LJC Hispanicsin A~nerica's Defense Of/ice of Deputy Assistant Secretary ofDefense for Equal Opportunity and Safety Policy THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE WASHINGTON, THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Dear Reader: This booklet pays tribute to the Hispanic men and women who have served and are continuing to serve with courage and distinction in America's defense. Although we highlight particularly sacri fices and successes during wartime, we must not overlook the significant efforts made by Hispanic civilian employees of the Department of Defense. To that end, we have included pictures and information about Hispanics serving as members of the DoD Senior Executive Service and as role models in the military departments and Defense agencies. Hispanic Americans have contributed significantly to the growth of America. The Hispanic community has given us generals,admirals, philosophers, statesmen, musicians, athletes, and Nobel Prize-winning scientists. Hispanic Americans have contributed gallantly to the defense of our Nation, and thirty-seven have received the highest decoration our country can bestow--the Medal of Honor. This is a higher representation of such heroes, in proportion to their population in America, than any other group.No manner of tribute to our country's heritage could be more appropriate than to acknowledge the importance of Hispanic America's contributions to national security. In this booklet we salute their contributions, sacrifices, and bravery. I believe that it is vital for the American people to appreciateand honor publicly the men and women of our uniformed services and the people in this Department who support them. Hispanicscertainly deserve recognition for their contributions to our vital mission of national defense and we take special pride in their distinguished service. Knowledge, coupled with mutual respect, serves not only to strengthen us as a people, it revitalizes our national spirit and heritage. Sincerely, ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF DEFENSE WASHINGTON, D.C. 20301 MANPOWER . RESERVE AFFAIRS AND LOGISTICS Dear Reader: Hispanic peoples have played a distinguished role in our Nation's history. They were among the first settlers of our southeastern and western states and have made significan t contributions to what has become a uniquely American culture. This publication is intended to recognize the diversity and richness of our military heritage by highlighting the hard work, dedication, and service of Hispanics from the American Revolution through today's All Volunteer Force. In the pages which follow, we pay special tribute to Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients, Hispanic flag and general officers, Hispanic members of the DoD Senior Executive Service, and the highest ranking Hispanic enlisted members of each service. In addition, the booklet features ships named after Hispanics and Hispanic role models in both military and civilian careers. Our Nation owes a debt of gratitude to the people featured in this booklet and to countless other Hispanic Americans who are not included for their unselfish and dedicated service. This booklet is a special tribute to the contributions, past and present, which Hispanics have given to national security and a symbol of our appreciation for those efforts. Sincerely, Lawrence J. Korb Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve Affairs &Logistics) Hispanicsin Am.erica's · Defense Additional copies of this commemorative booklet may be obtained by writing the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Equal Opportunity and Safety Policy), Room 3E784, the Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20301. ATTN: Director, Equal Opportunity Programs (Civilian). TABLE OF CONTENTS THE MILITARY HERITAGE OF HISPANIC AMERICA S I OUR NATION'S DEFENSE: AN OVERVIEW .. . ....... . . I Introdu ction ...... . . . . . . . . 2 Exploration and Conquest (1492-154 1) ...... . . 2 Coloni zation and Settlement (1542-1774) . . ....................... .. ... 3 Am erican R evoluti on (1775-1783) . .. ...... . ......... 4 Interim Yea rs ( 1784-1823) . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. ......... . .. 14 Texas-M ex ican Frontier (1824-1845) .......................... .. ....... . . . ............... Hi The Civil W ar (1861-1865) . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . ..... 19 The Spanish-Am erican War (1898) . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 30 World War I (1914-1918) ....... . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. ... 35 World War II ( 1941 -1945) . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. 38 The Korean Confli ct (1950-1953) . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 4 7 A Salute to Hispani c Fighter Aces .. . ........ · ... .. · · · · ·. · · ·· ........ 50 H ero Street, U.S.A . . . . ... . . . . . ........ . ... . ...... 52 Vietnam Era ( 1960-1973) .............................. . 53 Post Viet nam Era ( 1974-1982) .. ..... ... . . ........ . . . . ...... .... .. . . 58 HISPA IC AMERICAN RECIPIENTS OF THE MEDAL OFHONOR ... . ....... . .... ... . . ... .. . ...... 69 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. ............. 71 The Civil War . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. ... . . . 72 The Boxer R ebellion .............. . .. ... .... . .. .. ........... .. .. 73 World Wa r II . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 73 The Korean Conflict . . . . . . . . . ....... . .............. 79 Vietnam Era .......................... . . ................... . ... 84 A Special Tribute-MSgt Roy P. Benavidez . . ......... . . · · · .... ·· · · · · · · · 91 Hispani c M edal of H onor Recipients Di splay .. ... ... ..... .. . .... . . . ... . . ...... ...... ... 95 A SPECIAL T RIBUTEHISPA IC AMERICA HOSTAGES DURI G THE TAKEOVER OF THE U.S. EMBASSY I IRAN .................. . . .. 97 A SALUTE TO NAVY SHIPS CHRISTENED IN HONOR OF HISPANICS .................................. .. . . ..... ... . . . . .... . ..... 99 HISPA IC AMERICA GENERALS AND FLAG OFFICERS BY MILITARY SERVICE . . ... . ............. .. ... . . .. 103 A Tribute to Admiral Horacio , Ri vero, the First Hi panic Fou r Star Admiral in th e Navy ..... ... ........... .. . ....... ..... . . . .. 104 A Tribute to General Richard E. Cavazos, the First Hispanic Four Star General in the Army ... ....... . .. . ... . . ... ....... ... . . . . . .. . ... 105 A Tribute to Major General Luis R. Esteves, the First Puerto Rican National Guard General ..... ..... .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 106 Hispanic General Officers in the Army .. . .............................. . . . .... . ... . .......... . . . .. . 107 Hispanic Flag and General Officers in the avy and Marine Corps. . . . . . ..... . . . ..... .. .. . . llO Hispanic General Officers in the Air Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . ... . ....... . ...... 113 Hispanic Gent>ral Officers in the Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ... . .. ... . ... . . . ... . . . . . .. . ... 116 Hispanic General Officers in the Army and Air National Guard .... .. .. . . ....... .... . ........ .. . ..... ll9 HIGHEST RA KING HISPA IC AMERICAN ENLISTED PERSONNEL. ..... . . . .. . . .... .................... 125 HISPA IC CIVILIANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ................. . . .. ........ . . . 129 A Special Tribute to the Honorable Edward Hidalgo Former Secretary of the Navy and the Highest Ranking Hispanic Civilian to Serve in DoD ...... . .. .. ..... . . . . ........................... 130 Hispanic Americans in Civilian Careers . . . . ................ : . ... . .... . . . ...... . .. . .. . ...... . . . . 131 Hispanic Americans in the Senior Executive Service ........ . . .. . ............. . . .............. 153 The Military Heritage of Hispanic Americans in Our Nation's Defense: An Overview Introduction Soldiers, sailors, and explorers of Spanish origin were among the first Europeans to set foot in the "New World." By 1980, persons of Spanish origin were the second largest and fastest growing population subgroup in the United States, constituting over 14,600,000 people or 6.4 %of the total national population. Yet most history books in this country do not discuss the contributions of this diverse group of people of Spanish, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central and South American ongtn. The military heritage of Hispanics is a proud part of the European presence in the Americas. Much of the exploration and settlement of North and South America which followed the period of discovery in the late 15th century was conducted by Spanish military personnel-the conquistadores. This booklet does not attempt to detail the full range of Hispanic exploration or conquest. Nor does it attempt to chronicle the full range of Hispanic contributions to the military organizations of the United States. Rather, it presents a brief overview, which touches upon significant events in North American history, tracing the military aspects, and the role of Hispanic Americans in that history. It emphasizes the military contributions because this is a DoD publication, and military service is an ultimate test of one's belief in and contribution to the protection and building of a nation. Hispanic Americans have defended our nation with pride and courage. Thirty-seven Hispanic Americans have received the Medal of Honor -America's highest military decoration for valor. This booklet salutes their sacrifices and bravery. Hispanic Exploration and Conquest of North America (1492-1541) Some scientists have e timated that perhaps as early as 40 ,000 years ago people discovered the American continent. For approximately 39,500 years, they expanded into the far reaches of both North and South America and built great civilizations. We do not know what they called themselves or how many of them there were. Some we know as the Anasazi (New Mexico), the Maya (Central America), the Inca (Peru), the Toltec (Mexico), and the Aztec (Mexico). In 1492, the isolation of these people was ended when Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailmg under Spanish patronage, entered their world through the Caribbean basin. He called the land "the Indies," and he called the people "Indians" because he thought that he had discovered a westward route to the riches of the East Indies. Columbus returned triumphantly to pain and the wave of European exploration and search for riches in this ''other world" began . Columbus made three more trips to the area of his discovery and explored portions of modern day Cuba, Puerto Rico, and t e Bahamas. Although he came to realize that he had not discovered the Indies he had originally sought, he did find enough gold and produce from the mining and agricultural colony which he established at Hispaniola (now known as Santo Domingo) to excite the rest of the Western world. The only other European nation competing with Spain to find a sea route to the Indies was Portugal. In 1498, Vasco de Gama reached India by rounding the southern tip of Africa and sailing across the Indian Ocean. As a result of the achievements of Columbus and de Gama, the Pope divided the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal. For almost the next one hundred years, Spain enjoyed a virtual monopoly in the exploration, settlement, and development of North and South America. Juan Ponce de Leon became the first of the Spanish "advancers" (adelantados) of Columbus' discoveries. In 1508 he explored Puerto Rico; Jamaica in 1509 ; and Cuba in the years following 1511. This Caribbean exploration ended in 1513 when Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean . That same year, de Leon discovered Florida. The Spanish explorers paused to evaluate their new discoveries and to plan a major expansion of their efforts. Rumors of untold riches held by Indians in the interior of Mexico caused the Governor of Cuba to establish a trading post on the coast near the present town of Vera Cruz. Led by Hernando Corte , the traders found themselves welcomed by many of the inhabitants as a savior from their Aztec rulers. Marching into the interior to the Aztec capital, Cortes defeated the Aztec army in 1521 and became the virtual ruler of the area. The Spanish were quick to follow up on the advances made and this started a twenty year period of military conquest. Utilizing a three pronged approach, the conquistadores (conquerors) first moved south, down the western coast of South America under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro. During the next eleven years (1524-1535), his armies conquered the Inca empire and subjugated the land between Panama and the present city of Santiago, Chile. In the second prong, Panfilo de Narvaez and Cabeza de Vaca sailed north from Cuba to Florida in 1527 but were wrecked off the west coast of Florida. They built replacement ships, but not knowing where they were, sailed directly west to the coast of Texas, wandering among the Indians for six years before being rescued by troops from Mexico in 1536. In 1539, Hernando de So to followed the same course begun by de Narvaez and de Vaca. He reached Florida, however, and initiated the third prong by exploring the region of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, finally reaching the Mississippi River near Memphis. De Soto died near there but his men sailed down the river and eventually returned to Cuba after a four year absence. During their wanderings through southern Texas and northern Mexico , Cabeza, de Vaca and a black slave, Estebanico (also known as Estevan or Stephen) heard stories from the Indians about a region to the north which had several large, wealthy cities. After their rescue, Estevan led an expedition northward, traveling up to present New Mexico, where he was killed by Zuni Indians in 1539. A second expedition under Francisco Vasquez Coronado was authorized to find the "Seven Cities of Cibola" in 1539. Although he marched northward to New Mexico, then east to Kansas, he was unsuccessful. By 1541, Spain had discovered, explored, and conquered an empire extending from northern New Mexico to the tip of Chile; the largest area since the Roman Empire. Spain then attempted to consolidate these gains and to systematically strip the conquered lands of their wealth. Colonization and Settlement (1542-1774) By 1542, Spain had developed a relatively sophisticated system to administer its new lands. During the period of conquest, approximately 300,000 Spaniards had emigrated to the New World . They established over 200 cities and towns throughout North and South America. During this period of colonization and settlement, Francisco de Ulloa added Baja (lower) California to the Empire and Vazquez de Ayllon attempted to establish colonies in the Carolinas/Virginia area. Spanish America was divided into two major Viceroyalties, the Viceroyalty of New Spain which controlled all territory north of the Isthmus of Panama, and the Viceroyalty of Peru which included all lands to the south. Each was ruled by a Viceroy who exercised the King's powers from a capital city. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was divided into four major subdivisions or audiencias (Nueva Galicia to the north , Mexico, Guatemala, and Santo Domingo). Audiencias, in turn were subdivided into cabildo or urban jurisdictions and encomi enda or royal grants of native labor and the land they occupied. Nueva Galicia also employed presidios, or small military posts to guard missionaries and the frontier bordering Indian territory. The colonial society of New Spain was headed by major office holders who were appointed by the Crown for a fixed period and then returned to Spain. They were assisted by a group of American born citizens of Spanish descent called Creoles. This numerically larger group controlled the Indian workers on the encomienda and the black slaves imported from Africa to do the agricultural and mining labor. Since the Creoles never went to Spain, their political orientation developed around the colony. A racially mixed group called Mestizos soon became the largest population group but they were not politically dominant. James de Vargas, Colonial Military Leader. In 1680, Pueblo Indians lead by Pope revolted against Spanish domination and drove the Spanish settlers out of New Mexico. De Vargas, an intrepid soldier, used diplomacy in 1692 to end the revolt. Alone and without a helmet, de Vargas met the Indians. He talked the Indians into capitulating by taking advantage of Pope's death and the Indians' dissatisfaction with the tyranny of Pope. Spanish rule was restored in New Mexico without Joss of life on either side. De Vargas then granted total amnesty to the rebelious tribes. He did not hesitate to fight when necessary, however. In 1693, several tribes rebelled again and de Vargas suppressed them, executing seventy of their leaders. Painting courtesy of Elio Gasperetti Sin ce the English employed a different colonial system , initially relying upon English laborers rather tha n Indians or slaves (who we re heavily used later), their politically active population grew more rapidly. In addition , the administrative system was less dependent upon the Crown for decision making and many royal offi ce holders rem a ined , ra ther than return to Engla nd. Eventuall y, the English colonies expanded to the borders of New Spain and their leaders we re clamoring for independence from the English crown ; something which the Spanish system of colonial administration prohibited. It did not ta ke the Spanish governors long to realize that by supporting the rebellious English colonists , they could reduce the influence of England in the New World and perha ps even influence , if not confine completely , the growth of the independent colonies to the east of the Appalachi a ns. American Revolution 1775-1783 Background The principal European colonial powers in North America (England, France , and Spain) often engaged in wars which impacted upon their colonial possessions . During the Seven Years War (1754-1763) for example, England captured the Spanish controlled cities of Havana and Manila. The North American phase of this conflict is known as the French and Indian W a rs which we re fought mostly in the Midwest a nd ortheast. When the fighting stopped in 1763 and the combatants negotiated the Treaty of P aris, Spain ceded its colony in Florida to England. In return, England returned Havana and Manila, which it had captured in 1762, to Spain. The British divided Florida at the Apalachicola River (see map) and created two colonies; West Florida with its capital at Pensacola and East Florida with St. Augustine its capital . From 1763-1775, England attempted to consolidate it new holdings . Spain watched with some concern . Its nearest colony to the British was Louisiana with its capital at New Orleans. Spanish authorities were now concerned about their ability to navigate the Mississippi river in order to reach settlements in the interior and to trade with the Indians. A British presence at the mouth of the river threatened that control. In addition Spanish trade ships crossed the Gulf of Mexico from Mexico to South America. England was now able to threaten that trade from Pensacola. For Spain to protect its trade routes and its Mexican silver mines, it needed to restore its control of Florida. American Revolution When war broke out between England and its colonists in 1775 , Spain closely monitored developments . The English colonists in Florida remained loyal to the king. They had developed a relatively weak form of local government and had not produced the yearning for independence experienced in the North. This was due, in part, to the colonists realization that despite 12 years of English rule, they were dependent for their survival upon subsidies from the Crown and that the taxes levied upon them and their Northern peers served to subsidize The New Smyrna Minorcans Spanish, Greek, and Italian immigrants from Minorca, one of the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the east coast of Spain, founded a settlement in Florida in 1767 which they called New Smyrna . In 1778 they abandoned their settlement and moved to St. Augustine, Florida. During the American Revolution, a number of these immigrants joined the St. Augustine militia to help guard Florida, which was then a British colony, from attack by the Americans. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti The British colonies of West and East Florida during the American Revolution. • , . I...., \ . '·, ~ CaQ.tain Ferdinand de Leyba While the American Revolution was raging, a combined force of British troops and Indian allies attacked the Spanish controlled city of St. Louis in Missouri Territory on May 26, 1780. The Spanish militia garrison of St. Louis was commanded by de Leyba . The British-Indian force was repulsed in one of the few defeats suffered by the British or their allies in 1780. This drawing is not a true portrait of de Leyba, but it is based on uniforms of the period. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti the English presence in Florida. Further, many of the white settlers in the colony held jobs either as colonial officials or as suppliers to the British Army. Thoughts of revolution and of cutting this link with Britain were far from their minds. Finally, as ·the war progressed, loyalists from other colonies moved to Florida for protection, thereby, further strengthening their ties to England. Bernardo de Galvez In 1776, Bernardo de Galvez was appointed colonel of the Spanish regiment in Louisiana. He was thirty years old at the time, but no stranger to New Spain. From 1769-1771 de Galvez had fought the Apache in Texas as a young captain and had learned to respect them and to treat the Indians fairly rather than to oppress them. Now he would have an opportunity to apply his theories to tribes along the Mississippi as he struggled to maintain a Spanish presence against competition from Britian. In 1777, de Galvez was appointed governor of Louisana province. From 1775-1777 Spain negotiated with the Continental Congress over possible assistance for the revolutionaries. But no agreement was reached because neither side could decide who would control Florida if the English colonists won their freedom. Despite the lack of a formal agreement, de Galvez supported the American rebels by providing cattle from Spanish herds in Texas and by selling weapons and other supplies to American agents who shipped them up the river or by ocean carrier to Philadelphia. In 1777, the Continental Congress authorized an agent to travel down the Mississippi to New Orleans with American dispatches for de Galvez and to harass British outposts along the Mississippi. The agent, James Willing, captured several ships and raided several plantations and military outposts. When he arrived in New Orleans with his booty he had so agitated the British that they had placed several ships in a blockade to prevent Willing's escape into the Gulf of Mexico. Despite the British threat, de Galvez protected the American agent and prote ted vigorously to Britain about its threatening actions. By 1778, the war was going badly for the British. General Burgoyne had surrendered his army at Saratoga and General Clinton abandoned Philadelphia. Sensing British weakness, the French declared war against England in February 1778 and urged its ally Spain to do so as well. Spain resisted but eventually recognized the independence of the colonies in February 1779. Wasting no time, de Galvez raised a small militia unit and with his regular Spanish forces moved to clear the British out of the southern Mississippi. He captured all the British forts from Lake Pontchartrain to Baton Rouge. Governor de Galvez then raised another force and attacked Mobile, capturing it in March, 1780. Resting in Mobile, de Galvez raised a third force of over 9,000 men, including blacks, Indians, and mestizos, to attack Pensacola. In March 1781, de Galvez captured the British fort on Santa Rosa Island which guarded the entrance to the city and laid seige to the city. Ordering his ships into Pensacola Bay, de Galvez was shocked to see them refuse to enter Bernardo de Galvez Spanish governor of Louisiana and commander of the Spanish troops which defeated British forces in West and East Florida during the American Revolution. · Dominican Soldier Blacks from Santo Domingo, the capital city of the Spanish Colony in what is now the Domincan Republic, fought with the Spanish forces under de Galvez during the Gulf Campaigns (1779-1781) of the American Revolution. This uniform is not authentic, but is based on Cuban uniform of a later period . Drawing by Elio Gasperetti Cuban Militiaman Battalions of morenos (blacks) and pardos (mulattos) from the Cuban Habana Regiment were part of the forces which served under de Galvez during the Gulf Campaigns of the American Revolution. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti Officer, Louisiana Regiment of Infantry This regiment was founded by the Spanish during their occupation of Louisiana (1763-1800). At first, it contained both Spanish and Frenchspeaking personnel. It was part of the force under Bernardo de Galvez during his victorious Mississippi and Gulf Campaigns against the British. After Spain returned Louisiana to France, the unit was moved to the Spanish colonies of West and East Florida. Its name was unchanged, but it no longer had French-speaking members. The unit was disbanded in 1819 when the United States purchased Florida from Spain. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti Puerto Rican Sergeant Puerto Rican of Artillery Sergeant of Artillery Puerto Ricans constituted one of the many diverse units which fought along side Spanish forces under de Galvez during the Gulf Campaigns of thP American Revolution. Drawings by Elio Casperetti Mexican-Indian Soldier Mexican Indians and mestizoes formed part of the Spanish forces under the command of Bernardo de Galvez and fought against the British during the Gulf Campaigns of 1779-1781 during the American Revolution. Drawing by Elio Casperetti the harbor. One of the vessels had scraped bottom and refused to proceed. After pleading with and berating the ship's captain, de Galvez took another ship, hoisted hi s personal colors and sailed into the harbor alone . Shamed and inspired by his example of personal leadership and bravery, the remaining ships followed. When his army landed in the city, the English defenders retreated to two forts. Spanish reinforcements from Mobile, New Orleans, and H avana arrived and de Galvez assaulted the British forts in May. During the assault, a sudden explosion evaporated a British powder magazine in one of the forts. Quickly charging, de Galvez captured the fort and assaulted the remaining stronghold; its defenders surrendered. In appreciation for de Galvez's actions, Charles III, King of Spain made him a count and he was allowed to change his family coat of arms to show a ship entering Pensacola Bay with the motto "yo solo" (I alone). The name of Pensacola Bay itself was changed from Santa Maria de Calve to Bahia de Santa Maria de Galvez. H e was also promoted to Governor and Captain General of West Florida. While de Galvez had aided the American revolutionary effort, he had also restored most of Florida to Spanish control and had ensured protection of Spanish trade routes in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1785, he was promoted to Viceroy of New Spain. H e died of an epidemic in M exico City in 1786 at the age of fort y. Americans have not forgotten Bernardo de Galvez. The city of Galveston, Texas, is named after him. A statue in his ho nor is in Washington, D .C.; a Bicentennial gift from Spain. In 1980, two hundred years after his capture of Mobile, the U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp in his honor. Though a loyal citizen of Spain, he contributed greatly to the founding of our New Nation. Francisco de Miranda Francisco de Miranda was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on March 28, 1750 . H e was educated in Spain where his father helped him to obtain a commission in the Spanish army. After serving in Morocco, where he experienced heavy fightin g for two years , Miranda returned to Spain in 1779. H e soon left for New Spain where he served as a captain on the staff of Bernado de Galvez during Galvez' first campaign against the British , which returned the lower Mississippi River to Spanish control. D e Miranda also participated in the seige and capture of Pensacola and later in the Spanish capture of the Bahamas, which he negotiated as the official representative of the governor of Cuba. While in Cuba, de Miranda played a role in obtaining supplies for the French Admiral de Grasse who then sailed to the Chesapeake Bay to assist in the American capture of Yorktown . As a result of these contributions to the American Revolution , a park in Pensacola , Florida, a statue in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and a commuter bus in Chicago, Illinois , were dedicated in his honor. George Farragut Farragut was born on the Spanish island of Minorca and emigrated to North America. He joined the South Carolina Navy as a Lieutenant and fought in the attack on Savannah (1779) and the second defense of Charleston (1780). This depiction is not a true portrait, but is based upon one of his more famous son, Civil War Admiral David Farragut. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti I I ; '-/ I I '. I , , · Hispana Contributions to the American Revolution ~ In 1781, French and American forces were about to abandon their seige of Yorktown for lack of funds. Women in Havana, Cuba, however, took up a collection and were able to raise a substantial sum of money. By delivering their gift to the French Expeditionary force, they were able to insure that the seige would continue. Drawings by Elio Gasperetti The Battle of Pensacola (1781) In March, 1781, troops under Bernardo de Galvez laid seige to the British controlled city of Pensacola, Florida. The unanticipated explosion of a British powder magazine in one of two forts guarding the city enabled the Spanish forces to capture both forts after a short but sharp fight. Engraving courtesy of Elio Gasperetti Santiago Santiago was a slave who took part in the Spanish seige of the British garrison in Pensacola, Florida. He was cited by Bernardo de Galvez, the Spanish commander, for his actions during the battle. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti de Galvez Commemorative Stamp In 1980, two hundred years after his capture of Mobile, the U.S . government i sued a commemorative -tamp in honor of his assistance during the American Revolution. de Galvez Family Coat of Arms After his capture of Pensacola in 1781, Bernardo de Galvez was authorized by the King of Spain to change the family coat of arms. He added a ship on a shield with the motto "Yo Solo" (I alone) to the center of the coat of arms to commemorate his leadership in the assault on the city from Pensacola Bay . Although de Miranda had earned the patronage of his military superiors in Spain, he encountered political difficulties which caused him to desert the Spanish army. He set out immediately for the new United States in 1783 and studied the revolutionary experiences of the former British colonists. His orientation at that time was toward the freedom from Spain of all Spanish colonies. In 1784 he moved to Europe, where he volunteered to serve in the French revolutionary army and rendered valuable service. Moving to London, de Miranda became the center of Spanish anticolonialists and worked with the British government. In 1805, he returned to New York, from Europe, meeting many prominent politicians, including President Jefferson. While in the United States he organized an expedition and attempted unsuccessfully to invade Venezuela. His efforts earned him the title "Precursor of Latin American Independence,'' by which he is remembered today. Franciso de Miranda Venezuelan officer who served under de Galvez during the Gulf Campaigns in the American Revolution and an early leader in the fight for Latin American independence. Interim Years (1784-1823) Introduction With the successful conclusion of the American Revolution, Spain's colonial empire in North and South America was at its height. West and East Florida were returned to Spanish control as the price of their support for the new United States. Once again, the Mississippi River was open to Spanish merchants and soldiers. In addition, the British threat to Spanish trade routes across the Gulf of Mexico had been removed. Ominous signs were on the horizon, however. The unification of the thirteen newly independent American colonies into a national republic placed a competing political power along the border with Spanish colonies. In addition, forces within the United States were already arguing for expansion. Also, the activities of Francisco de Miranda raised the specter of revolution in Spanish colonies in South America. To complicate matters, the Spanish throne was experiencing difficulties at home. Taking advantage of this apparent weakness, the French attempted to return to orth America. In 1800, France persuaded Spain to sell the Louisana territory; all Spanish lands from the Mississippi River west to the Rocky Mountains, including the city of New Orleans. Spain reluctantly agreed, but only if France promised not to relinquish any of this land to the United States. France agreed with the Spanish proviso, but within three years became convinced that it could not sustain a presence in North America and, ignoring its pledge to Spain, offered to sell all of the Louisana Territory to the United States. President Jefferson seized the opportunity and authorized $15 million for purchase of the Louisiana Territory. Spain now found its principal land holdings once again abutted by the United States and was further discomforted by having its colonies in the Floridas isolated from the rest of New Spain. The United States continued to apply pressure on the Spanish by sending Lewis and Clark to explore the northern half of Louisana Territory in 1804-1806 and Zebulon Pike to explore the southern half of the Louisana Territory in 1806-1807. In 1810, U.S. forces seized part of Spanish controlled West Florida. During the War of 1812 with Britain, the U .S. acquired another portion of West Florida from the British. It is also interesting to note that during the War of 1812, Spanish Americans from Louisana joined General Andrew Jackson's defenders in defeating a British invasion force under British General Pakenham. Ironically, the Battle of New Orleans occurred after the treaty ending the war had been signed. Finally, in 1819, Spain decided to protect its holdings in Mexico, New Mexico, and California by selling all of its holdings in Florida east of the Mississippi to the United States. In addition, Spain agreed to relinquish any claim it might have to Oregon. The U .S. agreed to give up its claims to Texas, particularly that part between the Natchitoches and Rio Grande Rivers which Pike had explored in 1807. Francis (Pepe) Diaz Diaz was a lieutenant in the Puerto Rican militia. In April, 1797, he lead a group of fifty men from the town of Tao Bajo, to San Juan. They participated in the defense of the town from British attack. By May, 1797, the British forces had been repelled, but Diaz had been killed in the fighting near Martin Pefla bridge. He is often called the first Puerto Rican hero, rather than being of Spanish, African or Indian descent. This is not a true portrait of Diaz, but it is based upon descriptions and uniforms of the period. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti The decline of Spain's colonial empire, however, was evident. By 1822 all Spanish colonies in North and South America, with the exceptions of Belize, Bolivia, and the Guianas were to become independent. Mexico Within the audiencia of Nueva Galicia and the audiencia of Mexico, political unrest, which would more directly impact upon the United States, was brewing as well. In this area, Spanish colonial policy and administration had produced four politically and socially distinct groups: (!) the Gachupines (wearer of spurs) or peninsulares-the native born Spaniards who ran the colonial government; (2) the CreolesSpaniards born in Mexico ; (3) the Mestizos-persons of Spanish and Indian parentage; and (4) the Indians-full blooded original inhabitants conquered by Spain. By the 1800's there were approximately 40,000 Gachupines, one million Creoles, one and one-half million Mestizos, and one million Indians. The Mestizos and Indians were denied political or social influence. The Creoles were merchants and artisans with social influence but little political power. As the Creole class grew in size, so did its political frustrations. Increasingly they viewed themselves as Mexicans rather than Spanish and they resented the colonial controls. Successful revolutions in the United States and France only encouraged them to seek their own independence. During the Spanish Colonial period in Mexico (1519-1821) conspiracies and rebellions erupted. None, however, were successful. In 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Creole priest, raised the banner of revolt and an army of Indians and Mestizos rallied at his manifesto ''Grito de Dolores '' Father Hidalgo was successful in his efforts. He was eventually betrayed and executed in March 18ll. His place was assumed by Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, a Mestizo priest, who carried on the fight until 1815, when he too was executed. In 1820, Colonel Agustin de Iturbide, who had fought both Hidalgo and Morelos, deserted to the revolutionaries. In conjunction with Vicente Guerrero, their rebel leader, he issued the ''Plan de Iguala" which espoused three principles : (!) Mexican freedom; (2) equality for all Mexicans; and (3) Catholicism as the official religion. Their document was recognized by Spain in September, 1821 , and Mexico became an independent state. This meant that the Spanish colonies of New California, New Mexico , Santa Fe, and Texas were now provinces of Mexico. Texas-Mexican Frontier (1824-1845) Introduction The Mexican declaration of independence in November 1821 did not resolve the country's problems. It lacked a unified government and suffered from economic problems. A ruling military junta was established as was an independent Congress. In May 1822, Agustin de Iturbide, leader of the revolution , was proclaimed constitutional emperor of Mexico. Iturbide was unable to resolve the economic problems facing him and his suppression of political opponents; plus , hi s dissolution of the congress, caused a military revolt lead by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In February 1823 , Santa Anna's forces occupied Mexico City and deposed de Iturbide. In 1824, the revolutionaries wrote a Constitution, similar to that of the United States, which provided for a federal system with an elected President. Origins of Revolt Despite Spanish and Mexican fears of land grabbing by Americans, the Mexican government issued an immigration grant to Moses Austin which would permit settlement of part of Texas by immigrants from the United States. Austin died before he could exercise the grant, but after Santa Anna's republican revolution of 1823 , the grant was reissued to his son Stephen F. Austin. It allowed him to bring 300 families into Texas. Each family received 177 acres of farm land plus 13,000 acres of prairie pasture. The only co nditions of the grant were that the colonists obey Mexican law and establish no religion other than Catholicism. The new American immigrants ignored both conditions. In 1824, Stephen F . Austin helped in the drafting of the new Constitution. As a reward, his immigration grant was renewed. In 1829 , the Mexican government abolished slavery which disturbed many of Austin's settlers who were pro-slavery southerners, but Austin obtained an exemption for the Americans who had already imported slaves. By 1830, the Mexican government became concerned about the U.S. immigrants who we re regarded as drunken, lazy people who ridiculed the Catholic clergy and lived off slave labor. One group of Americans had even initiated a Texas independence movement in 1826. Consequently, the Mexican Congress passed a law in 1830 which prohibited further American settlement and which called for strict enforcement of the antislavery laws . Such efforts, however, were too late. There were already 20,000 U.S. immigrants in Texas and their presence helped to reduce raids by the Comanche . In, 1833, when Santa Anna became President of Mexico, he centralized the government and abolished the 1824 Constitution. In 1835, Santa Anna announced a new constitution which abolished all Mexican state governments. The Texan leaders realized that Santa Anna's new Constitution would give them no voice in the Mexican government. With the support of Mexican liberals, the Texans proclaimed their independence from Mexico and elected David Burnet and Lorenzo de Zavala, a M exican, to the presidency and vice presidency of the Lone Star R epublic. A Texas Hussar The Texas Hussars were an 18th century Spanish/Mexican mounted corps which patrolled the Texas Territory and protected the inhabitants from attacks by Indians. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti The Revolt Santa Anna reacted vigorously to the rebellion. He was hindered by the fact that the Texans outnumbered the Mexicans by almost 10 to 1 and that not all Mexicans in Texas supported his government. Nonetheless, Santa Anna decided to raise an army and march north to punish the revolutionaries . Santa Anna left Mexico City on November 28, 1835 . He had 800 miles to travel to reach the rebellious Texans. On his way, he raised, organized, and drilled an army of 6,000 to 8,000 troops. On February 23, 1835 they arrived at San Antonio de Bexar and found approximately 200 Texans located in an old Franciscan mission known locally as the Alamo. Among the Texan defenders of the Alamo were Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie and Bill Travis. Also among the defenders were seven Mexicans: Juan Abamillo, Juan Antonio Badillo , Carlos Espalier, Gregorio Esparza, Antonio Fuentes, Calba Fugua, and Jose Maria Guerrero. They were all members of a company of Mexicans raised by Captain Juan N. Seguin of San Antonio, to assist in the Texan cause. Other members of Seguin's company were serving with other Texan forces. Santa Anna's troops immediately beseigned the Texans, engaging them with artillery. Captain Seguin was selected to be a courier. Being from San Antonio, he knew the area and he spoke Spanish, which should help him ge t throuqh Santa Anna's lines . H e left with his aide, Antonio Cruz, for help, but no relief column arrived in time. On March 6, 1835, Santa Anna's forces assaulted the Alamo and captured it. There were 183 Texans who died; six of them Mexicans. The seventh, Jose Maria Guerrero, escaped by claiming to Mexican troops that he was a prisoner of the Texans. Other survivors of the Alamo were Henry Esparza, a twelve year old at the time (his father Gregorio was killed) and seven women (six Mexican and one Texan) who were wives of men who died there. Captain Seguin returned to San Antonio after Santa Anna's defeat and surrender at the battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1835. He gathered the charred remains of the bodies of the Alamo's defenders and buried them in the Church of San Fernando. Eventually, he was promoted to Colonel and became commander of the military post at San Antonio de Bexar. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna signed a treaty ending the war and recognizing the independence of Texas. He returned to Mexico City and nullified the treaty. In 1841, Texas tried to extend its influence over New Mexico, but failed. In 1842, Mexico launched two abortive invasions of Texas, occupying San Antonio in one instance before withdrawing. The British minister to Texas negotiated a truce between Texas and Mexico in 1843, but did not formally recognize the Republic. In 1845 , Texas voted to become part of the United States. The Alamo The rendition above depicts the final assault of the Alamo by Mexican troops under Santa Anna in March 1836. One hun dred eighty-three Texans died, including six Mexican/Texans. Lieutenant Colonel John Nepomucene Seguin Seguin, a Mexican/Texan , supported the Texan independence movement and fought with distinction at the battle of San Antonio (1835) and the battle of San Jacinto (1836). He was among the defenders of the Alamo, but missed death when he and his aide were sent out with a message seeking reinforcements. After the war, Seguin returned to San Antonio where he commanded the military post there and later served two terms as the city's mayor. American/Texans soon gained political control of the city and Mexican/Texans inhabitants were subjected to various forms of prejudice and discrimination. Seguin moved to Mexico in 1842 to escape charges of treason, but found himself subjected to similar charges in Mexico. He was forced to join the Mexican Army and served in two abortive attempts to retake Texas. By 1848, he was finally allowed to return to Texas, where he lived until his death. Civil War (1861-1865) Introduction Despite the admission of Texas as a state in 1845, tensions along the border between the United States and Mexico did not decrease. Americans coveted the rich lands in California and the territory along trade routes to the west coast. War between the two nations seemed inevitable as Mexico sought to regain Texas and the Texans argued about the western border of their territory, claiming it to be the Rio Grande River rather than the Nueces River as asserted by Mexico. War eventually broke out in 1846. American troops moved into the disputed areas occupying Santa Fe and Southern California. Other American forces moved south into Mexico in 1847, seizing Buena Vista and another group invaded the east coast of Mexico, taking Vera Cruz and Mexico City itself. Santa Anna lead the Mexican forces as he had in 1835. He attempted to lure American soldiers to desert by offering them cash and land. Few accepted. Much of the Mexican-American War was the product of U.S. expansionism and prejudicial disregard of Mexicans. American public opinion considered Mexicans to be "savage, barbaric, immoral, and corrupt." This image was reflected in the news media of the period by stereotypic drawings such as the two of Generals Arista and Paredes on page 21 . To the right of each drawing is a portrait which reflects more accurately the actual appearance of each man. The war ended on February 2, 1848, when the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. The treaty ceded all of Mexico's territory in New Mexico and California to the United States in return for a payment of 18.25 million dollars. Each side condemned the other for actions during the war and deep seated resentments remained. Internal divisions resulted in a series of national governments which prevented Mexico from taking further action. During the war itself, most Mexicans resisted the American onslaught. However, a little known key participant in the Mexican war was Manuel Dominguez, a peasant weaver who assisted General Winfield Scott by leading an all Mexican "Spy Company" in the campaign against Vera Cruz. His "Spy Company" assisted the American army as spies and couriers. Civil War The 1860 census showed 27,466 Mexican Americans living in the United States. When war broke out between the states in 1861, this community found itself divided. Approximately 2,550 MexicanAmericans joined Confederate military units and another 1,000 joined the Union forces. In all, as 1-t.:..\J) QUAR'rERS. K~OW ALL :\lEN: That Antonio Lopez dt• Saula·Anna. Prct~ident of the United l!!itate. of Mesieo nnd Commander in t•hief of the mesiean armie. bb been duly ~uthorizel to make the foll~wiog eoocetl8ioos ~all and every one of the per.oooN now io the Amerat>an army who wall prMent theauelue before me or any of the commanding oftlcen ofthe mexican forees, viz: 1.• Every !JOidicr in the American army who appNn befol'fl me or any of the commanding ofticen of the Mexican armin il to reeeive i• mediately tere doUan cub, if coming without arms, aad alar~ramount if he i11 armed, in order to cover the cost of the anu he may brio~ ~... Every person who deserts the American army followed by I 00 men uentitled to receive a<~ soon as he preseou himself with bit -.eo,t 500 eub, bnides the S10 to which every one ofthe soldien i1 entided, u well as the extra allowance in case tlley be armed. 3... He who desertS with 200 men bas right to claim and ·shall be paid immediately S1000 cash, and so on at the rate ofS500, for everyhondl'ed men; or the proportional amount if the number be oDder one hundred; without including the SI 0 allowed to every eoldier, nor the C08t ofarms and ammunitions, all ofwhich will invariablybepaidbesides. 4.• All and every one of the soldien in the American army who will desert aDd appear before me or any af the Commanding ofllcen of the Mexican forces, as aforesaid, besides the abo.-ementiooed gratiftcatiootin eub, are bel'flby entitled to claim and will immediately reeeive fiooa me or any of the Commanding oftleen a document or boad by which the propriety ofa grant of land consisting of 200 square acres will be ensured to them as well as to their families or heirs. The division ofIAieh p-anu will be made as'sOon as the present war is over. 5.• The Otllcen in the Amerieao army are not ooJy entitled to the aloresaid document or bond bot the nwnber of acres in addition to the 200.allowed to the soldiers, will be computed in proportion to the ~ · peetive grades they bold. 6.• Tb08e who desert the American army and enter the Mexican service are to continue in it during the present eampaip and thoee of ~e ~enation are to remain together if they chooee a~d uDder the ammediate command of their own oftlecrs, who will eontiaue in the sa· me grades they held in the Amcrieao army. 7.~ All those persons who come over to the Mexican armies shall be consadered,, rewarded and promoted in the same way u the Me:~:icaDII and according to their services in the present campaign• .The prece~i~g articles !!hall be dulr publi!!hcd in order that the MeIacan Authonttes may act in conformaty thereto. Head Q.uarters. Orizava the April 1R.t7 . . .4111onio Lope& de ....,....... Santa Anna's Notice During the U.S. War with Mexico in 1846, Santa Anna, commander of the Mexican forces, attempted to entice American soldiers to desert by offering them cash and land. Few Americans accepted his offer, but enough did to create a battalion-size unit. Many of its members were executed after recapture byAmerican forces. American Stereotypes of Mexicans Much of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was the product of U.S. expansionism and prejudicial disregard of Mexicans. American public opinion portrayed Mexicans as barbaric, corrupt, savages. The drawings of General Arista (top) and General Paredes (bottom) are typical of the rendering of Mexican leaders in the American press. To the left of eac h sketch is a potrait which more accurately reflects the act ual appearance of eac h man. many as 9,900 Mexican-Americans fought during the war. Most Mexican-Americans served in regular army or volunteer units on an integrated basis, although some served in predominately Mexican units with their own officers . It has been estimated that more than 40,000 books and pamphlets, enough to fill several libraries, have been written about the Civil War. The contributions of racial groups such as blacks and American Indians in this conflict have been documented. Only one book, Vaqueros in Blue and Gray, has been printed about the role of Mexican- Americans. The all-Mexican units tended to be volunteer militia units. During the civil war, Mexican Americans fought for both the Union and the Confederacy. The Union In 1863 the U.S. government authorized the military commander in California to raise four companies of native MexicanAmerican Californians in order to take advantage of their "extraordinary horsemanship." As a result the First Battalion of Native Cavalry, with Major Salvador Vallejo commanding, was created. At least 469 MexicanAmericans served in the four companies of the First Battalion of Native Cavalry. They were stationed in various posts throughout the Department of the Pacific in California and Arizona. They served bravely while guarding ~upply trains, chasing marauding bands of Confederate raiders, and helping to defeat a Confederate invasion of New Mexico. Regrettably, most of the unit's records were lost. In New Mexico, Miguel E. Pino raised the Second Regiment of New Mexico volunteers, which he commanded as its Colonel. In addition, at least six independent militia companies (five infantry, one cavalry) were raised in the state for three months service each. Most of the members of these units were Mexican-Americans as were their commanders. Like the California unit, they too served principally as border guards and fought in numerous small engagements. Among the new Mexico volunteers there were an estimated 4,000 MexicanAmericans. Lt. Colonel Chavez also commanded a New Mexican militia unit and General Stanilus Montoya commanded the Socorro County, New Mexico militia. Another non-Texas unit with a number of Spanish speaking soldiers was the 55th New York State Militia, "The Garde Lafayette.'' In Texas, the Union raised twelve companies of MexicanAmerican cavalry, orginally organized into two regiments but later consolidated into one, the First Regiment of Texas Cavalry (Union). Most of the officers in this unit were non-Hispanic, although several MexicanTexans (Tejanos) served as Captains (George Trevino, Clemente Zapata, Cesario Falcon, and Jose Maria Martines) and Lieutenants (Ramon Garcia Falcon, Antonio Abad D ias, Santos Cadena, and Cecilio Vela). Major Salvador Vallejo Vallejo served as a Captain in California's Mexican militia before the U.S. war with Mexico. During the American Civil War, he became an officer in one of the California units which served with the Union Army in the west. Colonel Michael Pino Pino commanded a unit of Hispanic volunteers in the militia of New Mexico Territory. In 1862 he helped the Union Army to defeat a Confederate attempt to invade the Arizona/New Mexico area. This drawing is not a true portrait, but is based upon descriptions and uniforms of the period . Drawing by Elio Gasperetti Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Chaves Chaves was a direct descendant of a Spanish solider who had come to the Southwest in 1600. During the War with Mexico (1846-1848) he had fought against the United States, but became a loyal citizen when New Mexico became a U .S. Territory. From 1855-1863 Chaves gained a reputation as an Indian fighter although he did not personally experience the rabid anti-Indian emotions of the period. When the Civil War broke out, Chaves joined the New Mexico volunteers and fought at the battle of Glorieta Pass (March, 1862) in which Union forces defeated the most serious of the Confederate attempts to invade New Mexico. Captain Roman Anthony Baca Baca joined the Union forces as an officer in the New Mexico volunteers. He also served as a spy for the Union army in Texas. After the war he became a rancher in New Mexico Territory and served several terms in the territorial legislature. The New Mexico Volunteers The New Mexico volunteers were probably the oldest militia organization in the New Mexico Territory. The units members and officers were predominantly Hispanic. During the Civil War, the unit was incorporated into the Union Army. In 1862, it fought in the battle of Valverde (a Confederate victory) and in the battle at Glorieta Pass (a Union victory). After 1862, the unit was principally engaged in patrolling and minor skirmishes. The Spanish-style uniform shown here is from 1850. It may still have been in use at the beginning of the Civil War. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti Admiral David G . Farragut The most famous Hispanic participant in the Union forces was in the Navy. David G . Farragut was born on July 5, 1801. His father , a Spaniard, had come to the United States in 1776 and participated in both the American R evolution and the War of 1812 . When David Farragut was nine, he was appointed a midshipman in the U .S. Navy (the term was used to denote young men who were apprenticed aboard ship to learn various tasks of the men they would grow to command). As a boy of 13, Farragut served aboard the U .S.S.Essex during the War of 1812 . After the war, David continued his apprenticeship on several cruises to the Mediterranean. During the war with Mexico, Farragut commanded the sloop-of-war Saratoga, but saw no combat. His ship was assigned to blockade duty off Vera Cruz. In 1854, Farragut established the Mare Island Navy Yard near San Francisco, and he had returned to his home in Norfolk, Virginia when the Civil War broke out. When Virginia seceded, however, he backed the Union and moved to New York. Farragut's fi rst wartime assignment was as a member of a naval board reviewing records of officers to select those to be retired. H e soon received a command and was ordered to use his West Gulf Blockading Squadron to attack and capture New Orleans. On April 18, 1862 , Farragut opened his assault on the city by bombarding one of two Confederate forts guarding the Mississippi River approach to the city. After five days of continuous bombardment, Farragut's fleet sailed past the devastated forts on April 24 and engaged the Confederate ships above the forts. After a furious battle, the Union ships succeeded in getting through and they sailed into New Orleans on April 25th . On the 26th, Union troops under General Benjamin Butler occupied the city . Farragut proceded up the river to capture Vicksburg, but-was unsuccessful. He then attacked the Confederate forts at Port Hudson 135 miles north of New Orleans. ' The forts protected Confederate supply routes to Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. In this battle Farragut developed the tacti~s for attacking forts which would make him famous. On March 13 1863 Farragut's squadron attack~d the' Port Hudson forts. Although they were unable to reduce the forts they were able to get two ships passed the Confederate guns, thus interdicting the Confederate supply routes . After the battle at Port Hudson Farragt.a refitted and repaired his ' ships . He also prepared for the battle which was to insure his fame as a naval leader. Mobile, Alabama was one of three great cotton ports in the South. New Orleans was already under Union control, thanks to Farragut, and now he approached the second largest port-Mobile. The ci ty itself was situated at the north end of Mobile Bay, at the confluence of the Mobile and Alabama Rivers. The Bay was a 35 mile long extension of the Gulf of Mexico into Alabama. The city was protected by two Confederate forts, each of which lay on a finger of land extending into the Gulf to create the Bay (see map). In the ~bile .K I Sfz.oal Wafer Admiral David G. Farragut Painting by A. Conrad US. Naval History Photograph NH49699 narrow entrance to Mobile Bay, the Confederates had driven wooden piles and anchored explosive mines to them (mines were called "torpedoes" at that time). Behind the forts, was the Confederate ironclad ram, CSS Tennessee. In the early morning hours of August 5, 1864, Farragut's fleet approached the mouth of the Bay. Union troops had already placed Fort Gaines under seige so his principal worries were Fort Morgan, the torpedoes, and the CSS Tennessee. Farragut's fleet contained 14 wooden ships and four ironclad monitors. His plan was to force a way through the torpedoes while engaging the guns in Fort Morgan. The four slower monitors advanced first , followed by the wooden ships. Not long after opening fire on Fort Morgan, the leading monitor Tecumseh struck a torpedo and sank. Following behind the Tecumseh was the wooden ship Brooklyn. It slowed, stopped and began to back up to keep from running into the other slower monitors and to avoid a "row of suspicious-looking bouys" under its bow. In the confusion which followed, Farragut sent two signals, "order the monitors ahead, and go on" and " I will take the lead. " He manuevered his ship, the Hartford, around the Brooklyn, and proceeded at full speed. It was later reported that as they passed the Brooklyn, Farragut shouted " Damn the torepoes! Full speed ahead!" His ship passed over the moored mines, scrapping them but causing no explosions. The remaining ships followed him and engaged the Tennessee. After a vicious battle, the Tennessee was forced to surrender and the city of Mobile was open to occupation by the Union. After the capture of Mobile, Farragut was commissioned Admiral of the Navy on July 26, 1866. He then took command of the European Squadron. While sailing abroad with the squadron, he visited his father's birthplace at Ciudadela, Minorca in the Mediterranean Sea and received a hero's welcome. Other European nations also honored him. He died in 1872 having gained international fame as a great naval leader. Confederacy Other Hispanics served in Confederate units such as the Benavides Regiment, commanded by Colonel Santos Benavides, and the lOth Texas Cavalry, commanded by Major Leonides M. Martin. According to the historian Jerry Don Thompson, significant numbers of Hispanics also served in the 55th Alabama Infantry, Manigault's Battalion of South Carolina Artillery, 6th Missouri Infantry, the Chalmetle Regiment of Louisana Infantry, and the Second Texas Mounted Rifles. Other Confederate units which contained large numbers of Hispanics included Vigil's Independent Company of Cavalry, the Louisiana Zouaves Battalion, 1st Florida Cavalry, the Spanish Legion of the European Brigade, the Spanish Guard (part of the Home Guard of Mobile, Alabama), and four independent New Mexico militia companies known by their commanders names (Gonzales, Martinez, Tafolla, and Perea). Colonel Santos Benavides Commander of the Benavides Regiment in the Confederate Army and defender of Laredo, Texas. Photo courtesy St. Mary's University Library Captain Joseph De La Garza As a lieutenant, de la Garza served three years in the Confederate Army. Upon his discharge, he returned to San Antonio, but re-enlisted in 1864 with the rank of Captain. His unit was rushed north to resist the Union attempt to invade Texas in the Red River Campaign. He was killed at the battle of Mansfield which turned back the Northern columns. Photo courtesy Helen Yturri Vigil's Independent Company of Cavalry Vigil's Company was one of five independent militia companies and one militia battalion from New Mexico which joined the Confederate Army. Of the six un its, they were the only cavalry unit. All six units were principally composed of Spanish-speaking personnel. Their term of service was short, for Confederate forces were quickly expelled from New Mexico Territory in 1862. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti The Louisiana Zouaves Battalion A Confederate unit raised from the foreign-born in New Orleans. It con tained a number of Spanish and Mex ican troops. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti 1st Florida Cavalry One of a number of Florida units containing men of Spanish ancestry which fought for the Confederacy. Drawing by Elio Gasperetti The conflict in Texas deeply divided the Mexican-Texans. An estimated 2,550 fought in the ranks of the Confederacy, while 950, including some Mexican nationals , fought for the Union. In many ways , by 1863, the Civil War in South Texas had become a civil war within a civil war. It was now Texan against Texan, Mexican-Texan against Mexican-Texan. After the hasty retreat of the bulk of the Confederate forces from the lower Rio Grande Valley, the only sizeable Rebel force remaining to defend the area around Laredo, Texas was commanded by Colonel Santos Benavides. This unit was better known as the "Benavides R egiment.'' Santos Benavides was born on November 1, 1823 in Laredo, Texas. As a young man he first tasted the sting of battle during Mexico's Federalist-Centralist wars which ravaged the Rio Grande Valley from 1838 to 1840 . In 1856, he became Mayor of Laredo and at the time of the Civil War, he had become a leading politician and financial figure in the area. He rose quickly in the Confederate ranks from Captain to Colonel. Commanding his own regiment, he was the highest ranking MexicanAmerican in the Confederate Army. Although Generals Hamilton Lee, Slaughter, and Magruder recommended promotion for Benavides to Brigadier General, Colonel John "Rip" Ford was against such a decision, feeling it would diminish his role in the Rio Grande exploits. In March of 1864, Confederate Brigadier General Hamilton P. Lee asked Colonel Benavides to ride to Brownsville to save the 100 man post which was under seige from elements of the Union's XIII Corps. Included in this group was the 2nd Texas Union Calvary, a Brownsville unit newly formed of Unionist Mexican-Texans. The 33rd Calvary commanded by Colonel Benavides rose to the occasion, and drove the Union forces back . A month after General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appamatox, the Civil War ended for Santos Benavides, his two courageous brothers, and the Mexican-Texans of the Lone Star State. "Tejanos" (As the Mexican Americans from Texas are called) had been among the first to take up arms for the Confederacy and were among the last to surrender. Brownsville, Texas On November 2, 1863, the Confederates evacuated Brownsville under threat of capture by Union forces . The 33rd Cavalry (Benevides Regiment) was in the Confederate force which successfully defended the city. She Fought as a Man Loretta Janet Velasquez was a Cuban-born woman who masqueraded as a male Confederate soldier. She enlisted in the Confederate Army in 1860, without her soldier-husband's knowledge. She fought at Bull Run, Ball' Bluff, and Fort Donelson, but was detected while in ew Orleans and discharged. Undeterred, she re-enlisted and fought at Shiloh until unmasked once more. She then took duty as a spy, working in both male and female guise. Her husband died during the war and she remarried three more times; being widowed in each instance. She traveled throughout the West before settling in Austin, Nevada. Courtesy Elio Gasperetti Spanish-American War (1898) Introduction By the mid-1820's, Spain had lost most of its colonial possessions in North and South America. One area which it did retain, however, was in the Caribbean and included the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Cuba, particularly, soon entered a period of social and political unrest with the institution and then suppression of several Constitutions in the period 1812-1814. In the years 1826 and 1835, Cubans initiated at least two armed revolts which were unsuccessful. Later attempts in the 1840's, supported by Cuban refugees in the United States, were equally unsuccessful. In 1850, Americans constituted two thirds of a force under General Narciso Lopez which invaded Cuba. They were defeated by the Spanish Army after capturing the city of Cardenas. In 1851 and again in 1854, two more expeditions against Cuba were similarly repulsed by Spain. From 1868 to 1878 Cuban revolutionaries engaged in the Ten Years War but were eventually defeated by Spanish force of arms, commanded by General Martinez Campos. In 1892, the Cuban Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Cubano) was established by the poet and patriot Jose Marti. On February 25, 1892, after working among the Cuban emigre groups in the United States and the Caribbean, Marti and his followers issued the cry of armed revolt -the grito de Baire (Cry of Baire). A three pronged attack was planned. Cuban forces under Antonio Macio in Costa Rica, Maximo Gomez in Santo Domingo, and Serafin Sanchez and Carlos Raldoff in the United States set-out to invade Cuba. The U .S. group was intercepted and turned back by the U .S. Navy, but the other two groups succeeded in landing on the island. From 1895-1896 they practiced guerrilla and economic warfare, raiding Spanish military posts and burning crops in the hope of forcing Spain out. The United States declared itself to be officially neutral in the struggle. On July 15, 1895, the Cuban Republic was declared but Spain responded by sending more troops under General Arsenio Martinez de Campos to put down the revolt. General Campos relied upon pacification tactics and a defensive line of forts and blockhouses (trocha) to suppress the rebellion. He was replaced in 1896 by General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau who escalated the conflict by building a second trocha and by resettling the populace into "reconcentrated" areas similar to the strategic hamlets which would be used in Vietnam in the 1960's. Weyler's intent was to isolate the guerrillas from the populace, but it served only to turn world public opinion against him-particularly in the United States. The American public demanded action to support the Cuban insurrectionists, but the policy of neu.trality prevailed . The U .S. presidential elections of 1896 concentrated on domestic issues of the economy although a watchful eye was set toward Cuba. After the election, the American press began to publicize the plight of the Cuban citizens in the makeshift Spanish reconcentration centers, and the U .S. government was requested to act. Although General Weyler was replaced in 1897, the horror stories of his policies continued. The battleship Maine was then sent to Havana harbor to protect American citizens and property as the political situation deteriorated. U.S. Involvement On February 15, 1898 a mysterious explosion ripped apart the Maine, killing 260 Americans. The U .S. press demanded action. On April 11, 1898, the United States declared war on Spain with the avowed purpose of freeing the oppressed Cubans. General Anthony Maceo Maceo was a Cuban and a leader in the Ten Year's War (1868-1878), the first major war for Cuban independence. From exile in Costa Rica, he served as second-incommand to General-in-Chief Gomez, and fought in the final revolt which began in 1895. He was a major antagonist to the Spanish forces, but was finally trapped and killed in 1896, two years before eventual freedom from Spain. ' General Maximus Gomez Gomez was a prominent leader in the Ten Year's War (1868-1878), the major struggle for Cuban independence. He returned to Cuba in 1895 from exile and served as General-in-Chief in the final war for independence. He commanded all Cuban forces which cooperated with the American Army during the SpanishAmerican War in 1898. The U.S. Army of 1898 was a small professional force scattered in posts throughout the country. It consisted of approximately 30,000 officers and men in comparison to nearly 200,000 Spanish troops in Cuba. lnjune, 1898 17,000 American soldiers landed on the southeastern tip of Cuba at Daiquiri, near the city of Santiago. Among the U.S. forces were 1,200 men of the lst U.S. Volunteer Cavalry under Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. More commonly known as the "Rough Riders,'' this unit was an amalgam of America. Approximately five percent were recent immigrants from foreign countries. Another 20% were from Arizona, New Mexico , Oklahoma, and Indian Territories. The remainder came from each state in the Union. As might be expected, Hispanics were among those who served in the Rough Riders. Among them were Private John B. Alamia, Sergeant George W. Armijo, Private G. W. Arringo, Private Jose M. Baca, Private Frank C. Brito, Private Jose Brito, Private Abel B. Duran, Private Joseph L. Duran, Captain Maximiliano Luna, and Saddler Joe T. Sandoval. Captain Maximiliano Luna was perhaps the most distinguished Hispanic member of the Rough Riders. He was descended directly from the conquistadores who settled New Mexico in 1650 and his family had lived along the Rio Grande River since the 17th century. He was thirty-eight when he joined the Rough Riders, having been educated at the Jesuit College in Las Vegas, Nevada and at Georgetown University in the District of Columbia. His father had represented the ew Mexico Territory in the U.S. Congress and he himself had been in the Territorial legislature as well as serving as sheriff of Valencia County. C a ptain Luna was athl etic a nd a n acco mpli shed musicia n . H e was livin g in anta Fe with hi w ife a nd elling insura nce wh en he dec ided to join the Rough Rider . Afte r la nding in Cuba, th e Rough Ride rs a nd th e re t of th e America n Army m a rched to Sibo ney, had th e ir fir st comba t a t Las Guasimas, and pushed to wa rd Sa nti ago where th ey ove r ran Spa ni sh fo rt s a t El C a ney and o n San Juan Hill . During th e lighting, G eo rge Armijo and G.W. Arringo we re wounded . In conjuncti o n with Cuba n fo rces, th e Ameri ca n s besieged th e Spanish garrison in Santiago itself. Afte r th e Spa ni h a vy was de feated outside Sa ntiago Harbor, th e cit y surrende red. Colonel Wood was na m ed Milita ry G ove rnor of Sa ntiago a nd Capta in Luna se rved as his interprete r . Cuban Forces The Cuba n re volutiona ries had bee n lighting fo r three years under G e ne ra l M axim o G o m ez, pri o r to th e Ameri can la nding. They a nti cipated th a t Ame ri ca n support would tip th e balance of powe r in th e ir favor. By success full y wagin g a war o f attrition and b y u in g gu e rrilla forces , the Cubans had managed to isola te the Spa ni sh by co nfining th e m to th e citi es a nd th e blockhou ses . The Rough Riders Officers of the 1st Volunteer Cavalry pose in 1898 prior to departing for Florida and Cuba. Colonel Leonard Wood, the commanding officer, is fourth from the left in the first row. Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt is fifth from the left in the first row. Captain Maximiliano Luna, the sole Hispanic officer in the unit is standing behind Lt. Colonel Roosevelt (circle). Cuban Guerrillas Cuban General Riss and his staff during the Spanish-American War, 1898. US. Naval History Photograph NH 1005 The Cubans divided the island into two parts, the Eastern Department commanded by General Calixto Garcia and the Western Department by General J .M. Rodriguez. In May, 1898 , the Americans provided a shipload of arms to the Cubans and in June G eneral Garcia conferred with the American force commander, General Shaffer, about how the Cubans would support the landing. The Cubans agreed to keep the Spanish bottled up in the cities and to clear the proposed landing site. The American forces were impressed with the Cuban plans and personnel , but soon after landing, relations deteriorated. The condition of the haggard Cuban forces disappointed the well equipped Americans who overlooked their previous long struggle. In addition, white Americans reacted unfavorably to the large number of blacks among the insurrectionists. As a result , the Cubans felt slighted and were angered at not being given more important assignmehts. Wars End The Spanish garrison surrendered Santiago on July 17, 1898. Eight days later, American forces landed in Puerto Rico and captured the island by August 12. On August 13, one day after the end of the war, American troops took Manila, capital city of the Philippines. As a result of the peace treaty ending the war, Spain relinquished control of Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico , and Guam, all of which fell under American influence. Spain's colonial empire was now gone . George Armijo , an Hi panic Rough Rider, became a member of Congress after the war. A military camp at Las Vegas, New Mexico was named after Captain Maximiliano Luna. It was later converted to a career and trade school and still bears his name, "Luna Trade School." Frank Brito was one of the last surviving Rough Riders. He died in 1968. Spanish-American War Survivors This photo, taken in 1963, shows the last three survivors of the Rough Riders. From left to right they are: Charles 0. Hopping, Jesse D. Langdon, and Frank C. Brito, the only surviving Hispanic member. World War I (1914-1918) The Early War Experience In March 1917, four American merchant ships were sunk on the open seas by German submarines. Prior to that incident, the U.S. had been a nonparticipant in the conflict raging in Europe. In April, the United States declared war, but was ill-prepa red to assume fighting immediately. The war effort would require millions of people in the military and the active U.S. Army had only about 200,000 members. A draft act was passed in 1917 to obtain the necessary manpower and about 3.8 million men were drafted. Out of a total U .S . population of almost 92 million people in 1910, 13.3 million were foreign-born, another 12 .9 million had two foreign-born parent. From this, it group of almost 6 million had one foreign born parent. From this, it can be seen that one-third of the total population were recent immigrants; greatly increasing the likelihood that many had little or no skill in English . This was born out by the experiences of U .S. military personnel at induction centers and training camps. Thousands of draftees, from all over the world, including Spain and Mexico, were found to have insufficient skill in English to complete the training. The exigencies of the war in Europe necessitated the speedy induction and training of men for shipment to the front. Those with no or limited ability in English were relegated to development battalions at the training centers. For weeks these men were given little or no attention. They grew discontented, restless, sullen, and resentful of their situation. Eventually, some four thousand of these non-English speaking men were gathered at Camp Gordon, Georgia. Many were relegated to menial jobs and to ridicule by their English speaking brethren. Most wanted to get out of the military. Eventually, someone discovered that the language barrier was the principal cause of their problem. After rudimentary interviews, the men were separated into language groups and officers who could speak their native tongue were identified. Once communication was established, many useful skills were discerned, including previous military experience in the countries of their birth. Training then progressed in the native tongue of the draftees. This training, then known as the ''Camp Gordon Plan,'' was extended to seven other military posts. Most Hispanic draftees were at Camp Cody, New Mexico for training. In the time it took to discern the problem, design the "Camp Gordon Plan' ' remedy, and begin to train the non-English speaking soldiers, the war was nearing an end. The training took too long and few saw combat as a result. Hispanics in Combat From scattered records, we do know that Hispanic Americans fought in World War I. Nicolas Lucero, a nineteen year old from Albuquerque, New Mexico received the French Croix de Guerre for destroying two German machine gun emplacements and for keeping a constant fire on the enemy positions for over three hours. In another incident, Marcelino Serna, an Hispanic, enlisted in the Army and was sent to fight in the frontline trenches of France. On September 12, 1981, the U.S . First Army launched an offensive to crash through the St. Mihiel salient near the French-German border. That same day, Private Serna shot at a German soldier opposite him in the trenches. The German was wounded but still managed to return Serna's fire , grazing him slightly on the head. Following a trail of blood, Serna tracked the wounded enemy soldier to a dugout. He paused a moment, then tossed a concussion grenade into the enclosure . To his surprise, not one but 24 Germans came out. As Marcelin o was attempting to seek help to detain these prisoners, a you ng Ameri can soldier approached him and attempted to kill th e prisoners. Marcelino informed th e young soldier that if he wanted to shoot the enemy he should go find some further north of the trenches . H e also told him th a t it wa against the rules of war to kill prisoners. For this feat, Serna was awarded !Itt' Di-,ringuished Service Cross. For later ac tions , he was also <'ccoratc I wit h th e French Croix de ( ;ucrrc. the Victory M edal with three bars, a nd the Purple H eart twice. Although seemingly eligible for the U.S. M edal of Honor, he was told by a n officer that to be so hon ored one had to be of a higher rank tha n a " bu ck" private, and that he could not be advanced to a high er grade because he could not read o r write English well enough to sign reports. Marcelino Serna The Mexican-American veteran of World War I proudly displays his medals in a photograph taken several yea rs after the war. The faded, blurred newspa per photograph reproduced on the next page is captioned: "Federico Nolina, son of Mr. Micolas Nolina , resident of this city, R .D .F. No. 7; at right , a friend of the young Mexican-Texan. They are seen here in one of regiments that left San Antonio just a short time ago for France and they are going to take part in the struggle against the enemies of democracy. '' Although these reference are scattered, they are illustrative of the many unrecognized efforts by Hispanics to contribute to the war effort. In another instance, a Senator from ew Mexico published in the Congressional R ecord an honor role of New Mexican Hispanics killed in France during World War I. He named the following: Thomas Herrera, Leopoldo Carbajal, Alfredo Moya, Manuel Ortega, Porfirio Peno, Alonso Aragon, Donaciano Martinez, Andres Garcia, Desiderio Vigil , Manuel Chavez, Atonicio Garcia; Jose Mario Pena, Pedro Romero, Gilberto Wohlgemuth , Alberto Carbajal, Cadelario Cardon, Cosme Gallegos, Silvio Gonzalez, Maximiliano Cardenas, Luis Moya, Luis E. Mares, Cipriano Martinez, Francisco 0. Lucero. As we can see by the names from ew M ex ico, Hispanics were indeed among the valiant who died in defense of this country in World War I. Mexican-Texans going to France · to fight in 1918 sang the following song: ''R egistration 1918 ' ' The cards arrived at home for each one verifying the registration those twenty-one to thirty-one. Good bye Laredo highlighted by yours towers and bells but we shall never forget your beautiful Mexican women. They are taking us to fight to some distant land and taking us to fight the German troops. They are taking us to fight in distinct directions and taking us to fight with different nations. How far is the journey over the waves great will be my pleasure if I will triumph . When I was fighting I would remember everybody and more of my poor mother that cried so much for me. Good bye dear parents and the lady-I love when we are in France a sigh we will send you. Good bye Laredo highlighted by your towers and bells but we shall never forget your beautiful Mexican women. We cannot say with any certainty, how many Hispanics served in U .S. forces during World War I. There can be little doubt, however, that many did serve and with honor. We should not allow their sacrifices to be lost in the blurred pages of history . Hispanic Soldiers Federico Molina and a friend pose in France during World War I. The photo is reproduced from an old 2. Registro de 1918 L. p U.·s caycron sus tarjctas al domtnho a c.ada uno, M: vc:nf1cO el n:gtstro del vcmuuno al trcmta y uno Ad10s l...a.rc:do Iucido con sus torres y campanas, pero nunca olvtdaremos a tus lindas mcx1canas. Ya nos llevan a pelear a unas tlerras mU)' lcjanas y nos 1\cvan a pdcar con las 1ropas alcmanas Ya nos IIC\an a pc·lcar 3 dJSIJntaS dHCCCIOOM. , y nos lle\·an a pclcar con dtft·rcntes nactones Registration 1918 iQuC lcJOS cs Ia travcsia sabre las alas dd mar! Grande fucra m1 alc:gria st llcgare yo a munfar. Cuando andaba yo pclcando de todnos me acordaba, }' m:is de mt pobre madre que por mi tanlo llo raha AdiOs mts quendo~ padres y Ia jO\'cn a quu:n )O amo. ya cuando cStt·mos en Franc1a un sulop1ro lcs mandamos Ad•Os Laredo IuCido con sus torn."S y camp.anas, pcro nunc.a oh1darcmos a tus hnd.u mrx•c.anas. newspaper. The music and words in Spanish from this popular World War I song. World War II (1941-1945) Introduction It has been estimated that anywhere from 250,000 to 500,000 Hispanics served in the armed forces during World War II . This represents a range of 2. 5 to 5% of all persons who served during the war. Figures are imprecise because, with the exception of Puerto Ricans, data on Hispanics were not maintained. We do know that over 53,000 Puerto Ricans served during the period 1940-1946. ational Guard units from Texas, New Mexico , Arizona, and California had a high representation of Mexican Americans. With the exception of the 65th Infantry regiment from Puerto Rico, Hispanics were not in segregated units . Approximately 200 Puerto Rican women served m the Women 's Army Corps. The Hispanic participation in the war effort is difficult to separate from the overall efforts of all the men and women who served in our armed forces . Those whose accomplishments we highlight below should be considered representative of Hispanic contributions to the war effort. Bataan World War II began for most Americans on D ecember 7, 1941, when Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor. The war had been in full swing for two years in Europe -and for four years in Asia. Although the Pearl Harbor attack was unexpected, preparations for an eventual war had begun earlier. As part of the troop movement to bolster the defense of the Philippines, the 200th and 515th Coast Artillery (Anti-Aircraft) were sent to stations around Clark Field near Manila. Both units were from the New Mexico National Guard and had a heavy representation of Hispanic officers and enlisted men. They had been selected because many of the men in the unit spoke Spanish, a principal language of the Philippines . Upon their arrival, they became the largest single American military unit in the Philippines. Most of the 140,000 defenders of the island were members of the Philippine Army (100,000). The Japanese bombed Clark Field on December 8, 1941 and Sgt. Felipe N. Trejo of Santa Fe , New Mexico and Epimenio Rubi of Winslow, Arizona were among the first American casualties. The Japanese followed this attack with a troop landing on the northern coast of Luzon on December 10 . They drove steadily south toward 200th Coast Artillery (Anti aircraft) Some of the officers and men of Battery B, 200th Coast Artillery (AA) pose in 1941 after being inducted into the U.S. Army. Manila. General MacArthur, who commanded all units in the Philippines realized that he could not defend the entire island. While holding back the Japanese as best as possible, he consolidated his remaining forces on the Bataan Peninsula which jutted out into the South China Sea west of Manila to form Manila Bay. Just off the tip of Bataan was the island of Corregidor which guarded the mouth of the bay. MacArthur put his headquarters on the island. Despite desperate fighting, the Japanese pushed the American forces down the peninsula, successively breaking through four defensive lines. On April 9, 1942, General Edward P. King was forced to surrender with 36,000 of his troops. General Wainwright retreated to Corregidor where he and the remaining forces held out for another month, finally capitulating on May 8, 1942. The Japanese were ill-prepared to handle the approximately 16,000 prisoners whom they collected on Bataan. Lacking transportation or supplies, they forced their prisoners to march north, back up the Bataan Peninsula, some 85 miles to prison camps . During the 12 day "death march " many prisoners died from J apanese mistreatment; less than 10,000 survived the march. Once in prisoner of war camps, brutality, disease, and malnutrition further reduced the prisoner's numbers. An Hispanic American survivor, J.G. Lucero of New Mexico, kept a weight chart and cartoons drawn by prisoners as a reminder of his ordeal. Philippine Invasion, 1941-42 Japanese troops celebrate the capture of an American position on Orion, during the final offensive on Bataan in April, 1942. Courtesy of Dr. Diosdada M. Yap, Editor-Publisher Bataan Magazine, Washington , D.C. US. Naval History Photograph NH73536 Captured American and Filipino Troops After the Surrender on Corregidor The 11,500 surviving troops became prisoners of war and on May 28, 1942, were evacuated to a prison stockade in Manila. The picture is reproduced from an illustration which appeared in a captured Japanese publication. ... \ Survivors of Japanese Prisoner of War Camps Mr. Adolfo Garduno (on the left) from Las Vegas, New Mexico was one of the Hispanic survivors captured on Bataan. North Africa On November 8, 1942, American forces assumed the offensive and landed on the coast of North Africa at Oran. Hispanics from National Guard units in the southwest were a part of the 1st and 3rd Infantry Divisions as well as the 2nd Armored Division. Aleutians The American invasion of the Aleutian Islands in May, 1943 was intended to protect Alaska from Japanese invasion . The fighting there produced the first Hispanic Medal of Honor recipient of World War 11-Private Jose P . Martinez. Born in Taos, New Mexico in 1920, Martinez was one of nine children. H e moved with his family to Ault, Colorado in 1927 where his father found work as an agricultural laborer. He was drafted in August 1942 and took his basic training at Camp Roberts, California. After training he was assigned to a unit in the 7th Infantry Division . On May 11, 1943, Martinez landed on Red Beach with his unit at Holtz Bay, Attu, the western most island on the Aleutian chain. During an attack by his unit 15 days after landing, Martinez' unit was pinned down by Japanese small arms, machine guns, and mortars. On his own initiative, Martinez jumped up and lead his platoon in the assault. Others followed his example. When the attack faltered under withering fire, Martinez again leapt forward. On two separate occasions, he jumped into a trench among the Japanese defenders and drove them back. During the second episode, he was mortally wounded. A Disabled American Veterans chapter in Colorado and an American Legion post in California are named in his honor. He became an inspiration to many Hispanics in and out of uniform when the Army released his story. The Mediterranean On July 10, 1943, the U .S. Seventh Army under General Patton and the British Eighth Army under General Montgomery landed on the southeast coast of Sicily in the early morning hours. This started the Allied attempt to regain control of the Mediterranean, knocking Italy out of the war. In just over a month, the campaign was completed and plans were initiated for the invasion of Italy. Initially, the U .S. Fifth Army was to land near Naples (Operation Avalanche) and the British on the toe of Italy across from Sicily (Operation Baytown). On September 3, 1943, the British Army moved across the Strait of Messina to the Italian mainland. On September 9, the American Fifth Army hit the beach at Salerno. By the end of the day, the initial beachhead was secured. One of the units of the Fifth Army was the 36th Infantry (TPatcher) Division from Texas. A unit of the 36th, was the 141st Infantry Regiment which traced its lineage to the 1st and 2nd Texas Volunteers in the Texas Revolution of 1836. A large number of Hispanics served in the 36th, and particularly in the 141st. Company E of the 141st had a high concentration of Hispanics. The action was heavy at Salerno and E Company had its share. One historian, Robert Wagner, described it this way in his book The Texas Army: ''The 2nd Battalion of the 141 st, landing fifty minutes late, passed through rear elements of 3rd Battalion and proceeded along the 3rd's left flank toward its objective. Companies 'E' and 'F' pressed inland until halted by eight German tanks running back and forth across both company fronts. The tanks inflicted numerous Unit Insignia of the 141st Infantry casualties with their machine guns until they were forced to retreat by the effects of infantry weapons alone. In this fight Corporal Benito G . Dominguez of Seguin, Texas knocked out an enemy half-track with a rifle grenade. Private Raymond G . Guttierez of Sonora, Texas moved forward firing his BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle). Two enemy bullets pierced his helmet but failed to touch him. The third caught him in the arm. He continued to advance, located the enemy machine gun , closed in on it, and knifed the German gunner to death. First Sergeant Gabriel L. Navarette from El Paso, Texas had been given the mission of determining local enemy strength and in so doing was wounded in the hand by German machine gunfire as he attempted to operate a signal projector. A member of Navarette's patrol, Private First Class Alfredo P. Ruiz, single handedly attacked a tank and exchanged fire with a member of the tank crew armed with a machine pistol. Ruiz, also from El Paso, approached so close that he was caught in the camouflage of brush used by the Germans and was pulled about ten yards before he was able to break loose.'' The men of the 141st experienced 361 days of combat in World War II: 137 days in Italy, 204 in France, 17 in Germany and 4 in Austria. They sustained over 6,000 casualties; including 1,126 killed, 5,000 wounded, and over 500 missing in action. In recognition of their extended service and valor, despite significant casualties, members of the 141st garnered 3 Medals of Honor, 31 Distinguished Service Crosses, 12 Legion of Merits, 492 Silver Stars, 11 Soldier's Medals, 1,685 Bronze Stars, and numerous commendations and decorations. Staff Sergeant Manual Gonzales He won the Distinguished Service Cross for his bravery in attacking a German 88mm gun crew during the American landing at Salerno during World War II. The 142d Infantry, sister regiment of the !41st, also had a number of Hispanics in its ranks scattered among each of its companies. They, too, had their Hispanic heroes; among them Sergeant Manuel S . Gonzales from Fort Davis, Texas. Soon after landing at Salerno, Sergeant Gonzales located the position of a German 88 mm gun which was placing effective fire on U .S. landing craft struggling for shore. He moved toward the gun but was spotted by the Germans who fired at him with a machine gun. Tracers from the German gun set Gonzales' field pack afire on his back but he continued to advance. When he had gotten close enough, he threw hand grenades at the German gun and crew. The Germans threw their own grenades at Gonzales. Though wounded, Gonzales continued the attack until he had killed the entire crew and blown up their ammunition. For his courage, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Europe Hispanics served in a large number of U.S. units during the fighting in Europe. Among the units with Hispanic representation were the: 30th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division in which S/Sgt Lucian Adams of Port Arthur, Texas was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions on October 28, 1944 near St Die, France; 313th Infantry Regiment, 79th Infantry Division which landed at Utah Beach in Normandy and fought its way through St. Lo, France and across the Seine River; 22nd Infantry Regiment, 4th Infantry Division in which S/Sgt Macario Garcia of Sugarland, Texas was awarded the M edal of Honor for his actions on November 20, 1944 near Grosshau, Germany; 23rd Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division in which Sgt Jose M. Lopez received a Medal of Honor on December 7, 1944 for his actions near Krinkelt, Belgium; 7th Infantry Regiment, 3d Infantry Division in which Private Jose F. Valdez of Governador, New Mexico was awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery on January 25, 1945 near Rosenkrantz, France: 142nd Infantry Regiment, 36th Infantry Division in which Pfc Silvestre S. H errea of Phoenix, Arizona received the Medal of Honor for his actions near Mertzwiller, France on March 15, 1945 ; and the 65th Infantry Regiment, an all-Hispanic unit from Puerto Rico, which saw service in Germany and Central Europe. Noncombatants During wartime, public attention generally focuses upon the people who do the shooting, shelling, and bombing. Combat troops, however, constitute a relatively small percentage of people in uniform and engaged in war-related activities. Often under extreme hardship, Medical, Transportation, and Quartermaster personnel, provide supplies, equipment, and life saving services. Hispanic Americans made outstanding contributions in these units. One such noncombatant unit was the 713th Railway Operating Battalion of the Military Railway Service. The 713th, or "Santa Fe Battalion", was formed at Camp Clovis, New M exico on March 12, 1942. Its members were experienced railway personnel who had been inducted to clear, repair, and build military railways and to operate the trains which moved vital su pplies to the front line troops. Although they did not experience direct combat, they were subject to enemy bombing and shelling in addition to the occupational hazards and dangerous climatic conditions associated with railway work. After receiving military training, the 713th left New Mexico on January 21,1943 for Fort Dix, New Jersey and shipment to North Africa. On February 19, 1943, the unit landed at Casablanca in Morocco. From February through September 1943, the 713th operated trains, cleared and repaired track, and built new track all along the North African coast from Casablanca, Morocco; to Ovan, Setif, and Tebessa, Algeria; to Sbeitla and Sousse, Tunisia. From February to May 1943, the 713th transported over 500,000 tons in 47,255 cars by rail. They provided the bulk of the rail supply to the American 2nd Corps and the British 1st and 8th Armies which insured a victory for the Allies in North Africa . Later in the war, the 713th moved to Italy from October, 1943 to June, 1944 and then to Southern France in September, 1944 and up to Western Germany in early 1945. Most of the Hispanics in the 713th were assigned to Company A which was responsible for the repairing of existing railway systems and the laying of new track. Among the Hispanic members were Eulogio Chavez, Lionzo Chavez, Juan Cornejo, Charles Fernandez, Hilario Flores, Jose Gonzales, Jose Martinez, Luz Martinez, Joe Padilla, John Salas, Christmas Tapparo, and George Vassios. Their unsung contributions to the war effort should not be forgotten . The Pacific The fighting in the Pacific had its share of Hispanic heroes . The 158th Regimental Combat Team (an Arizona National Guard unit) was organized originally as the 1st Arizona Volunteer Infantry in late 1865 . Some of its first companies were comprised principally of Maricopa and Pima Indians who participated in several campaigns against the Apache. It was during this period that the unit adopted as their motto "Cuidado," a Spanish word meaning "take care." During World War II, the unit was called into Federal service on September 16 , 1940 and sent to Fort Sill, Oklahoma for training. In February 1941 , the 158th was moved to Camp Barkley, Texas for more training and then to manuevers in Louisiana. Unit Insignia of the 158th Infantry When war became a reality on December 7, the 158th found itself enroute to Panama for jungle training and to guard the Panama Canal Zone. It was there that they adopted the deadly Bushmaster snake for their insignia. In January 1943, the unit was on the move again -to Brisbane, Australia where it became part of the U .S. Sixth Army. From Australia, the 158th was committed to co mbat at Milne Bay, Kiriwina Island , Port Moresby, and Arawe (all in New Guinea) during 1943; at Wake and Noemfoor Islands in New Guinea during 1944; at Lingayen Gulf, Batangas, and Legaspi, Luzon in the Philippines during 1945; and finally to Yokohama, J apan for occupation duty. The 158th was one of the first U .S . units to see combat in the Pacific and was referred to as " the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed for battle " by General Douglas MacArthur. Among other units with Hispanic representation were: the 148th Infantry Regiment, 37th Infantry Division in which Private Cleto Rodriguez of San Antonio, Texas received the Medal of Honor on February 9, 1945 for personally killing 82 Japanese soldiers near Manila in the Philippines; the 5llth Parachute Infantry Regiment, lith Airborne Division in which PFC Manuel Perez of Chicago, Illinois was awarded the Medal of Honor on February 13, 1945 for destroying eleven Japanese pillboxes on Luzon in the Philippines; the 127th Infantry Regiment, 32d Infantry Division in which S/Sgt Ismael Villegas and PFC David Gonzales each received the Medal of Honor for their actions on the Villa Verde Trail in Luzon during March and April 1945; and the 165th Infantry Regiment, 27th Infantry Division in which Sgt Alejandro Ruiz from Loving, New Mexico received the Medal of Honor on April 28, 1945 for his bravery on Okinawa. Technical Sergeant Cleto Rodriguez This rendition of the Medal of Honor recipient's actions in the Philippine Islands (1945) was done by Henry Lozano. The painting is part of the Army's American War Life Collection. US. Army Photograph CC 105121 "Cuidado"-Take Care-Bushmaster with Bolo! Cries of "Banzai" rang through the snake infested jungles while the staccato of Private First Class enemy machine guns, mortars and rifles rolled. The bayonet charges were suicidal but the 158th Regimental Combat Team, the "Bushmasters," repulsed Manuel Perez the enemy and advanced. It fought day after day, in critical battles to open the Perez, a member of the 511th Visayan passages for allied shipping in the Pacific. The merciless campaign Parachute Infantry Regiment, 11th lasted two months in terrain laced with tank traps, wire, mines, and bamboo Airborne Division, received the Medal thickets. of Honor for destroying eleven Painting by H Charles McBarron taken from the "Army in A ction Series" and Japanese pill boxes on Luzon in the included in the "National Guard H eritage Series". Phillipines. In addition, John G. Benavides served as an intelligence officer with the famed 25th Fighter Squadron, 14th U.S. Air Force (the "Flying Tigers") in China under General Claire Chennault. After the war he became a district attorney and was appointed eventually as the first Hispanic district judge in Bexar County, Texas on October 1, 1969. He died in June 1982 and was buried with full military honors at Fort Sam Houston. Not all Hispanics served in the Army dl\ring the Pacific fighting. On Saipan and Tinian, Mariana Islands, South Pacific in the summer of 1944, Marine PFC Guy "Gabby" Gabaldon distinguished himself by singlehandedly capturing over 1,000 Japanese. He has the distinction of capturing more enemy soldiers than anyone else in the history of military conflicts of the U.S. Born in Los Angeles, he was adopted by a Japanese American family, who taught him Japanese. When war broke out with Japan, his two "brothers" joined the U.S. armed forces in Europe and his foster parents and sister were sent to a relocation center. After recruit training, Gabaldon qualified as a mortar crewman, Japanese translator, and scout observer. He then received amphibious training, and was sent to Saipan on June 15, 1944. While serving as a Japanese interpreter, he received a Silver Star. His citation read in part ... "PFC Gabaldon entered enemy positions in caves, pillboxes, buildings and jungle brush and, in the face of direct enemy fire , obtained vital information and aided in the capture of over one thousand enemy civilians and enemy personnel. Working alone in front John G. Benavides Former intelligence officer with the 25th Fighter Squadron, 14th U.S. Air Force (the " Flying Tigers") and district judge in Bexar County Texas. He died in June, 1982. of the lines, he contributed materially to the success of the campaign and through his efforts, a definite humane treatment of prisoners was insured ... " The weakened Japanese soldiers had been commanded to fight to the last man by their officers, but Gabaldon persuaded them to surrender. Twice wounded, he was evacuated to the United States Hospital at Oceanside, California. After the war, Mr. Gabaldon appeared as a guest on the NBC Television Show, "This is Your Life" in June 1957, and a movie depicting his exploits entitled, ''From Hell to Eternity,' ' appeared in 1960. His Silver Star was elevated to a Navy Cross, this country's second highest Navy award for valor, on December 20, 1960. A little recognized contribution by Hispanics to the war in the Pacific was that made by the 201 st Mexican Fighter Squadron (201 Escuadron de Caza). On June 11, 1942, Mexico declared war on the Axis powers and made plans for the organization of the 201st Fighter Squadron. A select group of pilots from all walks of life were inducted into the Squadron. Most had received initial flight training in Mexico or the U.S. They were then sent for orientation flight training at Pocatello Army Air Base, Idaho and trained as a P-47 fighter squadron, with 35 officers and 300 enlisted men. The Squadron finished all phases of its training by early March 1945 with a superior record . The 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron was attached to the 58th Fighter Group (P-47) in the Philippines. There they began combat operations in June 1945. Considering that the 201st was new to combat, their record compares favorably with that of the veteran pilots of the 58th Fighter Group. Private First Class Guy Gabaldon This Hispanic Marine received the Silver Star for actions performed on Saipan in 1944 when he aided in the capture of over one thousand enemy civilians and soldiers. They participated in bombing missions in Formosa and supported troops from the 25th Division with bombing and strafing missions . From June 1 to July 10, 1945, the 201st: (I) flew 50 missions and 293 sorties; (2) dropped 181 tons of bombs; (3) fired 104,000 rounds of ammunition; and (4) seven pilots were killed in action . On Veteran's Day, Carlos Foustinos, a former member of the Squadron, flies a Mexican flag in his home instead of "Old Glory." This flag is flown in commemoration of the men of the 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron who fought and died in aerial combat along with Americans in the South Pacific. Faustinos flew approximately 25 missions, recording six Japanese zero kills . This feat brought him the distinction of a flying ace and he was awarded the " La Cruz de Honor" (The Cross of Honor), which is equivalent to the U .S. Medal of Honor, by the Mexican government. Another unsung Hispanic hero of World War II is Gerard Rodriguez. His military career began during World War II , but spanned three major conflicts in thirty-eight years. Born in Andorra, a small country in the Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain, Rodriguez experienced war at the early age of 13 when the Spanish Civil War engulfed his homeland. After the death of his parents , he hiked across France and got a job as a cabin boy on a ship going to the United States. He became a citizen in 1940 and joined the Army. Rodriguez was assigned to the 3d Cavalry, but when his unit was mechanized he volunteered to join the 5307th Composite Group which was soon to gain fame as ''Merrill's Marauders.'' The 5307th was the first U.S. long- Gerard Rodriguez On the march with Merrill's Marauders. Rodriguez (second from right) walked through the jungles of Burma to join Stilwell's Chinese units in World War II. range penetration group and was modeled after the British Chindits under General Orde Wingate. In 1943, the 5307th arrived in India and after training with Wingate's forces moved into the jungle of Burma, behind Japanese lines . Rodriguez was assigned to the Intelligence and Reconnaissance platoon. The 5307th marched over 600 miles in performing their mission, living off the land and occassional drops of airborne supplies. They fought several major battles and were instrumental in preventing a Japanese invasion of India. Throughout the length of their mission, they were hunted by Japanese troops and suffered from extreme hardships caused by the weather and terrain. When the war ended, Rodriguez moved to Wichita, Kansas where he first joined the Army National Guard and then the Army Reserve. During his Reserve tour, he served in the Special Forces and the U.S. Bicentennial Color Guard, eventually being promoted to Master Sergeant. He became a member of the 5048th U.S. Army Reserve Noncommissioned Officer Academy when he could no longer participate in parachute jumps with the Special Forces. In mid-1981 , having been promoted to Sergeant Major, he retired. He is believed to have been the last of "Merrill' s Maurauders" to leave active duty. Sergeant Major Gerard Rodriguez on his retirement in 1981. Korean Conflict (1950-1953) The Korean Conflict saw many Hispanic Americans again respond to the call of duty. They served with distinction in all the Services. Many Hispanic Americans chose to serve in combat units like the Marines and paratroopers; much like their brothers, cousins, and friends had done in World War II. Many Mexican Americans from barrios in Los Angeles, San Antonio, Laredo, Phoenix, and Chicago saw fierce action in Korea. Fighting in almost every combat unit in Korea they distinguished themselves through courage and bravery as they had in previous wars . Nine Hispanics received the Congressional Medal of Honor for heroism in the Korean Conflict. Their actions are summarized in the Medal of Honor section of this booklet. There was one all-Hispanic unit to serve in Korea -the Puerto Rican 65th Infantry Regiment. The unit was initially constituted on March 2, 1899, as the Puerto Rico Regiment of Volunteer Infantry. One battalion was stationed in San Juan and the second battalion, a mounted unit, was stationed at Henry Barracks. The 65th saw heavy and extensive service in Korea where it arrived at Pusan on September 20, 1950 . Over the next three years it participated in nine major campaigns, earning a Presidential Unit Citation, a Meritorious Unit Commendation and two Republic of Korea Unit Citations. Individual members of the unit were awarded 4 Distinguished Service Crosses and 124 Silver Stars. They were also credited with capturing 2,086 enemy soldiers and killing 5,905 . Unit Insignia of the 65th Infantry ) The 65th in Korea Chinese communist soldiers captured by the 1st Platoon, Company C, 1st Bat talion , 65th Infantry Regiment near Humhung in December 1950. Korea, 1951 Battle weary soldiers of the 65th Infantry return to safety behind the lines after two days of being trapped north of the Han River in June 1951. Korean Combat Rifle crew of Company M, 3rd Battalion, 65th Infantry, with a 75mm recoiless rifle, guarding a valley north of Chorwan, June 14, 1951. The ground fighting in Korea was conducted in some of the most mountainous terrain in the world and many of the bitterest battles occurred during the winter months, when the soldiers suffered from extremely cold temperatures, snow, and ice. The Korean Conflict will also be remembered for the first large-scale use of jet aircraft in wartime. The German Air Force had introduced the first jets late in World War II, but the war ended before they could make a significant contribution. Toward the end of the Korean Conflict, Chinese Communist forces introduced the M IG-15 jet fighter; the U.S. Air Force responded with the F-86 "Sabrejet." Of 839 MIG-15s shot down, 800 were downed by Sabrejets. The Communists were only able to shoot down 58 F-86s . Air-to-air engagements at 40,000 feet soon became common place in Korea and a new breed of pilot was born-the jet ace. Captain Manuel J. Fernandez, Jr. was assigned to the 334th Squadron, 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing. From September 1952, to May 1953, he flew 125 combat missions in the F-86 . On most of those missions, his job was to locate and destroy Communist MIGs in the air. His first victory took place on October 4, 1952. On his fifth victory, he became an "ace" and he ended the war having destroyed 14 .5 enemy planes, making him the third ranking MIG killer of the entire war. His 14.5 air victories also placed him 60th among the top U .S. Air Force aces of World War I, World War II , and the Korean Conflict combined. After the war, while flying an F-lOOC, "Super Sabre," he set a Colonel Manuel J. Fernandez, Jr. new world record by attaining an average speed of 666.661 mph in the Bendix Trophy Race of September, 1956. He retired after ach ieving the rank of Colonel in the U.S. Air Force. A Salute to Hispanic Fighter Aces World Wa r II and Korea The term "Ace" has been used since World War I. It is used to designate a fighter pilot who destroys five or more enemy aircraft in aerial combat. The term originated in the French escadrilles (squadrons) of World War I. Commander Eugene A. Valencia, Jr. Navy Fighter Ace World War II Commander Valencia is credited with 23 air victories in the Pacific during World War II. Captain Richard G . Candelaria Air Force Fighter Ace World War II Captain Candelaria was assigned to the 479 Fighter Squadron and fought in the European Theatre. He shotdown six German aircraft. On April 13, 1945, he was shot down by antiaircraft fire in East Prussia and finished the war in a German prisoner of war camp. Captain Michel Brezas Air Force Fighter Ace World War II Michael Brezas, during the summer of 1944, arrived at Lucera, Italy, to join the 48th Fighter Squadron of the 14th Fighter Group. Flying the P-38 aircraft, Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months. On July 8, he destroyed a ME 109 over Vienna, Austria. On a mission to Budapest on July 12, he downed one ME 109 and two FW !90's. He became an ace on July 19 when he destroyed an FW 190 on a mission to Munich, Germany. Then on July 20 he shot down another ME 109 while flying against Menninger, Germany. Six days later he destroyed two FW !90's near Buzau , Roumania. Lt Brezas also downed two ME 109's on Aug 7 while flying a mission to Blechhammer, Germany. His final two victoreis were scored on August 25 against two FW !90's while on a mission to Kurin , Czechoslovakia. Michael Brezas came to the 48th Fighter Squadron as a 2d Lieutenant. He was promoted to 1st Lieutenant in July and to Captain in November. He was only 21 years old. He received the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal with eleven Oak Leaf Clusters, and the Silver Star. Distinguished Flying Cross Colonel Manuel J. Fernandez, Jr. Air Force Fighter Ace Korean Conflict From September 1952 to May 1953, Capt. Manuel J. Fernandez, Jr. shot down 14 Y2 MIGs and flew 125 combat missions with the 4th Figher lnteceptor Wing in Korea. Flying F-86 aircraft, his first MIG victory occurred on 4 October 1952. On 10 May 1953 he had his last Korean victory and shared Y2 victory over MIG aircraft the same day. He is credited with 14 solo victories. Colonel Ferandez was born in Key West, Florida on 19 April 1925. In 1943 he graduated from Andrew' Jackson High School in Miami , Florida. Hero Street U.S.A. In Silvis , Illinois, just west of Chicago, stands a momument to eight heroes of Mexican-American descent who gave their lives in defense of this nation. The monument is a street once named Second Street, now renamed Hero Street U .S.A. It is not much of a street in size-just one and a half blocks long. The street is muddy with rain in the spring, slick with snow in the winter, and hazy with dust in the summer. Joe Gomez (who earned a Silver Star), Peter Masias, Johnny Muros, Tony Pompa, Frank Sandoval, Joseph Sandoval, William Sandoval and Claro Soliz grew up together on this small street in a very close knit environment working for the railroad, as did their fathers who came from Mexico years before . They went to war without hesitation , even though their streets were not paved and the citizens of Silvis chose to ignore the docile, hard working Mexicans on the edge of town. They never came back. The men from the 22 families on this block who participated in World War II, Korea and Vietnam totals 84 . In World War II and Korea, 57 men went from this street. The two Sandoval families sent thirteen: six from one family; seven from the other. Three Sandoval sons did not come back. This street reportedly contributed more men, to military service in two wars-World War II and Korea-than any other place of comparable size in the United States. Hero Street U.S.A. stands alone in American military history. Hero St. u s A Hero Street, U.S.A. Corner of 1st A venue and 2nd Street, Silvis, Illinois The Men from Hero Street From left to right, top row, William Sandoval, Johnny Munos, Joseph Sandoval, Peter Masis, Tony Pompa. Bottom row, from left to right, Joseph Gomez, Claro Soliz, Frank Sandoval. Vietnam Era (1960-1973) Introduction In February 1950, the United States granted political recognition to Vietnam as a quasi-independent state within the French Union . Prior to World War II, the entire Indochina area had been under French colonial administration . During the war, Japanese troops had occupied the area and from 1945-1950, France pursued a course of re-establishing its authority. By May of 1950, the United States had begun to provide military and economic aid to the French. The French Army was engaged in a military conflict against nationalist and communist forces who had provided armed resistance to the Japanese occupation, but were now combating the French return . After four years of fighting, the French Army was defeated by the Viet Minh (a Communist-supported organization) at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. During the French struggle against the Viet Minh, the United States created the first Special Forces unit on June 20 , 1952 . Special Forces were an outgrowth from the World War II commando and Special Service Force units . The mission of these elite units was to plan , conduct and support unconventional warfare operation. As such, its members were capable of training, advising , and supporting guerrilla or anti guerrilla units in other countries. In mid-1957, a U.S. Special Forces unit arrived in the Republic of Vietnam (the Southern half of Vietnam which had been partitioned by the 1954 peace agreement with France). In M ay of 1960 another Special Forces unit arrived in South Vietnam to train the Vietnamese Army which was engaged in fighting a guerrilla war. In November 1961, Special Forces medical units were sent to South Vietnam to provide assistance to Montagnard tribes (Montagnards were an ethnic group living in the mountains of central South Vietnam). From 1961 to 1965 over 80 Special Forces camps were established as part of the U.S. supported Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) program. The CIDG program was intended to assist South Vietnamese minority groups in raising para military forces to resist Communist guerrilla activity and to defend minority group villages. Each CIDG camp had a South Vietnamese Special Forces team, a U.S. Special Forces team and from 2-7 companies of indigenous self-defense troops. Some camps also had a unit of Nung' s (tribesmen from the mountains of North Vietnam who had been hired by the United States). Each CIDG camp was intended to be a self-contained, fully independent organization capable of resisting Communist forces operating in the area. The U .S . Special Forces team was to advise the South Vietnamese, assist in camp administration, and prepare all persons for eventual turnover of the camp to South Vietnamese authorities. Early Fighting It did not take the Viet Cong (Vietnamese Communists) long to realize the purpose of the CIDG camps. Fighting picked up in volume as the Viet Cong probed for weaknesses and attacked several camps. Camp defense became a primary Special Forces concern as many early CIDG camps were not fortified. In November 1963, a reinforced battalion of Viet Cong attacked the CIDG camp at Hiep Hoa, Long An Province which had been opened in February 1963. It was night and the defenders in the camp were taken completely by suprise as heavy machine gun and mortar fire raked the camp. Among the U .S. Special Forces personnel at Hiep Hoa was Sergeant First Class (SFC) Issac Camacho. All the camp defenders were pinned down by the withering Viet Cong fire. SFC Camacho ran from his sleeping area to a mortar position and began to return fire. Pressure from the attacking force soon breached the camp's defensive wall and the commanding officer ordered a withdraw!. In the confusion of the battle and the darkness of the night, SFC Camacho became separated from his Special Forces compatriots and was captured by the Viet Cong. SFC Camacho remained a prisoner for almost twenty months. On July 9, 1965 he was able to escape from his captors and make his way to freedom after crossing miles of Commmnist infested territory. For his personal daring in the defense of Hiep Hoa and his successful escape, SFC Camacho was awarded the Silver Star and the Bronze Star Medal in September 1965. He was also promoted to Master Sergeant (MSG). Later MSG Camacho was given a battlefield commission as a Captain. He has since retired from the Army and lives in El Paso, Texas. Intermediate Fighting In late 1963 Ngo Dinh Diem, President of South Vietnam, was killed in a military coup. A few weeks later, John F. Kennedy, President of the United States, was assassinated. Lyndon B. Johnson became President of the United States. During this period, U .S . Special Forces in South Vietnam were increased and the CIDG program was expanded under the U .S. Military Assistance Command. Ships of the U .S . Navy also were put on patrol in the Gulf of Tonkin off the North Vietnamese Coast. Late in the afternoon of August 2, 1964, the USS Maddox, a 3,300 Sergeant First Class Issac Camacho ton destroyer was attacked by three torpedo boats approaching from the north as it patrolled in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Maddox avoided three torpedoes which were fired at it as well as 3 7 -millimeter gunfire from the torpedo boats. It returned fire and badly damaged one boat. On August 3, 1964, the Maddox was joined by the USS Turner Joy and the two vessels resumed patrol. On August 4, the two vessels were attacked soon after sunset. Three to six North Vietnamese gunboats fired torpedoes and automatic cannons at the two U.S. destroyers. Two gunboats were sunk by the U.S. return fire. In retalliation, two U .S. carriers in the area were authorized to launch sixty-four planes to attack North Vietnamese gunboat and oil storage facilities. Twenty-five torpedo boats were reported to have been sunk and most of fourteen oil storage tanks destroyed by the raiders with a loss of two airplanes. The pilot of one of the planes was killed, the other pilot Lieutenant Ug) Everett Alvarez, Jr. , jumped from his damaged plane but his parachute failed to open. He was picked up by a fishing boat and imprisoned by the North Vietnamese. Lt Ug) Alvarez was the first American and first Hispanic pilot to become a prisoner of war. He was born in Salinas, California and attended the University of Santa Clara, where he received a degree in Electrical Engineering. In 1960 he was commissioned in the Navy as an Ensign and had taken flight training at the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida. He was twentysix years old and newly married when his plane was shot down and he was captured. Lt Ug) Alvarez remained a prisoner of war for almost eight and one-half years; the longest confirmed POW in the Nation's Ensign Everett Alvarez, Jr. Ensign Alvarez receives his pilot wings from Capt. Ritt Mathew, USN, at the U.S. Naval Auxiliary Air Station, Kingsville, Texas on August 13, 1964. US. Na vy Photograph 1105043 history. In February 1973 he was repatriated by the North V ietnamese in the first group of prisoners as a result of the peace agreement negotiated in Paris. H e was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and promoted to Lieutenant Commander. In March 1973, a city park in Santa Clara, California was dedicated in hi s honor. He left the Navy soon thereafter and is currently serving as the Deputy Director for the Veteran's Administration. The Final Years In the mid-1960's U .S. conventional troops entered South Vietnam . North Vietnamese regular forces became increasi ngl y evident, and the war shifted into a conve ntional mode. The U.S. Air Force bombed orth Vietnam as did the Navy flying from carriers off the North Vietnamese Coast. Peace negotiations were initiated m Paris and the war began to deescalate by the early 1970's. Hispanics served in all military units on the ground, in the air, and at sea. There were no allHispanic units and the military did not record separate data on Hispanic participation. Any analysis, therefore, is dependent upon an analysis of unit rosters to identify Hispanic surnames. Any results from such studies are incomplete due to improper identification. In 1969, a study was released which examined Hispanic participation in the war by a nal yzing casualty figures for two periods; one from January, 1961 to February, 1967 , and the other from December, 1967 to M a rch , 1969. The study revealed that for the two periods, 8,016 men from the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas had bee n killed. Of the number, over 19 % had Hispanic surnames. The 1960 census indicated that Hispanics were only 11.8 % of the total population in the five states and 13.8 % of all military age males in those states. Lieutenant Commander Alvarez On March 1, 1973, Alvarez spent thirty minutes answering questions for television and newspaper reporters at the Oakland, California Naval Hospital. He was the first man shot down over North Vietnam and was undergoing medical checks ·at the hospital after spending eight and onehalf years as a prisoner of war. US. Navy Photograph K-98458 A P.O.W. Returns In Hanoi, North Vietnam, Air Force Lieutenate Colonel Richard F. Abel (foreground), Public Relations Officer from Cleveland, Ohio, greets the first group of prisoners of war as the men wait for their name to be announced prior to their boarding a C-141 Star!ifter cargo transport at Gia Lap airport. Navy Lieutenant Commander Everett Alvarez, Jr. from Santa Clara, California, heads the line. US. Navy Photograph 1155656 Santa Clara City Park On March 25, 1973, Lieutenant Commander Everett Alvarez, Jr., spoke with people from his hometown of Santa Clara, California as they dedicated a city park in his honor. US. Navy Photograph K-98928 Two areas of significant Hispanic population were omitted from this study; Florida and New York. But even those preliminary figures indicated the heavy investment Hispanic Americans made in the war effort and its inevitable cost to the Hispanic Community. Casualties do not reflect the entire story, for many more people returned from Vietnam than died there. We should not forget the contributions made by the survivors either. The End In September, 1974, Master Sergeant (MSgt) Juan J . Valdez was transferred to the U .S. embassy in Saigon as the Noncommissioned Officer in charge (NCOIC) of the embassy's Marine Security Guard. He was 37 years old at the time and had been in the Marine Corps since May, 1955 . MSgt Valdez had been in South Vietnam before from September 1967 to March 1970 , when he had served as a platoon sergeant with the 3rd Amtracs. At the embassy . he was responsible for the 45 Marines who guarded the embassy. During the final weeks of the war they helped to process persons leaving South Vietnam and to control crowds outside the embassy compound who also sought to leave. On April 23, 1975, communist forces shelled the Bien Hoa air base near Saigon. By April 29, the air base was attacked by ground troops; Saigon was isolated . A helicopter evacuation from the embassy itself was begun. The Marine Guards provided security for the helicopters while they were on the embassy roof. MSgt Valdez was on the last helicopter to leave on April 30, 1975 , thus ending a fifteen year saga in which Hispanics were among the first Americans to enter South Vietnam and among the last to leave-a truly notable and honorable record. Hispanic Americans have shown Lance Corporal Ernest Delgado, USMC Corporal Delgado takes a break in the last month of his tour in Vietnam. that if there is a theme to Hispanic participation in America's wars, it is "First in ... last to leave. " Post-Vietnam Era (1974-1982) With the cessation of fighting in Vietnam, the inevitable post conflict draw downs occurred. Units were disbanded and reorganized. The All Volunteer Force was introduced and the Selective Service System reduced. Peacetime equal opportunity programs were reinstituted and preconflict issues were addressed. A summary of major developments follows. Equal Opportunity Training: An important element of the DoD Equal Opportunity Program is the Human/Race Relations Education Program. This program was formally established with the publication of the DoD Directive 1322 . 11 , "Department of Defense Education in Race Relations for Armed Forces Personnel," dated June 23, 1971. It requires as a matter of policy that an education program in race relations be conducted on a continuing basis for all military personnel in an effort to improve and achieve equal opportunity within DoD and to eliminate and prevent racial tensions, unrest and violence. The program was placed under the supervision of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (now Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics). The directive also established a Race Relations Education Board (RREB) with the mission of developing overall policy guidance for the DoD program of education in race relations. The original membership of the RREB included the Assistant Secretary for Manpower from each military department, a representative of each military service, and two Deputy Assistant Secretaries of Defense-Equal Opportunity and Reserve Affairs. The Board was, and still is, chaired by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics. The directive established the Defense Race Relations Institute (DRRI) to train armed forces personnel assigned as instructors in race relations. The DRRI was organized as a DoD field activity, attached to the Air Force (Patrick Air Force Base, Florida) for administrative and logistical support, and under the operational supervision of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower and Reserve Affairs). As with the overall DoD Race Relations Education Program, the DRRI was subject to the policy guidance of the RREB. The primary focus of the program initially was to reduce racial tensions and violence, and achieve racial harmony. Throughout the armed forces, emphasis was placed on interpersonal relations at the small unit level. The program accommodated only active duty personnel. DRRI was charged with the development of a standard program of instruction for all services, except the Marine Corps, which was excluded from the provisions of the directive. The Marine Corps had previously established a Human Relations Institute which was considered to be a parallel course toward achievement of the DoD goal of harmonious relations among all military personnel. In August 1973, the DoD directive was reissued to extend its applicability to members of the National Guard and the Reserve. While the program continued to be called Race Relations Training Education, the scope was broadened at the Institute to include women in the military and ethnic/cultural awareness training, such as Hispanic culture and antiSemitism. For this reason, the name was expanded from Human/Race Relations Institute (DRRI) to Equal Opportunity Management Institute (EOMI). These changes were not made for cosmetics purposes, but reflected a basic change in approach to equal opportunity and training as a result of detailed study. Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute: After an extensive review of the race relations and equal opportunity programs in DoD, and an assessment of the training program offered by the Institute, the Institute was reorganized in 1977-1978 and its mission was expanded. The curriculum has been revised to shift the focus from primarily individual forms of discrimination to the concern with both individual forms of discrimination and the more pervasive systemic and institutional forms of discrimination. With this broader focus , however , there has been no reduction in the amount of effort devoted to training personnel in race/human relations. In addition to serving the active forces of the DoD, EOMI recently implemented a course consisting of correspondence and resident phases to accomodate the scheduling needs of the National Guard and the Reserves. Since the inception, EOMI has trained over 6,000 race relations instructors and equal opportunity specialists for the Armed Forces and the United States Coast Guard. Affirmative Action Plans and the DoD Budgetary Process: An Affirmative Action Plan (AAP) is a management plan which identifies equal opportunity problems and outlines the actions that the command will take to resolve or mitigate those problems. Affirmative actions which have major fiscal resource implications are now included in the DoD budget process. This is a major advancement for equal opportunity. All of the military departments now report on ten common subject areas as a part of their AAP's: • Recruiting/Accessions • Assignment • Evaluation • Training • Promotion • Discipline • Separation • Recognition • Utilization of Skills • Discrimination Complaints Discrimination Complaints: Discrimination complaint precedures are published at every level; including the lowest command level. The procedures must be in writing and prominently displayed where all service members have open access to them. Further, personnel are instructed on the proper procedures to follow in filing discrimination complaints. Equally important, personnel must be assured that complaints can be initiated without fear of intimidation, reprisal , harassment, or embarrassment. Equal Opportunity in Off-Base Housing Program: The Department of Defense supports federal fair housing legislation through its Equal Opportunity in Off-Base Housing Program. This program is designed to insure that DoD personnel have equal opportunity for available housing regardless of race , color, religion , sex, or national origin. The goal of the program is achieved when a person who meets the ordinary standards of character and financial responsibility is able to obtain off-base housing in the same manner as any other person anywhere in the area surrounding the installation, without suffering refusal and humiliation because of discrimination. Under the DoD off-base housing program each major installation has a housing referral office (HRO) and maintains listing of available rental and sale property. For housing to be listed with the HRO, the agent for housing must give an assurance that the facility is available to all military personnel without regard to race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. In the housing referral office, all military personnel are informed of the military' s fair housing program and are counseled on various methods that may be used by agents to discriminate against minorities and women. Personnel are also advised to immediately report any suspected act of discrimination to the housing referral office . The DoD program assigns responsibility and authority to commanders to investigate alleged discrimination complaints and impose 180-day restrictive sanctions against agents when discrimination complaints are valid. The DoD Equal Opportunity in Off-Base Housing Program has gained a respected reputation by providing an efficient and responsive service in a very sensitive and critical area to hundreds of thousands of military personnel worldwide. H ispanics in th e Active Force Hispanic participation in the active force has remained generally static in the Post-Vietnam era, as T able 1 (pg. 59) shows. Hispanics now constitute 3. 7% of all personnel on active duty; in 1971 that figure was 3.1 % . In 1970, Hispanics constituted 4.5% of the total United States' population; in 1980 that figure had grown to 6.4%. In 1980, the Hispanic representation in the military age group of 20-44 was 6.7%. Total Year Hispanic Officers 1971 4,750 1972 4,152 1973 4,012 1974 4,032 1975 4,046 1976 3,858 1977 4,130 1978 4,242 1979 4,529 1980 3, 176 1981 3,657 TABLE 1 Hispanics in the Armed Forces Hispanic % of all Officers 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.1 1.3 Tot:tl Hispanic Hispanic % Enlisted of all enlisted 78,382 3.4 78,736 4 .0 78, 135 4.1 81 '739 4 .4 83 ,434 4 .6 81,887 4.6 79,426 4.5 77 ,654 4.4 75,425 4.3 70,506 4.0 72,513 4.0 The National Guard Officers and enlisted members of the Army and Air National Guard of Puerto Rico in 1979. % of Total DoD Personnel in Grade 6.4% 12.8% 14.7 % 31.5% 17.5 % 11.6 % 5. 1 % 0.4% 100.0% % of Total DoD Personnel in Grade 37 .3 % 22.8% 30.5% 9.4 % 100.0 % Grade Warrant Officers 01 02 03 04 OS 06 07-11 TOTAL Grade El -E3 E4 E5-E6 E7-E9 TOTAL Table 2 below illustrates the distribution of active duty personnel as of D ecember 1981 for officers and Table 3 for enlisted personnel. TABLE 2 Hispanic Officer Distribution by Grade Number of Hispanics in Grade 230 577 654 1,294 483 305 110 4 3,657 % of Total Hispanics in Grade 6.3% 15.8 % 17 .9 % 35 .4% 13.2% 8 .3 % 3.0% 0. 1 % 100.0 % TABLE 3 Number of all DoD Personnel in Grade 18,174 36,615 41,844 89,911 50,041 33, 112 14,481 1,072 285,250 Hispanic Enlisted Distribution by Grade Number of % of Total Number of all Hispanics Hispanics DoD Personnel in Grade in Grade in Grade 27 ,717 38 .2% 670,324 18,904 26.1% 408,871 21,342 29 .4 % 546,157 4,550 6.3% 167,863 72,513 100.0 % 1,793,215 Hispanic Women in the Military When the all volunteer force was Hispanic women constitute 2. 9% Table 5 below illustrates the created in the 1970's, additional of all women in the active force as distribution of active duty career fields previously closed to of December 1981. Table 4 below personnel as of December 1981 for women were opened so that shows that the actual number of officers and Table 6 for enlisted approximately 90% of all military Hispanic women officers has personnel. From both tables we can occupational specialties could be increased 146% in the period see that Hispanic women officers filled by women . Movement of 1971-1981. The actual number of and enlisted personnel are women into these non-traditional Hispanic women in the enlisted distributed jn approximately the jobs was enhanced bY.',' the grades has increased even more same manner as all women officers disestablishment of th~}Women's dramatically, going up 524% in the and enlisted personnel generally. Army Corps in April 1978. · period 1971-1981. Table 4 Hispanic Women in the Armed Forces Hispanic Hispanic Total Women% Total Women% Hispanic of all Hispanic of all Women Women Women Women Year Officers Officers Enlisted Enlisted 1971 216 1.7% 980 3.3% 1972 196 1.6% 1,307 4.1% 1973 208 1.6% 1,438 3.4% 1974 218 1.7% 2,102 3.4% 1975 231 1.7% 2,885 3.5% 1976 219 1.6% 3,238 3.4% 1977 254 1.7% 3,392 3.3% 1978 285 1.7% 3,796 3.3% 1979 378 2.0% 4,334 3.3% 1980 282 1.3% 4,495 3.0% 1981 361 1.5% 5,138 3.2% TABLE 5 Hispanic Female Officer Distribution by Grade %of Total Number of Hispanic Number of Total Hispanics Women in DoD Women in % of Total DoD Grade in Grade Grade Grade Women in Grade Warrant Officers 3 0.8% 181 0.8% 01 74 20.8% 5,188 21.7% 02 85 23.9% 5,828 24.4% 03 143 40.3% 9,109 38.1% 04 30 8.4% 2,445 10.2% 05 16 4.6% 910 3 .8 % 06 4 1.2 % 258 1.1% 07-11 0 6 0.03% TOTAL 355 100.0% 23,925 100.13% TABLE 6 Hispanic Female Distribution by Grade Hispanic American Role Models in Selected Military Careers The following pictures and ca ptions are representative of the variety of mi litary positions held by Hispanic Americans. Grade 46.6% 33 .4% 19.4% 0.7% 100.1% ~ Delores Y. Acosta, USN Chief, Manpower, Personnel, and Training Data Resource Management Branch (OP-167), Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Captain Acosta has served in a variety of personnel-related positions since joining the Navy. Her first assignment was with the 1st Navy District Headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts where she was responsible for the management of records on inactive duty enlisted Naval Reservists who lived in the district. She has also served as an Education and Training Officer; Personnel Officer; Data Processing Director; Director for Manpower, Personnel, Training and Career Development; and as the project officer for the development and implementation of a new automated personnel information system before assuming her current duties. Grade Women in Grade 76,331 46.9% 49,671 30.5% 35,443 21.5% 1,369 0.8% 162,815 100.0% Private First Class Hilda Alvarajo, USA Private Alvarajo is a social work representative at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Washington, D.C. Grade El-E3 E4 E5-E6 E7-E9 TOTAL Number of Hispanics in Grade 2,392 1 '716 996 34 5,138 % of Total Hispanic Number of Total Women in DoD Women in % of Total D oD Chief Master Sergeant Abel Araiza, USAF Chief Araiza received the Legion of Merit for exceptionally meritorious co nduct in the performance of outstanding services from President Ford . Chief Araiza is presently assigned to Kelly Air Force Base, Texas. Senior Chief Petty Officer Maria L. Gonzalez , USN Supervisor, Enlisted Availability Section , Navy Military Personnel Command . Chief Gonzalez has served in the Navy since 1961 and is the highest ranking Hispanic enlisted woman in the Navy. Lieutenant Colonel Dolores R. Gresham, USMC Member, Navy Discharge Review Board . Colonel Gresham has had a variety of assignments since she entered the Marine Corps in 1964. She began as an air control officer but then commanded a company of women Marines and served as an assistant protocol officer before returning to her aviation specialty as an Airfield Operations Officer. She has also served as a member of the Leadership Instructor Department faculty at the Command and Staff College and as Commanding Officer of a Marine Air Traffic Control Squadron before assuming her current duties. Lieutenant Edna Guevara, USAF Executive Officer, 3480th Technical Training Group. Airman First Class Bridget M. Macias, USAF Executive-Admini,;t ralin· Assistant to the Command Section, Air Force Data Service Center in the Pentagon. She is responsible for all adm inistrative services for the Section. Master Gunnery Sergeant Luis Rivera-Cruz, USMC Operations Chief, 2d Force Service Support Group, Camp Lejeune. He has held a variety of positions concerned with the operation and repair of motorized transports. Private First Class Brenda Taylor, USMC Photographer, Marine Aircraft Group-46. Private Taylor recently enlisted in the Corps and has participated in high school recruiting visits in addition to attending basic and advanced training in her military specialty. Lieutenant Colonel Amilcar Vazquez, USMC Assistant to the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Civilian Personnel and Equal Opportunity. Colonel Vazquez graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1961. He has served as a Communications Platoon Commander, Motor Transport Company Commander, Communications/Electronics Officer, Data Processing Officer, and Command Inspector before assuming his current duties. In 1981, Colonel Vazquez received the meritorious Service Medal for the successful development and conduct of a program to increase Hi pa nic representation in the Naval service. The Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) When General George C . Marshall became Secretary of Defense in September 1950, two of the issues he faced were racial integration in the uniformed services and more efficient use of human resources . To work with him in these important areas, he selected a labor relations and manpower expert as the first Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Personnel -Anna M . Rosenberg, the first and only women to hold that position. Assistant Secretary Rosenberg decided to invite fifty women to Washington to form an advisory committte on how to obtain and efficiently utilize more women in the armed forces . Later known as the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS), the Committee met for the first time in September 1951. Assistant Secretary Rosenberg hosted the group and chaired the meeting of business, education, and civic women. In October 1951, DoD formally established DACOWITS and set forth its objectives: ( 1) to inform the public of the need for women in the military; (2) to create further public acceptance of women in the services by emphasizing to parents how the military assumes responsibility for the welfare of women entering the Service; and (3) to accelerate the recruitment of women, yet stress the quality as well as quantity of recruits. In 1954, DACOWITS received a new charter which changed its role from recruiting women for military service to promoting the acceptance of a military career for women by the general public and the military itself. In addition, the Committee was to assist and advise the Secretary of Defense on matters relating to women in the services. DACOWITS activities during the 1950's and 1960's tended to concentrate on specific issues, such as housing or promotions, each year. By the early 1970's, however, DACOWITS members were addressing a large variety of issues in connection with the creation of an all volunteer force in 1972, the subsequent expansion of the total number of women in the military, and the opening of more military specialties to women. DACOWITS today is a vital, advisory body. It is concerned with a wide variety of issues such as: ( 1) the impact of the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act on the career patterns of military women; (2) physical standards for enlistment and their impact on women; (3) military clothing and equipment and their adaptability to women; (4) sexual harassmenq (5) equality of treatment for men and women; (6) the impact of increasing numbers of women on military readiness ; (7) military academy admissions policies ; and (8) legislative restrictions against women in combat. Hispanic Americans play a significant role in the DACOWITS consideration of these issues. As of August 1982, four of the thirty-four DACOWITS members were Hispanic. They include Mrs. Maria E. Torralva (DACOWITS Chair), Ms. Patricia V. Asip (DACOWITS Vice Chair), Ms. Mary Jo French, MD, and Mr. Carlos Madrid, Jr. Mrs. Maria E. T6rralva 1982 DACOWITS Chair Mrs. Patricia Asip 1982 DACOWITS Vice Chair Ms. Mary J o French, MD 1982 DACOWITS Member (photo not available) Mr. Carlos Madrid, Jr. 1982 DACOWITS Member Mrs. Torralva lives in San Antonio, Texas. She is a graduate of Brackenridge High School in San Antonio, and of St Mary's University. Mrs. Torralva began her working career with the San Antonio Independent School District where she wrote curriculum for the bilingual program, served as a consultant to the Texas Education Agency migrant program, and served on a curriculum advisory committee for foreign languages. ln 1975, Mrs. Torralva joined the staff of a San Antonio television station as Director of MexicanAmerican Affairs. In 1977, she also became co-anchor of the midmorning newscast, becoming the first Mexican-American women to co-anchor a major newscast at an English-Speaking station . In 1978, she was promoted to her present position of Director of Community Services at the station . In this capacity she serves as hostess/producer of three major programs dealing with the lifestyle, traditions , and customs of Mexican-Americans in the Southwest. In 1980, Mrs. Torralva was appointed by the Secretary of Defense to be a DACOWITS member. In january 1982, she was designated Chair of the Committee. In addition to its civilian membership, DACOWITS has a number of military representatives assigned to the Committee and a two person Executive Secretariat staff in OSD. DACOWITS does not only provide advice to the Secretary of Defense on policy matters regarding military women. Its members -as spokespersons in their own communities -have also served as vital links in obtaining public acceptance of the Armed Forces as a viable career for women and have provided critical information to the Secretary and to the military services about public perceptions and attitudes regarding the military. Hispanic American Recipients of the Medal of Honor The Old Medal of Honor 70 Introduction The Medal of Honor takes its place in our country's heritage as the highest award for military valor. This honor, awarded by the President in the name of the Congress, may be accorded an individual who "distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. " The history of the medal, the deeds for which it has been awarded and the people who have earned it are of great interest to the Nation they have served. The most supreme acts of heroism are recognized by the Medal of Honor. Hispanic-Americans have a sophisticated ancestry, which dates back to homesteading this nation 150 years before the War of Independence. Although war is tragic, nevertheless, when our country has been in need , Hispanic-Americans have had more than their share of stouthearted, indomitable men. These Medal of Honor recipients by their actions have shouted encouragements in the battlefield to their comrades and at home to their fellow Hispanics. Their intrepid actions have been in the highest tradition, a credit to themselves, their ancestry, and our Nation. Many of these valiant Hispanics made the ultimate sacrifice and received recognition posthumously. They have con tributed their full measure to the life and history of the United States of America. Bazaar, Philip Civil War Rank and organization: Ordinary Seaman, U.S. Navy. Born: Chile, South America. Accredited to: Massachusetts, G .O. No.: 59, 22 June 1865. Citation: On board the U .S . Santiago de Cuba during the assault on Fort Fisher on 15 January 1865 . As one of a boat crew detailed to one of the generals on shore, O.S. Bazaar bravely entered the fort in the assault and accompanied his party in carrying dispatches at the height of the battle. He was 1 of 6 men who entered the fort in the assault from the fleet. U.S.S. Saratoga, ship on which Ortega served Courtesy of the Philadelphia Maritime Museum Ortega, JohnCivil War R a nk and organization: Seaman, U .S . Navy. Born: 1840, Spain.Accredited to: Pennsylvania. G.O.No.: 45, 31 December 1864.Citation: Served as seaman onboard the U .S .S. Saratoga duringactions of that vessel on 2occasions. Carrying out his dutiescourageously during these actions.Ortega conducted himself gallantlythrough both periods. Promoted to Reverse of medal awarded to Ortega acting master's mate. 72 Silva, France Boxer Rebellion R a nk a nd organi zation : Pri vate, U.S . M a rine C orps. Born: 8 M ay 18 76, Haywards, C a lif. Accredi ted to : Californi a G .O . No . : 55 , 19 July 190 1. C itati on : In the presence of the enem y during th e acti on at Pekin g, China, 28 June to 17 August 1900. Throu ghout thi s period, Silva distinguished himself b y m eritori ous conduct. Our interests in the Fa r Eas t which d ated back to the R evoluti on we re intensified by acquisiti on of P ac ific possessions in 1898 and 1899. During thi s peri od of our occupation with the Spani shAmerican W a r , European natio ns had ina ugura ted policies in C hin a j eopa rdi zin g the freedom of trade in th e Orient and threatenin g to lead to di smemberment o f C hin a itself. As the nineteenth century drew to a close, the weakenin g D ynasty was faced with the choice o f continuing to protect foreigner in C hin a or o f rema ining in power on th e side of the " Boxers," soc ietie ori gin all y orga ni ze d in pa tri otic protest against foreign aggress ion . In 1900 a series of outrages again st all " foreign dev il s" culmina ted in th e iege of th e British legation a t Pekin g where m a ny alien residents had taken refuge. The Imperi al Govern ment refused to take action a nd the Amercia n minister appealed to th e N avy. As a res ult , th e U.S.S . Newark placed ashore a co ntin ge nt of m a rin es a nd three bluej ackets as a legation gu a rd. These men with another detachment of ma rines, soldiers, a nd sailors j oined with troops of other western nations in the gallant defense of th e Pekin g legations again st the Boxe rs until the a rrival of th Allied Army in August . Adams, Lucian World War II R ank and organization: Staff Sergeant , U .S. Army 30th infantry, 3d Infantry Di vi ion. Place and d ate: Near St. Die, France, 28 O ctober 1944. E ntered se rvi ce a t: Port Arthur, T ex . Birth: Po rt Arthur, T ex. G .O . No.: 20 , 29 M a rch 1945. C itation : For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at ri sk of life above a nd beyond the call of duty on 28 October 1944, near St. Die France. When his compa ny was stopped m its effort to d rive through the M otagne Forest to reo pen the suppl y line to th e isola ted third battalion , S/Sgt. Ada m s braved the co ncentrated lire o f machineguns in a lo ne assault on a force of G erman troo ps. Although hi s compa ny had progressed less th a n 10 yard s a nd had lost 3 kill ed a nd 6 wounded , S/ Sgt. Adam s cha rged forward dod gin g from tree to tree firin g a borrowed BAR from the hip . Despite intense m achin egun lire whi ch the enem y directed at him and rifle grenades which struck the trees over hi s head showerin g him with broken twigs a nd branches, S/Sgt. Adams made hi s way to within 10 yard s of th e closest m achinegun and kill ed the gunner wi th a handgrenade. An enemy soldier threw ha ndgrenades at him from a pos ition onl y 10 ya rds di sta nt ; however , S/Sgt. Ada m s di spatched him with a sin gle burs t of BAR fire. C hargin g into the vo rtex of the enem y fire , he killed a nother m achinegunner at 15 yards ra nge with a handgrenade a nd forced th e surrender o f 2 supportin g infantrym en . Althou gh the re m a in de r of the German group co nce ntra ted th e fu ll fo rce of its auto matic wea pons lire in a desperate effort to knock him out, he proceeded th ro u gh the woods to find and ex termina te 5 more of the enemy. Fin a ll y, wh en the th ird Germ a n m ac hinegun opened up o n him a t a ra nge of 20 yard , S/Sgt Ad a m s kill ed the gunner with BA R fire. In th e course of the action , he perso nall y kill ed 9 G erma ns, elimina ted 3 enem y m ac hin eguns, vanq uished a speciali zed fo rce whi ch was armed with automat:c weapons and grenade launchers, cleared th e wood s of host ile elements, and reo pened the seve red suppl y lines to the assault companies of hi s battalion . removed for medical care. S/Sgt.(then private) Garcia's conspicuousheroism, his inspiring, courageousconduct, and his completedisregard for his personal safetywiped out 2 enemy emplacementsand enabled his company toadvance and secure its objective. Garcia, Marcario World War II Rank and organization: Staff Sergeant, U.S. Army, Company B, 22d Infantry, .4th Infantry Division. Place and date: Near Grosshau, Germany, 27 November 1944, Entered service at: Sugarland, Tex. Born: 20 Janury 1920, Villa de Castano, Mexico. G.O. No. : 74, 1 September 1945. Citation: While an acting squad leader of Company B, 22d Infantry, on 27 November 1944, near Grosshau, Germany, he singlehandedly assaulted 2 enemy machinegun emplacements. Gonsalves, Harold Attacking prepared positions on a World War II wooded hill, which could be Rank and organization: Private approached only through meager First Class, U .S. Marine Corps lines in order to register a more cover, his company was pinned Reserve, Born: 28 January 1926, effective bombardment in the down by intense machinegun fire Alameda, Calif. Accredited to : enemy's defense position, he and subjected to a concentrated California. Citation: For unhesitatingly advanced uphill withartillery and mortar barrage. conspicuous gallantry and the officer and another MarineAlthough painfully wounded, he intrepdity at the risk of his life despite a slashing.barrage of enemyrefused to be evacuated and on his above and beyond the call of duty mortar and rifle fire . As theyown initiative crawled forward while serving as Acting Scout reached the front and a Japanese alone until he reached a position Sergeant with the 4th Battalion, grenade fell close within the group, near an enemy emplacement. 15th Marines, 6th Marine Division, instantly Pfc. Gonsalves dived onHurling grenades, he boldly during action against enemy the deadly missile, absorbing the assaulted the position, destroyed Japanese forces on Okinawa Shima exploding charge in his own body the gun, and with his rifle killed 3 in the Ryukyu Chain, 15 April and thereby protecting the othersof the enemy who attempted to 1945. Undaunted by the powerfully from serious and perhaps fatal escape. When he rejoined his organized opposition encountered wounds. Stouthearted and company, a second machinegun on Motobu Peninsula during the indomitable, Pfc. Gonsalves readilyopened fire and again the intrepid fierce assault waged by his yielded his own chances of survival soldier went forward , utterly battalion against the Japanese that his fellow marines might carrydisregarding his own safety. He stronghold at Mount Yaetake, Pfc. on the relentless battle against astormed the position and destroyed Gonsalves repeatedly braved the fanatic enemy and his coolthe gun, killed 3 more Germans, terrific enemy bombardment to aid decision, prompt action and valiantand captured 4 prisoners. He his forward observation team in spirit of self-sacrifice in the face of fought on with his unit until the directing well-placed artillery fire. certain death reflect the highestobjective was taken and only then When his commanding officer credit upon himself and upon thedid he permit himself to be determined to move into the front U.S. Naval Service. ' 74 Gonzales, David M. World War II Rank and organization: Private First Class, U .S. Army Company A , 127th Infantry, 32d Infantry Division, Place and date: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Phillippine Islands, 25 .Aprit 1945. Entered service at: Pacoima, Calif. Birth: Pacoima, Calif. G .O . No.: 115, 8 December 1945. Citation: He was pinned down with his company. As enemy fire swept the area, making any movement extremely hazardous, a 550-pound bomb smashed into the company' s perimeter, burying 5 men with its explosion. Pfc. Gonzales, without hesitation, seized an entrenching tool and under a hail of fire crawled 15 yards to his entombed comrades, where his commanding officer, who had also rushed forward , was beginning to dig the men out. Nearing his goal, he saw the officer struck and instantly killed by machinegun fire . Undismayed, he set to work swiftly and surely with his hands and the entrenching tool while enemy sniper and machingun bullets struck all about him . He succeeded in digging one of the men out of the pile of rock and sand. To dig faster he stood up regardless of the greater danger from so exposing himself. He extricated a second man, and then another. As he completed the liberation of the third, he was hit and mortally wounded, but the comrades for whom he so gallantly gave his life were safely evacuated. Pfc . Gonzales' valiant and intrepid conduct exemplifies the highest tradition of the military service. Herrera, Silvestre S. World War II US. Army Photograph SC 210824-B R ank and organization: Private First Class, U .S. Army Company E , 142d Infantry, 36th Infantry Division. Place and date: Near M ertzwiller , France, 15 M arch 1945. Entered service at : Phoenix, Ariz . Birth : El Paso, Tex. G.O. No.: 75 , 5 September 1945 . Citation: He advanced with a platoon along a wooded road until stopped by heavy enemy machinegun fire. As the rest of the unit took cover, he made a !-man frontal assault on a strongpoint and captured 8 enemy soldiers. When the platoon resumed its ad vance and was subjec ted to fire from a second emplacement beyond an extensive minefield, Pvt. Herrera again moved forward, disregarding the danger of exploding mines, to attack the position. He stepped on a mine and had both feet severed; but despite intense pain and unchecked loss of blood, he pinned down the enemy with accurate rifle fire while a friendl y squad captured the enemy gun by skirting the minefield and rushing in from the flank. The magnificent courage, extraordinary heriosm, and willing self-sacrifice displayed by Pvt. Herrera resulted in the capture of 2 enemy strongpoints and the taking of 8 prisoners . Lopez, Jose M. World War II U.S. Army Photograph SC 313708-NFS Rank and organization: Sergeant, U .S. Army, 23rd Infantry, 2d Infantry Division, Place and Date: Near Krinkelt, Belgium, 17 December 1944. Entered service at: Brownsville, Tex. Birth: Mission, Tex. G.O. No.: 47, 18 June 1945. Citation: On his own initiative, he carried his heavy machinegun from Company K's right flank to its left, in order to protect that flank which was in danger of being overrun by advancing enemy infantry supported by tanks. Occupying a shallow hole offering no protection above his waist, he cut down a group of 10 Germans. Ignoring enemy fire from an advancing tank, he held his position and cut down 25 more enemy infantry attempting to turn his flank. Glancing to his right, he saw a large number of infantry swarming in from the front. Although dazed and shaken from enemy artillery fire which had crashed into the ground only a few yards away, he realized that his position soon would be outflanked. Again, alone he carried his machinegun to a position to the right rear of the sector; enemy tanks and infantry were forcing a withdrawal. Blown over backward by the concussion of enemy fire, he immediately reset his gun and continued his fire. Single handed he held off the German horde until he was satisfied his company had effected its retirement. Again he loaded his gun on his back and in a hall of small-arms fire he ran to a point where a few of his comrades were attempting to set up another defense against the onrushing enemy. He fired from this position until his ammunition was exhausted. Still carrying his gun, he fell back with his small group to Krinklet. Sgt. Lopez's gallantry and intrepidity, on seem ingly suicidal missions in which he killed at least 100 of the enemy, were almost solely responsible for allowing Company K to avoid being enveloped, to withdraw successfully and to give other forces coming up in support time to build a line which repelled the enemy drive. Martinez, Joe P. World War II US. Anny Photograph SC 313711-NFS Rank and organization: Private, U.S. Army, Company K, 32d Infantry, 7th Infantry D ivision. Place and date: On Attu, Aleutians, 26 May 1943, Entered Service at: Atult, Colo. Birth: T aos, N. Mex. G.O. No.: 71, 27 October 1943. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty in action with the enemy. Over a period of several days, repeated efforts to drive the enemy from a key defensive position high in the snow-covered precipitous mountains between East Arm Holtz Bay and Chichagof Harbor had failed. On 26 May 1943, troop dispositions were readjusted and a trail coordinated attack on this position by a reinforced battalion was launched. Initially successful, the attack hesitated. In the face of severe hostile machinegun, rifle, and mortar fire, Pvt. Martinez, an automatic rifleman, rose to his feet and resumed his advance. Occasionally he stopped to urge his comrades on. His example inspired others to follow. After a most difficult climb, Pvt. Martinez eliminated resistance from part of the enemy position by BAR fire and handgrenades, thus assisting the advance of other attacking elements. This success only partially completed the action. The main Holtz-Chichagof Pass rose about 150 feet higher, flanked by steep rocky ridges and reached by a snow-filled defile. Passage was barred by enemey fire from either flank and from tiers of snow trenches in front. Despite these obstacles, and knowing of their existence, Pvt. Martinez again led the troops on and up, personally silencing several trenches with BAR fire and ultimately reaching the pass itself. Here, just below the knifelike rim of the pass, Pvt. Martinez encountered a final enemy-occupied trench and as he was engaged in firing into it he was mortally wounded. The pass, however, was taken, and its capture was an important preliminary to the end of organized hostile resistance on the island. Perez, Manuel, Jr. World War II Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, Company A, 511th Parachute Infantry, 11th Airborne Division, Place and date: Fort William McKinley, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 13 February 1945 . Entered service· at: Chicago, Ill. Born: 3 March 1923 Oklahoma City, Okla. G.O. No.: 124, 27 December 1945. Citation: He was lead scout for Company A, which had destroyed 11 of 12 pillboxes in a strongly fortified. sector defending the approach to enemy held Fort William McKinley on Luzon, Philippine Islands. In the reduction of these pillboxes, he killed 5 Japanese in the open and blasted others in pillboxes with grenades. Real izing the urgent need for taking the last emplacement, which contained 2 twin-mount .50 caliber dual-purpose machineguns, he took a circuitous route to within 20 yards of the position, killing 4 of the enemy in his advance. He threw a grenade into the pillbox , and, as the crew started withdrawing through a tunnel just to th e rear of the emplacement, shot and killed 4 before exhausting his clip. He had reloaded and killed 4 more when an escaping Japanese threw his rifle with fixed bayonet at him. In warding off this thrust, his own rifle was knocked to the ground. Seizing the J ap rifle, he continued firing, killing 2 more of the enemy. He rushed the remaining Japanese, killed 3 of them with the butt of the rifle and entered the pillbox, where he bayoneted the 1 surviving hostile soldier. Singlehandedly, he killed 18 of the enemy in neutralizing the position that held up the advance of this entire company . Through his courageous determination and heroic disregard of grave danger, Pfc. Perez made possible the successful advance of his unit toward a valuable objective and provided a lasting inspiration for his comrades. Rodriguez, Cleto World War II US. Army Photograph SC 313757-NFS Rank and organization: Technical Sergeant (then Private), U.S. Army, Company B, !48th Infantry, 37th Division, Place and date: Paco Railroad Station, Manilla, Philippine Islands , 9 February 1945 . Entered service at: San Antonio, Tex. Birth: San Marcos, Tex. G.O. No. 97, 1 November 1945 . Citation: He was an·' automatic rifleman when his unit attacked the strongly defended Paco Railroad Station during the battle for Manila, Philippine Islands . While making a frontal assault across an open field, his platoon was halted 100 yards from the station by intense enemy fire. On his own initiative , he left the platoon, accompanied by a comrade, and continued forward to a house 60 yards from the objective. Although under constant enemy observation, the 2 men remained in this position for an hour, firing at targets of opportunity, killing more than 35 hostile soldiers and wounding many more. Moving closer to the station and discovering a group of J apanese replacements attempting to reach pillboxes, they opened heavy fire, killed more than 40 and stopped all subsequent attempts to man the emplacements. Enemy fire became more intense as they advanced to within 20 yards of the station. Then, covered by his companion, Pvt. Rodriguez boldy moved up to the building and threw 5 grenades through a doorway killing 7 Japanese, destroying a 20-mm gun and wrecking a heavy machinegun. With their ammunition running low , the 2 men started to return to the American lines, alternately providing covering fire for each other's withdrawal. During this movement, Pvt. Rodriguez' companion was killed . In 2 !1:! hours of fierce fighting .the intrepid team killed more than 82 Japanese, completely disorganized their defense, and paved the way for the subsequent overwhelming defeat of the enemy at this strongpoint. Two days later, Pvt. Rodriquez again enabled his comrades to advance when he singlehandedly killed 6 Japanese and destroyed a well-placed 20-mm gun. By his outstanding skill with his weapons, gallant determination to destroy the enemy, and heroic courage in the face of tremendous odds, Pvt. Rodriguez, on 2 occasions, materially aided the advance of our troops in Manilla. Ruiz, Alejandro R. World War II US. Anny Photograph sc 243145 Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, 165th Infantry, 27th Infantry Division. Place and date: Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, 28 April 1945. Entered service at Carlsbad, N . Mex. Birth: Loving, N. Mex. G.O. No.: 60, 26 June 1946. Citation: When his unit was stopped by a skillfully camouflaged enemy pillbox, he displayed conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty. His squad, suddenly brought under a hail of machinegun fire and a vicious grenade attack, was pinned down. Jumping to his feet, Pfc. Ruiz seized an automatic rifle and lunged through the flying grenades and rifle and automatic fire for the top of the emplacement. When an enemy soldier charged him, his rifle jammed. Undaunted, Pfc. Ruiz whirled on his assailant and clubbed him down. Then he ran back through bullets and grenades, seized more ammunition and another automatic rifle, and again made for the pillbox. Enemy fire now was concentrated on him, but he charged on, miraculously reaching the position, and in plain view he climbed to the top. Leaping from one opening to another, he sent burst after burst into the pillbox, killing 12 of the enemy and completely destroying the position. Pfc. Ruiz's heroic conduct, in the face of overwhelming odds, saved the lives of many comrades and eliminated an obstacle that long would have checked his unit's advance. Valdez, Jose F. World War II US. Anny Photograph SC 313782-NFS Rank and organization: Private First Class, U .S. Army, Company B, 7th Infantry, 3d Infantry Division, Place and date: Near Rosenkrantz, France, 25 January 1945. Entered service at: Pleasant Grove, Utah. Birth: Governador, N . Mex. G .O. No.: 16, 8 February 1946. Citation: He was on outpost duty with 5 others when the enemy counterattacked with overwhelming strength. From his position near some woods 500 yards beyond the American lines he observed a tank about 75 yards away, and raked it with automatic rifle fire until it withdrew. Soon afterward he saw 3 German stealthily approaching through the woods. Scorning cover as the enemy soldiers opened up with heavy automatic weapons fire from a range of 30 yards, he engaged in a fire fight with the attackers until he had killed all 3. The enemy quickly launched an attack with 2 full companies of infantrymen, blasting the patrol with murderous concentrations of automatic and rifle fire and beginning an encircling movement which forced the patrol leader to order a withdrawal. Despite the terrible odds, Pfc. Valdez immediately volunteered to cover the maneuver, and as the patrol one by one plunged through a hail of bullets toward the American lines, he fired burst after burst into the swarming enemy. Three of his companions were wounded in their dash for safety and he was struck by a bullet that entered his stomach and, passing through his body, emerged from his back. Overcoming agonizing pain, he r:egained control of himself and resumed his firing position, delivering a protective screen of bullets until all others of the patrol were safe. By field telephone he called for artillery and mortar fire on the Germans and corrected the range until he had shells falling within 50 yards of his position. For 15 minutes he refused to be dislodged by more than 200 of the enemy; then· seeing that the barrage had broken the counterattack, he dragged himself back to his own lines. He died later as a result of his wounds. Through his valiant, intrepid stand and at the cost of his own life, Pfc. Valdez made it possible for his comrades to escape, and was directly responsible for repulsing an attack by vastly superior enemy forces. Villegas, Y smael R. World War II Rank and organization: Staff Sergant, U.S. Army, Company F, 127th Infantry, 32d Infantry Division. Place and date: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 20 March 1945. Entered service at: Casa Blanca, Calif. Birth: Casa Blanca, Calif. G.O. No.: 89,19 October 1945. Citation: He was a squad leader when his unit, in a forward position, clashed with an enemy strongly entrenched in connected caves and foxholes on commanding ground. He moved boldly from man to man, in the face of bursting grenades and demolition charges, through heavy machine gun and rifle fire, to bolster the spirit of his comrades. Insp1red by his gallantry, his men pressed forward to the crest of the hill . Numerous enemy riflemen, refu sing to flee, continued firing from their foxholes. S/Sgt Villegas, with complete disregard for his own safety and bullets which kicked up the dirt at his feet, charged an enemy position, and, firing at point-blank range killed the Japanese in a foxhole. He rushed a second foxhole while bullets missed him by inches, and killed 1 more of the enemy. In rapid succession he charged at a third, a fourth, a fifth foxhole, each time destroying the enemy within. The fire against him increased in intensity, but he pressed onward to attack a sixth position. As he neared his goal, he was hit and killed by enemy fire. Through his heroism and indomitable fighting spirit, S/Sgt. Villegas, at the cost of his life, inspired his men to a determined attack in which they swept the enemy from the field. Desiderio, Reginald B. Korean Conflict Rank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army, Commanding Officer, Company E, 27th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division. Place and date: Near Ipsok, Korea, 27 November 1959. Entered service at: Gilroy, Calif. Born 12 September 1918, Clairton, Pa, G.O. No.: 58, 2 August 1951. Citation: Capt. Desiderio distinguished himself by the conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the repeated risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. His company was given the mission of defending the command post of a task force against an emeny breakthrough . After personal reconnaissance during darkness and under intense enemy fire, he placed his men in defensive positions to repel an attack. Early in the action he was wounded, but refused evacuation and despite enemy fire continued to move among his men checking their positions and making sure that each element was prepared to receive the next attack. Again wounded, he continued to direct his -men. By his inspiring leadership he encouraged them to hold their position. In the subsequent fighting when the fanatical enemy succeeded in penetrating the position , he personally charged them with carbine, rifle, and grenades, inflicting many casualties until he himself was mortally wounded. His men, spurred on by his intrepid example, repelled this final attack. Capt. Desiderio's heroic leadership, courageous and loyal devotion to duty, and his complete disregard for personal safety reflect the highest honor on him and are in keeping with the esteemed traditions of the U.S. Army. Garcia, Fernando Luis Korean Conflict US. Marine Corps Photograph USMC #A 403017 Rank and organizat ion: Private First Class, U .S. Marin e C orps, Company I, 3d Ba ttali on , 5th Marines, 1st M arine D ivision (R. in). Place and date : Korea, 5 September 1952. Entered service at: San Juan, P .R . Born: 14 October 1929, Utuado, P .R . Citation: For conspicuou s gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a member of Gomez, Edward company I , in action against enemy Korean Conflict aggressor forces . While Rank and organization: Private imminent counterattack, he participating in the defense of a First Class, U .S . Marine Corps, voluntarily moved down an combat outpost located more than Reserve, Company E, 2d Battalion, abandoned trench to search for a mile forward of the main line of 1st Marines, 1st Marine Division new location for the gun and, whenresistance during a savage night (Rein). Place and date: Korea, Hill a hostile grenade landed betweenattack by a fanatical enemy force 749, 14 September 1951. Entered himself and his weapon, he shouted employing grenades, mortars, and Service at: Omaha, Nebr. Born: 10 a warning to those around him as artillery, Pfc. Garcia, although August 1932, Omaha, Nebr. he grasped the activated charge in suffering painful wounds, moved Citation: For conspicuous gallantry his hand. Determined to save his through the intense hail of hostile and intrepdity at the risk of his life comrades, he unhesitatingly chosefire to a supply point to secure above and beyond the call of duty to sacrifice himself and, diving into more handgrenades. Quick to act while serving as an ammunition the ditch with the deadly missile,when a hostile grenade landed bearer in Company E, in action absorbed the shattering violence of nearby, endangering the life of against enemy aggressor forces. the explosion in his body. By hisanother marine, as well as his own, Boldly advancing with his squad in stouthearted courage, incomparable he unhesitatingly chose to sacrifice support of a group of riflemen valor, and decisive spirit ofhimself and immediately threw his assaulting a series of strongly self-sacrifice, Pfc. Gomez inspiredbody upon the deadly missile, fortified and bitterly defended the others to heroic efforts inreceiving the full impact of the hostile positions on Hill 749, Pfc. subsequently repelling theexplosion. His great personal valor Gomez consistently exposed himself outnumbering foe, and his valiantand cool decision in the face of to the withering barrage to keep his conduct throughout sustained andalmost certain death sustain and machinegun supplied with enchanced the finest traditions ofenhance the finest traditions of the ammunition during the drive the U.S. Naval Service. He U.S. Naval Service. He gallantly forward to seize the objective. As gallantly gave his life for hisgave his life for his country. his squad deployed to meet an country. 80 Guillen, Ambrosio Korean Conflict U.S. Marine Corps Photograph USMC #407003 Rank and organization: Staff Sergeant, U.S . Marine Corps, Company F, 2d Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein). Place and date: Near Songuch-on, Korea, 25 July 1953. Entered Service At: El Paso, Tex. Born: 7 December 1929, La Junta, Colo. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a platoon sergeant of Company F in action against enemy aggressor forces. Participating in the defense of an outpost forward of the main line of resistance, S/Sgt. Guillen maneuvered his platoon over unfamiliar terrain in the face of hostile fire and placed his men in fighting positions. With his unit pinned down when the outpost was attacked under cover of darkness by an estimated force of 2 enemy battalions supported by mortar and artillery fire, he deliberately exposed himself to the heavy barrage and attacks to direct his men in defending their positions and personally supervise th6 treatment and evacuation of the wounded . Inspired by his leadership, the platoon quickly rallied and engaged the enemy in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Although c;ritically wounded during the course of the battle, S/Sgt. Guillen refused medical aid and continued to direct his men throughout the remainder of the engagement until the enemy was defeated and thrown into disorderly retreat. Succumbing to his wounds within a few hours, S/Sgt. Guillen, by his outstanding courage and indomitable fighting spirit, was directly responsible for the success of his platoon in repelling a numerically superior enemy force. His personal valor reflects the highest credit upon himself and enhances the finest traditions of the U.S. Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country. Hernandez, Rodolfo P. Korean Conflict U.S. Army Photograph SC-399534 Rank and organization: Corporal, U.S. Army, Company G, 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team. Place and date: Near Wontong-ni, Korea, 31 May 1951. Entered service at: Fowler, Calif. Born: 14 April 1931, Colton, Calif. G.O. No.: 40, 21 April 1962. Citation: Cpl. Hernandez, a member of Company G , distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy. His platoon, in defense positions on Hill 420, came under ruthless attack by a numerically superior and fantical hostile force, accompanied by heavy artillery, mortar, and machinegun fire which infli<:ted numerous casualties on the platoon. His comrades were forced to withdraw due to lack of ammunition but Cpl. Hernadez, although wounded in an exchange of grenades, continued to deliver deadly fire into the ranks of the onrushing assailants until a ruptured cartridge rendered his rifle inoperative. Immediately leaving his position, Cpl. Hernandez rushed the enemy armed with only the rifle and bayonet. Fearlessly engaging the foe, he killed 6 of the enemy before falling unconscious from grenade, bayonet, and bullet wounds but his heroic action momentari~y halted the enemy advance and eriablea his unit to counterattack and retake the lost ground. The indomitable fighting spirit, outstanding courage, and tenacious devotion to duty clearly demonstrated by Cpl. Hernandez reflect the highest credit upon himself, the infantry, and the U.S. Army. unable to grasp the handgrenadefirmly enough to hurl it, he choseto sacrifice himself rather thanendanger the lives of his men and,with a sweeping motion of hiswounded right arm, cradled thegrenade under him and absorbedthe full impact of the explosion.His exceptional courage, fortitude,and devotion to duty reflect thehighest credit upon 1st Lt. Lopezand the U.S. Naval Service. Hegallantly gave his life for hiscountry. Lopez, Baldomero Korean Conflict Defense Dept. Photo (Marine Corps) A 43985 Rank and organization: First Lieutenant, U.S. Marine Corps, Company A, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division bitter fighting which ensued, the(Rein). Place and date: During enemy infiltrated the defenseInchon invasion in Korea, 15 perimeter and realizing thatSeptember 1950. Entered service incirclement was imminent, Cpl. at: Tampa, Fla. Born: 23 August Martinez elected to remain in his1925, Tampa, Fla. Citation: For post in an attempt to stem theconspicuous gallantry and onslaJ..lght. In a daring defense, heintrepidity at the risk of his life raked the attacking troops withabove and beyond the call of duty crippling fire, inflicting numerousas a rifle platoon commander of Company A, in action against Martinez, Benito casualties. Although contacted bysound power phone several times, enemy aggressor forces. With his Korean Conflict he insisted that no attempt beplatoon 1st Lt. Lopez was engaged Rank and organization: Corporal, made to rescu'e him because of thein the reduction of immediate U.S. Army, Company A, 27th danger involved. Soon thereafter, enemy beach defenses after landing Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry the hostile forces rushed thewith the assault waves. Exposing Division. Place and Date: Near emplacement, forcing him to make himself to hostile fire, he moved Sataeri, Korea 6 September 1952. a limited withdrawal with only anforward alongside a bunker and Entered service at: Fort Hancock. automatic rifle and pistol to defendprepared to throw a handgrenade Tex. Born: 21 March 1931, Fort himself. After a courageous 6-hour into the next pillbox whose fire was Hancock, Tex. G .O . No.: 96 , 28 stand and shortly before dawn, hepinning down that sector of the December 1953. Citation: Cpl. called in for the last time, statingbeach. Taken under fire by an Martinez, a machine gunner with that the enemy was converging onenemy automatic weapon and hit Company A, distinguished himself his position. His magnificent standin the right shoulder and chest as by conspicuous gallantry and enabled friendly elements to he lifted his arm to throw, he fell outstanding courage above and reorganize, attack, and regain thebackward and dropped the deadly beyond the call of duty in action key terrain. Cpl. Martinez' missile. After a moment, he turned against the enemy.While manning incredible valor and supremeand dragged his body forward in a listening post forward of the main sacrifice reflect lasting glory uponan effort to retrieve the grenade line of resistance, his position was himself and are in keeping with theand throw it. In critical condition attacked by a hostile force of honored tradition of the militaryfrom pain and loss of blood, and reinforced company strength. In the service. 82 Obregon, Eugene Arnold Korean Conflict US. Marine Corps Photograph USMC #A-43987-B Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Marine Corps, Company G, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein). Place and Date: Seoul, Korea, 26 September 1950. Entered service at: Los Angeles, Calif. Born: 12 November 1930, Los Angeles, Calif. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving with Company G, m action against enemy aggressor forces . While serving as an ammunition carrier of a machinegun squad in a Marine rifle company which was temporarily pinned down by hostile fire, Pfc. Obregon observed a fellow marine fall wounded in the line of fire. Armed only with pistol, he unhesitatingly dashed fr'?m his covered position to the side ·of the casualty. Firing his pistol with one hand as he ran, he grasped his comrade by the arm with his other hand and, despite the great peril to himself dragged him to the side of the road. Still under enemy fire, he was bandaging the man's wounds when hostile troops of approximately platoon strength began advancing toward his position. Quickly seizing the wounded marine's carbine, he placed his own body as a shield in front of him and laid there firing accurately and effectively into the hostile group until he himself was fatally wounded by enemy machinegun fire. By his courageous fighting spirit, fortitude, and loyal devotion to duty, Pfc. Obregon enabled his fellow marines to rescue the wounded man and aided essentially in repelling the attack, thereby sustaining and enhancing the highest traditions of the U.S. Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country. Rodriguez, 1oseph C. Korean Conflict Rank and organization: Sergeant (then Pfc.), U.S. Army, Company F, 17th Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division . Place and date: Near Munye-ri, Korea, 21 May 1951. Entered service at: California. Born: 14 November 1928, San Bernardino, Calif. G.O. No.: 22 , 5 February 1952. Citation: Sgt . Rodriguez, distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty in action against an armed enemy of the United Nations. Sgt. Rodriguez, an assistant squad leader of the 2d platoon, was participating in an attack against a fanatical hostile force occupying well-fortified positions on rugged commanding terrain, when his squad's advance was halted within approximately 60 yards by a withering barrage of automatic weapons and small-arms fire from 5 emplacements directly to the front and right and left flanks, together with grenades which the enemy rolled down the hill toward the advancing troops. Fully aware of the odds against him , Sgt. Rodriguez leaped to his feet, dashed 60 yards up the fire-swept slope, and after lobbing grenades into the first foxhole with deadly accuracy, ran around the left flank, silenced an automatic weapon with 2 grenades and continued his whirlwind assault to the top of the peak, wiping out 2 more fox holes and then, reaching the right flank, he tossed grenades into the remaining emplacement, destroying the gun and annihilating its crew. Sgt . Rodriguez' intrepid actions exacted a toll of 15 enemy dead and, as a result of his incredible display of valor, the defense of the opposition was broken, and the enemy routed, and the strategic strongpoint secured. His unflinching courage under fire and inspirational devotion to duty reflect the highest credit on himself and uphold the honored traditions of the military service . De La Garza, Emilio A., Jr. Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Lance Corporal, U .S. M arine Corps, Company E , 2d Battalion, 1st Marine Division. Place and date: Near Da Nang, Republic of Vietnam, 11 April 1970. Entered service at: Chicago, Ill. Born: 23 June 1949, East Chicago, Ind. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a machine gunner with Company E . Returning with his squad from a night ambush operation, L/Cpl. De La Garza joined his platoon commander and another marine in searching for 2 enemy soldiers who had been observed fleeing for cover toward a small pond. Moments later, he located 1 of the enemy soldiers hiding among the reeds and brush. As the 3 marines attempted to remove the resisting soldier from the pond, L/Cpl. De La Barza observed him pull the pin on a grenade. Shouting a warning, L/Cpl. De La Garza placed himself between the other 2 marines and the ensuring blast from the grenade, thereby saving the lives of his comrades at the sacrifice of his life. By his prompt and decisive action, and his great personal valor in the face of almost certain death, L/Cpl. De La Garza upheld and further enhanced the finest tradition of the Marine Corps and the U .S . Naval Service. Dias, Ralph E. Vietnam Era US. Marim Corps Photograph USMC #A702107 Rank and organization : Private First Class, {J .S. Marine Corps, 3d Platoon, Company D, 1st Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein) FMF. Place and date: Que Son Mountains, Republic of Vietnam, 12 November 1969. Entered service at Pittsburg, Pa. Born: 15 July 1950 Shelocta, Indiana County, Pa. Citation: As a member of a reaction force which was pinned down by enemy fire while assisting a platoon in the same circumstance, Pfc . Dias, observing that both units were sustaining casualties, he initated an aggressive assault against an enemy machinegun bunker which was the principal source of hostile fire . Severely wounded by enemy snipers while charging across the open area, he pulled himself to the shelter of a nearby rock. Braving enemy fire for a second time , Pfc. Dias was again wounded. Unable to walk, he crawled 15 meters to the protection of a rock located near his objective and, repeatedly exposing himself to intense hostile fire, unsuccessfully threw several handgrenades at the machinegun emplacement. Still determined to destroy the emplacement, Pfc. Dias again moved into the open and was wounded a third time by sniper fire. As he threw a last grenade which destroyed the enemy position, he was mortally wounded by another enemy round. Pfc. Dias' indomitable courage, dynamic initiative, and selfless devotion to duty upheld the highest tradition of the Marine Corps and the U.S. Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life in the service to his country. Fernandez, Daniel Vietnam Era U S. Anny Photograph P 42910 R ank and organization: Specialist Fourth Class, U.S. Army, Company C, 1st Battalion, 5th Infantry (Mechanized) 25th Infantry D ivision. Place and date: Cu Chi, Hau Nghia Province, Republic of Vietnam, 19 February 1966 . Entered Service at: Albuquerque, N. Mex. Born: 30 J une 1944, Albuquerque, N . Mex. G.O. No.: 21, 26April1967. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry a nd intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty, SP4. Fernandez demonstrated indomitable courage when the patrol was ambushed by a Viet Cong rifle company and driven back by the intense enemy automatic weapons fire before it could evacuate an American soldier who had been wounded in the Viet Cong attack. SP4. Fernandez, a sergeant and 2 other volunteers im mediately fought their way through devasting fire and exploding grenades to reach the fallen soldier. Upon reaching their fallen comrade the sergeant was struck in the knee by machinegun fire and immobilized. SP4. Fernandez took charge, rallied the left flank of his patrol and began to assist in the recovery of the wounded sergeant. While first aid was being administered to the wounded man, a sudden increase in the accuracy and intensity of enemy fire forced the volunteer group to take cover. As they did, an enemy grenade landed in the midst of the group, although some men did not see it. Realizing there was no time for the wounded sergeant or the other men to protect themselves from the grenade blast, SP£. Fernandez vaulted over the wounded sergeant and threw himself on the grenade as it exploded, saving the lives of his 4 comrades at the sacrifice of his life . SP4. Fernandez' profound concern for his fellow soldiers, at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty is in the highest tradition of the U.S. Army and reflects great credit upon himself and the Armed Forces of his country. Gonzalez, Alfredo Vietnam Era US. Marine Corps Photograph USMC #A419730 Rank and organization: Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Company A, 1st Battalion, 1st Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein), FMF. Place and date: Near Thua Thien, Republic of Vietnam, 4 February 1968. Entered Service at: San Antonio, Tex. Born 23 May 1946, Edinburge, Tex. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepdity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as platoon commander, 3rd Platoon, Company A. On 31 January 1968, during the initial phase of Operation Hue City, Sgt. Gonzalez' unit was formed as a reaction force and deployed to Hue to relieve the pressure on the beleaguered city. While moving by truck convoy along Route No. 1, near the village of Lang Van Luong, the marines received a heavy volume of enemy fire. Sgt. Gonzalez aggressively maneuvered the marines in his platoon, and directed their fire until the area was cleared of snipers. Immediately after crossing a river south of Hue, the column was again hit by intense enemy fire. One of the marines on top of of a tank was wounded and fell to the gound in an exposed position. With complete disregard for his safety, Sgt. Gonzale:;: ran through the fire-swept area to the assistance of his injured comrade. He lifted him up and though receiving fragmentation .)Vounds during the rescue, he carried·the wounded marine to a covered position for treatment. Due to the increased volume and accuracy of enemy fire from a fortified machinegun bunker on the side of the road, the company was temporarily halted. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Sgt. Gonzalez exposed himself to enemy fire and moved his platoon along the east side of a bordering rice paddy to a dike directly across from the bunker. Though fully aware of the danger involved, he moved to the fireswept road and destroyed the hostile position with handgrenades. Although seriously wounded again on 3 February, he steadfastly refused medical treatment and continued to supervise his men and lead the attack. On 4 February, the enemy had again pinned the company down, inflicting heavy casualties with automatic weapons and rocket fire. Sgt. Gonzalez, utilizing a number of light antitank assault weapons, fearlessly moved from position to position firing numerous rounds at the heavily fortified enemy emplacements. He successfully knocked out a rocket position and suppressed much of the enemy fire before falling mortally wounded. The heroism, courage, and dynamic leadership deplayed by Sgt. Gonzalez reflected great credit upon himself and the highest traditions of the U .S. Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country. Jimenez, Jose Francisco Vietnam Era Defense Dept. Photo (Man·ne Corps) A 700479 Rank and organization: Lance Corporal, U.S. Marine Corps, Company K, 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division. Place and date: Quang Nam Province, Republic of Vietnam, 28 August 1969. Entered service at: Phoenix, Ariz. Born: 20 March 1946, Mexico City, Mex. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a fire team leader with Company K, in operations against the enemy. L/Cpl. Jimenez' unit came under heavy attack by North Vietnamese soldiers concealed in well camouflaged emplacements. L!Cpl. Jimenez reacted by seizing the initiative and plunging forward toward the enemy positions. He personally destroyed several enemy personnel and silenced an antiaircraft weapon. Shouting encouragement to his companions, L!Cpl. Jimenez continued his aggressive forward movement. He slowly maneuvered to within 10 feet of hostile soldiers who were firing automatic weapons from a trench and, in the face of vicious enemy fire, destoyed the position. Although he was by now the target of the concentrated fire from hostile gunners intent upon halting his assault, L!Cpl. Jimenez continued to press forward . As he moved to attack another enemy soldier, he was mortally wounded. L!Cpl. Jimenez' indomitable courage, aggressive fighting spirit and unfaltering devotion to duty upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the U.S. Naval Service. Keith, Miguel Vietnam Era Defense Dept. Photo (Marine Corps) A 702062 Rank and organization: Lance Corporal, U.S. Marine Corps, Combined Action Platoon 1-3-2, III Marine Amphibious Force. Place and date: Quang Ngai Province, Republic of Vietnam, 8 May 1970. Entered service at: Omaha, Nebr. Born: 2June 1951, San Antonio, Tex. Citation : For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a machine gunner with Combined Action Platoon 1-3-2. During the early morning L/Cpl. Keith was seriously wounded when his platoon was subjected to a heavy ground attack by a greatly outnumbering enemy force. Despite his painful wounds, he ran across the fire-swept terrain to check the security of vital defensive positions and then, while completely exposed to view, proceeded to deliver a hail of devastating machinegun fire against the enemy. Determined to stop 5 of the enemy soldiers approaching the command post, he rushed forward, firing as he advanced. He succeeded in disposing of 3 of the attackers and in dispersing the remaining 2. At this point, a grenade detonated near L/Cpl. Keith, knocking him to the ground and inflicting further severe wounds. Fighting pain and weakness from loss of blood, he again braved the concentrated hostile fire to charge an estimated 25 enemy soldiers who were massing to attack. The vigor of his assault and his well placed fire eliminated 4 of the enemy soldiers while the remainder fled for cover. During this valiant effort, he was mortally wounded by an enemy soldier. By his courageous and inspiring performance in the face of almost overwhelming odds, L!Cpl. Keith contributed in large measure to the success of his platoon in routing a numerically superior enemy force, and upheld the finest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the U.S. Naval Service. Lozada, Carlos James Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, Company A, 2d Battalion, 502d Infantry, 173d Airborne Brigade, Place and date: Oak To, Republic of Vietnam, 20 November 1967. Entered Service at: New York, N.Y. Born : 6 September 1946, Caguas, Puerto Rico. Citation: for conspicuous gallantry and intrepdity in action at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. Pfc . Lozada, U.S. Army, distinguished himself at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty in the battle of Oak To. While serving as a machine gunner with 1st Platoon, Company A, Pfc. Lozada was part of a 4-man early warning outpost, located 35 meters from his company's lines . At 1400 hours a North Vietnamese Army company rapidly approached the outpost along a well defined trail. Pfc . Lozada alerted his comrades and commenced firing at the outpost. His heavy and accurate machinegun fire killed at least 20 North Vietnamese soldiers and completely disrupted their initial attack. Pfc. Lozada remained in an exposed position and continued to pour deadly fire upon the enemy despite the urgent pleas of his comrades to withdraw. The enemy continued their assault, attempting to envelop the outpost. At the same time enemy forces launched a heavy attack on the forward west flank of Company A with the intent to cut them off from their battalion. Company A was given the order to withdraw. Pfc . Lozada apparently realized that if he abandoned his position there would be nothing to hold back the surging North Vietnamese soldiers and that the entire company withdrawal would be jeopardized. He called for his comrades to move back and that he would stay and provide cover for them. He made this decision realizing that the enemy was converging on 3 sides of his position and only meters away, and a delay in withdrawal meant almost certain death. Pfc. Lozada continued to deliver a heavy, accurate volume of suppressive fire against the enemy until he was mortally wounded and had to be carried during the withdrawal. His heroic deed served as an example and an inspiration to his comrades throughout the ensuing 4-day battle. Pfc. Lozada's actions are in the highest traditions of the U.S. Army and reflect great credit upon himself, his unit, and the Army. Rocco, Louis R. Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Warrant Officer (then Sergeant First Class), U.S. Army, Advisory Team 162, U.S. Military Assistance Command. Place and date: Northeast of Katum, R epublic of Vietnam, 24 May 1970, Entered Service at: Los Angeles, Calif. Born : 19 November 1938 , Albuquerque, N. Mex, Citation: WO Rocco distinguished himself when he volunteered to accompany a medical evacuation team on an urgent mission to evacuate 8 critically wounded Army of the Republic of Vietnam personnel. As the helicopter approached the landing zone , it became the target for intense enemy automatic weapons fire . Disregarding his own safety, WO Rocco identified and placed accurate suppressive fire on the enemy positions as the aircraft descended toward the landing zone. Sustaining major damage from the enemy fire, the aircraft was forced to crash land, causing WO Rocco to sustain a fractured wrist and hip and severely bruised back. Ignoring his injuries, he extracted the survivors from the burning wreckage, sustaining burns to his own body. Despite intense enemy fire, WO Rocco carried each unconscwus man across approximately 20 meters of exposed terrain to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam perimeter. On each trip, his severely burned hands and broken wrist caused excruciating pain , but the lives of the unconscious crash survivors were more important than his personal discomfort, and he continued his rescue efforts. Once inside the friendly position, WO Rocco helped administer first aid to his wounded comrades until his wounds and burns caused him to collapse and lose consciousness. His bravery under fire and intense devotion to duty were directly responsible for saving 3 of his fellow soldiers from certain death . His unparalleled bravery in the face of enemy fire, his complete disregard for his own pain and injuries, and his performance were far above and beyond the call of duty and were in keeping with the highest traditions of self-sacrifice and courage of the military service. Rubio, Euripides Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army, Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 28th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division, RVN, Place and date: Tay Ninh Province, Republic of Veitnam, 8 November 1966, Entered service at: Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico. Born 1 March 1938, Ponce, Puerto Rico. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. Capt. Rubio, Infantry, was serving as communications officer, 1st Battalion, when a numerically superior enemy force launched a massive attack against the battalion defense position. Intense enemy machinegun fire raked the area while mortar rounds and rifle grenades exploded within the perimeter. Leaving the relative safety of his post, Capt. Rubio received 2 serious wounds aa he braved the withering fire to go to the area of most intense action where he distributed ammunition, re-established positions and rendered aid to the wounded. Disregarding the painful wounds, he unhesitatingly assumed command when a rifle company commander was medically evacuated. Capt Rubio was ~ounded a third time as he selflessly exposed himself to the devasting enemy fire to move among his men to encourage them to fight with renewed effort. While aiding the evacution of wounded personnel, he noted that a smoke grenade which was intended to mark the Viet Cong position for air strikes had fallen dangerously close to the freindly lines. Capt. Rubio ran to reposition the grenade but was immediately struck to his knees by enemy fire. Despite his several wounds, Capt. Rubio scooped up the grenade, ran through the deadly hail of fire to within 20 meters of the enemy position and hurled the already smoking grenade into the midst of the enemy before he fell for the final time. Using the repositioned gren,ade as a marker, friendly air strikes were directed to destroy the hostile positions. Capt. Rubio's singul arly heroic act turned the tide of battle, and his extraordinary leadership and valor were a magnificent inspiration to his men. His remarkable bravery and selfless concern for his men are in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit on Capt. Rubio and the U .S. Army. Santiago-Colon, Hector Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Specialist Fourth Class, U.S. Army, Company B, 5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, 1st Cavalry Division (airmobile). Place and date: Quang Tri Province, Republic of Vietnam, 28 June 1968. Entered service at: New York, N.Y. Born: 20 December 1942, Salinas, Puerto Rico. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. Sp4. Santiago-Colon distinguished himself at the cost of his life while serving as a gunner in the mortar platoon of Company B. While serving as a perimeter sentry, Sp4. Santiago-Colon heard distinct movement in the heavily wooded area to his front and flanks. Immediately he alerted his fellow sentries in the area to move to their foxholes and remain alert for any enemy probing forces. From the wooded area around his position heavy enemy automatic weapons and small-arms fire suddenly broke out, but extreme darkness rendered difficult the precise location and identification of the hostile force. Only the muzzle flashes from enemy weapons indicated their positions. Sp4. Santiago-Colon and the other members of his position immediately began to repel the attackers, utilizing handgrenades, antipersonnel mines and small arms fire. Due to the heavy volume of enemy fire and exploding grenades around them, a North Vietnamese soldier was able to crawl, undetected, to their position. Suddenly, the enemy soldier lobbed a handgrenade into Sp4. SantiagoColon's foxhole. Realizing that there was not time to throw the grenade, he tucked it in to his stomach and, turning away from his comrades, absorbed the full impact of the blast. His heroic selfsacrifice saved the lives of those who occupied the foxhole with him, and provided them with the inspiration to continue fighting until they had forced the enemy to retreat from the perimeter. By his gallantry at the cost of his life and in the highest traditions of the military service, Sp4. SantiagoColon has reflected great credit upon himself, his unit and the U .S. Army. Vargas, Jay R., Jr. Vietnam Era Rank and organization: Major (then Capt.), U.S. Marine Corps, Company G, 2d Battalion, 4th Marines, 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade . Place and date: Dai Do, Republic of Vietnam, 30 April to 2 May 1968. Entered service at : Winslow, Ariz. Born: 29 July 1940, Winslow, Ariz . Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as Commanding Officer, Company G, in action against enemy forces from 30 April to 2 May 1968. On 1 May 1968, though suffering from wounds he had incurred while relocating his unit under heavy enemy fire the preceding day, Maj. Vargas combined Company G with two other companies and led his men on an attack on the fortified village of Dai Do. Exercising expert leadership, he maneuvered his marines across 700 meters of open rice paddy while under intense enemy mortar, rocket and artillery fire and obtained a foothold in 2 hedgerows in the enemy perimeter, only to have elements of his company become pinned down by the intense enemy fire. Leading his reserve platoon to the aid of his beleaguered men, Maj. Vargas inspired his men to renew their relentless advance, while destroying a number of enemy bunkers. Again wounded by grenade fragments, he refused aid as he moved about the hazardous area reorganizing his unit into a strong defense perimeter at the edge of the village . Shortly after the objective was secured the enemy commenced a series of counterattacks and probes which lasted throughout the night but were unsuccessful as the gallant defenders of Company G stood firm in their hard-won enclave. Reinforced the following morning, the marines launched a renewed assault through Dai Do on the village of Dinh To, to which the enemy retaliated with a massive counterattack resulting in hand-tohand combat. Maj. Vargas remained in the open, encouraging and rendering assistance to his marines when he was hit for the third time in the 3-day battle. Observing his battalion commander sustain a serious wound, he disregarded his excruciating pain, crossed the fire-swept area and carried his commander to a covered position , then resumed supervising and encouraging his men while simultaneously assisting in organizing the battalion' s perimeter defense. His gallant actions uphold the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and the U.S. Naval Service . Yabes, Maximo Vietnam Era Rank and organization: First Sergeant, U.S. Army, Company A, 4th Battalion, 9th Infantry, 25th Infantry Division. Place and date: Near Phu Hoa Dong, Republic of Vietnam, 26 February 1967. Entered service at: Eugene, Oreg. Born: 29 January 1932, Lodi, Calif. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. 1st Sgt Yabes distinguished himself with Company A, which was providing security for a land clearing operation. Early in the morning the company suddenly came under intense automatic weapons and mortar fire followed by a battalion sized assault from 3 sides. Penetrating the defense perimeter the enemy advanced on the company command post bunker. The command post received increasingly heavy fire and was in danger of being overwhelmed. When several enemy grenades landed within the command post, 1st Sgt. Yabes shouted a warning and used his body as a shield to protect others in the bunker. Although painfully wounded by numerous grenade fragments, and despite the vicious enemy fire on the bunker, he remained there to provide covering fire and enabled the others in the command group to relocate. When the command group had reached a new position, 1st Sgt . Yabes moved through a withering hail of enemy fire to another bunker 50 meters away. There he secured a grenade launcher from a fallen comrade and fired point blank into the attacking Viet Cong stopping further penetration of the perimeter. Noting 2 wounded men helpless in the fire swept area, he moved them to a safer position where they cound be given medical treatment. He resumed his accurate and effective fire killing several enemy soldiers and forcing others to withdraw from the vicinity of the command post. As the battle continued, he observed an enemy machinegun within the perimeter which threatened the whole position. On his own, he dashed across the exposed area, assaulted the machinegun, killed the crew, destroyed the weapon and fell mortally wounded. 1st Sgt . Yabes' valiant and selfless actions saved the lives of many of his fellow soldiers and inspired his comrades to effectively repel the enemy assault. His indomitable fighting spirit, extraordinary courage and intrepidity at the cost of his life are in the highest military traditions and reflect great credit upon himself and the Armed Forces of his country. Presentation of the Medal of Honor to Master Sergeant Roy P. Benavidez Mrs. Benavidez, Mrs. Nancy Reagan and MSgt Benavidez's son attend the awards ceremony. President Reagan decorates MSgt. Benavidez as Secretary of Defense Weinberger witnesses the event. Master Sergeant Roy P. Benavidez, USA (Ret.) US. Anny Photograph 190416 The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, March 3, 1863, has awarded in the name of the Congress the Medal of Honor to Master Sergeant Roy P Benavidez United States Army, Retired for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty: On May 2, 1~68 Master Sergeant (then Staff Sergeant) Roy P. Benavidez distinguished himself by a series of daring and extremely valorous actions while assigned to Detachment B-56, 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces, Republic of Vietnam. On the morning of May 2, 1968, a 12-man Special Forces Reconnaissance Team was inserted by helicopters in a dense jungle area west of Loc Ninh, Vietnam to gather intelligence information about confJ.rmed large-scale enemy activity. This area was controlled and routinely patrolled by the North Vietnamese Army. After a short period of time on the ground, the team met heavy enemy resistance, and requested emergency extraction. Three helicopters attempted extraction, but were unable to land due to intense enemy small arms and anti-aircraft fire. Sergeant Benavidez was at the Forward Operating Base in Loc Ninh monitoring the operation by radio when these helicopters returned to off-lE>ad wounded crewmembers and to assess aircraft damage. Sergeant Benavidez voluntarily boarded a returning aircraft to assist in another extrac tion attempt. Realizing that all the team members were either dead or wounded and unable to move to the pickup zone, he directed the aircraft to a nearby clearing where he jumped from the hovering helicopter, and ran approximately 7 5 meters under withering small arms fire to the crippled team. Prior to reaching the team's position, he was wounded in his right leg, face, and head. Despite these painful injuries, he took charge, repositioning the team members and directing their frre to facilitate the landing of an extraction aircraft, and the loading of wounded and dead team members. He then threw smoke cannisters to direct the aircraft to the team's position. Despite his severe wounds and under intense enemy frre, he carried and dragged half of the wounded team members to the awaiting aircraft. He then provided prot ective frre by running alongside the aircraft as it moved to pick up the remaining team members. As the enemy's fire intensified, he hurried to recover the body and the classified documents on the dead team leader. When he reached the team leader's body, Sergeant Benavidez was severely wounded by small arms fue in the abdomen and grenade fragments in his back. At nearly the same moment, the aircraft pilot was mortally wounded, and his helicopter crashed. Although in extremely critical condition due to his multiple wounds, Sergeant Benavidez secured the classified documents and made his way back to the wreckage, where he aided the wounded out of the overturned aircraft, and gathered the stunned survivors into a defensive perimeter. Under increasing enemy automatic weapons and grenade frre, moved around the perimeter distributing water and ammunition to his weary men, reinstilling in them a will to live and fight. Facing a build-up of enemy opposition with a beleaguered team, Sergeant Benavidez mustered his strength, and began calling in tactical air strikes and directing the fue from supporting gunships, to suppress the enemy's fire and so permit another extraction attempt. He was wounded again in his thigh by small arms frre while administering fust aid to a wounded team member just before another extraction helicopter was able to land. His indomitable spirit kept him going as he began to ferry his comrades to the craft. On his second trip with the wounded, he was clubbed from behind by an enemy soldier. In the ensuing hand-to-hand combat, he sustained additional wounds to his head and arms before killing his adversary. He then continued under devastating fire to carry the wounded to the helicopter. Upon reaching the aircraft, he spotted and killed two enemy soldiers who were rushing the craft from an angle that prevented the aircraft door gunner from fuing upon them. With little strength remaining, he made one last trip to the perimeter to ensure that all classified material had been collected or destroyed, and to bring in the remaining wounded. Only then, in extremely serious condition from numerous wounds and loss of blood, did he allow himself to be pulled into the extraction aircraft. Sergeant Benavidez' gallant choice to join voluntarily his comrades who were in critical straits, to expose himself constantly to withering enemy fue, and his refusal to be stopped despite numerous severe wounds, saved the lives of at least eight men. His fearless personal leadership, tenacious devotion to duty, and extremely valorous actions in the face of overwhelming odds were in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service, and reflect the utmost credit on him and the United States Army. Hispanic Medal of Honor Recipients Display As part of the 1980 National Hispanic Heritage Week Ceremony, the Department of Defense honored HispanicAmerican Medal of Honm: recipients. These valiant HispanicAmericans, whose heroism, intrepid actions, and devotion to their country deserve the honor of all Americans. In their honor a picture display (shown below) and a large banner were commissioned by DoD. The Hispanic American Medal of Honor recipients display includes photographs, biographical sketches, and citations for each recipient. This display was requested for use at the Third Annual Congressional Hispanic Caucus dinner along with a large banner (20' x 2.5') which was used as a back drop for the speaker's podium. The colored banner illustrates the three Armed Services Medals of Honor and the names of each Hispanic-American recipient. This exhibit is on permanent display at the Pentagon. A Special Tribute Hispanic Hostages During the Takeover of the U.S. Embassy in Iran On November 4, 1979, approximately 500 Moslem "students" stormed the American embassy in Tehran and seized 90 hostages. They demanded that the deposed Shah be returned to Iran from New York to stand trial. The American government refused . Negotiations continued in the glare of publicity until an agreement was finally achieved on January 20, 1981 . Among the hostages freed that day were two Hispanic Marines, members of the Embassy's security guard. They had endured physical deprivation, psychological tension, and actual beatings. Through it all, they maintained themselves in an exemplary fashion . Their endurance and bravery should be an inspiration to all. Sgt. J.M. Lopez, USMC Born: 21 May 1958, Globe, Ariz. Entered USMC: 29 April 1977, Pheonix, Ariz. Expiration of Active Service: 28 Feb 1982 Home of record: Globe, Ariz. Parents: Jesus Rojas and Mary Helen Lopez of Globe, Ariz. Military Service: Received his recruit training at MCRD, San Diego in April 1977 and was assigned duties with the US Army Military Police School in Fort McClellan, Alabama, and Headquarters Squadron, Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, California, prior to applying for the Marine Security Guard Program. He attended the Marine Security Guard School and, following graduation in October, 1979, was assigned to Company B. , Marine Security Guard Battalion , American Embassy, Tehran, Iran. Cpl. W. Gallegos, USMC Born: 12 Sept 1958, Pueblo, Colo. Entered USMC: 20 July, 1977, Denver Colo. Expiration of Active Service: 19 Oct. 1981 Home of record: Pueblo, Colo . Parents: Jose Pedro and Maria Theresa Gallegos of Pueblo, Colo . Military Service: Enlisted in the USMCR for 6 years on July 7, 1977. He received his recruit training at MCRD, San Diego, and performed duties with Headquarters Battalion, Marine Corps Logistic Support Base, Barstow, California, and Company Supply , 3rd Supply Battalion , 3rd Force Support Service Group, Okinawa, prior to applying for the Marine Security Guard Program. He attended the Marine Security Guard School and, following graduation in July 1979, was assigned duties with Company B. Marine Security Guard Battalion, American Embassy, Tehran, Iran. A Salute to Navy Ships Christened in Honor of Hispanics The practice of naming ships after prominent persons and American cities has been a longstanding tradition in the Navy. The cultural and military contributions of Hispanics to this Nation have not been overlooked in this process. Below are featured seven ships, currently on duty with the Navy around the world which pay homage to our Hispanic American heritage. Guided missile destroyer USS Farragut, DDG-37. Escort ship USS Garcia, DE-1040. Escort ship USS Valdez, DE1096. Nuclear powered fleet ballistic missile submarine USS Mariano G. Vallejo, SSBN-658. Nuclear powered attack sub-Amphibious Cargo Ship USS El Paso, LKA-117 marine USS City of Corpus Christi, SSN-705 Combat storeship USS San Jose, AFS-7 World War II light cruiser USS San Juan, CL-54 Hispanic American Generals and Flag Officers by Military Service Admiral Horacia Rivero, USN (Retired) A Tribute to Admiral Horacio Rivero, the First .Hispanic Four Star Admiral in the Navy. Admiral Rivero was born on May 16, 1910, in Ponce, Puerto Rico. A distinguished graduate of the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, he placed third in his class of 441 members. He was commissioned an Ensign on June 4, 1931. Admiral Rivero's first assignment was on board the heavy cruiser USS orthampton where he served as a junior officer in the gunnery department. From 1932-1936, he served in a variety of duties aboard the heavy cruiser USS Chicago and the battleships USS New Mexico, USS California, and USS Pennsylvania. In 1938, Admiral Rivero returned to the United States. He attended the Naval Postgraduate School and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he received a Master of Science degree in Electrical Engineering in 1940. Upon graduation, he served in several Navy Department sttiff positions before returning to sea. In January 1942, shortly after the United States entered World War II, Admiral Rivero was ordered to duty in connection with fi tting out the light cruiser, USS San Juan. H e served as the ship 's Assistant Gunnery Officer and participated in the landings at GuadalcanalTulagi, a lone raid on the Gilbert Islands, the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands, the attack on Bougainville in the Solomons, the capture of the Gilbert Islands, a series of carrier raids on Rabaul, and in the attacks on Kwajalein in the Marshalls. Admiral Rivero returned to the United States in 1944 and was reassinged as the Gunnery Officer of the heavy cruiser USS Pittsburgh. On the ship, he participated in the Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns and in the first carrier raids on Tokyo. On June 5, 1945, during operations against the enemy in the vicinity of Nansei Shoto, a severe typhoon struck ships of the U.S. fleet in the area, damaging several of them . The USS Pittsburg suffered the most severe damage, losing its bow. The precautionary measure of setting complete closure in Damage Contml was instrumental in preventing casualties . The ship proceeded to port under its own steam where a new bow was fabricated and installed so that it could travel to the United States for permanent repairs. Admiral Rivero was awarded the Legion of Merit for his actions in preventing loss of life and in saving the ship . In 1948, Admiral R ivero participated in the atomic weapons test at Eniwetok. In 1954, he was designated Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations. In 1955 he was promoted to Rear Admiral. In 1962, he was promoted to V ice Admiral and assumed command of Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet . In this capacity, he commanded ships in the naval "quarantine" of Cuba during the Cuban Missle Crisis. In 1963 Admiral Rivero reported as Director of Navy Program Planning, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations where he inst ituted a new management system for program planning. He was promoted to Admiral and became Vice Chief of Naval Operations in 1964. In 1968, he commanded NATO forces as Commander in Chief of Allied Forces, Southern Europe. On June I, 1972 , Admiral Rivero retired after forty-one years of distinguished service. He was later named as U.S. Ambassador to Spain. General Richard E. Cavazos, USA A Tribute to General Richard E. Cavazos, Commanding General, FORSCOM and the First Hispanic Four Star General in the Army. General Cavazos was born on January 31, 1929 in Kingsville, Texas. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Geology from Texas Technological University and was commissioned a 2nd Lieutenant through the ROTC program on June 15, 1951. During his over 30 years of military service, he has attended the basic and advanced courses of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia; the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; plus the British Army and the Armed Forces Staff Colleges. He has also completed the course of instruction at the U.S. Army War College. In 1967, he commanded the 1st Battalion, 18th Infantry regiment in Vietnam. In 1968 and 1969 he worked with the Army Combat Developments Command Institute of Advanced Studies and served as a faculty member of the Army Command and General Staff College as Chief of the Offense Section. General Cavazos resumed command duties when he took over the 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division in 1970, a position he held for two years . He then worked in the Pentagon for a year before serving for two years as the U.S. Defense and Army Attache at the U.S. Embassy in Mexico. From August 1975 to May 1976 he returned to troop duty as the Assistant Division Commander of the 2nd Armored Division at Fort Hood, Texas. He then moved to the Pentagon for a second tour before becoming the Commanding General of the 9th Infantry Division and Post Commander of Fort Lewis, Washington. In February 1980, General Cavazos returned to Fort Hood as the Commanding General, III Corps, a position he held for two years. Since March 1982, General Cavazos has been serving as the Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces Command at Fort McPherson, Georgia. Uuring his outstanding and distinguished military career, General Cavazos has received the following decorations : Distinguished Service Cross (with Oak Leaf Cluster) Silver Star (with Oak Leaf Cluster) Defense Superior Service Medal Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster) Distinguished Flying Cross Bronze Star Medal with V Device (with four Oak Leaf Clusters) Meritorious Service Medal Air Medal with V Device Joint Service Commendation Medal Army Commendation Medal (with two Oak Leaf Clusters) Purple Heart Brigadier General Luis R. Esteves, ARNG (Deceased). A Tribute to Brigadier General Luis R. Esteves, First Puerto Rican Graduate of West Point and Founder of the Puerto Rican National Guard General Esteves was a pioneer in more than one way. He was the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Military Academy. He was also the first to see the necessity of a National Guard organizat ion on the Island immediately following World War I. His efforts with the Governor and the Legislature led to the organization of the Puerto Rico National Guard in 1919. Following his tradition of doing first things, he was the first of the 1915 West Point Class to become a General officer, ahead of his classmates Generals Eisenhower, Bradley, Van Fleet and McNarney. Esteves was five years old at the time of the American occupation of Puerto Rico in 1898. In 1907, having completed his elementary schooling in his home town , Aguadilla, which was as high as he could go there at the time, his parents sent him to Mayaquez for his 5econdary education. While in his last year his mother regretfully informed him that previous plans to send him to study for an engineering career in the United States had to be dropped. The family had grown too large while the home finances had remained in status quo. A few days later he ran into a news item announcing examinations for entry into West Point. Without his parents' knowledge he filed an application, passed the required tests and was accepted. His first few months at the Academy were difficult due to his limited knowledge of the English language. He was quick, however, to overcome the difficulty and four years later he was graduated with the class that years later was to be known as the Class of the Generals. His first assignment was with the 23rd Infantry in Texas City. During the "Pancho Villa Incident" he was sent to El Paso and then to the town of Polvo in Mexico, where he was appointed Mayor and Judge by the local citizens. In El Paso he met the girl who was later to become Mrs. Esteves, Senorita Guadalupe Navarro, an American citizen of Mexican extraction. The entry of the United States in World War I, the application of the draft laws to Puerto Rico, and his knowledge of the Spanish language brought Esteves back to his native Island to serve as instructor at the Officers' Training Camps that were established soon afterwards. He was instructor or commander of three of these camps, which produced all the officers who led the more than 20,000 men trained in Puerto Rico during that conflict. Following the war Major Esteves was transferred to the State of Washington, but due to the sickness of his wife and a medical admonition that residence in a cold climate might be fatal to her, he was forced to resign his commission in the Regular Army-something he regretted to the last day of his life. As stated previously General Esteves organized the first units of the Puerto Rico National Guard in 1919, commanded its first battalion and its first regiment. When a second regiment was added he commanded both units. Then in 1937 he was made Adjutant General, a position he held until his retirement in June 1957. General Esteves was a man of many interests. Military history was his main hobby. The Military Museum at National Guard headquarters in San Juan is a mute witness of his untiring efforts to collect mementos of the glorious deeds of the conquerors of the New World. He was a writer of note, specializing in travel chronicles and military treatises. His humorous stories about soldiers' lives, about which he published two books, are among the best ever written in any language. He was also a great connoisseur of art in all its manifestations. He died on March 12, 1958, after a short illness, in San Juan, Puerto Rico at age 64. Hispanic American General Officers in the Army General Richard E. Cavazos, USA General Cavazos was born on January 31, 1929 in Kingsville, Texas. He received a BS Degree in Geology from Texas Technological University. His military decorations and badges include : Distinguished Service Cross (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Silve~ Star (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Detense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Distinguished Flying Cross, Bronze Star Medal with V Device (with 4 Oak Leaf Clusters); Air Medals with V Device; Joint Service Commendation Medal; Army Commendation Medal (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters); Purple Heart, Combat Infantryman Badge (2 Awards); Parachutist Badge; and the Ranger Tab. Major General Orlando E. Gonzales, USA General Gonzales was born on December 20, 1930 in Model, Colorado. He received a BS Degree in Business Administration from St. Benedict's College and an MBA Degree in Business Administration from Auburn University. His military decorations and badges include : Air Force Distinguished Service Medal; Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Distinguished Flying Cross; Bronze Star M edal; Meritorious Service Medal; Air Medals; Army Commendation Medal (with Oak Leaf Cluster); and the Senior Army Aviator Badge. Major General Enrique Mendez, Jr., USA General Mendez was born on July 15, 1931 in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He received a BS Degree in Biology from the University of Puerto Rico and an MD Degree in Doctor of Medicine from Loyola University. His military decorations and badges include: Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster); Army Commendation Medal; and Expert Field Medical Badge. Major General Gines Perez, USA (Retired) General Perez was born in Cuevas del Almanzora, Almeria, Spain, onDecember 15, 1908. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Mining Engineering and a Master of Science degree in Metallurgy from the University of Arizona. His military decorations and awards include : the Distinguished Service Cross ; Silver Star; Legion of Merit with Oak Leaf cluster;Bronze Star Medal with four Oak Leaf clusters; Joint Services Commendation Medal;Army Commendation Medal; Purple Heart; American Defense Service Medal; American Campaign Medal; Asia-Pacific Campaign Medal with four campaign stars and Arrow head; Philippine Liberation Medal; World War II Victory Medal; Army of Occupation Medal; Distinguished Unit Citation with two Oak Leaf clusters; National Defense Service Medal; Korean Service Medal with six campaign stars; United Nations Service Medal; Combat Infantry Badge with second award; Parachute Badge; Philippine Independence Ribbon; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; Philippine Presidential Unit Citation; Korean Presidential Unit Citation; Order of Boyaca (Columbia) in grade of Commander; Military Order of Antonio Narino (Colombia) in grade of Commander; Medal of Military Merit (Chile); Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa (Panama) in grade of Commander; and the Military Order of A yacucho (Peru) in grade of Officer. Hispanic American Flag and General Officers in the Navy and Marine Corps Admiral David G. Farragut, USN (Deceased) Admir~ Farragut was born in Campbell's Station, Tennessee on July 5, 1801. He was appointed Admiral of the Navy on July 26 , 1866 after a brilliant career during the Civil War. A more complete summary of his accomplishments is contained in the section on the Civil War in the overview chapter on Hispanic military heritage at the front of this book. Admiral Horacio Rivero, USN (Retired) Admiral Rivero was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico on May 16, 1910 . H e received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Naval Academy and a Master of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His military decorations and awards include the : Distinguished Service Medal with two Gold Stars; Legion of Merit with Gold Star; Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V"; Navy Commendation Medal; American Defense Service Medal; AsiaticPacific Campaign Medal; American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; National Defense Service Medal with bronze star; Korean Service Medal; the United Nations Service Medal; Order of Abdon Calderon (Equador); and the Order of Merito Naval (Brazil) . Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle, USMC (Deceased) General del Vaile was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico on August 28, 1893. He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. His ,military decorations and awards include the: Distinguished Service Medal; Legion of Merit with Gold Star; Navy and Marine Corps Medal ; two Presidential Unit Citations; Haiti Expeditionary Medal with Bronze Star; Dominican Campaign Medal; Victory Medal; Second Nicaraguan Campaign Medal; American Defense Service Medal; Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with five Bronze Stars; American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; Order of the Crown of Italy; East African Medal (Ethiopia); Italian Bronze Medal for Military Valor; Cuban Naval Order of Merit, Second Class; and Ecuadoran Decoration of Abdon Calderon Star, First Class with Diploma. Rear Admiral Joseph L. Flores, USN Admiral Flores was born January 25, 1930, in San Francisco, California. He attended St. Mary's College in Moraga, California, where he was graduated with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Business Administration and Economics. His medals include : the Meritorious Service Medal; the Navy Commendation Medal; the American Defense Medal; and the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. Commodore Diego E. Hernandez, USN Commodore Hernandez was born in San J uan , Puerto Rico on March 25, 193 4. He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology and a Master of Science degree in International Affairs from George Washington University. H is military decorations and awards include the: Silver Star; Legion of Merit; Distinguished Flying Cross ; Meritorious Service Medal with Gold Star; ten Air Medals; Navy Commendation Medal with Combat V and two Gqld Stars; and the Purple Heart. Hispanic American General Officers in the Air Force Lieutenant General Elwood R. Quesada, USAF (Retired) Major General LeoMarquez, USAF Major General Salvador E. Felices, USAF (Retired) General Quesada was born in Washington, D.C., on April 13, 1904. He attended Wyoming Seminary in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania; the University of General Marquez was born Jan. Maryland; and Georgetown 27, 1933, in Peralta, N.M., andUniversity in Washington, D .C . General Felices was born in graduated from Belen (N.M.) HighHis military awards and Santurce, Puer to Rico, on August School in 1949. He received adecorations include: the 13, 1923. He attended the A and M Bachelor of Science degree inDistinguished Service Medal with College of the University of Puerto Zoology from New Mexico State Oak Leaf cluster; Dist.inguished Rico until 1943 when he received University, Las Cruces, and a Flying Cross; Legion of Merit; Air a Congressional appointment to the Master of Science degree in Medal with two Silver Oak Leaf United States Military Academy at Business Administration from Theclusters; Purple Heart; American West Point, New York. He George Washington University,Defense ribbon; European-Africangraduated from West Point on June Washington, D .C. In 1978 he wasMediterranean Theater ribbon with 4, 1946. His military decorations named a distinguished alumnusseven battle participation stars; and awards include: the from New Mexico State University. British Order of the Bath (Degree of Distinguished Service Medal;Legion His military decorations andCompanion); the Commander of of Merit with two Oak Leaf awards include: the Legion ofthe British Empire; the French clusters; Distinguished Flying Merit with one Oak Leaf cluster;Legion of Honor; the Fren~h Croix Cross; Air Medal with two Oak Bronze Star Medal; Meritorious de Guerre with Palm; Luxembourg Leaf clusters; Air Force Service Medal; and Air Force Croix de Guerre; Order of Adolphe Commendation Medal with two Commendation Medal with one of assau; the Polish Pilot ' s Badge; Oak Leaf clusters; Army Oak Leaf cluster. He was selected the Belgium Order of the Couronne Commendation Medal; Air Force as Air Force Logistics Command in the grade of Commander, with Outstanding Unit Award Ribbon Systems Manager of the year in aviation palm; and the Belgium with two Oak Leaf clusters; and 1974. In 1977 he was the recipientCroix de Guerre with Aviation the Republic of Korea Presidential of the Air Force Association's Palm. Unit Citation Ribbon. Executive Management Award. 114 L___________________________________________________ Brigadier General Robert L. Cardenas, USAF (Retired) General Cardenas was born in Merida, Yucatan, Mexico on March 10, 1920. He attended schools in San Diego, California, and graduated from the University of New Mexico at Albuquerque in 1955 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering. His military decorations and awards include : the Air Medal with four Oak Leaf clusters; Joint Service Commendation Medal; Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with two Oak Leaf clusters; Legion of Merit with Oak Leaf cluster; Distinguished Flying Cross; Spanish Grand Cross of the Order of Aeronautical Merit; Meritorious Service Medal; Air Force Commendation Medal with one Oak Leaf cluster; and the Purple Heart. Brigadier General Wiltz Segura, USAF (Retired) General Segura was born in New Iberia, Louisiana on August 6, 1921 . He attended Louisiana State University and the University of Southwestern Louisiana. His military decorations and awards include: the Legion of Merit; Distinguished Flying Cross with two Oak Leaf clusters; Air Medal with seven Oak Leaf clusters; Air Force Commendation Medal with one Oak Leaf cluster; Purple Heart; Presidential Unit Citation Emblem; Venezuelan Distinguished Flying Cross; Vietnam Campaign Medal; and the Vietnam Honor Medal. Hispanic American General Officers in the Army and Air Force Reserves 116 Major General Angelo Juarez, USAR (Retired) General Juarez was born in Chicago, Dlinois, on February 9, 1930. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Business from Governors State in Park Forest South, Illinois. His military decorations and awards include : the Meritorious Service Medal with Oak Leaf cluster; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Ten Year Device ; Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal; Korean Service Medal with one Bronze Star; United Nations Service Medal; and National Defense Service Medal. Brigadier General Augusto R. Gautier, USAR General Gautier was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico on September 5, 1932 . He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Architecture from the Renselaer Polytechnic Institute. His military decorations and awards include: the National Defense Service Medal; the Army Commendation Medal with Oak Leaf cluster; the Armed Forces Reserve Medal. Brigadier General Aureliano Rivas-Flores, Jr. USAR (Retired) General Rivas was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico on December 1, 1923. He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Puerto Rico in 1946 and a Doctor of Medicine degree from the Temple University School of Medicine in 1948. General Rivas received a Urology Certificate from the Graduate School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania in 1950 and was certified by the American Board of Urology in 1956. Brigadier General Antonio Rodriguez-Balinas, USAR (Retired) General Rodriguez was born in Adjuntas, Puerto Rico on February 27, 1928. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics and a Doctorate of Law degree from the University of Puerto Rico. His military decorations and awards include: the Silver Star with one Oak Leaf cluster; Army Commendation Medal; Purple Heart with one Oak Leaf cluster; National Defense Service Medal; United ations Service Medal; Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation; Korean Service Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal; Combat Infantry Badge; and Parachutist Badge. l 118 Hispanic American General Officers in the Army and Air National Guard Major General Juan Cesar Cordero, Adjutant General, Puerto Rico General Cordero was born in Carolina, Puerto Rico on June 7, 1904. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Puerto Rico in 1926. His military decorations and awards include the Silver Star, Bronze Star with four Oak Leaf clusters; Commendation Ribbon with Medal Pendant; Purple Heart; American Campaign Medal; European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal; Army of Occupation Medal; World War II Victory Medal; Armed Forces R eserve Medal; Korean Service Medal; United ations Service Medal; Combat Infantryman Badge with one star; Puerto Rico National Guard Distinguished Medal; and the Puerto Rico National Guard Service Medal. Major General Luis R. Esteves, ARNG (Deceased) General Esteves was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico in 1893. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1915. His military career is chronicled in an earlier section of this chapter. He died on March 12, 1958. Major General Orlando Llenza, ANG General Llenza was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico on July I , 1930. He received a BS Degree from Georgia Institute of Technology. His decorations and awards include : National Defense Service Medal; Armed Force Reserve Medal; Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal; Combat Readiness Medal; Air Force Longevity Service Award; Puerto Rico National Guard Service Medal; Puerto Rico ational Guard Flood Emergency Ribbon; Puerto Rico ational Guard War Service Ribbon; Puerto Rico National Guard Caribbean Emergency Ribbon. Major General Alberto A. Pico, ARNG General Pico was born in Coamo, Puerto Rico on August 23, 1918. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Puerto Rico in 1940. His military decorations and awards include the: American Service Medal; American Campaign Medal; EuropeanAfrican-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with three stars; World War II Victory Medal; Army of Occupation Medal ; Combat Infantryman Badge; National Defense Service Medal ; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Hourglass; Puerto Rico National Guard Merit Cross; Indiana National Guard Commendation Medal with Oak Leaf cluster; and the Republic of Colombia Military Cross, "Antonio Marino." Major General Frank Jose Schober, Jr., Adjutant General, California General Schober was born in Los Angeles, California on November I 7, 1933 . He received a Bachelor of Science degree (summa cum laude) from the Universityof Santa Clara in 1956 and a Master of Public Administration degree from Harvard University in 1964. His military decorations and awards include the Legion of Merit; Bronze Star Medal; Meritorious Service Medal ; Army Commendation Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Vietnam Service Medal ; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal; Vietnam Signal Corps Badge; Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm; General Staff Identification Badge; California Service Medal; and California State Service Medal. Brigadier General Joaquin Balaguer, ARNG General Balaguer was born in Arecibo, Puerto Rico on April 6, 1924. He received a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from the University of Puerto Rico in 1950. His military decorations and awards include the: Army Meritorious Service Medal; National Defense Service Medal ; Korean Service Medal; Armed Force Reserve Medal with Hourglass; United Nations Service Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard Merit Cross; and the Puerto Rico National Guard Commendation Medal. Brigadier General Guillermo H. Barbosa, ARNG General Barbosa was born in Hato Rey, Puerto Rico on April 30, 1929. He received a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from the University of Puerto Rico in 1953. His military decorations and awards include: the Meritorious Service Medal; Army Commendation Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Hourglass Device; Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard Commendation Medal with one Oak Leaf cluster; VIARNG Commendation Medal; and ROTC Distinguished Citation, Mayaguez Campus. Brigadier General Jose A. Bloise, ANG General Blaise was born in Guayama, Puerto Rico on October 1, 1930. He attended 3 years of premedical at Duke University and 6 months training at the University of Puerto Rico. His decorations and awards include: Combat Readiness Medal with one Oak Leaf Cluster; Good Conduct Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Air Force Longevity Service Award Ribbon with One Siver Oak Leaf Cluster; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Hour Glass Device; Air Reserve Meritorious Service Ribbon; Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Ribbon; Puerto Rico National Guard Flood Emergency 1960 Ribbon; National Guard Combat Service Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard War Service Ribbon; Service Medal with two Bronze Service Stars; Caribbean Emergency Ribbon. Brigadier General Belisario D.]. Flores, ANG General Flores was born in Eagle Pass, Texas, on July 22, 1926. His decorations and awards include: Bronze Star Medal; Air Force Commendation Medal; Air Force Outstanding Unit Award; Good Conduct Medal; American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Korean Service Medal; Air Force Longevity Service Award Ribbon with six Oak Leaf Clusters; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with two Hourglass Devices; United Nations Service Medal; Texas Outstanding Service Medal; Texas Federal Service Medal; and Texas Faithful Service Medal with three Cactus Clusters. Brigadier General Luis E. Gonzales-Vales, ARNG General Gonzales-Vales was born in Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico on May 11, 1930. He received a BA from the University of Puerto Rico and an MA from the University of Columbia. His decorations and awards include: Army Commendation Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal (two awards); Army Reserve Component Achievement Medal (two awards). Brigadier General Joseph G. Iniguez, Jr., ARNG General Iniguez was born in Chicago, Illinois on September 11, 1928. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in October 1956 and assigned as Supply Officer in Headquarters, 108th Medical Battalion. He became Adjutant of the Headquarters in 195 7. His decorations and awards include: Meritorious Service Medal; Army Commendation Medal; Korean Service Medal with three Bronze Service Stars; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal; United Nations Service Medal; Illinois Long and Honorable Service Medal; Illinois State Active Duty Ribbon. Brigadier General Reynold L. Lopez, ARNG General Lopez was born in San German, Puerto Rico on August 7, 1922. He attended the University Of Puerto Rico, College of Agriculture and Mechanical Sciences. His military decorations and awards include the: American Campaign Medal; Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; and Puerto Rico National Guard Merit Cross. Brigadier General Salvador M. Padilla, ARNG General Padilla was born in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico on September 19 , 1924. H e received a Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering from the University of Puerto Rico in 1948 and a Masters in Chemical Engineering from Cornell University in 1952. In 1958, General Padilla received a PhD from Cornell University and he did post-doctoral work at Harvard University in 1958. His military decorations and awards include: the American Defense Service Medal; American Campaign Medal; Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Hourglass; Puerto Rico National Commendation Medal with Oak Leaf cluster; Puerto Rico National Guard Distinguished Service Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard Flood Emergency Ribbon; Puerto Rico National Guard Civil Disturbance Ribbon; Puerto Rico National Guard Service Medal; and Puerto Rico National Guard War Service Ribbon. Brigadier General Rafael Rodriguez-Ema, ARNG General Rodriguez-Ema, was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico on September 2, 1914. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Puerto Rico in 1938 . His military awards and decorations include the American Defense Service Medal; American Campaign Medal; World War II Victory Medal; National Defense Service Medal; Eight Overseas Bars ; Armed Forces Reserve Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard Service Medal; and Puerto Rico Merit Cross. Brigadier General Roberto R. Vargas, ANG General Vargas was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico on April 25, 1925. He attended the College of Mechanics and Agriculture Arts , University of Puerto Rico and the University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras. His military decorations and awards include: the American Defense Service Medal; World War II Victory Medal; War Sen·ice Ribbon; Armed Forces Resen·e Medal; National Guard Service Medal; Puerto Rico National Guard Service Medal with one Oak Leaf cluster; Puerto Rico National Guard Commendation Medal; Caribbean Emergency Medal; and Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Ribbon. A Selection of Highest Ranking Hispanic American Enlisted Personnel Master Chief Radioman (RMCM) William Tirado, USN Master Chief Tirado is a native of New York City, born of Puerto Rican parents. He enlisted in the U.S. Navy on 21 July 1957 and attended basic training at Bainbridge, Maryland. Upon completion of Radioman "A" school, RMCM Tirado was assigned to Beach Jumper Unit 2, a support unit for amphibious landings. From here his career carried him through a series of ships and shore stations which included the Navy's first guided missile cruiser the USS Boston (SAG-1). During this time RMCM Tirado completed Radioman "B" School, numerous Radioman "C" schools and qualified as Junior Office of the Deck, Officer of the Deck (Underway) and ultimately Surface Warfare. RMCM Tirado is currently stationed in Washington, D .C. as the Training Coordinator for CNO, OPNAV-941, Director of Naval Communications. Master Gunnery Sergeant (MGySgt) Robert L. Castro, USMC Master Sergeant Castro was born in Miami, Arizona and attended Ray High School in Ray, Arizona. He joined the Marine Corps in June 1946 and completed recruit training at the Marine CorP.s Recruit Depot in San Diego. In AuguJt of 1946 he was assigned to Miramar Air Station as a heavy truck motor transport driver. The young Marine was then released from active duty in June of 1947 and in 1948 be joined "E" Company, 13th Infantry Battalion , USMCR, in Tucson, Arizona. MGySgt Castro returned to active duty in January of 1953 and reported to El Toro for duty as a heavy vehicle operator. He has seen duty at Camp Pendleton, Okinawa, San Diego, Washington, D.C., Pearl Harbor, 2 tours of duty in Da Nang, Vietnam and others. MGySgt Castro's decorations and awards include: World War II Victory Medal; Combat Action Ribbon; Good Conduct Medal with six stars; National Defense Service Medal with one star; Presidential Unit Citation with three stars; Navy Unit Citation; Korean Presidential Unit Citation; Korean Service Medal with four stars; Armed Force expeditionary Medal; United Nations Service Medal; Meritorious Unit Citation; Republic of Vietnam Service Medal with two stars; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal with Device; Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation Gallantry Cross Color with Palm; and the Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Medal Class I. Chief Master Sergeant (CMSgT) Anastacio R. Machain USAF CMSgt Machain was born in Thoreau, New Mexico and spent most of his formative years in Fontana, CA, joining the United States Air Force on 7 Feb 52 . His first assignment after basic training and graduation from Technical Training School was Kirkland AFB, NM. In the fourteen years that Air Force supply has possessed the UNIVAC 1050-II, CMSgt Machain has been involved with the USAF logistics sysems in general. A few of his contributions include : conversion of the Air National Guard Units to the Standard Base Supply System; development of an automated base funded equipment redistribution program, authorship and publication of an equipment custodian manual; consolidation of Tool Issue Centers with Base Service Stores; and implementing daily reason coded equipment transaction reporting from Air Force bases to AFLC . His most significant awards and decorations include: Meritorious Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Air Force Commendation Medal with two oak leaf clusters; Air Force outstanding Unit Award; Presidential Unit Citation; National Defense Service Medal; Vietnam Service Medal; RVN Gallantry Cross with palm; and Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal. Hispanic Civiliansin theDepartment ofDefense 129 _j A Special Tribute to The Honorable Edward Hidalgo Fonner Secretary of the Navy and the Highest Ranking Hispanic Civilian to ever serve in DoD The Honorable Edward Hidalgo Secretary of the Navy, 1979-1980 On September 13, 1979, Edward Hidalgo was nominated to be Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Hidalgo was confirmed by the Senate on October 19, and took the oath of office on October 24, 1979. He previously had served, since April 25, 1977, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics). Secretary Hidalgo was born in Mexico City, Mexico, on October 12, 1912. He has been a resident of the United States since early childhood. He recieved a B.A., Magna Cum Laude, from Holy Cross College in 1933 and a J.D. from Columbia Law School in 1936. In 1959 he received a Degree in Civil Law from the University of Mexico. -130 He served as a law clerk to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in 1936, and 1937, and was an associate with the law firm of Wright, Gordon, Zachry and Parlin from 1937 to 1942. From 1942 to 1943, he was assigned to the State Department as legal advisor to the U .S. Ambassador to the Emergency Advisory Committee for Political Defense in Montevideo, Uruguay. From 1943 to 1945 he served as an air combat intelligence officer on the carrier ENTERPRISE, and he was a member of the Eberstadt Committee which reported to the Secretary of the Navy on Unification of the Military Services in 1945. He received the Bronze Star for his services aboard USS ENTERPRISE and a Commendation Ribbon for his service with the Eberstadt Committee. In 1945 and 1946 he served as Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy, James Forrestal. From 1946 to 1948, Mr. Hidalgo was a partner in the law firm of Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt and Mosie, in charge of their Mexico City office. H e was founder in 1948 and a senior partner until 1965 in the Mexico City law firm of Barrera, Siqueiros and Torres Landa. From 1965 to 1966 , Mr. Hidalgo was Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy, Paul H. Nitze, and from 1966 to 1972, he was partner in the law firm of Cahill, Gordon and Reindel in charge of their European office . In 1972, he served as Special Assistant for Economic Affairs to the Director of the U .S. Information Agency, and in 1973 he became General Counsel and Congressional Liaison of the Agency. Mr. Hidalgo was a member of the U.S. Delegation to the InterAmerican Conference in Bogota, Colombia, in 1948. He has received the Royal Order of the Vasa for legal services to the Swedish Government. He is the author of "Legal Aspects of Foreign ·Investments" (chapter on Mexico) (1958). Hispanic Americans in Civilian Careers Introduction Regardless of the quantity or sophistication of its equipment, no military force will be any better than the quality of its people . Accordingly, any program of rebuilding our military strength also gives top priority to attracting and retaining qualified people. In addition, we must. remain sensitive to the needs of those men and women, both military and civilian, once they are employed. Human resources in the Department of Defense consist of active duty military, members of the reserve components, and civilians. Defense human resource management is concerned with the efficient utilization and mutual support of these three groups. The Department of Defense Human Goals Charter is the philosophic base for this management equation. Originally promulgated on August 18, 1969, by then Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird, the DoD Human Goals Charter was perceived as a key statement on the objectives and principles governing the Department's treatment of people. Each succeeding Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretary of Defense, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Secretary of each Military Department, and Chief of Staff of each military service has subscribed to this policy . On May 18, 1981, Secretary of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger signed a new Human Goals Charter. His signing reflected his desire to direct top-level and high priority attention to this important program. Speaking before the Armed Forces Policy Council, the Secretary said: ''President Reagan has said that his Administration would be dedicated to equality and that there would be no retreat from the Government's advocacy of equal opportunity and affirmative action programs. I share this dedication and I want to pledge my Administration's continued support for equal opportunity and affirmative action programs within DoD. ''Our signing of the Human Goals Charter is a symbol of the strong and personal leadership that each of us will give these programs. I want equal opportunity and affirmative action initiatives to be effective and to have a high priority. I also want these efforts efficiently managed. Equal opportunity and affirmative action programs must be inextricably interwoven into our efforts to revitalize American military strength because they can only improve our cohesiveness, our readiness, and our total defense capability. I believe that we can afford no less than to allow each person within DoD the opportunity to realize the fullest of his or her potential-and that will be done. This means that I want qualified people, regardless of background or gender, to carry forth this Department's mission of national security. That' s the public policy of the DoD's Human Goals statement and one that we intend to fulfill completely. .. '' People are a vital element of our readiness program and civilians are a significant factor in our people programs. DoD employs almost one million civilians who perform a broad range of jobs from research and development, medical care, procurement and supply to base operations, logistical support, and administration. It is DoD policy to minimize our requirements for uniformed personnel by employing civilians in j obs which are not needed for deployment or military rotation. These jobs are essential in meeting our peacetime and wartime national defense mission. To insure that DoD draws fully from the capabilities of our population, its civilian workforce should be reflective of the population which it serves; for we are a diverse, multi-talented people. America has historically welcomed "the huddled masses yearning to breathe free." It has become a part of our national identity. We have perceived ourselves as a "melting pot;" one in which all nationalities would blend into a new homogeniety. Rather than a "melting pot," however, we are more like a tapestry with yarns of different fibers and colors, interwoven to bring new strength and quality to the national fabric. How then can we recognize the infinite dignity and worth of individuals yet maintain full effectiveness in the performance of our primary mission-national defense? HUMAN GOALS QJ)urm~hon was foundrlmm,rlo m<>nt o~anity. (!o .r="i.koppochJnit_y foe """')'OTW.. rrtilitm.-J.: and c:i.,ilian. to cis.: to ... hi'Jh A 1...,..1 of ({oJ,dp each Srvice to eeadjust to eivilinn life: m1Fmdentonl/ on indi.,idu..l t .. lent and dili'J"nee: (Jo eontribut.:. to tha. impro"""ment of our =«atc:r utilization ofour human nnd ph sic:al cceout:ee• while tnaintnini•"J h..ll .,Jf..c:tiv.:ne8s "'lunl "f.Pocluni?,-for all ""-'J"rdl .. s-6 of rae.:. eolor, sc". r