B\ 0 MCI 03.3 i THE MARINE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER MARINE CORPS INSTITUTE MARINE BARRACKS $~vEtis~~~~:i WASHINGTON, D.C. DEPOSITORYCOPY 9 00 . t UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS MARINE; CORPS INSTITUTE. MARINE BARRACKS BOX177!5 WASHINGTON. D.C. 20013 03. 3i 22 August 1975 1. PURPOSE This publication has been prepared by the Marine Corps Institute for use with MCI course~ The Marine Noncommissioned Officer. 2. APPLICABILITY This manual is for instructional purposes only. ~~-- Lieutenant Colonel, U. S. Marine Corps Deputy Director PREFACE This manual is organized into two parts; Leadership and Techniques of Military Instruction --subjects which all Marines are required to possess a knowledge of. Cbapters 1 through 4 prOVide a general description of the principles and techniques of leadership, the application of leadership principles, and leadership of small units in combat . Chapter 5 sets forth the techniques required to present effective instruction. ~ach Marine increases his proficiency as he gains experience in his work. With increased knowledge and skills come increased responsibility, higher rank, and pay commensurate with this advancement. Leadership of a small unit is a natural step in the progress of an individual. Men with drive and enthusiasm desire to be recognized for skill and proficiency and are quite willing to accept the responsibilities of leadership. This manual will assist you in preparing for the tasks and duties of leadership. Each Marine is a potential leader. The Marine who works hard to develop his leadership traits will be the man that becomes a successful small unit leader. Leadership capabilities are important tools in our trade. SOURCE MATERIALS MCO Pl5l0.'26 FM 21-5 FM 21-6 FM 22-100 FM 100-5 Unit Level Training Management, Military Training Management, Dec 1964, Apr 1967 Techniques of Military Instruction, Military Leadership, Jun 1973 Field Servic e Regulations/Operatiw/ ch 1, Dec 1971 4 May 1971 wI ch 1, Jan 1967 ons, Sep 1968, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgment is made to the Navy Department, the Extension School of Marine Corps Development and Education Command, the Second Marine Division NCO Leadership School, and to the Historical Division, Headquarters Marine Corps for related material utilized in this publication. Further grateful acknowledgement is made to the Infantry Journal Press for illustrative material extracted from George McMillan's work, The Old Breed. i CONT ENTS Para "Preface Table of contents PART ONE: LEADERSHIP Chapter 1 . INTRODUCTION TO L E ADERSHIP Section I. The Study of Leadership ••.•..•• 1-16 Section II. The Noncommissioned Officer ••. 17-34 Chapter 2. TRAITS. PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP Section I. Leadership Traits ....•...•...... 35-48b Section II. Leadership Principles ........... 49-60 Section III. Developing Leadership Techniques 61-73 Section IV. Indications of Military Leadership 74--81 Section V. Factors Affecting Leadership Decisions ........ . ............. 82-86 Chapter 3. APPLICATION OF LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES Section I. Organizing a Unit . . • • • . • • . . . . . • 87-95 Section II. Gaining Cooperation ...••.•••.•. 96-101 Section III. Disciplining .................... 102-111 Section IV. Relations with Subordinates and Seniors ........•.. • ..........•. 112-121 Chapter 4. COMBAT LEADERSHIP Section I. Additional Leadership Techniques for Combat ..•..•...•.•...•... 122-128 Section II. Panics and Rumors .•.••.....••. 129-136 Section III. Combat Examples and Their Analysis ...•...••. .•••.......•. 137-146 Section IV. Troop Leading Steps •.•.•.••••.. 147-155 Page iii 1-12 13-32 33-46 47-50 50-60 60-64 64-72 73-83 83-87 87-91 91-102 103-106 106-111 111-123 123-136 iii ParaPART TWO: MILITARY INSTRUCTION Chapter 5. TECHNIQUES OF MILITARY INSTRUCTION Section I. The Learning Process ............. . 157-161 13,9-143 Section II. Preparation by the Instructor....... . 162-174 143-157 Section III. Presentation...................... . 175-184 !57-162 Section IV. Training Aids. ..........., •......•. 185-190 162-171 iv PART ONE: LEADERSHIP Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP Section I. THE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP 1. PURPOSE The Marine Corps needs leaders of the highest caliber. With the increase in the complexity of wa rfare, the science of war is increasingly dependent upon human guidance. No matter how complicate-cl it may become, war is always waged by men. The man who leads and the men who are led win wars. Every member of our military force must be a leader, actually or potentially. a. The purpose of this manual is to provide military leaders, actual and prospective, with a practical guide for applying the principles of leadership. In the ultimat e sense, leadership is not inherent; it depends upon traits which can be developed, and upon the application of techniques which can be learned. It is an art which can be acquired, cultivated, and practiced by anyone who possesses the mental and physical ability and the moral and ethical integrity expected of a noncommissioned officer. Developing the art is a continuing process which involves the r ecognition and practice of the basic traits of leadership and the understanding and application of sound leadership principles and techniques. b. This manual stresses the i m portance of self-improvement. The principles, character traits, and procedures set forth are offered as an assistance to the leader in the problem of controlling others. By applying these procedur es to his owmpractice and by analyzing his own traits of character, the NCO will possess a yardstick for measuring his own success or failure. c. Despite this guide, it must be constantly borne in mind that successful leaders of the past were not all of the same pattern, nor did they all use the same methods of attaining success. All of them, however, consciously or unconsciously understood the basic concepts of leadership and successfully practiced many of the techniques presented in this manual. 1 d. The principles and techniques presented herein are the result of an analysis of outstanding leadership displayed by successful leaders. both military and civilian, of this and other countries.Thorough study of these, combined with actual practice with troops,will develop and foster the high standard of leadership so urgentlydemanded by our Marine Corps. e. Now that we see the purpose of the study of leadership. let us look at the leader's code, and check ourselves against it. 2. THE LEADER'S CODE "I become a leader by what I do. I know my strength and myweakness and I strive constantly for self-improvement. I live by amoral code. with which I set an example that others can emulate. Ikn@W my job and I carry out the spirit as well as the letter of ordersI receive. "I take the initiative and seek responsibilities. and I facesituations with boldness and confidence. I estimate the situation andmake my own decision as to the best course of action. No matterwhat the requirements, I stay with the job until the job is done: nomatter what the results, I assume full responsibilities. "I train my men as a team and lead them with tact, with enthusiasm, and with justice. I command their confidence and theirloyalty: they know that I would not consign to them any duty that I myself would not perform. I see that they understand their ordersand I follow through energetically to insure that their duties arefully discharged. I keep my men informed and I make their welfareone of my prime concerns . "These things I do selflessly in fulfillment of the obligationsof leadership and for the achievement of the group goal." 3. LEADERSHIP DEFINED a. There are many definitions of leadership. The dictionarydefines it as the ability to lead. The Marine Corps Manual definesmilitary leadership as, "the sum of those qualities of intellect,human understanding, and moral character that enables a person to inspire and to control a group of people successfully." Another 2 widely used definition is presented in FM 22-100, Military Leadership. This definition, or variations of it, is used by many military schools: "The art of influencing and directing men in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation to accomplish the mission." b. An analysis of these definitions indicates that leadership is measured in its ability to effect a result, to influence others, and to motivate them toward a desired objective. But this motivation must be such as to maintain high morale. The measure, therefore, is not only in the accomplishment, but also in the manner by which it is attained. 4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEADERSHIP A study of great leaders, both military and civilian, will lead to the conclusion that there are almost as many types of leadership as there are leaders. Several basic types emerge. A list of types can include: a. Technical leaders. In this fie ld, leaders either possess genius or sheer excellence of technical ability. Examples in the field of science are illustrated by E instein, Pasteur, and Edison while military leaders of this type would include the great strategists Hannibal and Marlborough, or the per fectionist, Frederick the Great. b. Administrative leaders. Good administrators have achieved great positions, especially in the modern business world. Examples are J. P. Morgan, Henry Ford, and W. P. Chrysler. In the military field the great Swedish king of the 17th century, Gustavus Adolphus, is a good example. c. Mass leaders. Mass leaders are dynamic persons who can sway public opinion and exert great influence without direct personal contact. They lead by their ability to mold the thinking of large groups. Mass leaders are exemplifie d in civilian life by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Military leaders in this category include Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte> Alexander the Great, George Washington> and General George Patton. 3 5. SMALL UNIT LEADERS From a consid.eratien of all three types. it becomes .eTidentthat a mass leader is the appropriate twe for an officer in commamfof a relatively large military unit--for instance, a regiment or larger. On the other hand, this te:'lrt is primarily concerned with amallunit leaders--NCO's who will lead platoons, sections. squads andfire teams. Techniques required by a small unit leader who is:i:htimately associated with his men, are different from the techniques of a mass leader. A Marine NCO will always be a smallunit leader. The closer contact an NCO has with his men the moreimportant all the factors of personality and character become. Thesquad leader living close to his men will not be able to fool them.No Marine leader can long fool others into believing he is anythingexcept what he is and the character of the leader will soon be anopen book to the men of his unit or organization. 6. A MILITARY UNIT'S NEED FOR LEADERSHIP Leadership is a common commodity necessary to coordinatethe activities of pers.ons within any kind of group. Even before that,leadership is necessary for a group, organization, or a unit to comeinto existence. In this sense a card game is an organized aetiTityin which a group is participating. Whoever starts the gam~ is theleader at the moment. Whether it be a game of cribbage involvingtwo men or a game of po"ker involving eight men, someone firstthinks of the game, suggests it, and organizes it. Without thisminimum amount of leadership and init~ative there could be no activity involving more than one person. Thus leadership of varying degrees and qualities is one of the most common commo~ties of humanlife. It is even common to many forms of animal life. Without it,no kind of group activity or organization could exist. 7. UNIVERSAL NEED FOR LEADERSHIP The need for competent leadership applies as much to peacetime duties as to wartime duties, as much to technical or "support"duties as to combat duties. Competent leadership is -as necessaryto the proper performance of guard duty as it is to tra1ntng or tocombat; it is as necessary in a supply unit or a repair unit as it isin an infantry unit. The fact that every ~t and every activity musthave a leader is so obvious that it is often overlooked. A militaryband could hardly play mu!3ic without a leader, and a unit football team would have little hope of success without a captain. We automatically look for a band leader, or elect a team captain, without giving it a second thought. There is a need for leadership in every form of Marine Corps endeavor. 8. LEADERSlfiP HOLDS A MILITARY ORGANIZATION TOGETHER We are concerned primarily with military leadership. If some degree of leadership and initiative is necessary for so simple a thing as a game of cribbage, then obviously a military organization in its complexity requires a high degree of leadership in many places. We frequently read in history that this or that man "raised an army. " He did not do it alone. He got the idea and sold it to others; they helped him raise the army. He may have inspired the army, and his spirit may ha~e been the major factor holding it together, but many other leaders cooperating with him were necessary to raise, organize, and direct the army. These other leaders were members of the "chain of command." They assisted in organization, training, and direction. In the Marine Corps the chain of command runs from the Commandant through corps, division, regimental, battalion, company, and platoon commanders through platoon sergeants directly to squad and fire team leaders. There wo1..1ld not be billets for all these leaders if they were not essential to the success of the Marine Corps. The newest fire team leader or noncommissioned officer in charge of files is an important cog in the chain of command, in holding the Marine Corps together and helping it to accomplish its mission. Without leadership and organization a military unit would be just a mob. 9. LEADERSIDP IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE UNIT'S SUCCESS Consider for a moment a football game. We can all remember the sandlot games' of boyhood. Many a sandlot team was a loosely organized group that just got together and started to play. In each huddle the members discussed and argued the next play. When such a team played against a better organized team, one that had a captain, regular plays, and practice sessions, it had little hope of winning or even of making a good showing. Leadership is essential to reaching the objective or accomplishing the mission. 5 10. THE INDIVIDUAL MARINE'S NEED FOR LEADERSHIP a. Tangible needs of the individual. A military organizationrequires a higher and more competent type of leadership than acasual group such as a football team or even a crew of painters working on a house. A military organization has a great responsibilitynot only to the nation but to its members. Each man in the MarineCorps needs certain things which only his leaders can provide. EachMarine needs instruction and training in order to do his job; in addition he needs adequate food, shelter, e lathing, pay, recreation, andopportunity for advancement. Various leaders in the chain of command fulfill these needs in accordance with their duties and respons i bilities. In general, pay. shelter, and clothing are prim~rily responsibilites of leaders in the higher echelons; but squad and fireteam leaders, as well as their seniors, have responsibilities forinsuring that their men draw adequate clothing at the proper time,and for keeping barracks in livable condition by proper police, repairs, and reports of deficiencies. Training programs and schedules are originated by the higher commanders, but squad and fireteam leaders have major responsibilities in carrying them out andinsuring that their men are well-trained. b. Intangible needs of the individual. In addition to the generaland tangible needs listed above, each man in a military (or other}organization has a number of more personal and intangible needs (orwants-situations he desires to be in). To be successful the NCOmust meet these needs. Some of these personal needs of his menare difficult to fulfill and make the NCO's job more complex; othersof the men's needs actually help the NCO in doing his job. if heunderstands them correctly. Some of these needs are: new experience or adventure, security, a feeling of "belonging" (being "in" withthe group), and recognition. Each of these could be broken down intoseveral other needs or desires. (1) The desire for adventure: The natural desire for the adventure of new experiences in his men can be a help to a noncommissioned officer because it gives the men curiosity anda desire to learn. He can use adventure as an incentive toaccomplishment and also as a compensation for a disagreeabletask. For example, no one really likes to get shot at, but apatrol or other offensive action frequently offers a new experience or an adventure that makes the man eager to participate. A good NCO is able to emphasize this desirable or 6 adventurous part of the task and thus minimize the dis agreeable part of it. A craving for adventure is also what sometimes lures a few men "over the hill." Thus, this need of his men can be either a help or hindrance to the noncom missioned officer. (2) The desire for security: Each man's desire for security tends to simplify the leader's job insofar as it leads the man to do his job well in order to assure himself of a place in the scheme of things. On the other hand, this same desire requires the NCO to give his men feelings of security by taking care of them, letting them know what is expected of them, what is in store for them, and by treating them fairly. (3) The desire to "belong:" Human behavior and a natural social environment creates within M arines a feeling of belonging. They join clubs, games, and social activiti es. They like to feel that they "belong" somewhere, that people are eager to have them around. This need can help the NCO who understands his men, because it leads them to seek the approval of and acceptance by their fellows. The noncommissioned officer can use this need to motivate each of his men to do his job well in order to maintain a good reputation. (4) The desire for recognition: Connected with a need for security and for "belonging" is a need, or desire for recognition. If a man is an expert rifleman, he usually wants others to know about it. If his only claim to fame is that he can make a noise like a blue jay, he still wants others to notice his ability. This need can work for or against the NCO. If he recognizes and meets the need, it inspires his men to work harder for even more recognition. If he ignores it, some of his men are likely to feel discouraged or to think nobody cares what they do anyway and the unit may become listless or even antagonistic. The noncommissioned officer who understands the needs of his unit and his men is well on his way to success as a military leader. 7 11. HOW THE LEADERSillP NEEDS OF THE MARINE CORPS AREMET To meet its leadership needs the Marine Corps makes a con scious effort to develop and improve leadership ability among all Marines. Even though courses in leadership as a separate subject have appeared only in recent years, it has long been Marine Corps practice to prepare every man for positions of leadership andre sponsibility. As a result the Marine Corps has been able to take sudden emer~encies and rapid expansion in stride. Men who were privates at the beginning of World War n quickly rose to staff grades;many became master sergeants, warrant officers, and commissioned officers. In both World Wars privates were known to take commandof their units in combat emergencies. Enlisted Marines served asofficers with both the Haitian Gendarmerie and the NicaraguanGuardia troops during disturbances in Haiti and Nicaragua. Everyprivate in the Marine Corps should consider himself a potential non commissioned or commissioned officer. Each Marine, regardless of rank, must prepare himself continually for his added responsi bilities in higher rank. 12. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSffiP a. Essential nature of leadership. The military profession hasno monopoly on leadership. In every walk of life, in every industry,in every government, in every phase of human endeavor there areleaders and there are followers. Progress and success depend onthe quality and strength of leadership to produce results. b. Elements of leadership. Leadership is the art of influencinghuman behavior-•the ability to handle mem. The art of influencingbehavior, the very essence of leadership, in turn, involves understanding, analyzing, predicting, and controlling man1s behavior.Also involved in successful leadership is the will to lead, togetherwith the character which inspires confidence. Undoubtedly there arecertain inherent characteristics which may aid in the developmentof leadership. Yet there are assuredly certain menpossessiing· de sirable leadership traits who have never attained the stature of greatleaders. Likewise, there are men deficient in certain of these traits who have attained this stature. Any theory that leadership is solelyinherited must be rejected. Leadership is intang~le only to the extent that we make it so. Any reasonably intelligent, morally sound,forceful man, no matter how inexperienced, can become acquainted 8 with the component elements of leadership. These e-Ie·ments may be studied, practiced, learned, and applied just as any other human accomplishment may be learned and mastered. c. Basic elements of leadership (fig U. (1) Character. An NCO must possess those moral qualities or attributes of personality which establish a person as dependable and worthy of trust. A military leader should be a man of honor, justice, truth, patience, and charity. (2) Demeanor. The demeanor of a leader is an important quality of military leadership and it is based on those physical and mental factors which impress others. It is his outward appearance and behavior. The attitude, selfcontrol, and diligence of the leader will be reflected in his demeanor. (3) Judgment . The leader's judgment is composed of his qualities of discernment, keenness of perception, deduction, common sense, fairness, and discrimination. Judgment becomes evident in the ability to analyze a situation correctly from the given facts, to make an estimate, and to reach a reasonable decision. The cultivation of clear and logical thinking will stimulate this aspect of leadership. (4} Energy. Energy is composed of those mental and physical forces by means of which an individual accomplishes a desired result. As a factor in leadership, energy becomes most evident in a leader's physical fitness, drive, and mental alertness. The enthusiasm generated by this quality is infectious and is a means by which an undertaking can become inspired. 13. THE LEADER AND THE SMALL GROUP a. Every leader, whether civilian or military, actually maintains close personal contact with only a small group regardless of the number of men ultimately controlled by him. Inevitably he must depend upon that small group in order to make his will known and to execute his purpose. In the realm of the military we refer to the small group as immediate subordinates and staff. 9 Fig 1. fhe stairway to leadership. b. Military leadershlp is the art of influencing and directing mento an assigned gol:U in such a way as to obtain their obedience, con ' fidence. respect, and loyal cooperation. It is indispensable tosuccess in combat. Like all leadership it is dependent upon personaltraits and upon the application of recognized techniques. The personal traits can be developed arid the techniques can be learned. 14. itELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMAND AND LEADERSHIP a. Authoritarian and persuasive leadership. There are twokirltls df leadership..:·-authoritarian and persuasive. One who ispredoih.inantly of the authoritarian type normally is recognized bythe dictatorial use of authority or power. The persuasive type ofleaders·hip takes hito consideration the human element with all itscomplexity and with all its differentiation of the physical. mental.and moral capabilities and li:rhitations of the individual. To a greatextent the persuasive leader bases his skill in leadership uponexample arid ability, with high standards of discipline and efficiencyfor himself as well as for his followers. l:J. Differences between authoritarian-and persuasive-type leaders. (1) The Authoritarian-type leader: Drives his men. Depends on Authority. 10 Inspires fear. Says "I. '' Says "Get there on time." Fixes the blame for breakdowns. Knows how it is done . Makes work a drudgery. Says "Go. " (2) The Persuasive-type leader; Coaches his men. Depends on good will. Inspires enthusiasm. Says "We. " Says "Get there ahead of time . " Fixes the breakdowns. Shows how it is done. Makes work a game. Says "Let's go. " c. Exercise of command. Command is the authority that a member of the military profession lawfully exerts over subordinates by virtue of his rank and assignment_ Leadership can be exercised by anyone at any time regardless of the framework of command. It is recognized that in any group someone will emerge as the leader although no command or organizational structure is present. Individuals in coordinating capacities exercise leadership in their dealing with their equals outside the immediate command structure. In general, however, we think of militar y leadership as being exercised within the command framework. Therefore. in one sense military leadership is the proper exercise of command. d. Accompaniments of command . Command in the Marine Corps is accompanied by responsibility involving special trust and confidence. Command, which involves administration, planning, execution, supervision, and coordination, is the primary reason for the military leader's existence. The leader is responsible not only for initiating action, but also for supervising all activities within his command. In this responsibility for the general administration of a group, it is his duty to receive, comply with, and execute instructions with exactness and thoroughness regardless of his personal feeling. 11 15. OBJECTIVE OF MILITARY LEADERSIDP The objective· of military leadership is the creation and maintenance of an organization which will loyally and willingly accomplish any reasonable task assigned or indicated, and will initiate suitable actiol'l in the absence of orders. The proper application of the prirtciples of leadership to a command can create an efficient, well-disciplined organization possessing high morale andEsprit de Corps. 16. RESPONSIBILITIES OF LEADERSIDP a. General. The responsibilities of the NCO are twofold --ac complishment of his mission, and ·the fulfillment of his responsibilities to his men. Man is the fundamental instrument of war. Other instruments may change-, new weapons may be created and new modes of defense may be devised, but man, the fundamental instrument, remains constant. The NCO must be concerned with the desires, needs, and mental state of his men. If the NCO knows and under stands certain basic principles of human behavior; if he appreciates that most men react in fixed and definite ways under a given stimulus or influence; if he recognizes, develops, and applies those traits of character which will produce the correct reactions in his men, he will possess the basic tools for managing men --he will be a leader. Since effective leadership in battle is the ultimate goal of military leadership, it is obvious that, regardless of the NCO's ability to dominate or persuade, his success inevitably depends upon his skill in the·tactical control of his unit. Tactical control is a technique developed by study and by practice. b. Accomplishment of the mission. The primary duty of the NCO is the accomplishment of his assigned mission. Everything else, even the welfare of his men, is subordinate. c. Duties to the men. The next responsibility of the NCO lies .in his duty to his men. It is rarely possible to accomplish any mission without attention to ~e morale and spirit of the men. In the military service, the follower is peculiarly dependent upon his leader; he can do little to improve his lot if his leader neglects him. 12 Section II. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER 17. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER, WHO IS HE? It has often been said that the NCO's are the backbone of the Marine Corps. A Marine noncommissioned officer is a man who has demonstrated that he is a leader. He can handle other men, direct and coordinate their work or training, and influence them. In some degree he is a man of superior ability and ambition. It was for these reasons that he was given his stripes. He may be just a little better qualified than the privates in his unit, or just a little more ambitious, or both. but potentially he is an outstanding leader and the positions to which he may rise are almost unlimited. The Marine noncommissioned officer is a man with responsibilities (fig 2). Fig 2. The NCO, Who is he? Each leader in the chain of command must carry his responsibilities of the Marine Corps if his unit is to succeed i~its mission. Nobody is ''just a corporal. " In the military service. men's lives o ten depend upon the abilities of their leaders. A corporal who fails to insure proper functioning of brakes on a vehicle for which he is responsible, who fails to insure that the members of his fire team have unloaded their weapons at the end of a day's training. who hesitates on the battle fiel d or who fails to enforce safety regulations around high explosives may cost the lives of others. Many Marines are assigned duties in which the relation to the lives and welfare of other men is not so obvious. However, a misfiled letter, a garbled radio message. or an unfilled request for supplies may have a permanently damaging effect on the lives of other men or the operations of other units. Thus, every noncommissioned officer must be sure that the men for whom he is responsible are doing their jobs correctly. To accomplish this duty effectively the noncommissioned officer must 13 continually improve his ability as a leader and prepare himself to assume more and more responsibility. As a Marine Corps leader, the noncommissioned officer has a place in the chain of command, a well-established legal status, and responsibilities to his men, his organization, the Marine Corps, and his country. 18. THE CHAIN OF COMMAND a. The Marine Corps Manual has this to say about the chain of command: 11 The chain of command varies with the component of commandinvolved. All orders and instructions from higher echelons to lowerechelons should be issued through the chain of command as far aspracticable. An individual or unit must have but one immediate commander from whom all orders and instructions related to a given function are received. 11 b. For example, an order from a company commander goesfrom him to his platoon commanders, to the section leaders, to thesquad leaders, and then to the corporals and privates of the squads.This is known as the chain of command. It also operates in reverseorder. For example, the private wants to see his platoon sergeant.First he would see his fire team leader, then his squad leader andfinally his platoon sergeant. Each subordinate commander at anylevel in the chain of command has only one immediate commander;thus the chain provides the unity of command that must exist if a unitis to operate effectively. 19. DECENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY a. When the NCO passes some of his duties down the chain ofcommand to his subordinates, he holds each subordinate responsiblefor the performance of these duties. He must delegate sufficientauthority to these subordinates to enable them to carry out theirassignments. In this way each level in the chain of command is givenauthority equal to its responsibilities and each level performs itsduties under the direction and supervision of the next higher level. b. While an NCO may delegate authority to his subordinates, hecannot relieve himself of any of his overall responsibility. He must 14 insure that he does not delegate authority to the point where he loses control. Also, he must delegate authority in terms so specific that the subordinate will understand e xactly where his authority begins and ends . 20. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER'S PLACE IN THE CHAIN OF COMMAND A company commander cannot c r awl from man to man in combat in order to give each man his orders and to direct each man's efforts. The company is divided into platoons, squads, and fire teams each with its own mission to accomplish. Thus, if company A is to attack ffJll X , the captain calls together his platoon commanders and certain noncommissioned officers. He e x plains the situation and the company mission and assigns e ach platoon commander a platoon mission. Each platoon commander then calls his squad leaders together, e xplains the situation and platoon mission, and assigns missions. The squad leaders assign missions to their fire team leaders, and the fire team leaders in a similar manner to their men. Each subordinate leader in the chain of command is responsible for the company mission. Each leader is therefore responsible directly to the next senior leader in the chain of command. 21. T HE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER'S SUPERVISORY FUNCTION a. All the leaders in the chain of command assist in the supervision of the commander's orders. The squad leader cannot assume that once he has given an order to his fire team leaders, the chain of command will function automatically from that point on. Having given his orders, the squad leader follows up by observing, supervising, and correcting. He has time t o do thi s properly if he has used his subordinate l e ade r s properly; they handle their units and the squad leader is able to handle the squad as a whole and insure that his subordinate units are accomplishing their missions. By giving the squad leader responsibility for his squad mission, the platoon commander has provided himself the oppor tunity to observe, inspect, and direct the functioning of his platoon more effectively, 15 but he can do so only if his squad leaders are capable of handling their own units and subordinate leaders. b. Supervision is an important function of noncommissioned officers. Many noncommissioned officers, such as a platoon guide or a platoon sergeant, have no commands oftheir own but assist their commander in supervising his orders. Their specific duties may vary with the situation, especially in combat. For example, a platoon sergeant in combat is primarily concerned with.general supervision and coordination of the entire platoon and, as second-in-command, is prepared to take over the platoon in the event the platoon commander becomes a casualty. Usually he has no specific position in the formation but goes where his duties require him. The platoon guide is usually charged with discipline, administration, supply. and evacuation in combat; again assisting the platoon commander in supervision and direction of the platoon. He is prepared to replace the platoon sergeant or the platoon commander if necessary. Squad and fire team leaders have no assistants to help them in supervision of their orders. but their units are small enough so that they can do all supervision themselves. Thus it is that the noncommissioned officer's place in the chain of command is in command of the smaller units and in assisting the leaders of larger units, particularly in supervision. This relationship is true not only in "line" units but also in supporting and specialized units such as headquarters and service companies. 22. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER AS A L INK BETWEEN THE eOMMANDER AND THE TROOPS In his supervisory capacity the noncommissioned officer is a link between the commander and his men (fig 3). While the commander's time is largely spent in studying orders of higher authority in planning. and in overall coordination, his noncommissioned officers are ~.y, J$ ~' ~ · ~{?? ..'''· :l!J'~~ ~/ ~ . / ' ~' · .....-.-.......-,_,.. Fig 3. NCO--link between commander and troops 16 concerned primarily with implementing and supervising his instrue tions. Since the noncommissioned officer generally works with small er groups and lives closer physically to the men of the unit, he is in a position to discover the needs of the men quickly and to observe and correct minor infractions when they happen. He helps his men to understand the reasons for military discipline and organization. He is thus able to prevent many problems from arising for both the commander and his men. By preventing or correcting minor breaches of discipline, for example, the noncommissioned officer is frequently able to prevent men from falling into bad habits and eventually com mitting more serious offenses. Further, he is able to learn of situ ations which may be damaging to the morale or efficiency of the unit and bring them to the attention of the commander in time for cor rective action to be taken. In general, he expedites and smoothes the functioning of the unit. 23. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER'S CERTIFICATE OF AP POINTMENT Figure 4 shows a noncommissioned officer's certificate of appointment. Like insurance policies and other important documents, certificates of appointment are sometimes obtained through considerable effort and sacrifice and then not carefully read. It is as important that a noncommissioned officer read and thoroughly understand his certificate of appointment as it is that he read and understand his insurance policies, titles to property, and lease papers. 24. THE FIRST SENTENCE OF THE CERTIFICATE OF APPOINTMENT a. The first sentence states that the noncommissioned officer "will carefully and diligently discharge the duties of the grade to which appointed by doing and performing all manner of things thereunto pertaining. " This sentence establishes his position and imposes upon him the responsibilities of his grade. Setting a good example is one of his responsibilities. Men learn from their leader largely through example and imitation. This fact is recognized in the use of the demonstration in modern teaching methods. b. The noncommissioned officer is in an excellent position to influence his men by example. He lives and works close to them; they are able to watch and evaluate nearly everything he does. If 17 his example is a good one, he has gone a long way toward making his men good Marines. It is usually possible to tell something about a squad leader by looking at his squad. If the squad as a whole is neat and prompt and efficient in the execution of its duties, it is generally found that the squad leader has the safne characteristics. However, the noncommissioned officer's responsibility goes beyond setting a good example for his 'OWn men; he is expected to set a good example for all Marines everywhere . .%aUUJ!w4/w/L~~~~-· Yhwu" '~'Ye;~-fu:>tJM'ff ~-iai..VJNklv.af'fu>U>t4d-'tf//lN~'f/'D/Jut~t_,foJV»UHt:l' o/L/n~~u~~ jw'l address subordinates by their rank and last name. When an NCO addresses a subordinate by his first name, the NCO is taking unfair advantage of his rank since the enlisted man cannot do the same in return. 52 (4) Master your emotions. The man who allows himself intemperate bursts of anger or indulges in periods of depression cannot gain and hold the respect of his subordinates. b. Set an example of cooperation at all levels and of strict obedience to orders from your superiors. (1) Cooperation must work in two directions. A good leader is conspicuously loyal to his subordinates as well as to his· superiors. He supports deserving subordinates without partiality; he avoids the development of a clique of favorites and carefully considers the effect of rewarding subordinates who have given loyal and superior service over a period of time. (2) A commander practices the obedience to his superiors that he expects from his. subordinates. He accepts the decisions of his commanding officer and backs them up completely. He does not "go over the head" of his superior and he does ·not bypass the chain of command in dealing with subordinates. He does not criticize his superiors but carries out their policies as his own. c. Your moral and physical courage must he unquestionable. Stand by your principles and do not shift the responsibility for your mistakes. Demonstrate your willingness to share danger and hardships with your men. 66. PRINCIPLE IV -SEEK RESPONSIBILITY AND DEVELOP A SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY AMONG SUBORDINATES a. The foresighted leader seeks a variety of assignments to broaden his experience and fit him for greater responsibilities. That means you should demonstrate readiness to accept extra responsibilities and take advantage of all opportunities to increase them. Learn the duties and responsibilities of your immediate superior, but do so with discretion and tact. Reserve this knowledge for occasions when your superior requests assistance amd for emergency situations.. b. In organizing and carrying out a mission, assign specific parts of the task to your subordinates. (For the chain of command, see para 18). Each of th~se assigned tasks carries with it a por 53 tion of your respons.ibility and must be accompanied with sufficient authority to do the job. Give your assistants responsibility and authority equal to their ability. Be quick to recognize their accomplishments that required initiative and resourcefulness, and be generous in giving merited praise publicly. Correct their mistakes in a way that encourages them and reassures their self-confidence. Never publicly criticize or condemn a subordinate. 67. PRINCIPLE V-INSURE THAT THE JOB IS UNDERSTOOD, SUPERVISED, AND COMPLETED a. Develop the ability to think clearly and logically so that you ·can give clear, concise, and positive orders. (1) Be sure there is a need for every order you give. State it so that its details are clear and complete enough to permit correct action. Encourage subordinates to ask questions about any points they do not understand. If time permits and you think it advisable, discuss possible courses of action for a mission with your subordinates before you give an order. This insures better understanding of the order and promotes willing cooperation. (2} After making sure a subordinate understands a particular order, make available to him every reas.onable means to help him carry it out. Leave the method of accomplishment, however, to his decision; advise him only when necessary. b. You may supervise the accomplishment of an order personally or through a subordinate. In either case, follow up on the progress of the mission by personal observation. In this way you can make timely corrections or changes. Take action immediately to meet any s.ituation that seems to hinder the success of the mission. When the mission has been completed, inspect the results. Adopt an impartial attitude; point out errors and comment on them constructively. Note and remark favorably on thos.e things that merit praise. 68. PRINCIPLE VI-KNOW YOUR MEN AND LOOK OUT FOR THEIR WELFARE a. You may have the finest weapons and equipment, and the most complete grasp of technical knowledge and tactical skills, but may 54 fail completely unless you understand the men you have to direct. Man is still the fundamental instrument of war. To know and under stand your men, you must have an understanding of the basic principles of human behavior. you must be approachable so your men will feel free to talk over problems, and you must be flexible in your judgment of individuals. recognizing individual differences. Through studying individual records of the members of your command, by using in dividual conferences. and by closely observing the work performed by your men, you can establish a practical basis for using your men in the most effective manner. b . All men are different because of their background and experience. Yet, they are all similar in one respect-their needs. These needs must be met in each individual if he is to adjust to military life. The most common ones are (1) Physical needs: food, water, rest, activity, and recreation. (2) Mental needs: social approval, security, and recognition. These are needs so important that the Marine may do anything to satisfy them. He may steal, sleep on duty, or go AWOL in his efforts to satisfy real or imagined needs. He may even become the unit "eight-ball" in his effort to gain recognition. On the other hand, the need for social approval of other men in his unit may cause a Marine to fight on when he is tired, cold, hungry, or afraid. These needs are basic to the behavior of all individuals and if the Marine can satisfy them, he will develop and have a sound and good attitude which is necessary if he is to become an effective Marine. The commander must recognize, then, that the behavior of all men is affected by their efforts to satisfy these needs. If the means by which the Marine can satisfy his needs. or suitable recreational or educational substitutes for them can be provided, the Marine will be motivated to participate and contribute toward the successful accomplishment of the mission of his unit. If the Marine understands that his com manders are interested and concerned for his welfare; that supject to the requirements of the Marine Corps and his unit his needs will be met, he will develop a favorable attitude toward his leaders and the Corps and will become an effective Marine. c. To promote the welfare of your men 55 (1) Provide the best possible mess facilities and food. (2) Maintain good living quarters and check constantly the sanitation conditions of the unit. (3) Have adequate supplies of clothing and equipment and efficient laundry service. (4) Adopt a system of consistent and just disciplinary measures. Do not impose degrading punishment and never punish a group for the fault of an individual. (5) Urge participation in the Troop Information and Education Program. (6) Support religious activities. 69. PRINCIPLE VII -KEEP YOUR MEN INFORMED Give your men interesting and complete instruction on regulations, orders, and policies that affect them and their unit directly. Keep them informed of all changes as they occur. In addition, most of your men will want to know about matters of broader significance, such as the progress of a campaign and the actions of his own and foreign governments. Encourage this quest for information and, when you encounter indifference or flagging concern, find a way to stimulate renewed interest. a. Here is a list of the kind of information your men should always have (1) Regulations on the Marine's uniform and equipment, his rights. responsibilities. and t-->'leges. promotions and reductions, punishments, pay and allowances, passes, leaves, and standing operating procedures. (2) Duties of individual Marine, including job instruction, the level of performance required, and the degree of cooperation and teamwork needed. ( 3) The status of an individual-his success or failure in meeting standards of performance. the reason for his failure and suggestions for improvement. 56 (4) The status of the unit-its success or failure in training tests and the reason for the failure with suggestions for improvement. The rating of the unit according to AWOL's, VD's, CM's, company punishments, and sick reports, and the results of interunit competitions. b. You can determine what information is needed by attentive review of official publications and reports, by questions brought up in conversations with subordinates, and by inviting questions and suggestions. c. You can get this information out to the men by these means ( 1) Verbally or in writing, through the chain of command. (2) Announcements at unit meetings, regular formations, and instructional periods. (3) By bulletin board notices and through individual interviews. (4) By distributing manuals and by providing books, periodicals, maps, and pictures for recreation rooms. (5) Through the Troop Information Program. d. In combat situations make certain that your subordinate commanders and the members of your command know the mission and the immediate goal to be reached. Inform your principal subordinates of plans for future operations, subject to security restrictions. Assure yourself by frequent inspection and visits that subordinates are giving necessary information to their men. Be alert to detect rumors and halt their spread with truths. Build confidence and esprit de corps by publicizing information on successes of your command, including individual and s m all unit accomplishments. 70. PRINCIPLE VIII-TRAIN YOUR MEN AS A TEAM a. Provide the best means for team training and make use of such devices as communication drills, battle drills, and realistic field exercises. Train your men according to the training programs and 57 doctrines prescribed by higher authority, making sure that the training is pur poseful and that the necessity for the training has been impressed on your men. b. Apply the principles of organization and effective grouping of individuals to provide maximum teamwork of the unit. Convey to your men the idea that they are doing important work as part of an important team and set high standards of discipline in team training. c. Develop mutual trust and understanding by teaching each part of your command what the other parts of the team can and cannot do. Assure yourself that each subordinate leader understands how to control his own unit and that each man knows the functions of every other man with whom he habitually operates. Finally, require each man to be trained within his capabilities to assume the duties of t:Q.e next higher grade. 71. PEINCIPLE IX -EMPLOY YOUR COM-MAND IN ACCORDANCE WITH ITS CAPABILITIES Your unit's proficiency does not remain constant: it is influenced by changes of mission, by the type of training the unit has had, by its strength and the number of replacements, and by the unit's current degree of discipline, morale, and esprit de corps. You should constantly examine your command to find out its present effectivenes~. a. The unit's capacity for coping with any particular mission may be judged on the basis of its experience. Consider the time spent in garrison and the unit's technical experience. Measure your unit's proficiency frequently against that of other units and against its own previous standards. b. The unit's discipline and morale profoundly affect its capabilities: high morale can compensate for many deficiencies, but low morale breeds poor discipline and blots out proficiency. (1) In long-standing situations where routine becomes monotonous or where there is no purposeful activity, laxness and indifference are sure to develop. You can counter this situation with worth-while training. more recreational and athletic programs, and any other activity that might help. 58 (2) Morale is damaged when individuals or elements of a unit are always given the same tasks. When one man or element always gets the dangerous job, the easy job, or the dis tasteful job, hard feelings are bound to develop. You must equalize assignments and rotate the tasks. c. A unit cannot undertake a task with confidence and keep up its morale while doing it when its equipment is scarce or in poor condition. Look into every task assigned to you and, if the means at your disposal are insufficient, inform your immediate superior and request specific additional means. 72. PRINCIPLE X -MAKE SOUND AND TIMELY DECISIONS Military decisions are based on the evaluation and interpretation of information. To initiate or to carry out a successful mission, you have to be capable of logical and orderly thinking based on available information and actual experience. You must thoroughly understand the mission and the part your unit is to have in accomplishing it. a. To make a sormd decision, you must analyze the situation under which the mission is to be accomplished and determine the line of action open toyssible standard. Some of the marks of proficiency you should watch for are a. Personal appearance and physical condition of the men. b. Appearance and condition of weapons. and equipment. c. Willing acceptance and discharge of responsibility by subordinates. d. Businesslike operation of the unit. e. Troop leading ability of junior leaders. f. Promptness and accuracy in passing down orders and instructions. g. Promptness and accuracy in reporting and dissemination of information. Section V. FACTORS AFFECTING LEADERSHIP DECISIONS 82. GENERAL Leadership decisions involving subordinates must be based on valid principles of personnel management. But it must be further recognized that there are factors which affect these decisions. These factors have been divided into three main groups for this discussion: a. Personalities b. Morale c. Environment 64 Not only must the NCO have the ability to organize and direct his men in conduct and achievement, but he must also have the ability to analyze the factors which should affect his decisions. These are the factors which make up the psychological temper of a unit. The NCO must be able to gauge this temper, or mass feeling, of his men so that he will not call upon them for effort beyond their capability, or (worse) that he may not fail to call u pon them for that extra effort well within their abilities which may mean victory in combat. 83. PERSONALITIES a. Personalities are an important factor affecting leadership decisions. The personality of the NCO. the personalities of his men as individuals, and the personality of the group must be considered in the aruil.ysis of this factor by the NCO. (1) Definition--Personality is defined by the dictionary as"... the sum of one's qualities of mind, body, and character. It is that which makes one human being different from another." More appropriate to the subject of military leadership is the definition: "Personality is the total of an individual's characteristics, especially as they concern his relations with other people." (2) The development of the pers.onality characteristics possessed by an individual contributes to his leadership ability. It must be remembered, however. that no two people inherently possess the same personality characteristics, nor do they develop them to the same degree. b. The leader's personality is a little different from everyone else1s. Each noncommissioned officer has his strong points and his weak points, his individual background, and his prejudices. These color everything he does. Therefore. he must understand his own personality; he should know whether he is naturally stricter and more exacting than most men, or more liberal; whether he tends to favor men with athletic ability, or to be prejudiced against them. In making a decision affecting other men, he must deliberately take his feelings into account so that he can make a fair decision, not one based on prejudice. In recommending a private first class for promotion to lance corporal, a noncommissioned officer who was particularly interested in range firing might recommend one man purely on the basis of the 65 fact that he was an expert rifleman. If he recognized his own prej udices, however, he might have recommended a different man who was better qualified in professional knowledge and leadership ability, but who had only made sharpshooter on the range. In making his decisions, and in all his relations with his men, the leader should stay " in character. 1 1 Some men, after seeing an impressive movie, will go around acting like Gary Cooper, H umphrey Bogart, or Harpo Marx for a few hours afterwards. Soontheir friends " kid1 ; them out of iL A noncommissioned officer canfall into the same habit in handlirig his men if he particularly ad miressome succ essful leader. This is desi rable to a certain extent if theleader chooses a model with some similar characteristics. but aJ erry Lewis would look ridiculdus trying to act like a John Wayne.A hearty gruff type of noncommissioned officer would be just as out of place trying to act like a studious, gentle, fatherly t ype in handling his men. If he is putting on an act, his men will recognize itand will hav e little faith in him. c. The personalities of his men as individuals must be considered by the leader in making decisions. In analyzing the personalities ofhis men, each must be considered as an individual possessingsingular characteristics developed to varying degrees. Some of themore common personality types which may be found in the militaryservice and the technique which the leader may apply in dealing withthem are shown by the following examples. (1) The willing worker--This mari exhibit~ a sincere and honesteffort to perform his duties. He is cooperative, enthusiasticand reliable. The NCO needs only to see that proper direction of effort is given to this man. A word of praise wili be ofgreatest value in inspiring him to greater effort. (2) The shirker--This man lacks the qualities of enthusiasm anddrive and he becomes a problem to his contemporaries andhis leader. The leader must apply the direct rnethod bytelling him exactly what is expected of him. An appeal tohis pride and loyalty may be effective; but he will requireconstant supervision. (3) The exhibitionist--This man is a general nuisance who knowsall the a nswers and becomes a disrupting influence in theunit by frequently 11 showing off. 11 The NCO must see to itthat he is indoctrinated in the proper method and in the spiritof working with a group. 66 (4) The immature--This man lacks the development of The character which should be found in a mature person. NCO must bear in mind the fact that such a man frequently develops into a fine type of worker. but that understanding and patient treatment are required in dealing with him. A noncommissioned officer may "get along" if he considers his d. men as a vague group of mechanical cogs in a machine. but he can never build an outstanding unit that way. Each of his men has strong points which should be exploited and weak points which must be corrected. Suppose Sergeant Jones is lecturing to his squad on machine guns in the defense. Private Smith interrupts him several times during the lecture to argue about various points of instruction. That gun can't hit anything Finally. he says. "You're all wet. Sarge. but your own men where you've got it on the diagram. " If Sergeant Jones is sensitive about his authority. his first reaction may be to place Smith on report immediately. If he is completely "easy going." he may be inclined to ignore the remarks. If he isn't sure of himself, his natural reaction may be to say. " What do you know about it,. Smith? I'm conducting this class." Before doing anything. he should consider these factors. and he should also consider Smith. If Smith is a "wise guy," he is probably deliberately trying to break up the class. If he is a clown, he may be trying to amuse the other men in the squad. If he is a very serious and studious type. he may have become so wrapped up in the subject that he couldn't contain himself. e. Personality of subordinates as a group. (1) When the men in a unit have been together for a period, or when they all come from the same locality. the unit takes on a group personality. A supply platoon has a different per sonality from a rifle platoon; a rifle platoon has a different The leader's de personality from a fire direction center. cisions are as much influenced by the personality of his unit as by the personalities of the men in it. (2) If a sergeant were given a squad of replacements to train in a staging area, he would be tol erant of the lack of combat ''know how" and would instruct them patiently and carefully in battle techniques. He would be very strict in having them G>bs-erve such rules as keeping low and making maximum use of cover and concealment. On the other hand, 67 if his squad were made up of combat veterans who had_twoor three campaigns under their belts, he would expect themto have battle "know how" and would consider them carelessif they bungled a maneuver during a tactical exercise. Areprimand to the group would be in order here, whereas itwould not be in order if the men were all replacements.The leader might be justified in taking less interest in forcing a combat experienced group to stay low and make thebest use of cover and concealment, knowiilg that such actionhas become instinctive with them when "the lead is flying."An experienced group is quick to resent being "babied;" aninexperienced group may become confused if it is pushedtoo fast. (3) Recreational programs depend upon the personality andcircumstances of the unit. If a noncommissioned officerwere told that his men might be given either a hunting tripor an opportunity to go to a city for liberty. he would nodoubt request that a squad of men who had just finished maneuvers be given liberty :rn. the city; if his men were stationedat a downtown recruiting office, he would probably ask forthe hunting trip. f. The relation of personalities of individuals and units to tacticaldecision is illustrated by the following story about Napoleon: At Austerlitz, in 1805, Napoleon faced an enemy army of 90. 000. IDs own force was only 50, 000. The remainder of hisforces were widely scattered. Davout's corps was some 70 milesaway. It was necessary for Napoleon to defeat the enemy quicklyand completely before they could be reinforced. The French were400 miles from their base, and the strategic position of the enemyjeopardized Napoleon's communications; loss of the battle might meanloss of his throne. IDs passion for concentrating his forces forbattle required that he march Davout's corps 70 miles and demandthat it be prepared for immediate combat at the end of the march.He did just that--Davout, after completing the forced march in44 hours, found his troops holding the right wing and fighting valiantlyagainst the enemy's main effort. Davout held stoutly; and whenthe time was ripe. Napoleon broke the center of the hostile lines anddefeated his enemy decisively. Napoleon's decision to engage his :flOein decisive combat after requiring a forced march of 70 miles by oneof his corps demanded a keen knowledge of his troops and his corps 68 commanders. The points he had to consider were these: (1) The fighting caliber of Davout and his men. (2) The ability of Davout's corps, after such a grueling march, to enter into immediate battle . The decision was based on a firm knowledge that Davout and his men were capable of such superhuman effort. Had it been a question of another corps.• Napoleon might have been forced toretreat. Such knowledge could only be gained by an understanding of the personalities and morale of the leaders and men involved. g. The noncommissioned officer must consider the effect upon his men of any decision he makes. One man in a squad may fail every day to prepare himself properly for inspection with the result that the whole squad loses its reputation as one of the best in the company. The whole squad may be reprimanded finally by the platoon or company commander. The squad leader may believe that the man1s failure is due to personal problems and that for the time being he should overlook it. To do so, however, would be a mistake because it would create resentment among all the other men in the squad. Although he must be fair in his treatment of the individual concerned, the squad leader must first consider the welfare of his whole unit and he must take ·some action. Perhaps the solution is not to put the man on report, but he may suggest to the platoon sergeant that the platoon or company commander ought to help the man with his problems. To ignore the fault even though he thinks it is only temporary, would be a mistake. h. The solution of a problem in leadership almost always strengthens a unit. In the example cited above, assume that the man who showed up poorly at inspection was troubled with chronic headaches. The squad leader. instead of ignoring the situation and instead of simply putting the man on report or reprimanding him, discovered that he was sloppy and irritable because of his headaches. The man had not turned in to sick bay for fear of being called a "goldbrick. 11 By seeing that the man went to the doctor and got a pa:ir of badly needed glasses. the squad leader might develop that man into one of the best in the squad; and because he had apparently made such a good man out of such a slacker. he would gain the confidence of his men and of his seniors. 69 84. MORALE Morale, as we have seen (para 75), is another importantfactor which affects leadership decisions and the degree of itsachievement is one of the measurements of leadership. The promotionof morale is a command function and is, therefore, the responsibilityof the leader. The leader must lmow that his actions affect themorale of his unit and that the maintenance of a high degree of moraleWill increase the efficiency of his command. Morale. is the stateof mind which makes a man satisfied in his surroundings, confidentof himself and his comrades, and determined to carry out in anefficient manner all of his duties. Properly fostered, morale results in an ideal esprit de corps. It is necessary, therefore, thatthe leader give morale every consideration in arriving at leadershipdecisions. 85. ENVIRONMENT The factor of environment is closely allied with morale inits influence on leadership decisions. By environment is meant thesurroundings which affect the normal living of the troops. Suchthings as the type of liberty and recreational facilities available bothon and off a post, the availability of transportation, and the natureof living and working conditions. in general, are elements of environment that are reflected in the state of discipline and morale. Theleader must give serious consideration to these elements of environment in his leadership decisions . Frequently b,e will have toexercise his initiative to solve the problems that arise in connectionwith environment of his men. Some of the steps that the leader maytake to secure proper environment are as follows : (1) Exerting every effort to insure that living conditions anddining f a cilities a r e desirable (fig 9). (2) Making available adequate recreational opportunities forhis men. (3) Arranging for official transportation for liberty when necessary. (4) Seeing that recreation rooms and club facilities are keptpl easant and well-organized. (5) Assisting his men in further educating themselves by holding classes under capable instructors. 70 (6) Seeing that all forms of recreation, including athletics, are well-organized (fig 10). Fig 9. A Ma rine Corps dining facility. 86. EXAMPLE The following example is an illustration of the interrelationship a. of personality, morale and environment as they affect leadership decisions, and the effect of leadership decisions on these factors. b. During the battle for Naha, on Okmawa, the commanding general of a Marine division had reason to be concerned with the morale in one of his regiments. That regiment had been in the lines for more than two weeks and had participated Jn the most severe fightJng. Casualties had been heavy and the men were physicall:y exhausted. In addition it had ramed continuously for two weeks and the supply lines were strained. All of these conditions contributed to a lowering of morale in that particular regiment. In order to determine the exact situation, the commanding general decided to visit the front lines of his unit and talk to hi s officers and men, and do what he could to raise their spirits. On the edge of a littie village, less than a hundred yards from the Japanese lines, the general came across a small group of men, the remnants of a platoon, sitting around a fire. He immediately recognized the young platoon commander and inquired about the welfare of his men. The platoon commander replied in a cheery voice that everything was fine and that the previous 71 night had not been too tough. He further stated that they were pre paring a hot meal and invited the general to eat with them. The lieutenant cooked a meal of hot dogs and hamburgers from field rations and at the same time entertained the general and his own men with stories and humorous anecdotes. The general spent the better part of an hour with the group. Then, moving through the regimental area; he found the men of another platoon gathered inthe ruins of a shell-torn house. The men were scattered about, looking glum and disconsolate. When the general asked what they had forlunch, one of the men stated that they had not eaten any lunch, eventhough a pile of unopened cans stacke.dnearby indicated that therewere plenty of rations available. The commander of this platoon complained about everything in general-the food was no good, the menwere wet and uncomfortable, everything was wrong, and the platoonshould be relieved. When the general stated that he had just eaten a delicious hot meal with an adjacent platoon, the lieutenant seemed surprised, but said that it was too much trouble to build a fire and,furthermore, that no one in his platoon knew how to cook. In fact,.this platoon commander had nothing to offer but complaints and excuses, and the morale of his men reflected his attitude. These twoincidents, showing the opposite extremes of leadership, indicateclearly that an organization reflects its leadership. Fig 10. Recreational activity. 72 Chapter 3 APPLICATION OF LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES Section I. ORGANIZING A UNIT 87. GENERAL The noncommissioned officer is concerned primarily with the leadership of small groups. He lives and works close to his men, and leads them oy direct contact. He is not only the leader of his men. but also their teacher and their official friend. His relations with his men are usually personal and informal. He is a link between them and their officers. He gives them much of their training "on the job. " He helps them live together, settles their minor disputes, looks after their interests, and encourages them t o work cooperatively. It is to him that they turn first for leadership, guidance. and help. Application of tP~hniques that will help him in bearing this heavy 1t mustresponsibility are 01scussed in the followi ng paragraphs. be borne in mind that there are no stock a nswers to the problems that face the noncommissioned officer. He follows general principles, and judges each situation on its own merits. 88. THE NEED FOR ORGANIZATION a. Whenever two or more people get t0gether to do a single task, the need for organization arises. If the task is to get a kite out of a tree, two men can work together in putting a ladder up against the tree; then one man can hold the ladder while the other climbs after the kite. This is a very simple task involving only two people, but it requires some informal planning and organization. It is necessary to decide first whether the kite is worth getting down or not, and second, how to do it. Then it is necessary for the two men to organize their efforts to carry out their plan. More complicated planning and organization are necessary for thirteen men to capture a house, for two hundred men to capture a hill, or for a thousand men to capture a river line. The Marine Corps, including even the smallest of its units, is highly organized. It must be, in order to accomplish its mission (fig 11). 78 b. Since all units of the Marine Corps are already organized and shown in the Tables of Organization, it may seem at first glance as though there is no organizing left for the noncommissioned officer to do. There is. He must organize his own work and he must organize his tnen to do specific jobs. Or ganizing his wor.k consists of planning. If he has several things to do on a particular day, he decides which to do first, and in what order to do the other things. He decides about how much time it will take to do each of these things, and then sets aside enough time in which to do them. He plans to do all the things which are to be done in the sam e area one right after another, in or der to save himself steps. c. Although his unit is already organized to do a general type of task, the noncommissioned officer must organize it further for each specific task. A rifle squad is organized for the general task of taking part 41 offensive and defensive combat as a part of a larger unit. If the squad is assigned as the point of a unit in an approach march, it s men will be in different positions and the individuals will have different specific missions than if it is attacking a patch of woods with another squad on each flank. Similarly, an auto repair tinit is organized generally to r e pair motor transport, but the speeific organization of a crew to overhaul an engine is different from that to repair a transmission. 89. MISSION, THE BASIS FOR SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATION In organizing for any task, the leader must determine what is to be done, how many men it will take to do it, how each man should be employed in doing it, and which man is best suited for each of the individual tasks. If a squad leader is assigned a reconnaissance patrol mission, he must plan and organize his patrol'h>.efM"e it can move out. He must determine what the mission is, learn all he can about the enemy situation, deter mine the distance the patrol is to cover, find out the kind of terrain it is to move over, and estimate the length of time it will be out. He then decides on what specific tasks must be accomplished by the patrol to accomplish its mission. These tasks may involve observing, sketching, and listening. Possibly the patrol will have to send mes sages back; if so, a radio operator and messengers may be needed. On the basis of the tasks to be ac complished, the squad leader de cides how many men will be required. The framework of his organization is then established; it remains to decide which of the men available to him is best suited for each of the specific tasks to be performed, and then to assign his men accordingly. 74 Fig 11. Men must be organized to perform specific tasks. 90. ASSIGNING MEN TO JOBS a. Every noncommissioned officer is concerned at one time or another with assigning men to jobs . He may make recommendations to his commander for the assignment of men to regular billets, he may assign men to regular billets himself, and he frequently assigns men to perform specific tasks in order to accomplish various missions. It is important to have the right man on the right job in order to accomplish a specific task or a general mission efficiently. To get the right man in the right job, the noncommissioned officer must know the requirements of the job in detail, and must know the capabilities and limitations of the men available. b. .Mter an assignment has been made, the leader must follow up. He must observe how every man performs his job. If a man is not carrying out his assignment, the noncommissioned officer must find out why. He can correct the man if he is failing out of laziness or disobedience, instruct him if he is failing because of lack of full knowledge, or relieve him if he is failing because of inability. In case of a specific task such as a patrol, such action must be quick and sure. The noncommissioned officer must realize that he has made a mistake and must correct it before the accomplishment of his mission and the safety of his men are jeopardized. In the case of a regular billet, such as assignment of a man as an automatic ;:-:iiTeman, 75 it is usually better to observe the man's ability over a period oftime . In t raining or in peacetime activities, he should give the mantime to get accustomed t o hi s new duties and to correct his first mist akes. He should observe for a long enough period to be sure thathis observations are correct. Even though the automatic riflemanmay seem unable to understand how to act as a base of fire, theno nc o m m ission e d officer may be able to give him adequate instruction.On the other hand, it may turn out that the man lacks the mechanicalability necessary to keep his weapon in operation. After observinghis men o v e r a period of time, the noncommissioned officer may findthat a s mall, wiry m an with a stout heart and a high score on ther a n ge is m ore suited to carrying the automatic rifle, and that thehusky woodsm an he had first a ssigned to the automatic rifle is an atural scout. No m atter how long he has been with his unit, theleader can always learn more about each m an's abilities. c. The leader should also consider the personalities and desiresof his men in assigning them to specific tasks and regular billets. Aman who is naturally aggressive is more likelyto become a goodflamethrower operator than one who is somewhat shy, studious, andsilent; and the latter might be better in a mortar squad than theaggressive man. It is not always possible to assign each man to the duty he wants, but an effort should be made to do so. A man will do·a job he likes more satisfactorily and with less supervision than hewill a job he dislikes or is .indiffer~nt to. A man who wants to be amachinegunner may be a reluctant' supply clerk; a man who wants tobe a truck driver may be alazy cook. d . The welfare of the unit must always be considered before thepreference of the individual. No matter how eager he is to be asniper, an excellent cook who · s overweight and who failed to qualifyon the range should probably be ~ept in the galley. Even so, he willbe a much better cook if he knows his leaders are interested in himand his wishes. The first sergeant would do well to point out to himhow important good food is t o the company, and remind him that heis one of the best cooks in the battalion. If he feels the importance ofhis own job, he may still want to be a sniper, but he will do his dutyin the galley. 76 91. REPLACEMENTS FOR KEY MEN In a military unit, there must be a replacement for every key man. The minute an automatic rifleman becomes a casualty in combat, another properly trained man should be available to take over his duties. It is the responsibility of the leader to be sure that he has a replacement within his own unit for each of his key men. He may lose a man at any time, by injury, illness, transfer, or promotion. To enable his Wlit to continue operating efficiently, he must have a trained replacement available to take over. It is particularly important that the leader have a man well trained to take over his own work; preferably, more than one man should be trained to take over the leader's billet. Each noncommissioned officer must also consider himself as a replaceme·nt for the next higher leader. The fire team leader must train himself to handle a squad, the platoon guide must train himself in the platoon sergeant's duties, and so on. 92. ORGANIZATION OF WORK The noncommiss-ioned officer must nrganize the work within his unit so that- a. Every man knows what to do. b. Every man has enough to do. c . Every man knows where he is going. d. Every man knows where the leader is. 93. TRAINING One of the main responsibilities of the noncommissioned officer is training (fig 12). Almost all noncommissioned officers spend a large part of their time in giving some sort of instruction--either "on the ,iob" training or more formal training in the clas:s.room or in the field. In "line" units, noncommissioned officers spend more of their time in training their men than in any other single activity. No matter how well organized a unit is, it cannot accomplish its mission unless its men are trained individually and as a group. Good training is a part of leadership, and good leadership is a part of training. The To be noncommissioned officer should be familiar with instruction. a good instructor, he must know his subject well and must have 77 mastered the technique of instr uction. If he has subordinate leaders in his unit, he will no doubt ass ign them specific duties in instructing the men. The training of his men is his own r esponsibility, nevertheless; he must ensure that his assistants are chosen carefully, that they know their subjects, that they have the ability to instruct, and that they are putting their a bility to effective use. 94. COMMANDS a. Automatic reaction. A command must be obeyed without question. The noncommissioned officer must so train his men that when they receive a command they obey it automatically and immediately. There should be no question in their minds as to whether or not a command is correct or whether or not it should be carried out. Commands are given in s ituations where specific and immediate action is necessary. Typical c ommands are "Forward, marcht" :'Commence firing~ 1 1 and "Get off the skyline~ ' ' F ig 12. "One of the noncommissioned officer's most iopurtant task is training'' 78 b. Requi rements of a good command. T he leader must give his commands correctly. Otherwise, even men who are properly trained to react automatically to commands either will not or cannot react properly. (1) A command must be definite . There must be no question in the mind of the man receiving it, as to what is meant. For instance, "Get off from there! " does not definitely indicate who should get off from where. "Get off the skyline!" indicates that anyone who is on the skyline must get off it. (2} A command must be positive. It must be given in a tone of voice which leaves no doubt that it must be executed, and at once. The voice should be loud enough to be heard clearly, and should be authoritative. If a noncommissioned officer says in a conversational tone, "Hey, you'd better get off the skyline, " he may not be heard; and if he is heard, the man on the skyline may consider it to be merely a suggestion, not a command to be obeyed instantly. (3) The leader must look at the man or men to whom he is giving a command, so that there is no doubt as to whom he means. He should also address men or units by name when possible, as "Jones, get off the skyline!" or "You four men get off the skyline!" or "First squad, halt!" If a noncommissioned officer speaks quietly to several men in the vicinity, not looking ·at any one of them, and says, "One of you men take this message to Lieutenant Jones. 11 there may be some delay while each man waits for one of the others to take the message. The noncommissioned officer should look at the man he intends to have carry the message and say, "Smith, carry this message to Lieutenant Jones! 11 79 {4) A command must be concise. Unless it' is brief and to the point, there is a chance of the man forgetting it. If a noncommissioned officer is accompanied by several other men when he discovers a fire in the paint locker, he can give a concise command to each of the men he needs. If he commands, "Smith, call th e fire department at 7070 and report that there is a small fire in the paint locker and that it may get out of control, anc on your way back bring the fire extinguisher from the end of the passageway, and ask somebody in the company office where the nearest fire hose is, 11 Smith may forget to do one of these things. Furthermore it will take Smith longer to do these things than it would take two or three men to do them. It would be better to say, "Smith, report a fire in the paint locker to the fire department! Jones, get the fire extinguisher from the end of the passageway! Brown, find the nearest fire hose! Johnson, help me clear this doorway!" 95. ORDERS a. Distinction between commands and orders. There is a clear-cut distinction between a command and an order. A command must be obeyed immediately and automatically; it allows no discretion or deviation. An order directs that a job be done, but leaves the method of doing it largely up to the man. It is expected that when a man receives an order, he will analyze it and then decide what must be done and how to do it. "Prepare for inspection!" is a command. When it is given, th e unit affected opens ranks, dresses right, and stands at attention. "Be prepared for inspection at 0800 tomorrow, " is an order. When it is received, the unit leader analyze s it, decides what to do, plans his action, issues his own order, and supervises the execution of his order. 80 b. Compliance not automatic. An order allows more leeway and time than a command. Within limits, it can be interpreted and questioned. A squad leader may order his men to be prepared for a rifle inspection at 073 0 the following day, and one .of his fire team leaders may then remind him that there is a platoon field problem scheduled for 0800 . Having been reminded of this fact, the squad leader may decide to hold the rifle inspection at another time in order to use the period 0730-0800 to prepare for the field problem, or he may deCide that there is adequate time for his rifle inspection. He then reaffirms or alters his order. c. Personal traits of men. To some extent. the leader should expect the personal traits of his men to affect their execution of his orders. For example. if he gives an order to a man who is extremely slow and methodical, he should expect the assigned task to be carried out slowly and methodically. Regardless of the method of execution, however. the leader must demand that the.final result comply with his order; he should not accept sloppy or incomplete work. He may often set a time limit on the execution of an order; in this case he must expect even a very slow and methodical man to finish his assigned task an time. d. Explanation. Orders are frequently more complicated than commands, and require more activity in response. Therefore, the leader must often explain the result he wants. If he orders a man to prepare his rifle for inspection prior to turning it in to the supply officer, he may explain that the bore should be dry, the stock welloiled, and the sling taken off the rifle. If the man concerned is familiar with his weapon, probably no further special instructions are necessary. e. "What," not "how". Unless men have demonstrated their inability, the leader should assume that they are capable of doing anything they have been trained to do. To order a trained ordnance man to repair a sight mechanism and then t o explain each step in the repair is to insult his intelligence and to destroy his initiative. If additional instruction or criticism is necessary, the leader should note this and attend to it while supervising the execution of his order. On the other hand a man who has little ability or imagination usually should be told exactly how to excecute an order. f. Give orders to the man in charge. When he gives an order to a subordinate unit, the noncommissioned officer should follow the &1 chain of command; that is, he should give his order to the leader, not to the whole group. If the subordinate group is a squad, then the squad leader has an opportunity to decide upon the best way to ex ~cute the order and to pass on his own order to his men. To bypass the leader of the subordinate gro}lp would be to weaken that leader's position, authority, and initiative. Further, such action can give rise to confu$ion as a result of various men interpreting a single prder differently and voicing their opinions. A subordinate group in this sense may consfSt of a private or private first class in charge of one or two other men. g. Reasons. When possible, the leader should explain the reasons behinq the orders he gives. I The more knowledge hi s men have, the better they cap. perform their duties. Orders can usually be executed more efficiently by men who know their purpose, and men are more enthusiastic about doing a job when they know its purpose. There are times when for security reasons the leader cannot tell his men the purpose of an order. Therefore, they should be trained to obey orders promptly and scrupulously whether they know the reasons or not. However. when for some reason the purpose of orders cannot be given, it is often well to explain this fact to the men. h. Supervision. The leader must supervise the execution of his orders to ensure that they are carried out as he intended them to be. In doing so, he should encourage and coach his men, r a ther than drive or nag them. A man who is doing his part of the task well should be complimented; one who is doing poorly should be helped by constructive criticism, or. by demonstration. i. Should not be overbearing. The noncommissioned officer should remember that his men are serving the Marine Corps and their country, not him personally. He should not be overbearing in his attitude. He has his authority to enable him to discharge his re sponsibilities. The abuse of this authority will destroy the proper relationship between himself, and his men. His attitude in giving an order should be "Let's go"--not "Get going. '' His men should feel that they are working with him, that he is directing the work, but that he is vvorking with them to accomplish their task. He should never give his men an order that he would not be willing to carry out himself, particularly when it involves personal danger. j . "We will"--not "you will". Although he gives his men the feeling that they are accomplishing the task together, the leader 82 must. a.lways be in a position to maintain control, to supervise. He should not sit comfortably by while his men pass heavy boxes of supplies from a truck to a storeroom, but neither should he take position in a line, passing the boxes. If he did so, he could not control the truck which delivered the equipment, the speed with which the boxes were passed, or the stowage of th em in the storeroom. As long as it does not interfere with his task of supervision, he will do well to lend a hand here and there. If he pitches in with the obvious intention of doing most of the work himself, his men will soon be standing by, watching him. Similarly, in a fire fight the leader should be in a position from which he can control the fire of his men, observe the enemy, and maneuver his unit. Therefore, he should not engage in the fire fight himself, except in extreme emergency. At the same time he must not remain in a deep foxhole to the rear, merely for his own safety. k. Avoid leaning on superior's authorit y . The noncommissioned officer should not use the name of a senior to lend weight to his orders. The platoon commander may have ordered that neckties be worn, but the squad leader needs only to give his own order to his men. To say, "The lieutenant says you must wear neckties, " is to indicate that he lacks confidence in himself and his authority. He has to give many orders on his own initiative; his subordinates should not be allowed to develop the habit of expecting him to back up his orders with the name of higher authority. Section II. GAINING COOPERATION 96. COOPERATION BY EXAMPLE If the men in a unit are to be cooperative with each other, with other units, and with their leaders, their leaders must set them a good example. If the leader of the first squad fails to cooperate with the first sergeant or with the supply sergeant or with the leader of the second squad, the men of the first squad may think it is "smart" to be equally uncooperative. An uncooperative spirit is often the result of laziness. The leader of the first squad may be too lazy to get reports in on time or to get his squad out on time to help the second squad in a work detail. The fire team leaders in the first squad, having seen their leader's attitude, may s oon become less anxicus to get reports in to him on time and to help each other. The men of the squad will then be quick to catch this spirit. If the leader of the first squad cooperates in every way possible with his 83 superiors, with other units, and wHh his subordinates, he has gone a long way toward developing cooperation among his men. 97. COOPERATION BASED ON KNOWLEDGE AND CONFIDENCE IN THE LEADER a. Knowledge is important in developing cooperation. Men will usually cooperate if they know it is in their own best interest to do so. If each man realized that he can best help himself by helping the other men in his unit and that re can best help his own unit by cooperating with other units, he wi.ll do his part. b. To get their willing coopera-tion, the noncommissioned officer must be fair to his men and his subordinate units. If each man is confident that his leader will treat him fairly, he will not hesitate to do what appears to be more thar. his share. He will know that someone else will be called upon for the next extra detail. If one squad is understrength, the platoon sergeant should see to it that that squad gets only its proportionate share of work details and guard duty. At the same time, he should be sure that the men in the other squads understand that although their share in these details is larger, it is proportionate. c. In combat, the first squad of a platoon might be assigned only 50 yards to defend, while the secor'.d squad is assigned over 100 yards. Terrain and the enemy situation frequently make such uneven frontag =s necessary . If the members of the first squad do not understand the tactical reasons for these frontages, they may complain among themselves that they are being treated :mfairly because they have to defend th e most difficult terrain, while the men of the second squad are complaining that they have the largest frontage to defend. Such complaints, based on a lack of knowledge on the part of the men or a lack of confidence that they will be treated fairly, can give rise to an uncooperative attitude which may be disastrous. If the first squad position were penetrated, ar.,d the men of the second squad were so resentful that they were slow in coming to the assistance of the first squad, defensive action would not be properly coordinated, and the whole platoon might be wiped out. 88. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER'S RESPONSIBILITY FOR COOPERATION Developing and maintaining a cooperative attitude is a particular responsibility of noncommi3sim~ed officers. In the situation outlined above,, the platoon sergeant, platoon guide, and squad lead ers should have pointed out the reasons for the frontages assigned to 84 their men. The platoon commander is expected to be sensitive to the feelings and attitudes of his men and to keep his men properly informed, but he needs the assistance of his noncommissioned officers in this function. They live and work closely with their men and normally are the first to notice feelings of dissatisfaction or unrest. It is their responsibility to correct the faults before they become real problems, or if necessary to explain the matter to their commander. In combat, the platoon commander has many duties which may not allow him time to explain such things as the reasons for frontage assignments to his men. He must leave h is platoon to receive his company commander's order. Then he must make a reconnaissance and plan and issue his own order. He must meet tl1e commanders of adjacent platoons at the boundaries to coordinate plans for defensive action. He may take one or more of his noncommissioned officers along to assist in these duties, but those who remain with the platoon bear a heavy responsibility in supervising the execution of the defense order and of orienting the men properly. 99. THE LIMITATlONS OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS a. Rewards will sometimes motivate men to cooperate with each other and with their leaders. Such things as extra liberty, choice details, opportunities for promotion, or just a prize of a case of I beer for the best unit will inspire men to do better in their routine tasks. There is nothing wrong with giving such a reward to a man or a unit for outstanding accomplishments, so long as the practice is not abused. It could be carried so far that men would expect special rewards for merely doing their duty. Judicious use of rewards can promote friendly competition as well as remind men oftheir leader's interest in them. It must be remembered, however, that such rewards can only supplement true leadership. Generally speaking, extra liberty or a case of beer is not enough in itself to make a man charge across a clearing to attack a pillbox, with only a 50/50 chance of survival. Only a strong sense of duty, loyalty, and faith in his leaders will make a man do that. b. Punishment or the threat of punishment is not much of an inspiration for cooperation. It antagonizes the average man. If the discipline and training in his unit are based upon it, he will probably seek devious ways of avoiding his responsibilities rather than cooperate enthusiastically. Some people may think the way to get enthusiastic cooperation is to say something like this: "If any man fails to qualify on the range today, !Ill see that he gets six months' 85 mess duty and nobody in his squad gets liberty for a month." Who would volunteer to get into an outfit where that system is used? A lot of men might be eager to be in a unit where the high man on the range was given an extr a "72. 11 That is the sort of unit where co operation is more enthusiastic. Cooperation is usually the result of men wanting to do a job w ell, to please their leaders, and to gain the respect of their fellows . Fear of punishment does not carry much weight in combat. When a man's biggest worry is dodging bullets, he isn't worried about deprivation of liberty (of which there isn t any anyway), or a fine, when all his pay is on the books. A higher type of leadership, which must start long before the combat action, is necessary. c . It is true that there are some men who seem to react to nothing except fear of punishment. They are unusual individuals who lack something in their make-up . It is such a man that the noncommis sioned officer m ay find himself putting on report. A man who can be h andled only in this wa y is not of much use to his unit, and his noncommissioned officers should make every effort to develop in him a spirit of cooperation. 100. COOPERATION BASED ON UNIT PRIDE AND LOYALTY Men may cooperate because oftheir pride in their unit and because they do not want to "let down" the other men in their squad. The noncommissioned officer can stimulate such pride and loyalty by showing his own pride in his unit and his enthusiasm for the service. The leader should continually strive to have his unit do every task a little better than the next unit. Men are always proud to be in the best unit in the regiment, and they will work hard to uphold their unit's reputation . 101. COOPERATION BASED ON RECOGNITION OF THE INDIVIDUAL MARINE a. The noncom m is sioned officer should encourage his men to use their initiative. He should g ive a man a job to do, and then let him do it. After the job is done, the leader should check on it. At that time, he can praise the man if he has done well, or offer constructive criticism. To have his head over the man' s shoulder all the time he is trying to carry out orders, or to do his work for him is to destroy his initiative and dampen his spirit of cooperation. The leader must develop and guide his men's initiative, and help them to strike 86 a balance between their initiative and imagination on the one hand and common sense and reg11lations on the other. b. It is easy for a noncommissioned officer who thinks he is "too busy" to discourage initiative in a young Marine by turning his ideas down flat, without consideration. We do not have the final answers on everything yet in the military service and some of the best suggestions have come from relatively inexperienced men. For example, it was a civilian in Bayonne, France, in the Seventeenth Centyry, who thought of the bayonet, a device which enabled a musketeer to function also as a pikeman, and which is still a part of the infantryman's standard equipment. During World War II, enlisted men with little military background contributed many valuable ideas, ranging from that of mounting steel teeth on the noses of American tanks to enable them to cope with the !'form9-ndy hedgerows to that of compressing rolls oftoilet paper in order to conserve valuable shipping space. Consequently, if a private comes to his squad leader or platoon serg~ant with a suggestion, it should be seriously considered. If it is good, it should be tried; if it is bad, its faults should be explained and the man still be given due credit for having an idea. His next idea may be a good one. Section III. DISCIPLINING 102. MILITARY DISCIPLINE DEFINED Discipline is one of the most misunderstood words in our language. To many people it is something t o be afraid of, and is the same as punishment. Actually, discipline i s merely a matter of people working well together and getting along well together. To work well together in a military organization, it is often necessary for men to do certain things in certain ways and at certain times. If they do so, we say they are well disciplined and if they do not, we say they are poorly disciplined. A military definition of discipline is "a prompt and willing responsiveness to commands, and compliance with regulations." This implies obedience not only to the letter of the law, but also to the spirit of the law. It is discipline that causes people to obey traffic signals, pay their bills, go in through entrances and go out through exits, return from liberty on time, and knock before entering. Restriction, extra duties, courtsmartial, and brig time are not discipline in themselves, but are the results of dtscipline breaking down. No:qcommissioneq officers lllUSt be sure that their men ll!lderstand this term correctly and that they 87 themselves understand it. New men, particularly if they do not understand the term, may feel that military discipline is some vague threat being held over their heads. This caused considerable appre hension among the men who were drafted during World War II, with the result that many felt they were being imposed upon merely by being in the service. If the leader misunderstands the term, he may feel that to have a well-disciplined unit he must be harsh and unreasonable. Such is not the case. 103. THE NECESSITY FOR SELF-DISCIPLINE The best kind of discipline is self-discipline . Self-discipline amounts to the man having control of himself and doing what is right because he wants to. To be really well-disciplined, a unit must be made up of men who are self-disciplined. The discipline of the unit can help its members develop self-discipline by developing habits of obedience and by preventing them from violating regulations. When "the chips are down" the leader must be able to depend upon his men to do their duty correctly and voluntarily, whether anyone is checking on them or not. 104. WHY INSTRUCTION IN DISCIPLINE IS NECESSARY Men should be instructed in discipline, so that they understand its purpose and nature . They should be taught how to obey orders and regulations, and given practice in such obedience. In conducting training, the noncommissioned officer should get across the idea that a man must comply with the spirit of the regulations, that he must react to commands immediately and without question, and that orders must be executed as given. Men must first know what is expected of them and then develop the habit of doing it. The leader must know what he wants of his men, let them know it, and demand it of them. The men's discipline must be based upon knowledge, reason, sense of duty, and loyalty. 105. REPRIMAND AND PUNISHMENT Reprimand and punishment play their part in enforcing discipline, but the noncommissioned officer should resort to such action only after trying every other method. Noncommissioned officers' justified recommendations to their commanders usually bring results; 88 and many a man would rather hike 20 miles with a pack than be reprimanded by his platoon sergeant. The leader must accomplish his mission in spite of all obstacles. If an obstacle consists of a man's disobedience or slowness to obey. the leader must not hesitate to take corrective action. 106. ' THE NECESSITY FOR FIRMNESS AND CONSISTENCY a. A noncommissioned officer is unjust to his-other men if he pampers one man by allowing him to brea k regulations and disobey orders . He is also unjust to the man involved. because he gives him the impression that he can get away with doing as he pleases. If a certain type of man gets away with being out of uniform once. he will try it again. Later he will begin arriving late for formations. and still later he will begin to miss formations. If he continues to disobey he will eventually exhaust his leader's patience and possibly end up with a General Court Martial for unauthorized absence. The leader who let him get away with the "little things" is almost as much at fault as the man. Had the man been straightened out the first time he stepped out of line. he might have developed into a fine Marine. b. To know what is expected of them. men must know their orders. the policies of the command in which they are serving, and the regulations which govern all Marines. They must know the system of rewards and punishments in their organization. It is the noncommissioned officer's responsibility that his men know these things. and it is his responsibility to be consistent in administering discipline. If he winks at an infraction one day and places a man on report for the same infraction the next day. his men do not know what to expect from him. If he gives orders and enforces some of them but not all of them, his men never know whether he means his orders or not. He should not expect more of his men than they have been trained to do; but once his men understand discipline, he should be prepared to enforce every aspect of it. When a man has committed a serious offense, the noncommissioned officer should place him on report promptly. If an innocent man is accused, his noncommissioned officer should defend him stoutly. 107. WHY THE LEADER SHOULD NOT THREATEN HIS MEN It is a mistake to threaten men; it weakens the leader's position and authority. To say. "If any man turns up with a dirty rifle, he 89 gets no liberty, " or to say, "I want every man to make this formation on time. I mean that," is to indicate that the leader is not sure his orders will be obeyed, or that he means that he wants obedience for this particular order but not necessarily his other orders . The leader's manner and words in giving an order shouli indicate that he has confidence in himself and his men, and that there is no question in his mind that the order will be obeyed. If he has doubts in his own mind, he will invariably plant doubts in the minds of his men. 1 0 8. HONEST 1\1ISTAKES Men often make mistakes. Disobedience of orders and regulations is more often the result of mistakes than of wrongful intent. The leader should remember that he makes an occasional mistake himself, and should make allowances for the honest mistakes of his men. If he believes a man has violated a regulation unintentionally, the leader should inform him of his violation, warn him, and give him another chance. Many an outstanding Marine has made his share of mistakes in his younger days, but was straightened out by an understanding noncommissioned officer who kept him from getting into serious trouble and steered him in the right direction. 109. BENEFIT OF DOUBT The noncommissioneq officer should give a man the benefit of the doubt when he suspects hi m of a violation but is not sure. It is an American principle that a man is innocent until proved guilty. A real offender will not long escape justice because of doubt; the doubt will soon disappear. It is better to let one man "get away" with something when there is a reasonable doubt than to cause an innocent man to be punished unjustly. When a man is unjustly reprimanded or punished, he loses some of his enthusiasm and spirit of cooperation. Furthermore, the other men in the tm:it will resent the injustice as much as the man affected. It weakens the strength of the entire unit. 110. GROUP PUNISHMENT The maxim that "the innocent must suffer with the guilty" is • sometimes true, unfortunately. Circumstances sometimes make it necessary, but such a situation should never be brought about deliberately. Punishment or reprimand of an entire group because of the offense of one or two men is unjust and unwise. It destroys the spirit of willing cooperation among the men and shakes their confidence 90 in their leader. A unit which receives this sort of treatment may obey orders grudgingly, rather than willingly. If an entire squad falls out for inspection in sloppy uniform, the entire squad deserves \ a reprimand. However, if one or two men fall out in sloppy uniform, only the one or two men, and their fire team leader, deserve areprimand. 111. PUBLIC PRAISE AND PRIVATE REPRIMAND a. The leader should praise in public, and reprimand in private. Public praise is a reward to the man deserving of it and serves as an inspiration to the other men in the unit. P ublic reprimand embarrasses the man before his bunkmates, and often embarrasses them too. It may seriously shake the man's confidence in himself. He may become so self-conscious and "all thumbs" that he cannot do as well as before. The purpose of reprimand is to get the man on the right foot, to correct his mistake. This can usually be accomplished better in private. There are times when it is necessary to reprimand a man publicly, but this should be avoided when possible. b. A subordinate leader should never be reprimanded in front of his men. If a squad leader approaches a fire team leader in front of his men and says, " Jones, you have no more idea how to get your men across a clearing than a ring-tailed ape, 11 the men ofthat fire team may believe the squad leader. They may assume that if their fire team leader is that incompetent in one thing, he is incom petent in everything. The fire team leader's authority and dignity are jeopardized, his confidence in himself is shaken, and his men's confidence in him may be destroyed. The fire team leader could be criticized or severely reprimanded in private, and yet go back to his unit with his head up and carry on with his work. Section IV . RELATIONS WITH SUBORDINATES AND SENIORS 112. SUPPORT OF SUBORDINATE LEADERS A noncommissioned officer must always support his subordinates\. A fire team leader will soon lose his initiative and quit trying to enforce discipline if his squad leader consistently fails to "back him up. " Even if the fire team leader is wrong, the squad leader should not by-pass him and tell one of the fire team leader's men to disregard what the corporal has told him. He shou d call the fire team' leader aside, e:xplain privately where he was wrong, and have him 9! correct the situation himself. Support of subordinates is as important to the proper functioning of the chain of command as loyalty to a senior. 113. NECESSITY FOR RESPECT a. For the chain of command and the system of military order and discipline to function properly. it is necessary that all Marines respect their superiors. It is the responsibility of the noncommis sioned officer to so train his men that they are prepared to execute promptly and willingly any lawful order of any commissioned or non com missioned officer--not mer ely the orders of an officer or noncom missioned officer of their own unit. b. The noncommissioned officer fosters this respect by education. ex ample. and enforcing discipline. He instructs his men in the workings of the chain of command, the necessity of obeying all lawful orders, and the reasons why his men owe respect to their superiors. He sets a good example by showing such respect himself; and he requires his men to show proper respect for himself, all other noncom missioned officers, and all officers. 114. RESPECT FOR THE OFFICE HELD All Marines must understand that they owe respect primarily to the office held, and secondarily to the individual holding it. Their personal opinion of the person holding the office should have no effect upon their cooperation and performance of duty. Sergeant Smith may have just completed a course in a division weapons school, and. therefore, may believe that he knows more about company weap ons than Staff Sergeant Jones. Perhaps he does , but if Staff SergeantJones is the platoon sergeant, His Smith' s duty to recognize and respect Jones as his immediate superior. The fact that he happens to know more about one subject does not mean that he should be senior or equal in rank to Jones. He must loyally support his platoon sergeant and carry out his orders. He may volunteer to conduct weapons instruction in the platoon, and Jones will do well to assign him to this duty; but the relation of the two men in the chain of command is unchanged. Every noncommissioned officer must understand this principle and insure that hi s men understand it. 92 115. ORTHODOX vs. UNORTHODOX METHODS OF LEADERSHIP a. One of the best ways for a noncommissioned officer to create in his men respect for their leaders is to create respect for himself. Men tend to think of their fire team leader as representative of all corporals in the Marine Corps; they think of their squad leaders and platoon sergeants as respresentative of all squad leaders and platoon sergeants. The noncommissioned officer should foster respect for his office by using the accepted tools and techniques of leadership as described in this and other texts on the subject. He should act in such a manner that they w~. ll admire him personally; he should demonstrate all the qualities 0f a good Marine. He should be modest in his manner, neat in appearance, courteous, considerate of his men, and competent in his duties. He should take a s incere interest in his men, standing up for them loyally, helping them to gain promotions, giving praise when and where it is due, and backing up his subordinate leaders. b. The noncommissioned officer should remember that he will not be the leader of the same group of men forever. He will be promoted, transferred, or may become a casualty. Someone else will have to step in and take over his duties . Therefore, he must avoid making the job of his successor difficult by unorthodox methods of leadership. One man may consider that he has such great personal magnetism that he can lead his men without military discipline, or possibly by haranguing them in an amusing manner. Such methods make it unduly difficult for his successor to assume his duties. His successor should not have to reorient or retrain the men. There is room in the Marine Corps for individual personalities among the leaders and among the men, but the variations must be kept within the limits of doing all things in a military manner, and must contribute to fostering respect for all military leaders. 116. SECURITY a. Aside from its strictly military meaning, the word "security" has a special meaning when used by psychologists, insurance salesmen, bankers, and leaders of other men. We hear such terms as social security, old age security, job security, and security within the group. When a man wants to know where he stands and what his chances are, when he wants to know that he will get the breaks, we say he wants security. To get the best work from them, the noncommissioned officer should give his men a sense of security. The time 93 and energy they might otherw·se spend on worrying about their own welfare and future can then be applied to their work. The service recognizes this when it provides a plan for retirement with pay, and good opportunities for advancement. However, these rather longrange plans are sometimes ha rd for a man to see and appreciate when he is carrying an automatic rifle and a full pack through a swamp. In addition to these "high level" efforts, the noncommissioned officer must take care of his men's immediate need for security. b. This type of security · s actually much the same as purely military security. Our outposts and flank guards provide us with protection, and also with the knowledge that we are safe from surprise action by the enemy. Each Marine should feel this kind of security in his daily routine. He should know that as long as he is doing his best he will not be harmed accidentally. He should know that he will get credit for a job that he does well, and that he will not be blamed for someone else's mistakes. c. Most people feel more secure in a familiar, lighted room than they do in a strange, dark room. This is because they can see what they are doing and what is about them. A man is the same way in his daily work. If his leaders let him know what is going on, what is in store for him, what he is doing, and why he is doing it, he will feel more secure. The narrowness of the regulations that a man lives by in military life does not bother him so much--it is poorly defined rules and regulations that make him feel insecure. He feels uneasy if he does not know what is expected of him. d. Retirement plans and the like may comfort a man as far as the distant future is conc erned, but he is still wondering about tomorrow. Even though he feels perfectly secure at the momentcomfortably situated in a deep foxhole with no enemy action and with good outposts--he may be quite jittery unless he knows whether or not he is likely to go out on a patrol the next morning, or perhaps in the middle of the night, and unless he knows whether or not an enemy attack is likely. The uncertainty get s him down. No matter how unpleasant the news of what may happen tomorrow may be, it is better than uncertainty. Uncertainty is the father of rumor, and rumor can ruin morale faster than almost anything else. e. By maintaining a high state of training in his unit, the leader can give his men a feeling of security through confidence in themselves. Their confidence in him will add to this feeling of security. f. Most men feel more secure if they know someone else, 94 particularly their leader, is interested in them. They feel that if he is interested enough to be curious about their background and families, their home towns and hobbies, he wi ll look after their welfare and help them with their troubles. g. By treating his men fairly, keeping them informed, and taking a sincere interest in thelll, the leader can build u p confidence and feelings of security among them. They will be ready to follow wherever he leads them. 117. RECOGNITION a. In several places in this text it has been pointed out that the leader should give his men credit for their achievements and should praise them when they deserve it. To do so is to give them recognition, recognition as individuals ;:md recognition of their abilities. A man's own name is usuqlly the sweetest sound in the English language to him. He likes to hear it because it indicates that someone considers him important enough to know his name. He wants to be 11 a man who matters. 11 b. The noncommissioned officer can give his men this recognition by praising without flattery, by taking real interest in their ideas and problems, by encouraging them to work fo r advancement, by looking after their welfare, and by knowing their names, background, and interests. The feelings of security and importance which the men get as a result will make them eager t o cooperate and to do their work well. 118. PERSONAL RELATIONS WITH SUBORDINATES a. In addition to his official relations with his men, the noncommissioned officer has personal relations with them, almost 24 hours a day. He may be a personal, as well as an official, friend to them. However, as their leader he m-ust maintain his prestige. He does not remain aloof from them, but neither does he get involved in gambling with them or get in debt to t hem. If he is to maintain his position as their leader and to enforce discipline, he cannot join with them in growling about regulations or a superior. If a group of men are complaining about a mannerism or decision of the first sergeant or of an officer, their squad leader should either avoid the conversation entirely, or point out the true .sit uation if the men are mis or ex taken, or discuss the good points of the individual concerned, plain that such talk is unbecoming to military men. 95 b. It is not military for privates to call their first sergeant or other senior noncommissioned officers by their first names. For a senior noncommissioned officer to encourage his men to do so is toembarrass them, if they are properly indoctrinated. All noncommissioned officers should treat other leaders, particularly the moresenior ones, with respect in their conversations in front of their men. c. To increase the spirit of teamwork and cooperation in his unit, the noncommissioned officer should encourage his men to know each other better, to do things together, and to go on liberty together. Heshould join with them on group parties, picnics, and excursions. However, generally speaking, he should make his own liberties with othernoncommissioned officers, not with his men. d. The noncommissioned officer should always be available andaccessible to his men. He should never be too busy to listen to themand to help them with their problems. He should be friendly and helpful, and should recognize each man as an individual. 119. RELATIONS WITH SENIORS a. His relations with seniors are as important in the noncom missioned officer's leadership as his relations with his men and his performance of routine duties. To be a good leader, he must first be a good follower. He must show the same cooperation and respecttoward his seniors as he ex pects his men to show toward him. Be fore a man can be trusted with the authority to lead others, his com mander must be able to assume without question that as a subordinateleader he will carry out instructions and policies as given. b. To he effective as a subordinate leader, the noncommissionedofficer must have the complete confidence of his seniors. This con fidence must begin as soon as he reports for duty; therefore, the first impression he makes is important. He should report for duty on time and fully prepared to accept whatever responsibilities he may begiven. He should report in the best possible physical condition, in proper uniform, neat, and clean. He should show a courteous, re spectful attitude, and a sincere interest in his new duties. A manwho reports in with the remark that he doesn't like the station, or isdisgusted because he was not given certain duty he had requested doesnot win the confidence of his commander or of the senior noncommissioned officers. If he really desires other duty, he can requesttransfer through proper channels at a later date; but many a man has 96 had his most pleasant tour of duty with a unit he did not originally want to join. On reporting, the noncommissioned officer's attitude should be one of coopera-tive eagerness to begin his duties. It creates a poor impression to report in and immediately request leave or special favors. c. The noncommissioned officer should study his seniors. Each officer and senior noncommissioned officer with whom he comes in contact will have certain mannerisms of his own, and certain ways in which he wants things done. It is as important to know the "ground rules11 in working for a particular senior as it is to know the ground rules of a particular post at guard mount. His superior may be a stickler for using naval terms. such as " deck. 11 "bulkhead," and "ladder." On the other hand, he may insist on calling these items the "floors, 11 "walls," and "stairs.'' If the senior desires this or that terminology to be used in his unit, it is the noncommissioned officer's duty to carry out his wishes. The junior i s not likely to change his senior's habit; it is not his business to do so. It is his business to adjust himself to each of his seniors. A private perhaps can be forgiven for becoming confused at the different mannerisms of different commanders and senior noncommissioned officers, but a He must noncommissioned officer is a man of mature judgment. adjust himself to the personalities of his seniors more quickly and easily th~n he would expect his men to. d . It is dangerous to judge one's seniors. Very seldom is a junior in a position to know all the relevant facts . In addition to the fact that he is likely to be wrong in his judgmen-t, the junior is likely to talk about it once he has made a judgment . If he does so, he is gossiping about his seniors, thus attacking their authority and prestige and weakening his own. The possibility of misjudging the action of a superior can be illustrated by an event which took place on Saipan during World War II. Elements of the 2nd Marine Division had reached the south edge of the town of Garapan. Although the enemy appeared to be withdrawing rapidly the attacking units were ordered to stop. They stayed outside the town for several days, only making patrols into the town. There was some complaint among the men because of the delay which they considered unwise; they thought they were allowing the enemy to withdraw to a better position and to fortify it. Men of the units involved were surprised to learn much later that a trap had been prepared for them. The Japanese had withdrawn from the town and had all the artillery pieces available in the mountains registered on the town, wa iting to loose a heavy 97 barrage as soon as the attacking units were well within the town. Intelligence units had discovered this fact and it was decided to hold up the advance until the artillery pieces were captured. For security and other reasons, it was impossible to pass this information to the men. For subordinate leaders to criticize the actions of their seniors in such a situation, is to weaken the men's confidence in their leaders and to damage their morale. e . Every noncommissioned officer will serve under superiorswho may not follow the ''techniques of leadership" exactly as setforth in this or other texts; or it may seem so to the noncommissionedofficer concerned. Nevertheless, the noncommissioned officer cannotchange his senior; he must adjust to him. He may learn much by studying his senior's strong and weak points. In studying them, he will nodoubt find that the strong points far outweigh the weak points . It is hisduty to see things from his senior's point of view. One time the seniornoncommissioned officers and officers of a rifle company held a conference to discuss the qualifications of two or three corporals, and todecide which one to recommend for promotion to sergeant. In discussing one corporal, his platoon sergeant said, "Oh, he's all r i ght, he'llput out' if you treat him right." The first sergeant's immediate replywas, "You shouldn't have to treat an NCO right." f. In reporting to a new unit or a new commander, the noncommissioned officer should keep n .the objective. Signal for the assault -----will be a red star cluster.Alternate signal--two short whistle blasts. I will be just behind the 2d fire team. 134 Any questions? It is now 0840. MOVE OUT. e. Note in the example that the squad leader assigned each fire team a specific mission in paragraph 3, including the attached. rocket squad. He followed the proper sequence in issuing his order and though he used informal phrasing and manner of speaking, he left no doubt as to the mission of each subordinate unit. Squad operation orders are not meant to be highly literary in nature, but simple, brief statements of important -details organized to be effectiv e in transferring the squad leader's ideas and commands to his fire team leaders. Not all squad orders will be as complete and detailed as the example gi~n. but each order, complete or fragmentary, should be specific in assigning missions to subordinates and should follow the prescribed sequence. 154. STEP NO. 6: SUPERVISE Once an order is issued the squad leader cannot assume that his job is finished. One of the most important troop-leading steps is the supervision of the execution of the order. As the sit uation develops, additional fragmentary orders may become necessary to complete the mission successfully. Proper supervision can remove doubt or misunderstandings which may arise as the fire team leaders commence their action. Assuming t h e attack for mation and preparing to at'.ack at the oroper time requires supervision by the squad leader. Only through aggressive supervision by the squad leader can the order be eUecuvely implemented and the mission concluded successtully. 155. SUMMARY The SIX TROOP LEADING STEPS can form the basis of action for any troop leader performing a tactical mission. They serve as a guide to proper procedure to follow to effectively utilize the time available i11 oreoaring for the accomplishment of a mission and in considering only the important factors in preparatwn for an action. They are orSlanized in a log1ca1 sequence to assist in the solving of tactical problems m the m ost etnc1ent manner. 135 As a handy reference the steps are consolidated as follows: TROOP LEADING STEPS 1. BEGIN PLANNING a. Plan the use of available time. b. Begin the estimate . (1) Analyze terrai n from map, sketch, or aerial photograph for: (a) Key terrain features. (b) Observation and fields of fire. (c) Cover and concealment. (d) Obstacles. (e) Avenues of approach. (2) Analyze enemy strength, locations, disposition, and capabilities. c. Make preliminary plan. (Announce planning guidance to subordinates.) 2. ARRANGE FOR RECONNAISSANCE AND COORDINATION a. MOVEMENT OF UNIT (Where, when, how) b. RECONNAISSANCE (Select route, schedule , persons to take along, use of subordinates) c. COORDINATION (Adjacent and supporting units.) 3. MAKE RECONNAISSANCE: (Examine the ground. If necessary change preliminary plan. ) 4. COMPLETE PLAN: (Receive recommendations, complete estimate, change preliminary plan as needed, announce concept, prepare order.) 5. ISSUE ORDER: (Include orientation on terrain, if possible.) (fig L5) 6. SUPERVISE 136 137 PART TWO: MILITARY INSTRUCTION Chapter 5 TECHNIQUES OF MILITARY INSTRUCTION Section I. THE LEARNING PROCESS 157. INTRODUCTION a. Duties. One of the basic duties of every leader is to instruct. A noncommissioned officer can expect to spend a great part of his military career instructing. He can become an effective instructor by studying and understanding the fundamentals that govern training, by developing the traits of an effec tive instructor and by practicing the teaching techniques and methods of instruc• tion covered in this text thereby achieving or improving his ability to instruct. b. Effectiveness. In teaching, the major consideration is effectiveness. The results of teaching must be evaluated by the question, "What did I want the men to learn?" c. Efficiency. It is possible for men to learn without an instructor, but this learning is not effective. When training is conducted without close supervision, there is usually a loss in efficiency of the training. We ask ourselves, "What benefits do I receive by becoming a better instructor?" First, it should prove to be of a great personal satisfaction to look at troops that you have instructed and be able to say, "They won't die because of improper instruction." Your unit's efficiency should be enough incentive for you to continue increasing your knowledge. Set the example, it's contc>.gious. 158. TRAITS OF AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTOR The traits of an effective instructor are basically the traits of a leader. This paragraph covers the application of these traits to an instructor's job: 139 a. Knowledge. An instructor must know his subject. He can train others only in what he knows. He should increase his knowledge of a subject beyond any one text. He should discuss the subject with other experienced persons. and base his reading primarily on manuals, circulars. and other official publications. Then he should increase his knowledge by studying professional magazines and current books. In addition to his subject. he must also know instructional methods, the students 1 needs and capabilities. and the learning objective. b. Judgment. Judgment must be used in applying knowledge to military ends-in choosing what to teach and how to teach it. An instructor must estimate the teaching situation and plan a lesson that effectively teaches those skills and techniques required by the unit training mission. c. Tact. A man irritated or ridiculed closes his mind to instruction. Vulgarity or crude jokes may cause resentment. An artificial tone of voice, unpleasant expressions. a series of don'ts. all create annoyance. Talking down to a class defeats learning. But when the instructor is friendly and natural there is little chance of offending the listeners. d. Bearing. An instructor must be military in appearance and conduct. He should be neatly attired in appropriate uniform and his actions and words should be in keeping with his neatness of appearance. Uncontrolled gestures or exaggerated statements detract as much from his effectiveness as unshined shoes and soiled tie. Students respect a neat. confident instructor who has something to say and says it. e. Enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is the outward expression of the instructor's interest in his subject. and of his real concern about the student and his progress. Enthusiasm is contagious. When the instructor shows that he wants to teach the subject and is interested in it, the troops accept that evaluation of the subject's importance. f. Expressiveness. The instructor should review his method of expressing himself and correct the poor habits he might have. He .should improve his ability to express his thoughts effectively by practicing the techniques of public speaking. g. Endurance and initiative. Teaching requires hard work and real determination. It is not a routine mechanical 140 procedure. Different training situations call for different methods. Valuable assets of an instructor are mental capacity, the willingness to work hard, and the ability to use new training ideas . 159. THE LEARNING PROCESS Lea.rning is the aim of all training. When the men have not lea.rned, the instructor has failed in his mission. a. Men must have the desire to learn. In wartime they will be more eager to learn than in peacetime·because the reasons for learning are more apparent. In either case. a job of the instructor is to help the Marine find this desire to learn. b. Men learn through the senses. The 5 senses are sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. To help the Marine better understand the subject, instruction should appe'al to as many of those senses as practical during instruction. c. Men learn by doing. There can be no lear ning without some activity by the Marine. The best activity is for him to practice doing the job that he is expected to learn. Proper supervision of this practice is necessary to ensure sound learning. 160. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES OF STUDENTS Military training develops the individual and teaches him to work on a team. The instructor must learn to recognize the individual differences of the men in his unit and use these differences to the advantage of training. Some of these differences are: a. Physical characteristics. The physical demands of military training vary. Minor differences may place some men at a disadvantage. Often this can be remedied by making allowances for these differences in conducting the training. b. Emotions. Individuals are different in their emotional approach, and their attitudes vary from day to day. Patience and understanding on the part of the instructor will hel p the worried or home-sick recruit to concentrate on his training. Encouragement builds confidence in the timid or retiring individual. Ridicule or·sarcasm makes his emotional problems worse. 141 WE LEARN T~ROUGH APPEAL TO ALL FIVE SENSES 75~ SIGHT Fig 16. How we learn. c. Intelligence. A lVJ.arine's basic intelligence indicates how much he can learn. and the rate at which he can learn it. The instructor needs to determine how rapidly the Marine can best learn a subject. As a rule~ the training that will reach most men. including those of least ability. is that done by application. d. Experience. The Marine's previous experience is important to him in military training. To help him learn new subjects. the instructor should take every opportunity to build what the student already knows. e. Desire to achieve. The desire to reach a definite goal is one ofthe most important factors affecting a man's learning. In any group. this desire will exist in individuals in varying degrees. Lack of determination or desire results in poor learning regardless of a Marine's other characteris-tics. Therefore the instructor should be alert to opportunities to stimulate desire to progress. Show the student why his progress in military training is worth while. Stimulate his interest. Show him that he can learn. A 142 knowledge of the value of training and confidence in his ability to learn makes a man want to learn. 161. ADAPTATION OF INSTRUCTION TO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES The following rules will assist in adapting instruction to individual differences of the men: a. When the training situation permits, let each man progress at his own speed. b. Encourage each man to work up to his capacity. c. Provide as much individual instruction as the time and the size of the group allows. d. Have the better learners coach the slower ones. e. Give the outstanding Marines the opportunity to develop to the extent of their individual capacities. When it does not interfere with team training or does not reflect unfavorably on any one group, organize students according to their abilities. Advise the ambitious Marine how to plan individual study and assist him in getting study materials. When a personal interest is shown in his progress, he will work even harder. Section II. PREPARATION BY THE INSTRUCTOR 162. INTRODUCTION We have already discussed the principles of learning. We now start the actual teaching process. We shall look at the instructor and how he can present his material. There are five stages of military instuction. They are: 1. Preparation 2. Presentation 3. Application 4. Examination 143 5. Discussion 163. STARTING POINT Upon being directed to conduct a course of instruction, check the unit training schedule for detailed information. The training schedule gives an overall picture of what is to be done, who is to do it, and when and where it is to be done. It serves as a starting point for preparing the lesson. 164. PLAN OF ACTION To utilize the time available for lesson preparation to best advantage, make an estimate of the teaching situation by determining what to do and how to do it. Then- a. Keep the objective firmly in mind (para 165). b. Collect the necessary material (para 166 and 167). c. Write the lesson plan (para 168). d. Rehearse and revise the lesson plan (para 173). e. Check the final arrangements (para 174). 165. OBJECTIVE The instructor must know the learning objective. He must know from the start what he is to do and why he is to do it. He must consider the objective in terms of what each Marine is ex pected to learn from his instruction. Everything he says or does in the presence of his class is determined by the learning objective for that period of instruction. a. Make the objective specific, as definite and clear cut as the bull's eye on a target. An objective stated in broad terms like "the 7. 62-mm machinegun M60, " is too general. A complete field manual covers that subject. To introduce the Marine to the 7. 62 -mm machinegun M60, and to teach him how to assemble and disassemble the weapon into its six major groups, however, is a learning 144 objective that clearly defines what is to be done. The instructor then knows that he is to introduce the machinegun to th e Marine and teach him how to remove and replace the six major groups. The objective is specific. b. A good learning objective is practical and reasonable. It insures that the task is no larger than can be accomplished with the time, personnel, equipment, and facilities available. 166. INFORMATION AND MATERIAL After determining what to do, the instructor finds out what material he has available to assist him. A systematic method is to gather information and material from the training schedule, personnel records, training publications, listings of training aids and facilities, and other general sources. a. Check the training schedule to get the following information: (1) Time for preparation. (2) Length of the lesson. (3) Who is to be instructed. (4) Where the instruction is to be conducted. (5) Uniform and equipment. (6) Specific material to be covered as shown by the references. b. Normally, the instructor knows the background of the troops he is to instruct. If not, he can review the unit personnel records to determine previous military training experience, schooling, length of service, present assignment, and other data concerning the students. The needs of recruits are different from the needs of noncommissioned officers. For example, it is a waste of time to introduce recruits to advanced tactics when they have not had previous tactical instruction. On the other hand, that approach may be suited to teaching noncommissioned officers. The more the instructor knows about his class the better he can slant his 145 instruction to fit its needs. c. The unit file of field manuals, technical manuals, training circulars, bulletins, subject schedules and preBflred lesson plans is the main source for subject material. Checl$ the references listed in the training f?Chedule to determine what material to cover. Be $Ure the training references used are up-to-date. In addition, use other reference sources such as service magazines, books, training films, film strips, personal experiences, and associates' experiences. d. Decide what available training aids and facilities are need~d. and make arrangements for having them in time for the instruction period. 167. STUDY Having gathered the necessary information and material, study and ~nalyze if. a. Study the material to develop a good understanding of the subject. Then, analyze it to select the most impo~tant points around which the lef:!son can be built. Always keep in mind the learning o?~ective, the available time, and the materials. b. Make every effort to select only the essential material and to eliminate the nonessential details from the lesson. The tendency to try to cover too much material in too little time results in poor ipstruction. Concentrate on the objective. Remember that a Marine's learning capacity is much more limited than the instructor's talking cai_>acity. c. To a~sist in saving time and getting the most out of the lesson preparation, the following suggestions are listed for improving ·study m~tQ.ods: · (1). Understand what is to be done. (2) Develop a time-and-place habit for study. (3) Insure that conditions are right for work:4lg. adequate light, air, and heat. Check for 146 (4) Have all necessary materials, texts, and references at hand. (5) Begin work promptly. (6) Mentally review the preceding lesson, look over the current learning objective, and jot down any ideas that occur. (7) Get a quick overall view of the subject matter by quickly checking the subject headings in the references. Then read through and center attention on the important details. Make any notations that will help you fix ideas in mind. (8) Keep at it. Allow no lapses of attention. 168. LESSON PLAN, GENERAL Let us briefly discuss the length of a period of instruction. The length of the period should suit the subject and the method of instruction and should not normally exceed 50 minutes; training films, about 30 minutes. · It may take all day to cover a particular subject or practical exercise; therefore, whenever practicable, the instruction should be broken into 50 minute periods with a break of 10 minutes e':l.ch hour. Students always look forward to their break--give it to them. a. A lesson plan is a written digest of how the instructor is going to teach a particular lesson. It shows what material to teach, in what order to teach it, and exactly what procedures to use. Each lesson plan covers one small segment of a subject. b. In effect, a lesson plan is a guide to help accomplish the teaching mission. It helps to cover each part of the lesson so that it makes sense to the Marine. c. Ready-made lesson plans to work from may be found in the unit's training files. The ready-made lesson plan is intended to be used as a guide to assist the instructor in lesson preparation. He should not use it word for word or step by step, but he should adapt it to the particular teaching situation and write his own plan in his own words. 147 Fig 1 7. Examples of poor and good training sites. 169. CONTENTS OF A LESSON PLAN The details of the lesson plan will change from one teaching situation to another depending on the purpose and nature of the lesson. A good lesson plan is normally composed of two parts: an "essential data sheet, " and a "lesson outline" or "lesson manuscript." 148 a. The first page, the essential data sheet, lists information pertinent to the lesson. It also serves the instructor as a handy administrative checklist. It briefly covers in convenient form the what, when, where, who, and why of the lesson (fig 18). b. The second part, the lesson outline/lesson manuscript includes the subject matter and methods to use in each stage of instruction, notes on the use of training aids, questions for discussion, guides for demonstration, and any other matters to assist in conducting the lesson. It consists of four main parts, with transition paragraphs between. Material in each part is divided into paragraphs and subparagraphs, as required, to express each main idea and subordinate idea (fig 19). The lesson outline, and the lesson manuscript fulfill the same purpose; however, their contents vary. The lesson outline contains enough detail to cover first and second subparagraphs as well as main ideas. The lesson manuscript is a word-for-word transcript of the presentation (fig 20). LESSON PLAN Essential Data Sheet LESSON TITLE: DATE PREPARED: LENGTH OF INSTRUCTION: LEARNING OBJECTIVES: {Attach separate s heet if required) STUDENT MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT: {Pencil, paper, individual weapons, etc.) INSTRUCTORS REQUIRED: INSTRUCTORS REFERENCES: {MCO's, FMFM's, FM's, etc.) CLASSROOM REQUIREMENT: {Size of type of classroom facilities, and special equipment such as tables, chairs, etc.) TRAINING SUPPORT EQlJIPMENT REQUIREMENTS: {i.e., training aids/devices, audiovisual equipment, etc.) SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS: {Any other pertinent information to serve as a reminder to the instructor in preparing for class) Fig 18. Example of an essential dat a sheet. 149 c. Lesson plans are valuable a s references for revis ing,· coordinating, and ;improving instruction. They are also invaluable as basic references for preparing tests, as guides for a substitute instructor, and as assistance in providingan alternate training plan in case of inclement weather. d. During instruction, a copy of the lesson outline may be used for reference ··(fig 21). Adding special notes in the margin, and underlining, circling, or drawing boxes around important items will help the instructor in following the plan ·from start to finish of the lesson. 171. CHECKING THE PLAN To insure that the important points have been considered in developing thelesson plan, the instructor should be able to answer yes to each of the followingquestions. When he cannot answer yes to any question, it shows that s ome phaseof the preparation has been inadequate, and that the plan should be revised. a. Does the lesson deal with on e subject only? b. Is the learning objective stated clearly and concisely? LESSON OUTLINE / MANUSCRIPT INTRODUCTION 1. Gain Attention (Use: humor, shock, tapes, skits , f ilm shorts, e t c . ) 2. Motivate (A ppeal to: bas ic needs; ego ; p o sitive vs negative; secur ity, e t c.) 3. Pur pos e a n d Main Ideas (Identify learni n g objectives and s c ope of s ubject matter.) BODY (Present body of subject mat ter including main i deq.s a nd suppor ting infor mation. ) . OPPORTUNITY FOR QUES T I ONS (Repeat / verify questions , answers/verify answers • Consider prepared ques tion s and answer s t o s t imulates tudent participation.) SUMMARY (Highlight main ideas, remotivat e , and restate lear ning objectiv e s . ) Fig 19. General organization of a lesson outline or lesson manuscript. 150 DEFENSE OF A RIVER LINE Lesson Manuscript (2 min)INTRODUCTION 1. Gain Attention. Hercules, in successfully completing one of his twelve assigned labors, used rivers to his advantage, By diverting the course of two rivers, in one day, he cleaned the Augean Stables after 3000 oxen had used the stables for over thirty years, Through~ut history, part~cularly military history, rivers have played a very important role, 2. Motivate In order for the Marine Corps to execute its assigned mission, it must be capable of a. conducting varied off~nsive and defensive operations, (1) Example: In LEBANON it had to be prepared to operate in the desert; in KOREA it was the mountains; in the PACIFIC the requirement was for jungle operations and fighting on beaches, (2) During the course of future employment, Marine units may have to defend a river line, if we wait until we (a) Experience and knowledge can be gained in the field, However, arrive in the field to acquire this knowledge, it can be costly in terms of lives and the success of the overall problem, · (b) Learning the principles of the defense of a river line now, just as learning the principles of offensive combat, will make us more effective in the field, 3. State Purpose and Main Ideas a. The purpose of this period is to explain, at the company level, one of the principal methods of defending an unford!ible river, that is; by the position defense. We will do this by considering: (1) Characteristics of the position defense, (2) Factors which determine its employment. TRANSITION, Now that we know what we are going to consider, let's start at the beginning witP the characteristics of this type of defense. (10 min) BODY 1, Characteristics of a Position Defense a. River as an Obstacle (1) A river, in order to be considered an obstacle, must be unfordable to foot troops and wide enough to prevent direct observation for small arms fire. (2) Example: The battle of FREDERICKSBURG in 1862 clearly shows the difficulties caused J?y a river which separated opposing forces, (ON TRANSPARENCY Ill, ' PASS OUT "SKETCH OF RIVER AREA "; OFF TRANSPARENCY "FREDERICKSBURG", Il l,) b. Organization of Ground (1) (SHQW CHART #1, "SECTOR DIMENSIONS") Wider frontages are assigped than is normal for conventional defenses. (a) Frontages are approximately 600-1200 yards for a company employing the position defense, (b) If ideal conditions exist, these frontages can be extended even further. Fig 20. Example of a lesson manuscript. 151 (2) The flanks must be secure so that the attacker is forced to make a frontal assault andnot avoid or turn the position. (a) Example: The Russian war lords stopped Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes on a widefront at the DNIEPER RIVER, but failed to secure one flank. The Khan's crackhorsemen rode 37 miles at night, crossed the river at a shallow portage upstreamand attacked the Russian flank at dawn, completely routing the unskilled Russians. (OFF CHART #1) (3) The ground is organized around the river and the location of the forward edge of thebattle area. (a) The location of the forward edge of the battle area is designed to prevent the enemyfrom gaining a foothold on the defender's side of the river. (b) The actual location of the forward edge of the battle area is affected by the surrounding defensible terrain. The river bank can be held in strength. 2 The strength can be placed in rear of the river bank if the terrain there is moredefensible. · 3 A combination of these two methods can be employed to take advantage of the mostdefensible terrain Slirrounding the river. c. Sufficient Forces Must be Available (1) These forces should be adequate to increase the defender's advantage. (a) These forces are used to extend the battle position throughout the defense sector. (b) These forces are needed to provide for an adequate reserve which can be employed: To counterattack if the position is penetrated. 2 To reinforce a decisive area. (2) The supporting forces, artillery and air, are employed in the same manner as in theconventional defense. TRANSITION. We have discussed some of the considerations in the employment of the positiondefense of a river line. Now let's delve into the factors we must consider if we are to use this type of defense. We shall begin with a discussion of factors which determine the employment of the position defense, starting with terrain. 2. Factors Which Determine Its Employment (11) a. Terrain (1) The terrain should offer adequate avenues of approach for the maneuver of counterattacking forces. (2) The rugged terrain in KOREA is a good example of the importance of considering theground when planning positions. b. All-around Defense (1) In an all-around defense, the width of the front of the assigned sector should be withinthe company's means to defend. (a) This permits the battle position to be ext.:lnded across the entire front. (b) The frontage should be such that an adequate reserve can be spared from the mainline of resistance. (2) It is necessary for the flanks to be secure. (a) This is relatively simple if the unit is an interior company. (b) Alternately, one or both flanks may be protected by natural obstacles. Fig 20--contd 152 (3) The threat of airborne attacks requires a stronger reserve for security in the rear areas. c. Demonstration of Influencing Factors (1) You will now see a short film which demonstrates the various factors which influence the employment of the position defense. (a) Watch for the types of terrain which are suited for the position defense, the location of the reserve forces and the protection needed on the flanks, (b) There is one inaccuracy in the film, The film is based on the old tables of organization arir. equipment, and the number of light machineguns on the forward edge of the battle ;.1rea is not correct. Now let's see the film. (2) (SHOW FILM MN-1306 -RUNNING TIME: 2 MIN.) (3) OPPORTUNITY FOR QUESTIONS ON FILM (4) You saw an excellent demonstration of a company in the position defense of an unfordable river line. It illustrated the type of terrain best suited for this method of defense, the necessity for locating the reserve force so that it could move to any threatened area, and it showed the need for security on both flanks, TRANSITION, We have considered the characteristics of the position defense and the factors which vitally influence the adoption of the position defense in defending a river line. any question ? Are there OPPORTUNITY FOR QUESTIONS (5 min) SUMMARY 1, The types of tactical employment of Marine Corps units are many and varied, a, The defense of a river line may well be one of your company's assigned tasks. b, Knowledge of what to look for, how best to use the terrain and how to organize your troops, can make the river work for you. 2, Characteristics of a position defense in defending a river line: (UNCOVER BLACKBOARD; PRINT ''CHARACTERISTICS''). a. River must be obstacle (PRINT "OBSTACLE"}, b, Ground must be properly organized (PRINT "ORGANIZED"). c. Forces must be sufficient (PRINT "FORCES"). 3. Determining Factors (PRINT "FACTORS"}. a. Terrain --avenue of approach (PRINT "TERRAIN"). b. All-around defensibility (PRINT "ALL-AROUND"; OFF BLACKBOARD), Fig 20--contd 152-A lESSON OUTLII£ Time1 )0 •inutes 1, EXPUNATION a. Introductiop ) lliD EXHmlT A-R ip eombo t Q. l'lh7 is the automatic rifle aD important basic weapon? '· •••••• 0 ••••••••••• 0. 0 (a) Its effecth'e tire power (b) Its tactical •due Pu.rno se of the 20-hour Course (a) To teach you how to ~.and ~the s,~.rtomatic !'t.fl e lJ:: ~. (b) To make you proficient ' in t1l:1Jl& it a eeuratel,.· and applying the t.ecbniaut o( fire under ~01111bat COodit~ ODS ~rTodey 1 s Lesson (aj To show you how to dleas&emble the major groups of. the AR (b) To show you how t o disaasembla and assnble the ooeroting group of the AR Use of lesson outlin e as reference during instruction. Fig 21. c. Are all facilities a nd equipment listed necessary and available? d. Does the introduction serve all its purposes? Do the steps in the lesson proceed from known to unknown, e. from simple to the complex ? Are the facts of the lesson important to this particular class f. at this stage of its training? g. Is the nnmber of new ideas included in the lesson small enough to be understood by this particular class in the alloted time? 153 h. Has the relative difficulty of each teaching point been estimated? i. Is the sequence of the teaching material arranged so that it has meaning from the learner's point of view? j . Is the time distributed properly? k. Are the teaching methods suited to the subject material and to the class? 1. Is emphasis placed on the important points? m. Is the plan complete or does it leave. anything to chance? n. Is the plan simple, flexible, and practical? o. Does the plan satisfy the learning objective? 172. USING THE PLAN The lesson plan is the guide for conducting the class. Addto it as many illustrations and practical applications as possible tomeet the needs of the particular class. a. No matter how careful the planning, it is impossible to predictthe reactions of different classes. An approach that has beensuccessful with one grou_p of Marines may not be equally successfulwith another. When the instructor finds that,his planned proceduresare not leading to the desired results for the class, he shouldtake advantage of the flexibility of his plan and change his approachto fill the needs of that particular class. b. No two teaching situations are identical. If the same plan isused repeatedly it will lower teaching eff:Lei.ency. The instructor mustbe as alert to differences in classes and training situations as he isto changes in the tactical situation when in combat, and alter his planto meet each situation. 173. REHEARSALS The purpos.e of rehearsing is to perfect the instruction beforeactual class presentation. 154 At first, just certain parts of the lesson such as the introduc a. As soon as tion, demonstration, or summary may be rehearsed. possible, however, stage a complete rehearsal. Like a dressArrange for rehearsal for a play, make it complete in every detail. a suitable class area, equipment, facilities. training aids, and assistants. For example, when a tra ining film is a part of the plan, include it in the rehearsal. Have the projectionist present so that he will know where to set up his equipment, where the light plugs and switches are, when the lights go out, and when he is to start the film. b. Preview the instruction before a "test class" of at least two or three persons who will give constructive comments. Encourage them to comment on the over-all effectiveness ofthe instruction so that it may be improved. c. As a result of the rehearsal, revise the lesson plan, where , necessary, to make the instruction more effective. Failure to rehearse results in incomplete or sketchy instruction, loss of On the other hand, frequent rehears interest, and the waste of time. als conducted correctly help to devel op self-confidence and...ease in presenting the lesson, and help to accomplish the objective in the allotted time. d. If there isn't sufficient time for a full rehearsal, talk through the training with the assistants, conduct an abbreviated rehearsal, or rehearse alone. At least go over the main points and fix the plan in mind before presenting the lesson to the class. The spirit of the rehearsal is the thing that counts. 174. FINAL ARRANGEMENTS The last step in preparing the lesson is to check and recheck the many details related to carrying out the lesson plan. A list of the details to be checked follows: a. Class area. Make every reasonable effort in advance to see that the class area and its surroundings are conducive to learning. Check to see that there are no last minute conflicts, or other demands for the same area. Check the conditions of the facilities in the area, such as exhibits, pits, and blackboards. Check the seating arrangement to make sure that everyone can see and hear and have an unobstructed view of the training aids. Check the area for neat 155 and orderly appearance. Check the possible sources of distracting noises or commotion in the immediate vicinity (fig 17. page 148). (1) When indoors, check for tnterest destroying factors suchas too much or too little heat, not enough fresh air, improper lighting, and poorly arranged chairs or benches. (2) When outdoors, check to see that the sun will not shine inthe Marines1 eyes. Take advantage of shade. Check tosee that the wind will carry the sound of the voice toward the class. (3) When possible, weather permitting, hold instructions out of doors. b. Training aids. Check to see that all training aids are where they are supposed to be and that they are set up correctly. Check the plans for covering them from view when not in use. When using film strips, slides, or training film, check the equipment, including the electrical outlets and length of cord. When using a blackboard, check to see that it is clean, and that chalk and an eraser are available. When using working models, see that they are functioning properly. c. Assistants. Whetherthey· are to be used as assistant instructors, demonstrators, guides, or operators of special equip ment like projectionists, see that the assistants understand exactly what they are to do, and when they are to do it. Also, check themfor equipment, uniform, and appearance. It is best to issue special instructi9ns in writing to the assistants, and then check to see thatthey understand them. d. Special material. For practical exercises. check thecondition and quantity of special equipment, weapons or tools thatare to be used. For example, when maps or firing tables arerequired, check to see that the correct type and number areavailable. e. Transportation. Check to see that the necessary transportation is ready. Check the time required for going to and returningfrom the class area. Check the route and orient the drivers as towhat they are to do, where they are to go, and how they are to getthere. 156 f. Coordination. Check for last-minute changes in schedules or plans. When applicable, coordinate essential details with instruc tors in adjoining areas or those using the same area immediately before or after the class. g. Jnstructo:r:'s needs. See that an accurate class roster is available when one is required. Check personal appearance. Anything left to chance usually goes wrong. Leave nottilng to chance. Section III. PRESENTATIQN 1•75. GENERAL After the instructor has completely prepared himself for a period of in§truction, he is ready to enter into the second or presentation stage Whether the instructor uses a lecture, a conference, a of in~truction. short explanation with other methods, or a combination of these methods, his oral instruction is divided into three parts: the introduction, the ex planation (or body), and the summary. 176. INTRODUCTION a. The introduction to a period of instruction will vary in length, de pending on the nature of the subject and the teaching situation. The purpose of an introduction is threefold: contact between the instructor and his class is established, stuMemt attention is secured and student interest in the sub ject is aroused, and the nature of the subject is disclosed arid its objectives clarified. (1) The instructor can establish contact with the students, in some cases, merely by wa1king to the center of the platform, .as this wi.ll cause men to quiet down and listen. More frequently it will be necessary to make a statement to establish contact, siich as "Your attention, please 1" Do not start the class untii you have the attention of the students·. (2) It is possible to arouse the students1 interest in a subject in many ways, some of which are: by using a good opening statement; using related stories or examples; telling a startling fact; or by using skits or demonstrations. (3) When an instructor discloses the subject to be taught he should be .'The subject for this hour is hmctioningspecific. For example: ' 157 _j of the M14 rifle," is better than "The subject for this houris the M14 rifle." The student should be told why it is important that he learn the lesson. The introduction shouldrelate to previous instruction where applicable. In the case of "functioning of the M14 rifle," reference should be madeto earlier classes on nomenclature, disassembly, and assembly.A brief review of previous. instruction serves to recall information the student has already learned as well as to place everymember of the class on a common footing. b. It is most important for anyone who presents instruction to use good speech techniques. He may know more about a particular subject than anyone else in his unit, but this alone does not make him a good instructor. He must be able to convey his knowledge to the students ina manner that they will understand. For further information on good speech techniques see FM 21-6, Techniques of Military Instruction. 177. EXPLANATION a. The greater portion of any instruction is presented to the students in the explanation or body. This portion of the presentation is used by the instructor to develop his subject step by step, with the students. b, The organization of an explanation that is completely understandable to the instructor, or someone else familiar with the subject,may not be logical for presentation to students getting their firstknowledge of that subject. The subject must be so organized that thestudents can follow the order in which it is presented. The number ofmain topics to be discussed must be limited by the instructor. Students can remember two or three main topics easily, and four or five with little difficulty; whereas eight or ten main points in the presentationwill only confuse them. Training aids which list the main points can be used by instructors to help students follow the organization. c. The instructor must solve the problem of getting from point to point when presenting oral instruction. A well-presented lesson progresses smoothly, by steps, if the parts are connected by tran sitional words, sentences, or statements. Transition between points makes it easy for students to follow the instruction and to know whenone point is finished and the next is being taken up. Some techniques that help instructors make smooth transitions a r e: 158 (1) Repeat lesson objective. Example: "The next step in the functioning of the M14 rifle that we will cover is chambering. " Example: "So far we have discussed (2) Frequent summaries. the first three steps in functionin g: feeding~ chambering~ and locking; this brings us to the next step~ which is firing. 11 ( 3) Rhetorical questions. Example: "During what step in functioning does the piston start its rearward movement? This occurs during the fifth step~ which is unlocking. " (4) Connective words or phrases. Example: Use such words as "moreover, 11 "accordingly, 11 "therefore, " "however, " etc., to let the students know that teaching on one idea is ending and another one is beginning. (5) Enumerate points. Example: Use numbers--"first, " second," 11 third, 11 etc . --or list the points on a blackboard and point out each one as you take it up. 178. SUMMARY The final portion of the presentation stage of instruction is the When properly used~ by a skilled instructor~ the summary summary. increases student learning by repetition of the main teaching points of the lesson. Keep in mind that the summary must be brief; it is not used to reteach the lesson or present new information. When future training is to be held in this same general subject~ this fact should be announced as it will help maintain student interest in what has been taught. When possible conclude with a strong closing statement~ delivered with enthusiasm~ that is designed to leave a lasting impression in the minds of the students. 179. LECTURE Of the various methods used to present instruction the most widely used is the or.al presentation of s ubject matter known as the The success of this method of instruction depends on the "lecture. " instructor, because he alone develops the subject~ primarily without class participation. The lecture is used to present basic facts~ princi ples~ and attitudes needed by students to provide a common background in the subject. It is also used to give directions for work in practical application or to set the stage for other methods of instruction. 159 J The instructor can present his ideas concisely and logically6 and at the speed he desires. By using a public-address system, he can talk to any size audience. Oral instruction can be made much more effec tive by wise use of training aids. 180. CONFERENCE The conference method of instruction gives students the opportunity to actively participate in the discussion by asking and answeringquestions. Much more emphasis is placed on student participation inthe conference than in the lecture. This type of instruction requiresspecial care and consideration because all principal questions6 problems,or points for discussion should be prepared beforehand. The instructorshould expect students to ask questieris that are not related to the subject.When this happens, he should tactfully return the group's attention to thesubject under discussion. Other studei1ts will ask questions merely to' The experienced instructor will endeavor to show off their knowledge. r get some other member of the group to answer the questions, therebyencouraging participation; if none can answer the question, then he shouldrefer the question to the person who asked it, for an answer. To effectively lead a conferen~e does not mean that the instructor is to answer allquestions. All students should be encouraged to participate. When thediscussion on one topic is completed, the instructor should briefly summarize the point developed, then go on to the next. At the end of theconference6 the principal ideas and main points covered should be sum marized, leaving the class with a clear idea of what has been discussed. 181. DEMONSTRATION A necessary part of the teaching proeess is the "demonstration, IIbecause it shows men how things are done, and helps prepare them toapply knowledge and skills in practical work. Demonstrations help makeoral instruction easier for the student to understand, in addition tosetting the standards expected of students in their performance of thesesame skills. The demonstration not only provides an interesting activityfor the students to watch but also helps to increase the students1 retentionby substituting these practical illustrations for talk. The instructorsshould introduce a demonstration by telling the students what they areto see, and by directing their attention to any special points to be watched.An explanatidrr should accompany the demonstration. The demonstrationshould be follbwed by a summary which includes q estions on specificpoints to see that they are understood. When possible, have the studentspractice what they have just seen. 160 182. APPLICATION The stage of instruction in whic h the student works to become proficient and skilled in using the knowledge gained from other stages of instruction, is "application. " Here the student has an opportunity to do that which he has learned in order to develop the skill. These periods of application must always be supervised to insure that students are following correct procedures. It is obviously difficult to train men to work as a team when they have not acquired individual skills. In the Marine Corps great emphasis is placed on teams, and rightfully so, for we either function proficiently as a team in combat or suffer dis:.. astrous consequences. 183. EXAMINATION It is silly to believe that men have learned a subject just because they attended class where the subject was taught. Therefore, commanders and instructors should check the effectiveness of instruction by use of the examination. There are three major techniques of testing used by instruc tors to measure student achievement: oral, written, and performance tests. When an instructor asks questions during the presentation stage of the instruction he is conducting an oral t e st. These tests are used to make an effective spot check of student learnin g and to give the instructor a quick check of the effectiveness of his teaching. The written test is valuable because a rapid check can be made of student knowledge on subject matter that covers a wide area. In a performance test the man or unit actually does the job. The work every Marine does daily i s a performance test for which he eventually receives a mark, either as a proficiency mark or a mark on his fitness report. 184. DISCUSSION AND CRITIQUE The discussion stage of training may be started at any time during the instruction. Discussion is normally introduced after the student has the essentials of the subject firmly in mind as a result of the presentation, application, or examination stages of instruction. a. Conduct of a discussion. The class that participates directly in the instruction by thinking and talking about the subject may be expected to show increased interest in the subject. If the discussion follows the examination, the instructor may prepare a list of the most common errors noted and have the class analyze them under his supervision. The instructor may introduce new material if he feels the class needs it, but ordinarily he should guide 161 the men to develop the ideas which he wishes to enlarge or review. b. Conduct of a critique. A critique always follows a tactical exercise. The critique should be used to correct improper perform ance and to relate what was learned in one lesson or exercise to the main points learned in others. This may be developed by the conference method or by lecture. Generally the conference method is the most practical and effective method as it encourages a two-way exchange of ideas. The instructor should guard against unnecessarily antagonizing and discouraging the group. He should not present a long list of minor deficiencies or strongly criticize an individual or unit in the presence of the entire group. If he is disappointed in the results of the exercise~ the instructor should reexamine the training methods and his own leadership for ways to improve future instruction. The critique should: ( 1) Briefly review the action. (2) Point out the student's achievement during the work~ commendinggood performances. (3) Point out the major errors noted~ and give suggestions for correcting them. (4) Encourage the men to ask questions that will clarify the problemareas. (5) Summarize the lesson learned. (6) Create•in the participants a feeling of accomplishment and a desirefor continued achievement in training. Section IV. TRAINING AIDS 185. GENERAL a. Training aids assist the instructor to stimulate the Marine's interestand understanding through more than one sense channel. By seeing~ hearing~ sometimes touching~ and even smelling and tasting the object being studied~ the Marine learns more readily and remembers longer. For effective and efficient instruction. use training aids in every lesson. Here aresome various training aids that are common to the Army~ Navy, and theAir Force: 162 (1) Projected training aids: Training films, motion pictures and slide films, transparency slides, and associated projection equipment. (2) Graphic training aids: Posters. charts, certain maps, flat illustrations, pictorial literature, and similar items. (3) Three-dimensional training aids: Mock-ups, models, and similar items. (4) Special devices: Synthetic trainers, mechanized evaluators, simulated operational systems, and similar items. b. For detailed information on specific aids see FM 21-8. For suggested aids on specific subjects. see the appropriate field or technical manual. 186. USE OF TRAINING AIDS Training aids help to train men more efficiently and effectively. Training aids also help to standardize instruction. Some of their main uses are: a. To provide illustration not otherwise available. b. To simplify a mechanical process by showing how (fig 21) instead of saying how. c. To emphasize a point so it will be well remembered. d. To replace demonstration teams. e. To improve or vitalize instruction. f. To arouse and sustain interest in training. g. To let the Marine learn through using several of his senses. 187. AVAILABILITY OF TRAINING AIDS a. The commander makes sure that standard training aids are made available to his instructors. In a large command, the construction and issue of these aids often is controlled by a designated staff officer who: 163 (1) Maintains complete lists of training aids that are accessible in the organization, or that can be procured from other sources. (2) Assists troop leaders in scheduling the use of available aids. (3) Supervises the development, construction, and allotment of training aids. ( 4) Indicates the training aids that are of value during training, the ways to use them, and the procedures to traih instructors how to use these aids. b. Instructors are responsible for anticipating training aid requirements in time to obtain or prepare them for instruction. c. In many cases the most valuable training aid is the real object itself--a gun, switchboard, or the terrain. However, most training aid_s are designed to supplement the real object . T r aining films, working diagrams, and cutaway models are examples of training aids used to show things not normally visible to the Marine. d. Some training aids, such as training films, are durable, portable, and have wide application throughout the Marine Corps. These aids lend themselves to centralized procurement. For a specific need at hand, however, the using unit can design and prepare its own aids. e. Training aids are not used for eyewash; they serve a definite training purpose. Fragile objects or huge, unwieldy objects, intricately devised, may be of no value to the troops in the field. On the other hand, intricate special devices are of real value to certain type units. The most valuable aids, however, are the neat, simple, practical, field expedie.nt types. f. To help anticipate the training aids to use, most subject schedules list the minimum aids required for the instruction or training. 188: TRAINING FILMS AND FILM STRIPS a. Training films. (1) Training films explain or demonstrate military subjects in a vivid, interesting, and accurate manner. They are particularly helpful for demonstrations that cannot be put on because of limitation of time, equipment, or personnel. They are used to supplement the 164 presentation, or in mass training to show combat tactics and techniques. For practically every subject in military training, there is a film or training film series covering the subject's battlefield importance and showing it under combat conditions. (2) Plan to show fiJtns at an appropriate time in the inst ruction. Study prospective films in advance and make notes. Use these notes later to direct class atteJ1tion to the main points. (3) Make sure that enough time is allowed not only to show the film but to allow for an adequate introduction and discussion. Rehearse the projectionist to make sure that he is a capable operator and that the projector works• . . (4) To intr{.)duce the film, tell the men what to look for in it. Tell the combat importance of what they are abdut to see. Relate the film subject to the Marine's ptrevious training and experience. (5) Follbw the"film with more explanation and demonstration, or application and examination as the situation requires. Carefully planned f ollowup activities complete the instruction. b. Film strips~ (1) A film strip is a series of single photographs, diagrams, charts, drawing~, and similiar represent ations printed on standard motibn picture film (35-mm). Use film strips to save time and labor that normally would be used3or preparing charts. Use them t