cut, brush the top of each scone with a little melted butter, and sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon. Put a piece of citron or candied orange peel in center, and bake. Dutch Apple Cake 2 c. flour I c. butter ^ ts. salt 1 egg 3^ ts. baking powder 1 scant c. milk 2 sour apples Mix dry ingredients, rub in the butter, add milk and beaten egg. Spread ^ inch thick on a shallow pan. Pare and cut apples in sections lengthwise; lay in rows on the dough with the sharp edge pressed lightly into the dough. Sprinkle the top with 2 tb. sugar and | ts. cinnamon. Bake in a hot oven 25 to 30 minutes. Serve hot, with lemon sauce or with butter. Lemon Sauce 2 c. hot water Grated rind and juice of 1 lemon 1 c. sugar 2 tb. butter 3 tb. cornstarch Mix the cornstarch and sugar. Stir slowly into the boiling water. Cook 10 minutes. Add the lemon and butter. Serve. 128 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Pin-wheel Biscuit 2 c. flour 2 tb. lard 4 ts. baking powder \ c. stoned raisins \ ts. salt 2 tb. chopped citron 2 tb. sugar .^ ts. cinnamon Mix as a baking powder biscuit dough. Roll \ inch thick. Brush with melted butter, sprinkle with the raisins cut fine, citron, sugar, and cinnamon. Roll like a jelly rolL Cut in slices 1 inch thick. Bake in a hot oven 15 minutes. Currants may be used in place of raisins and citron. Orange Shortcake Make a baking powder biscuit dough. Roll into a cake f inch thick and bake in a quick oven. Split carefully. Spread with butter. Spread with oranges cut in small pieces and sweetened. Put another layer of oranges on top of the cake or sprinkle top with powdered sugar. Corn Bread 1 c. corn meal | c. sugar 1 c. flour 1 egg 3^ ts. baking powder 1 c. milk ^ ts. salt 2 tb. melted butter Mix the dry ingredients, add milk, beaten egg, and butter. Beat well. Bake in a shallow pan in a quick oven twenty minutes. Serve hot. Corn Meal Muffins Mix as corn bread, baking in muffin pans 25 minutes. Graham Gems 1 c. graham flour 2 tb. butter, melted 1 c. flour \ c. molasses 1 c. sour milk | ts. soda I ts. salt Mix and sift dry ingredients; add milk to molasses, combine mixtures, and bake in hot muffin pans 25 to 30 minutes. LEAVENING — BATTERS AND DOUGHS 129 Rice Muffins 3 c, flour 2 tb. sugar ^ ts. salt 1 pt. milk 5 ts. baking powder ^ c. cooked rice 2 eggs 2 tb. butter Mix and sift dry ingredients. Add milk to beaten eggs; stir into the mixture, beat well, and bake in hot, greased muffin pans 25 minutes. Nut Bread 4 c. flour 1 ts. salt 7 ts. baking powder f c. brown sugar Mix well together and add 1^ c. milk, to which has been added 1 well beaten egg. Add 1 c. chopped nut meats. Bake in a greased brick loaf pan f hour. Brown Nut Bread ^ c. molasses 1 ts. salt 1 ts. soda 1 ts. cream of tartar 2 c. milk ^ c. sugar 2 c. graham flour 1 c. nuts, chopped 1^ c. white flour . Add the soda to the molasses and beat until it foams. Add milk, then the dry ingredients mixed together. Add the nuts. Fill pound baking powder cans, greased, one half full, cover, let rise one half hour ; bake f hour in a moderate oven. Boston Brown Bread 1 c. rye meal 2 c. sour milk 1 c. corn meal 2 ts. soda 1 c. graham flour . 1 ts. salt f c. molasses Mix and sift dry ingredients, add molasses and milk, beat well, put into well-buttered molds, and steam 4 or 5 hours. The cover should be buttered. Never fill the mold more than two thirds full. Baking powder cans or lard pails may be used for molds. Bake | hour after taking from steamer. K 130 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Pop-overs 1 c, flour 1 ssp. salt 1 c. milk (scant) 1 egg Add milk slowly to salt and flour till a smooth paste is formed. Add remainder of milk and the egg. Beat the mixture well and bake in hot gem pans, filling them two thirds full. Bake 30 minutes. Have the oven very hot at first and then reduce temperature. If removed from the oven before they are thoroughly baked, they wiU fall. Gingerbread ^ c. lard 3 c. flour Yolks of 1 or 2 eggs 1 ts. soda I c. milk ' 2 ts. ginger 1^ c. molasses . | ts. salt Whites of 2 eggs Mix in the order given, sifting the dry ingredients together, and folding in the beaten whites last. Bake in a moderate oven 45 minutes. Mixtures which contain molasses burn easily, so should be baked in a moderate oven. Griddle Cakes The griddle for baking cakes should be perfectly clean and smooth. If 1 or 2 tb. of melted shortening is added to the batter, the cakes may be cooked without using grease of any kind on the griddle. If grease is used, take a piece of salt pork, or tie a cloth on a short stick or fork, and grease with drippings or lard. Never leave pools of fat on the edge of the griddle to burn. Wipe off the griddle with a cloth after each baking. Sour Milk Griddle Cakes 2| c. flour 2 c. sour milk I ts. salt 1 egg 1 ts. soda Sift dry ingredients ; add sour milk and well-beaten egg. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot greased griddle. When full of bubbles, turn and bake the other side. LEAVENING — BATTERS AND DOUGHS 131 Bread Griddle Cakes 1 i)t. stale bread crumbs 1 pt. milk, scalded 2 tb. butter Pour the hot milk over the crumbs and butter and soak till soft. Add 1 beaten egg, 1 c. flour, ^ ts. salt, 2 ts. baking powder. Cold milk to thin if necessary. Bake on a hot griddle. Waffles 1 pt. flour 2 eggs 3 ts. baking powder H c. milk I ts. salt 2 tb. butter, melted Mix in order given, adding milk with the beaten yolks, then butter, and last fold in the beaten whites. Bake in hot waffle pans. Caramel Syrup Melt 1 c. granulated sugar till a light brown, but do not let it burn. Add 1 c. boiling water and simmer 10 minutes. Serve with waffles or hot cakes. Sugar Syrup 1 c. sugar f c. water Boil together slowly for 10 minutes and serve with hot cakes. One tb. lemon juice may be added. CHAPTER XIV BREADS Note. — Student write a paper giving the history of bread making ; varieties of bread used by different nations ; primitive and modern methods of milling ; commercial importance of wheat, of flour, and of the different cereals used for bread making ; world's production of wheat. Section of Grain of Wheat (a) Skins and testa (bran). {d) Endosperm. (6) Membrane (bran). (e) Cerealin or aleurone layer. (c) Embryo. (/) Scutellum. Wheat. — The wheat plant belongs to the grass family. The part that is used for food is the fruit or seed. This consists of three parts : (1) The germ, or embryo, which is the part of the seed that reproduces. It is composed of cellulose, protein, sugar, and a large proportion of fat. (2) The kernel, or endosperm, which is the central part of the grain. It consists of a cellular structure, which holds the starch granules, some protein, and sugar. 132 BREADS 133 (3) The bran or outer covering, which is composed largely of cellulose and mineral matter, and contains a pigment or coloring matter. The bran forms a protective covering for the wheat grain and is made up of six layers. The five outer layers contain little but cellulose and mineral matter, but the innermost layer consists of rectangular cells filled with a protein called cerealin, or aleurone, and is the part of the grain which is richest in protein. In the early methods of milling, this layer was removed with the bran, but thfe modern methods make it possible to separate the outer bran layer, retaining the aleurone layer, thus making what is known as entire wheat flour. Graham flour is made by grinding all of the wheat with the exception of the embryo. It thus contains the bran. It is useful when coarse food is needed to stimulate the action of the large intestine to prevent constipation. The bran itself may be made into cookies, etc., and eaten for this purpose. Protein in Wheat. — Wheat is the most important grain used for bread making on account of the physical properties of two of its proteins, called gliadin and glutenin. When mixed with water, these substances unite to form gluten. Gluten has the power of absorbing nearly three times its weight of water and forming a tough, sticky, elastic mass. When carbon dioxide is produced in dough, it seeks to escape, but is retained by the expansion of the elastic gluten, thus causing the dough to rise. Wheat is known as spring wheat and winter wheat. The spring wheat is planted in the spring and ripens or matures in the late summer. It is grown mainly in the northwestern parts of the United States and in the Canadian Northwest. The flour made from spring wheat is the best for bread making and for aU forms of yeast mixtures. 134 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Winter wheat is planted in the fall and it ripens in the early summer. It is grown in the sections of the country where the winters are less severe than in the Northwest, — in Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, etc., and in more southern lati- tudes. It is a softer wheat than spring wheat and makes a whiter flour, which is used for cakes, pastry, etc. Note. — (a) Plant wheat in wet cotton, keeping it moist until the wheat plant grows. Note changes from time to time in the appearance of the wheat. Student write description of the sprout- ing of the wheat grain, using any standard botany for reference. (6) Examine a section of wheat under the microscope, noting bran coats, aleurone layer, endosperm, and embryo. Stain a sec- tion of the wheat with iodine, which will turn the starch purple and the protein yellow. Make drawing of a section of wheat. Why has nature stored so niany food principles in this little grain of wheat ? (c) Examine winter wheat and spring wheat flour, whole wheat flour, graham flour. Sift and examine the residue, if any, in the sieve. Compare color, texture, cohesion (press in hand). To determine the composition of wheat flour. Experiment 64. — Make a small amount of flour into a stiff dough. Put into a piece of fine cheesecloth and knead in a bowl of cold water until only a sticky mass is left in the cloth. Collect this. Note its physical properties. Work with the fingers for some minutes. Does the gluten become more elastic with knead- ing? Give one reason for kneading bread dough. Form part of the gluten into a ball and bake. What is the effect of heat upon it? Experiment 65. — Test some of the gluten from the above ex- periment to see if it is protein ? starch ? sugar ? See identification test for protein, page 69; for starch, page 21 ; for sugar, page 44. Experiment 66. — Boil some of the water in which the flour from experiment 64 was washed. Cool and test for starch. Experiment 67. — Let starch settle to bottom of the bowl in cup. Remove some of the clear top liquid and test for sugar. BREADS 135 Experiment 68. — (To l)e porforimMl l)y the teacher.) Mix a little dry flour with ether, chloroform, or benzine. Filter, let- ting the filtrate drop on clean glass. Let the liquid evaporate. What is left on the glass ? Caution. — The fumes of chloroform, ether, and benzine are very inflammable. Do not use with fire or light burning in the room. ExpERiMiENT 69. — Burn a little flour in a porcelain crucible for several hours, or until only a white ash is left. What part of the flour is this ? Yeast. — (Review plant classification, page 50.) Yeast Plant (magnified), showing method of reproduction. Yeast is a single-celled, plant that grows by budding, and requires sugar, some protein, and mineral matter for its nourishment. It is found floating in the air and settles on substances rich in sugar, where it grows and causes a chemi- cal change in the substance upon which it is feeding, called fermentation. This is the change which takes place when 136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE grape juice is changed to wine, when cider becomes " hard," or when " salt rising " bread is made. Yeast is obtained in a pure form for commercial purposes from distilleries or breweries. The top j^east which floats on the surface of the fermenting liquid, or wort, is skimmed off and its impurities removed. It is then mixed with some starch, pressed, cut into cakes, wrapped in tin foil, and sold as " compressed " yeast. When mixed with corn meal and dried, it is sold as '^ dry yeast." The yeast cells of dry yeast are not as active as those of compressed yeast and take longer to raise bread. Fermentation is a chemical change in aii organic substance, caused by the growth within that substance of some ferment, as 3^east. There are different varieties of ferments, each of which causes a different form of fermentation to take place. Alcoholic fermentation is caused by the growing of the yeast plant, which feeds upon sugar, changing it to alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is the fermentation that takes place in bread making. Acetic fermentation is caused by a ferment which changes the alcohol formed during alcoholic fermentation into acetic acid. It occurs when alcoholic fermentation is allowed to go on for too great a length of time, or when the mixture is raised to a temperature above 90° F., as wheii hard cider turns to vinegar or bread dough sours. Lactic fermentation is the change that takes place when milk sours. The lactic bacillus feeds upon the sugar of the milk and changes it to lactic acid ; this acid causes the casein to coagulate and the milk is '' sour." When milk is used for bread dough, it should be scalded to destroy the lactic bacilli, thus preventing souring of the milk during the rising, which might cause sour bread. BREADS 137 Chemical reactions in bread making : dextrose starch water or sugar CeHioOs + a ferment + H2O = CeHisOe carbon Alcoholic fermentation: alcohol dioxidc CeHioOe + yeast = 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 Acetic fermentation : alcohol oxygen acetic acid water 2 C2H5OH + 4 + a ferment = 2 CH3COOH + 2 H2O Experiments with yeast. Experiment 70. — Mix a small amount of yeast with water. (a) Put a drop on a glass slide, cover with a glass, and examine under the microscope, first with a low power and then with a high power. Make a drawing. (&) Stain the slide with a little iodine and examine again. What color do the yeast cells become when they are stained with iodine ? The starch cells ? What kind of starch was used in the yeast cake ? Experiment 71. — Make a solution of glucose and water, or molasses and water. Add some yeast. Let stand an hour or two in a warm place. Examine a drop under the microscope. How does the yeast cell reproduce ? Experiment 72. — Make a solution of glucose and water. Add some yeast. Put equal amounts in three test tubes. (a) Boil the contents of one tube. (6) Put one tube in a cold place or on ice. (c) Keep one tube at temperature of 80° F. At the end of an hour or two, examine the contents of the tubes, noting any fermen- tation that may have occurred. Draw conclusions as to the best temperature for the growing of the yeast plant. Warm (6) to a temperature of 80° F. and let stand for an hour or two. Does cold destroy the life of the yeast? Does boiling destroy it? 138 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Experiment 73. — Put a solution of glucose, water, and yeast in a flask. Keep it warm until it ferments. Pass the gas through limewater. What change occurs in the limewater ? What gas is given off during alcoholic fermentation ? Proportion of ingredients in bread making. To every quart of wetting (milk and water) use : 1 cake yeast dissolved in J c. lukewarm water, or 1 c. liquid yeast. 2 ts. salt. 2 tb. or more of sugar. In white bread use just enough sugar to replace the sugar of the flour lost during alcoholic fermentation ; in other breads use sugar as desired for a flavor. - Two tb. shortening (lard or butter). The amount of shortening may be increased for rolls or when a rich fancy dough is desired. For simple breads shortening may be omitted entirely. Flour to form a soft dough. If spring wheat flour is used, a smaller quantity will be required than would be needed of winter wheat. From two and a half to three times as much flour as liquid should be used, which in- cludes the flour used on the board in kneading. With dark- colored flour, use about one-third white flour and the remainder dark flour. Doughs made with graham or entire wheat flour, which contain a large amount of gluten, are not made stiff enough to knead, but are well beaten with a spoon before being put to rise. Kneading. — Bread is kneaded twice, the first time to incorporate the ingredients thoroughly, thus insuring an even texture, and also to make the gluten elastic so as to retain the carbon dioxide formed during fermentation. It should be kneaded until smooth and elastic, and until little BREADS 139 blisters may be seen on the surface of the dough. After the bread has risen until it is about double in size, it is kneaded again, but very lightly, the object being to break the large bubbles of CO2 present, in order that the loaf may be jfine- grained and to form the dough into the desired shape with- out losing its lightness. It is then placed in the pan to rise until light enough to bake. Baking of Bread. — Bread is baked (1) To kill the yeast plant. (2) To hydrolize the starch granules. (3) To soften the cellulose. (4) To drive off the alcohol, CO2, and excess of moisture. (5) To dextrinize the starch, thus forming a crust of sweet, agreeable flavor. All bread should be thoroughly baked. If there is any doubt as to its being done, let it continue baking, as long baking makes it wholesome. The oven should be hot enough to turn a piece of paper a light brown in five minutes. After placing the loaf in the oven, increase the heat gradually for ten minutes, then decrease slowly until the end of the baking. The oven should turn a piece of paper a dark brown in five minutes when rolls are to be baked. Raw Potato Yeast I c. flour 1 to 2 qts. boiling water J c. sugar 1 cake compressed yeast 1 tb. salt or 1 c. liquid yeast 3 raw potatoes Pare potatoes and keep in cold water. Mix flour, sugar, and salt in a large bowl, and grate the potato in as quickly as possible. Mix at once with wooden spoon. Pour the boiling water directly from the teakettle, stirring constantly and adding enough water to make the mixture the consistency of thin starch. If it does 140 DOMESTIC SCIENCE not thicken, bring the mixture to the boihng point. Strain, and let cool. When lukewarm add yeast ; if compressed, dissolve in 1 c. water. Keep mixture in warm (not hot) place till light. Beat well several times. At the end of 24 hours, put in earthen or glass jars, cover tightly, and put in a cool place. This will keep two weeks. Save the last cupful to start fresh yeast. White Bread 1 pt. milk 2 tb. sugar 2 tb. lard 2 ts. salt Put into a bowl and pour on them 1 pt. boihng water. When lukewarm, add 1 cake yeast dissolved in | c. lukewarm water, or 1 c. hquid yeast. Add flour to make a soft dough. Knead on a floured board. P-ut into a greased bowl to rise, greasing the top of the dough to prevent a crust forming. Cover closely and let rise until it doubles in size, keeping the dough at a temperature of from 80° to 85° F. Knead again and shape into loaves. Let rise in the pan from | to f hours. It should not quite double in size. Bake 50 or 60 minutes, or until the loaf is a rich brown and emits a hollow sound when tapped on the bottom. Brush the loaf with milk. Let stand exposed to the air on all sides to allow the steam to escape. Put it into a freshly scalded bread jar, cover, but do not wrap in a cloth. Parker House Rolls 1 pt. milk scalded 2 tb. ^ugar 2 tb. butter 1 ts. salt When lukewarm, add | cake yeast dissolved in ^ c. water. Add flour to make a batter. Beat well. Add 1 beaten egg, and flour to make a dough. Knead and let rise till light. Shape into rolls, handling the dough as little as possible. Let rise in the pan about 1 hour or until very light. Bake in a quick oven 20 minutes. Brush with milk or butter. The egg may be omitted. Rolls may also be made from bread dough. They take their name from the different forms in which they are shaped. BREADS 141 Entire Wheat Bread 1 pt. milk scalded { c. sugar I ts. salt or ^ c. molasses When lukewarm, add ^ cake yeast dissolved in | c. water. Add 4 1 c. entire wheat flour or enough to make a soft dough. Beat well, cover, and let rise until it doubles in size. Beat down and pour into greased bread pans. Let rise till light and bake 1 hour in a moderate oven. It should not quite double in bulk during the last rising. Graham Bread 1 pt. milk scalded ^ cake yeast dissolved in -| c. 4 tb. sugar water 1 ts. salt 2 c. white flour 3 to 3| c. sifted Graham flour Mix in the order given into a dough a little softer than for white bread. Beat well, let rise till Hght or till it doubles in size. Stir down. Pour into greased pans, let rise f hour, and bake a little longer and in a more moderate oven than for white bread. Whole wheat may be used in place of Graham flour. Rye Bread 1 pt. scalded milk | cake compressed yeast dis- 2 tb. butter solved in I c. water 2 tb. sugar 2 c. white flour 1 ts. salt Rye flour till stiff enough to knead Mix in the order given, knead, let rise till light, and double in size, knead lightly, shape into loaves. Let rise in the pan till light, bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour. Oatmeal Bread 2 c. oatmeal i c. sugar 3 c. boiling water 1 cake compressed yeast dis- 1 tb. lard solved in 1 c. water 1| ts. salt Flour to make dough 142 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Scald oatmeal with boiling water, add lard, sugar, and salt, and when lukewarm the dissolved yeast. Add flour to make a dough stiff enough so that the spoon will stand upright in it. Beat well as the flour is added. Let rise 2 to 3 hours or until it doubles in size. Beat down, put into greased bread pans, let rise about ^ hour or until light. Bake 1 hour in a moderate oven. To Ascertain the Cost of Bread : Price of pastry flour (winter wheat) Price of bread flour (spring wheat) . Price of bread flour per pound ......... Number of pounds required to make recipe for white bread Cost of other ingredients Total cost Number of loaves made Cost per loaf Weight of loaf Cost per loaf of baker's bread Weight of loaf of baker's bread . , CHAPTER XV FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY Sources of fat. 1. Adipose tissue of animals, as beef fat, suet, etc. 2. Bone marrow. 3. Milk. Fat globules are held in suspension in the milk serum. (See Milk, page 108.) 4. Some vegetables. Some vegetables contain a small amount of fat, but they do not form an important source of fat in the diet. 5. Some fruits and seeds. The olive is an important source of fat, furnishing olive oil. The seed of the cotton plant furnishes an important commercial oil, cottonseed oil. 6. Nuts. Nuts contain a large amount of fat. The oil of peanuts and cocoanuts furnish important commercial forms of oil. Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They contain a larger amount of carbon and hydrogen than do carbohydrates, hence have a greater fuel value. Carbohydrates Fats . . . Carbon ,44.4% 76.5 % Hydrogen 6.2% 11.9% Oxygen 49.4% 11.5% One pound of fat yields approximately two and one fourth times as much heat and energy as one pound of car- bohydrates, hence forms a valuable food in cold climates. 143 144 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerine. Among the fatty acids are : 1. Stearic acid of stearin. 2. Palmatic acid of palmatin. 3. Oleic acid of olein. One or more of these acids are found in all fats in combina- tion with glycerine. The fatty acid which predominates gives the characteristic to the fat. Fats may be split up into fatty acids and glycerine by (1) Being heated in very hot steam. stearin glycerine stearic acid (Ci7H3502)3C3H5 + 3H2O = €3H5(OH)3 + 3C17H35COOH (2) Bacterial action, as when fats become rancid. (3) Action of fat-splitting enzymes of the digestive fluids. (4) Action of strong alkahes, as in soap making. (5) Action of high temperature, as in frying. Fats are insoluble in water, but are soluble in ether, chloroform, gasoline, etc. To remove grease spots from clothing, moisten the spot with any of the above solvents and rub lightly until dry. The solvent will dissolve the grease and thus free the dust which may have adhered to it. This cleaning process should always be carried on in the open air and away from any flame, as the fumes of gasohne, etc., are very inflammable when mixed with air and ignite easily, often causing serious accidents. Emulsion. — When fat is divided into minute globules which are held in suspension in a liquid, it is said to be in emulsion. This is a physical state and is readily broken down. The most perfect example of an emulsion is the suspension of the fat globules in fresh milk. The emulsion is but temporary and the fat rises to the surface in the form of cream. FATS^FRYING, AND PASTRY 145 Saponification. ~ When fat is heated with a strong alkali, it is split up into fatty acid and glycerine, the alkali uniting with the acid and forming a soap, and the glycerine being set free. This reaction is called saponification and may be expressed by the following formula : sodium sodium palmatin + hydrate = palmitate + glycerine C3H5(Ci6H3i02)3 + 3NaOH = 3NaCi6H3i02 + C3H5(OH)3 The soap is soluble in water. This reaction is made use of in household cleaning when a strong alkali as soda, lye, borax, etc., is added to " cut the grease." An excellent soap may be made in the household from fats left in cooking combined with a strong alkali, such as concentrated lye. All fats or drippings left from cooking should, therefore, be saved for soap making. Full directions for making soap are given with the lye purchased for soap making. FRYING Frying is cooking by immersion in hot fat at a tempera- ture of from 350° to 400° F. Lard, olive oil, beef suet, beef drippings, or some commercial forms of fat may be used. The fat should be so hot that it will instantly coagulate the albumen on the outside of the article, forming a coating to keep the fat from soaking in. All articles which do not contain egg in sufficient quantity must be rolled in fat-proof coating. Lard boils at 585° F., so for cooking purposes fat does not boil. The ebullition which takes place is due to water in the article fried being converted into steam. Too many articles should not be placed in the fat at one time, as they will cool the fat. The articles should not be too cold, as that will also cool the fat. All fried food should be perfectly drained by holding over the kettle of fat and 146 DOMESTIC SCIENCE shaking gently, and then laid on brown paper. Raw potato absorbs the unpleasant odors or gases of fat, and collects some of the sediment, so a few slices should be put in both before and after frying. After using fat, allow it to cool slightly, then pour it through a cheesecloth put over a strainer. It may thus be used several times. When several articles are to be fried, fry them in the follow- ing order : potatoes, batter mixtures, breaded articles, fish. Objections to Frying as a Method of Cooking. 1. Articles may be grease-soaked. 2. High temperature necessary for frying splits fat up into fatty acid and glycerine. Fatty acid i§- irritating to organs of digestion. Glycerine is farther split up by heat into acrolein, which gives the disagreeable odor to hot fat and which is also very irritating to the mucous membranes of the digestive organs. Burning Point. — The higher the burning point of a fat, the more valuable is the fat for frying purposes, as it will retain a greater amount of heat before it carbonizes. Butter has a low burning point, hence carbonizes easily and is a poor fat to use for frying. Experiment 74. — Take temperature of fat when it begins to heat with a laboratory thermometer that will register 450° F. Note temperature of fat when it bubbles. What is the cause of the bubbling ? Heat until it stops bubbling and begins to smoke. Note temperature. Drop in a slice of potato. What causes the bubbling in the fat? What is the temperature of fat when it is hot enough for frying ? Note odor of acrolein. Experiment 75. — Heat in separate pans small amounts of butter, lard, cottolene, and other commercial fats. Which burns most easily? Which has the highest burning point? Cost of Fat for Frying. — When making doughnuts put a definite weight of lard and any fats used locally for frying, in kettles of the same size. Fry an equal number of dough- FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY 147 nuts in each. Weigh the lard and the other fats which are left after frying, computing the amount and cost of the fats used. Estimate the cost of frying a dozen doughnuts in each kind of fat. Rule for testing fat. — When the fat begins to smoke, drop in an inch cube of bread from the soft part of the loaf. If it browns in forty seconds the temperature is right for frying any cooked mixture, as croquettes; if it browns in sixty seconds it is right for uncooked mixtures, as doughnuts. Fried Potatoes Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly on a vegetable sheer into a bowl of ice water. Let stand an hour, drain, and dry between towels. Fry in hot fat, stirring while frying to make them brown evenly. When a light brown put into a colander. Sprinkle lightly with salt. French Fried Potatoes Select small potatoes of uniform size. Wash, pare, and cut into eighths lengthwise. Soak 1 hour in cold water. Dry well and fry in hot fat until the center of the potato is cooked. Drain well in a colander or on brown paper. Sprinkle with salt, and serve. Doughnuts Yolks of 4 eggs or 2 whole eggs ^ ts. salt 1 c. sugar I ts. each cinnamon and nutmeg 3 tb. melted butter Flour to make a dough just I c. milk and ^ c. water stiff enough to handle, about 4 ts. baking powder 4 c. To the beaten eggs add sugar and butter. Beat well, add water and milk, then 2 c. flour sifted with the baking powder, salt, and spices. Add more flour till of the right consistency. Toss one third of the mixture on a floured board. Knead lightly. Roll to ^ inch or more in thickness. Cut with a doughnut cutter and fry in deep fat. Drain well. 148 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Doughnuts should come quickly to the top of the fat, brown slightly on one side, then be turned to brown on the other. If the fat is not hot enough, they will absorl) fat ; if too hot, they will brown before sufficiently risen. When they are slightly cool, put them in a paper bag, one at a time, with 3 or 4 tb. powdered sugar, and shake gently to coat them with sugar. Crullers I c. butter 4 c. flour, or enough to 1 c. sugar make dough 2 eggs, beaten separately : 4 ts. baking powder 1 c. milk ~ ^ ^ ts. nutmeg Powdered sugar and cinnamon Cream the butter, add sugar gradually, beaten yolks and beaten whites. Mix dry ingredients, add alternately with the milk. Put on floured board, roll thin, and cut in pieces two by three inches. Cut 3 or 4 parallel incisions, run finger in and out of them, and drop into deep fat. Fry the same as doughnuts, and roll in powdered sugar and cinnamon. Potato Croquettes 1 pt. hot mashed potatoes ^ ts. celery salt 2 tb. butter ^ tb. grated onion ^ ts. salt 1 tb. minced parsley Cayenne and black pepper Yolks of 1 or 2 eggs to taste Mix all but the egg and beat till very light. When slightly cool add beaten egg. Shape into balls. Roll in fat-proof coating and fry in deep fat. Drain on brown paper. Serve hot. Veal Croquettes Chop cold veal fine. Season highly with salt, celery salt, cayenne, lemon juice and parsley. Moisten 1^ c. of the veal with 1 c. thick cream sauce. (Page 24.) Spread out the mixture on a FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY 149 plate and allow it to become perfectly cold. Shape into cylinders, or pear shaped mounds, roll in fat-proof coating, and fry in deep fat. Drain and serve hot. Chicken, salmon, lobster, sweetbread, or any meat croquettes are prepared in same manner. Fat-proof Coating Roll the article to be fried in fine sifted bread crumbs, then dip in egg slightly beaten with 1 tb. water, roll again in crumbs. If not perfectly coated the article may crack in frying. To prepare Crumbs Dry pieces of bread in the oven without browning, roll or put them through the meat chopper and sift. Put into fruit jars to be ready for use. Bread crumbs make a richer brown than cracker crumbs. Fritter Batter 1 c. flour Whites of 2 eggs I ts. salt Yolks of 2 eggs ^ c. milk or water 1 tb. melted butter or olive oil Mix salt and flour. Add milk gradually, yolks of eggs beaten until thick, butter, and beaten whites of the eggs. If intended for fruit, add 1 ts. sugar ; if for oysters or tripe, add 1 tb. lemon juice. Banana Fritters 4 bananas Powdered sugar 1 tb. lemon juice Remove skins from bananas, cut in halves lengthwise and then across. Sprinkle with sugar and lemon and let stand. Dip in fritter batter, fry in deep fat, drain, and serve hot with lemon sauce. Fried Fish Clean and dry the fish, and bone it. Rub with salt and pepper. Cut into pieces suitable for serving, roll in fat-proof coating and fry in deep fat 5 to 7 m. Drain and serve with tomato, tartar, or any acid sauce. 150 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cheese Croquettes Whites of 3 eggs 1 ssp. mustard 1 c. grated cheese Speck of cayenne Beat the whites very stiff, stir in the cheese and seasoning. Let stand in a cold place till stiff enough to mold. Make into small balls the size of a hickory nut and fry in hot fat. Serve with salad. PASTRY While the materials which are used in making pastry are wholesome and nutritious, they are combined in a form which makes them somewhat difficult to digest, so pastry should be used sparingly in the diet. The requisites for good pastry are that it shall be tender, flaky, and light. The first quality will depend upon the amount and the kind of fat used, upon the manner in which the pastry is handled in mixing and rolling, and upon the amount of water used in making the dough. If but little water is used, the gliadin and glutinin of the flour do not unite to form as tough a gluten, and* the pastry is more tender. It was noted in bread making that working the dough made the gluten elastic, and as this is not desired in pastry making, the dough should be handled as little and as lightly as possible. The flaky quality of the pastry will depend upon the num- ber of layers of flour and fat that are formed in the dough by the methods of rolling and folding. The shortening used should be very cold and firm, so that it will not soften and mix with the flour. All pastry is improved if the dough is placed in a napkin and put near the ice for some time before being rolled into shape for baking. The lightness of the pastry will depend upon the amount of air incorporated in the dough in folding, and its expan- FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY 151 sion in baking. A small amount of baking powder is some- times added to the flour before making it into dough. Winter wheat flour should be used, as it contains less gluten than spring wheat flour and makes a more tender crust. Shortening for Pastry 1. Butter. This makes a crisp, brown, somewhat hard crust. It is used in making puff paste and may be mixed with other fats for ordinary pastry. 2. Lard. This makes a soft, white, and tender crust. 3. Beef suet. When properly tried out, this is a good and an inexpensive form of fat. 4. Many commercial forms of fat mixtures may be used. To render fat. — Cut beef suet or leaf fat from pork into small pieces. Soak in cold salted water for several hours. Drain off water and heat fat slowly until the fat separates out and the connective tissue browns slightly. Drain through a cheese cloth placed over a colander. Press to remove all fat. Note to Student. — Why is the fat soaked in salted water ? Weigh fat and estimate cost per pound. Compare cost with cur- rent market price of lard. AMOUNT OF SHORTENING FOR PASTRY Flour Shortening Puff Paste 2 c. 1 c- butter Pastry 2 c. f c. shortening Plain Pastry 2 c. J c. shortening Use I ts. salt to 2 c. flour. J ts. baking powder may be added to flour. 1| c. flour makes one large pie with a double crust. 152 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Pastry If c. flour I ts. salt f c. shortening Ice water to make stiff dough Sift the salt with the flour, add one half the shortening, and with a knife cut it into pieces about the size of a pea. Add the ice water gradually, lifting with a knife that portion which was moistened first and put it on a floured board, or push to one side of the bowl. Wet another portion, and so continue until all is moistened, using just enough water to hold' it together. Dredge the dough on the board with flour, roll lightly from you into a long strip. Put the remainder of the shortening cut in small pieces over the top of the strip, sprinkle lightly with flour and fold it up toward the center. Roll again into a long strip and roll this up like a jelly roll. Cut from the roll enough paste for a crust, roll to fit the pan, place on the ungreased pie tin, fulling it slightly as pastry shrinks in baking. Trim the edges with a knife as far over the outside edge of the pan as possible. Put in the filhng, rounding it a little in the center. Roll the upper crust. While it is still on the board, make perforations to let the steam escape during the baking. Lay the upper crust on the pie by lifting it on the rolling pin, fold back one half, wet the edge of the lower crust, put the upper half back on it. Trim the upper crust, pressing the edges lightly together. Pies baked without an upper crust should have a double rim. Roll paste into long pieces, and cut strips about one inch and a quarter wide ; fit neatly on the rim of under crust before filling the pie. Perforated tins may be used for baking pies, thus insuring a well-baked under crust. Pastry should be thoroughly cooked and well browned. Pies require from thirty to forty-five minutes for baking. Do not grease the tin. When slightly cool, slip the pie on to an earthen plate. Apple Pie 4 or 5 sour apples 1 ts. lemon juice f c. sugar I ts. salt I ts. nutmeg | ts. butter FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY 153 Line a pie plate with paste. Pare and slice apples. Put a row around the plate one half inch from the edge, fill the center of the plate, then pile on the remaining apples. Mix sugar, salt, nutmeg and lemon juice and sprinkle on the apples. Dot with butter and sprinkle with flour. Add a little water. Put on the upper crust, bake 40 to 45 m. in a moderate oven. Evaporated apples may be soaked overnight and used in place of fresh ones. Pumpkin Pie 1| c. steamed and strained I ts. each cinnamon, gin- pumpkin ger, nutmeg I c. sugar 1 egg I ts. salt I c. milk Add sugar, salt, spice to pumpkin; add the milk, scalded, and when cool, the egg slightly beaten. Pour into a crust with a double rim. Bake in a quick oven at first to set rim; decrease the heat afterward, as milk and egg in combination must be cooked at a low temperature. If richer pie is desired, use 1 c. pumpkin, ^ c. milk, | c. cream, and an additional egg yolk. Custard Pie 2 eggs i ts. salt I c. sugar H c. milk Nutmeg Beat egg slightly, add sugar, salt, and milk. Strain into a pie plate lined with crust with a double rim. Bake in a quick oven at first to set the rim ; decrease the heat afterward, as the custard will separate if cooked too quickly. When a knife inserted into the custard comes out clean, the pie is baked. Do not allow the custard to boil during the baking. 154 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Mince Meat 1 chopped apple 1 tb. boiled cider ^ c. raisins, seeded and 1 c. sugar chopped 1 ts. cinnamon I c. currants | ts. cloves I c. butter or suet ^ grated nutmeg 1 tb. molasses I ts. mace 1 ts. salt Add enough stock in which the meat was cooked to moisten; heat gradually and simmer 10 m. Then add 1 c. chopped meat, 1 tb. currant jelly. Cook 15 m. Lemon Pie I c. sugar Yolks of 2 eggs 1 c. water Grated rind and juice 3 tb. corn starch of one lemon 1 ts. butter Mix corn starch and sugar, add boiling water, stirring constantly ; cook 2 m., add butter, beaten yolks, and lemon. Pour into a pan lined with a crust with a double rim. Bake till pastry is brown. Cool slightly and cover with a meringue. Meringue Whites of 2 eggs A few drops of lemon 4 tb. powdered sugar juice or vanilla Beat the whites till stiff, add sugar gradually, continue beating, add flavoring, and spread on the pie. Bake in a slow oven 10 to 12 m. If cooked quickly and too long, meringue is tough. Cranberry Pie Line a pie dish with paste and fill with uncooked cranberries. Add ^ c. molasses, 4 tb. sugar. Cover with an upper crust and bake in a quick oven 30 m. FATS — FRYING, AND PASTRY 155 Cranberry Tart Line a pan with paste, fill with stewed and sweetened cran- berries. Lay strips of crust over the top, log cabin fashion, and bake. Tarts Roll paste jV inch thick. Cut with a biscuit cutter. Cut as many more pieces with a doughnut cutter. Brush the circles with water and lay the rims on them. Chill thoroughly and bake L5 m. in a hot oven. Cool and fill with jelly. By placing 3 or 4 rings on the tart, shells may be made for creamed oysters or chicken. Cheese Straws Roll paste I inch thick. Sprinkle one half with grated cheese to which has been added a few grains of salt and cayenne. Fold, press edges together, fold again, roll out I inch thick. Sprinkle with cheese and proceed as before ; repeat twice. Cut in strips 5 inches long, | inch wide ; dust with salt. Bake 8 m. in hot oven. CHAPTER XVI CAKES AND PUDDINGS Cakes may be classified under two heads : 1. Cakes without butter, or sponge cakes. 2. . Cakes with butter. Powdered sugar makes a fine-grained cake. Coarse granu- lated sugar makes a coarse-grained, sticky cake. Winter wheat flour should be used, as it makes a light, tender cake. To mix Sponge Cake. — Separate the yolks from the whites. Beat the yolks till lemon-colored and thick. Add the sugar gradually and continue beating. Add flavoring. Fold in the whites beaten stiff. Sift in the flour carefully, and do not beat after adding the flour, or the air bubbles will be broken and the cake will be close grained and tough. Do not grease the pan for sponge cakes. Line the bottom of the pan with ungr eased paper cut to fit it. To mix Butter Cakes. — Use an earthen bowl and a wooden spoon. Have all the ingredients measured and ready, the pans greased before beginning to mix the cake. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and beat till very light. Add the' beaten yolks, flavoring, then the milk, and flour in which the baking powder has been sifted, alternately. Beat well, as cake is made flne-grained only by long beating; theQ fold in the beaten whites. Never stir the cake after the final beating. For butter cakes, grease the pan with lard (do not use butter, as it burns), sprinkle with flour, shake out all the 156 CAKES AND PUDDINCS 157 flour that does not adhere to the grease. Fill the pans about two thirds full, having the mixture come well into the corners. Leave a slight (h^pressioii in the middle, so that tlie cakes will be level when baked. Baking. — Th(v baking is tin; most critical part oi" (;ake making. Test the oven with a piece of white paper. If it turns a light yellow in 5 minutes, it is ready for sponge cakes ; if a dark yellow in 5 minutes, it is ready for butter cakes. The time of baking should be divided into quarters; during the first quarter the mixture should begin to rise; during the second quarter it should continue to rise and begin to brown; in the third quarter, continue browning; in the last quarter, finish baking and shrink from the edge of the pan. Cake should not be moved until it has risen its full height. When it feels firm to the touch, shrinks from the pan, stops crackling, and a straw inserted comes out clean, the cake is done. Small and layer cakes require a hotter oven than sponge and loaf cakes. Sponge cakes are of two general kinds : 1. Those in which the eggs and sugar are the only liquids used. 2. Those in which water is added for part of the liquid. Sponge cake is nutritious and is easily digested. It is the best form of cake to give to children. Note. — Estimate the cost of a sponge cake made without water, and a sponge cake made with water, and compare with the cost of butter cakes. Compute the relative cost of sponge and butter cakes at different seasons of the year. Sponge Cake (without water) 5 eggs ^ lemon (grated rind and juice) 1 c. fine granulated sugar 1 c. flour ^ ts. salt 158 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Mix as ill directions for sponge cake. The mixture should be stiff and spongy. Bake in a loaf in a deep pan nearly 1 hour, in a shallow pan about 40 minutes. Berwick Sponge Cake (with water) Yolks 3 eggs 2 c. flour If c. sugar 2 ts. baking powder f c. water Whites 3 eggs I ts. lemon extract, or grated rind and juice ^ lemon Beat the yolks 5 minutes, add sugar and beat 3 minutes, then the water, lemon, flour and baking powder, and last fold in the beaten whites. Bake in a loaf. Washington Pie Bake Berwick Sponge cake in round, shallow tins. When cool, split and fill with cream. Sprinkle top with powdered sugar. Cream Filling for Washington Pie. — Scald 1 pt. milk. Mix 5 tb. flour, ^ c. sugar with a little cold milk. Stir into scalding milk. Cook 5 m. Add 1 beaten egg, | ts. salt. Cook till thick. When cool, flavor with | ts. vanilla. Angel Food Whites of 11 eggs, 1 c. flour measured after one sifting, then sifted four times, 1| c. fine granulated sugar sifted three times. Beat the whites till stiff, on a platter with 1 ts. cream of tartar, add the sugar gradually, and 1 ts. vanilla or almond. Sift in the flour quickly and lightly. Pour into an ungreased pan and bake in a slow oven 45 or 50 minutes. Invert the pan till slightly cool. Note. — Estimate the cost of an angel food with eggs at various prices. Compare with cost of butter cakes. Soft Molasses Cookies 1 c. molasses | If ts. soda 1 ts. ginger 1 ts. salt 1 ts. mixed spice 1 c. sour milk Flour CAKES AND riJ 1)1)1 N(;s 159 Add soda to molasses and beat well, add milk, shortening, spice> salt and flour enough to roll. Put on a floured board and roll I inch thick. Cut and bake. Sponge Drops 4 eggs 1 ts. flavoring I c. powdered sugar f c. pastry flour I ssp. salt Mix as for sponge cake. Drop by spoonfuls on an ungreased pan, sprinkle with powdered sugar and bake 12 to 16 minutes in a slow oven. Cookies ^ c. butter { ts. nutmeg 1 c. sugar 4 ts. baking powder 1 or 2 eggs 2| c. flour, or enough to roll \ c. milk out thin Mix in the order given, following directions for mixing cup cakes. Roll out, cut, sprinkle the top with sugar. Bake about 10 m. Sour Cream Cookies 1 c. butter ^ c. sour cream 1^ c. sugar 1 ts. soda 2 eggs Flour to roll Mix as above. Hermits 1 c. butter I c. raisins stoned ; f c. sugar ^ ts. cinnamon legg I ts. cloves 4 tb. milk I ts. mace 2 c. flour i ts. nutmeg 2 ts. baking powder Cream butter, add sugar gradually, raisins, beaten egg and milk. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add. Roll a little thicker than plain cookies. Cut and bake. 160 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Jumbles ^ lb. butter 2 eggs ^ lb. powdered sugar f lb. flour Nutmeg Save out 3 tb. of the sugar to roll them in. Cream the butter, add sugar, beaten eggs, flour and nutmeg. Roll, cut with a dough- nut cutter, and bake a light brown. Sand Tarts ^ lb. butter ' 3 eggs 1 lb. brown sugar -, 1 lb. flour Cream the butter, add the sugar, beaten eggs, leaving out the white, of one, and the flour. Roll thin, cut into 3-inch squares. Brush with the white of an egg and sprinkle with granulated sugar and cinnamon. Put an almond or raisin in the center of each and bake in a quick oven. Ginger Snaps 1 0. molasses ^ c. shortening 1 ts. salt 1 tb. ginger 3| c. flour Heat the molasses to boiling point and pour over the short- ening. Add dry ingredients mixed and sifted. Chill thoroughly. Roll as thin as possible, cut and bake. Keep the dough cool or you will have to add more flour, which will make the cookies hard. Place cookies far enough apart on the baking pans so that they will not run together. Roll only a part of the dough at a time, gather up the trimmings, and, add to the dough. Knead lightly till mixed. Soft Ginger Cookies f c. shortening (butter and lard) 1 c. sugar 1 ts. each cinnamon, ginger, 1 c. molasses and salt I c. hot water, in which dis- | ts. cloves solve 1^ ts. soda Flour to make a soft dough Mix in order given ; roll and bake. CAKES AND PUDDINGS 161 Note. — Estimate the cost per dozen of the various small cake and cookies. Note. — Student study recipes of butter cakes as obtained from various cook books and family recipes and tabulate them as to the proportions of ingredients used. Also estimate cost. Ar- range the proportions on the basis of 3 c. flour used in the cake. Name and Source of Recipe Butter Sugar Milk Eggs Flour Baking Powder Total Cost of Recipe One Egg Cake I c. butter creamed I.e. milk 1 c. sugar 2 J c. flour 1 egg beaten light 3^ ts. baking powder I ts. vanilla Mix in the ordev given, following directions for butter cake. Bake in a shallow pan in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes. Wh: ite Cake 1 c. butter 3 c. flour 1^ c. sugar 4 ts. baking powder 1 c. water Whites 4 eggs Its. flavoring Follow directions for mixing butter cakes. Park Street Cake ^ c. butter 4 eggs 1| c. sugar 4 ts. baking powder 1 c. milk , 1 ts. flavoring 3 c. flour 1 ssp. mace Cream the butter, add 1 c. sugar. Add the remaining cup of sugar to the beaten yolks, beat well together and proceed as in directions for butter cakes. Bake in 2 loaves in a moderate oven, or in layers. 162 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Spice Cake i i i c. butter c. sugar c. raisins seeded and cut in 2 eggs 21 c. flour 3 ts. baking powder i i i pieces c. molasses c. boiled coffee ts. nutmeg grated h ts. i ts. ^ts. salt cinnamon allspice Follow directions for mixing butter cakes. Bake in a loaf in a moderate oven, or in layers. Devil's Food Part 1. I c. butter | c. sweet milk 1 c. brown sugar 1 ts. soda 1 whole egg and 2 yolks 2| c. flour Mix as any cake. Part 2. 3 squares chocolate | c. sweet milk 1 c. brown sugar Heat over hot water till smooth; add to Part 1 with § ts. vanilla. Bake in two layers and frost with white frosting. Plain Frosting White of 1 egg i ts. vanilla or 2 ts. cold water i tb. lemon juice I c. confectioner's sugar Beat egg stiff. Add water and sugar and beat well. Add flavoring and more sugar if needed. Spread with a broad knife. Boiled Frosting 1 c. granulated sugar ^ c. water h ts. cream of tartar CAKES AND PUDDINGS 163 Mix together, mid boil, without stirring, until the syru]) will thread when dropped from a fork. Pour gradually on the beaten white of 1 egg, beating constantly, and continue beating until thick enough to spread. Flavor with ^ ts. vanilla. If not beaten long enough it will run when spreading; if beaten too long it will not spread smoothly. In the latter case a few drops of boiling water may be added. One square of melted chocolate may be added when the syrup is poured on the egg. Sugar for frosting is boiled to thread stage or soft ball, and at this stage the sugar thermometer registers 238° F. Marshmallow Frosting 1 c. granulated sugar | c. water Boil together without stirring till of the consistency of honey; then dip 3 tb. of it and pour on the beaten white of 1 egg. Boil rest of syrup until it threads, then pour slowly on the egg. Add 6 or 8 marshmallows which have been heated over hot water till soft. Flavor and beat till thick enough to spread. Beaten Frosting To the unbeaten whites of 2 eggs add 3 times their measure in bulk of XXXX confectioners' sugar. Beat until stiff enough to spread on the cake. Flavor to taste. This frosting thickens from the beating and will require beating from 20 to 30 minutes. It may then be used for ornamental decoration on a cake. Chocolate Frosting 2 squares of Baker's ^ ts. vanilla chocolate 1 c. powdered sugar I c. milk ' Yolk of an egg Melt the chocolate in the double boiler, add ^ the sugar and the milk; add the remaining sugar and the beaten yolk. Cook till it thickens, stirring constantly at first. Cool slightly, flavor, and spread. 164 DOMESTIC SCIENCE PUDDINGS Puddings are more wholesome than pastry and should be more frequently served. They may be divided into three general classes — boiled, baked, and steamed puddings. Cottage Pudding 2 heaping c. flour 1 egg 3^ ts. baking powder ,, | c. sugar I ts. salt 3 tb. melted butter 1 c. milk Mix the salt and baking powder with the flour. Add the sugar, butter, and milk to the beaten egg and stir into the flour. Bake in a shallow pan in a quick oven from 20 to 25 m. Serve hot with sauce. Rice Pudding \ c. rice \ ts. salt \ c. sugar 1 qt. milk Wash rice, mix ingredients, pour into a pudding dish. Bake from 2 to 3 h. in a very slow oven at first, then let it brown slightly. Serve hot or cold. . Bread Pudding 3 c. stale bread crumbs soaked 1 h. in 1 qt. milk. Add to 2 beaten eggs, ^ c. sugar, | ts. salt, \ ts. spice and 2 tb. softened butter. Stir into the milk. Bake 1 h. in a slow oven. Remove from oven, spread with jelly or jam, and cover with a meringue made of the beaten whites of 2 eggs and 4 tb. powdered sugar. Bake in a slow oven 10 m. until a delicate brown. Grated rind and juice of ^ lemon may be added to the pudding. Scalloped Apples Put a layer of bread crumbs in a baking dish, then a layer of sliced apple, sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon and grated lemon rind, dot with bits of butter. Repeat layers, having crumbs on CAKES AND PUDDINGS 165 top with bits of butter to make them brown. Moisten with water. Bake 40 m. in moderate oven. Cover at first to prevent crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve with sugar and cream. Indian Pudding 5 c. scalded milk ^ c. molasses f c. Indian meal 1 ts. salt ^ ts. ginger, if liked Pour the milk slowly on meal, cook in double boiler 20 m. Add molasses, salt, and ginger. Pour into a buttered pudding dish and bake 2 hours in a very slow oven. Serve with cream. If baked too rapidly it will separate. This may be cooked success- fully in a fireless cooker. Suet Pudding 2^ c. flour 1 c. chopped suet, 1 ts. soda , or ^ c. butter ^ ts. salt 1 c. raisins or currants, 1 ts. cinnamon chopped ^ ts. nutmeg 1 c. water or milk 1 c. molasses Sift salt, soda, spice with flour, rub in the suet and add raisins. Mix milk with molasses and stir it into the dry mixture. Steam in a buttered pudding mold 3 h. Serve with sauce. Graham Pudding I c. butter 1^ c. graham flour ^ ts. soda 1 c. raisins seeded and 1 egg cut in pieces 1 ts. salt Melt butter, add milk, molasses, well beaten egg, the dry ingre- dients mixed and sifted, and raisins; put into buttered mold, cover, and steam 2^ hours. Serve with sauce. 2 166 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Prune Whip Wash § lb. prunes. Soak. Cook in a Uttle water till soft. Remove stones and rub through a colander. Add f c. sugar. Beat the whites of 4 eggs stiff. Add the prunes, a spoonful at a time. Bake in a slow oven till a light brown, about 20 m. Serve with whipped cream sweetened and flavored with vanilla, or with soft custard. Tapioca Cream 2 tb. pearl tapioca 2 eggs beaten separately 1 pt. milk I ts. salt ^ c. sugar ^ ts. vanilla Soak tapioca in hot water to cover for 1 h. or more ; add the milk and cook in a double boiler till the tapioca is transparent. To beaten yolks add sugar and salt. Pour the hot mixture over them, return to double boiler, and cook 2 or 3 m. Remove from fire, add beaten whites. When cool, flavor. Sponge Pudding 1 tb. butter ^ ts. baking powder ^ c. flour 3 eggs beaten 5 c. sugar separately 1 pt. milk Mix the sugar and flour, wet in a little cold milk and stir into a pint of boiling milk. Cook till thick and smooth, add butter and beaten yolks. When cool add baking powder and fold in beaten whites. Bake in a pudding dish set in a pan of hot water 25 to 30 m. Serve with creamy sauce. Caramel Custard 4 c. scalded milk 1 ts. vanilla 3 or 4 eggs , | c. sugar 1 ssp. salt Put sugar in an omelet-pan and stir over the fire until it forms a light brown syrup. Add slowly to the milk. Cook in a double CAKES AND PUDDINGS 167 boiler till the siijj;ar dissolves, ])our slowly over the slightly beaten eggs. Flavor. Strain into a buttered pudding dish. Set in a pan of hot water and bake; till a knife inserted will come out clean. Egg and milk in combination must be cooked at a low temperature or they will separate. Add more sugar before baking if not sweet enough. See page 127. Lemon Sauce Vanilla Sauce 1 c. sugar 1 or 2 tb. butter 1 c. water legg Boil water and sugar together 5 m. Add butter, and when melted pour over the egg well beaten. Stir over the fire till it thickens slightly. Add ^ ts. vanilla. If egg is cooked too long, it will separate. Foamy Sauce f c. butter 1 egg 1 c. powdered sugar 1 ts. vanilla Cream butter, add sugar gradually, the well-beaten egg and vanilla ; beat while heating over hot water till smooth, but do not melt the butter. Creamy Sauce I c. butter 4 tb. cream I c. powdered sugar 1 ts. vanilla Cream the butter. Add sugar gradually and the cream, drop by drop. Set over hot water and beat till smooth and creamy, but do not melt the butter. Flavor. ^ Yellow Sauce Beat 1 egg until very thick. Add gradually f c. powdered sugar and beat well with a silver fork. Add 1 tb. melted butter. Beat over hot water for about 10 m. Add ^ ts. vanilla. Serve hot. CHAPTER XVII MINERAL FOODS — SALADS Use of mineral matter in body : 1. Form bone. 2. Essential part of protoplasm. 3. Necessary for body fluids, etc. An average man excretes between twenty and thirty grams of mineral matter per day. This amount must be supplied to the body by food and beverages. The only mineral matter which is added directly to our food is common salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), all the others required being found in suffi- cient quantity in a well-balanced dietary. We probably consume much more common salt than is needed by the body, but it has a decided value as a condiment, improving the flavor of foods and hence making them digest more easily. Mineral matter, as a rule, is found abundantly in fresh fruits and vegetables. Two of the most important minerals required by the body are lime (calcium, Ca) and iron (Fe). The other minerals are also of much importance, but are usually sup- plied by our foods in sufl[icient quantity for the needs of the body. Lime. — Three fourths of the mineral matter of the body is calcium phosphate, which is found in the bones, soft tis- sues, and in solution in the body fluids. Blood will not clot without lime salts, and they are necessary for the beating of the heart. 168 MINERAL FOODS — SALADS 169 Botli organic; and inorganic forms of lime; may bo assimi- lated I)y the l)()dy, oven those which arc insoluble^ in water. Animals that eat bones })rof)ably assimihite some; of the lime; however, organic lime has greater food value than inorganic lime. A child must have a sufficient quantity of lime in its food or the bones will not grow properly, and general develop- ment of the body will be arrested. Milk is very rich in lime. Lime water is added to milk in infant feeding, not to increase the amount of lime, but to soften the casein curd so that it may digest more easily. Milk is richer in lime than lime water. Foods Rich in Lime Foods Poor in Lime Milk Meats Egg yolk Fish Peas, beans, turnips, oranges, Bread carrots, parsnips, spinach Polished rice Most cereals New process corn meal Iron. — Iron is found in the body chiefly in the red color- ing or hemoglobin of the blood. In this form it acts as an oxygen carrier, carrying oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. A deficiency of iron in the diet brings on anemia and other diseases of deficient oxidation. Chloro- phyll grains in plants cannot be produced without iron. If plants are grown in solutions free from iron, the leaves are colorless, but become green when iron salts are added. Iron is found as a constituent part of protein. Milk con- tains less iron than any other food, as the young animal is born with about three times more iron than is needed for its immediate use. Children kept too long on a milk diet become anemic. 170 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The iron in cereals lies in and near the outer coats or bran. Entire wheat flour is thus much richer in iron than is fine white flour. The human body readily assimilates organic iron or that found in plant foods and meats, but the value of medicinal iron tonics is doubtful, as inorganic iron does not assimilate readily, if at all. The iron in eggs and vegetables is probably assimilated to better advantage than that in meats. Herbivorous animals are less liable to anemia than are carnivorous animals. IRON IN TYPICAL FOOD MATERIALS (H. C. SHERMAN) Amount op Iron Food in 100 Gbams Fresh Substance Beefsteak, all lean 3.85 mm. Beefsteak, medium, fat 2.2 Eggs 3.0 Milk, whole ■ • 0.24 Milk, skimmed 0.25 Cream (18.5% fat) 0.20 Cornmeal 1,15 Oatmeal 3.7 Rice, polished 0.7 Wheat flour 1.5 Wheat entire grain . . . . . 5.2 Beans, lima, dried • 7.2 Beans, navy, dried 6.7 Beans, string, fresh r .... 1.6 Cabbage 0.9 Corn, sweet 0.8 Peas, dried 5.6 Potatoes ' .1.2 Spinach 3.8 Turnips 0.6 Apples 0.3 Prunes 2.9 Raisins . . . , 3.6 MINERAL FOODS — SALADS 171 SALADS Salads arc mixtures of fish, fruits, vegetables or meats, with a salad green and some form of salad dressing. The food value of salad greens is not high, as they are composed largely of water, but they form a valuable part of the diet, because of their richness in mineral salts. A salad is more or less nutritious according to the ingredi- ents used in it. The butter, oil, cream or eggs used in salad dressing give it a high heat and energy value. During the spring and summer months a salad of fresh green vegetables should appear upon the table every day. All salads should be served cold and crisp and the dressing should be added just before serving. The salad served with a dinner of several courses should be made of vegetables or fruits and be mixed with a French dressing. When the salad forms a main dish of a luncheon or supper, it may be made of various combinations of meats, vegetables; etc., mixed with a mayonnaise, a cooked, or a cream dressing. Meat for salad should be freed from skin, gristle, and fat and be cut into small cubes. Fish should be freed from bones and skin, and the flesh flaked. Vegetables, as a rule, should be cut into quarter inch cubes. Lettuce. — Lettuce should be carefully washed to remove any dirt and bacteria which may cling to it and also small green insects which are sometimes found on the under side of the leaves. Wash each leaf separately, changing the water often. Shake the leaf gently to remove water, then place on a clean towel and dry carefully with another towel until perfectly dry, but not wilted. To freshen lettuce. — Place in a bowl of ice water to which has been added 1 tb. vinegar and let stand J hour. 172 DOMESTIC SCIENCE To keep lettuce. — After washing, put lettuce in a pail, stem end down, cover closely and set in a cold place. To mix salad. — Put alternate layers of salad ingredients and dressing in a bowl. Lift from the bottom with a fork and spoon and toss lightly until well mixed. To marinate a salad. — Cut materials for a salad into cubes and pour over them a French' dressing. Let stand an hour. Drain ; mix salad with any desired dressing as usual. MATERIALS THAT MAY BE USED IN SALAD Meats Fruits Greens and Garnishes Chicken Oranges Lettuce Veal Grapefruit Celery Roast pork Pineapple Endive Sweetbreads Bananas Chickery Calves' brains Malaga grapes Water cress Fish Cherries Romaine Salmon Apples Escarole Lobster Dates Radishes Shrimp Miscellaneous Pimentos Sardines Eggs Sweet peppers Oysters Nuts OUves White fish Cheeses Marshmallows (with fruit) Parsley Vegetables Potatoes Beets 5 Cabbage (raw) Green peas Spinach Cucumbers (raw) Tomatoes (raw) Carrots String beans Asparagus Salad dressings are of many varieties. but may be clasi under the following heads : L Cooked salad dressing. 3. French dressing. 2. Mayonnaise. 4. Cream dressing. MINERAL FOODS — SALADS 173 All clroyyings, witli tlio ('X(;('])tion of Frencli dnissing, should be just thick enough to coat tlu^ particles of food with which they are mixed; if too tliin they will s(»ttl(^ in the bottom of the dish ; if too thick, they will not mix well. Tlu^y should be thinned with either sweet or sour cream to the right consistency just l^efore serving. Dressings an; sc^asoned with salt, cayenne, and paprika, but mustard should be used spar- ingly, if at all. A small amount of sugar may be added for fruit salads, but a dressing for a fish or meat salad should not be sweetened. Cooked Salad Dressing Yolks 4 eggs or 2 whole eggs beaten until very light. Add 2 tb. vinegar and 2 tb, milk or cream. Set the bowl in a saucepan of hot water and cook, stirring continuously until the mixture is of the consistency of soft butter. Do not let the water boil around it, as the high temperature hardens the albumen on the sides of the bowl and tends to make the dressing lumpy. Remove from fire and add 3 or 4 tb. butter, 1 ts. salt, and few grains of cayenne. When ready to use, thin with cream. Mayonnaise Put yolks of 1 or 2 eggs on a plate and rub smooth with a silver fork. Add olive oil, drop by drop, stirring till well mixed. When it thickens, add a few drops of vinegar to thin ; repeat process till required amount is made. Season. Lemon juice may be used in place of vinegar. If the dressing separates in mixing, add the mixture, drop by drop, to another yolk of egg. If the dressing is to be made in quantity, put the yolks of egg in a bowl and beat in the oil with a Dover egg beater. Use yolks of 2 eggs for ^ pt. oil. When ready to use, thin with whipped cream. 174 DOMESTIC SCIENCE French Dressing I ts. salt 3 tb. olive oil I ts. pepper 1 tb. vinegar Add oil to the salt and pepper ; stir till seasoning is dissolved ; add vinegar and stir till well mixed. Whipped Cream JDressing ^ c. whipping cream f ts. salt 1 tb. vinegar Few grains cayenne or 1 tb. lemon juice paprika Beat cream until thick ; add the other ingredients slowly. Use at once. Dressed Lettuce Wash and dry lettuce. Serve with French dressing to which Roquefort cheese has been added, if desired; or garnish with balls made of cream cheese. Any of the salad dressings may be served with lettuce. Potato Salad Cut cold potatoes into one-fourth inch cubes, sprinkle lightly with salt and, if liked, marinate with French dressing. Add chopped onion, celery, cucumbers cut in cubes, chopped parsley, pimento, etc., to taste. Mix with salad dressing; garnish with radishes, shredded lettuce, hard-boiled eggs, etc. The dressing for potato salad should be rather thin, as the potato absorbs it. Cabbage Salad Cut the cabbage in halves, slice very thin ; let soak ^ hour in ice water. Drain well, mix with a salad dressing. Serve at once. Egg Salad Cook eggs twenty minutes in water just below the boiling point. Put in cold water. Remove shells and cut eggs in any desired shape. Put on lettuce leaves. Add a spoonful of salad dressing. Garnish. MINERAL FOODS —SALADS 175 Fish Salad Prepare fish. Add an equal amount of celery cut in small pieces. Mix with a salad dressing and place on lettuce leaves. Serve at once. Chicken or Any Meat Salad Cut chicken or meat in ^-inch cubes. Add an equal amount of celery cut in small pieces. Marinate if desired. Mix with salad dressing and put on lettuce leaves or shredded lettuce. Serve at once. Sandwiches. — The bread for sandwiches should have a fine, even texture and should be twenty-four hours old. The loaf should be of a size to cut the sandwiches with as little waste as possible. All crusts trimmed from the bread should be saved for bread crumbs. If a large number of sandwiches is to be made, remove all crust from loaf and trim it into shape before slicing. Very thin slices of buttered bread may be prepared by softening the butter and spread- ing on the loaf before slicing. Sandwiches may be kept fresh for several hours by wrapping them in slightly damp- ened napkins. If for a lunch box, each sandwich should be wrapped in paraffin paper. The lunch box should be lined with paraffin paper and be divided into compartments with pieces of cardboard to hold the different kinds of food. Lettuce Sandwiches Prepare bread for sandwiches. Spread with salad dressing and lay shredded lettuce (which has been washed carefully and dried) between the slices. Egg Sandwiches Chop hard-boiled eggs fine and mix with salad dressing. Spread between thin slices of bread. 176 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cheese Sandwiches Mix cream cheese with mayonnaise and spread between sHces of bread. Chopped pimentos, ohves, nuts, etc., may be added. Cheese Filling 2 tb. butter . ,| ts. salt 3 tb. corn starch ' ' Speck cayenne 1 c. milk Make as a white sauce. Cook 10 minutes. Add 1 beaten egg, 1 c. grated cheese. Cook till cheese is melted. Cool. Spread in center of finger rolls and heat rolls in oven just before serving. Or spread mixture on rounds of bread, and heat in oven till cheese is melted. Ham Sandwiches Mince ham fine. Season with cayenne and mustard. Moisten with cream or melted butter and spread between slices of bread. Cheese Wafers Sprinkle wafers with grated cheese mixed with a little mustard and cayenne. Bake till the cheese melts. CHAPTER XVIII GELATINE AND FROZEN DESSERTS Gelatine is a protein and is classed as an albuminoid. It is derived from the collagen of connective tissue, cartilage, and bone, which is converted into gelatine by boiling with water. Unlike albumen and globulin, gelatine is soluble in hot water and forms a jelly when cold. Although classed as a true protein, gelatine cannot sustain life, if it is the only form of protein supplied to the body. When gelatine is added to the diet, however, a smaller amount of other forms of protein is required to maintain a protein equilibrium in the body. Commercial gelatine is extracted from the tendons and sinews of calves' feet and from the bones, tendons, and clip- pings of skin of older animals. It is sold in the form of sheets, or is shredded, granulated, or powdered, and put in boxes. A box of gelatine usually contains two ounces and will stiffen two quarts of jelly. More gelatine should be used when fruits are molded in the jelly. Uncooked pineapple should not be added to jelly, as it contains an enzyme which will liquefy the gelatine; cooking destroys the enzyme. Gelatine should be first soaked in cold water until soft, using 1 c. water to 2 oz. gelatine, and then be dissolved in a boiling liquid and allowed to stand without disturbing until it jellies. N 177 178 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Lemon Jelly 1 oz. gelatine (^ box) ^ c. lemon juice ^ c. cold water 2^ c. boiling water 1 c. sugar Soak gelatine in cold water till soft ; add the sugar, lemon juice, and the boiling water ; stir until gelatine is dissolved. Strain through a cheesecloth wrung out of hot water. Put in mold wet in cold water and set in a cold place till firm. To Unmold Jelly. Set the mold in a pan of lukewarm water, having the water come as high as the jelly. Do not let the jelly melt. Place the dish in which the jelly is to be served over the mold and invert them both. Shake gently until the jelly drops from the mold. Gelatine has a very low melting point, so the water should not be hot, nor the mold left in it too long. Jellied Prunes ^ lb. prunes 1 c. sugar I box gelatine soaked in i c. lemon juice I c. cold water Wash prunes and soak for several hours in 2 c. cold water, cook in same water till soft ; remove prunes, stone, and cut in quarters. To prune water add enough boiling water to make 2 c. Add soaked gelatine to boiling mixture, also the sugar and lemon juice, strain, add prunes, and pour into mold. Let harden. Stir twice while cooling to prevent prunes from settling. Serve with sweetened cream. Dried apricots or peaches may be used in the same way. Apple Compote See page 49. GELATINE AND FROZEN DESSERTS 179 Neapolitan Pudding Soak 2 l>ox g(!l;iliii(' in I c. (told w;il(u-, dissohc. in I ])i. boiling water, add I c. sugar, tlio juicc! of 1 l^inon and 1 orange, and strain into 1 pt. preserved strawberries. Pour off part of the clear juice and let it begin to stiffen, then add the beaten whites of 2 eggs and beat like snow pudding. Put the rest of the mixture into a mold and pour the beaten mixture on top. Let stand till hard. Serve with whipped cream. Snow Pudding I box gelatine 1^ c. sugar 1 c. cold water Juice of 3 lemons 1 pt. boiling water Whites of 3 eggs Soak the gelatine in cold water, add the sugar and lemon juice, and pour over them the boiling water. Stir till gelatine and sugar are dissolved. Strain. Set in a pan of ice water. When the mixture begins to stiffen, beat till smooth, and add the beaten whites. Beat till white and foamy all through like a drop batter. Pour into a mold wet in cold water. Let stand several hours. Serve with soft custard. Soft Custard 1 pt. milk ^ c. sugar Yolks 3 eggs i ssp. salt I ts. vanilla Scald the milk and pour it slowly over the beaten yolks and sugar. Return to double boiler and cook 2 or 3 m. or till it coats the spoon. When cool, flavor. If it separates, set in cold water and beat till smooth with a Dover egg beater. Bavarian Cream 1 c. milk I c. sugar 2 yolks of eggs Pinch of salt Cook as a soft custard in a double boiler. While hot, add I c. gelatine which has been soaked in ^ c. cold water. Stir until 180 DOMESTIC SCIENCE gelatine is dissolved. Strain through a wire sieve. Let stand until the mixture begins to stiffen, then beat it smooth, add 1 ts. vanilla and 1 c. cream beaten stiff. Stir slowly until well mixed. Pour into mold wet in cold water. Let stand until firm. Various flavorings may be added. Spanish Cream Make as Bavarian Cream, adding the 2 beaten whites of eggs in place of the whipped cream. Charlotte Russe \ box gelatine 1 ts. vanilla I c. cold water Lady fingers or \ c. boiling water . sponge cake ^ c. powdered sugar 1 pt. cream Soak the gelatine in cold water. Chill the cream and whip it, skimming off the froth into a bowl set in ice water. Sift the sugar over the whipped cream and flavor. Dissolve the gelatine in the boiling water and let stand until cool, but do not let it stiffen ; strain over the cream. Stir slowly till the mixture is nearly a drop batter. If it feels lumpy, remove from ice water and stir till smooth. Pour into a mold lined with lady fingers. Keep on ice till ready to serve. Freezing. — The freezing point. of water is 32° F. or 0° C. The freezing point of a mixture of salt, ice, and water is lower than that of water. When salt and ice are placed in the space between the wooden tub of an ice cream freezer and the metal can, their freezing point being lower than that of the ice alone, the ice melts and draws the heat (latent heat) from the cream in the inner can, thus causing the cream to freeze. The larger the quantity of salt used, the more quickly the mixture will freeze, but too rapid freezing makes a coarse-grained ice cream. The mixture will freeze more rapidly if the ice is chopped fine. GELATINE AND FROZEN DESSERTS 181 Experiment 76. — Make a mixture of 1 part salt to 3 parts ice. Make a mixture of 1 part salt to 2 parts ice. Take tempera- ture. Place a test tube containing water in each of the above mixtures ; note time required to freeze the water. ICES AND SHERBETS Ices and Sherbets are prepared from various fruit juices, crushed fruits, or other flavorings which are dissolved in water. The frozen mixture will have a smoother texture if the sugar used is cooked to a syrup with part of the liquid before adding to the fruit. A white, creamy sherbet may be made by adding the beaten whites of 1 or 2 eggs to the partly frozen mixture. A mixture will lose sweetness and flavor when frozen and should be made a little sweeter and be more highly flavored than desired, before freezing. Suggestions for sherbets : Lemon Strawberry Orange Raspberry Pineapple Juice of cooked cranberries Grape juice Mint steeped in water Bananas Apricots Oranges and lemons Peach Fruits- should be mashed or grated, or only the juice used. If large pieces of fruit are to be used, add when the mixture is nearly frozen. How to freeze Ice Cream and Ices. — Crush ice fine by putting it in a burlap bag and pounding with a wooden mallet or hatchet. Put the mixture to be frozen in the can, put into the wooden tub and adjust the top, making sure it fits perfectly. Put in the ice, allowing three measures of ice to one of rock salt. Pound down with a small board. Repeat till ice comes nearly to the top of the can. 182 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The mixture increases in bulk during freezing, so the can should be only three fourths full. Turn the crank slowly and steadily at first, more rapidly toward the last. Never draw off the salt water till the mixture is frozen. When freezing is accomplished, remove dasher and with spoon pack solidly. Draw off the water; repack freezer, using four parts of ice to one of salt. Cover freezer and let stand from one to three hours to ripen. Pineapple Ice 1 pt grated or chopped. 1 pt. sugar pineapple 3 c. water Whites of 2 eggs Boil water and sugar 10 m. Cool, add pineapple. Freeze according to directions. When frozen to a mush, add the beaten whites and finish freezing. Juice and grated rind of 1 or 2 lemons may be added to mixture before freezing. Lemon Ice 1 qt. water Grated rind of 2 lemons 2 c. sugar f c. lemon juice Whites of 2 eggs Boil the water and sugar 10 m. . Add lemon rind and juice. Cool and strain. Freeze. When nearly stiff, add the beaten whites and finish freezing. ICE CREAM Ice cream may be prepared from : 1. Pure cream. 2. Cream plus milk. 3. Soft custard plus cream. 4. Soft custard. GELATINE AND FROZEN DES^'^ERTS 183 Any desired flavoring may be add(Hi. The sugar used should be heated till dissolved with part of the liquid. If part of the cream is whipped, it will im- prove the texture. The custard may be thickened with corn starch, arrowroot, or flour and yolks of eggs, or with egg yolks alone. Cook corn starch 15 minutes. Custard Foundation for Ice Cream Thicken 2 c. milk scalded in double boiler, with 2 tb. flour wet in cold milk. Add 1 c. sugar, | ts. salt. Cook 5 minutes, add beaten yolks 2 eggs, cook 1 minute, cool. When cool, add 3 c. cream and any desired flavor. Freeze. Flavorings which may be added : 2 tb. vanilla. 2 sq. melted chocolate and 1 tb. vanilla. Sweetened and crushed fruits. Chopped candied fruits, 1 tb. vanilla. Dried and pounded macaroons, 1 tb. vanilla, etc. Cream Foundation for Ice Cream 1 qt. cream f c. sugar Scald sugar with 1 c. of the cream ; cool, add remainder of cream and flavoring. Freeze. Strawberry Ice Cream To above rule, add 3 pts. berries rubbed through a colander and mixed with 1| c. sugar. CHAPTER XIX INVALID COOKERY Liquid Diet 1. Milk. 5. Gruels. 2. Broths, beef tea. 6. Cream soups. 3. Albumen drinks. 7. Beverages, etc. 4. Eggnog. Light or Soft Diet 1. Cream soups. 6. Junket. 2. Soft-cooked eggs. 7. Creamed sweetbreads. 3. Milk toast. 8. Creamed chicken. 4. Cereals. 9. Light puddings. 5. Soft custards. 10. Gelatine desserts, etc. Convalescent Diet 1. Soups. 6. Cooked fruits. 2. Broiled tender meats and 7. Baked custards. fish. 8. Light desserts. 3. Baked, creamed potatoes. 9.. Any simple easily digested 4. Some light vegetables. foods. 5. Simple salads. Foods to Avoid for Invalids and Children 1. Pastry. 7. Any fried food. 2. Rich cakes. 8. Hot breads. 3. Veal. ' 9. Baked beans. 4. Pork. 10. Tea and coffee (for chil- 5. Sausage. dren). 6. Lobster. 11. Alcoholic beverages. 184 INVALID COOKERY 185 12. Any highly seasoned or stimulating food or beverage. 13. All foods difficult of digestion. To set an Invalid's Tray. — The tray should be of a size to hold easily any dishes placed upon it. Cover it with a clean linen doily. In cases of contagious diseases paper doilies may be used in serving and afterwards be burned ; and all dishes should be sterilized in boiling water. Arrange the tray in the same relative position as the cover in setting a table. Use the daintiest dishes to be obtained. Place a single blossom on the tray. In serving children a slightly fantastic arrangement of foods which will appeal to the imagination will often be the means of causing children to take the necessary nourish- ment. Never serve large portions of food, or the sight of it may take away the appetite. LIQUID DIET Milk. — As milk forms a clot by the action of the enzyme, rennin, as soon as it reaches the stomach, it should be regarded as a solid food and not a beverage. When taken, it should be sipped slowly that the clots formed may be small and hence more easily digested. The digestibility of milk may be in- creased by the addition of lime water or a starch gruel. (See milk, page 108.) Infants have no starch-digesting enzymes present in the saliva or pancreatic juice until they are about one year old, hence cannot digest starchy foods. Any starch given to them should be dextrinized with heat or by the action of the enzyme diastase present in malt. Starch gruels should be dextrinized by the addition of some commercial malt extract before being added to milk to be given to children under one year of age. 186 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Milk for invalids may be clotted by the addition of rennin in the form of junket tablets. Bacteria grow very rapidly in milk, so care should be taken to obtain the purest milk possible. If there is the slightest doubt as to the purity of the supply, the milk should be sterilized or Pasteurized before it is used. SteriUzed Milk Fill f pt. bottle with milk to within 1^ inches of the top ; cork with sterile cotton. Stand in a steamer of cold water, having the water surround bottles to three-fourths their height. Heat water gradually until it nearly reaches the boiling point and keep at this temperature for ten minutes or longer. Remove from water and cool quickly. If the milk is to be Pasteurized, raise the temperature of the water to 167° F. and keep at that point for twenty minutes. Albumenized Milk White of 1 egg 1 c. milk Place egg and milk in a covered glass jar. Shake till they are thoroughly blended. It may be sweetened and flavored. Serve immediately. Junket 1 c. milk I ts. salt 2 tb. sugar | junket tablet dissolved - in 1 ts. water Heat milk until lukewarm, 100° F., add sugar and salt, stir in the junket quickly. Pour into the dish in which it is to be served. Let stand in a warm place until set, then chill and serve with cream. Meat Broths. — Broths may be rnade from beef, mutton, or chicken. As ordinarily made the food value of broths is very low, the albumen and globulin of the meat being coagu- INVALID COOKERY 187 lated by heat and removed by straining, the extractives alone remaining in the broth. To prepare meat for broths wash it carefully with a wet cloth and remove all fat. Beef Tea, No. i 1 lb. beef from round 1 pt. cold water ^ ts. salt Prepare meat as given in directions for broths and cut in small cubes. Put in a fruit jar with the water and salt, and let stand ^ hour. Place in a pan of cold water on a trivet, having the water in the pan as high as the contents of the jar. Heat gradually in the oven or on top of the stove, not letting the water become hotter than 180° F. Keep at this temperature for two hours, strain and season. In reheating care should be taken not to coagulate the juices. Beef Tea, No. 2 Remove all fat from 1 lb. round steak. Chop meat fine. Add 1 pt. cold water and ^ ts. salt, and let stand in ice box from 1 to 3 hours. Heat very gently, stirring all the time until it just changes color. Pour into wire strainer and press the meat. Season liquid with salt and reheat very carefully, not to coagulate the juices. Do not remove the brown flakes if they form. Mutton Broth 2 lb. mutton or lamb cut 1 tb. boiled rice from forequarter or leg | ts. salt 2 pts. water Prepare meat as for broths. Cut in small pieces. Add water and salt. Cook slowly until meat is tender and bones clean. Strain, cool, remove every particle of fat. Reheat and add boiled rice. Gruels. — Gruels are a liquid preparation of some cereal and water or milk. They must be cooked thoroughly that the starch may be well hydrated, and then be strained to 188 DOMESTIC SCIENCE remove any cellulose. Milk should be added just before serving and the gruel then be reheated. Flour, barley, and cracker gruels act as astringents. Flour Gruel 2 c. milk 2 tb. flour J ts. salt Scald milk; thicken with flour wet in cold milk. Cook over hot water 30 minutes. Add salt. Serve. Oatmeal Gruel 1 c. oatmeal ^ ts. salt 3 c. boiling water Milk Add oatmeal to boiling water and salt. Cook in double boiler 2 hours. Strain. Add milk or cream and reheat. Cracker Gruel 2 butter crackers 1 c. milk I ts. salt Roll crackers and add to scalded milk. Cook 5 minutes in double boiler. Add salt and serve. Albumen Drinks. — Add the white of egg, beaten only enough to break the fiber slightly, to any liquid, as milk, water, fruit juices, adding sugar to taste. Eggnog 1 egg beaten separately f c. milk 1 tb. sugar J ts. vanilla or a little Few grains salt nutmeg Add sugar, salt, milk, flavoring, to beaten yolk. Strain, add the beaten white. Stir well before serving. Apple Water 1 large sour apple 2 ts. sugar 1 c. boiling water Lemon to taste INVALID COOKERY 189 Wipe and core apple. Put sugar in center and bake till tender; iiKiwli. Pour on the water, let stand ^ hour, and strain. Add lemon juice. Used as a cooling drink for fever patients. Lemonade ^ lemon f glass water 2 tb. sugar Add sugar and water to the lemon. Soda water, Apollinaris, or Seltzer water may be used. All fruit drinks are improved if sweetened with syrup instead of sugar. Syrup for Fruit Beverages Boil 1 c. sugar and 1 c. water for 10 minutes. Cool, bottle, and use as desired. Flaxseed Lemonade 2 tb. whole flaxseed Lemon juice 1 pt. boiling water Sugar Pick over and wash flaxseed, add water, and cook one hour, keeping just below the boiling point. Strain, add lemon and sugar to taste. Add more water if too thick. Good in kidney troubles and also soothing to the throat in bronchial affections. LIGHT DIET Toast. — Bread for toast should be at least 24 hours old. It is toasted to extract moisture, to dextrinize the starch, and to make it more palatable and digestible. The slices should be cut thin and toasted v^ith a steady, even heat to evaporate the moisture and brown the slice without burning it. Serve at once. Water Toast Toast 2 slices of bread until very dry and a light brown. Have 1 pt. boiling water in a shallow pan, add 1 ts. salt. Dip the toast quickly into the water, remove to a hot dish, spread with butter, and serve very hot. 190 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Milk Toast Toast 2 slices of bread. Scald f c. milk, add | tb. butter, 5 ts. salt, pour over the toast. Serve very hot. Cream Toast Thicken f c. milk with 1 tb. flour wet in cold milk. Cook over hot water 20 minutes, add § tb. butter and | ts. salt. Pour over 2 or 3 slices of toast. Serve very hot. Broiled Beef Cakes Scrape round steak fine. Season with salt and pepper. Make into small flat cakes and broil over a clear fire; or heat a frying pan very hot, rub it over with butter, and cook the cakes two or three minutes, browning on both sides. Lemon Cream 2 eggs 2 tb. sugar Juice and grated rind of ^ lemon Beat the yolks very light, add sugar and lemon, and place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on the fire. Stir till the mixture begins to stiffen, then add the beaten whites and stir two minutes longer, or till the whole resembles very thick cream ; remove from the fire and let cool. Serve in small glass dishes. Orange Cream Prepare as above, using orange juice in place of lemon. For other recipes for Invalid Cookery see recipes under various headings. CHAPTER XX TABLE SERVICE In setting the table, arrange all dishes with system; never place them carelessly upon the table. An asbestos covering may be placed on the table to prevent warm dishes from injuring its polish. Cover the table with a felt or covering of canton flannel, or even with an old but clean tablecloth ; over this, place the tablecloth, having the creases straight. Put a centerpiece of linen on the table- cloth, and in the center of this place a vase of flowers or a small growing plant. See that the vinegar and oil cruets, salt and pepper bottles are filled and wiped clean. Plan for all the dishes and silver that will be required during the meal, putting them in their proper places, thus avoiding confusion in serving. Lay a " service " plate for each person. Do not allow the ^' cover " (space in front of each person) to be without a plate until just before the dessert. At the right of the plate, place the knives, soup spoon, and oyster fork. Place the glass above the knives, a little to right. At the left of the plate, place the forks, small spoons, and napkin. Above the forks, place the bread and butter plate with a butter spreader lying across it. Place carving knife and fork and table spoons to the right of person who is to serve. All dishes that are to be heated should be placed in a warming oven. On a side table, place all other dishes that will be needed during the meal. 191 192 DOMESTIC SCIENCE For breakfast, arrange the coffeepot, sugar, creamer, cups, and saucers in a semicircle in front of the hostess, placing each cup in its saucer on the table at the left. The cereal dishes should be placed at the left of the one who is to serve the cereal. TABLE SETTING Individual Cover SS TO 30 Incites 1. " Service " or "place " plate. 3. Soup spoon. 2. Knife. 4. Tea spoons. 5. Cup and saucer (to be placed here during meal). 6. Tumbler. 8. Forks. 7. Bread and butter plate. 9. Napkin. In serving, the waitress should keep in her hand a large folded napkin for handling all dishes, using a tray only for carrying small dishes. Put a linen doily on all trays and on dishes to hold all breadstuffs and cakes, and on the plates under the finger bowls. When the meal is ready, put the butter on the table and fill the glasses with cold water. Announce the meal by say- ing, ^' Dinner (or whatever meal it is) is served. '' TABLE SERVICE 193 Stand at the left of the person who is serving and take with the napkin each plate as it is served, carrying to the person for whom it is intended. If it is a soup plate, set it down upon the service plate. If it is the plate of the meat course, remove the service plate and set the other plate in its place. Set dishes down and remove them from the right of the person whom you are serving ; pass to the left any dish from which they are to serve themselves, holding the dish low and firmly. See that each person is kept supplied with bread, and that the glasses are filled. When each course is finished, remove the plates, one at a time, and then the platter, the large dishes, and all other dishes not needed for the following courses. Do not pile the dishes upon each other in removing them. Before the dessert is served, brush the crumbs from the table using a crumb scraper, or brush the crumbs with a folded napkin to a plate. After the last course, remove the plates and place a finger bowl in front of each person. Set the finger bowl on a plate with a doily and fill one-third full of fresh water. Put a half slice of lemon in the bowl. Do not let the table become disordered during a meal. Move quietly and be alert to anticipate every need of the guests. When you are hostess, as well as cook and waitress, leave the table quietly when necessary, removing dishes and bring- ing others as needed. Special care must be taken that all is in readiness before sitting down at the table. When the meal is over, set the chairs in place and brush up all crumbs from the floor before removing dishes. Re- move table dishes to pantry or kitchen. Put away any food that remains, on dishes kept for that purpose. Scrape all dishes well, using a scraper with a rubber edge, or a crust 194 DOMESTIC SCIENCE of bread. Pile dishes neatly in place, putting those of a size together. Brush crumbs from tablecloth, fold in its creases, and put away. Put the dining room in order before washing the dishes. Wash the dishes with hot soapy water, rinse with hot water, and wipe with dry towels until perfectly dry. Put the dishes on a tray and carry to their proper places. Breakfast is usually a simple meal and is served in a man- ner to suit the needs of the individual family, but if a course breakfast is desired, serve it in the following order : 1. Fruit. 2. Cereal with cream or top milk. 3. Simple meat or egg dish. Rolls, toast, etc. Coffee or some beverage. • 4. Griddle cakes or waffles and syrup. Note. — Students make list of dishes that may be served for breakfast or "breakfast possibilities." Write breakfast menus for different seasons of the year, estimating cost. Cook and serve a breakfast. Order of Courses for a Formal Dinner. -^ 1. Canapes. 2. Raw oysters or clams, served on the half shell on crushed ice with lemon and grated horseradish. Wafers. 3. Soup. Crackers, croutons, or toast sticks. 4. Fish. Potatoes (boiled, mashed, or fried). Shced cu- cumbers. Brown bread. 5. Meat Course. Roast, two vegetables, rolls or bread, jelly, pickles, etc. 6. Frozen water ice. 7. Salad. Crackers, or toasted cheese rounds, cheese balls, etc. ■ TABLE SERVICE 195 8. Dcssort. 9. Crackers and cheese. 10. Coffee. Order of Courses for a Family Dinner. 1. Soup. 2. Meat, etc. 3. Salad. 4. Dessert. A formal dinner is not often served in the ordinary house- hold, but if a dinner of fewer courses is served, they are ar- ranged in the same relative order as in a formal dinner. Note. — Students write list of "dinner possibilities," arranging them under "soup," "fish," etc. Write dinner jnenus for family dinners for different seasons of the year, estimating cost. Cook and serve a dinner. Luncheon. — A luncheon menu is similar to a dinner menu, with the exception that a fruit is often served first, and a lighter meat dish is served in place of a roast. For a family luncheon or supper some one hot nutritious dish is served with a light salad, fruit, etc. Note. — Each class is to serve in turn a breakfast, luncheon, and dinner, planning menus and estimating cost. CHAPTER XXI DIET AND NUTRITION The amount of food required by an individual will neces- sarily vary with the age, occupation, and temperament of the individual, and the climate in which he lives. However, by many series of experiments and studies of diets, certain definite standards of the amount of food needed under vari- ous conditions have been established and form a guide which may be profitably followed. The total food requirement for a given time is spoken of as a dietary. The food must furnish the requisite amount of heat and energy needed by the body under various conditions, and also furnish material for growth of new cells and repair for those that are constantly breaking down. Heat and Energy Requirement. — Foods which contain carbon and hydrogen in a form in which they can be oxidized by the body yield heat and other forms of energy to the body. The fuel value of a food is estimated by the amount of heat it will give when oxidized, and is measured by a heat unit called a calorie. A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water 4° F., or 1 kilogram of water 1° C. The body will require varying amounts of heat and energy under different conditions. Man sleeping requires ...... 65 calories per hour Man sitting at rest requires .... 100 calories per hour Man at light muscular work requires 170 calories per hour 196 DIET AND NUTRITION 197 Man at active muscular work requires 290 calories per hour Man at severe muscular work requires 450 calories per hour Man at very severe muscular work requires 600 calories per hour {Atwater and Benedict) FOOD REQUIREMENT AS MODIFIED BY AGE AND SEX A woman requires . . .8 amount of food needed by a man Boy 14 to 17 years . .8 amount of food needed by a man Children 10 to 13 years .6 amount of food needed by a man Children 6 to 9 years .5 amount of food needed b}^ a man Children 2 to 5 years .4 amount of food needed by a man Less than 2 years . . .3 amount of food needed by a man APPROXIMATE FOOD REQUIREMENT FOR ONE DAY (H. C. SHERMAN) Man doing light muscular work . . 3000 to 3500 calories Woman doing light muscular work . 2700 calories Boy 14 to 17 years 2500 to 3000 calories Girl 14 to 17 years 2200 to 2600 calories Children 10 to 13 years . . . . . 1800 to 2200 calories Children 6 to 9 years 1400 to 2000 calories Children 2 to 5 years ..... 1200 to 1500 calories Children 1 to 2 years ..... 900 to 1200 calories . Protein Requirement. — The cells of the body are con- stantly breaking down and in the growing body new cells are forming, hence food must furnish material for growth and repair. As the cells contain nitrogen, a food which contains nitro- gen in a form in which the body can assimilate it must be furnished. Protein foods contain 16 per cent nitrogen and are the only foods which do contain it, so they are absolutely necessary for the body. 198 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The carbon and hydrogen of protein are first split off by the body and oxidized, yielding heat and energy before the nitrogen is available for tissue building. The broken-down protein of the cells leaves the body in the form of urea and other compounds excreted by the kidneys. The amount of protein thus lost to the body each day must be replaced by protein foods in order that the body may maintain a protein equilibrium. The amount required is variously estimated by different authorities. However, as a general estimate, about 10 to 12 per cent of the total energy requirement should be furnished by protein foods. Thus in a dietary requiring 3000 calories per day, from 300 to 360 calories should be furnished by protein foods. As each gram of protein fur- nishes 4 calories, the total amount required would be from 75 to 90 grams. The average American dietary is very high in protein content, furnishing about 125 grams (about 4 ounces) of protein per day. Protein foods not required for cell growth and repair are not stored in the body, but are eliminated by the kidneys ; hence an increased protein diet means in- creased protein elimination. Note. — Students compute food value of amount of common foodstuffs obtained for ten cents. Compute dietaries of amount of food required by persons of various ages and occupations, by the Percentage Composition Method, estimating cost. DIET AND NUTRITION 199 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION METHOD DicUiry for Man doing Light Muscular Work Calorie Requirement, 3000 to 3500 calories. Protein Requirement, 300 to 420 calories. Protein Fats Carbohy- Food Amount Per Cent of Lb. Percent of Lb. drates Per Cent OF Lb. Calories Furnished Breakfast Banana .... Hb. 0.2 0.1 3.5 65.0 Oatmeal .... 1 oz. 1.0 0.4 4.1 112.5 Milk Ub. 1.1 1.3 1.6 103.3+ Eggs Hb. 3.2 2.3 — 158.7 + Ham 1 oz. 0.8 2.0 — 102.1+ Bread t\ lb. 0.7 0.1 4.4 100.0 Butter 1 oz. — 2.6 — 106.5 Coffee 1 cup — — — — Sugar 1 oz. — — 6.2 109.3 Dinner Beef, round . 2 oz. 2.3 1.6 — 111.2+ Cabbage .... 4 oz. 0.3 — 1.2 28.7+ Corn 2 oz. 0.3 0.1 2.4 55.0 Potatoes .... 8 oz. 0.9 0.05 7.3 147.5 Bread lib. 1.5 0.2 8.8 200.0 Butter h oz. — 2.6 — 106.5 Sugar 1 oz. — — 6.2 109.3 Dessert, as cake 2 oz. 0.7 1.1 7.9 203.7 Walnuts .... j\ lb. 0.5 2.2 0.5 104.1 Supper Cream Celery Soup 8oz. 1.0 1.4 2.5 117.5 Cream Crackers 1 oz. 0.6 0.7 4.3 120.3 Bread Ub. 1.5 0.2 8.8 200.0 Butter h oz. — 2.6 — 106.5 Cheese .... 1 oz. 1.5 2.1 0.1 117.8- Buttermilk . . . 8 oz. 1.5 0.2 2.4 80.0 Apples 12 oz. 0.2 0.2 8.1 142.5 Cake 2 oz. 0.7 1.1 7.9 203.7 Total .... 20.5 25.15 88.2 3002.7 200 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FOODS Percentage Composition Bulletin 142, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. Food Materials as Purchased Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbo- hydrates Ash No. OF Calories per Lb. Animal Food Per Ct. PerCt. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Beef Porterhouse steak 12.7 52.4 19.1 17.9 — 0.8 1100 Loin .... 13.3 52.5 16.1 17.5 — 0.9 1025 Ribs .... 20.8 43.8 13.9 21.2 — 0.7 1135 Flank .... 10.2 54.0 17.0 19.0 — 0.7 1105 Round .... 7.2 60.7 19.0 12.8 — LO 890 Veal Breast .... 21.3 52.0 15.4 11.0 — 0.8 745 Leg 14.2 60.1 15.5 7.9 — 0.9 625 Mutton Leg, hind . . . 18.4 51.2 15.1 14.7 — 0.8 890 Loin chops . . 16.0 42.0 13.5 28.3 — 0.7 1415 Flank .... 9.9 39.0 13.8 36.9 — 0.6 1770 Lamh Breast .... 19.1 45.5 15.4 19.1 — 0.8 1075 Leg, hind . . . 17.4 52.9 15.9 13.6 — 0.9 860 Pork, fresh Ham, hind leg . 10.7 48.0 13.5 25.9 — 0.8 1320 Loin chops 19.7 41.8 13.4 24.2 — 0.8 1245 Ham, smoked 13.6 34.8 14.2 33.4 — 4.2 1635 Salt pork . . . — 7.9 1.9 86.2 — 3.9 3555 Bacon .... 7.7 17.4 9.1 62.2 " — 4.1 2715 Chicken, fowls . 25.9 47.1 13.7 12.3 — 0.7 765 Turkey . . . 22.7 42.4 16.1 18.4 — 0.8 1060 Fish Cod, fresh, dressed 29.9 58.5 11.1 0.2 — 0.8 220 Perch, dressed . 35.1 50.7 12.8 0.7 0.9 275 Cod, salt . . . 24.9 40.2 16.0 0.4 18.5 325 Salmon, canned . — 63.5 21.8 12.1 — 2.6 915 Sardines . . . 5.0 53.6 23.7 12.1 — 5.3 950 Oysters, solids . — 88.3 6.0 Eggs .... 11.2 65.5 13.1 9.3 0.9 635 Butter .... — 11.0 1.0 85.0 — 3.0 3410 Milk, whole . — 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 0.7 310 Milk, skim 90.5 3.4 0.3 5.1 0.7 165 Buttermilk 91.0 3.0 0.5 4.8 0.7 160 Cream .... — 74.0 2.5 18.5 4.5 0.5 865 Cheese .... — 34.2 25.9 33.7 2.4 3.8 1885 DIET AND NUTRITION- 201 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FOODS — Continued Food Materials as Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbo- Ash No. OF Calories Purchased hydrates PER Lb. PerCt. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Vegetable Foods Entire wheat flour — - 11.4 13.8 1.9 71.9 1.0 1650 Graham flour — . 11.3 13.3 2.2 71.4 1.8 1645 Wheat flour, high grade and me- dium .... — 12.0 11.4 1.0 75.1 0.5 1635 Macaroni ... — 10.3 13.4 0.9 74.1 1.3 1645 Corn meal . . . — 12.5 9.2 1.9 75.4 1.0 1635 Oat breakfast food .... — 7.7 16.7 7.3 66.2 2.1 1800 Rice .... — 12.3 8.0 0.3 79.0 0.4 1620 White bread . . — 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 1.1 1200 Graham bread . — 35.7 8.9 1.8 52.1 1.5 1195 Cake .... — 19.9 6.3 9.0 63.3 1.5 1630 Cream crackers . — 6.8 9.7 12.1 69.7 1.7 1925 Sugars, etc. Molasses . . . — — — — . 70.0 1225 Candy .... 96.0 1680 Honey .... 81.0 1420 Sugar, granulated 100.0 1750 Maple syrup . 71.4 1250 Vegetables Beans, dried . . — 12.6 22.5 1.8 59.6 3.5 1520 Beans, string, fresh .... 7.0 83.0 2.1 0.3 6.9 0.7 170 Beets .... 20.0 70.0 1.3 0.1 7.7 0.9 160 Cabbage . . . 15.0 77.7 1.4 0.2 4.8 0.9 115 Celery .... 20.0 75.6 0.9 0.1 2.6 0.8 65 Corn, green , edible portion . . — - 75.4 3.1 1.1 19.7 0.7 440 Cucumbers . . 15.0 81.0 0.7 0.2 2.6 0.4 65 Lettuce . . . 15.0 80.5 1.0 0.2 2.5 0.8 65 Onions .... 10.0 78.9 1.4 0.3 8.9 0.5 190 Mushrooms . — 88.1 3.5 0.4 6.8 1.2 185 Peas, dried . . 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 1565 Peas, fresh. shelled . . . — 74.6 7.0 0.5 16.9 1.0 440 Potatoes . . . 20.0 62.6 1.8 0.1 14.7 0.8 295 Spinach . . . — 92.3 2.1 0.3 3.2 2.1 95 Tomatoes . . . 94.3 0.9 0.4 3.9 0.5 100 Turnips . . . 30.0 62.7 0.9 0.1 5.7 0.6 120 202 DOMESTIC SCIENCE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FOOBS — Continued Food Materials as Purchased Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbo- hydrates Ash No. OP Calories PER Lb. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. ' Per Per ct. Per Canned Vegetables ct. ct. Baked beans . . — 68.9 6.9 2.5 19.6 2.1 555 Peas, green . . — 85.3 3.6 0.2 9.8 1.1 235 Corn, green . . — 76.1 2.8 1.2 19.0 0.9 430 Fruits, etc., fresh Apples .... 25.0 63.3 0.3 0.3 10.8 0.3 190 Bananas . 35.0 48.9 0.8 0.4 14.3 0.6 260 Grapes .... 25.0 58.0 1.0 1.2 14.4 0.4 295 Oranges 27.0 63.4 0.6 0.1 8.5 0.4 150 Strawberries . 5.0 85.9 0.9 0.6 7.0 0.6 150 Watermelon . . 59.4 37.5 0.2 0.1 2.7 0.1 50 Fruits, dried Apples .... 28.1 Dates .... 10.0 13.8 1.9 2.5 70.6 1.2 1275 Figs .... — 18.8 4.3 0.3 74.2 2.4 1280 Nuts Almonds . . . 45.0 2.7 11.5 30.2 95 1.1 1515" Cocoanuts 48.8 7.2 2.9 25.9 14.3 0.9 1295 Hickory nuts 62.2 1.4 5.8 25. 4.3 0.8 1145 Peanuts 24.5 6.9 19.5 29.1 18.5 1.5 1775 Miscellaneous Chocolate . . . — 5.9 12.9 48.7 30.3 2.2 5625 Cocoa, powdered — 4.6 21.6 28.9 37.7 7.2 2160 THE "100 CALORIE PORTION" METHOD To make the methods of determining food value more graphic and more easily ascertained in everyday life, tables have been prepared stating the weight of various foods re- quired to furnish " 100 calories/' also stating their approxi- mate bulk; these are called portions. standard " or " 100 calorie DIET AND NUTRITION 203 Examples: — Srmill ghiss of whole milk fumish(;s 100 cal- ories. 1 hirge egg furnishes 100 calories. 1 ordinary pat. of butter furnishes 100 calories. This method makes it possible to determine roughly the amount of heat and other forms of energy furnished in the daily diet. Note. — Student weigh out 100 calorie portions of various foods to train the eye to estimate quickly the approximate values of foods. (See table of 100 calorie portions.) TO FIND "100 CALORIE PORTIONS" FROM PERCENT- AGE COMPOSITION TABLE (H. C. SHERMAN) The number of ounces in a pound (16 oz.) is to the num- ber of calories in any given food as x is to 100 (calorie portion). Example : — (Milk 325 calories to 1 pound) 16 (oz.) : 325 ::x: 100 = 4.9 Hence 4.9 oz. of milk will yield upon oxidation 100 calories. Note. — Students compute 100 calorie portions of various foods from "Percentage Composition of Food," comparing results with table of "100 Calorie Portions."- Compute dietaries of amount of food required by persons of various ages and occupations, by 100 Calorie Portion Method, estimating cost. Cook and serve a dinner or luncheon, serving the food in 100 calorie portions . 204 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 100-CALORIE PORTION METHOD Dietary for Man doing Light Muscular Work Total calorie requirement 3000 to 3500 calories. Protein requirement, 12% total caloi;ies 360 to 420 calories. Food Amount Protein Calories Fats Calories Carbo- hydrates Calories Total Calories Breakfast Prunes . . 3 3 97 100 Oat meal . If large serving 18 75 100 Milk . . . Small glass 19 52 29 100 Eggs . . . 2 large 64 136 — 200 Ham, cooked Small serv- ing 14 86 — 100 Bread . . 1 slice 13 6 81 100 Butter . . 1 pat 0.5 99.5 100 Coffee . . Sugar . . 3 teaspoons 100 100 Dinner Beef, round 1 serving 90 10 — 100 Cabbage 3i oz. 10 4 36 50 Corn . . . 1 side dish 13 10 77 100 Potatoes, mashed . 1 serving 10 25 65 100 Bread . . 2 slices 26 12 162 200 Butter . . 1 pat 0.5 99.5 100 Pickles . . 1.4 oz. 1.8 1.5 6.7 10 Tea . . . Sugar . . 3 teaspoons 100 100 Apple pie . 1 piece 15 96 189 300 Walnuts 6 10 . 83 7 100 Supper Bean soup . 1 large plate 20 20 60 100 Crackers 3 Uneeda 9.4 20 70.6 100 Cheese . . IHn. cube 25 73 2 100 Bread . . 2 slices 26 12 162 200 Butter . . 1 pat 0.5 99.5 100 Buttermilk li glass 34 12 54 100 Baked apples 3.3 oz. 2 5 93 100 Gingerbread 1 square 12 46 142 200 Total . . 436.7 1015 1608.3 3060 DIET AND NUTRITION 205 TABLE OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS Food Values Food and Dietetics," Norton, Published by American School of Home Economics, Chicago Portion Con- Pro- Car- Food taining 100 Calories (app.) Grams Ounces tein Fat bohy- drates Cooked Meats Beef, round, boiled, fat Small serving 36 1.3 40 60 Beef, round, boiled. lean Large serving 62 2.2 90 10 Lamb chops, boiled 1 small chop 27 0.96 24 76 Lamb, leg, roasted Ordinary serving 50 1.8 40 60 Ham, boiled, fat Small serving 20.5 0.73 14 86 Veal, leg, boiled . . Small serving 67.5 2.4 73 27 Uncooked Meats, Edible Portion Beef loin, lean . . Ordinary serving 50 1.8 40 60 Porterhouse steak . Small serving 36 1.3 32 68 Sirloin steak . . . Small serving 40 1.4 31 69 Beef ribs .... Ordinary serving 52 1.8 42 58 Beef, round . . . Ordinary serving 63 2.2 54 46 Chicken, broilers Large serving 90 3.2 79 21 Liver, veal . . . 2 small servings 79 2.8 61 39 Mutton, leg . . . Ordinary serving 50 1.8 41 59 Pork chops, loin Very small serving 27 0.97 18 82 Turkey 2 small servings 33 1.2 29 71 Vegetables Asparagus, cooked . 206 7.19 18 63 19 Baked beans, canned Small side dish 75 2.66 21 18 61 Beans, string, cooked 5 servings 480 16.66 15 48 37 Beets, cooked . . 3 servings 245 8.7 2 23 75 Cabbage .... 310 11.0 20 8 72 Carrots, fresh . . 215 7.6 10 8 82 Cauliflower (as pur- chased) .... 312 11.0 23 15 62 Celery (edible portion) 540 19.0 24 5 71 Corn, cooked . . . One side dish 99 3.5 13 10 77 Cucumbers (edible portion) .... 565 20.0 18 10 72 Lettuce (edible por- tion) 505 18.0 25 14 61 Mushrooms (as pur- chased) .... 215 7.6 31 8 61 Onions, cooked . . 2 large servings 240 8.4 12 40 48 Parsnips, cooked 163 5.84 10 34 56 Peas, green, cooked One serving 85 3.0 23 27 50 Potatoes, baked . . One good-sized 86 3.05 11 1 88 206 DOMESTIC SCIENCE TABLE OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS — Continued Portion Con- Pro- Car- Food taining 100 Grams Ounces Fat bohy- Calories (app.) tein drates Potatoes, mashed . One serving 89 3.14 10 25 65 Radishes (as pur- chased) .... 480 17.0 18 23 79 Rhubarb (edible part) 430 15.0 10 27 63 Spinach, cooked . . 2 ordinary servings 174 6.1 15 66 19 Tomatoes, canned . 431 15.2 21 7 72 Turnips (edible part) 2 large servings 246 8.7 13 4 83 Fruits, dried Apples 34 1.2 3 7 90 Dates (edible part) . 3 large servings 28 0.99 2 7 91 Figs (edible part) . 1 large serving 31 1.1 5 95 Prunes (as purchased) 3 38 1.35 3 97 Raisins 25 28 1.0 3 9 88 Fruits, fresh or cooked Apples (as purchased) 2 206 7.3 3 7 90 Apples, baked . . 94 3,3 2 5 93 Bananas (edible part) 1 large 100 3.5 5 5 90 Cantaloupe . . . 243 8.6 6 94 Grapes (as purchased) 136 4.8 5 15 80 Oranges (as pur- chased) .... 1 large 270 9.4 6 3 91 Peaches (as pur- chased) .... 3 ordinary 290 10.0 7 2 91 Strawberries . . . 2 servings 260 9.1 10 15 75 Watermelon . . . 760 27.0 6 6 88 Dairy Products Butter Ordinary pat 12.5 0.44 0.5 99.5 Buttermilk , . . 1§ glass 275 9.7 34 12 54 Cheese, American . I5 cubic inch 22 0.77 25 73 2 Cream i ordinary glass -49 1.7 5 86 9 Milk, skimmed . . li glass 255 9.4 37 7 56 Milk, whole . . . Small glass 140 4.9 19 52 29 Cakes, Pastries, etc. Cake, chocolate layer i ordinary piece 28 0.98 7 22 71 Cake, gingerbread . 1 ordinary piece 27 0.96 6 23 71 Custard .... Ordinary cup 122 4.29 26 56 18 Doughnuts . . . 1 doughnut 23 0.8 6 45 49 Pie, apple .... i piece 38 1.3 5 32 63 Pudding, cream rice Small serving 75 2.65 8 13 79 Tapioca, cooked . . Ordinary serving 108 3.85 1 1 98 Sweets and Pickles Honey 4 teaspoons 30 1.05 10 3 87 Molasses .... 35 1.2 0.5 99.5 Olives, green (edible . portion) .... 7 32 1.1 1 84 15 DIET AND NUTRITION 207 TABLE OP 100-CALORIE PORTIONS — Coniirmcri Portion Con- Pro- TEIN Carbo- Food taining 100 Grams Ounces Fat hy- Calories (app.) drates Pickles, mixed . . 415 14.6 18 15 67 Sugar, granulated . 3 teaspoons or 1| lumps 24 0.S6 100 Syrup, maple . . . 4 teaspoons 35 1.2 100 Nuts, Edible Portion Almonds .... 8 to 15 15 0.53 13 77 10 Cocoanut .... 16 0.57 4 77 19 Hickory nuts . . 13 0.47 9 85 6 Peanuts .... 13 double 18 0.62 20 63 17 Walnuts, California About 6 14 0.48 10 83 7 ■ Cereals and Breadstuffs Soda crackers . . 3i Uneeda biscuit 0.83 9.4 20 70.6 Bread, brown . . Ordinary thick slice 43 1.5 9 7 84 Bread, white, home made Ordinary thick slice 38 1.3 13 6 81 Corn flakes . . . Ordinary cereal dish full 27 0.97 11 1 88 Corn meal .... 27 0.96 10 5 85 Crackers, Graham . 2 23 0.82 9 20 71 Hominy, cooked Large serving 120 4.2 11 2 87 Macaroni, cooked . Ordinary serving 110 3.85 14 15 71 Oatmeal, cooked 1| serving 159 5.6 18 7 75 Rice, cooked . . . Ordinary cereal dish. 87 3.1 10 1 89 Shredded wheat . . 1 biscuit 27 0.94 13 4.5 82.5 Miscellaneous Eggs ..... 1 large 59 2.1 32 68 Soup, beef .... 380 13.0 69 14 17 Soup, bean ... Very large plate 150 5.4 20 20 60 Soup, cream celery . 2 plates 180 6.3 16 47 37 ■Consomm^ . . . 830 29.0 85 15 Chocolate, bitter 1 square 16 0.56 8 72 20 Ice cream .... 45 1.6 5 62 38 Boiled salad dressing 1.4 10.2 88.6 1.2 Chocolate, beverage f of ordinary cup 84 3 8.8 45.7 44.5 REFERENCE BOOKS Physiological and Pathological Chemistry Chemistry of Food and Nutrition Practical Dietetics . Elementary Study of Chemistr Human Foods . Physiological Chemistry . Pure Foods Foods .... Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds Story of Bacteria Boston Cook Book . Boston Cooking School Cook Book 12 volumes of the Library of Home Economics Bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery . . . . . . G. Bunge Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D. Robert Hutchinson McPherson and Henderson Harry Snyder W. B. Halliburton John C. Olsen A. H. Church H. W. Conn T. Mitchell Prudden Mrs. Mary A. Lincoln Fannie M. Farmer American School of Home Economics, Chicago Williams and Fisher 208 INDEX Abbreviations, table of, IG. Acetic fermentation, 136-137. Acids and alkalies : experiments with, 123, 124. proportion to use in cooking, 126. Air, experiments with, 7, 8. Albumen, experiments with, 69. Albumen drinks, 188. Albuminized milk, 186. Albuminoids, 71. Alcoholic fermentation, 136, 137. Alkalies, experiments wdth, 123, 124. Alum baking powders, 126. Angel food, 158. Apples : composition of, 46. recipes for apple compote, 49. apple pie, 152. apple sauce, 48. apple water, 188. baked apples, No. 1, 48. baked apples, No. 2, 48. dried apple sauce, 48. Dutch apple cake, 127. escalloped apples, 164. varieties of, 48. Bacon, 95. Bacteria, 50-51. Baking powder biscuit, 127. Baking powder mixtures, construction rule for, 126. Baking powders, 124. Banana fritters, 149. Batters and doughs, 126. Bavarian cream, 179. Beans : baked, 40. baked bean soup, 61. Beans — Cont. salad, 172. succotash, 41. Beaten frosting, 163. Bechamel sauce, 38, Beef : diagram and food uses of, 79. market cuts, illustrated, 80-82. recipes for braised beef, 90. broiled beef cakes, 190. cottage pie, 97. dried beef, creamed, 97. Hamburg steak, 96. pot roast, 91. roast beef, 92. roast beef gravy, 94. steak, broiled, 94. steak, pan broiled, 94. stew, 89, tea, beef, No. 1, 187. tea, beef. No. 2, 187. to judge, 80. Beet sugar, 43. Berwick sponge cake, 158. Beverages, 117. Biscuit, baking powder, 127. Boiled frosting, 162. Boiling, experiments, 14, 15. Boiling point, 16. Boston brown bread, 129. Bouillon, 65. Braised beef, 90. Braising, 90. Bread: baking of, 139. cost of, 142. proportion of ingredients, 138- recipes for Boston brown, 149. 209 210 INDEX Bread, recipes for — Cont. entire wheat, 149. graham, 141. oatmeal, 141. rye, 141. white, 140. Bread crumbs, to prepare, 149. Breaded veal, 96. Bread griddle cakes, 131. Bread pudding, 164. Breakfast, menu, 194. possibilities, 194. Broiled beef cakes, ]90. Broiled steak and chops, 94. Broiling : general method, 93. pan broiling, 94. time table for, 93. to broil with gas, 94. Broths : general discussion, 186. mutton, 188. Brown mushroom sauce, 96. Brown sauce, 24. Brown soup stock, 64. Burning point, experiments, 146. Butter : composition of, 110. renovated. 111. Butter cakes, 156. Buttered crumbs, 35. Butterine, 111. Cabbage : boiled, 40. escalloped, 40. salad, 174. Caffeine, 19, 118. Cakes : baking of, 157. cost of, 161. general classification, 156. recipes for angel food, 158. Berwick sponge, 158. devil's food, 162. Dutch apple, 127. one egg, 161. Cakes, recipes for — Cont. Park Street, 161. spice, 162. sponge, 157. white, 161. See cookies. Calcium-, 2, 168. Calorie : definition, 196. [203. one-hundred-calorie portions, 202, table of, 205. • Candy making : cost of, 46. recipes for cream mints, 46. fondant, 45. Canning and preserving : cost of preserved fruit, 54. general method, 52. methods of, 53. recipes for Chili sauce, 58. grape juice, 55. peaches, 55. pears, 55. plums, 55. syrup for fruit, 54. tomatoes, 54. tomatoes for soup, 54. Caramel : recipes for custard, 166. syrup, 131. Carbohydrates, 20. Carbon, 2, 3. Carbon dioxide, test for, 8. Carrots : in Bechamel sauce, 37. to prepare, 37. Cauliflower soup, 66. Celery soup, 60. Cellulose, 22. Cereals : amount for ten cents, 28. cooking of, 27. general discussion, 25. table of composition, 26. time table for cooking, 27. to serve, 29. INDEX 211 Chiirlottti Rufssc, 180. Cheese : care of, 112. composition of, 112. experiments with, 112. recipes for American rarebit, 113. cottage, 113. croquettes, 150. filling for sandwiches, 176. fondue, 114. sandwiches, 176. Welsh rarebit. No. 1, 113. Welsh rarebit. No. 2, 113. Chemical changes, 3. Chemical formulas and equations, 66. Chemical reactions in bread making. Chemical symbols, 5. [137. Chemistry, science of, 3. Chicken : cost of, 100. recipes for creamed, 102. escalloped, 98. pressed, 99. roast, 102. gravy for, 102. stuffing for, 102. salad, 175. stewed, 102. Chili sauce, 58. Chlorine, 2. Chops : lamb, 94. pork, 95. Classification of foods, 18. Cocoa and chocolate : beverage, 121. chocolate frosting, 163. cocoa, 122. cost of, 122. general discussion, 121. Codfish : recipes for, balls, 105. creamed, 105. Coffee : boiled, 120. cost of, 119. Coffee — Cant. experiments with, 118. filtered, 120. general discussion, 119. Collagen, 6. Combustion : products of, 8, 9. Composition : of body, 2. of foods, 200. Compounds, 1. Conduction, experiment illustrating, 11, 12. Construction rule for baking powder mixtures, 126. Convection, experiment illustratiiig, 12. Cookies : recipes for cookies, plain, 159. ginger snaps, 160. hermits, 159. jumbles, 160. sand tarts, 160. soft ginger, 160. soft molasses, 158. sour cream, 159. sponge drops, 159. Cooking, processes of, 14. Corn : general discussion, 25. recipe for bread, 128. fritters, 41. muffins, 128. mush, 27. soup, 66. Cornstarch pudding, 25. Cottage pie, 97. Cottage pudding, 164. Cracker gruel, 188. Crackers, for soup, 67. Cranberries : general discussion, 49. recipe for jelly, 49. pie, 154. sauce, 49. tart, 155. 212 INDEX Cream of tartar baking powder, 125. Cream toast, 190. Creamy sauce, 167. Croquettes : recipes for cheese, 150. potato, 148. veal, etc., 148. Croutons, 67. Crullers, 148. Custards : recipe for baked, 74. caramel, 166. pie, 153. soft, 179. Devil's food cake, 162. Dextrin : experiments with, 22. identification test for, 22. Diet and Nutrition, 196. Dietary : average American, 198. one-hundred-calorie-portion method, 202. percentage composition method, Dinner menus : [199. family, 195. formal, 194. Doughnuts, 147. Dried beef, creamed, 97. Dumplings, 89. Dutch apple cake, 127. Eggs: composition of, 72. prices of, 72. recipes for creamed, 74. eggnog, 188. egg toast, 74. hard cooked, 74. ■ omelets (see omelets). poached, 74. salad, 174. sandwiches, 175. soft cooked, 74. section of hen's, 72. Eggs ^- Cont. to add as thickening, 38. to preserve, 72. Elements : definition of, 1. present in human body, 2. Emulsion, 144. Equations, chemical, 6. Equivalent weights and measures, 17. Extractives, 61-71. Fat proof coating, 149. Fats: composition of, 143, 144. cost of, 146. emulsion of, 144. saponification of, 145. sources of, 143. to render, 151. Fehling solution, 44. Fermentation, 136. Fish: composition of, 103. recipes for baked, 104. boiled, 104. broiled, 103. codfish balls, 105. codfish, creamed, 105. fried, 105, 149. lobster farci, 106. oysters, creamed, 107. oysters, escalloped, 107. planked, 103. salad, 175. salmon mold, 106. sauce for, 106. sardines on toast, 106. turbot, 105. tests for freshness of, 103c Flame, 9. Flash point, 10. Fluorine, 2. Foamy sauce, 167. Fondant, 45. Foods : classification of, 18. preservation of, 50. requirements, 196, 197. INDEX 213 Force meat balls, 67. French fried potatoes, 147. Fried food, objections to, 146. Fried potatoes, 147. Fritter batter, 149. banana fritt(!rs, 149. corn fritters, 41. Frostings for cake : beaten, 163. boiled, 162. chocolate, 163. marshmallow, 163. plain, 162. Fruits : care and preparation of, 47. composition of, 46. methods of preserving, 53. Frying : cost of fats, 146. general method, 145. rules for testing, 147. Fuels, 10. Fungi, classification of, 50. Gas, 10. Gelatine, 71, 177. Gelatine desserts : recipes for apple compote, 49. Bavarian cream, 179. Charlotte Russe, 180. jellied prunes, 178. lemon jelly, 178. Neapolitan pudding, 179. snow pudding, 179. Spanish cream, 180. Gingerbread, 130. Ginger cookies, 160. Ginger snaps, 160. Gliadin, 71. Globuhn, 61, 69, 70. Glucose, 43. Glutenin, 71. Graham bread, 141. Graham gems, 128. Graham pudding, 165. Grape jam, 57. Grape jelly, 56. Grape juice, 55. Grapes, spiced, 57. Ciravy : recipes for chicken, 102. roast beef, 92. Griddle cakes : general rule, 130. recipes for bread, 131. sour milk, 130. waffles, 131. Gruels : general discussion, 187. recipes for cracker, 188. flour, 188. oatmeal, 188. Ham : broiled, 95. sandwiches, 76. Hamburg steak, 96. Hash, 97. Hashed browned potatoes, 35. Heat, sources of, 11. Heat and energy : requirement, 196. tables for, 196, 197. Hermits, 159. [28. Home made "ready to eat" cereals, Hydrogen, 2, 4. Hydrogen sulphide, 5. Ice, 117. Ice cream : flavoring, 183. general rule, 182. recipes for cream foundation, 183. custard foundation, 183. strawberry, 183. to freeze, 181. Ices : general discussion, 181. recipes for lemon, 182. pineapple, 182. suggestions for, 183. to freeze, 181. 214 INDEX Identification tests : dextrin, 22. fat, 165. pectin, 47. protein, 69. starch, 21. sugar, glucose, 44. Indian pudding, 165. Inorganic matter, 5, Invalid cookery : diet for convalescent, 184. light, 184, 189. liquid, 184, 185. to set tray, 185. Iodine, 2. Irish stew, 90. Iron : general discussion, 169. table of iron in foods, 170. Jelly : due to pectin, 47. general directions for, 56. general discussion, 55. recipes for crab apple, 56. cranberry, 49. grape, 56. lemon, 178. Jumbles, 160. Junket, 187. Kindling point, 10. Lactic fermentation, 136. Lactose, 43, 109. Lamb : chops, 94. diagram and food uses of, 84. market cuts (illustrations), 86. side of, 85. Leavening, methods of, 123. Lemonade : recipes for flaxseed, 189. plain, 189. Lemon butter, 96. Lemon cream, 190. Lemon ice, 182. Lemon jelly, 178. Lemon pie, 154. Lemon sauce, 127. Lettuce : to freshen, 171. to keep, 172. Lettuce salad, 174. Lettuce sandwiches, 175. Lime : foods poor in, 169. foods rich in, 169. Lobster farci, 106. Luncheon, order of courses for, 194. Macaroni : general discussion, 41. recipes for baked with cheese, 42. with tomato sauce, 42; Magnesium, 2. Maple sugar, 43. Marmalades : recipes for grape jam, 57. peach, 57. pear ginger, 57. plum conserve, 56. spiced grapes, 57. Marshmallow frosting, 163. Measurements, table of, 16. Meat and vegetable sauces, 24. Meats, : general methods of cooking, 88. methods of cooking in water, 62. proteins present, 61. structure of fiber, 78. table of composition of, 77. See beef, mutton, pork, veal, warmed-over meats, 97. recipes for cottage pie, 97. escalloped chicken, 98. hash, 97. minced mutton, 98. meat rechauffe, 98. meat souffle, 98. pressed chicken, 99. See croquettes. INDEX 215 Menus : l)reakfast, 194. dinner, 194. lunch, 195. Meringue, 154. Milk: albuminized, 186. composition of, 108. experiments with, 110. general discussion, 108. in invalid diet, 185. milk products, see butter, cheese. milk toast, 190. pasteurized, 186. sterilized, 186. Mince pie, 154. Mineral foods : uses in body, 168. Molasses cookies, 158. Molds, 50. Mushroom sauce : brown, 96. white, 98. Mutton : diagram and food uses of, 84. market cuts, illustrated, 86. side of, 85. recipes for chops, broiled, 94. Irish stew, 90. minced, 98. roast, 93. Nitrogen, 2, 4. Nitrogenous foods, 4. See protein. Nut bread : brown, 129. white, 129. Oatmeal, 25. Oatmeal gruel, 188. Oats, 25. Oleomargarine, tests for. 111. Omelets : general rules for, 75. recipes for, beaten, 75. creamy, 75. Omelets, recipes for — Cord. ham, 75. potato, 76. Spanish, 76. One egg cake, 161. One-hundred-calorie portions : dietary, example of, 204. explanation of, 202. table of, 205. to compute, 203. Onions : boiled, 40. general discussion, 39. to mince, 36. Orange cream, 190. Orange shortcake, 128. Organic matter, 5. Oxidation, 8. Oxygen : description of, 3. element, 2. experiments with, 7. Oysters, creamed, 107. escalloped, 107. Parkerhouse rolls, 140. Park Street cake, 161 Parsley, to chop, 36. Pasteurization, 52. Pasteurized milk, 186. Pastry : recipe for, 152 requisites for good, 159. shortening for, 151. See pie. Peach marmalade, 57. Peach preserves, 55. Pear ginger, 57. Pear preserves, 55. Pectin, indentification test for, 47. Peppers, stuffed green, 39. Phosphate baking powders, 125. Phosphorus, 2-5. Physical change, 2. Physics, science of, 3. Pickles,. cucumber, 58. sweet, 57. 216 INDEX Pie: recipes for apple, 152. cranberry, 154. custard, 153. lemon, 154. mince, 154. pumpkin, 153. - Pineapple ice, 182. Pinwheel biscuit, 128. Plants, classification of, 50. Plum conserve, 56. Plum preserves, 55. Pop-overs, 130. Pork: diagram and food uses of, 87. general discussion, 86. recipes for bacon, 95. chops, 95. ham, broiled, 95. side of, 88. Potassium, 2. Potatoes : general discussion, 33. recipes for au gratin, 35. baked, 34. boiled, 33. cakes, 36. creamed, 35. croquettes, 148. escalloped, 34. French fried, 147. fried, 147. hashed browned, 35. Lyonnaise, 34. mashed, 34. puff, 36. salad, 174. soup, cream of, 60. stewed, 35. Pot roast, 91. Protein : alcohol-soluble, 71. classification of, 70. conjugated, 71. experiments with, 69, 70. general discussion, 68. Protein — Cont. identification test for, 69. in meat, 61. in wheat, 133. other forms of, 71. phospho-protein, 71. requirement by body, 191. Puddings : recipes for bread, 164. corn starch, 25. cottage, 164. custard : baked, 74. caramel, 166. soft, 179. . escalloped apple, 164. graham, 165. Indian, 165. prune whip, 166. rice, 164. sponge, 166. suet, 165. tapioca cream, 166. See gelatine desserts. Pudding sauces : See sauces. Radiation, experiments illustrating, Rarebit, American, 113. Welsh, No. 1, 113. Welsh, No. 2, 113. Relation of food to the body, 1. Rice : general discussion, 26. recipes for baked, 28. muffins, 129. pudding, 164. to wash, 28. Roasting : general method, 91. time table for meats, 92. recipes for beef, 92. chicken, 102. mutton, 93. INDEX 217 Roasting, recipes for — Cont. veal, 92. Rolls, Parkerhouse, 140. Salads : food value, 171. recipes for cabbage, 174. chicken, 174. egg, 174. fish, 175., lettuce, 174. potato, 174. suggestions for, 172. to marinate, 172. to mix, 172. Salad dressings : recipes for cooked, 173. French, 174. mayonnaise, 173. whipped cream, 174. Sand tarts, 160. Sandwiches : recipes for cheese, 176. cheese filling, 176. egg, 176. ham, 176. lettuce, 175. Saponification, 145. Sauces, meat and vegetable : methods of making, 24. proportion of flour for, 24. recipes for bechamel, 38. brown, 24. brown mushroom, 96. drawn butter, 104. lemon butter, 96. salmon, 106. thick white (for croquettes), 24. tomato, 42. . white, 24. white mushroom, 98. Sauces, pudding : recipes for caramel syrup, 131. creamy, 167. Sauces, recipes for — Cont. foamy, 167. lemon, 127. vanilla, 167. yellow, 167. Scones, 127. Sherbets, suggestions for, 181. SiHcon, 2. Snow pudding, 179. Soap making, 145. Sodium, 2. Sodium bicarbonate, 124. Soups : cream soups, 59. recipes for baked bean, 61. cauliflower, 66. celery, 60. clear tomato, 60. corn, 66. potato, 60. spinach, 61. tomato, 59. to bind or thicken, 59. made with stock, 59, 61, 63. recipes for bouillon, 64. stock, 64. stock, brown, 63, 64. stock, white, 66. tomato, 64. vegetable, 64. to clear soup, 64. Sour cream cookies, 159. Sour milk griddle cakes, 130. Spanish cream, 180. Spice cake, 162. Sponge cake (without water), 157. Berwick (with watar), 158. Sponge drops, 153. Sponge pudding, 160. Stages in sugar boiling, 15. Starch : experiments with, 21. identification test for, 21. methods of thickening with, 23- 24. Sterilization, 52. SteriHzed milk, 186. 218 INDEX Stewing : general method, 89. recipes for beef stew, 89. Irish stew, 90. veal stew, 90. Stoves and ranges, 13. Strawberry ice cream, 183. Succotash, 40. Suet pudding, 165. Sugar : cane, 43. experimsnts with, 43. general discussion, 43. glucose, 44. . lactose, 43. maple, 43. stages in boiling, 15. test for, 44. Sulphur, 2, 4. Symbols of elements in body, 5. Table service, 191. Table setting, 192. Tannin, tests for, 118. Tapioca cream, 166. Tarts : cranberry, 155. general rule, 155. Tea: cost of, 119. experiments with, 118. general discussion, 120. recipe for Russian, 121. stimulant, 117. Toast : boxes, 107. directions for making, 189. recipes for cream, 190. milk, 190. sticks, 67. water, 189. Tomatoes : general discussion, 38." recipes for creamed, 38. sauce, 42. Tomatoes, recipes for — Cont stewed, 38. stuffed, 39. to can, 54. to can for soup, 54. to prepare, 38. Tomato soups : clear, 60. cream, 50. stock, 64. Turbot, 105. Turnips : general discussion, 36. recipes for creamed, 37. cups with pea filling, 37.' to boil and mash, 37. to prepare, 37. Vanilla sauce, 167. Veal : diagram and food uses of, 82. general discussion, 83. recipes for breaded, baked, 96. chops, 95. croquettes, 148. loaf, 96., roast, 92. souffle, 98. stew, 90. side of, 83. Vegetables : amount nutrition for ten cents, 31. ■ general composition of, 31. general methods of cooking, 32. table of composition, 30. to prepare, 32. Vegetable soup, 65. Waffles, 131. Warmed-over meats, 97. Washington pie, 158. Water : composition of, 115. distilled, 115. hard and soft, 117. purification of, 116. sources of, 116. INDEX 219 Water toiist, 189. Wheat : coiuposition of, 132. experiments with, 134. proteins in, 133. section of grain of, 132. White l)read, 140. White cake, 161. White mushroom sauce, 98. White soup stock, 66. Yeast : a fungus, 50. drawing of, 135. (xperiments with, 137. growth of, 135. raw potato, recipe for, 139. Yellow sauce, 107. U^JiVEBSi^VP^jfe^^:^^^^^ BOSTON COLLEGE 3 9031 01066529 7 f9j33 HOR ^^ ^^ AUTH S^^^33 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. Books may be kept for two weeks and may be renewed for the same period, unless reserved. Two cents a day is charged for each book kept overtime. If you cannot find what you want, ask the Librarian who will be glad to help you. The borrower is responsible for books drawn on his card and for all fines accruing on the same. i^^^^BPil^MftiS^HiS^B