r'sB\SOtt BuU APR 2' 1964 FM 31-25 TH£ lOCKWOOD MEMUIe obstacle In which individual positions had to be des troyed one by one. Section II. DESERT 6. General As used in this manual, desert is an area in which the seasonal or annual rainfall rate is less than the seasonal or annual evaporation rate. Meteorological conditions common to all desert g. Desert operations demand thorough reconnaissance and timely intelligence to enable the commander to make a quick decision. Distant tactic.c'tl reconnaissance operations contributeto the gathering of vital information. Airmobile operations employed to land or airdrop individuals to accomplish these missions support other conventional operations against the enemy. h. Air parity, if not air superiority, is necessary for continuous tactical success on the ground when conventional force are employed in large f ormations. 5. Combat Service Support a. Inherent to the succe of any tactical operation is a sound logistical plan. It is especially important in the desert because the greater distances used in maneuver and deployment complicate supply procedures; other reasons are the shortage of locally available water coupled with the increased demand for it created by very high temperatmes and low humidity, and the increased maintenance required to combat sand and dust damage to equipment. b. Mobility and freedom of tactical maneuver is tied to the logistical base; consequently, to extend mobility and freedom of action in desert operations, it is often necessary to establish additional bases. When possible, supplies should be delivered directly to combat units to reduce handling. It may be necessary to establish widely separated, prestockecl supply points. Such supply points should be well camouflaged, buried for protection against the de ert heat, and secured against pilferage or captme. Every effort should be made to restrict centralized storage. c. The environmental effects on supplies must be considered. Frequent duststorms, occasional torrential rains, extreme changes in temperature, and the effects of insect hordes are examples of conditions which, unless anticipated, will restrict effective logistical support. CHARACTERISTICS regions are glari11g sunlight, sudden and violent windstorms, and drastic changes in temperature. The most important deserts-politically and militarily-are the Sahara (which includes the L ibyan and Nubian Deserts) in rorth Africa, and the Arabian and Seist.an Deserts in the Middle East. Also of importance is the Gobi Desert in Mongolia. These deserts are important because they separate two or more spheres of political and religious influence, they contain valuable mineral resources, and they have strategic implications becau e of their locations (fig. 1). grass, spinafox, camel grass, and matted p lants. There is seldom enough vegetation for large-scaJe shade, shelter, or concealment. The lack of natural concealment may C<'tuse soldiers to have a feeling of exposure and insecurity for a few days. d. A desert may be classified according to the terrain features characteristic of that area. 0 1000 2000 k 4 b 4 I M I LES Figtwe 1. The most important deserts, politically and militarily, ar·e those in Nor·th Afr·ioa and the JJiiddle Ea.st . 7. Terrain a. Characteristic desert terrain feat ures include dunes and hillocks, rock -strew areas, dry lakes, salt marshes, and drywashes (often called wadis or arroyos locally) . Deserts have parse or no vegetation; large areas of sand; high mountains and broad, flat topography; spars human habitation; and little or no surface water (except for the Gobi Desert where water can usually be found not too far below the surface) . All the deserts around the Mediterranean Sea are arid regions characterized by a high evaporation rate and an average yearly rainfall of less than 10 inches. b. Roads and trails are scarce and usually connect villages and oases. Wheeled and tracked vehicles can travel generally in any direction over most of the desert and need not be confined to roads and trail , since much of the desert area is flat and hard-surfaced and carpeted with two or three centimeters of sand (fig. 2) . c. Although most of the desert is barren, scrubby vegetation is present in ome place ; but it seldom attains a height of over six feet. Types of vegetation include thorny trees, low bushes, bw1ch (1) A roclcy dese1·t (ham,cu:la) is characterized by solid or broken rock at or near the surface. This type de e1t varies in topography, generally from extensive flat areas to highly eroded are.'l 1\ith deep, steepsided washes (fig. 3). (2) A mTypical of these fortress-type defenses were the coastal harbors of Tobruk, Bardia, and llfersa llfatrub In North Africa during World War IL El Alamein, due to Its right flank being on the sea and anchored on the left by an impassable (to vehicles) salt marsh (the Qattarra depression). was al so considered a fortress. to the true location of the defen es. At other times, the adoption of this defensive posture may be necessary to maintain the integrity of the defensive position. In any event, it is the forward elements of the main defen ive position that cover the reverse slope. This type defen e is particularly effective when friendly flanking fire can be directed on the forward slope of the reverse slope defense positions. These positions are echeloned in depth. Friendly security elements occupy positions just forward of the crest, prepared when possible to withdraw through a saddle or around a flank. Efforts are made to combat the tendency of t roops to "crown the heights" to see farther into the country n.head. Ideally, terrain to the front and flanks of the position should be difficult to traverse; however, this terrain condition is seldom found in the desert. 35. Defense Considerations a. In the desert, the commanding terrain is not always selected a the best ta tical position because of the sheer rock and shale walls which may be encountered. The commander may conclude that ground on a lower level will better aid lum_ in the accomplishment of his mission. After a tactical position is selected, it may be best to have the unit remain in a decoy area or position and then move into the selected position after dark. Tlus causes the enemy to concentrate his efforts on a false position while friendly units will have moved to the primary position. b. Dispersion in the desert is greater during dayliYith the sun, a matchstick or similar object may be held perpendicular to the face of the watch at the point to be alined with the sun. The shadow of this object then can be STEP STEP STEP 3 used to assi t in obtaining accurate Fiuwre 6. Shadow-tip m ethocl tor det ermining dit·ection. NORTH TEMPERATE ZONE 1. POINT THE HOUR HAND AT THE S UN BY PLACING WATCH SO THE SHADOW OF THE STICK FALLS ' ALONG THE HOUR HAND. 2 . A LINE FROM THE CENTER OF THE DIAL PASSING HALFWAY BETWEEN THE HOUR HAND AND 12 O'CLOCK IN THE SM ALLER ARC POINTS SOUTH. SOUTH TEMPERATE ZONE: N \ 1. POINT 12 O'CLOCK AT THE SUN BY PLACING WATCH SO THE SHADOW OF THE STICK FALLS ALONG 12. O"CLOCK. 2. A LINE FROM THE CENTER OF THE DIAL PASSING HALFWAY BETWEEN THE HOUR HAND AND 12 O"CLOCK IN THE SMALLER ARE POINTS NORTH. F'igure 7. Watch-and-Sun rncthod of det ermining d·irection. alinement. This method cam10t be used when the sun i directly overhead. (2) Nir;httirne. At night, the stars may be used to find north. Again, it depends upon whether the individual is north or south of the equator. North of the equator, the North Star is used to find north. The North Star does not change position in the sky as do other stars, but remains practically stationary and in a northerly direction at all times. There are two constellations (star patterns) in the sky that are used to find the North Star. These are the Big Dipper and the Big W . Figure 8 shows the location of the North Star in relation to these constellations. TI1e two st.·u-s that form the side of the cup farthest from the handle of the Big Dipper are known as the "pointer st.'trs." The orth Star falls on a straight line drawn through these two stars away from the bottom of the cup. The dist.'lnce from the North Star to the nearest pointer star is about five times the distance between the pointer stars. T he Birr W may also be used to find the North Star. The center star of tllis constellation (the star forming the central peak of the W) points at the rorth Star. The two constellations, along with the rest of the stars in the sky, revolve about the North Star as a center. The Big Dipper and Big W appear in different parts of the sky at different times of the year, but the pointer stars always point at the North Star no matter what positions the constellations are in. South of the equator there is no bright star about the south axis pole. An approximate position of south can be determined by reference to the constellation commonly known as the Southern Cross. Tilis constellation is formed by four stars as shown in Fgure 9. The approximate direction of south ca,n be determined by mea uring straight out from the foot of the cross a distance four and one-half times the length of the cross itself. This imaginary point is the general direction of south. The two stars forming the long axis of the cross are the pointers. f. J,£ap Orientation. (1) The fastest and most accurate way to orient a map is with a compass. If a pivot-point protractor appears on the map, draw the magnetic north line. Place the compass over the magnetic north line in such a manner that the sighting v.~ire in the front sight points toward the top of the map and is eli 722-347°--64----5 rectly over the mag11etic north line that has been drawn. Turn the map and the compass together until the north arrow of the compass is alined under the index line of the compass. The map is now oriented. For maps that do not have a pivot-point protractor, aline the sighting wire of the compass over a north-south gridline and rotate the map and compass together until the north arrow of the compass points in the same direction and ammmt from the gridline as shown in the declination diagram. (2) A map may also be oriented by inspection. This is done by alining the map with visible landmarks. However, ]andmarks are scarce in the desert and in most cases it will be necessary to determine north prior to orienting the map. P ersmmel should be cautioned about orienting a map by inspection since the terrain relief may have changed through weather Figure 8. Fi11cling tlle Nm·th Star. F ·igtwe 9. Finding south. effects, and additional manmade features may have been constructed after prepara tion of the map. g . Day and Night Navigation. "avigation is similar for both day and nio-ht. Ideally, a map and compass are used to complement each other. Once a map has been oriented, the direction of travel to the destination may be determined. The movable glass disc (Bezel glass) on the compass is turned until the luminous line is directly over the desired azimuth. To facilitate the march, the ground distance (map dista,nce) is computed and recorded. Then, during the march, a pace is kept by elected persons. The distance traveled is then recorded based on a certain number of paces equaling 100 meters. Any attempt at navigating with a map when north has been determined by using the stm and stars is, at best, only an expedient. A compass is more accurate and therefore much more desir able. h. Dead Recleaning (fig. 10). (1) The simplest and most reliable system of navigation is known as dead reckoning. This is a means of finding where an individual is located by a continuous plotting of where he has been. More exactly, dead reckoning consists of recording and plotting a series of courses, each measured as to distance and direction from a lrnown starting point, to provide a plot from which the position at any time can be determined. In the desert, the direction traveled is determined with a compass and the distance is measured by counting paces or by reading the odometer of a vehicle. Detailed information on navigation by dead reckoning may be found in FM 21-26. (2) Figure 10 illustrates a typical plot of a route navigated by dead reckoning over desert terrain. The starting point is at point A and the objective is at point B. The azimuth to point B is 75°. See FM 21-26 for a discussion of an azimuth. i. Steering Marks . A steering mark is any welldefined object in the direction of travel toward which a navigator may steer. It is easier to follow these marks than to steer continually by compass. A steering mark could be any feature of the terrain, a cloud formation, a wind direction, or a star. A steering mark that is m.oving, such as a cloud, a star, or the direction of the wind, must be charted periodically by compass. As an aid in maintaining a straight line of travel, it is sometimes helpful to look back at the tire tracks or footprints cr&.'tted by the unit to see if they form a straight line. .... .. -··· B DISPATCH RECONNAISSANCE ELEMENTS A Fig1we 10 . Plot of 1·oute navigated by dead recleaning. j . Reporting of Locations. Due to the scarcity of prominent natural or manmade features in much of the desert, it is difficult to report or designate specific locations without reverting to coded coordinates. A checkpoint system is frequently not practical. However, at least one terrain feature is normally available as a base point from which a polar coordinate system can be established. See FM 21-26 for a discusssion of polar coordinates. 66. Visibility, Observation, and Range Estimation a. Geneml. tudies indicate that while visibility is almost always good in the desert, it is often very deceptive. Objects frequently appear magnified, and a distant hill may be twice as far away as it appears to be. The absence of trees and other vegetation in the desert prevents comparisons which aid in judging distances. Visibility and range estimation in the desert depend, to a certain extent, upon the time of the year and the time of the day the object or objects are observed. The sun, dust and sand, mirages, wind and moonlight-all these-affect visibility in the desert. In open terrain, sound, flash, laser, and radar-ranging are employed extensively to deter mme range. b. Sun. The brilliant sunlight of desert areas reflected from the light-colored ground surface creates a strong glare. An observer with his back to the sun sees objects plainly and without the effects of their shadows. An observer looking into the sun is handicap ped by glare and grow1d re flection. His depth perception may be impaired when objects cast shadows or occur in haze. During winter, when the sun is lo w on the horizon, th e effects are magnified. Commanders should con ider these effects and, whenever possible, time their attacks when the sun is to their backs.1 o. Dust and Sand Storms. During dust and sand storms, air observation is impossible and grotmd vi ibility i sometimes le<:s than 100 meters. If a storm is not too heavy, it may be advanta,geous to conduct offensive operations during the storm to gain surprise and reduce the defender's advantage of observation. The possibility exists of moving up to, or withdrawino-from, a position for future operations during a storm of tlus nature. mall-unit raids can also be planned and executed ao-ainst enemy defensive positions under these storm conditions. Operations of this nature are similar to those conducted at night. Enemy and friendly communication lines, supply installations, supply routes, minefields, or other obstacles covered by fire can be rendered ineffective during du t and sand storms. Control, maneuver, and large-scale movements are difficult. Observed artillery fire and close air support may be impossible. This places grea,ter importance upon preplam1ing and prearranged times. d. Mi1·ages . A mirage makes visibility an l grotmd observation difficult. Itis an optical phenomenon encountered in desert regions produced by a layer of hot air of varying density across which an observer sees reflections-usually inverted-of some distant object or objects. Itnormally occurs when an observer faces the sun. Mirages appear more often during the summer, although it is difficult to generalize under what conditions they will occur and what form they will take. Mirages are visible on a wide arc that increases as the sun rises in the sky, dependinoupon the season and the hour of the day. The general effect is to magnify objects, particularly in the vertical plane, making it especially diffi cult to identify vehicles. Under ce1tain conditions, mirages obstruct accurate vision as close as 500 meters, or they distort distant vision. e. W ind. Windborne dust and smoke created by vehicles and shellfire reduce visibility. Vehicles moving downwind may be blinded by their 0\'m dust. A withdrawing unit moving into the 1 Etl'ectlve use was made of this technique throughout the 1956 Sinai conflict. wind will be obs ured from enemy ground ob ervation by the dust. f. Moonlight. Moonlight in desert areas is normally much brighter than in other region . "ights usually are very clear with no haze or glare. Aerial and ground observation is facilitated and may be better than during some periods of the day. 67. Concealment and Camouflage a. General. In the desert, camouflage problems are encountered that require imagination, ingenuity, and intelligence. The lack of natural overhead cover, the increased range of vision, and the bright tones of the desert terrain place emphasis upon siting, dispersion discipline, and the skillful employment of dummies 'and decoys to achieve deception or surprise. Shadows cast against the bright background show conspicuous contrasts. Total concealment is rarely achieved, yet proper camouflage measures can reduce the effectiveness of enemy observation and, consequently, of enemy operations. Cover from enemy direct fire may be afforded by dunes, hills, and other irregularities in the desert terrain. b. iting. Siting or selection of position is of critical importance in desert operations. One of the basic principles of camouflage is to fit or blend into the existing ground pattern with a minimum amount of chano-e to the original terrain. Valley floors have sparse natural cover, yet drywashes with a thicker growth of Yegetation offer opporttmities for natural concealment and defilade from oblique observation. In general, it will be neces ary to hide "on the pattern" rather than under or behind it, because of the low cover. Since shadows locate and identify objects, all velucles should be parked with the rear toward the sun-never broadside to the sun. This will minimize the hadow ; also, the best results can be obtained by havino-the hadow fall on low vegetation or rough ground. o. Camouflage. (1) Camouflage is especially import.:wt in the desert where natural concealment is l acking. Camouflage is used more extensively in desert areas than in normal terrain, and greater emphasis is placed upon artificial means. Camouflage from air or ground observation is extremely difficult to achieve. Movement in daytime is greatly restricted because of the lack of concealment and cover from air attack; unavoidable dust clouds betray any move ment. (2) All positioned vehicles and weapons should be equipped with camouflage nets. To hide equipment, maximum use is made of hadows in broken ground, wadis, and dune areas as well as the shadows cast by vehicles and weapons. Improperly used shadows, however, will reveaJ the location and nature of the objects being hidden. Vehicles and we.o'tpons are dug-in to conce.o'tl, distort, and reduce their shadows. (3) Camouflage of helicopters is particularly difficult because of their unique geometric design and the highly reflectant surface of their machined parts and skin. d. Disp rsion. Lack of concealment increases the need for dispersion in desert areas. Individuals and units disperse to the maximwn extent consistent with the need for security and mutual support. The greater the mobility of a command, the greater the dispersion it can accept, provided adequate me.o'tns of communication are available. Dispersion between battalion-size elements reduces their vulnerability to enemy aerial or nuclear attack by offering relatively insignificant targets. As a general rule, vehicles should be separated by at least 150 meters during daylight. The interval between vehicles may be reduced at night for security reasons, depending upon the amount of moonlight and the capability of enemy aircraft to observe convoys and installations. The commander constantly weighs his vulnerability resulting from concentration or dispersion. e. Digging. (1) One of the basic problems of concealment in the desert is the elimination of cast shadow. The best solution is to reduce the shadow by digging-in (on the principle that the lower the object, the shorter the shadow) and finally merging the shadow with nets or natural materials. \Vhere these measures are not practicable, extensive dispersion is a solution. (2) When terrain permits, digging-in is a must for units that are halted for more than a few minutes. This help prevent the loss of men and materiel in the case of nuclear or surprise aerial and artillery attack. Suitable ground for digging-in should be a consideration in selecting as sembly areas. U pon arrival in an assembly area, trenches should be sited near brush, along sides of rocks, on rough ground, or in the shadow of existing objects. They should e covered by brush, shelter halves, or salvage materials such as old sandbags. I£ a unit intends to remain in an area for a nwnber of days, vehicles should be dug-in. f. TTehicles. (1) Practically all movement in the desert is by vehicle, and this creates special vehicle concealment problems. Vehicle concealment is not for per onnel safety alone, nor for the preservation of an individual vehicle. I£ the enemy spots one vehicle, he will systematically search the area for others and may locate an entire convoy or unit, thus gaining information as to movement and intention. Possible destruction of the entire convoy or unit may result. (2) In bare desert-either sandy or stonyand in places where vegetation is extremely sparse, the tracks left by a wheeled vehicle are so faint that they are hardly noticeable to the unaided eye beyond about 450 meters. Where the surface consists of patches of pebbles veined with bare light-colored sand, vehicle tracks can be picked out where they cross the pebble patches. This is because the vehicles push the pebbles down and leave two ribbons of light and exposed. Generally, as long as ve icle tracks are kept dispersed, they are inconspicuous to the tmaided eye, provided a number of vehicles do not follow the same tracks. (3) Vehicles on a patternless background are conspicuous by both their tone and their shadow, while vehicles in or near a patterned backgrotmd are much less noticeable. It is a case of blending the vehicle with the color and texture of the surrounding terrain. Objects placed on or close beside strongly marked parts of any pattern attract the eye less than the same objects farther removed from these strong features. ( 4) Vehicle drivers must be trained to understand and apply the simple rules of concealment. \Vhere vegetation is higher 37. than the vehicle, the vehicle is placed completely under it. vV11ere a single tree or a small clump of trees does not provide sufficient concealment, the vehicle is parked adjacent to it so that the vehicle shadow is distorted by the shadow of the tree. With smaller plants, the rear of the vehicle is faced toward the sun with the front end of the vehicle touching the plant. The shadow is minimized by the cab and hood, and then further distorted by the plant. In areas where there are low shrubs, the vehicle is sited among them so that the vehicle shadow is disrupted. On broken ground, advantage is taken of the larger rocks to distort the vehicle shadow. \iVashes and other depressions are excellent locations for vehicles because the banks absorb the shadow. However, it must be remembered that these may become riverbeds during sudden rainstorms. ( 5) fetal surfaces on vehicles are treated so that light reflection is kept to a minimum. Camouflage paint or mud is used for all vehicles and equipment. If this is not available, the application of an adhesive such as grease or oil, plus the addition of sand and dust, is a successful treatment. This also applies to the windshield and headlights. However, small openings for vision must be cleared. At halts, some fo11n of dull-colored coverino-, or brush if available, is placed over the windshield and headlights. (6) The success of an operation may depend upon the prompt recovery and repair of disabled vehicles. Disabled vehicles are vulnerable targets. If repairable, every effort is made to conceal them. If possible, they are moved to a site offering defilade and concealment. This also provides maintenance vehicles and their crews a degree of protection while working on disabled vehicles. If a disabled vehicle caru1ot be moved, it is camouflaged by other means, such as the skillful use of nets. It is impossible for a photographic interpreter to distinguish between real, unserviceable, and decoy material when it is concealed with a net, even though the net itself may be discovered. (7) Numerous covergino-vehicle tracks reveal the location of important installations or command posts. To avoid this, vehicles follow designated routes when they approach these areas. Passengers are discharged 300 to 400 meters from the installation, and walk. To assist deception, the main routes or trails continue through the installation. The vehicles p roceed to a di spersal area or vehicle park. The pat hs from dispersal areas to the instaJlation follow a devious, irregular course, through as much cover as possible. I n a lclition to vehicle discipline, maintenance of strict night-light discipline is es ential at command posts and other inst.:'tllations. (8) Vehicles that make abrupt turns to avoid minefields sometimes reveal the location of these fields. Properly controlled, these tracks can deceive enemy air observers and help maintain the security of the minefields. (9) \Vhen time and conditions permit, vehicles should be duo-in and further concealed by the use of nets and/or natural materials. In any attempt to conceal a vehicle, the strono-contrast of internal shadows cast within the wheel wells and and 1mdcrcarriage must not be forgotten. These shadows may attract attention when nothing else does. g. N ets. (1) The problem of concealment in the de ert is different from that of other areas because of the lack of na,tural cover and features '"hich camouflage can simulate. A camouflage net that relies, as is normal, on concealment by casting irregular shadows to break up the form of the concealed object is useless in desert conditions. To be mo t effective in de ert conditions, a camouflage net must be a COMPLETE COVER which relies on its imitation of the ground surfaceboth in color and texture-for its effect. (2) The standard method of gamishing, with the normal percentage of voids, produces too clark an effect even though the garnish is a perfect match in color. To remedy this, the nets should be garnished solid, without voids, with the garnish threated in long, straight strips. This helps give the net the necessary lightness of texture and tone. There are large areas of the desert where such a net photographs too dark because the fabric texture of the garnish strips deepens the tone. In these areas, a more reflective or smooth material must be used. Probably the most difficult supervisory camouflage task is to get troops to properly garnish the nets for the area in which they are being used. (3) Drape nets and drape-net sets are the most practical for use in desert terrain. The flattop nets, with the garnish thinned out toward the outer edges, cast conspicuous shadows on t he ground. 68. Medical a. Oommand Supervision. The protection of health, which enhances the combat effectiveness of a command, requires constant supervision by responsible persmmel. Commanding officers are responsible for proper sanitation and the enforcement of sanitary regulations within the boundaries of their organizations. Unit surgeons are responsible for making recommendations for the preservation of the health of the command and for the correction of unsanitary conditions. b. Evacuation and Hospitalization. (1) The comparatively great distances be tween units during combat in deserts bmit the availability of medical aidmen. Medical units should be augmented when possible and desert troops should be given additional first-aid training prior to desert operations. (2) The large area over which a battle is fought presents special problem in the evacuation and treatment of ca ualties. Any number of casualties in a highly mobile unit restricts the action of that tmit and may endanger it. Medical units are furnished a greater number of vehicles for operating in deserts than for operating in other terrain. Medical installations at all echelons are located farther to the rear in the desert. Air evacuation by fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters is particularly valuable because of its speed and the reduction of the load on ground vehicl . (3) Disen,se in deserts may cause more than the usual amom1t of disability because of the added effects of dehydration. The fever that accompanies infections causes an increased loss of water, while diarrhea and vomiting cause the loss of both water and salt from the body. o. Preventive Medicine and Sanitation. (1) General. Practically every disease of known military significance may be fotmd in the desert among its human inhabitants, animals, and insects, and in locally available water and foods. (See the Health Data Publication appropriate to the area of operations.) Practically all of the commm1icable diseases will be prevalent among the native population. Insect-borne diseases such as inalaria, sand-fly fever, typhus, and plague may be found. The cold of the desert night, even in summer, may require warm clothing, and actual cold injury may occur during the desert winter. It is the desert sm1shine, 'Yind, and heat, however, that have the greatest effect upon military operations. The dryness of desert heat distino-uishes it from the heat of the tropics and adds to the problem of coping with it. Proper preventive medicine and sanitation measures, adequate per onal hygiene, avoidance of native villages and constant command supervision "-ill reduce the incidence of disease and disability. (2) Eyes and skin. The eyes may be pr otected from the intense sunlight and 'Yind-driven sand by tinted goggles; however, these will not completely protect tank drivers and others constantly exposed to the sun and wind from damage to their eyes. Closed, tight-fitting goggles are required to prevent eye damage from dust. Blackening the area around the eyes reduces the effect of glare and improves distance vision and adaptation to night vision. The desert wind dries exposed skin surfaces and causes chapping of the lips and other local skin irritation of a near-disabling nature. Cuts and scratches become infected very easily. Chap sticks and protecti,·e ointments will provide some protection against these conditions. ( 3) Water supply . All water not received from engineer water points must be considered contaminated and unfit for drinking, bathin(J', or for the washing of clothing (par. 14c). Jatural water, when it is drunk, will transmit such diseases as the dysenteries, typhoid fever, and infectious hepatiti . P arasitic diseases such as snail fever may be acquired by wading, swimming, bathing, or washing clothes in in·igation ditches or other bodies of water. See FM 21-10 for methods of water purification. ( 4) Mess sanitation. Intestinal diseases tend to increase among men living in the desert. This may be prevented by proper mess sanitation including proper cleaning of eating and cooking utensils, adequate supervision of food handlers, proper disposal of garbage and human wastes, and protection of foods and utensils from the swarms of flies that are found everywhere. Germicidal rinses should be used for washing mess and kitchen gear ''hen water is scarce or ca1mot be heated because of the enemy situation (FM 21-10). Solid wastes should be burned ''hen the situation permits. Soakage pits should be used to dispose of liquid wastes and should be filled with oil ''hen leaving an area. ( 5) Waste disposal . Trench-type latrines should be u eel if the soil is suitable. Shallow latrines quickly become exposed in areas of shifting sands. ( 6) I nsect and 1·odent control. Insects and rodents mu t be controlled if the diseases they carry are to be prevented Preventive mea ures include protective clothing, clothing impregnants, insect repellants, re idual and space sprays, immunizations, and suppressive drugs. ('7) Pm'Sonal hygiene. Unit commanders must insure that the proper standards of personal hygiene n,re maintained. Foot hygiene must be stressed to insure daily washing of feet, changing of socks, and u e of foot powder by all per onnel. Daily shaving and bathing should be required when sufficient water is available. If sufficient water is not available for bathing, troops may clean themselves by sponge baths or by rubbing themselves with a clamp or even a dry cloth. When water is not available for laundering, soiled clothing may still be worn if it is changed frequently and dried in the sun and wind. 69. Food a. Type R ations . Local food sources normally do not meet military requirements in quantity or san_it.o'l.ry stancla.rcls. Normal field and emergency rations are adequate for desert operations. The difficulty of operating a unit mess, however, makes rations designed for small-unit use more acceptable than normal field rations. Any ration issued should require only a small amount of water to prepare it. This frequently prevents the use of the dry-pack or cereal-type ration. For emergency food sour ces for individuals, see FM 21-'76. b. Ooolcing of Food . (1) Forward combat units find unit messing difficult because of the nature of the terrain and the enemy situation. Units in rear areas may operate unit mess facilities, after consideration of the threat of nuclear and/or air att.o'lck. Normally, in forward areas, small units and individuals prepare their own m.eals. (2) Every vehicle should be equipped with a small gasoline or squad-type stove, and each infantry squad should have its own stove. When unit messing is possible, salt and spices should be used with discretion, as both cause thirst. Rations issued to small units should be in cans so that troops can heat them in water from their canteens. Tlus water can then be used to prepare coffee, tea, or other beverages. oluble coffee, tea, or fruit concentrates can be used to flavor purified water that is brackish and disagreeable to the IAo'l.Ste. 70. Water a. Gene:ral. The importance of water in desert operations cannot be overemphasized. Durin(]' . . 0 trammg, commanders impr s their men with the vital role water plays. \ Vater eli cipline becomes a part o£ a soldier's life. b. Water Discipline. (1) Water sources in the desert usually have a high salt content. Troops condition themselves to salt water during training by drinking water conta,inino-salt. (2) I ssue periods should be scileduled so troops become accustomed to rationing their water intelligently and safely over a given period. (3) The problem o£ water supply is contliluous in desert operations; therefore, commanders must instill the idea o£ water preservation and individual discipline. Troops are oriented as to the water supply problems, methods o£ self-discipline, and causes o£ increased water consumption (par. 14). c. Receptacles for Water. Water £or the occupants o£ a vehicle is canied on the vehicle in five-gallon water cans. In the event o£ a l&'tk, l s water is lost than i£ the water is placed in larger containers. Each vehicle should be equipped with a funnel the nozzle end o£ \Thich fits inside the neck o£ a canteen to prevent water wastage when pouring. I£ possible, vehicular racks should be installed £or water cans and ration containers. These racks should permit rapid unloading i£ the vehicle has to be abandoned. I£ such racks ca~mot be installed, wooden cases or frames should be constructed to hold water c.'tns and ration containers. Tlus prevents accidental puncturing and seam opening, particularly in water cans. Large fixed water tanks are unsuitable :for small units. A tank o:f this size is difficult to handle, requires rigid mounting to prevent tumbling or rolling in a moving vehicle, and prohibits the cl&'tning o£ sludge or deposits £rom the bottom. In most cases, the organic water trailers will be sufficient £or holding \Tater re erves. 71. Sleeping Sleeping ar&'ts are easily found in the desert. Crews and personnel assigned to vehicles that are on the move normally sleep in the vicinity o:f, but not under, their assigned vehicle. The only great danger when sleeping is the possibility of exposure to the cold or to the rays o:f the sun. Tlus danger can be lessened by supplying personnel with sufficient equipment to protect them when sleeping. During the seasonal rains, sleep is difficult except when tents are used. leeping during the day is difficult because of the intense heat. Individuals who sleep outdoors during the day should sleep only in the shade; unit guards can be appointed to watch over groups o:f sleeping men. Individuals should be warned against sleeping in isolated spots. Section Ill. UNIT TRAINING 72. General nit training is the natural progression £rom individual training. Individual training continues as organized units are progressively acclimated and psychologically and physically prepared £or further desert training. Training covers physical conditioning, march discipline, land navigation, weapons firing, maintenance procedures, and tactica1 exercises. Exercises o£ varied duration in all degrees and conditions o£ visibility are conducted. Units are trained in mounted and dismounted exercises as appropriate. 73 . Physical Conditioning The extreme daily temperatures in the desert, in conjunction with the lack o£ water and constant exposure to dust, quickly exhaust unconditioned troops. Commanders establish a strict physical conditioning program £or their units. Physical exerci es are conducted during the cooler hours of the day and are augmented by rio-orous trainnlg, such as marches in open sa,ndy terrain during the hottest periods of the day. Medical per onnel assist commanders in the supervision o:f training during the hot hours to prevent mmecessary heat casualties. This conditioning program :for all ranks is proo-ressively lengthened and made more difficult so that the transition to the actual desert theater is made easier. Physical conditioning training continues after the unit arrives in the desert. 74. March Discipline (With Emphasis on Land Navigation) Training in march discipline emphasizes clay and night motor marches. It includes loading vehicles, movements over open terrain, long exposure without shelter, and dependence on naviga tional techniques to insure direction. Although motor marches are emphasized, foo t marches are also conducted (FM 21-18). These marches may be tactical, and land navigation teclmiques (dead reckoning) are employed to train troops to realize the importance of the map and compass (par. 65). 75. Troop Welfare in the Desert E very commander is concerned about the welfare of his personnel. This takes on added importance in the desert where no diversion exists. The maintenance of regular postal ser vice is important. All commanders are concerned with the rapid distribution of mail to all per onnel, regardless of location. A good newspaper that carries up-to-the-minute news and gives space to the problems which absorb the soldier is also indispensable. Magazines, books, and radios should be made available to alleviate boredom. Although large units can seldom be massed for theatrical performances, motion pictures, or chuxch services, these activities should be made available to reduced numbers of personnel, and should be operated on a continuous schedule as frequently as the tactical situation permits. An active recreational-physical training program can be used to great advantage. A rotation system is required to permit soldiers to relax in a rear area away from the front line environment. Proper leadership, training, and the strengthening of the individual's mental attitude toward himself and the conditions that confront him cannot be overstressed. 76. Night-Firing Exercises ight-firing exercises under desert conditions are emphasized prior to, and during, desert training. Combat firing involving recognition and designation of targets '"ithout binoculars or telescopic ights at maximum effective ranges is stres ed. These exercises are ·conducted with and without artificial illumination to ·familiarize individuals and weapon crews with the effects of illumination on range estimation and firing accuracy. Familiarization firing with the infrared weapon sight, using both the lic:rht source of the weapon sight and other light sources, is conducted. 77. Driver Training a. Oen eml. Because of the general absence of established roads in desert areas, desert driving calls for experience, individual skill, and physical endurance on the part of the vehicle operator. Driver training exercises should be long and arduous to expose vehicle operators to the rigors of the desert as well as to the effect fatigue has on the individual in a desert environment. The need for dispersing and avoiding the tracks of preceding vehicles-w!1en operating over crusted surfaces or when t he trail deteriorates while operating over and (except in suspected mined area )-is stressed. Training is directed toward providing driver proficiency in operating in dune areas, choice of the best c:rround, selection of proper gear ratios, and toward driver knowledge and appreciation of the exact capabilities of his vehicle. Driver skill is developed in taking maximum advantage of momentum, gear shiftinc:r, estiInating and utilizing proper speeds, and in avoiding sudden driving or braking thrust. b. Terrain Considerations. All drivers must be well trained to judge terrain over which they are driving and the best methods to overcome the varying conditions ei countered. The mo t important single element of successful operations in dtme areas is careful route selection on the basis of thorough re onnaissance. (1) A large portion of desert terrain is :flat, hard surfaced, and carpeted with two or three inches of sand. On this type ter rain, both wheeled and tracked vehicle travel is tmrestricted. (2) Dunes are shifting ridges of deep, soft sand, formed by the wind, and varying in height from a few inches to several meters. The wind usually packs the surface of the dune, forming a crust about two inches in depth. This crust can support consi erable weight, but it breaks under a moderately strong braking or driving force. The best time to traverse soft sand is during the very early morning hours when humidity is highest and the temperature is lowest. High humidity and low temperature are conducive to better traction in soft sand. Generally, dunes can be crossed by vehicles, dependinc:r upon t he steepness of the slopes, firmness of the crust, and skill of the driver. Medium and heavy wheeled vehicles will no;; operate efficiently in dunes, but tracked and light wheeled vehicles will. (3) Vehicles can be stalled and even overturned when sand is only a few inches deep . To prevent this, drivers are trained to take several imple precautions. They learn to sta,rt and stop gradually rather than suddenly, because a forceful braking or driving thrust digs the wheels into the sa.nd. The vehicle is kept under power as long as traction is maintained and the vehicle is moving forward. Once the wheels begin to slip, use of power will only bury the wheels deeper. Turns must be wide; harp turns can stall or overturn a vehicle. Vehicles with dual tires have a greater tendency to bog down and stall in sand than those with single tires. If a vehicle becomes stuck, the driver dismoUJlts and reconnoiters for the nearest firm grotmd. Cha1mels, mats, and spms are used to assist in extricating the vehicle (fig. 11) . A round, wooden spur is used with light-and mediumweight vehicles with dual tires, and a steel channel is used with vehicles having one tire on each r&'tr wheel. Excavations are made in front of and behind all wheels. The excavation is extended in the direction of travel so that the slope of the channel or spur is very gradual. One end of the channel or spur is placed level with and against the bottom_of the tires. The vehicle is then driven out of the deep sand and momentum is maintained until firm grotmd is reached. Reducing air pressme in the tires increa es traction and assists in freeing the vehicle from deep sand. A vehicle resting on its frame or axles is jacked up and the holes created are filled with sand and other material. Dampening sand has the effect of creating a firmer foundation. ( 4) In 1arts of the de ert, the wind builds hillock of sand around shrubs; these hillocks vary in height from a few inches to several meters. These areas in which sand hillocks form vary from a few acres to several square miles. They are usually so spaced that vehicle travel through them is difficult or impossible. These areas should be bypassed whenever possible. \iVhen it is not feasible to bypass these areas, trails are made through F 'iUttTe 11. Channels, mats, and sptws aTe used to assist in ewtTicating vehicles from deep sand. them with a bulldozer, road grader, or a heavy drag towed behind a tractor. (5) Rock-and boulder-strewn areas may extend for many miles. Often, these eroded, sharp-edged boulders vary in size and are so numerous that it is impossible to avoid any but the largest. Driving in these areas causes extreme wear on tires, tracks, and springs. Tire pressure can be redu ed to eliminate the excess "bump-shock" that is transferred to both the vehicle and its load. Care should be exercised to insure that tire pressure is not reduced to a level that permits rupture of inner canvas plies when the 'vheel strikes a sharp rock. ( 6) Salt marshes are dry lake or stream beds normally encountered along coasts and inland depressions. When the sur·face is powdery silt or wet, salt marshes are im passable. A sandy bed can be crossed by light vehicl . Roads may be built across silt beds by rolling or packing the silt after it has been moi tened or by using sand fill. \Vhenever possible, salt marshes should be bypassed. c. Other Tmining. In addition to training under varying terrain conditions, driver training stresses (1) Camouflage and digging-in of vehicles. (2) ight driving and navigation. (3) Track and dispersion discipline. ( 4) Preventive and first-echelon maintenance. (5) Recovering immobilized l'ehicle . 78. Maintenance and Recovery All pers01mel are trained in basic vehicular mainLenance because of the li1creased number of vehicles and the greater distances between tmits. A stalled patrol vehicle can result in los of life if members of the patrol cannot correct the deficiency. Recovery teams of ordnance, infantry, engineer, and armor per onnel are organized and trained together. They learn to make on-the-spot repairs, to perform controlled exchange witllill authorizations, and to evacuate disabled vehicles and weapons. a. Operating Equipment Under Desert Conditions. (1) Self-sufficiency is a prime requisite of the fighting man in the desert. This li1cludes his knowledge of self-preservation, desert naYigation, tactical principles, and the understanding necessary to operate and maultain the equipment required to accomplish a mission. (2) OperatiO'llally, equipment is only as good as the operator. Dependency and life expectancy of equipment is limited to the degree of care and maintenance afforded; therefore, pers01mel must be thoroughly trained li1 the proper use and maintenance of the equipment concerned. The peculiarities of operation in the desert often place emphasis upon maintenance and operational responsibilities of small groups and individuals. Malpractices in the operation of equipment are costly in terms of personnel and equipment losses which adver ely affect the tactical operation. Tactical consideration should be given to the nature of terrain over which equipment must travel, and the operator must know the limitations and capabilities of equipment in relation to the terrain. Common sen e and careful operation of equipment is the key to extending its life and u efulness. b. Recovery of Equipment (Field Expedients) Under Desert Conditions. (1) Field expedients are teclmiques used to overcome emergencies arising from conditions of terrain, climate, mechanical deficiencies, or breakdown. These inelude assisting vehicles in crossing obstacles, extractino-them from difficult sections of terrain, re lamation, and towin o· disabled vehicles. They are the means by which per~onnel can take action to a si t themselves when more adequate aid and more qualified assistance are not available. Knowledge of field expedients is necessary for desert operations. (2) Because of the lack of natural material and anchorages in desert terrain, it is neces ary that devices for towing, wlilchino-, obtaining traction, liftino-, anchoring, and means of limited repair be provided durino-all movement. c. Maintenance of Equipment Under Desert Conditions. ( 1) Desert terrain and weather present constant problems in maintenance and increase the maintenance time required per hour of operation. (2) The extreme he..ved with attention to all aspects from hasty perimeter techniques up to the more deliberate fortress-type (strongpoint) defensive procedures. Retrograde operations are conducted with emphasis upon delaying tactics. Daylight withdrawals under pressure are stressed even though night-type withdrawals are the most desirable means of disengaging the enemy. Night navigational techniques are used extensively to aid units in orientation and maintaining direction during periods of reduced visibility. Though vehicular mobility is emphasized in these exercises, dismounted operations are al o conducted. 83. Mine-Laying Operations a. General. Mine-laying procedures are integrated into all tactical exercises. Because of the characteristics of desert warfare, emphasis is placed upon slowing and canalizing the enemy in those ar&'l where terrain permits this technique. Extensive use of mines is paramount in reinforcing a hasty or deliberately organized defense, in providing depth, and in slowina or stopping the enemy long enough to attack h_im with fire and maneuver. b. Employment. (1) L andmines are employed in desert regions much the same as in other parts of the world. The wide expanses of open terrain make the installation of minefields expensive both in manpower and equipment. (2) The enemy can bypass minefields with ease in mo t desert areas due to the lack of natural obstacles that can be used to anchor the minefields. c. Considerations. Some special desert characteristics that must be considered in laying minefield are (1) Expanses, distances, and lack of well defined routes of movement. (2) Lack of natural concealment. ( 3) Shifting sand in some areas. ( 4) Lack of natural obstacle . ( 5) Importance of surface water points. (6) Logistical problems involved in the torage of large numbers of mines required to lay an effective barrier. (7) Ease of detection by the enemy of minelaying or clearing teams. (8) Ease >>ith which the enemy can bypass the mined area. 84. Bivouac Considerations a. General. A bivouac in a desert, as elsewhere, is a rear assembly area where troops rest and prepare for future movement. Although the possibility of enemy attack is relatively remoteexcept by air, missile, and long-range artillery fire-normal security measures are taken. Troops normally will not be committed to battle from this position. vVhile in tlus position, units reorganize, receive replacements, maintain vehicles and equipment, and prepare plans for future actions. b. Characte1'istws . The desirable characteristics of a bivouac are (1) Concealment from ai1' and ground observation. In the de ert, where natural concealment is practically nonexistent, the use of artificial camouflage becomes a prime consideration in the location of a bivouac area. Commanders may consider sending a large enough quartering party to the selected area to accomplish a major portion of camouflaging before the main body arrives. (2) Oover from direct fire. In the desert, it is usually much easier to find cover than concealment. Even relatively small dunes can provide cover. Although cover from direct fire may be obtained, air observers, and observation posts at a higher elevation still may be able to observe the movement and actions of the unit. (3) H ardstand. Because of possible lack of firm ground in dese1t areas caused by shifting sand and salt marshes, difficulty may be experienced in erecting camouflage or tents. ( 4) Ewits and entrances. It is absolutely necessary for commanders to insure that there is more than one entrance and exit for each bivouac area. In the desert, this poses no problem; however, the commander should emphasize this point :for the protection of his unit. (5) Ample space for dispe1'8ion. Normally, ample space for dispersion is available in the desert. The commander insures adequate dispersion of vehicles and equipment consistent with necessary security. Dispersion and separation of units as passive defense me.'lsures again t nuclear attack are considered; however, there is a practical limit to the protection achieved. ~Then distances between lmits become so great as to preclude effective control and mutual support, combat effectiveness may be reduced disproportionately to the protection gained. c. A1'1ny Aircraft. Army aircraft inspect overhead camouflao-e so that deficiencies can be corrected. Aerial surveillance is maintained to provide early warning of enemy movements. d. Organization and Occupation. Requirements :for organization and occupation of a bivouac area in the d ert are about the same as in any other terrain. Minor adju tments may be required to compensate for extended visibility and increased dispersion . e. Security. Security in bivouac is obtained by dispersion, tactical eli position of troops, concealment, u e of natural and artificial obstacles (including mines), local security m e a s u res, reconnaissance, and est abli hment of blocking positions and observation or li stening posts covering all key terrain features and likely avenues of enemy approach. It may also be desirable to establish liaison and commun ications with forward units. The basic purpose of security while in bivouac is to prevent surprise by enemy attack, including a major breakthrough, patrol action, or irregular activity. The commander assigns bolmdaries between adjacent units on the perimeter and designates specific points at which coordination will be accomplished. 85. CBR Operations a. General. Authority to initiate the tactical employment of toxic or incapacitating chemical agents, antipersonnel biological agents, or radioactive materials (CBR) is received throuo-h command channels. Subject to the guidance of the theater commander, there are no restrictions on the initial employment of riot-control agents, smoke ao·ents, and flame. vVhen the use of toxic or incapacitating chemical agents is initiated, chemical operations are integrated into the fire planning at battalion and higher levels. Authority to employ chemical agents may be rek'Lined at division level, or may be delegated to lower echelons. To employ these weapons most effectively, the commander must understand their effects and the influence that terrain and climatic conditions have on chemical and biologica' agents. The clim::!~ ie conditions determine to some degree which agents may be employed successfully and which may not. The following paragraphs include a discussion of widely varied de ert conditions and their influence on chemical, biological, and radiological agents. b. Effects of W eather and T errain on Employment of Chemical Agents. (1) 1\ eather conditions have an important bearing on any decision to use chemical agents. Although chemical attack can be launched successfully w1der any weather condition, the weather will influence greatly the extent, duration, location, and severity of the casualty effect. Under some conditions, the cwnulative effect of the weather may place restrictions on the maneuver plan for troop safety rea,sons which override the advantages from chem.ical fire support. Optimum conditions for chemical fire support exist when 'Yeather is fair and warm and when the atmosphere is relatively stable (or, preferably, when a slow wind is blowing into or across enemy positions) . Atmospheric stability in the desert normally exists from an hour before sundown to an hour after sunup. Overcast skies may extend this period. Conditions which cause air turbulence hasten the dissipation of the casualty-producing cloud and minimize the effectiveness of chemical agents. Air turbulence exists during the sunny midday hours when weather fronts (hot or cold) pass by; it also exists during storms and in high velocity winds. (2) Because chemical agents are heavier than air, they have a tendency to settle and linger in low places such as ravines and gullies. These areas should be avoided, if possible, during and immediately after a chemical atta,ck. c. Effects of Weather and Terrain on Employment of Biological Agents. (1) Biological-agent-cloud-travel is affected by meteorological conditions in the same general manner as chemical-agent-cloudtravel. However, the following meteorological conditions have specific application to biological-agent-cloud-travel and employment : (a) Wind speed. Biological agents with a high decay rate can be employed effectively at high wind speeds (9 to 18 knots). At these wind speeds, biologi cal agents are exposed to other adverse environmental conditions for a shorter time, and greater ar&'t coverage is obtained during the decay period of the biological agent. (b) Swnlight. Exposure to sunlight increases the decay rate of a biological agent aerosol, thereby reducing its area coverage. For this reason, in addition to the existence of an unfavorable temperature gradient on sunny days, the preferred time for a biological attack is at night. (c) Relative humidity. Low hmnidity adversely affects the employment of wet biological agents in that it causes microorganisms to dry out and die. (2) Biological-agent-cloud-travel is affected by terrain characteristics in the same general manner as chemical-agent-cloudtravel. Ground contamination following a biological aerosol attack is not generally considered a hazard to troops crossing or occupying the tenain because of the short life of viable agents. d. Effects of Weather and Terrain on the Employment of Radioactive Materials. Nuclear weapons may be employed to produce radiological fallout or to contaminate an area with the intent of producing casualties and/or restricting use of the area to enemy personnel. See FM 3-12 for doctrine on operational aspects of radiological defense. (1) Although weather conditions do not have a detrimental effect on radioactive materials, factors such as wind speed, wind direction, air stability, presence or absence of vegetation, and terrain features influence the dispersal of these agents. These factors often determine whether a lethal dose of radiation will exist in a given area or not. Where the winds are usually strong, radiation may be dispersed over a large area. (2) Mom1tains and vegetation often cause irregularities in the dispersal of radiation. l-Ienee, some areas may be void of radiation while other may have a high concentration of radiation or "hot spots." 86. Night Sensory Devices a. Infrared. All individuals should be thoroughly trained in the use of infrared equipment. In darkness, it is possible to see plainly with the aid of infrared devices. It is possible to use infrared equipment as a guide in the desert by sending out reconnaissance elements equipped with infrared and home-in on its signal. Sand and dust stor1ns reduce the effectiveness of this equipment. Since units are usually more widely dispersed in desert operations, there is value in using infrared to mark boundaries of units. Installed vehicular infrared equipment, weapon sights, and metascopes also can be used to detect enemy use of infrared equipment. For further guidance on infrared devices, see TO 5-9. b. Radars. Ground surveillance radars are used to great advantage in desert operations during all conditions of visibility. Although radar is used primarily for night operations, or under conditions of reduced visibility, it may be used effectively during daylight too. \iVhile visibility is good in the desert, it is often very deceptive (par. 66). Even under these conditions, a trained radar operator can identify moving objects and determine their range and direction. Radars assist the commander in detecting certain deceptive measures and ruses by determining the number and type of vehicles causing distant dust clouds. Lack of vegetation and terrain obstruction permits effective surveillance at maximum ranges. Radar complements other means in maintaining surveillance between widely dispersed units. \iVhen radio silence is imposed, radars can be used to communicate with adjacent units if prearranged signals are established. Field manuals of the 7-and 17 -series contain detailed discussions of the capabilities and wide variety of tactical functions performed by radar. APPENDIX REFERENCES AR 320-5 AR 320-50 FM 1-100 FM 3-5 FM 3-10 FM 5-15 FM 5-20 FM 6-20-1 FM 7-11 FM 7-15 FM 7-20 FM 7-30 FM 17-1 FM 17-15 FM 17-30 FM 17-36 FM 20-32 FM 21-5 FM 21-6 FM 21-10 FM 21-11 FM 21-15 FM 21-18 FM 21-26 FM 21-30 FM 21-40 FM 21-41 Dictionary of United States Army Terms. Military Terms, Abbreviations and Symbols. Army Aviation. Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR) Operations. Chemical and Biological Weapons Employment. Field Fortifications. Camouflage, Basic Principles and Field Camouflage. Field Artillery Tactics. Rifle Company, Infantry, Airborne In fantry, and Mechanized Infantry. Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry, Rifle Platoons and Squads. Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry Battalions. Infantry, Airborne, and Mechanized Division Brigades. Armor Operations: Small Units. Tank Units, Platoons, Company, and Battalion. The Armored Division Brigade. Divisional Armored and Air Cavalry Units. Land Mine Warfare. Military Trainin g. Techniques of Military Instruction. Military Sanitation. First Aid for Soldiers. Care and Use of Individual Clothing and Equipment. Foot Marches. Map Reading Military Symbols. Small Unit Procedures in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Warfare. Soldier's H andbook for uclear, Biological and Chemical W arfare. FM 21-48 FM 21-50 FM 21-75 FM 21-76 FM 24-18 FM 24-20 FM 30-5 FM 30-7 FM 30-10 FM 31-15 FM 31-16 FM 31-21 FM 31-50 FM 44-1 FM 55-30 FM 57-10 FM 57-35 FM 57-38 FM 61-100 FM 100-5 FM 100-10 DAPam 108-1 DAPa m 310-3 TC 5-9 TM 3-210 TB :MED 175 Chemical, Biological, and uclear Train ing Exercises and Integrated Training. Ranger Training and R anger Operations. Combat Training of the Individual Sol dier and Patrolling. Survival. Field R adio Techniques . Field Wire and Field Cable Techniques. Combat Intelligence. Combat Intelligence Battle Group, Com bat Command, and Smaller Units. Terrain Intelligence. Operations Against Irregular Forces. Counterguerrilla Operations. Guerrilla Warfare and Special Forces Operations. Combat in Fortified and Built-up Areas. U.S. Army Air D efense Employment. Motor Transportation Operations. Army Forces in Joint Airborne Opera tions. Airmobile Operations. Pathfinder Operation. The Division. Field Service Regulations; Operations. Field Service Regulations; Administration. Index of Army Motion Pictures, Filmstrips, Slides, Tapes, and Phonorecordings. Military Publications: Index of Doctrinal, Training, and Organizational Publications. Near Infrared Night Vision and Detection Equipment and Its Application. F allout Prediction. The Etiology, Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Adverse Effects of Heat. INDEX P ar agr aph Acclimation of troops _________________ _ 16 Airmobile operations: Defense_ _____ ____ ________________ 40 Navigation ___ ____________________ 40 Se curity_____ __ ___________________ 40 Vuln erability ___ ------------------40 Air support___________________________ 47 Antitank : Ditches _______ __________________ _ 35 1iines ____ ____ ___ ________________ _ 35 lJnits ____ __ ____ _________________ _ 54 Armored Cavalry_ __ __ ______________ _ 43, 55 Artillery: Air d efense ___ __ ____ ____________ _ _ 50 Field ____ __ _____ ____ ___ _________ _ 49 Attack Conduct__ ___ ___________________ _ 25 Night__ ____ __ _____ ______________ _ 28 Planning___ __ __ _________________ _ 22 Aviation, army: Aircraft __ _______________________ _ 84 Field s _________ __________ ________ _ 48 1iaintenance____________________ _ _ 48 1iission _____ ___________________ _ 48 Navigation ___ ___________________ _ 48 Security______ ___________________ _ 48 Bivouac__ __________ _________________ _ 84 Camouflage : D eception ______ _______ ___ _______ _ 29,80 Digging-in______ _________________ _ 67 Dispersion _______________________ _ 67 Equipment place ment_____________ _ 67N ets______ __ ____________________ _ 67 Siting____ __ _____________________ _ 67 CBR operations: Effects of t errain _________________ _ 85 Effects of wind___________________ _ 85 Chemical-biological agents : Blis t er _____ ____ _________________ _ 51 N erve___________________________ _ 51 Nonper sist ent____________________ _ 51 Smoke ___ _____________ ____ ______ _ 51 lJse oL ________ _____ ---_-------__ 51 Cist erns, use_____ _________ --___ -_-___ 35 Clothing____ __ ______________________ _ 63 Combat exercises : Training _____ ___________________ _ 81 Types oL ________ __ _____________ _ 82 Command: D ece ntralization _________________ _ 3 Defense __ _____ ______ -----------_-33 Offen se ____ __________ ____________ _ 22 Page 9 18 18 18 18 21 15 15 26 20, 26 23 23 12 13 11 47 22 22 22 22 22 47 13, 46 36 36 3 6 3 6 3 6 48 48 24 24 24 24 24 15 31 46 47 3 14 11 P aragraph Communications: 1iessenger __ _____________ _____ ____ 56 Radio ______ ___________ ____ _______ 56 Vi s ua l-sound______________________ 56 Wire_________ _________________ ___ 56 Cooking_____________ __ _____________ __ 69 Counte rg uerrilla forces_ ________________ 42 D ecep t ion _____________________________ 80 D efe nse : Area__________________ ______ ____ _ 32 Conduct_________________________ _ 36 Consider a tions____ ________________ _ 35 Forms___________________________ _ 34 Fortress____ _____________________ _ 34 Foxholes_________________________ _ 35 1iobile__________________________ _ 32 P erimet er_ _______________________ _ 34 Planning____ _____________________ _ 33 R e verse slope____ __ _________ ______ _ 34 D ela y a ction s : Conduct of_ ____________________ __ _ 38 Planning______________________ __ _ _ 37 D es ert, definition _____________ ________ _ 6 D esert phenomena : Sta tic electricity__________________ _ 78 1iirage______________________ ____ _ 66 D r iver training : Camouflage_______ _______________ _ 77 T errain j u dgment_________________ _ 77 Engin eer oper a tions___________________ _ 52 Encircle me nt_________________________ _ 30 Equipment: 1ia in tena nc e _____________________ _ 78 Operation____ ____________________ _ 78 R ecovery ________________________ _ 78 Exploitation____ ___ ___ ________________ _ 26 Fire h a zards : C a rgo combustion_________________ _ 78 Sta tic elec tricity___________ __ _____ _ 78 Food: Prep a ration______________________ _ 69 T y p es of r a tions____ _______ _______ _ 69 Fortifications, fi eld____________________ _ 35 H eat: Cramps____ ______________________ _ 19 Exha ustion _______________________ _ 19 Stroke___________________________ _ 19 Sunburn_____________________ ____ _ 19 Infiltration ____ __ _____________________ _ 27 Insects______________________________ _ 64 Logistics, supplies ____ __________ _______ _ 5 Page 26 26 26 26 40 19 46 14 16 15 15 15 15 14 15 14 15 17 17 4 44 35 42 42 25 14 44 44 44 13 44 44 40 40 15 10 10 10 10 13 31 4 Parag ra ph Page P a ragra ph Page Maintenance : Vehicles _________ __ _______________ Weapons____ ______________________ 58 58 28 28 Scouting and patrolling ____ ___ _________ Security: Air defense__ _________ __ __________ 79 50 46 23 Medical requirements : Aviation _____________ ____________ 48 22 Di ease prevention ____ _____ __ ___ ___ Evacuation _______________________ 68 68 39 39 Bivouac___ _______________________ Defense _________ ____ ___ __________ 84 36 47 16 Hospitalization__ _____ _____________ 68 39 LogisticaL ________________________ 57 27 Insect-rod ent controL ______ ________ 68 39 Sleeping______________________________ 71 41 M ess sanita tion ____________________ P ersonal hygi ene __ __ ____________ __ Sanitation ____ __ __ ________________ Waste di posaL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Messing__ ____________ ________________ 68 68 68 68 69 39 39 39 39 40 Snakes, poisonou s ___ ____ ____ __________ Sta tic electricity____________ _________ __ Supply: Movement__________ ____ ____ __ ____ ecurity___ __ __ _ _ _ _ ________ ____ __ _ 64 78 57 57 31 44 27 27 Mine laying: Considerations __ ___ ____________ ___ 83 47 T e rn p er a ture : EJ>.i.remes __ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ __ __ _ _____ __ _ 11 7 Employment____ __________________ Mirage_ ___ ____ _____ __________________ Morale_____ ____ ____ __________________ 83 66 75 47 35 42 Heat effects______________ __________ R a ng e______ _______ __ _____________ Terrain characte ri stics : 12 8 7 6 Navigation training: Area knowledge ____ _______________ 65 31 Great basin s ___ ___________________ Rocky desert (h a ma da)_ _____________ 7 7 5 5 D ead r eckoning _----------------- 65 31 Sandy d esert______________________ 7 5 Map ori entation __ --------------Shadow-tip method ________________ Star method _----------------- 65 65 65 31 31 31 T errain ori entation (See avigation training) Tra ining of troops : Bivouac _________________________ _ 84 47 Steering marks__ ___ _______________ 65 31 Combat exe rci es________ __________ _ 81 46 Watch method __ __________________ 65 31 Conditioning____________ __ _________ _ 73 41 avigation equipment_____ ____________ 65 31 Disciplin e_______ __________________ _ 62 30 Night s en sory d evic es : Infrared __________________________ 86 49 M a r ching_______________ __________ _ Night firin g _____________ _____ _____ _ 17, 73 76 9, 41 42 Radar_ ________ -----------____ __ Offensive operations : 86 49 Obj ec ti ve------------------------Welfa re____ _______ -__ ---______ - 60 75 30 42 Attack plans__ ___ ___ ______________ Contact________ __________________ Deception ______ __ ________________ Encircle ment ______ --_____________ Infiltration ___ ___ __ ------_________ Maneuver forms ____ _______________ Reconnais ance_ ___ ___ ____________ Operations, Tactical principles_ _________ 22 23 29 30 27 21 24 4 11 12 13 14 13 11 12 3 Transportation, ground ___ ____________ _ Troops : Acclimation_______________________ _ Training of (S ee Training of troops) Tra ining sch edul es _________________ _ Vege t ation______ _________ _____ _______ _ Vehicle maintena nce __________ _. ________ _ 53 16 18 7 78 26 9 10 5 44 Ordnance t eams______ __________ _______ Patrolling___ -----------------_______ Poisonous snakes, in se cts _______________ Physical condition of troops ____________ Pursuit________ _____ _______ ---------- 58 41 64 17 26 28 19 3 1 9 13 Vi ibility : Mo nlight________________________ _ St orms__________________________ _ un gla re _________________________ _ Weapon s maintena nce_________________ _ 66 66 66 78 35 35 35 44 Rain____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ______________ Range estimation ____ __ ________________ 7, 10 66 5, 6 35 Wind : Effects_________________ _____ ----- 13 8 Reconnaissance: Etfect on ey es, kin ________________ _ 68 39 AeriaL ________ ____ _______________ 24 12 Effect on visibility _________ ___ _____ _ 66 35 Ground _________ _____________ ___ _ 24 12 Nature oL ____________ __________ _ 9 6 Units _------------------------- 55 26 Water: Roads and trails_____ __ _____ ___________ Salt: 7 5 Disciplin e______ _____ ___ _______ ___ _ For vehicles ___________ __________ _ 14, 70 78 ' 40 44 Table L _______ __ ____ -------__ _ 15 9 ondrinka bl e _____________________ _ 14 8 Requirements_____ ____ ____________ 15 9 Rec eptacles ______________________ _ 70 40 Tablets ________ _____ ___ __________ Water_ _____ __ ____ _____ _________ __ 15 15 9 9 R equire me nts__________ __________ _ Supply______________ ____________ _ 14 52 8 25 By Order of the ecretary of the \_rmy : Official: J. C. LAMBERT, Major General, United States A1'1ny, The Adjutant General. Di tribution: Actitve ATmy: DCSPER (2) ACSI (2) DCSLOG (2) DCSOPS (2) CORC (2) CRD (1) COA (1) CINFO (1) TIG (1) TJAG (1) TPMG (1) TSG (1) CofEngrs (1) CofCh (1) USCO rARe (10) ARADCOM (1) USACDC (20) LOGCOl\1D (1) USAAGCDA (1) USAARMCDA (5) USAARTYODA (5) USACBRCDA (5) USACAR 1SCDA (5) USACECDA (5) USAINTCDA (5) USAOCDA (2) USASWCDA (5) USAICDA (5) USAADCDA (2) USAAV CDA ( 5 ) USACHCDA (1) USACA DA (1) USACECD \. (u) USAl\IPCDA (5) USAMSCDA (5) USAQMCDA (1) USATCDA (5) Armies (5) Corps (3) Div (2) Div Arty (1) Bde (5) RegtjGp (3) Inf Bg (5) EARLE G. WI-IEELER, General, United States A1'1ny, Chief of Staff. Bn (5) Co/Btry (5) USA.CDEC (5) USACSSG (5) USA·SDEG (5) USACDC Nuclear Gp (5) USACAG (5) USAWC (25) USAA.Rl\IS (50) USAAMS (10) USAADS (3) USAAVNS (10) USACMLCSCH (10) USACAS (2) USAES (25) USAINTS (25) USATS (25) MFSS (15) USASOS (15) USASWS (10) USAQMS (5) NO: State AG (3) ; units--same a Active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit. USAR: Same as Active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit. For explanation of abbreviations used see AR 320-50. U . S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:\964