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 FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA; 
 
 OR 
 
 COMPENDIUM 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL. KNOWLEDGE : 
 
 COMPREHENDING 
 
 A PLAIN AND PRACTICAL VIEW OF THOSE SUBJECTS MOST INTERESTING 
 TO PERSONS, IN THE ORDINARY PROFESSIONS OF LIFE. 
 
 JtllustrateTi to numerous Snsrabutfls. 
 SECOND IMPROVED EDITION. 
 
 EDITED;^ 
 BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 1831. 
 
AGS 
 
 Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1831, by Charles 
 A. Goodrich, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
 Part First contains 240 page*. 
 
 Part Second contain* - 228 page* 
 
 Whole number of pages, - - - - 468 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The First Edition of the following work, having met with a more 
 flattering reception among its Patrons, than the most sanguine hopes 
 of the Editor allowed him to anticipate, he has been encouraged to 
 attempt several improvements in this edition. 
 
 In making these improvements, the Editor has endeavored to ren- 
 der the plan of the work more simple — has erased such portions as 
 appeared devoid of interest, or utility, and substituted therefor more 
 than sixty pages, original matter, on topics, which, it is believed, 
 will be found important in the view of those for whose benefit the 
 work is designed. 
 
 It has been the object of the Editor from the first to proceed upon 
 the principle of selection and utility — to embrace so lew subjects, 
 as to enable him to enlarge upon them, according to their relative 
 importance ; arid to treat of them in so 'plain and practical a man- 
 ner, as to render the work intelligible and useful. By this means, 
 he has been enabled, he trusts, in a measure to avoid a serious ob- 
 jection, which has sometimes been made to the portable Encyclope- 
 dias extant, that they embrace so great a variety of articles, as to 
 render them little more than Dictionaries. A ditferent course has 
 been here adopted ; and it gives the Editor pleasure to know that it 
 has the sanction of a large portion of his patrons. 
 
 To the friends, who have aided him, and lightened his task, he 
 takes occasion to renew the expression of his thanks, especially to 
 the author of the article on Horticulture. In respect to that article, 
 the Editor is requested to say, that it is chiefly an abridgement of 
 Cobbett's excellent system of gardening. And in relation to several 
 other parts of the work, he can claim no other merit, than that of 
 presenting to his readers a condensed and faithful compilation. 
 
 The nature of the work has precluded him, in many instances, 
 from giving credit to the several authors of whose labors, he has 
 availed himself. 
 
 It belongs to this place, therefore, to express his obligation to 
 Guy's Pocket Encyclopedia, Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Mitchel's 
 Pocket Encyclopedia, Library of Useful Knowledge, Library of 
 Entertaining Knowledge, Godman's Natural History, Goldsmith's 
 Natural History, Hooper's Medical Dictionary, Family Physician, 
 American Farmer, New England Farmer, Complete Grazier, 
 Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Clater's, Hind's and Ma- 
 son's Farming, White on the Diseases of Cattle, Bigelow's Tech- 
 nology, Allen's Mechanics, Tegg's Book of Utility, American 
 Almanac, &c. &c. 
 
 1* 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. MAN. 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, STRUCTURE, &C. p. 14 — 29. 
 
 Varieties of the Human Species — Intellectual capacity — Difference of Form, 
 Stature, and Complexion — Origin of the North American Indians — Human Struc- 
 ture, viz. Bones — Teeth — Muscles — Flesh — Skin — Absorbents — Cartilages — Mem- 
 brane — Gland — The Brain — Cerebrum — Cerebellum — The Spinal Marrow — The 
 Thorax, or Chest — Respiration — The Windpipe — The Lungs — The Heart — An Ar- 
 tery—A Vein— Air— The Blood — Thoracic Duct— The Abdomen— The Liver— The 
 Bile— The Spleen, or Milt— The Stomach— Of Digestion— The Gastric Juice — The 
 Intestines — The Kidneys — The Senses, viz. — The Eye — Feeling — The Nose— The 
 Taste — The Sexes. 
 
 Section ii. 
 
 of the mind and its faculties, p. 29 — 35. 
 
 The Mind— Sensation — Memory — Imagination — Genius — Reason — The Will — 
 Ghost— Knowledge— The Passions. 
 
 PART II. ALIMENTS. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE VARI0C3 ALIMENTARY PROPERTIES OF ANIMAL 
 AND VEGETABLE FOOD ; AND THEIR DIFFERENT EFFECTS UPON THE 
 HUMAN CONSTITUTION, p. 35 — 47. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 of artificial aliments, p. 47—53. 
 
 Bread— Starch— Sugar— Tea— Coffee— Chocolate — Rice— The Yam— The Plan- 
 tain — Bread Fruit, &c. — Cheese, Butter, &c. See Agriculture. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 of fruits, p. 53—63. 
 
 Oranges — The Citron— The Lemon — Olive— The Almond— Tamarinds — Prunes 
 —The Cacao Nut — The Cocoa Nut— The Pomegranate — The Fig— The Banian, or 
 Indian Fig Tree— Raisins — Dates— Pine Apple — Apple — Plum— Peach— Nectarine 
 — Apricot— Cherry — Quince. 
 
8 FAMILY 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF DRINKS, p. 63—73. 
 
 Water — Wine — Method of Making and Fining Wine — Currant Wine — Method 
 of making Currant Wine — Cider — Method of making Cider — Vinegar — Method of 
 making Vinegar — Alcohol — Rum — Brandy — Geneva, or Gin — Arrack — Ale — Malt 
 Method of making Malt— Brewing— Hops. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 of condiments, p. 73—81. 
 
 Ginger— Nutmeg— Clove — Pepper— Cassia— Cinnamon— Salt— Method of ma- 
 king Salt— Mustard— Ketchup. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 OF ANIMALS, p. 81 — 111. 
 
 Domestic Animals, See Agriculture — The Lion — The Tiger — The Puma, or Cou- 
 gar—Domestic Cat— The Dog— The Camel— Llama— The Giraffe — Rein Deer- 
 Moose — American Elk — Elephant — Method of taking the Elephant— Gigantic, 
 Mastodon, or Mammoth — Bear — Seal — Beaver. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 OF FISH. p. 111—117. 
 
 The Salmon Fishery — Cod Fishery — Herring Fishery — Mackerel Fishery— Shad 
 The Lobster — Oysters— Tortoise— Whale— Method of taking Whales. 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 OF FOWL. p. 117—125. 
 
 The Cock— The Hen— The Turkey- The Guinea Hen— The Goose— Duck- 
 
 Wild Pigeon— Carrier Pigeon. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF HEALTH, &C. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 RULES AND HINTS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF LIFE, HEALTH, &C. p, 127 — 156. 
 
 Rules of Sir R. Philios — Of Dr. Boerhaave— Experience of Howard— Hints to 
 Students — Quantity of Food — Abstinence — Exercise — Friction — Air — Sleep — Sleep- 
 ing Apartments— Beds — Cleanliness — Bathing — Contagion — Purifying and Disin- 
 fecting Agents— Tobacco— Dr. Rush's View of the Effects of certain Liquors upon 
 the body and minds of men — Of Opium and Laudanum — Of Wounds cut with 
 sharp Instruments — Of Poisoned Wounds — Mode of Treatment — Strains or Sprains 
 — Treatment of Frozen Limbs — Burns and Scalds— Dress of Children — Diet of 
 
 Children— Sleep— Exercise— Washing and Bathing of Children— Teething 
 
 Summer Complaint— Hooping Cough— Croup — Measles. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 OF POISONS SUSPENDED ANIMATION, p. 156 — 164. 
 
 Different kinds of Poisons — Symptoms, and Remedies — Stomach Pump— Poison 
 from the fumes of Burning Charcoal, Gas from Wells. Caverns, &c. and the neces- 
 sary Treatment — Drowning — Symptoms of apparent Death by Drowning — Treat- 
 ment — Choking — Treatment — Lightning, and its Remedy. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY, p. 164: — 163. 
 
 Weights and Measures used by Apothecaries, and the signs by which they are 
 denoted — Recipes for the making of Laxative Pills — Pills of Aloes, and Fetida— 
 Hull's Colic Pills— Purging Pills— Sir H. Halford's Aperient Pills— Strengthening 
 Pills— To Excite Perspiration — Adhesive Plaster— Anodyne Plaster — Strengthening 
 Plaster — Picra — Sweating Powder, or Dover's Powder — Elixir Proprietatus — Tinc- 
 ture of Bark, or Huxham's Tincture — Tincture of Guaiac — Laudanum — Elixir 
 Asthmatic— Linseed Meal Poultice — Bread and Water Poultice—Mustard Poultice — 
 Yeast Poultice— Simple Ointment— Golden Ointment — Sulphur Ointment— Pile 
 Ointment— Basilican Oii.trnent — Simple Sirup — Sirup of Ginger — Sirup of Lemons 
 —volatile Liniment— Liniment of Oil and Lime — Camphorated Oil — Opodeldoc. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 OF MANUFACTURES, AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. p. 168 — 240. 
 
 Cotton ; Manner of raising Cotton ; Process of Manufacturing Cotton into Cloth 
 Silk Manufacture ; Satin ; Velvet ; Taffety ; Gauze ; Tabby ; Brocade ; Stockings 
 History of Silk ; Mulberry Tree ; Mode of Cultivation ; Eggs of Silk Worms 
 Hatching the Eggs ; Rearing Silk Worms ; Rising of the Silk Worms ; Picking of 
 the Cocoons ; Cocoons kept for Use ; Cocoons intended for Sale ; Manufacture of 
 Linen; Of Cambric; Of Lace ; Culture of Flax; Culture of Hemp;. An of 
 Tanning; Of Curryim ; Mtnufacture of Parchment; Of Morocco ; Of Glue ; 
 Of Hats ; Of Buttons , M?thod of Refining Gold ; Art of Gilding : Of Silvering ; 
 Of Coining; Process of Making Tin and Tin plate ; Solder ; Melting and casting 
 of Metals ; Art of Casting in Sand ; Of casting Statues ; Of Casting Cannon ; Of 
 Casting Bells ; Of Casting Printing Letters ; Printing : History of Printing ; Art 
 of Common, or Letter-press Printing ; of Rolling press Printing ; of Calico Print- 
 ing ; and Stereotype Printing ; Method of "Making Varnish ; Art of Japanning ; 
 Method of making Bricks ; Manufacture of Tiles : Pipes ; Pottery ; Delft-ware ; 
 Of Porcelain, or China ; Of Glass ; Ingredients of Glass ; Method of making 
 Bottles, Phials, Drinking G — 3, Window Glass. Plate Glass, for Looking Glasses, 
 &c. ; Manufacture of Putty ; Pins ; Needles ; Art of Bleaching ; Manufacture of 
 Woollen Cloths; Of Camblet; Of Carpets; Arf of Dyeing ; Materials for Dyeing 
 different Colors : General Rules fjr Dyeinsr all Colors ; Soap ; Candles ; Wax ; 
 Manufacture of Sealing:- Wax ; Of Paper ; Architecture ; General History and De- 
 scription of the different Styles of ancient and modern Architecture, <£e. <£c. &c. 
 
10 FAMILY 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 ON NEAT CATTLE, &C. p. 3 — 42. 
 
 Different Breeds of Neat Cattle in Great Britain and the United States ; Wild 
 Cattle ; Devonshire Breed ; Sussex Breed ; Hereford ; Short Horned Cattle ; Long 
 Horned ; Galloway Breed ; Highland Breed ; Welsh Breed ; Alderney Breed ; Va- 
 rieties in the United States ; Coke Devon Bull Holkam ; Wye Comet ; On buying 
 and stocking a farm with Cattle ; Of the Bull ; Method of managing mischievous 
 Bulls ; Of the Cow ; Description of a Perfect Cow ; On the Treatment and Rear- 
 ing of Calves ; Of Steers and Draught Oxen ; Easy method of accustoming animals 
 to draw ; Mode of yoking in France ; Of Grazing ; Soiling and Stall Feeding 
 Neat Cattle. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 on the dairy, &c. p. 42—52. 
 
 Of Milch Kine, and of the Pasture and other Food best calculated for Cows, as it 
 respects their Milk ; Of the Management of Milk and Cream ; and the Making and 
 Preserving of Butter ; Of the Making and Preserving of Cheese. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES, p. 52 — 90. 
 
 Brief History of the Horse ; Different Breeds of Horses, viz. Barb ; Dongola 
 Horse ; Arabian ; East India Horse ; Chinese ; Persian ; Toorkoman ; Tartar and 
 Kalmuck ; Turkish ; German ; Swedish, Finland and Norwegian ; Iceland ; 
 Flemish and Dutch ; Spanish ; Italian ; English ; Roadster or Hackney ; Farmer's 
 Horse; Coach Horse ; Heavy Draught Horses ; Cleveland Bays; Suffolk Punch ; 
 Clydesdale ; Heavy Black Horses ; Dray ; Cavalry ; Race Horse ; Darley Arabi- 
 an ; Flying Childers ; Eclipse ; Wellesley ; Arabian ; Hunter ; Galloways and 
 Ponies ; Welsh Poney ; Highland Poney ; Shetland Poney ; Irish Horse ; Ameri- 
 can ; Wild Horse; Canadian; Conestoga ; English Horse in the United States; 
 Rules for judging of the Age, Action, Hardihood, and Spirit of Horses ; Nicking ; 
 Pricking; Foxing; Docking; Fattening; Excessive Fatigue; Treatment on a 
 journey ; On the management and Training of Colts ; Castration. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, p. 90—104. 
 
 History of the Sheep ; Synopsis of the different Breeds of Sheep in Great Bri- 
 tain ; Heath, Linton Short, or Forest Sheep ; Exmoor and Dartmoor ; Norfolk ; 
 Wiltshire ; Dorset ; Leicester ; Lincolnshire ; Teeswater ; Romney Marsh ; De* 
 vonshire ; South Down ; Cannock ; Ryeland ; Cheviot ; Merino ; Sheep in the 
 United States ; Essential Requisites to a good Ram ; Signs of a Healthy Sheep .; 
 Signs of Age ; Time of purchasing ; Breeding Ewes ; Owning of Lambs ; Wean* 
 ing ; Winter Management ; Quantity of Food ; Manner of Feeding ; Salt ; Fold, 
 ing; Marking. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 11 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING AND FATTENING OF SWINE, p. 104 — 112. 
 
 Different Breeds of Swine ; Chinese Breed ; Berkshire ; Essex Half Black ; 
 Sussex ; Dishley ; Woburn ; Hampshire ; Northampton ; Shropshire ; Yorkshire ; 
 Lincolnshire ; Cheshire ; Swine in the United States ; Management of Sows with 
 Pig ; Pigs ; Store Pigs ; Fatting Hogs. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP AND SWINE, p. 112—135. 
 
 1. Horses. Botts ; Colic ; Inflammation of the Bowels ; Lampas ; Bridle-sores ; 
 Pole evil ; Stranguary or suppression of nine ; Of Mange ; Glanders : Treat- 
 ment ; Of Shoulder Strains ; Treatment ; Of Galls ; Of Wind Galls ; Of Ring 
 Bone; Of Broken Wind; Of Founder ; Symptoms of a Founder ; Remedy. 
 
 2. Of Cattle. Of Colic, or Gripes ; Remedy ; Of Jaundice, or Yellows ; 
 Of Foul in the Foot, or Hoof- Ail ; Of Grain Sickness ; Of Warts, or Horny Ex- 
 crescences ; Of Mange ; Of the Horn Distemper ; Its Treatment ; Of Udder ; 111 j 
 Of Sore Teats ; Of Lice. 
 
 3. Of Sheep. Of Scab : Its remedy ; Of Staggers, or Dizziness ; Treatment ; 
 Pinning or Scouring ; Of Tick ; Cold and its consequences ; Foot Rot ; Bowel 
 Sickness > Catarrhal Affections ; Of Poisons ; Of Wounds. 
 
 4. Of Swine. Measles : Of Mange ; Of Murrain ; Of Diseases of the 
 Lungs : Of Fever, or rising of the Lights ; Of Gargut ; Of Issues. 
 
 5. Veterinary Pharmacopeia. 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 art of gardening, or horticulture, p. 138 — 1T6. 
 
 Of the proper Situation of Gardens ; Soil ; Fencing ; Laying out ; Hot beds ; 
 Of making the bed ; Of the management of a hot-bed ; Propagation and Cultiva- 
 tion ; Sort of Seeds : True-Seed ; Soundness of Seed : Saving and Preserving 
 Of Sowing ; Of Transplanting ; Of Cultivation ; Alphabetical List of the 
 several sorts of Plants, and the proper treatment of each. 
 
 Propagation of Fruits ; By Cuttings ; By Slips ; By Layers ; By Suckers ; Bv 
 Budding ; By Grafting ; Of Storks ; Of Planting ; Of the Cultivation of Fruit 
 Trees ; List of the different kinds of Fruits, and the proper treatment of each : Di- 
 rections for the Culture of Grape Vines. 
 
 Management of Bees. Bee ; Female or Queen Bee ; Males or Drones ; 
 Working Bees or Neuters; Swarming; Hiving; Wax; Propolis; Building of 
 Cells ; Honey ; Bee Bread ; Hives ; Bee-moth. 
 
 PART YIL 
 
 ART3 OF LOCOMOTION, HEATING, VENTILATION, &C. p. 176—201. 
 
 Motion of Animals; Human Strength; Aids to Locomotion; Wheels: Broad 
 Wheels ; Form of Wheels : Mode of Attaching a Horse ; Rail Roads. 
 
 Of Steam Engines ; Of Canals ; Canals of Egypt ; China ; Italy ; Russia : 
 Sweden ; Denmark ; Holland ; Germany ; Spain ; France ; Great Britain ; 
 American Canals ; Fuel; Chimneys; Telegraph; Deaf and Dumb Alphabet 
 
12 FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 CONTENTS. _ 
 
 PART VIII. 
 
 ON CIVIL POLITY. 
 OP GOVERNMENT, p. 201—217. 
 
 Origin and History of Government ; Of the different Forms of Government j 
 Synopsis of the Constitution of Maine ; New Hampshire ; Massachusetts ; Ver- 
 mont ; Connecticut ; Rhode Island j New York ; New Jersey ; Pennsylvania ; 
 Delaware ; Maryland ; Virginia ; North Carolina ; South Carolina ; Georgia ; 
 Alabama ; Louisiana ; Mississippi ; Tennessee ; Kentucky ; Ohio ; Illinois ; In- 
 diana ; Missouri ; United States. 
 
 PART IX. 
 
 statistics, p. 218—228. 
 
 Population of the American Colonies in 1701 and 1749 ; Settlements of the'several 
 Colonies ; Expense of the Revolutionary War ; Amount of Continental Money is- 
 sued ; Loans and Grants of Money from France ; Number of Troops employed 
 during the Revolution ; Naval Force of the United States ; Adoption of the Consti- 
 tution by the several States ; Amount of money expended by the United States upon 
 Works of Internal Improvements ; Amount of Public Debt ; Bank of the United 
 States ; Value of Exports and Imports of the United States in 1829 ; Domestic 
 Exports of the United States ; Troops furnished by each State during the Revolution ; 
 Total "Population of the Earth ; Inhabitants of the Earth divided according to their 
 Religious Belief. 
 
FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA ; 
 
 OR 
 
 COMPENDIUM OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 PART I.-MAN. 
 
 A knowledge of the various objects of nature and art is doubtless 
 worthy the attainment of every one. An acquaintance with these ob- 
 jects contributes to enlarge the mind — to gratify a rational curiosity — 
 to excite admiring views of the Great Author of all things, and to pre- 
 pare for a wider sphere of usefulness. Yet, it cannot be denied, that a 
 knowledge of oneself is of higher importance still. Without self-know- 
 ledge, man must be ignorant of the true dignity of his nature, and lost 
 to just views of the Divine wisdom and goodness, displayed in his com- 
 position. 
 
 Man, it has been well observed, is a compound existence, made up of 
 two great parts ; the Body, and the Mind, or Soul. The body was form- 
 ed of the dust ; but it is a frame of a most wonderful nature. The 
 parts of which it is composed — their number — their various uses — de- 
 pendencies and operations, — the arrangement, by which they are formed 
 into a system — the faculties attached to it, of seeing, hearing, smelling, 
 tasting, and feeling — its capacity of pleasure and pain — the warnings 
 which it is fitted to give of approaching or commencing evil — and the 
 power which it so variously possesses of self restoration, are atl wonder- 
 ful, mysterious, and strongly declaratory of the skill, and benevolence 
 of the Creator. 
 
 But the Mind or Soul is of a still more wonderful nature. It is this, 
 which emphatically gives man his pre-eminence over other beings, by 
 which he is surrounded ; and entitles him to be considered as " the lord 
 of the creation." To the faculties of the body there is a limit ; but to 
 the immortal mind God has never said, " Thus far shalt thou go, but no 
 further." Much as man knows, in any stage of his progress, he may 
 know still more ; and may become still more exalted and lovely. Not 
 confined to the present system, as are other animals, he is destined to an 
 existence, which, in point of duration, will run parallel with that of bis 
 Maker. 
 
 2 
 
14 FAMILY 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, STRUCTURE. 
 
 It will, therefore, naturally belong to the first part of our work, to 
 take a view of man, considered as to his animal and intellectual nature. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, STRUCTURE, &C. 
 
 VARIETIES. — The human family is divided into different nations, 
 which are scattered abroad upon the face of the earth, and exhibit sev- 
 eral varieties of form and color. These divisions are Jice in number : — 
 The European, or while race — the Tartar, or Mongul — the Malay —the 
 African, or Negro race — and the Americ :n, or Copper-colored race. 
 
 1st. The European race is distinguished by the elegance of its form, 
 and by a forehead more or less broad and prominent; indicative of a 
 considerable portion of brain, in the front part of the skull ; the skin is, 
 however fairer ; the hair and eyes lighter in color, in the more temper- 
 ate climates, than towards the south. This race includes all the in- 
 habitants of Europe, (except the Laplanders and Finns,) and the 
 descendants of Europeans in America, and other portions of the world. 
 It also embraces the inhabitants of the western temperate parts of Asia, 
 as far as the river Oby, the Caspian Sea, and the Ganges, and those of 
 the northern parts of Africa, viz. the people of Barbary, Egypt, and 
 Abyssinia, and the Moors of Northern Africa. 
 
 2d. The Tartar or Mongul race, is characterized by a yellow skin ; 
 straight black hair ; square heads ; large and flat face ; small and flat 
 nose ; round and prominent cheeks ; and pointed chin. This variety 
 includes all the nations in Asia, east of the Oby, Caspian, and Ganges, 
 excepting Malacca. It embraces, also, the tribes which inhabit the 
 frigid zones in both the eastern and western continents, including the 
 Laplanders, Samoiedes, Ostiacs, Tunguses, Yakuts, Tschutskis, and 
 Kamschadales of Siberia, and the Esquimaux and Greenlanders. 
 
 3d. The Malay, comprehends the inhabitants of the peninsula of 
 Malacca, Ceylon, the Asiatic Islands, New Zealand, and Polynesia, 
 with the exception of New Holland, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and 
 Van Dieman's land. This variety is characterized by a tawny color ; 
 black curled hair, which is soft, thick, and abundant ; a prominent 
 forehead : thick, wide, and flattened nose ; and moderately projecting 
 upper jaws. 
 
 4th. The African or Negro variety, is spread over western and 
 southern Africa. It is found, also, upon the coasts of Madagascar, and 
 occupies New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, New Caledonia, and New 
 Guinea. This variety is characterized by a black color ; black and 
 woolly hair; thick lips ; projecting cheek bones ; large and flat nose; 
 raised chin ; retreating forehead ; and crooked legs. 
 
 5th. The American or copper-colored race, includes all the aborigi- 
 nal inhabitants of both the Americas, except the Esquimaux and 
 Greenlanders. This race is of a copper color, resembling that of rusty 
 iron, or cinnamon ; coarse, straight black hair ; high cheek bones ; and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 15 
 
 ■ ■ ■ 
 
 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY. 
 
 sunken eyes. The forehead is usually short ; the nose and the whole 
 countenance broad ; the nostrils open ; and the lips thick. The beard 
 is thin and scanty. Of the Indians it has been affirmed, that they are 
 destitute of beards ; but this only occurs, when the beard has been era- 
 dicated, at the expense of much industry and suffering. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY.— Of all the varieties of mankind, 
 there can be no doubt that the white man exhibits the greatest marks of 
 ingenuity and intelligence ; and of this variety, the most intelligent will 
 be found to be those who reside in temperate climates. Portions of the 
 Mongtil race exhibit also considerable ingenuity, evinced particularly 
 in the Hindoo and the Chinese ; but the range of intellect of this portion 
 of our race is nevertheless comparatively circumscribed. The third, or 
 . x 'alay race, exhibits no small variety of intellectual endowment. 
 While none of the tribes, which belong to this race, equal the Chinese 
 and some others of the Mongul race, few, perhaps are so sunken as 
 some portions of the Negro race. This last race exhibits much animal 
 power, yet it is far beneath the white man in intellectual capacity ; we 
 see the Negro in the Hottentot at its lowest grade. The copper-colored 
 man, we may be certain, is also far beneath the European in his intel- 
 lectual capacity, although he is not deficient in many fine traits of cha- 
 racter. 
 
 DIFFERENCE OF STATURE, FORM, AND COMPLEXION.— 
 Three causes, a writer remarks, may be regarded as concurring in the 
 production of those varieties which we find attached to the different 
 nations of the globe. First, the influence of the climate ; second, food, 
 which has a dependance on climate ; and third, manners, on which cli- 
 mate has, perhaps, a still greater influence. 
 
 The heat of the climate is the chief cause of blackness among the 
 human species. When this heat is excessive, as in Guinea, we find the 
 people are perfectly black ; when a little less severe, the blackness is 
 not so deep ; when it becomes nearly temperate, as in Barbary, the 
 Mogul empire, and Arabia, the men are only brown ; and when it is 
 altogether temperate, as in many parts of Europe, Asia, and America, 
 the men are white. Some varieties are, indeed, produced by the mode 
 of living ; all the Tartars, for example, are tawny, while Europeans, 
 who live under the same latitude, are white. This difference may 
 safely be ascribed to the Tartars being always exposed to the open air ; 
 to their having no cities and fixed habitations ; to their sleeping con- 
 stantly on the ground ; and to their rough and savage manner of living. 
 These circumstances, are sufficient, at least, to render the Tartars more 
 swarthy than the Europeans, who want nothing to make life easy and 
 agreeable. — Why are the Chinese fairer than the Tartars, though they 
 resemble them in every feature ? Because they are more polished, live 
 in towns, and practise every art to guard themselves against the injuries 
 of the weather ; while the Tartars are perpetually exposed to the ac- 
 tion of the sun and air. 
 
 When the cold becomes extreme, it appears to produce effects similar 
 to those of great heat. The Samoiedes, the Laplanders, and the natives 
 of Greenland are tawny. Here the two extremes approach each other ; 
 great heat and great cold produce similar effects on the skin, because 
 each of these causes acts by a quality common to both — the dryness of 
 
16 FAMILY 
 
 ORIGIN OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 the air, perhaps, is equally great in extreme cold, as in extreme heal. 
 Both cold and heat dry the skin, and give it that tawny hue which we 
 find in so many different nations. Cold contracts all the productions 
 of nature ; the Laplanders, accordingly, who are perpetually exposed 
 to the rigors of the frost, are the smallest of the human species. 
 
 The most temperate climates produce the most handsome people, and 
 from this climate, the ideas of the genuine color of mankind, and of the 
 various degrees of beauty ought to be derived. 
 
 Although the climate may be regarded as the chief cause of the dif- 
 ferent colors of men, yet food greatly affects the form of our bodies ; 
 that which is unwholesome and ill prepared, makes the human species 
 degenerate. All those people who live miserably, are ugly and ill made. 
 The air and soil have considerable influence upon the figure of men, 
 beasts, and plants. In the same province, the inhabitants of the eleva- 
 ted and hilly parts, are more active, nimble, handsome, and ingenious, 
 than those who live in plains, where the air is thick and less pure. 
 
 Every circumstance concurs in proving that mankind are not composed 
 of species essentially different from each other; that on the contrary, 
 there was originally but one species ; who, after multiplying and 
 spreading over the whole surface of the earth, have undergone various 
 changes by the influence of climate, food, mode of living, epidemic dis- 
 eases, and the mixture of dissimilar individuals ; that, at first these 
 changes were not so conspicuous, and produced only individual varie- 
 ties, which afterwards became specific, because they were rendered 
 more general, more strongly marked, and more permanent, by the 
 continual action of the same causes ; and that they have been transmit- 
 ted from generation to generation, as deformities or diseases pass from 
 parents to children. 
 
 ORIGIN OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.-This is a subject 
 which has justly attracted the attention of philosophers, and produced 
 many interesting researches. It would obviously be impossible, within 
 our narrow limits, to give our readers any correct idea of the various 
 theories which have been adopted, to account for the peopling of Ameri- 
 ca by the Indians. The received opinion, we believe, and that which 
 seems to be supported by facts is, that the aborigines of America emi- 
 grated to America from the continent of Asia. 
 
 The principal objections which have been urged against this doc- 
 trine, so far as we know, are, the two following ; 1st, that many thou- 
 sand years must have elapsed subsequent to the creation, before the 
 population of the old world could have been sufficiently numerous, to 
 extend to its remote borders, and thence attain the American conitnent. 
 Besides, it is thought to reflect upon the wisdom of the Deity, to 
 permit so large a part of the globe to remain during u so long a time" 
 unpeopled. 
 
 The second objection is drawn from the number of different langua- 
 ges spoken in North and South America, which Mr. Jefferson and others 
 have thought incompatible with the idea of so recent an arrival on this 
 continent, as even three or four thousand years. 
 
 In respect to the first objection, it were sufficient to reply, that it as- 
 sumes a position which needs itself to be proved, and can therefore nev* 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 17 
 
 ORIGIN OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 er be the basis of solid argument. On this subject, Dr. Godman, in hU 
 Natural History, observes ; wt There is neither extravagance nor impro- 
 priety in the opinion, that the two continents were originally one, and 
 being continuous, the only difficulty is removed, that could be urged 
 against the approach of population from the extremity of Asia. But in 
 addition to all the reasons that can be urged in support of the doctrine 
 we maintain, it should not be forgotten, that there are strong evidences, 
 derived from astronomical and geological observations, proving the 
 axis and poles of our globe to be not now precisely where they origin- 
 ally stood. It is therefore very unfair to decide against the probability 
 of peopling America from the extremity of Asia, if we reason from the 
 existing climate of the countries adjacent to East Cape, or Cape Prince 
 of Wales, the two nearest points of Asia and America. 
 
 " The greatest difficulty thrown in the way of this opinion, was 
 thought to be the striking difference between the Esquimaux and the 
 common Indians, seeming to prove that they were derived from differ- 
 ent races or kinds. We are informed in Crantz's History of Green- 
 land, that the Moravian Missionaries, who visited the countries inhabit- 
 ed by the Esquimaux, were much surprised to find that they were in all 
 respects similar to the Greenlanders, and made use of the same lan- 
 guage ; shewing that the Esquimaux had sprung from the same race, 
 and had gradually reached their present residence from the extreme 
 northern parts of Europe. This fact, now rendered undeniable by 
 more recent researches, entirely invalidates the conclusion, that the Es- 
 quimaux were derived from another species. The resemblance exist- 
 ing between these people and the Siberians, Kamtschadales, Tunguse, 
 &c. is manifest ; and notwithstanding they differ in many respects from 
 other inhabitants of the New World, they are undeniably descended 
 from the same parent stock, coming from different parts of the globe. 
 The copper-colored natives of America, who are the most numerous of 
 the aborigines, approach more closety to the Asiatic Tartars in color 
 and stature, and this because they are descendants of that race arriving 
 in America from the extremity of Asia." 
 
 In respect to the second objection, the same writer observes ; " Grant- 
 ing, as we are perfectly willing to do, the great lapse of time which 
 would be requisite for the production of such radical changes, we do not 
 think the objection derived from the languages more solid than those 
 heretofore mentioned. As far as the researches of philologers have ex- 
 tended, we do not find that there is so much difference in the dialects 
 of our aborigines, as the arguments of these objectors would seem to 
 imply. Throughout a large mass of this native population, a very per- 
 ceptible connexion of language is apparent, and the relation to a parent 
 stock is fairly evident. Even allowing that the amount of difference 
 is as great, as could be desired by our opponents, the comparison of the 
 aboriginal dialects with those of European nations, is by no means a 
 correct mode of deciding the point. If, according to our idea, people 
 reached this country at different times, from the extreme north of Eu- 
 rope, or the northeast of Asia, the immense extent of country they were 
 gradually to fre scattered over, the new objects by which they were sur- 
 rounded, and the new modes of life they assumed, would all conspire to 
 produce a change in their language in a much shorter time than could 
 take place on the old continent, where their wanderings must have been, 
 2* 
 
18 FAMILY 
 
 HUMAN .STRUCTURE. BONES. 
 
 not only comparatively circumscribed, but their modes of living subject 
 to very few variations. 
 
 " But in the present condition of our knowledge, we have no right to 
 state that the traces of affinity between the American dialects are en- 
 tirely obliterated ; it would be far more correct to say, that we do not 
 possess the means of making the necessary inquiries and decisions; our 
 knowledge of their language is confined to a few meagre vocabularies, 
 frequently derived from persons, whose statements cannot be relied on, 
 however correct their intentions may have been, to say nothing of the 
 almost insuperable difficulty of writing such languages from the hearer's 
 idea of their pronunciation. 
 
 M But whatever apparent difficulties may be suggested to the Asiatic 
 origin of the aboriginals of America, the circumstance of but one spe- 
 cies of the human race existing throughout the world is sufficient to re- 
 duce us to the necessity of acknowledging that mankind have descend- 
 ed from one parent stock, however their external appearance may have 
 been modified by accident, disease, or situation. We are aware that 
 some persons talk of the possibility of there having been various centres 
 of creation to the human race, as among inferior animals ; but we con- 
 sider it very unphilosophical to suppose the existence of various centres 
 of creation for the same species." To the believer in Divine Revela- 
 tion, this last idea, whatever may bethought of it in a philosophical 
 view, will doubtless appear repugnant to the Scripture account of the 
 origin of the human species, and is therefore to be rejected. 
 
 HUMAN STRUCTURE.— The animal frame is composed of bones, 
 muscles, brain, nerves, arteries, veins, cartilages, membranes, glands, — 
 also of chyle, blood, milk, &c. 
 
 BONES are white, hard, brittle, and almost insensible ; they support 
 and form the stature of the body, defend its viscera, and give power to 
 the various muscles. The number of bones in the human body is gen- 
 erally 240 ; but in some individuals, who have two additional bones in 
 each thumb and great ioe,they amount to 248. 
 
 TEETH, a set of bones, situated in the upper and lower jaws, for 
 the purpose of mastication. In adults, they are 32 in number, or 16 in 
 each jaw-bone, consisting of 4 cutting, 2 canine, and 10 grinders. 
 
 The teeth are of various sizes, being arranged in the following or- 
 der ; four in front, termed cutting teeth, on each side of which is a sharp 
 pointed canine or eye-tooth ; adjoining to these are Jive grinders on each 
 side, the last of which is denominated the tooth of wisdom, because it 
 seldom appears before the 25th year. The front and eye teeth are fur- 
 nished with only one root each ; the two first grinders with two ; and 
 the hindmost generally with three or four ; which may in most persons 
 be ascertained by the number of small tubercles on the crowns. The 
 tooth is divided into two principal parts ; viz. the crown, which projects 
 above the gums ; and the root, that is enclosed within the sockets. 
 The crown is a hard, fine, glossy white enamel, serving to defend the 
 substance against external injury. The root is open ?.t the bottom, 
 where it is connected with vessels and nerves, by which it receives 
 nourishment, life and sensation. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 19 
 
 MUSCLES. FLESH. SKIPS'. — ABSORBENTS. — CARTILAGES. 
 
 MUSCLES, of which, it is said, there are 446 in the human body, 
 dissectible and describable, are parts of the animal body destined to 
 move some other parts, and hence are termed the organs or instruments 
 of motion. They are composed of flesh and tendinous fibres, and con- 
 tain vessels of all kinds. 
 
 FLESH is the fibrous or muscular part of the animal body : mus- 
 cular flesh is composed of a great number of fibres or threads ; it is 
 commonly of a reddish or whitish color. The ancients distinguished 
 live different kinds of flesh ; but the moderns admit one only, fleshy 
 and muscular parts being with them the same. 
 
 SKIN is the general covering of the body. Though apparently a 
 simple membrane, it consists of several parts. The outermost is the 
 scarf-skin : it has no nerves, and is extended over every part of the 
 true skin, except where the nails are ; it is this skin which is raised by 
 the application of a blister ; it is thickest in those parts accustomed to 
 labor or pressure, as the hand and foot. The rete mucosum is a web-like 
 mucous substance lying between the scarf and true skin, which chiefly 
 gives the color to the exterior of the human body. It is black in the 
 negro ; white, brown, or yellowish in the European. The true skin is 
 a very sensible membrane extended over all parts of the body, and has 
 nerves terminating so plentifully on its surface, that the finest needle 
 cannot prick it without touching some of them. 
 
 ABSORBENTS are a set of small colorless vessels, which pervade 
 the whole surface of the body both externally and internally. Their 
 office is to take up whatever fluids are effused into the different cavities, 
 and to pour out their contents for particular uses. For the purpose of 
 absorption they are highly irritable at their extremities, and are very 
 replete with valves to prevent the escape or return of their contents. 
 Their number, when compared with other vessels, is four times greater ; 
 and they are divided into lymphatics and lacteals, according to their re- 
 spective offices, the former conveying lymph, the latter chyle. 
 
 CARTILAGES, or gristles, are smooth, solid, flexible, elastic parts, 
 softer than bone, and seem to be of the same nature : some even be- 
 come bones by time ; some again are much softer, and partake of the 
 nature of ligaments. They terminate those bones that form moveable 
 joints, and in some instances serve to connect bones together. In the 
 nose, ears, and eyelids are cartilages. 
 
 A MEMBR.ANE is a thin, white, flexible, expanded skin, formed of 
 several sorts of fibres interwoven together. The use of membranes is 
 to cover and wrap up the parts of the body ; to strengthen them, and 
 save them from external injuries ; to preserve the natural heat ; to 
 join one part to another ; to sustain small vessels, &c. 
 
 A GLAND is an organic part of the body, destined for the secretion 
 or alteration of some peculiar fluid, and composed of blood-vessels, 
 nerves, and absorbents. The glands are designated either according to 
 the particular fluids which they contain, as mucous, sebaceous, lym- 
 phatic, salival, and lachrymal glands ; or their structure, as simple, 
 compound, conglobate, and conglomerate glands. The vessels and 
 nerves of glands always come from the neighboring parts, and the ar- 
 
20 FAMILY 
 
 BRAIN. CEREBRUM. CEREBELLUM. — SPINAL MARROW, 
 
 teries appear to possess a higher degree of irritability. Glands appear 
 to the eye as whitish membranous masses. 
 
 The BRAIN consists of the whole of that mass which, with its sur- 
 rounding membranes and vessels, fills the greater part of the skull. It 
 is said to be larger in man, in proportion to the nerves belonging to it, 
 than in any other animal. It consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, tuber 
 annulare, and medulla oblongata ; the whole weighs usually about 
 forty-eight or fifty ounces ; but its weight varies in different subjects. 
 
 The CEREBRUM, which is by far the largest portion, is contained 
 in all the J upper part of the skull ; it is divided into a right and left 
 hemisphere by a membrane termed falx. Each hemisphere is also 
 again subdivided into three lobes, the two lying in the front portion of 
 the skull being the largest. It is surrounded with membranes, and ac- 
 companied with blood-vessels. 
 
 The CEREBELLUM, or little brai?i,ls situated in the back part of 
 the skull beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum, from which it is 
 separated by a membrane called the tentorium. It is divided by the 
 falx minor into two hemispheres, which are again subdivided into lo- 
 bules. 
 
 The Tuber annulare is of a roundieh form, about an inch in length 
 and of the same width. From the tuber annulare arises the medulla 
 oblongata, which forms the beginning of the spinal marrow. 
 
 From the Brain arise nine pairs of NERVES ; some in solid cords, 
 others in separate threads which afterwards unite into cords. Of these 
 some have their origin in the cerebrum, some in the cerebellum, some in 
 the tuber annulare, and some in the medulla oblongata. From these 
 the nerves supplying the organs of smell, sight 1 taste, hearing, and feel- 
 ing, in part, are derived. The nerves are called pairs, not because 
 they proceed together from the brain and spinal marrow, but because 
 they proceed from the opposite lobes of the brain, or from opposite 
 sides of the spinal marrow, and supply similar parts on each side of 
 the body with nerves. And hence it often happens in paralysis, or pal- 
 sy, that on one side of the body all the nerves perform their office im- 
 perfectly, while on the other side no diminution of nervous energy is 
 evinced. A nerve is a long white medullary cord. The uses of the 
 nerves are to convey impressions to the brain, from all parts of the body, 
 over which they are spread, and to impart motion, by exciting the mus- 
 cles, to the whole system. It is the opinion of some philosophers, that 
 the nerves contain a subtle fluid, by means of which impressions are 
 immediately carried to the brain : this fluid has, however, never been 
 seen : others think that sensation is produced by what has been termed 
 vibration ; but the plain truth is, we are at present ignorant of the 
 means by which sensation and muscular motion are produced, further 
 than that we know both are the effect of the agency of the nerves. 
 
 The SPINAL MARROW, or medulla spinalis, is a continuation of 
 the medulla oblongata from the head through the centre of the spine, 
 which consists of a series of bones called vertebrce, supporting the body. 
 From the spinal marrow are given out thirty pairs of nerves : these, 
 in conjunction with those arising from the brain, communicate energy 
 and feeling to the whole body ; and also by their extreme sensibility 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 21 
 
 SPINAL MARROW. 
 
 convey to the brain, the mind, or soul, the slightest as well as the 
 strongest impressions made upon the different organs ; hence our 
 pleasures and our pains, our hopes, out fears, and our affection. 
 
 That the Brain, as a whole, is the organ of thought, the seat of the 
 understanding, and the place where the emotions of the mind or soul 
 arise, we cannot doubt ; it is also the centre of sensation and muscular 
 motion, and to which all the nerves of the body appear subservient. 
 But to what other particular uses the different parts of the brain are 
 applied, does not yet appear accurately known. 
 
 Phrenologists have pretended to throw some light on this curious and 
 interesting subject. We shall confer a favor on our readers, we trust, 
 by making them acquainted with some of the results of their investiga- 
 tion. 
 
 The founder of the system of phrenology — by which is meant, " the 
 science which treats of the faculties of the human mind, and of the 
 organs by which they manifest themselves," — is Dr. Gall, a physician 
 of Vienna, who, about the year 1796, first began to deliver lectures on 
 the subject. In 1804, Dr. J. G. Spurzheim" became associated with 
 him. Under the auspices, and captivating eloquence of these gentle- 
 men, the system has acquired some credit, in several parts of Europe. 
 
 For ourselves, we give little credit to it. Its tendency is obviously 
 towards the gloomy and foolish doctrine of materialism. In one re- 
 spect — in regard to the position, and size of the brain— there is truth 
 in phrenology ; but, of the particular mapping of the skull, as adopted 
 by the phrenologists, we think it behooves us, at present, to remain in 
 modest doubt. 
 
 Still, as a subject of curiosity, it is not without interest. And in or- 
 der that our readers may judge, in respect to themselves, what is the 
 strength of their intellectual powers, or to what propensities they are 
 most inclined, we have engaged our engraver to execute the outlines 
 of a human head, skilfully and scientifically divided up, or mapped out, 
 in the language of the science. The reader will notice that in each 
 division is supposed to lie some faculty, or propensity of the mind. 
 By an inspection of the brain itself, or the living man's head, the phre- 
 nologists affect to determine what faculty or propensity predominates 
 — whether a man is gifted with the love of study, or inclined to idle- 
 ness—whether he is peaceful or quarrelsome — timid or courageous — a 
 wise man, or a foo}. We leave our readers to apply the subjoined 
 rules for themselves. 
 
 The numbers which follow, refer to the numbers to be found in the 
 maps of the heads below. 
 
 1. Here lies the propensity of amativeness or physical love. 2. Here, 
 the propensity of philo progenitiveness, or love of children. 3. Coacern- 
 traveness, or power of close study, (not represented.) 4. Adhesiveness, 
 or disposition to friendship. 5. Combativtness or quarrelsomeness. 6. 
 Destructiveness, or desire to destroy, and murder. 7. Construclneness, 
 or mechanical skill. 8. Acquisitiveness, disposition to avarice, theft, &c. 
 9. Secret iveness, cunning, deceit. 10. Self-esteem, on the top of the 
 head, (not represented.) 11. Love of approbation, in the same vicinitv. 
 12. Cautiousness. 13. Benevolence. 14. Fmerat'on. 15. Hope. 16. 
 Ideality, or love of the sublime. Fine arts. 17. Wonder. 18. Const i- 
 
22 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 THORAX. RESPIRATION. 
 
 e^tiousness. 19. Firmness. 20. Individual'ty,\ove of philosophy, 2 1* 
 Form, or power of imitating. 22. Sise, ability to judge of it. 23* 
 Weight of resistance, power to judge of the momentum of bodies. 24. 
 Coloring, ability to distinguish between nice shades. 25. Locality, de- 
 sire for travelling. 26. Order, desire to see every thing in its place. 
 27. Time, recollection of dates. 28. Number, the conception ofnum- 
 ber, and its relations. 29. Tune, the perception of melody, (not repre- 
 sented.) 30. Language, faculty of acquiring language easily. 31. 
 Comparison, power of perceiving resemblances. 32. Causality, genius 
 for metaphysics. 33. Wit, disposition to view objects in a ludicrous light. 
 
 The THORAX or Chest consists of the upper portion of the trunk of 
 the human body ; it is inclosed by the ribs, having the sternum or breast 
 bone in the front, and a portion of the bones of the back behind. It is 
 separated from the liver, stomach, intestines, &c, by the diaphragm, or 
 midriff. The thorax contains the lungs, heart, &c, and numerous 
 biood vessels, nerves, and absorbents. It is also separated, by a mem- 
 brane called mediastinum, into a rignt and left portion. 
 
 The RESPIRATION is that action of the lungs and diaphragm con- 
 sisting of the processes of inspiration and expiration, by which air is 
 received into, and expelled from the thorax or chest. The quantity of 
 air taken into the lungs at each natural inspiration is supposed to be 
 about 15 or 16 cubic inches; the number of respirations made in a min- 
 ute is about 20. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 23 
 
 WINDPIPE. LUNGS. — HEART. 
 
 The V\ INDPIPE is a cartilaginous and membranous canal, througfi 
 which the air passes into and from the lungs. It is divided by anato- 
 mists into three parts, — the larynx, the trachea, and the bronchia. 
 
 The larynx is a hollow cartilaginous organ at the top of the trachea. 
 The air which passes through it during respiration produces the voice. 
 
 The trachea, is that portion of the wind-pipe which extends from the 
 larynx to the bronchia. 
 
 The bronchia is a term given tc the trachea after it has entered the 
 thorax, or chest ; here it separates into two branches, one of which com- 
 municates with the right and the other with the left lung. 
 
 The LUNGS are two viscera situated in the thorax, by means of 
 which we breathe. The lung in the right cavity of the chest, is divided 
 into three, that in the left cavity into two lobes. They hang in the 
 chest, attached at their superior part by means of the trachea, and are- 
 separated by a membrane called mediastinum. They are furnished with 
 innumerable cells which are formed by a continuation of the trachea, 
 the bronchial tubes of which communicate with each other ; the whole 
 appears not unlike a honey-comb. 
 
 The most important use of the lungs is for the process of respiration, 
 by which the circulation of the blood appears to be immediately sup- 
 ported ; and, doubtless, by their alternate inflation and collapsing, they 
 contribute with the diaphragm to promote the various functions of the 
 abdominal viscera, such as digestion, &c. For the change which the 
 blood undergoes in its passage through the lungs, see the following ar- 
 ticles. 
 
 The HEART is a hollow, strong, muscular viscus, having the shape 
 of a cone or pyramid reversed. Its size varies in different subjects ; it 
 is generally about six inches long, and, at the base, four or five wide. 
 The younger the subject, the larger is the heart, in proportion to the 
 body. It is often smaller in tall and strong men than in others. It is 
 situated on the left side of the thorax, and is surrounded by a membrane 
 called pericardium or heart purse ; it is also imbedded, as it were, in 
 the left lung. Its weight, with the pericardium, is usually from ten. to 
 fifteen ounces. It is the centre of the circulation of the blood : of course 
 from it all the arteries arise, and in it ail the veins terminate. It is divi- 
 ded internally into a right and left ventricle ; these are divided by a 
 fleshy septum. Each ventricle has two orifices; one auricular, through 
 which the blood enters, the other arterious, through which the blood 
 passes out. These four orifices are supplied with valves. There are 
 also two cavities adhering to the base of the heart called auricles. The 
 heart has, in the living subject, an alternate motion consisting of con- 
 traction and dilatation, called systole and diastole, by means of which 
 the blood is circulated throughout the body. The heart is said to con- 
 tract 4000 times in an hour ; hence, as each ventricle contains one ounce 
 of blood, there passes through the heart every hour 4"00 ounces, or 
 350 pounds of blood. The whole mass of blood is about twenty-ei^ht 
 pounds, so that this quantity of blood passes through the heart thirteen 
 or fourteen times in an hour, or about once in every four or five mini 
 In the whale, ten or twelve galloi.s of blood are thrown out of the heart 
 
24 FAMILY 
 
 ARTERY. VEIN. AIR. 
 
 at a stroke, with an immense velocity, through a tube of a foot diame- 
 ter. 
 
 An ARTERY, or a pulsating blood-vessel, is a cylindrical canal con- 
 veying the blood immediately from the heart to all parts of the body for 
 the purposes of nutrition, preservation of life, generation of heat, and 
 the secretion of different fluids. The motion of the blood in the arte- 
 ries is called the pulse ; it corresponds with that of the heart. The 
 pulse may be felt in various parts of the body, but the most usual place 
 of feeling it is at the wrist. From seventy to eighty pulsations in a min- 
 ute are commonly that number which in the adult subject is considered, 
 as far as the pulse is concerned, to constitute health. In children, how- 
 ever, the pulse is much quicker than this ; and in old persons slower. 
 Wounds in arteries are always dangerous, and very frequently mortal ; 
 hence the wisdom evinced in the structure of man : all the arteries are 
 deeply imbedded in flesh, or other surrounding media, while the veins, 
 a wound in which is comparatively unimportant, are plentifully scat- 
 tered on the surface of the body. The blood in the arteries is of a flo- 
 rid red color. 
 
 A VEIN is a blood-vessel which returns the blood from the various 
 parts of the body to the heart. The veins do not pulsate; the blood 
 flows through them very slowly, and is conveyed to the heart by the 
 contractility of their coats, the pressure of the blood from the arteries, 
 the action of the muscles, and respiration ; and it is prevented from 
 going 1 backwards in the veins by valves, of which there are a great nunu 
 ber. The blood in the veins is of a much darker red than that in the 
 arteries. 
 
 Before we treat of the blood itself, it may be useful to know the com- 
 ponent parts of atmospheric air, so essential as it is to the life of all 
 warm blooded animals. 
 
 AIR was for many ages considered as a simple homogeneous fluid ; 
 and it was not till towards the end of the last century that it was found 
 to be a compound body. Common air is composed chiefly of two gases, 
 of which one, oxygen, forms of it 24 parts by weight, and the other, ni- 
 trogen, forms of it 76 parts ; or about 21 parts of the former, and 79 of 
 the latter by bulk. These proportions are found the same, in whatever 
 part of the* world the experiments are made, or from whatever height 
 in the atmosphere the air is obtained. It ought however to be mention- 
 ed, that besides these ingredients, common air contains a very minute 
 portion of carbonic acid gas, but that portion is in general so small as 
 not indeed to be considered of any moment. Of the two portions of 
 atmospheric air, the oxygen only supports animal life or combustion. 
 Thus, if an animal be inclosed under a bell glass containing atmospher- 
 ical air, it will live in it till all the oxygen is absorbed by its breathing, 
 and then it instantly dies; the same takes place when a lighted candle 
 is inclosed under similar circumstances ; hence the necessity and impor- 
 tance of this fluid to animal existence. But although only about one- 
 fourth of atmospheric air can support life, it yet appears that such a 
 mixture is more advantageous for animal life than oxygen alone ; thus 
 evincing the wisdom of that mixture found every where as atmospher- 
 ic air. In what state of combination the two gases are, which consti- 
 tute common air, is not exactly known ; but we well know that a more 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 25 
 
 BLOOD. THORACIC DUCT. — ABDOMEN. 
 
 intimate union of the same materials produces most powerful agents, 
 namely, the nitrous and the nitric acids. 
 
 The BLOOD is a red fluid of a saltish taste, of a somewhat urinous 
 smell, and glutinous consistence, which circulates in the heart, arteries, 
 and veins, conveying nutrition, heat, and excitement to the whole body. 
 The quantity of blood in the human body is estimated to be about twen- 
 ty-eight pounds in an adult. Of this, four parts are contained in the 
 veins, and a fifth in the arteries. The blood being returned by the veins 
 of a dark red color to the heart, it is sent from that viscus into the lungs, 
 to undergo some material change by coming in contact with atmospher- 
 ic air in the air-cells of the lungs : after which, as has been stated, it is 
 returned to the heart again of a much more florid color, and then im- 
 pelled into the arteries, to be distributed over the body. The heat of 
 the blood is usually about 98 degrees. 
 
 THORACIC DUCT, an important vessel called the trunk of the ab- 
 sorbents. It is of a serpentine form, and about the diameter of a crow- 
 quill. It is attached to the bones of the back, and extends from the low- 
 er opening of the midriff or diaprahgm (a membrane which separates 
 the heart and lungs from the stomach, bowels, and other abdominal vis- 
 cera,) to the angle formed by the union of the left subclavian and jugu- 
 lar veins, into which it opens and evacuates its contents, there to be 
 mixed with the blood. These contents consist chiefly of chyle, a whi- 
 tish or milky fluid, separated from the food by the process of digestion, 
 and taken up by the absorbents thickly spread over the intestines, and 
 by them conveyed to the thoracic duct. 
 
 Such are the offices of respiration and the blood. We shall now pro- 
 ceed to consider some of the most important of the abdominal viscera. 
 
 The ABDOMEN consists of all that portion of the trunk of the hu- 
 man body situated below the thorax. It contains the liver, its gall- 
 bladder, the stomach, the spleen, the pancreas, the intestines, the me- 
 sentery, the kidneys, the urinary bladder, the omentum, &c. It has al- 
 so numerous blood vessels, nerves, and absorbents. 
 
 The LIVER, which is the largest and most ponderous viscus in the 
 abdomen, it weighing, in adults, about three pounds, is of a deep red 
 color. It consists of a glandulous mass, interspersed with numerous 
 blood-vessels. It is situated under the diaphragm, inclining to the right 
 side of the body, having the stomach beneath it; between which and 
 the liver itself, lies the gall-bladder, with which it is of course intimate- 
 ly connected. It is divided into two principal lobes, the right of which 
 is by far the largest. Its shape approaches that of a circle ; it is attach- 
 ed to the diaphragm by the suspensary and other ligaments. It is lar- 
 ger in young animals than in old ones. 
 
 The BILE is of a yellow-green color, about the consistence of thin 
 oil ; when much agitated it froths like soap and water. Its smell is 
 somewhat like musk ; its taste is bitter. It is, in fact, a species of soap ; 
 and like other soap, is successfully employed to remore grease from 
 clothes, &c. The gall-bladder in the human body is shaped like a pear, 
 and is generally capable of containing about an ounce. It is firmly con- 
 nected to the liver. In the elephant, stag, all insects and worms, this 
 
 3 
 
26 FAMILY 
 
 SPLEEN. — STOMACH. — DIGESTION. 
 
 reservoir is wanting, the bile which they secrete, passing at once into 
 the intestinal canal. The real use of the bile does not even now seem 
 to be accurately ascertained. It appears, however, to assist in separa- 
 ting the chyle from the chyme, to excite the intestines to action, and to 
 produce the healthy appearance of the intestine evacuations. 
 
 The SPLEEN, or Milt, is a spongy viscus of a livid color, in form 
 somewhat resembling a tongue, but its shape, situation and size vary 
 very much. It is, in a healthy subject, always on the left side between 
 the false ribs and the stomach. Its general length is six inches, breadth 
 three, and one thick. It is connected, by the blood vessels, to the sto- 
 mach and the left kidney. It is larger when the stomach is empty, and 
 smaller when compressed or evacuated by a full stomach. The uses of 
 the spleen have, till lately, been considered as unknown ; but by a pa- 
 per of Sir E. Home, in the Philosophical Transactions, it appears pro- 
 bable that this viscus is a reservoir for the superabundant serum, lymph, 
 globules, soluble mucus, and coloring matter carried into the circula- 
 tion immediately after digestion is completed. 
 
 The STOMACH is a large receptacle, varying in its capacity from 
 about five to eleven pints. It is situated under the left side of the dia- 
 phragm, its left side touching the spleen, and its right covered by the 
 thin edge of the liver ; its figure nearly resembling the pouch of a bag 
 pipe, its left end being most capacious. The upper side is concave, the 
 lower is convex. It has two orifices, both on its upper part ; the left, 
 through which the aliment passes from the mouth through the gullet or 
 (Esophagus to the stomach, is named cardia; the right, through which 
 it is conveyed out of the stomach into the duodenum, is named pylorus, 
 where there is a circular valve which hinders the return of the aliment 
 from the gut, but does not at all times hinder the bile from flowing into 
 the stomach. The stomach, like the intestinal canal, is composed of 
 three coats or membranes. 
 
 The uses of the stomach are to excite hunger, and, partly, thirst; to 
 receive the food from the oesophagus, and to retain it, till, by the motion 
 of the stomach and the admixture of various fluids, and by many other 
 changes not exactly understood, it is rendered fit to pass the right ori- 
 fice of the stomach, and afford chyle to the intestines for the nutrition 
 of the body ; or, in other words, till the important process 
 
 Of DIGESTION is completed. The chief agent in this process is? 
 beyond question, the gastric juice ; a fluid that is secreted from certain 
 glands in the stomach, and which possesses great solvent powers in re- 
 gard to numerous animal and vegetable substances. The food being duly 
 masticated, and blended with a considerable portion of saliva, is propel- 
 led into the stomach, where it soon undergoes a remarkable change, be- 
 ing converted into a pulpy mass, termed chyme ; the chyme afterwards 
 passes from the stomach into the small intestines ; here, it is mixed 
 with bile, and separated into two portions, one of which is as white as 
 milk, and called chyle; the other passes on to the larger intestines, and 
 is voided as excrementitious matter. The chyle is absorbed by the lac- 
 teals, which terminate in the trunk or tube called thoracic duct; it is 
 there mixed with variable proportions of lymph, and, lastly, with the* 
 blood, as stated under that article. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 27 
 
 G A STRIC JUIC E . PA \ CUE AS. — I N TBBTTNES. — KTD >EYS, 
 
 The GASTRIC JUICE is said to be of so powerful a nature, that 
 after death the s-omach is occasionally eaten into holes by its action. 
 And it is also said, that if exposed to a proper temperature, it will di- 
 gest food in metal tubes. 
 
 The PANCREAS, or Sw t eet-bread, is a large gland of the salivary 
 kind, of a long figure, compared to a dog's tongue. It lies across the 
 upper and back part of the abdomen, under the stomach. Its use is to 
 secrete a juice called the pancreatic juice, which appears to be similar 
 in its properties to saliva, and together with the bile helps to complete 
 the digestion of the aliment. It communicates with the duodenum. 
 
 The INTESTINES consist of that convoluted tube beginning at the 
 right orifice of the stomach called pylorus, and ending with the sphinc- 
 terrecti. The length of this canal is generally six times the length of 
 the whole human subject. It is divided by nature into two parts. The 
 small intestines begin from the stomach, and fill the middle or fore part 
 of the abdomen; the large intestines occupy the sides, and both the up- 
 per and lower parts of the same cavity. 
 
 The KIDNEYS are shaped like a kidney-bean. They are situated 
 on the lower part of the back, one on each side. They are generally 
 surrounded with more or less fat. 
 
 The SENSES are those faculties or powers by which external ob- 
 jects are perceived. The sight, touch or feeling, hearing, smell and taste, 
 are called the senses. The organs through which they operate are the 
 following : — 
 
 The EYE is the organ of seeing. The eye-lids, the eye-lashes, and 
 the eye brows, require no particular description. The eye-ball is of a 
 globular figure; it is composed of various membranes; but those pwts 
 of the eye deserving the most notice, are the iris* the pupil, and the re- 
 tina. The iris is that colored circular ring situated beneath the crys- 
 talline lens, which surrounds the central or dark part called the pupil. 
 It is capable of expanding or contracting, which it constantly does, ac- 
 cording to the quantity of light which is thrown upon the eye. In a 
 very bright light the pupil is reduced by the contraction of the iris to a 
 very narrow hole ; in a'dark place the pupil is so much enlarged, as to 
 render the iris scarcely visible. The pupil is the dark round opening 
 in the middle of the eye, surrounded by the iris, and through which the 
 rays of light pass to the retina, which is the true organ of vision, and 
 is formed by an expansion of the pulp of the optic nerve. Externally 
 the globe of the eye and the transparent cornea are moistened by a fluid 
 called the tears, which are secreted in the lachrymal glands, one of 
 which is situated above each inner corner of the eye. In proportion as 
 the eye is more or less round, is the sight of a person longer or shorter. 
 Persons of short sight are called myopes, of long sight, presbyopes. 
 
 TOUCH, or Feelivg, resides in every part of the body that is sup- 
 plied with nerves. The sense of touch is most exquisite in the lips, the 
 tops of the fingers, the tongue, and a few other places. 
 
 The EAR is the organ of hearing. In man it consists of an external 
 ear, or auricula, and an internal bony cavity with numerous circular 
 and winding passages, by which the vibrations of the air are collected 
 
28 FAMILY 
 
 NOSE. — TASTE. SEXES. 
 
 and concentrated, and by a peculiar mechanism conveyed to the audi- 
 tory nerves. The ear is supplied with peculiar glands, which secrete 
 an unctuous substance, called the wax of the ear. The external au- 
 ditory passage proceeds in a spiral direction to the tympanum or drum 
 of the ear, which forms a complete partition between this passage and 
 the internal cavities. Beyond the tympanum is a hemispherical cavi- 
 ty which leads to the fauces, or opening at the back of the mouth : this 
 opening is of a trumpet form. The inner cavity, including the wind- 
 ing passage, is aptly called the labyrinth of the ear. The sense of hear- 
 ing is perhaps still more important than that of seeing ; but as we can 
 have no just conception of the real state of social existence without 
 either of these senses, it is idle to speculate on such comparisons. 
 
 The NOSE is in man, and most of the superior animals, the organ 
 of smelling. The structure of the nose has nothing in it so very pecu- 
 liar that can convey any idea of a mechanical organization to aid the 
 sense of smelling. It is true, the nerves of the nose are considerably 
 expanded over the nostrils, and are defended from external injuries by 
 a peculiar mucus ; but it is very difficult to ascertain what are the es- 
 sential organs of smelling. The nostrils are two passages of the nose 
 which communicate interiorly with the upper part of the mouth. The 
 use of the nostrils is for smelling, respiration, and speech. The nose 
 is an important part of the human countenance ; it is considered in 
 almost all countries as one of the features to which peculiar merit is 
 attached. 
 
 The TASTE resides chiefly in the tongue, in conjunction with the 
 palate, lips, and other parts of the mouth. The tongue is however des- 
 tined to perform much more varied and important functions than that 
 of conveying to the mind the taste of sapid bodies. It is the tongue, 
 in conjunction with the lips, teeth, palate, and throat, which produces 
 the sounds of language. The tongue is partly muscular, and partly 
 composed of membranes and cellular substance. Its upper side is 
 covered with papilloz, in which the taste more immediately resides. The 
 impression of sapid bodies on the organs of taste is modified by age^ 
 size, habit, and the more or less frequent application of strong stimu- 
 lants. The state of the stomach, as well as general health, is often in- 
 dicated by the state and color of the tongue. In health the tongue is 
 always of a red color; in disease it varies from white to yellow, and 
 sometimes is almost black. In health the tongue is always more or 
 less moist ; in disease frequently parched and dry ; this last condition 
 is, however, produced in health by the mere absence of moisture, evin- 
 ced by the sensation we call thirst. 
 
 The SEXES differ by obvious indications ; but there are some not 
 so universally recognized, which we may mention. The male is gen- 
 erally of a larger size than the female, and more robust ; the male be- 
 comes frequently bald on the top of the head, the female rarely or nev- 
 er ; the male has always more or less beard, the female rarely any, ex- 
 cept as old age approaches, and then it is chiefly confined to the upper 
 lip. The anatomical differences, besides the obvious ones, are, in the 
 female, a larger pelvis than in the male, more delicate muscles and 
 smaller bones ; and the phrenologists say, that the female skull is more 
 elongated than the male, from the protuberance in the middle of th* 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 29 
 
 MIND. SENSATION. 
 
 back part of the skull, (which they denominate philoprngeniiiveness, or 
 love of children,) being more prominent. The mental differences of 
 the two sexes are also important ; women appear to possess more ima- 
 gination and less judgment than men ; these differences are unfortu- 
 nately too often widened by mistakes in the education of the female 
 mind. 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 ON THE MIND AND ITS FACULTIES. 
 
 The term MIND has been lately applied by philosophers to the intel- 
 lectual portion of man, as being a more correct term than either soul or 
 understanding. It implies that part of our being which is occupied in 
 thought. The seat of the mind is manifestly the brain : but in what 
 part of it, whether the whole, or in the pineal gland, as Des Cartes main- 
 tains, where he says all the nerves terminate ; or whether, as Soemmer- 
 ing states, the fluid contained in the ventricles of the brain be its seat, 
 is unknown : all such opinions being mere conjectures. 
 
 The mind, or soul, has been usually divided into a certain number of 
 faculties. We shall consider it from its more simple to its more com- 
 plex state. The commonest and simplest impression made upon the 
 mind being conveyed to it by either of the senses, is called 
 
 SENSATION. Sensation is either pleasurable or painful ; in pro- 
 portion to the degree of pleasure or of pain produced by a sensation, 
 will be the vividness of its apprehension by the mind. An apprehend- 
 ed sensation is termed perception : that is, when the mind itself per- 
 ceives, recognizes the sensation, — when it becomes the subject of 
 thought in the mind, it is then called perception. An idea is a resem- 
 blance or image of any thing, which, though not seen, is conceived, — 
 apprehended by the mind ; — an idea appears to be, therefore, nothing 
 more than a well-defined and apprehended perception. An idea may 
 be simple or complex, true or false. Simple ideas are those which arise 
 in the mind from sensation; as those of color by the eye, of sounds by 
 the ear, heat by the touch, &c. ; some ideas are formed by sensation 
 and reflection jointly, as pleasure, pain, power, existence. Complex 
 ideas are infinite ; some are not supposed to exist by themselves, but 
 are considered as dependencies on, or affections of substantives, as, 
 triangle, gratitude, murder, &c. Combinations of simple ideas are 
 such as, a dozen, a score, beauty, theft, &c. The association of ideas, 
 and consequently of affections, is one of the most important charac- 
 ters of the human mind, and the great source of our happiness or misery. 
 
 In tracing the process of the human mind in acquiring knowledge, 
 we observe the following curious analogies or gradations ; it commen- 
 ces with a simple idea or thought impressed, which is connected with 
 simple perception. This solicits attention, which, according to its de- 
 grees of importance, disposes to observation, consideration, investiga- 
 
 3* 
 
30 FAMILY 
 
 MEMORY. 
 
 tion, contemplation, meditation, reflection. These voluntary operations 
 of the mind are necessary to the formation of clear conceptions, right 
 understanding, an enlarged comprehension of some subjects, nice dis- 
 cernment, and accurate discriminations concerning others: these acqui- 
 sitions enable us to abstract essential qualities in our minds from the 
 subjects in which they are seated, to assemble others in new combina- 
 tions, to reason, to draw inferences, and, finally, to judge or decide on 
 their merits or defects. 
 
 MEMORY is that quality of the mind by which it is enabled to call 
 up, generally at will, and upon suitable occasions, ideas,trains of thought 
 which have been previously impressed upon it. No intellectual pro- 
 cess can be carried on without memory : where the memory is weak, 
 there the intellect will be found weak ; where the memory is good, 
 there, in general, will the intellect be powerful. In nothing, however, 
 do individuals differ more from each other, than in their memories. 
 Some remember one kind of facts and things well, while others remem- 
 ber them very indifferently. This has been attributed by the phrenol- 
 ogists to the activity and size of particular organs in the brain ; and it 
 seems to us probable that there may be some truth in this, — indeed the 
 phrenologists assign to the memory many organs of the brain, such as 
 those of form, size, weight, color, space, order, time, number, tune, lan- 
 guage. But whatever truth there may be in this, we believe that more 
 depends upon the exercise of (he mind in any given course, than on the 
 original conformation ; that, in order to make the memory efficient, it 
 must be often exercised on any given subject ; and that the most im- 
 portant knowledge, if not occasionally revived by repetition, will fre- 
 quently vanish from the mind. The notion of the mind being a store- 
 house, and that ideas once deposited there, will always there remain, is 
 extremely fallacious. It is true they frequently do so, especially those 
 received in youth ; but many of these, without repetition, become in 
 time obliterated. Hence, therefore, the necessity of not only the pro- 
 cesses of education to improve the memory, but of an occasional repe- 
 tition of them, in order that they may be efficient and useful to us lb 
 after life. 
 
 Recollection is that part of the memory, which consists in calling up 
 in the mind the knowledge, which has been previously impressed upon 
 it. Attention and repetition help much to fix ideas in the memory; the 
 ideas which make the most lasting impressions are those accompanied 
 by pleasure or pain. 
 
 The powers of memory of some persons for particular subjects are 
 astonishingly great. Seneca says that he was able, by the mere effort 
 of his natural memory, to repeat two thousand words upon once hear- 
 in cr them, each in its order, though theyliad no connexion with each 
 other. He also mentions that Portius Latro reta-ned in his memory all 
 the declamations which he had ever spoken, and never found his mem- 
 ory fail in a single word. Cyneas, ambassador to the Romans from 
 king Pyrrhus, had, in one day, so well learned the names of his specta- 
 tors, that on the next he saluted the whole senate and all the populace 
 assembled, each by his name. Pliny says, Cyrus knew every soldier in 
 his army by name, and L. Scipio all the people of Rome. Carneades. 
 would repeat any volume found in the libraries as readily as if he wert 
 
E NCYCLOPEDIA. 31 
 
 IMAGINATION. — GENIUS. — REASON. 
 
 reading". Many modern instances of the great powers of memory might 
 be also adduced, but they do not appear necessary. 
 
 IMAGINATION is that particular state or disposition of the mind by 
 which it is enabled to form numberless new and extraordinary ideas 
 which are not the immediate result of external impressions or of recol- 
 lection, and hence is obviously distinguished from perception and mem- 
 ory. By the imagination an indtridual creates thoughts entirely his 
 own, and which never might have existed had they not occurred to the 
 individual mind. The exercise of most of the other qualities of the 
 mind requires calmness and composure. The imagination delights in 
 the most heterogeneous and incoherent combinations and most extra- 
 vagant circumstances. The^e visions or phantoms are nevertheless 
 sometimes impressed upon the memory, and during: imperfect or dis- 
 turbed sleep present themselves and produce those absurd combinations 
 which occur in dreaming. Although the flights of imagination are bold, 
 yet they conform in some degree to the impressions which real objects 
 have made upon the sensorhun. And hence all the ideas which it calta 
 up have some relation to prior received facts, and to the knowledge ac- 
 quired by the mind. 
 
 Fancy, conceits, and phantoms, are merely species of which the imagi- 
 nation is the genus. Poets and pn inters are notoriously the subjects in 
 which a powerful imagination is essential to the effectual developernents 
 of their respective arts. 
 
 GENIUS is, in numerous instances, allied to the imagination. It 
 consists in that natural talent, disposition, or aptitude, which one man 
 possesses of performing something in preference to another, with pecu- 
 liar facility and excellence. Thus men are said to have a genius for 
 painting, poetry, music, ^cc; meaning, that the powers of their minds 
 enable them to excel in those particular departments. Although, per- 
 haps, minute attention to the genius of each individual is not, in a so- 
 cial and moral view, necessary in the education of youth, we believe, 
 nevertheless, that some attention to this subject is absolutely necessary 
 in order to effectuate the best deveiopement of the character. And 
 while we cannot avoid admiring genius, we ought never to forget that 
 its best exemplification is when combined with moral, useful, and vir- 
 tuous actions: that true genius, real science,and rational religion, ought 
 to be inseparable companions. 
 
 REASON ; that process of the mind by which different ideas or 
 things are compared, their fitness or unfitness perceived, and conclu- 
 sions drawn from such comparisons and perceptions. Judgment is a 
 similar operation of the mind ; but, as its name imports, it is that act 
 of the mir.d by which it concludes and determines upon certain finai 
 results. Thus we compare the sun and the moon, and finding the sun 
 greater than the moon, we determine or judge accordingly. 
 
 The WILL is a <tate or disposition of the mind, consisting in be- 
 ing disposed, icilling, to do or avoid any act, or to obtain or avoid anv 
 thing. The state or disposition of the mind called the will, is produced 
 by innumerable agencies. Some of these arise from the internal feel- 
 in? of the mind itself; others from external objects, as heat, light, cold, 
 human society ; our affections, our hopes, our fears, our pleasures and 
 
32 FAMILY 
 
 GHOST. KNOWLEDGE. PASSIONS. 
 
 our pains; others from an association of internal feeling with external 
 objects ; and hence the incalculable varieties of human actions. 
 
 GHOST ; a spirit or apparition of some deceased person. The an- 
 cients supposed every man had three different ghosts, which, after the 
 dissolution of the body, were variously disposed of. They were dis- 
 tinguished into man-s, spiritus, umbra ; the manes they supposed went 
 to the infernal regions; the spiritus ascended to the skies; and the 
 umbra hovered about the tomb, as unwilling to quit its old connections. 
 The superstitious notions of ghosts, spirits, &c. are rapidly declining ; 
 and notwithstanding all the solemn tales which have been propagated, 
 there is no reason to believe that any real spirits or celestial agents 
 have held intercourse with man since the establishment of Christiani- 
 ty. The history, therefore, of modern miracles, appearances of the 
 dead, &c. will be always found, when thoroughly examined, merely 
 the phantoms of a disordered imagination. 
 
 In quitting this subject it may be observed, that when the mind 
 turns inward, If linking m the first operation that occurs; and in this we 
 may observe a great variety of modifications, and whence it frames to 
 itself distinct ideas. Thus, the perception annexed to any impression 
 on the body by an external object is called sensation. When an idea 
 occurs without the presence of the object, it is called remembrance ; 
 when sought for by the mind, and brought again to review this pro. 
 cess, it is called recollection ; when the ideas are attempted to be regis- 
 tered in the memory, it is attention; and when the mind considers any 
 subject in a variety of views, successively dwelling upon each, it is cal- 
 led study. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE, therefore, from this short view of the mind, it will 
 be seen, arises from those impressions and ideas which we receive by 
 the medium of the senses. We can have no knowledge further than 
 we have ideas. A man may be said to know all those truths which 
 are lodged in his memory by a previous, clear and full perception. In 
 intuitive knowledge, the mind perceives the truth as the eye does light; 
 thus the mind perceives that white is not black, and that three are more 
 than two. This part of knowledge is irresistible, and on intuition de- 
 pends all the certainty of our other knowledge. When the mind is 
 obliged to discover the agreement or disagreement of our ideas by the 
 intervention of other ideas, this is what is called reasoning. 
 
 Again. Knowledge includes, ^f course, all which we can know. 
 It has been also divided into useful and luxurious knowledge. The 
 best knowledge is that which enables us to act most virtuously, because 
 virtue is the foundation of genuine happiness. Learning, properly so 
 called, is not essential to a virtuous life, although considerable know- 
 ledge most undoubtedly is so ; for ignorance is, in innumerable instan- 
 ces, the parent of error and of crime. A prudent choice in our pursuit 
 of knowledge is however necessary, in order that we may avoid an idle 
 and useless or pernicious waste of time. 
 
 The PASSIONS. In the proper management of the Passions con- 
 sists mostly human wisdom. As every effort of the memory or im- 
 agination arouses some associate passion or affection, the mind rarely 
 continues long in a quiescent state ; that is, entirely divested of every 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. • 33 
 
 PASSIONS. AFFECTIONS. 
 
 thing" sensible, and unconscious of any particular feeling. It is by ob- 
 serving such associate feelings, that we are enabled to ascertain the na- 
 ture and operation of the passions (or suffering) of the mind, and dis- 
 cover three distinct modes or states of passion, wh'ch differ from sim- 
 ple feeling only in duration and intensity, but not in quality. The 
 state called vassion is violent and transitory ; emotion is less so ; and 
 affection is the least violent and most permanent. Hence we distin- 
 guish between the lowest and highest degree of feeling by the terms 
 passion, emotion, and affection, which are always employed to express 
 the sensible effects of objects or ideas concerning them on the mind. 
 The word passion, therefore, is strictly and properly used to designate 
 the first feeling, impression, or percussion, as it were, of which the 
 mind is conscious from some impulsive cause ; by which it is wholly 
 acted on without any efforts of its own, either to solicit or escape the 
 impression. This passion or state of absolute passiveness, in conse- 
 quence of any sudden percussion of mind, is necessarily of short dura- 
 tion. The strong impression immediately produces a reaction corres- 
 pondent to its nature, either to appropriate and enjoy, or avoid and re- 
 pel the exciting cause. This reaction is very significantly denominated 
 emotion, which is applicable to the sensible effects produced on the 
 mind in consequence of a particular agitation. Emotions, then, al- 
 though often erroneously used as synonymous with, are only the effects 
 of passions. 
 
 The term Affection always implies a less violent, and generally 
 more durable influence, which persons and things have on the mind. 
 It is usually associated with ideas of good, but there exists^^) necessa- 
 ry connexion. Hence we find that the term passion is applicable to 
 all the violent impressions made on our minds by the perception of 
 something very striking and apparently interesting ; emotion, to the 
 external marks or visible changes produced by. the force or- the passion 
 on the corporeal system ; and affection, to the less violent, more delib- 
 erate, and more permanent impressions, by causes which appear suffi- 
 ciently interesting. The range of affection may extend from those 
 stronger feelings, which border upon emotions, to the mildest sensa- 
 tions of pleasure or displeasure, which we can possibly perceive. In 
 like manner the desire of any thing under the appearance of its good- 
 ness, suitableness, or necessity to our happiness, constitutes the passion 
 of l<.ve ; the desire of avoiding any thing hurtful or destructive consti- 
 tutes hatred or aversion; the desire of a good which appears probable, 
 and in our power, constitutes hope ; but, if the good appear impro- 
 bable or impossible, it constitutes fear or despair. The unexpected 
 gratification of desire is joy ; the desire of happiness to another under 
 pain or suffering is compassion ; and the desire of another's punish- 
 ment, according to this hypothesis, is revenge or malice. 
 
 The desire of happiness is, then, it appears, the spring or motive of 
 all our passions. Some wise and reasonable motive seems certainly 
 necessary to all wise and reasonable actions. To act without a motive, 
 would be the same as not to act at all ; that is, such an action would 
 answer no further or better end than not acting; but whatever wise 
 ends are intended by the passions, if they are not kept under due regu- 
 lation and restraint, they soon become the sources of our misery. Au- 
 thors have arranged the passions into grateful and ungrateful, primU 
 
34 FAMILY 
 
 THE PASSIONS, 
 
 tive and derivative, &c. ; but the simplest classification is into the selfish. 
 and the social, according to the exciting cause : in the former, the idea 
 of good predominates; in the latter, that of evil. The only emotions, 
 which cannot be considered as connected either with the selfish or so- 
 cial feeling, with self-love or apprehension, are surprise, astonishment, 
 an d wonder : these are excited by something novel, embarrassing, or 
 vast and incomprehensible in the object, without any reference to its 
 peculiar nature ; and, exerting their influence indiscriminately in pas- 
 sions of the most opposite characters, are aptly denominated introduc- 
 tory emotions. The passions and affections founded on self-love, and 
 excited by the idea of good, are joy, cheerfulness, mirth, contentment ; 
 pride, vanity, haughtiness, arrogance, &c. ; desires inordinate, as glut- 
 tony, drunkenness, lust, &c, avarice, rapaciousness, emulation, ambi- 
 tion, and hope. The passions and affections operating on the principle 
 of self-love, in which the idea of evil is immediately present to the mind, 
 are sorrow, grief, melancholy, discontent, vexation, &c. The virtuous 
 affections inspired by sorrow, are patience, resignation, humility ; and 
 fear, terror, despair, remorse, cowardice, doubt, shame, &c. Fortitude, 
 courage, intrepidity, are virtuous affections, excited only by exposure 
 to those evils, which are usually productive of fear, to which they 
 are diametrically opposite. To this class also belong anger, resent- 
 ment, indignation, and peevishness ; fortitude, courage, and intrepidity, 
 are likewise influenced by anger, with which they are always more or 
 less blended. 
 
 The passions and affections derived from the social feeling, which 
 extends its regards to the state, conduct, and character of others, and 
 their relative circumstances, deportment, merit, and dispositions, as 
 contrasted with ourselves, may be classed under the cardinal affections 
 of love and hatred, in which the idea of good or evil is predominant. 
 The benevolent desires and dispositions appear in the parental, filial, 
 fraternal, conjugal, and friendly affections. 
 
 Sympathy is that inward feeling, which is excited by the situation of 
 another, or which harmonizes with the condition and feelings of its 
 object ; in this manner it may become a passion, an affection, or a dis- 
 position. Sympathy indicates a susceptible mind, and impels men to 
 plunge into water, or rush into flames, to succour a fellow creature. 
 The sympathetic affections are very numerous, and discriminated by 
 various appellations. They may be considered as they respect distress, 
 such as compassion, mercy, commiseration, condolence, pity, generosi- 
 ty, liberality, charit}', and condescension : as they relate to prosperity, 
 in the sensations of joy, gladness, happiness, &c. at the good fortune 
 of others ; and as they proceed from sympathetic imitation, or affec- 
 tions derived from good opinion, such as gratitude, thankfulness, ad- 
 miration, esteem, respect, veneration, awe, reverence, with the devia- 
 tions of fondness and partiality. The passions occasioned by displa- 
 cency, in which evil is the predominant idea, are of two kinds ; those 
 in which malevolent dispositions are indicated, and those of simple dis- 
 approbation, without any mixture of malevolence. Those arising from 
 malevolent dispositions are hatred, envy, rancour, cruelty, &c. ; anger, 
 rage, revenge, resentment, and jealousy. The displacency occasioned 
 by unfavorable opinions gives rise to horror, indignation, contempt, dis- 
 dain, and irrision. The five grateful passions, as they have been call- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 35 
 
 VIRTUE. ALIMENTS. 
 
 ed, of love, desire, hope, joy, and pleasing recollection, enhance each 
 other ; so do the five ungrateful ones of hatred, aversion, fear, grief, 
 and displeasure. 
 
 As happiness and misery, virtue and vice, depend almost entirely on 
 the proper exercise of the passions gnd affections, the study of their 
 nature and influence should become a distinct and primary branch of 
 education. Virtue, therefore, consists not only in an exemplary desire 
 of regulating all our thoughts and pursuits by right principles, but also 
 by so acting as to produce beneficial results to others as well as to our- 
 selves. Vic? is distinguished by unhappy effects, by conduct and pro- 
 pensities opposed to those of virtue, and consists in depraved affections 
 and ungoverned passions. Religion is evinced by a laudable desire 
 of rectitude, of yielding obedience to the divine command, and habitu- 
 al solicitude to obtain the divine favor. Devotion is the religious tem- 
 per or disposition applied to prayers and meditations which deeply in- 
 terest the affections. Superstition is a consecrated self-interest, without 
 either love or regard to the supposed duties it enjoins, or to its object. 
 He who imagines that the divine favor is to be gained by a strict atten- 
 tion to frivolous ceremonies is superstitious. A tenacious reverence 
 for unimportant sentiments, with a disposition towards those whose 
 opinions are opposite, constitutes bigotry. An incessant desire to pro- 
 pagate some particular sentiment, or principle, to make proselytes, from 
 whatever motive, is called zeal. The decided ascendancy of some partic- 
 ular object in the mind is denominated ^passion, as a passion for music, 
 Sic. When this predilection occupies all our thoughts, and incites us to the 
 most vigorous exertions with such an ardor and constancy as to brave 
 all difficulties, it is termed enthusiasm. Even our motives form va- 
 rious species of desire, which characterize the prevailing disposition ; 
 such as integrity, fidelity, loyalty, honesty, industry, honor, &c. ; or 
 treachery, treason, fraud, artifice, deceit, cruelty, Sic. ; according as 
 they are influenced by worthy or unworthy dispositions. An invinci- 
 ble predilection to some one thing, opinion, or sentiment, extreme con- 
 tempt for all other kinds of knowledge, and an obstinate opposition of 
 private opinion as the only counterpoise to public sentiment, without 
 any regard to the weight of evidence on either side, are the invariable, 
 features of fanaticism. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 Aliments are those materials, from which the different orders of 
 created beings derive their nourishment. To most animals, nature has 
 assigned but a limited range of aliment ; but to man an extensive 
 choice has been allotted. The vegetable and animal kingdoms, fruits, 
 grains, roots, and herbs, flesh, fisli, and fowl, all contribute to his suste- 
 nance. 
 
36 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 It is an interesting inquiry, How aliments so diversified in structure, 
 and sensible qualities, become assimilated in one system, and contribute 
 to our support? To this question, it may be answered, that all organi- 
 zed beings, animal as well as vegetable, are composed principally of 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, Itme, sulphur, and phosphorus. 
 Different combinations of these elements make up the whole of their 
 material systems. 
 
 Now, then, as the human frame is composed of the above materials, 
 its daily waste must be supplied, by substances which yield these ma- 
 terials. These are to be found in various animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances, used by man as food. This food, when masticated, is received 
 into the stomach, where it is exposed to the action of the gastric fluid, 
 a powerful solvent of animal and vegetable matters. Here, it soon un- 
 dergoes an important change, being reduced to a soft and similar mass 
 called chyme. From the stomach, the digested chyme passes into the 
 intestines ; w y here, subjected-to the action of the bile, the pancreatic and 
 mucous secretions, it undergoes still further changes ; the result of all 
 which is the formation and separation of a bland, white, milky fluid, 
 called chyle. The chyle is sucked up by numerous vessels, called ab- 
 sorbent lacteals, to whose orifice it is every where exposed, in passing 
 through the intestinal canal. These absorbents after numerous com- 
 munications, terminate in one common trunk, by' which the chyle is 
 mixed with the blood, and subjected to the action of the heart and ar- 
 teries. Circulated now through the lungs, it undergoes new changes, 
 from the respiration of the atmosphere ; — it is incorporated with the 
 common circulating mass, and becomes itself blood, the fountain from 
 which all the other constituent parts of the body are formed, and re- 
 newed. 
 
 Such is a concise account of the manner, by which animal and vege- 
 table substances contribute to the support of the human frame — a pro- 
 cess, though complex, taken in all its parts, yet easily understood ; and 
 when understood, eminently calculated to draw forth admiration, in 
 view of the wisdom of God. 
 
 The gastric fluid of man is capable of digesting a great variety of 
 animal and vegetable matters. And the structure of his body, his in- 
 stinct and experience, clearly indicate, that his Maker designed him to 
 derive his aliment, from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 We say from both, for it is obvious that neither is suited to form the 
 whole of our daily aliment. Animal food is more nutricious ; but, 
 from its heating and stimulating nature, when exclusively used, it ex- 
 hausts and debilitates the system, which it at first invigorates and sup- 
 ports. And it is matter of observation and experience, that those per- 
 sons, who confine themselves to animal diet, become heavy and indo- 
 lent ; the tone and excitability of their frame are impaired ; they are 
 afflicted with indigestion, and numerous other infirmities. 
 
 On the other hand, vegetables are ascescent, and less stimulating; 
 they are, also, less nourishing, and of more difficult assimilation, than 
 food derived from the animal kingdom. A pure vegetable diet seems 
 insufficient to raise the human system to all the strength and vigor of 
 which it is capable. 
 
 Some eastern nations, indeed, and thousands of individuals of every 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 37 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 nation, live almost entirely on vegetable aliment. But these, it is re- 
 marked, are seldom so robust, so active, so brave, as men who live on 
 a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food. 
 
 In truth, a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food, it is believed. 
 is the best suited to the nature and condition of man. The propor- 
 tions, in which these should be used, we shall not attempt to settle. 
 But generally the quantity of vegetable food should exceed. Indeed, 
 it is doubtful whether sedentary men should ever use animal food, 
 more than once a day. Inhabitants of warmer climates require less 
 than those of higher latitudes, and the sedentary of every climate less 
 than those who labor. 
 
 All the products of vegetation are far from being equally nutritious. 
 Some, indeed, instead of being alimentary, are highly noxious to ani- 
 mal life. The wax, resins, and balsams, the astringent, bitter, and nar- 
 cotic principles are often used medicinally ; but never as food, and 
 those vegetables which abound in these cannot, with safety, be used as 
 aliments. 
 
 The alimentary principles of vegetation are gum, or mucilage, starch, 
 gluten, jelly, fixed oil, sugar, and ac ds ; and the different vege tables, 
 and parts of vegetables, are nutritious, wholesome, and digestible, ac- 
 cording to the nature and proportion of these principles, contained in 
 them. 
 
 The lightest kind of nourishment is afforded by the mucilage, jelly 
 and acids of vegetables. The sugar and fixed oils are more nutritive ; 
 but not so digestible. The starch and gluten are the most nutritive ; 
 and together with mucilage, are at the same time, the most abundant 
 principles contained in those vegetables, from which man derives his 
 sustenance. Of these, the gluten approaches nearest the nature of 
 animal substances. Wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, millet, and Indian 
 corn, abound in farinaceous matter, a compound of the most nutritive 
 alimentary principles of vegetables. 
 
 Wheat flour contains by much the largest quantity of gluten ; the 
 flour of other nutritive grains, but very little of it. It is this large 
 proportion of gluten, which gives the superiority to wheat, over all 
 other grains. Starch and mucilage, are the chief alimentary princi- 
 ples of other grains ; and hence, the bread formed from them is inferi- 
 or to that made of wheat. 
 
 Rice is the chief sustenance of some nations ; and, when boiled, 
 affords an agreeable and nourishing food of easy digestion, and not so 
 apt to sour on the stomach, as some other grains. Barley bread is vis- 
 cid and not very digestible. Rye bread is ascescent, and not so easily 
 digested ; but useful in costive habits, from its tendency to open the 
 bowels. Oat bread is nutritive and wholesome, and easy to be digest- 
 ed. The flour of millet forms but indifferent bread, but excellent, 
 wholesome, and nourishing pottages and puddings. Indian corn is nu- 
 tritive and laxative. 
 
 The seeds of leguminous plants, such as peas, and beans, afford a 
 great quantity of alimentary matter ; though less than the grains we 
 have noticed. The nutritious matter is a compound of starch and 
 mucilage. Their flour is sometimes formed into bread ; but it is coarse 
 
 4 
 
38 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 and indifferent, and not easily digestible. These seeds are not more 
 nutritive, but generally more palatable, and wholesome, when green, 
 young, and tender, and simply boiled, than when fully ripened and ba- 
 ked. Yet, with some constitutions, they are apt to produce flatulency, 
 and disorder of the stomach and bowels. 
 
 The potatoe, either boiled or roasted, as it is one of the most useful, 
 is, perhaps, after the grains, one of the most wholesome, and most nu- 
 tritive vegetables, in common use. Its alimentary properties are great 
 as is proved by general experience, and especially by that of the Irish 
 peasantry, a robust and hardy race, who derive their principal suste- 
 nance from this invaluable root. When mixed with wheat, it forms a 
 wholesome and nutritive bread. The sweet, or Spanish potatoe, yam, 
 and artichoke, come near to the potatoe in their nutritive properties ; 
 but do not equal it. The roots of parsnips, turnips, and carrots, con- 
 tain a considerable quantity of mucilage, and a small portion of saccha- 
 rine matter. When boiled, they are considerably nutritive ; and by 
 most stomachs easily digested. 
 
 The beet, both white and red, contain a large proportion of sugar. 
 They are fine for cattle ; but cannot be safely used in great quantities 
 by man, as they are apt to induce flatulence and indigestion. 
 
 In some roots, as in the onion, leek and garlic, the nutritive principle 
 is found combined with an acrid principle, which renders them less lit 
 for the purposes of aliment. This principle, however, is lessened by 
 boiling, and then they are lightly nutritive and mucilaginous. The 
 radish, too, is an acrid root ; and, though much used, affords little nu- 
 triment, while it is apt to produce flatulence, and disorder of the stom- 
 ach. 
 
 In some seeds, called kernels, as in the hardnut and filbert, walnut, 
 almond, cocoa nut, cashew nut, chocolate nut, we find oil combined 
 with their farina. This renders them nutritious ; but, at the same time, 
 indigestible. When freely used they are sure to produce flatulence, 
 thirst, nausea, pain of the stomach, and headache ; more especially, if 
 from age they have become rancid. Hence, they shouldbe used sparing- 
 ly, at any time. 
 
 Chocolate, which is prepared from the chocolate nut, forms a well 
 known, wholesome, nutritious aliment, employed in many cases as a 
 restorative. Cocoa, which is prepared from the same nut, is, however, 
 less oily ; and, on this account, decidedly preferable for weak stomachs 
 to the chocolate. 
 
 Fixed oil is contained in many vegetables, and is sometimes obtained 
 by expression, and is highly nutritive. Olive oil is much used in seve- 
 ral parts of the world, particularly in Italy, and the south of France. 
 In these countries, it is used in lieu of butter. In other countries, it is 
 used chiefly as a sauce, or condiment to sallads and fish. With many 
 stomachs it disagrees, being too heavy and indigestible. 
 
 The leaves, stalks and flowers of vegetables contain much less nu- 
 tritious matter than the seeds and roots, already noticed. They are 
 cooling and aperient, however, and sure to correct the stimulant, and 
 binding effects of animal food. The vegetables to which these remarks 
 apply are cabbage, colewort, cauliflower, brocoli, sea-kale, endive, 
 lettuce, purslane, spinage, and asparagus. Of these, there is none 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 39 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 more tender, or more wholesome than spinage. Of the varieties of 
 cabbage, the brocoli and cauliflower are the most easily digested, and 
 least flatulent. The asparagus is an excellent vegetagle, agreeable and 
 wholesome, tolerably nutritious, and besides, is diuretic. The endive 
 and lettuce are chiefly used as sallads. Lettuce has, also, some de- 
 gree of narcotic and soporific effect, a quality, which depends on the 
 bitter, milky juice contained in the leaf stalks. Parsley is slightly 
 aromatic, little nutritive, and chiefly used to season broths, sallads, &c. 
 Celery is highly relished by many people, as a sallad ; but, raw, is not 
 easily digested. 
 
 Of fruits, such as the peach, apricot, plum, cherry, date, fig, pear, 
 apple, mulberry, orange, lemon, it may be observed, that they do not 
 abound in nutritive qualities. Their nourishment depends upon the 
 mucilage, and sugar, they contain. Together with these principles, and 
 water, many of them, also, contain the different vegetable acids, the 
 malic, citric, tartaric, &c. ; and it is this combination, which renders 
 them so agreeable to the taste, and so generally relished by man. 
 
 From this combination of principles, too, may be estimated the ad- 
 vantages and disadvantages they possess, as aliments. They are nour- 
 ishing, in proportion to the mucilage, jelly and sugar, which they con- 
 tain ; cooling, and aperient, and antisceptic, in proportion as they are 
 watery and acidulous. They are not of themselves capable of long 
 supporting the strength, and renewing the waste of the system ; but, 
 conjoined with other more nutritious aliments, ripe fruits are, in their 
 season, safe, useful, and often highly beneficial adjuvants to our diet. 
 They obviate and correct the stimulant, and sceptic effect, of animal 
 food ; open the body, and cool and refresh the system. Hence, they 
 are found so emenintly useful in febrile, inflammatory and scorbutic 
 affections. Indeed, in the sea scurvy, a disease arising from the too 
 exclusive use of a stimulating animal diet, the sub-acid fruits are sov- 
 ereign remedies. By the same properties, however, they are hurtful, 
 in cases of gravel, stone, and diabetes. Intemperately eaten, fruits 
 have in all constitutions, and particularly in the nervous, dyspeptic, 
 and hysteric, produced great disorder of the stomach, and bowels, chol- 
 ic, diarrhoea, and cholera. Upon the whole, as a, pari of our daily diet, 
 fruits are safe, and useful ; but, excepting under particular circumstan- 
 ces, they ought not to form the whole of any one meal, and should 
 never be indulged into satiety. 
 
 The pulpy fruits, such as the fig, and apple tribe, are more nutritive 
 than the more watery, acidulous fruits, as the orange, grape and berry. 
 The former, too, when conserved, boiled or baked, afford a light and 
 wholesome nourishment. The sub-acid fruits, as goose berries, and 
 currants, are advantageously made into tarts, jellies, &c. The nour- 
 ishment derived from them is not great ; but they are wholesome, an- 
 tisceptic and cooling. 
 
 We shall next speak of animal substances. The alimentary princi- 
 ples of which, are gelatin, albumen, Jib rinc and oil, or fat. 
 
 Gelatin, or animal jelly, is a colorless, transparent, tremulous sub- 
 stance, found in calves' feet, in the skin, tendons, and bones of all ani- 
 mals. Glue and isinglass are specimens of dried gelatin. Animal jel- 
 ly, when properly prepared, is very nutritious, and well adapted to per 
 *ous in a convp-lescent state. 
 
40 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS, 
 
 Albumen is distinguished from gelatin, by its coagulating on the ap- 
 plication of heat. The white of an egg presents us with the best and 
 most familiar example of albumen. It exists in the serum of blood, 
 and the curd of milk ; and forms a principal part of the cartilages, 
 membrane, hoofs, horns, feathers, quills, and hair of animaJs. As an 
 aliment, it is highly nutritive ; it is not used as a separate article of diet, 
 except as it exists in the white of an egg. 
 
 Fibrin is the chief constituent of muscular flesh. It is a white, 
 tough, elastic, fibrous substance, insoluble in water, and contains more 
 nitrogen than any of the other principles. It is readily dissolved by 
 the gastric fluid, and may be regarded as the strongest, and most stim- 
 ulant of aliments. 
 
 Animal oil, or fat, is a nutritious, component part of animal substan- 
 ces ; but less easily digested, than the other alimentary principles. 
 
 Animal aliment, may be distinguished into fluids and solids. The 
 only fluids, which can be regarded as alimentary, are the blood and 
 milk of animals. 
 
 The blood is composed of the three alimentary principles, fibrin, albu- 
 men, and gelatin ; it contains, besides, water, the red globules, and 
 some saline matters. Blood is a heavy and indigestible aliment, in 
 whatever way prepared. 
 
 Milk is the fluid secreted by the female of the mammalia class, for the 
 nourishment of their young. It consists of oil, albuminous and saccha- 
 rine matter, water, and some saline matters. Hence, it will be seen, 
 that as it contains both animal and vegetable principles, it is a sort of 
 mixed aliment. It is nutritious and wholesome ; but not equally 
 well digested by every stomach. It sometimes offends in two ways ; 
 first, coagulating very firmly in the stomach, it occasions sickness, and 
 is afterwards rejected by vomiting ; secondly, becoming acid, it gives 
 rise to flatulence, heart burn, gripings and diarrhoea. Still, most peo- 
 ple bear milk well ; but, when it sits too heavily on the stomach, it is 
 advantageously diluted with water. Sometimes, again, it agrees bet- 
 ter, after having been boiled, though it is then more apt to produce cos- 
 tiveness. 
 
 Butter, the oily part of milk, is nutritious ; and, when moderately 
 used, is wholesome. Like the other animal oils, however, it is too 
 heavy to be used by itself. Curd, separated from the whey, is an 
 agreeable and nutritive aliment, differing, however, but little from 
 uncoagulated milk. Cheese, which is curd subjected to strong pres- 
 sure, is highly nutritious ; but, as an aliment, is difficult of digestion, 
 especially when new. Buttermilk is moderately nutritious. It is, 
 moreover, somewhat acid, and thus affords a wholesome, cooling beve- 
 rage, grateful and very useful in a heated, or feverish state of the body. 
 Whey contains in solution, the saccharine and saline parts of the milk, 
 with a small portion of the animal principles. Its nutritive powers are 
 not great. 
 
 Eggs come next to be considered. Those of the common domestic 
 fowl are the best. Though eggs of different fowls differ less in alimen- 
 tary properties than might, at first, be expected. The chief difference 
 consists in some variety of flavor. The white of an egg consists al- 
 most entirely of albumen. The yolk contains albuminous matter, oil,. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 41 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 gelatin and water. Thus the egg is formed of the most nutritive ali- 
 mentary principles. It is a remark of Dr. Cullen, u that a smaller bulk 
 of this, than of any other food, will satisfy and occupy the digestive 
 powers of most men." 
 
 Of the solid parts of animals, almost all are alimentary ; and accord- 
 ing to the nature, proportion and state of combination of the principles 
 of which they are formed, they are more or less nourishing, and more 
 or less easy of digestion. 
 
 The white parts, comprehending the skin, cellular texture, the mem- 
 branes, ligaments, cartilages and tendons, which consist almost entirely 
 of gelatin, and condensed albumen, unless they have been much soft- 
 ened and dissolved into jelly, by long boiling, are more difficult of di- 
 gestion, and afford, even then, a nutriment of a lighter and less stimu- 
 lating nature, than that derived from other parts, containing a due ad- 
 mixture of the ether alimentary principles. 
 
 Cow-heel, calf -head, sheep-head, and trotters, afford examples of this 
 kind of aliment, which, unless extremely well boiled, is far from being 
 easily digested. 
 
 The gelatin of bones is digestible, and alimentary, only after it has 
 been extracted and dissolved in water. 
 
 Tripe, the stomach of ruminating quadrupeds, is nearly allied to the 
 white membranous parts, in composition and alimentary properties. 
 The stomach, however, circulates more red blood, contains besides a 
 certain portion of muscular fibre, is more animalised, and furnishes ac- 
 cordingly a more savoury aliment, perhaps a more nourishing one, than 
 those parts entirely formed of gelatine. 
 
 We find it more difficult to estimate the alimentary qualities of the 
 glandular parts of animals. The spleen and kidneys are enumerated 
 by Celsus, with those aliments, which afford a bad, and the liver with 
 those which yield a good juice. All that we can venture to say on this 
 subject is, that the glandular parts of young animals, if freed from the 
 odour of their peculiar secretions, are agreeable, and sufficiently nu- 
 tritive aliments. The pancreas, or sweet bread, is the most delicate, 
 the least stimulating, and perhaps the most digestible. The spleen is 
 a coarse, and not very digestible aliment. The brain, too, is heavy, 
 and apt to disagree with some stomachs. The liver, especially that 
 of young animals, and of some birds, is by many esteemed a great de- 
 licacy, and appears to be very wholesome. The liver of many fishes 
 abounds in oil. 
 
 The muscular flesh, which constitutes, indeed, the chief part of our 
 food, derived from the animal kingdom, appears to be, upon the whole, 
 the most nourishing, the most wholesome, and the most easily digested 
 of any. 
 
 Its advantages in these respects may well be attributed to its peculiar 
 composition — a just assemblage of all the alimentary principles. For 
 the flesh, besides containing the largest quantity of fibrin, has, also, a 
 due proportion of gelatin, albumen, and fat. And, indeed, the alimen- 
 tary properties of different kinds ©f flesh, appear to depend, in a great 
 measure, on the proportions and aggregation of these principles. Thus 
 the flesh of young animals contains more gelatin, and less fibrin, than 
 
 4* 
 
42 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 that of the full grown and older ; and yields, at the same time, a light- 
 er nutriment, and of less easy digestion. Very old, hard, tough flesh, 
 contains, again, too little gelatin, and fat ; the fibrin has become firm- 
 er and less soluble ; and, therefore, such meat is less succulent, less di- 
 gestible, and less nutritive, than the same kind of flesh, in its prime. 
 By boiling, the gelatin and a portion of albumen are extracted; and 
 hence, perhaps, it is, that boiled meat is less nourishing and digestible 
 than roasted flesh, which retains all its principles. 
 
 Muscular flesh contains a larger quantity of red blood, from which, 
 indeed, it derives its color, than any of the other parts of animals, com- 
 monly employed as aliment. Whether or not any of its alimentary 
 qualities may depend on this circumstance, we cannot confidently say. 
 But red-colored flesh, is certainly a stronger, and more nourishing food, 
 than the white-colored muscle — the flesh of the ox, for example, than 
 that of the rabbit. 
 
 Chemists have detected another principle in muscular flesh, to which 
 they have given the name of extractive. This principle is soluble in 
 alcohol, of a brownish red color, an aromatic odor, and strong acrid 
 taste. 
 
 The particular flavors of flesh have been attributed to this principle, 
 which may probably add, also, to its stimulant properties, if not to its 
 nutritive. 
 
 The flesh of quadrupeds is more largely consumed than that of any 
 other class of animals. But, as might be supposed, they differ consid- 
 erably in their alimentary properties. 
 
 Bull-beef is tou^h, dry, of a disagreeable flavor; and is, therefore, sel- 
 dom eaten. This affords us one example of the great amelioration of 
 the alimentary qualities of the flesh of animals by castration ; for ox 
 beef is at once agreeable, nourishing, wholesome, and tenderer, even 
 than the flesh of the cow. Veal, the flesh of the young animal, is more 
 delicate, and more gelatinous, than beef; but, at the same time, less 
 nourishing, less stimulant, and, In general, not so easily digested. It 
 is less animalized, and therefore less putrescent, than almost any other 
 flesh. Indeed, the jelly and broth of very young veal is disposed to 
 become even acescent. 
 
 Mutton is esteemed one of the best aliments; it is, also, one of the 
 most common. The flesh of the uncastrated animal is hardly eatable. 
 YVedder mutton, not under two years old, is agreeable, tender, and suc- 
 culent ; at Ave years, it has probably attained its highest perfection. 
 Ewe mutton is much inferior to it. Lamb bears the same relation, in 
 its alimentary properties, to mutton, that veal does to beef. It is less 
 stimulant, and less nutritive than mutton. But if the lamb have been 
 properly nursed for six months, or a little more, and not weaned, as is 
 too often done, at two months old, it affoids a most agreeable, suffi- 
 ciently nourishing, and digestible aliment. 
 
 Goat's flesh is coarser, and in every respect inferior to that of the 
 sheep. The flesh of the kid is sufficiently tender and delicate. 
 
 Venison is an aliment in great estimation. It is very nutritive, and 
 easily digested. The flesh of the young fawn is tender, succulent and 
 gelatinous ; but the most nutritive and best flavored is that of the full 
 grown animal, of four years old, or more. The best season for killing 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 43 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 it, is in the month of August ; for in the rutting season, September and 
 October, the animal becomes lean, and its flesh rank, tough, and ill-fla- 
 vored. The flesh of the female is at all times inferior to that of the 
 male. The fallow deer is commonly better fattened than the stag, and 
 its flesh, upon the whole is tenderer. That of the roe-buck is also ve- 
 ry tender ; but it is inferior in flavor, and other qualities, to the fallow 
 deer. 
 
 Pork is an aliment, without doubt, highly nutritious ; but, on ac- 
 count of the fat, with which it abounds, not so digestible. It is stimu- 
 lant, and savory, though its particular flavor is not agreeable to every 
 one. It yields, however, to those with whom it agrees, much nourish- 
 ment. By the ancients, it was regarded as the strongest of all aliments ; 
 and was, therefore, much employed in the diet of the athletae, or persons 
 who engaged in the public games. The flesh of the boar is strong, 
 coarse, and ill-flavored ; that of the sow, which has farrowed, is also 
 disagreeable. The flesh of the castrated animal is freed from this ill- 
 flavor ; it is also fatter, tenderer, and more digestible. The flesh 
 of the sucking pig, like that of other young animals, abounds in gelatin, 
 and affords a more delicate, lighter, and less stimulant aliment, than 
 that of the full grown animal. 
 
 The hare and rabbit afford agreeable and wholesome food. The 
 former is more dense, higher flavored, and more stimulant than the lat- 
 ter ; the flesh of which is white and delicate, and, of the young rabbit, 
 very tender, and easily digestible. 
 
 The aliment obtained from birds is, in general, less nourishing than 
 that derived from the mammiferous quadrupeds. The flesh of those 
 birds which feed on grain and fruits, is the most delicate, and most easi- 
 ly digested. 
 
 The flesh of water-fowl, and such as devour fish, insects, and the 
 like, is commonly very alkalescent, oily, strong flavored, highly nour- 
 ishing, but heavy, and of more difficult digestion. 
 
 The birds in most common use, and yielding, at the same time, the 
 best aliment, belong to the gallinaceous family. Their flesh is white, 
 of the most agreeable and delicate flavor, little heating; and, when not 
 too old, succulent, nutritive, and easily digested. To this order belong 
 the Dunghill fowl, Pheasant, Turkey, Peacock, Guinea hen, Partridge, 
 and Quail. The flesh of the goose, domestic and wild, of the duck, 
 widgeon and teal, is_.very nourishing ; but considerably heating, and 
 strong flavored. They are not, therefore, so well suited to the weak 
 and delicate, as the fowls above named ; nor are they, in general, so 
 easily digested. The woodcock, snipe, plover, and some other of this 
 family, (Gralice,) are savory and well flavored aliments, moderately 
 stimulant, wholesome and sufficiently digestible. Pigeons afford a very 
 rich and stimulant food. The different species of the lark furnish a 
 delicate and lighter aliment. 
 
 Of amphibious animals, the sea turtle, land turtle, frog and viper on- 
 ly, are used as aliment. The flesh of the turtle is white, tender and 
 nourishing. The rich fat, with which it abounds, is not so easily digest- 
 ed. But if plainly dressed, the turtle, upon the whole, affords a whole- 
 some and nutritious aliment, not very different from the flesh of young 
 quadrupeds. The frog is not known, it is believed, as an aliment in the 
 
44 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 United States. The hinder legs alone are served up in France, and 
 some other countries ; but, though the flesh has a white and delicate 
 appearance, it is insipid and not very nourishing. In Italy, the viper 
 broth is still used. But there is no good reason to suppose that it pos- 
 sesses any peculiar properties as a restorative. 
 
 We shall next speak of fish. Fishes circulate but little red blood ; 
 and their temperature hardly exceeds that of the element in which they 
 live. Their muscular parts have little color, and their texture is soft. 
 These abound most in a watery, gelatinous, and albuminous matter, and 
 their fibrin possesses less elasticity and cohesion, than that of the flesh 
 of terrestrial animals. Their oil, too, is thinner, and not concressable, 
 like that of quadrupeds and birds. They afford a less nourishing ali- 
 ment than flesh, weight for weight ; and are of more difficult digestion 
 and assimilation. In some particular constitutions, fish not only disa- 
 grees with the stomach, producing flatulence, sickness and vomiting, 
 but occasions more general and lasting disorder, if continued. Yet, 
 many fish afford an aliment, abundantly wholesome to most people. 
 And from being less stimulant, they are, in some cases, better adapted 
 to the sick and convalescent, than the richer aliment of flesh. 
 
 The red-blooded fish, and those which abound with oil, are more 
 stimulant, and more nutritive, than the white-blooded. But they are, 
 also, heavier, and more apt to disagree with the stomach, especially of 
 the delicate and dyspeptic. The cod and whiting, for example, afford 
 a much lighter aliment, than the salmon, the eel, the mackerel, and the 
 herring. Sea fish are, also, upon the whole, more nourishing and more 
 palatable, than those which inhabit the rivers and fresh water. 
 
 A very great variety offish is, in different parts of the world, used as 
 aliment. But it is enough to have marked the general qualities of this 
 kind of food. And, indeed, there seems so little real difference in the 
 alimentary properties of those genera and species, commonly employ- 
 ed, that to be more particular than we have been, would be an useless 
 and unprofitable labor, even could we do this with any tolerable degree 
 of certainty. 
 
 The flesh of the Crab, Lobster, Craw fish, Prawn, Shrimp, White 
 Shrimp, bear a close resemblance in flavor, color, and texture to fish ; 
 from which, indeed, they do not greatly differ in alimentary properties. 
 There is little or no oil in their composition ; and they are said to yield 
 less ammonia, during their decomposition, than flesh or fish do. They 
 are in general of more difficult digestion, and are allowed to afford less 
 nourishment. The meat contained in the body of the crab is rich, high 
 flavored, more stimulant, and probably more nutritive ; but extremely 
 heavy, and apt to disagree with the stomach and bowels. The flesh 
 within the claws is lighter and more wholesome. The lobster is es- 
 teemed more delicate and palatable than the crab. It is also moderate- 
 ly nourishing, but not very digestible. Both, indeed, are apt in some 
 constitutions to occasion great disorder, cholic, fever, itching, and efflo- 
 rescence of the skin. The craw fish is, in alimentary properties, simi- 
 lar to the lobster. The prawn and shrimp are delicate, and well flavor- 
 ed foods of the same kind. The decoction or broth of the three last, is 
 much used on the continent, and much extolled, though without any 
 sufficient reason, as purifying and restorative. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 45 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 Of shell fish not many are used as articles of diet. Those which are 
 esteemed the best are the cockle, oyster, mussel, and snail. All these 
 abound in soft mucous and albuminous matter, coagulable by heat, on 
 which their alimentary powers would seem to depend. They furnish 
 us with almost the only example of any animal food, that is ever eaten 
 in the raw, and even living state. Of these, the best is unquestionably 
 the oyster, which is highly esteemed in the raw and live state ; and 
 with the healthy and robust stomach it commonly agrees well. 
 
 But with the weak and dyspeptic, it often occasions considerable dis- 
 order, and does not appear to be easily digested. Indeed there are ma- 
 ny, whose stomachs do not appear faulty in other respects, who cannot 
 digest raw oysters; and yet bear them well enough when roasted, stew- 
 ed or boiled. They appear therefore to be, on the whole, more gene- 
 rally wholesome and digestible in the last state, than raw. A few raw 
 oysters, eaten before dinner, appear sometimes to increase the appetite, 
 an effect which is to be attributed rather to the salt, than to the oyster 
 itself. The nourishment afforded by this kind of food does not appear 
 to be very great. Where they do not disagree with the stomach, oys- 
 ters are, therefore, sometimes usefully taken as a light restorative ali- 
 ment, by the feeble and consumptive, when more stimulant and nour- 
 ishing food would be improper. The other shell fish are similar in ali- 
 mentary properties to the oyster, though greatly inferior in delicacy and 
 flavor, and much less fitted to be eaten raw. The mussel, in particular 
 constitutions, has occasioned distressing, and even dangerous symp- 
 toms ; sickness and pain of the stomach, violent retching, fever, heat, 
 pain, swelling of the eyes, face, mouth, and throat, and erysipelatous 
 inflammation of the skin, especially if eaten in the months of July and 
 August. 
 
 Scarcely any of the various alimentary substances employed by man 
 are used in the raw and crude state, in which they are presented to 
 him by nature. Almost all of them are previously subjected to some 
 kind of preparation or change. 
 
 The preparatory changes to which our food is usually subjected, are 
 produced by the application of heat, and by the admixture of water, and 
 of condiments or seasonings. 
 
 By the application of heat to vegetables, the more volatile and wa- 
 tery parts are, in some cases, dissipated. The different principles, ac- 
 cording to their peculiar properties, are extracted, softened, dissolved, 
 or coagulated ; but most commonly, they are forced into new combina- 
 tions, so as to be no longer distinguishable, by the forms and proper- 
 ties, which they formerly possessed. 
 
 When in the preparation of bread, a baking heat is applied to the 
 paste formed of flour and water, a complete change is effected in the 
 constituent principles of this mixture, so that in making the analysis 
 of bread, the proximate ingredients of flour are not to be found in it. 
 A new substance, bread, has been produced, which is more digestible in 
 the human stomach, more wholesome, and more nutritive, than the ma- 
 terials from which it is formed. 
 
 In like manner, the leguminous seeds, and farinaceous roots, are 
 greatly altered by the application of heat. The raw potatoe, for exam- 
 ple, is watery, ill flavored, extremely indigestible, and even unwhole- 
 
46 FAMILY 
 
 ALIMENTS. 
 
 some. By roasting, or boiling, it becomes dry, friable, farinaceous, 
 sweet, and agreeable to the taste, wholesome, digestible, and highly 
 nutritive. Little is lost, and nothing is added to the potatoe by this 
 preparation ; yet its properties are greatly changed ; its principles, in 
 short, have suffered a derangement and new collocation. 
 
 Other examples of such changes are presented to us, in the boilinsr, 
 roasting and baking of many fruits; in which processes, we sometimes 
 find acid destroyed, saccharine matter formed, mucilage and jelly ex- 
 tracted, and combined anew, so that the product shall be more palata- 
 ble, wholesome, and nourishing, than the raw material. 
 
 Even in the simple boiling of the various pot-herbs, and esculent 
 roots, the effect does not seem confined to the mere softening of the 
 fibres, the solution of some, and coagulation of others of their juices 
 and principles ; not their texture only, but their flavor, and other sen- 
 sible qualities, have undergone a change, by which their alimentary 
 properties have been improved. 
 
 In general, vegetable substances, after having been thus prepared, 
 are more wholesome, less flatulent, and more digestible, than in their 
 crude state. 
 
 The changes produced in animal substances prepared for our tables, 
 by heat, are different according to the manner, in which it is applied, 
 in the various processes of roasting, baking, frying, broiling, stewing, 
 and boiling. 
 
 In the usual way of roasting meat, there is little loss of the succu- 
 lent or nutritive principles of the flesh ; they are not even greatly 
 changed, for if the meat have not been overdone, they may still be ob- 
 tained from it, by the usual modes of analysis. Some changes, howev- 
 er, both of texture and composition, it has certainly suffered. It is more 
 tender than before, and much higher flavored. Roasting seems, there- 
 fore, the simplest, and, upon the whole, the best mode of preparing the 
 flesh of animals. It is wholesome, and highly nourishing ; and, in 
 general, more easily digested, than when prepared in any other way. 
 It is often found to sit more easily on the stomach, and to be sooner di- 
 gested by the dyspeptic and feeble, than boiled meat, or broth. 
 
 By the methods of baking and stewing, the whole of the alimentary 
 principles are also preserved ; but not unchanged ; for in these process- 
 es, by the longer continuance of heat and moisture, the meat is more 
 disorganized, the jelly, oil, and albumen, are separated, dissolved, mixed, 
 or combined anew. These preparations are accordingly savory, rich, 
 and glutinous, very nourishing, without doubt ; but not near so easily 
 digested, as meat simply roasted or boiled. Above all, the whole vari- 
 ety of stews, meat pies, and the like, are extremely apt to disagree with 
 and disorder the stomachs of the gouty and dyspeptic. 
 
 In boiling, part of the soluble principles is always extracted by the 
 water; but, if the process have not been carried too far, the flesh is 
 still sufficiently succulent and juicy ; and, at the same time, very ten- 
 der, abundantly nourishing, and by most people easily enough digested. 
 Boiled meat has less flavor than roasted, and appears to be somewhat 
 less stimulant. Over-boiled meat, from which the greater part of the 
 soluble principles has been extracted, is dry and insipid, less soluble in 
 the stomach, and much less nutritious. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 47 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ALIMENTS, 
 
 Boiling is, also, employed with the more immediate intention of ex- 
 tracting and dissolving the more soluble parts of animal matters, as in 
 the preparation of soups, broths, and jellies. These are necessarily 
 lighter, or more nourishing, according to the quality and parts of the 
 meat used in their preparation. 
 
 The lighter and less costly broths afford an aliment abundantly 
 wholesome. The richer soups are heavy, and liable to all the incon- 
 veniences of stewed meats. Though soups are less nourishing than 
 the solid meat, from which they are extracted, they do not appear to be 
 always so easily digested ; and, indeed, those who are liable to stomach 
 complaints, generally find that plain roasted and boiled meat sits easier 
 with them, than any kind of soup or broth. 
 
 Under the head of aliment, it is usual to conclude condiments and 
 drinks. Of these we shall treat, sufficient for our purpose, in the sub- 
 sequent pages of our work. We shall, therefore, next proceed to some 
 additional observations upon various aliments of a more detailed and 
 miscellaneous character. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ALIMENTS. 
 
 BREAD. At the head of the vegetable class stands bread ; that ar- 
 ticle, which, from general use, has received the name of u the staff of 
 life." Of the manner of making it, it is unnecessary to speak. 
 
 It is made, as is well known, from different species of irrain ; wheat, 
 barley, rye, oats, Sec. ; but of all the articles of which bread is made, 
 none is so nutritious as that which is obtained from wheat. This arises 
 from the fact, that wheat contains not only more nutritive matter as a 
 whole, but it also contains considerably more gluten than any other grain 
 with which we are at present acquainted. Of 1000 parts of Middlesex 
 wheat, according to Sir Humphrey Davy, the whole quantity of nutri- 
 tive matter is 955 parts ; of these, mucilage, or starch, forms 765, and 
 gluten 190. An analysis of some Sicilian wheat produced 961 parts of 
 nutritive matter, of which 722 parts were mucilage, or starch, and 239 
 gluten. In short, it appears from numerous experiments, that wheat 
 generally contains at least double the quantity of gluten found in most 
 other grain, as well as considerably more starch than either oats, beans, 
 or peas. Norfolk barley, however, contains more starch than wheat; 
 but as its proportion of gluten is much less than in that grain, it is nei- 
 ther so nutritious, nor will it make such good bread as wheat. It ap- 
 pears, too, that no grain which does not contain a considerable quanti- 
 ty of gluten will make good bread; the gluten being essential to the 
 raised or porous appearance of it. Gluten is, besides, a peculiar sub- 
 stance, which approaches much nearer to the nature of animal matter 
 than any other vegetable production, and hence we may learn why it is 
 more likely to assimilate with, and nourish the animal body. Gluten 
 yields, by destructive distillation, ammonia, and appears to be, in oth- 
 er respects, similar to the substance found in animals called albumen. 
 
48 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 STARCH. SUGAR, 
 
 We may just add, that wheat contains, besides the ingredients above 
 mentioned, a portion of sugar ; and as unfermented flour, when taken 
 into the stomach, almost immediately enters into active fermentation, 
 producing flatulence, and other unpleasant consequences, the necessity 
 for its being first fermented, and afterwards baked, to complete the pro- 
 cess, so as to render the bread suitable for the stomach, is apparent. 
 
 STARCH, as we have seen in the preceding article, forms a large 
 portion of the composition of wheat, as well as innumerable other veg- 
 etable substances. It is well known as a white powdery substance, in- 
 soluble in cold, but readily soluble in hot water, when at a temperature 
 between 160° and 180°. Its solution is gelatinous, and, by careful 
 evaporation, it yields a substance resembling gum in appearance. It 
 appears that in their ultimate elements starch and sugar differ little in 
 composition, and hence it often happens that the former is converted 
 into the latter. Starch is nevertheless much better calculated for hu- 
 man food than sugar, as it does not appear to undergo in the stomach 
 that peculiar change which saccharine matter frequently does, produ- 
 cing flatulence and other unpleasant symptoms. Besides the use of 
 starch as food, in various vegetables, it is used for many purposes in 
 the arts and manufactures ; and also occasionally as a medicine. 
 
 SUGAR, or Saccharum, is the general basis of sweetness in all veg- 
 etable substances. It is found also in milk, and a few other animal se- 
 cretions. It is obtained from various vegetables in considerable quan- 
 tity, but more commonly from beet root, and from the juice of the sugar 
 maple, a tree growing plentifully in the back settlements of North 
 America. But most of the sugar used is obtained from a reed or cane 
 growing in the East and West Indies, and southern part of the United 
 States. 
 
 The Common sugar cane, saccharum 
 officinarum, has flat leaves and panicied 
 flowers ; it has a jointed reed-root, from 
 which ascend four or more shoots (pro- 
 portionable to the age and strength of 
 the root,) eight or ten feet high, accord- 
 ing to the goodness of the ground; in 
 some moist soils, the cane has measured 
 twenty feet, but such are seldom so pro- 
 ductive. This species of the sugar cane 
 has three varieties, the white, the red, 
 and the elephantine sugar cane. It is a 
 native of both the Indies, and also of the 
 islands of the South Sea. It may be 
 increased by slips or suckers from the 
 root, or by cuttings. In its natural climate it is planted by cuttings in 
 parallel furrows, where it comes to perfection in about fourteen months ; 
 when ripe, the reeds are cut off at a joint near the root, cleared of the 
 leaves, tied up in bundles, and sent to the mills, where, being cut in 
 short pieces, they are squeezed till all the juice is obtained from them. 
 It is then evaporated, with the addition of a small quantity of lime, un- 
 til it becomes thick, when it is transferred into wooden coolers, where 
 a portion concretes into a crystallized mass, which is drained and ex- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 49 
 
 SUGAR. TEA, 
 
 ■ ported to this country, under the name of muscovado, or raw sugar. 
 The remaining liquid portion is called molasses or treacle, which in the 
 West Indies, with other refuse saccharine matter, is commonly con- 
 verted into rum. 
 
 Sugar is refined by boiling it in pans with lime water, mixed with a 
 certain portion of bullock's blood. The albumen of the blood mixes 
 with the impurities of the sugar, which, rising to the surface, are skim- 
 med off. Occasionally, we believe, the whites of eggs and butter are 
 also used. When the sugar is sufficiently purified, it is placed in cool- 
 ers, where it is violently agitated, till it becomes thick and granulated ; 
 it is then poured into conical earthen moulds, previously soaked in wa- 
 ter, and again agitated. When sufficiently cold, the moulds, with the 
 sugar in them, are set with their broad ends upwards, in earthen pots, 
 when the first portion of liquid molasses runs down ; pipe-clay, mixed 
 with water, to the consistence of thick cream, is now laid upon the su- 
 gar about an inch thick ; the water, leaving the pipe-clay, descends 
 through the sugar, washing out the molasses and other colouring mat- 
 ter. The process of claying is often repeated. The loaves are after- 
 wards dried in a stove. 
 
 TEA, Thea, or, as the Japanese call it, Teah, is the leaf of a tree or 
 shrub growing in several provinces of China, Japan, and Siam; an 
 infusion of which is in general use as drink, and called also tea. The 
 tea plant likes valleys, the feet of mountains, and a stony soil ; it is 
 likewise found in mountainous and rocky districts. Its seed is usually 
 sown in places exposed to the south ; and bears three years after sown. 
 The root resembles that of the peacii tree ; the leaves are green, sharp- 
 ish at the point, and pretty narrow, an inch and a half long, and jagged 
 all around. The flower is much like that of the wild ro^e. The fruit 
 is of different forms, round, long, or triangular ; of the ordinary size of 
 a bean, containing two or three peas, including each a kernel. These 
 peas are the seeds by which the plant is propagated. Botanists have, 
 in fact, distinguished two tea shrubs ; one they call Thea bohea, or the 
 Bohea tea plant ; the other Thea viridis, or Green tea plant ; but it is 
 probable that more species, or at least more varieties exist than two, as 
 the numerous kinds and qualities of teas would seem to indicate. 
 
 The tea tree is a branchy, evergreen sbrub, growing to the height of 
 four or five feet, although some have asserted that it reaches thirty. 
 The best time to gather the leaves of tea is while they are yet small, 
 young and juicy ; when gathered, they are passed over the vapour of 
 boiling water to moisten them ; thoy are then laid on porcelain plates, 
 which are heated ; and, by thus drying the leaves, they curl up in the 
 manner they are brought to us. It is very rare to find tea perfectly 
 pure ; the Chinese always mixing other herbs with it to increase the 
 quantity, though among them it is sold at a price moderate enough ; 
 from three-pence to nine-pence per pound. The seasons for collecting 
 the leaves are April, June, and September. 
 
 Much has been said and written about the properties of tea. The 
 reason why the gout and stone are unknown in China, is ascribed to 
 the use of this plant ; which is further said to cure indigestion, dispel 
 wind, &c. From analytical experiments on tea, made some time since 
 at the Royal Institution, no deleterious properties were detected in 
 
 5 
 
50 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 COFFEE. CHOCOLATE. 
 
 either green or black tea ; nor has there been in green tea discovered 
 the least particle of copper. The injurious effects of tea, if indeed any 
 be produced by it, may be attributed, we presume, to the hot water 
 rather than to the tea. 
 
 COFFEE is a seed or berry, brought ori- 
 ginally from Arabia Felix, used for making 
 a drink of the same nature. By coffee we 
 usually mean the drink itself, prepared from 
 those berries. Its origin is not well known ; 
 some ascribe it to the prior of a monastery, 
 who, being informed by a goatherd, that his 
 cattle, sometimes browzing on this tree, 
 would wake and caper all night, became de- 
 sirous of proving its virtue ; accordingly he 
 first tried it on his monks, to prevent their 
 sleeping at matins. Others refer the inven- 
 tion of coffee to the Persians, from whom it 
 was learned in the fifteenth century, by a 
 mufti of Aden, a city near the mouth of the 
 Red Sea ; and who, having tried its virtues 
 himself, and found that it dissipated the 
 fumes which oppress the head, inspired joy, 
 opened the bowels, and prevented sleep with- 
 out his being incommoded by it, recommend- 
 ed it first to his dervises, with whom he used to spend the night in 
 prayer. Their example brought coffee into fashion at Aden : there the 
 professors of the law, for study, artisans to work, travellers to walk in 
 the night, in short, almost every person drank coffee. Thence it pass- 
 ed to Mecca, and from Arabia Felix to Cairo, and from Egypt to Syria 
 and Constantinople. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought 
 it into France ; and a Greek servant, called Pasqua, brought it into 
 England in 1652, and setting up the profession of coffee-man, first in- 
 troduced the drink among us ; though some say Dr. Harvey had used 
 it before. 
 
 CHOCOLATE, a kind of cake, or confection, prepared from certain 
 drugs; the basis or principle whereof is the mraonut, or chocolate nut, 
 a nut about the size of an almond, of which from thirty to a hundred 
 are contained in a pod shaped like a cucumber, and very different from 
 the cocoa nut, with which it is apt to be confounded, from the similari- 
 ty of pronunciation. The drink prepared from the cake is also called 
 chocolate, and is usually drunk warm, being esteemed not only an ex- 
 cellent nourishing food, but also a good medicine ; or at least a diet for 
 keeping up the warmth of the stomach, and assisting digestion. The 
 Spaniards were the first who brought chocolate into use in Europe. 
 
 The thin shell of the cacao nut, ground like coffee, and boiled in wa- 
 ter, yields a beverage resembling chocolate, but less rich, and is used as 
 an economical and wholesome breakfast by the name of cacao ; and for 
 delicate stomachs is much better adapted than the oleous compound. 
 
 RICE, oryza, a grain or seed. It is frequent in Greece, Italy, Spain, 
 the East and West Indies, and America. The grains of rice, which 
 grow in clusters are severally inclosed in yellow rough cases. Rice 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 51 
 
 RICE. YAM. PLANTAIN, OR BANANA, 
 
 grows in marshy places. A weak spirit, termed arrack, is drawn from 
 rice. Rice is less nutritious than wheat, and forms a very useful light 
 food for patients under the influence of medicine. The best rice comes 
 from Carolina ; an inferior sort from the East Indies. The mountain 
 rice, the paddy of the Hindoos, grows in mountainous and other dry 
 soils of India. 
 
 It is said that America is indebted for this grain to a small bag of it, 
 which was formerly given as a present from a Mr. Dubois, treasurer of 
 the East India Company, to a Carolina merchant. 
 
 A wet and morassy soil and hot climate appear, in general, necessa- 
 ry to the cultivation of rice. The parts of the farms or plantations, in 
 which it is grown, are usually so situated, as to admit of being flooded ; 
 and, in many places, reservoirs of water are formed for this purpose. 
 These reservoirs have sluices, by which the rice fields may be inunda- 
 ted at pleasure. In reaping the crop, the laborers generally work knee 
 deep in water and mud ; and as the rice is cut, the sheaves are put on 
 drays, which follow the reapers, and are thus carried out to be spread 
 on the dry ground. The rice thus produced has the name of marsh 
 rice, and is that which is chiefly exported to Europe. 
 
 The YAM is a root, the produce of a creeping plant whose stalks pro- 
 ceed to a considerable distance, putting out roots from the joints, by 
 which it becomes soon multiplied. The roots consist of blue or brown 
 round or oblong tubers, each tuber weighing two or three or sometimes, 
 twenty pounds. They vary greatly however, in size, shape, and color. 
 The inside of the yam is white, and in mealiness resembles the potato. 
 When dressed they are somewhat like that root; they are considered 
 nutritive, and easy of digestion ; they are the common food of the slaves 
 in the West Indies ; and if kept from moisture may be preserved for 
 many years. They are ground into flour, and made into bread and 
 puddings. The plant is propagated by cuttings, precisely the same as 
 tve propagate potatoes, namely, by cutting the root in pieces, preserving 
 411 eye in each piece. 
 
 The PLANTAIN 
 or Banana, (though, 
 they are thought by 
 some to be distinct 
 species,) are generally 
 spoken of together, as 
 having more points of 
 resemblance than of 
 dissimilarity. They 
 grow in the same re- 
 jgions, and are applied 
 to the same uses. 
 
 The plantain is of 
 considerable size ; it 
 rises with a herbace- 
 ous stalk, about five 
 or six inches in diam- 
 eter at the surface of 
 the ground, but taper- 
 ing upwards to the 
 height of fifteen or 
 
52 FAMILY 
 
 PLANTAIN OR BANANA. 
 
 twenty feet. The leaves are in a cluster at the top ; they are very large, 
 being about six feet long and two feet broad ; the middle rib is strong, 
 but the rest of the leaf is tender, and apt to be torn by the wind. The 
 leaves grow with great rapidity after the stalk has attained its proper 
 height. The spike of flowers rises from the centre of the leaves to 
 the height of about four feet. At first, the flowers are enclosed in a 
 sheath, but, as they come to maturity, that drops off. The fruit is 
 about an inch in diameter, eight or nine inches long, and bent a little on 
 one side. As it ripens, it turns yellow ; and when ripe, it is filled with 
 a pulp of a luscious sweet taste. 
 
 The Banana is a shorter and rounder fruit than the plantain : the 
 stem is also different, — that of the plantain being wholly green, while 
 the banana is spotted with purple. The banana is not so luscious as 
 the plantain, but is more agreeable. 
 
 The banana is found in equinoctial Asia and America, in the tropical 
 parts of Africa, and of the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans* 
 wherever the mean heat of the year exceeds 75° of Farenheit. The 
 banana is one of the most important and interesting objects for the cul- 
 tivation of man. 
 
 The banana is not known in an uncultivated state. The plant is 
 propagated by suckers. It is ten or eleven months after the sucker 
 has been planted, before the fruit is ready to gather. The stalk is then 
 cut, from which sprouts put forth which bear fruit again in three months. 
 They are exceedingly productive. A spot of a little more than a thou- 
 sand square feet will contain from thirty to forty banana plants. A 
 cluster of bananas produced on a single plant, often contains from one 
 hundred and sixty, to one hundred and eighty pounds. But reckoning 
 the weight of a cluster only at forty pounds, such a plantation would 
 produce more than four thousand pounds of nutritive substance. M. 
 Humboldt calculates that as 33 pounds of wheat, and 99 pounds of 
 potatoes require the same space as that in which four thousand pounds 
 of bananas are grown, the produce of bananas is consequently to that 
 of wheat as 133 : 1, and to that of potatoes as 44 : 1. 
 
 The ripe fruit of the banana is preserved like the fig, by being dried 
 in the sun. This dried banana is an agreeable and healthy aliments 
 Meal is extracted from the fruit, by cutting it in slices, drying it in the 
 sun, and then pounding it. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 53 
 
 BREAD FKUIT TREE. ORANGES. 
 
 BREAD-FRUIT Tree, a tree grow- 
 ing at Otaheite and other South Sea 
 Islands ; it was brought to the notice of 
 Europeans by Captain Cook. It has 
 the height and proportion of a middle- 
 sized oak ; the leaves are often a foot 
 and a half long, oblong shaped, and in 
 color, consistence, and sinuosity, resem- 
 bling those of the fig-tree, and exuding 
 a milky juice on fracture. The fruit is 
 about the size and shape of a new-born 
 child's head, covered with a reticulate 
 skin, and containing a core in its centre. 
 The eatable part lies between the skin 
 and the core, is as white as snow, and 
 of the consistence of new bread. It is 
 prepared for food in various ways. It 
 affords much nourishment, and there- 
 fore is esteemed very proper for laboring 
 people. Attempts have been latterly 
 made to naturalize this tree in the West 
 it can only, it is said, be propagated by suckers or layers. 
 
 CHEESE, Butter, See article Agriculture — Management of the 
 Dairy. 
 
 HONEY, See bees. 
 
 Indies ; 
 
 SECTION. IL 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 ORANGES make a considerable article 
 of merchandize. Those called China oran- 
 ges were first brought into Europe from 
 China by the Portuguese ; and it is said, 
 that the very tree whence all the European 
 orange trees of this sort were produced, is 
 still preserved at Lisbon. The China or- 
 ange is not so hardy as the Seville, and rare- 
 ly produces good fruit in England ; nor are 
 the leaves of the tree near so large or beau- 
 tiful as those of the Seville orange. There 
 is a great variety of sweet oranges both in 
 the East and West Indies, some of which 
 are much more esteemed than those now in 
 Europe : but as they are much tenderer, 
 they will not thrive in that country with 
 the common culture. There are several va- 
 rieties of the orange tree, but they may all 
 be referred to the sweet, or China orange, 
 and the bitter, or Seville orange, the juice of 
 which is sour. Those most esteemed, and 
 5* 
 
54 FAMILY 
 
 CITRON. LEMON. OLIVE. 
 
 that are made presents of as rarities in the Indies, are no larger than a 
 billiard-ball. The juice is cooling and antiscorbutic. 
 
 The seeds of oranges ought never to be swallowed ; a case of a 
 young lady in England has recently occurred, in which her death was 
 in all likelihood caused by several orange seeds lodgings for a long time 
 in the intestines. 
 
 The CITRON is the produce of a tree, much resembling the lemon 
 tree. A citron has the same qualities as the lemon, but it is larger, 
 higher colored, and has a brisker smell. It is an agreeable fruit, and 
 serves, like that, to cool and quench the thirst. Genoa is the great 
 European nursery for this sort of fruit. The Florentine citron, Miller 
 says, is in such great esteem, that the single fruits are sold at Florence 
 for two shillings each, and are sent as presents to the courts of princes. 
 This kind is not to be had in perfection in any other part of Italy ex- 
 cept the plain between Pisa and Leghorn, and if transplanted to other 
 parts it loses much of its excellence. From citrons 'are produced es- 
 sences, oils, confections, waters, &c. 
 
 The LEMON is a variety of the citron tree. There are several 
 sub-varieties of this tree, some of which are sour, and others again 
 sweet. The lemon grows naturally in that part of India, which is sit- 
 uated beyond the Ganges ; but its transmigration to Europe belongs 
 to the invasion of the W est by those mighty caliphs, who from the 
 heart of Southern Asia, extended their conquests to the foot of the 
 Pyrenees, leaving every where traces of their power and of their know- 
 ledge. The lemon, thus transported by the Arabs into every part of 
 their vast empire, where it would grow, was found by the crusaders in 
 Syria and Palestine, towards the end of the twelfth century. By them 
 it was introduced into Sicily and Italy ; though it is probable that at 
 the same period, it was already multiplied in Africa and Spain. 
 
 Lemon-juice is one of the most cooling and antiseptic vegetable pro- 
 ductions : it improves the taste, and corrects the putrid tendency of 
 animal food in the summer. Hence, lemonade affords a grateful and 
 coolina beverage for febrile patients (but it should be used moderately, 
 for all acids have a tendency to produce stone, gravel, and gout, when 
 too freely taken.) 
 
 Essence of Lemon is obtained from the exterior rind of the fruit, ei- 
 ther by compression or distillation ; it is often an impure essential oil* 
 as found in the shops. 
 
 The OLIVE, is an evergreen tree common to the woods of the south 
 of France, Spain and Italy. It rarely exceeds twenty feet in height ; 
 it has lanceolate, grey, ferruginous leaves, downy or silvery under- 
 neath ; the flowers are small and white ; the fruit is a drupe of an 
 oblong form, about an inch and a half or two inches long, and black 
 when ripe. Of the olive there are several varieties. Abroad it is 
 propagated by shoots, which are grafted to produce good sorts. In 
 England it is propagated by layers. The most valuable part of this 
 tree is the fruit ; from which, when ripe, is obtained the olive oil, so 
 well and universally known as food and as a medicine. Olives are 
 brought into this country pickled as a condiment ; but they are neither 
 good nor wholesome food. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 55 
 
 ALMONDS. TAMARINDS. PRUNES. CACAO. 
 
 The growth of olives and the manufacture of the oil furnish a con- 
 siderable employment to many of the inhabitants of France and Italy. 
 The importation of olive oil into Great Britain amounted, in 1827, to 
 about four thousand five hundred tons, paying a duty of eight guineas 
 per ton. % 
 
 The ALMOND is a fruit inclosed in a thick stone, and under a thin 
 skin. The tree that produces the almond is pretty tall, and resembles 
 a peach tree. It is frequent in Germany, France, Spain and the neigh- 
 boring countries, and also in Barbary. The flowers of this tree are 
 ranged in the rose manner : the pistil becomes a fleshy fruit, contain- 
 ing a seed which is the almond, and which drops out when the fruit is 
 arrived at maturity. There are two kinds, sweet and bitter ; and it 
 has been said that the same tree, by a difference in culture, has yielded 
 both. In flavor, bitter almonds resemble water distilled from laurel 
 leaves, and contain Prussic acid, which, in a pure state, is extremely 
 poisonous. Sweet almonds are of a soft grateful taste ; and are re- 
 puted cooling, healing, and nutritive. The oil of almonds is a safe 
 emollient in pains arising from the stone or gravel ; in coughs and 
 hoarseness ; and for costiveness and gripes in children. The quantity 
 of almonds imported annually into Great Britain is estimated at 450 
 tons, on which a duty is paid of £18,000. 
 
 TAMARINDS are brought from the East and West Indies. Some 
 call them Indian dates, others Indian acacia. The tree which yields 
 this fruit is called by the Indians, tamarinds, and by the Portuguese 
 tamarindos. It is not unlike our ash ; its leaves resemble those of fe- 
 male fern ; its flowers are joined eight or ten together, like those of 
 the orange tree. Its fruit is a pod, from two to five inches or more in 
 length, covered at first with a green rind, which afterwards becomes 
 brown, and contains a blackish acid pulp, among which are found seeds 
 resembling lupines. Tamarinds must be chosen large, the pods unbro- 
 ken, and of a brisk taste. Those put up in small casks and preserved 
 in sugar, not syrup, are the best. They are laxative, cooling, and good 
 to quench thirst. These trees grow to a great magnitude in their na- 
 tive countries ; but in Europe they are preserved as curiosities by those 
 who are lovers of rare plants. 
 
 PRUNES are plumbs dried and baked in an oven, or in the sun. 
 The prunes chiefly used among us are black, and are chiefly imported, 
 we believe, from France. Great quantities are used by the English 
 and Dutch. Prunes are slightly laxative. The prunello brignole, or 
 French plum, is less dried than the common prunes, and much more 
 grateful to the taste. 
 
 The CACAO nw/, mentioned under chocolate, is the seed or fruit of 
 the chocolate tree, which grows in several parts of the West Indies. 
 It resembles our cherry tree ; but is so very delicate, and the soil it 
 grows in so hot, that to guard it from the sun, it is always planted in 
 the shade of another tree, called mother of cacoa. Within the pod of 
 the fruit is formed a tissue of white fibres ; in the middle of these fibres 
 are contained ten, twelve, or even forty grains or seeds of a violet color, 
 and as dry as acorns. Each grain, which is covered with a little rind, 
 separates into five or six unequal pieces, in the middle whereof is a 
 
56 FAMILY 
 
 COCOA. POMEGRANATE. — FIG. 
 
 kernel, having a tender bud, very difficult to preserve. Of this seed, 
 with the addition of other ingredients, chocolate is made. Some Span- 
 iards have made five thousand pounds per annum from a single garden 
 of cacaos. In several parts of America, the cacao grains are used by 
 the Indians as money ; twelve or fourteen are esteemed equivalent to 
 a Spanish real, or five-pence three farthings sterling. 
 
 The COCOA nut is the fruit of a tree of the family of palms. It is 
 of a large size, being sometimes near a foot in length. Like a walnut, 
 it has a soft external husk, from the fibres of which cordage may be 
 made. This husk, in its early state, is edible, and agreeably acid. The 
 hard shell is sometimes mounted with silver, for drinking cups, or sugar 
 basins. V\ ithin the shell is a large white kernel, pleasant to the taste, 
 inclosing a very grateful fluid, called milk of cocoa. An oil like that 
 of almonds, may be obtained from the kernel. 
 
 The POMEGRANATE is a fruit in the form of an apple or quince, 
 full of seeds or kernels, inclosed within a reddish pulp, sometimes 
 sweet, sometimes acid. It is so called, either from the abundance of its 
 grain or kernels, pomum granatum, a kernelled apple, or from the 
 country where it was anciently produced, viz. Grenada. The pome- 
 granate is, however, a native of the south of Europe, and grows to the 
 general height of an apple-tree ; the branches are a little prickly ; the 
 leaves resemble those of the great myrtle ; the fruit, which is compo- 
 sed of red angular grains, is inclosed in little distinct cells, the whole of 
 which are enveloped by a thick and highly astringent outer rind. 
 Pomegranates are by some esteemed. Of the kernels are made syrups 
 and preserves ; the peel contains a considerable quantity of astringent 
 matter. 
 
 A FIG is a most delicious fruit, the produce of a tree of the same 
 name. Figs are of several kinds ; the black and the violet colored are 
 the worst; the white are esteemed the best. They are dried either by 
 an oven or the sun, and in this state they are used both as medicine 
 and food. The best figs are the produce of Italy, Spain, Provence, &c. 
 The isiands of the Archipelago yield figs in great abundance, though 
 inferior in goodness to those of Europe. The Greeks in those islands 
 cultivate them with wonderful care and attention, making them their 
 principal food, and a considerable part of the riches of the country. 
 Figs are gathered in autumn, and generally laid on a rack or hurdle to 
 dry in the sun. They are found to contain mucilage, sugar, and some 
 oil. They are very nourishing ; yet when eaten freely, they often pro- 
 duce much inconvenience. They are used to make gargarisms against 
 disorders of the throat and mouth : they are also applied externally to 
 soften and promote the maturation or suppuration of tumors, particu- 
 larly when toasted and applied to swelled gums. 
 
 BANIAN, or INDIAN FIG TREE. This tree deserves notice, not 
 as a fruit tree, but from its being a sacred tree with the Hindoos in the 
 East Indies, from the vast size that it attains, and from the singularity 
 of its growth. The fruit does not exceed that of a hazel nut in bigness ; 
 but the lateral branches send down shoots which take root, till, in the 
 course of time, a single tree extends itself to a considerable grove. This 
 remarkuble tree was known to the ancients. Strabo mentions that af- 
 ter the branches have extended about twelve feet horizontally, they 
 
EXCYCLOPEDTA. 
 
 57 
 
 THE BANIAN TREK. RAISINS. 
 
 THE BANIAN TREE, 
 shoot down in the direction of the earth, and there take root themselves ; 
 and when they have attained maturity, they propagate onward in the 
 same manner, till the whole becomes like a tent supported by many 
 columns. 
 
 Some specimens of the Indian fig-tree are mentioned as being of im- 
 mense magnitude. One near Mangee, twenty miles to the westward of 
 Patna, in Bengal, spread over a diameter of 370 feet. The entire cir- 
 cumference of the shadow at noon was 1116 feet, and it required 929 
 feet to surround the fifty or sixty stems by which the tree was support- 
 ed. Another covered an area of 1700 square yards ; and many of al- 
 most equal dimensions are found in different parts of India and Cochin 
 China, where the tree grows in the greatest perfection. 
 
 RAISINS are grapes, prepared by suffering them to remain on the 
 vine till they are perfectly ripe, and then drying them in the sun or in 
 ovens, to fit them for keeping, and for some medicinal or culinary pur- 
 poses. There are various kinds ; as raisins of Damascus, which are 
 brought to us flat and seeded, of the size of the thumb, whence we may 
 judge of the extraordinary bulk of the grape when fresh. Travellers 
 mention bunches that weighed twenty-five pounds. Their taste is 
 faintish and disagreeable. Thtie are numerous other sorts, which are 
 denominated from the place where they grow, &c. ; as the raisins of 
 Calabria, Malaga, Muscadine raisins, &c. 
 
 About 8000 tons of raisins, or dried grapes, are annually imported 
 into England, at a duty of about £160,<>00. A considerable quantity 
 of undried grapes are also imported, principally from Portugal, in jars, 
 among saw-dust. The value of those so imported, is about £10,00)'. 
 The currants of commerce, which are so extensiv ly us d in England, 
 and of which about 6000 tons are annually import d into that country* 
 are small dried grapes, principally from the Ionian islands. 
 
58 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 DATES, 
 
 DATES; the fruit of 
 an oblong shape of seve- 
 ral kinds of palm trees, 
 which are found in the 
 Levant, Arabia, Persia, 
 and Africa, and parts of 
 South America. The 
 tree is said to be beauti- 
 ful, shooting up to the 
 height of fifty or sixty 
 feet, without branch or 
 division. When it at- 
 tains this height, its di- 
 ssr^ ameter is from a foot to 
 ^eighteen inches. The 
 -^main stems of the leaves 
 " are from eight to twelve 
 feet long, firm, shining, and tapering, and each embracing at its inser- 
 tion a considerable part of the trunk. Before the fruit is ripe, it is rath- 
 er rough and astringent ; but, when perfectly matured, is much of the 
 nature of the fig ; has an oblong drupe, or stone, with a deep furrow 
 running longitudinally in the middle of the pulp. Some dates are 
 black, some white, some brown, some again are round, like apples, and 
 very large. They are generally oblong, fleshy, yellow, somewhat lar- 
 ger than the thumb's end, and very agreeable to the taste. Some are no 
 bigger than a pea, and others as big a pomegranate. 
 
 The medullary part of the date tree has the consistency of sago. 
 But the true sago is obtained from another kind of date tree, which is 
 a native of the East Indies. It is the Sago palm, a single trunk of which 
 in its fifteenth year, sometimes furnishes six hundred pounds of sago. 
 A single acre ofland, it is said, will support 435 sago palms, which will 
 annually produce 120,500 lbs. of sago. 
 
 There is scarcely any part of the true date tree which is not servicea- 
 ble to man, either as a necessary, or a luxury. When fully ripened, the 
 fruit yields, by strong pressure, a delicious syrup, which serves for pre- 
 serving dates, or other fruits ; or the fruit may be made into jellies and 
 tarts. The stalks of the bunches of dates, hard as they are in their 
 natural state, as well as the kernels, are softened by boiling, and in that 
 condition are used for feeding cattle. By distillation they afford ardent 
 spirit. From the sap, or juice of the tree, is made palm wine. The 
 fibrous parts of the date tree are made into ropes, baskets, mats, and 
 various other articles of domestic use ; and so are the strings or stalk, 
 which bear the dates. The cordage of the ships navigating the Red 
 Sea is almost exclusively of the inner fibrous bark of the date tree. The 
 trunk answers well for posts, railings, and other coarse purposes. Even 
 the leaves of the date palm have their uses. Their great length, and 
 comparatively small breadth, and their toughness, render them very 
 good materials for the construction of coarse ropes, baskets, panniers, 
 mats, fans, hats, Szc. Large quantities of these leaves are annually im. 
 ported into the United States. It is reported, that no less than one 
 million of hats have recently, within a single year, been manufactured 
 in the state of Massachusetts alone. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 59 
 
 PINE-APPLE, 
 
 APPLE. 
 
 We shall only add, that the date palm is a very slow growing tree. 
 In a soil and climate most congenial to it, old trees do not gain above a 
 foot in height in five years, so that supposing the increase uniform, the 
 age of a tree sixty feet high, cannot be less than 300 years. In some 
 countries in the East, date trees pass from one person to another, in 
 the course of trade and are sold by the single tree ; and the price paid 
 to a girl's father, on marrying her, often consists of date trees. 
 
 PINE-APPLE. 
 
 — This fruit is 
 justly esteemed 
 for the richness 
 of its flavor, as 
 it surpasses all 
 the known fruits 
 in the world. — 
 The fruit is sup- 
 posed to have 
 its name, from 
 the cones of the 
 pine tree, which 
 it somewhat re- 
 sembles. There 
 are many spe- 
 cies of pine ap- 
 ples, most of 
 them natives of 
 South America, 
 some of Africa. 
 and one or two 
 of the East In- 
 dies ; but that 
 most known and 
 propagated, is 
 the Brointha a 7L- 
 
 ancM, a native of America. Pine-apples have been long cultivated, in 
 the hottest islands of the West Indies, where they are plentiful and 
 good. They have, also, been introduced into European gardens, so as 
 to produce fruit. 
 
 APPLE. The apple is distinguished as the fruit of the colder cli- 
 mates. It is at once the most brisk and refreshing of any of the com- 
 mon hardy orchard fruits. It remains longest in season, is used in the 
 greatest number of ways, and therefore is the most generally cultiva- 
 ted, it is cultivated throughout Europe, as far as the 60° of latitude. 
 It has been observed, by a distinguished traveller, that the commoner 
 fruit trees, such as apples, pears, cherries, and apricots, grow in the 
 open air, wherever oaks thrive. 
 
 The apple is supposed to be a native of the Fast ; whence it was in- 
 troduced into Europe, and thence into England ; from which country 
 it has been brought to the United States. We have, however, an indif- 
 ferent crab apple, which is indigenous to the country. 
 
 The alimentary properties of the apple are not great ; but, when ful- 
 
60 FAMILY 
 
 APPLE. PEAR. 
 
 ly ripe, they are not unwholesome. In diseases of the breast, says Dr. 
 Willie, such as catarrhs, coughs, consumptions, &c. they are of con- 
 siderable service ; for these beneficial purposes, however, they ought 
 not to be eaten raw, but either roasted, stewed, or boiled. With regard 
 to their sensible properties, apples have been divided into spicy, acidu- 
 lated, and watery. The first contain the least proportion of water, are 
 of a most delicate flavor, and on account of their vinous qualities, are 
 not apt to excite flatulence. Pippins, on the contrary, though affording 
 more nutriment, are more fibrous, and consequently more difficult to 
 digest. These belong to the second class. Lastly, those sweet and 
 tender apples, which are very sweet and palatable, are the least fit to 
 be eaten in a raw state, unless with the addition of bread or biscuit. 
 
 To preserve apples well is obviously a great desideratum. Fessen- 
 uen, from an English journal, recommends the use of dry pit sand. 
 Glazed earthen jars are to be provided, and the sand to be thoroughly 
 dried. A layer of sand an inch thick is then placed in the bottom of 
 the jar ; above this, a layer of fruit, to be covered with a layer of sand 
 an inch thick, then lay a second stratum of fruit, covering again with 
 an inch of sand. An inch and a half of sand may be placed over the 
 uppermost row of fruit. The jar is now to be closed, and placed in a 
 jdry situation, as cool as possible, but entirely free from frost. 
 
 On the preservation of apples, the following excellent observations 
 are from the pen of Noah Webster, Esq. " It is the practice of some 
 persons to pick apples in October, and first spread them on the floor of 
 an upper room. This practice is said to render apples more durable, 
 by drying them. But I can affirm this to be a mistake. Apples, after 
 remaining on the trees as long as safety from the frost will admit, 
 should be taken directly from the trees to clo*e casks, and kept dry and 
 cool as possible. If suffered to lie on a floor for weeks, they wither 
 and lose their flavor, without acquiring any additional durability. The 
 best mode of preserving apples for spring use, 1 have found to be, to 
 put them in dry sand, as soon as picked. For this purpose, I dry sand 
 in the heat of summer, and late in October put down the apples in lay- 
 ers, with a covering of sand upon each layer. The singular advanta- 
 ges of this mode of treatment, are, 1st. The sand keeps the apples from 
 the air, which is essential to their preservation, and, 2d. the sand checks 
 the evaporation or perspiration of the apples, thus preserving them in 
 their full flavor ; at the same time, any moisture yielded by the apples 
 (and some there will be) is absorbed by the sand ; so that the apples are 
 kept dry and all mustiness prevented. My pippins, in May and June 
 are as fresh, as when first picked ; even the ends of the stems look as 
 if just separated from the twig." 
 
 PEAR. The pear tree is found in a wild state in Europe, as far 
 north as lat. 51°. According to the editors of the Library of Enter- 
 taining Knowledge, it is probable that the Romans introduced the cul- 
 tivated pear into England. From the latter country, as well as from 
 France, many fine varieties have been transferred to America. Some 
 sorts are indigenous to the country. 
 
 In a wild state, the fruit of the pear tree has an austere and unpleas- 
 ant taste ; but, when cultivated, it is highly grateful. The relative 
 salubrity of pears, however, depends much on the state of ripeness or 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 61 
 
 PLUM. PEACH. 
 
 immaturity, in which they are used, as well as on their different pro- 
 perties. Unripe pears should not be eaten, and those whicli are hard, 
 astringent, and difficult of digestion should also be rejected. As a gen- 
 eral rule, the more juicy ones are more alimentary, and less objectiona- 
 ble, from the circumstance that they abound more in saccharine mat- 
 ter, which does not so much oppress the stomach. All the varieties, 
 however, are more flatulent than apples, plumbs, or the generality of 
 fruit. When on the eve of decay, they are especially obnoxious, and 
 likely to produce cholera. Winter pears are, in general, unhealthy ; 
 and the more so, as they are commonly eaten at a period of the year, 
 when the stomach requires stimulating, rather than cooling nourish- 
 ment. Pears, when managed in a similar manner with apples for ma- 
 king cider, afford a pleasant liquor known by the name oZyerry. 
 
 PLUM. The tree which bears this fruit is found growing wild in 
 Great- Britain, and other parts of Europe; but it is supposed to be a 
 native of Asia. It is also indigenous in North America. 
 
 There are nearly three hundred varieties of plums. The origin of 
 one kind, the Washington, which in richness of flavor, beauty, and oth- 
 er good qualities, is, perhaps, not surpassed by any, is too curious to 
 be omitted. The parent tree was purchased in the market of New- 
 York, some time in the end of the last century. It remained barren 
 several years, till during a violent thunder-storm the whole trunk was 
 struck to the earth and destroyed. The root afterwards threw out a 
 number of vigorous shoots, all of which were allowed to remain, and 
 finally produced fruit. It is therefore to be presumed that the stock of 
 the barren kind is the parent of this. Trees of this kind were sent to 
 several gentlemen in England, a few years ago, by Dr. Hosack, of New 
 York. The fruit appears to be as highly esteemed in England, as in 
 this country. 
 
 Besides their utility as a culinary fruit, plums possess valuable me- 
 dicinal properties. In a dried state they are called prunes, and are 
 eminently useful in cases of costiveness, accompanied by irritation, that 
 would be aggravated by powerful laxatives ; but they ought not to be 
 eaten after long fasting or for supper, unless mixed with other aliment, 
 as they are apt to produce flatulency. With this exception, they suit 
 almost every constitution, and produce both cooling and aperient ef- 
 fects ; but when prunes do not operate, their power may be increased 
 by combining them with a small portion of rhubarb or cream of tartar. 
 
 \fplums be eaten in a fresh state, or before they are perfectly ripe, 
 and in immoderate quantities, they induce colics, looseness, and simi- 
 lar affections in the stomach and intestines. The larger kinds, especial- 
 ly, ought to be used seldom, and with great precaution, being more dan- 
 gerous than the smaller plums ; because the former are rarely permit- 
 ted to attain their maturity. 
 
 PEACH. The peach tree is said to be a native of Persia in Asia, 
 whence it was brought by the Romans into Italy, during the reign of 
 the Emperor Claudius. It was first cultivated in England, about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The alimentary properties of the peach are considerable. The bet- 
 ter kinds are not only harmless, but often positively beneficial ; espe- 
 cially in cases of weakness and derangement of the stomach. In dys- 
 
 6 
 
62 FAMILY 
 
 NECTARINE. APRICOT. CHERRY. QUINCE. 
 
 enteric complaints, ripe peaches are innoxious, and even salutary, 
 They are also useful for children, at the period of teething. Peaches 
 which ripen late have fewer good properties than those which are more 
 early ; and, in general, the free-stone peach is better flavored, than the 
 cling, though to this there are exceptions. 
 
 Peaches are often dried, in which state they will keep for a long time, 
 and are exceedingly fine when stewed. In this state they are also 
 sometimes used for pies. 
 
 NECTARINE. This, by some writers, is considered as the same 
 fruit with the peach. It has, however, a smoother skin and firmer 
 pulp. It is when of a good sort, and properly cultivated, thought to be 
 superior to it. Few vegetable productions are more grateful to the 
 palate even of the epicure. 
 
 APRICOT. The native country of the apricot appears to be Asia, 
 where it is widely diffused. . Some writers, however, think it a native 
 of Africa, whence, they say, it was carried towards the north. The 
 tree was first brought to England in 1524, by Woolf, the gardener to 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 From the vinous and saccharine nature of this fruit, we may readily 
 conclude that it is possessed of antiseptic, cooling, and nutritive proper- 
 ties ; yet, unless fully ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn acid, in weak 
 stomachs, especially those of persons who are subject to flatulency and 
 eructations : hence apricots ought to be eaten in moderation,* with the 
 addition of a little bread, and rather before than after meals. In short, 
 they are more useful to billious and plethoric, than to phlegmatic and 
 hysterical individuals, or those troubled with hypochondrical com- 
 plaints. 
 
 CHERRY. The cherry tree is said to have been originally found 
 in Persia, whence it was introduced into Italy, as well as other parts of 
 Europe, and is supposed to have been brought from Flanders into Eng- 
 land, in the reign of Henry VIII. There are several varieties in the 
 United States, which are thought to be natives of the country. The 
 common red cherry, which, until within a few years, was almost the 
 only sort cultivated among us, is quite indifferent ; and, when eaten im- 
 moderately, is apt to produce colic, and other kindred diseases. The 
 better sorts afford a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful at the des- 
 sert, and excellent for pies, tarts. Szc. A fine wine is made from the 
 juice, and a spirit may be distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum 
 which exudes from the tree, is equal to Gum Arabic ; and Hasselquist 
 relates, that more than two hundred men, during a siege, were kept 
 alive for nearly two months, without any other sustenance than a little 
 of the gum, taken sometimes into the mouth, and suffered gradually to 
 dissolve. 
 
 QUINCE. The quince was introduced into Europe, according to 
 Pliny, from the island of Crete. From the largeness of this fruit, and 
 its splendid color, it is thought not improbable that it was the same 
 with the apples of the Hesperides. 
 
 In the south of France, particularly on the borders of the Garonne, 
 the quince is very extensively grown ; and the peasants prepare from it 
 a marmalade, which they call colignoc. The term marmalade is deriv- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 63 
 
 DRINKS. WATER. 
 
 ed from the Portuguese name for the quince, rnarmelo. Gerard says, 
 that in his time, quince trees were planted in the hedges of gardens and 
 vineyards ; and marmalade two centuries ago, seems to have been in 
 general use, principally from a belief that it possesses valuable medici- 
 nal properties. The seeds of the quince are still used in medicine, on 
 account of the great quantity of mucilage, which they yield to boiling 
 ^vater. The fruit is sometimes boiled and eaten with sugar, in which 
 form it may bo usefully employed in cases of dysentery. Five gallons 
 of the juice of quinces, mixed with twenty-five pounds of sugar, and fer- 
 mented, affords a delicious wine. Quinces are excellent in apple pies, 
 in the proportion of one fourth quince to three fourths apple, with some 
 thin slices of candied lemon-peal or citron. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 DRINKS, 
 
 Concerning drinks it may be observed, in general, that they are ne- 
 cessary to dilute and to assist the digestion and assimilation of the 
 food, to preserve the fluidity of the chyle and of the blood ; and, on 
 many occasions, directly to replace the large quantity of watery fluid, 
 dissipated by the cutaneous, pulmonary, and urinary secretions. Ac- 
 cordingly, if the stomach be oppressed by the solidity or acrimony of 
 the food ; if the circulating mass require dilution ; or if there have 
 been any extraordinary dissipation of the fluids by the different excreto- 
 ries, we are advertised of the necessity of taking drink by the appetite of 
 thirst, 
 
 WATER. Water was formerly supposed to be a simple body, and 
 was called one of the elements. But the researches of modern chem- 
 istry have proved beyond a doubt, that it consists of hydrogen and oxy- 
 gen. When two volumes of hydrogen gas are mixed with one volume 
 of oxygen, and the mixture inflamed in a proper apparatus, by the elec- 
 tric spark, the gases totally disappear, and the interior of the vessel is 
 covered with drops of pure water, equal in weight to that of the gases 
 consumed. 
 
 Pure water is transparent, and without either color, taste, or smell. 
 At the temperature of 40° it is at its greatest density. A cubic foot of 
 water weighs, except a trifling fraction, 1000 ounces ; a cubic inch 252. 
 953 grains. A pint of pure water, wine measure, weighs, or is assumed 
 to weigh, sixteen ounces avoirdupois. 
 
 At the temperature of 32° water becomes ice ; the specific gravity of 
 ice is 0,94 ; ice, of course, floats on water. Water exposed to heat in 
 open vessels, boils at 212°. But water boils at different temperatures, 
 depending upon the pressure of the atmosphere. At the top of Mont 
 Blanc it boiled, according to Saussure, at 187°. 
 
 Water is the natural drink of man ; and, indeed, of all animals. It 
 is, also, the most universally used ; and though others are taken by a 
 
64 FAMILY 
 
 WATER. WINE. 
 
 great proportion of mankind, it forms the basis of all of them, consider- 
 ed merely as drinks. It is not only the safest, and best drink, but how- 
 ever it may be disguised, water is perhaps the only fluid, which can an- 
 swer all the purposes for which drink is required. 
 
 WINE is an agreeable, spirituous, aromatic liquor, prepared by fer- 
 menting the juices of those vegetables, which contain saccharine mat- 
 ter. 
 
 The kinds of wine are extremely various. The difference which 
 exists between them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in 
 the species of grapes, as in the quality of fruit, produced by the varie- 
 ties of soil, cultivation, and climate, to which they are subject. This 
 likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermenta- 
 tion, and the state of the grapes, from which the wine is produced. 
 
 Of all the kinds of wines that are consumed in England, none, it is 
 said, are so much in request as red port. This has its name from the 
 city of Oporto, in the neighborhood of which, the vines, producing it, 
 are chiefly cultivated. 
 
 The difference in color betwixt red and white wines, does not so 
 much depend upon the quality of the grapes, as upon the mode in 
 which the wines arc prepared. The juice of red grapes, if carefully 
 pressed, and fermented separately from the skins, forms a white wine. 
 If the skins be pressed so as to discharge the coloring matter, or if they 
 be allowed to remain in the juice, during the fermentation, the wine 
 assumes a red tinge. 
 
 White port, and Lisbon, are two kinds of white wine, which we re- 
 ceive from Portugal. The latter of which is now chiefly used. 
 
 French wines. Many excellent wines are produced in France. That 
 which is usually considered the best, is Burgundy, a red wine of very 
 delicate flavor, which derives its name from the province, where it is 
 made. The wines from the neighborhood of Orleans, however, after 
 having been matured by age, are much like Burgundy. Claret is the 
 only French red wine, for which there is any great demand in England. 
 It is thin and highly flavored, and is chiefly supplied from the neigh- 
 borhood of Bordeaux. Some of the red wines of Champaigne are 
 highly prized for their excellence and delicacy, though they occasion- 
 ally, have a pungent and sourish taste. 
 
 No French white wine has so much celebrity as Champaigne. This 
 is of two kinds : one of which called still, or quiet Champaigne, has 
 gone through the whole process of fermentation ; the other, which has 
 the name of sparkling Champaigne, has been bottled before the fermen- 
 tation was complete ; this consequently works slowly in the bottle, and 
 causes the wine, on the drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass. 
 Frontignac and Muscadel, are white" wines, the delicious productions of 
 Languedoc. 
 
 It would not consist with our limits even to name the varieties of 
 wine, which are produced in France. Almost every province has a 
 wine peculiar to itself. The value of the wine crop is estimated at 
 about thirty millions sterling. The department of the Gironde alone, 
 produces wine to the value of two millions sterling. 
 
 Spanish loine. In the environs of Xeres, in Spain, is produced the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 65 
 
 \VI>-ES. 
 
 wine called sherries, or sherry, which, when well prepared, is highly es- 
 teemed. 
 
 The best and richest sort of sherry, is called Pagarette, from the 
 Spanish word Pago, a district, and particularly applied to this vintage. 
 In one aranzado, (an acre of vineyard,) they plant, 1,800 vines at regu- 
 lar distances. It is reckoned a good year if it gives three buts per 
 acre ; middling if two ; and bad, if but one ; some years, however, it 
 yields four or five. The quantity of sherry wine made annually in this 
 place is about 40,000 pipes. Some sweet wines are also produced in 
 th-'s neighborhood, of which, the best known, is a sweet red wine call- 
 ed vino tinto, or Tent wine. 
 
 Italian wines. Notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of 
 the wines of Italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactur- 
 ed in that country, are thin and bad. Certain vineyards, on Mount 
 Vesuvius, however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine 
 called Lachryma Christi. 
 
 German wines. Germany produces many excellent wines of which 
 lock, Rhenish, and Moselle, are the most celebrated. Tokay 
 has its name from a town in Hungary, in the neighborhood of which it 
 is chiefly made. The quantity of the wine is so small, that even on 
 the spot it is sold at a very high price. Tokay is certainly a fine wine ; 
 it is no way adequate to the price, for which it is sold. Several 
 years ago, it could not be purchased even in Hungary, for much less 
 than half a guinea of English money, per bottle. Of all the German 
 wines, that which is in greatest demand in England is Hock. This has 
 its name from the town of Hockstedt, in Suabia, celebrated for a great 
 battle which was fought in its neighborhood, by the French and the 
 allies in 1704. Rhenish and Moselle, are produced chiefly on the banks 
 of the rivers Rhine and Moselle ; and have a cool sharp taste, and con- 
 siderable strength. Anterior to the late wars in Germany, there were 
 wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of 
 that country, which were more than a hundred years old, and of such 
 body, as to be uninjured even by that great age. 
 
 Madeira and Teneriffe xcines. To the Madeira and Canary islands 
 we arc indebted for some excellent white wines. Of these, Madeira 
 wine is considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has 
 been ripened by conveyance into a hot climate. The number of pipes 
 of Madeira annually made in that island is about 30,000. The grapes 
 when gathered, are put into wooden vessels, and the juice is extracted 
 by persons treading upon thern. 
 
 The Canary islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was for- 
 merly in great esteem under the name of Canary sack, and is now usu- 
 ally called Malmsey Madeira. The genuine malmsey wine, which is of 
 sweet and luscious flavor, and rich golden yellow color, is the produce 
 of Malvesia, one of the Greek islands, and thence had originally its 
 name, the French merchants denominating it Vin de Malvesia : but so 
 little is now made, that few persons can possess it. Teneriffe wine, 
 when two or three years old, has much the flavor of Madeira; but af- 
 ter this age it sometimes becomes so sweet and mellow, as somewhat 
 to resemble Malaga. 
 
 Cape wines. There are produced at the Cape of Good Hope two 
 
 6* 
 
66 FAMIL. 
 
 WINES. 
 
 kinds of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wines called red and white 
 Constantina. The farm from which they have their name is situated 
 about eight miles from Cape Town. Constantina is in perfection, when 
 about two years old ; but when kept six or seven years, it sparkles in 
 the glass, somewhat, like wine which has not undergone a perfect fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 Several attempts have been made in the United States, within a few 
 years, to cultivate the grapes of our own country, as well as those of 
 foreign origin, for the purpose of making wine. Hitherto, the quantity 
 has not been great, nor the quality, with some exceptions, superior. 
 Indeed, it is doubtful, whether the climate will ever admit of the culti- 
 vation of those sorts of grapes, which are essential to wholesome wine. 
 Yet it is well known that a different opinion prevails among some. In 
 respect to New-England, a writer gives it as his opinion, that it can nev- 
 er be the interest of the farmers to raise the \ine for the above purpose. 
 "The great objection to its culture," he observes, "for wine is, the de- 
 ficiency of sugar, or saccharine matter. This defect is so great in our 
 climate that cultivators are obliged to add a large quantity of sugar 
 to the must, or expressed juice, to give it sufficient body. In the Mid- 
 dle and Southern States the successful cultivation of the vine 6eems 
 more probable, and some experiments have even exceeded the expec- 
 tations of the sanguine. Wine pronounced to be of an excellentjjquali- 
 ty by Dr. Mease, has been manufactured by Col. Adlum, near George- 
 town, who in 1826 states, that he realized from two acres and an half, 
 from eleven to twelve hundred dollars, after deducting all expenses. 
 Among the grapes cultivated for this purpose are the Bland and Ca- 
 tawba. In North Carolina, the Scuppernong grape is in high estima- 
 tion ; and from it, wine has been made, pronounced by good judges to 
 equal the best Madeira. A single vine has been known to produce 
 eight barrels of wine. Mr. Prince, near New- York, has produced ex- 
 cellent wine from the Isabella grape, to which he gives the preference. 
 Wine is manufactured also in parts of Ohio, Tennessee, and several 
 other states. 
 
 Method of making and fining wine — In the southern parts of France, 
 they make red wines by treading the grapes, or squeezing them be- 
 tween the hands ; after the juice and husks have stood a time, they 
 press them ; but for white wine they press the grapes immediately. 
 When pressed, they tun the must, and stop up the vessel, leaving the 
 depth of half a foot or more empty, to give room for it to work. About 
 Paris, and in the northern parts of France, they let the husks and must 
 stand two days and nights for white wine, and at least a week for 
 claret wine, before they tun it. To fine it down, they put shavings of 
 green beech into the vessel. Although the juice of the grape general- 
 ly contains saccharine matter sufficient for fermentation, yet it is usual 
 in some countries to accelerate this process by artificial means, such as 
 heat, &c. If after the first fermentation, certain impurities remain, 
 wine-coopers remove these by means of isinglass, whites of eggs, pow- 
 ders of alabaster, calcined marble, roch-alum, &c. The Grecians pro- 
 mote the fining of their strongest wines by a quantity of sulphur and 
 alum. Some sweeten their wines with raisins of the sun. 
 
 Currant wine. As this kind of wine is extensively manufactured in 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. &t 
 
 WINES. CIDER. 
 
 the United States, especially in private families, we give the following 
 rule from the Farmer's Guide. To make this wine, gather the cur- 
 rants when fully ripe, let them be picked in fair weather, and with as 
 much expedition as possible ; break them well in a tub or vat, (some 
 have a mill constructed for the purpose, consisting of a hopper, fixed 
 upon two lignum vitae rollers,) press and measure the juice, having 
 first strained it through a woollen cloth ; to every gallon of pure cur- 
 rant juice, add two gallons of cold water, then to every gallon of this 
 mixture, immediately put three pounds of good brovvn sugar, (some 
 think it better with three and one-fourth pounds,) stir it well, till the 
 sugar is quite dissolved, and then fill up the cask. If you can possibly 
 prevent it, let not your juice stand over night, as it should not ferment 
 before mixture. Observe that the casks be sweet and clean, and such 
 as never have had either beer or cider in them, and if new, let them be 
 first well seasoned. The cask must not be so full as to work over. 
 Lay the bung lightly on the hole, to keep out flies, Szc. In three weeks, 
 or a month, the bung hole may be stopped up, leaving only the vent 
 hole open, till it has fully done working; then stop it up tight, and in 
 six months, it will be fit for bottling, or for use. Like other wines, 
 however, it improves much by age. 
 
 Wine, as well as ardent spirits, it is well known, contains a large 
 quantity of alcohol. The following table exhibits the proportion of 
 this principle in one hundred parts of the following liquors, and which, 
 for convenience, we insert in this place. 
 
 Rum, 54 
 
 Brandy, French . . 53 
 
 Gin, 52 
 
 Scotch Whiskey, . . 54 
 
 Port wine, from . 19 to 26 
 
 Madeira, " . . 19 to 24 
 Currant, ... 21 
 
 Sherry, Lisbon, and Malaga, from 18 to 20 
 Claret, from . * 13 to 17 
 
 Tokay, " ... 10 
 " Nearly all the wines used in this country," observes a writer, ■ con- 
 tain a much larger proportion of alcohol, than the above table indi- 
 cates ; as it is well known to be the practice of many dealers in wine, 
 to add brandy, and other articles, to give them more life and a richer 
 color." Indeed, it is stated by a most respectable medical authority, 
 that, " for every gallon of pure wine which is sold, there is perhaps a 
 pipe, or fifty times the quantity of that which is adulterated, and in 
 various manners sophisticated ; the whole, without exception, the source 
 of a thousand disorders, and in many instances an active poison im- 
 perfectly disguised." 
 
 CIDER. This is a cooling, pleasant, vinous beverage made by 
 fermenting the juice of apples. The following essay upon the manu- 
 facture of it by Jesse Buel, Esq., we extract from the fifth volume of 
 the New England Farmer, as containing the best view of the subject 
 which we recollect to have seen. 
 
 The quality of cider depends on several contingencies, among which 
 I will enumerate, 
 
68 FAMILY 
 
 CIDER. 
 
 1. The species of fruit employed ; 
 
 2. Soil and aspect of the orchard ; 
 
 3. ( ondition of the fruit when ground ; 
 
 4. The process of grinding, &c. ; 
 
 5. Management of the vinous fermentation ; and 
 
 6. The precautions which are taken to prevent the acetous fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 I intend to offer remarks upon each of these divisions. And, 
 1. The Fruit. Apples differ not only in their flavor, color, and time 
 of ripening, but in the proportions of their constituent parts. The 
 most material of these constituent parts are acid, sugar, astringency. 
 vegetable extract and water. The properties of good dessert and cider 
 apples are seldom found united, though they are not incompatible 
 with each other. Table apples are esteemed on account of their bland 
 and aromatic ilavor, crisp and juicy pulp, and for the property of keep- 
 ing long, or ripening late. The characteristics of a good cider apple 
 are, a red skin ; yellow and often tough and fibrous pulp, astringency, 
 dryness, and ripeness at the cider making season. " When the rind 
 and pulp are green, the cider will always be thin, weak and colorless ; 
 and when these are deeply tinged with yellow, it will, however manu- 
 factured, or in whatever soil it may have grown, almost always possess 
 color, with either strength or richness." — {Knight.) The apple, like 
 the grape, must attain a state of perfection, or perfect maturity, before 
 its juices develope all their excellence ; and as many of our best eating 
 apples do not acquire this maturity until winter or spring, this affords 
 a satisfactory reason why winter fruit is seldom or never good cider 
 fruit. In a dry apple, the essential elements of cider are generally 
 more concentrated, or are accompanied with a less proportion of water, 
 than in a juicy one ; of course the liquor of the former, is stronger 
 than that of the latter. Of our best cider apples, ten or twelve bush- 
 els of fruit are' required for a barrel of juice ; while of the ordinary- 
 juicy kinds, eight bushels generally suffice. 
 
 Very little has been done to acquire a correct knowledge of the re- 
 lative value of our native apples for cider. Coxe has described and 
 figured one hundred varieties of this fruit, of which about thirty are 
 recommended for cider. Of these thirty kinds I selected the following 
 for my nursery, as not only being best for cider, but as generally com- 
 bining the desirable qualities of table fruit also : viz. the Hagloe and 
 Virginia crabs, Harrison, Campfield, Styre, yellow Newton and New- 
 ark pippins, Priestly, Graniwinkle, Winesap, Carthouse and Cooper's 
 russeting. We have undoubtedly, among our indigenous fruit, many 
 kinds of excellent cider apples hitherto unnoticed ; and it is very de- 
 sirable that their properties should be tested, and the result of the in- 
 vestigation made public. 
 
 In Great Britain more attention has been given to this subject. The 
 specific gravity of the juice of old cider varieties has not only been 
 ascertained by scientific men, and their relative value fixed, but new 
 varieties have been obtained by artificial crossing, surpassing, in rich- 
 ness of juice, any before cultivated. Loudon has given a table of 38 
 cider apples, in his Encyclopedia of Agriculture. Of these, the fol- 
 lowing are only known to be in our nurseries, viz. ; *Redstreak, Wine, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 CIDER. 
 
 Styre, Hagloe crab, *Maiden's Blush, *Count Pendu, *Downton and 
 Grange pippins, Foxley, Siberian Harvey, yellow Siberian and *Min- 
 shelfs crab. Those with an asterisk are also excellent dessert apples. 
 The seven last named, five of which are new varieties by Knight, I have 
 obtained from Europe, and propagated in nursery. None of the old 
 English cider varieties exceed, in the specific gravity of their juice, 
 1,079, water being 1,000. Six of Knight's new varieties are over 1,079, 
 and one is 1,091. Knight is of opinion, that with proper varieties of 
 fruit, the defects of almost every soil and aspect might be corrected, 
 and that fine cider might be made in any part of England. In France 
 and Italy, small berried grapes, of a harsh flavor, are preferred for 
 wine-making, (Loudon?) and it will be found that the cider apples re- 
 commended by Loudon and Coxe are under a medium size, and sever- 
 al of them austere and harsh. 
 
 2. Soil and aspect. The apple, like the grape, is known to take 
 much of its character from, the soil on which it grows. The best cider 
 orchards in England, are on a stratum of red marie, which stretches 
 across the Island. The soil of Herefordshire, highly reputed for its 
 ciders, is an argillaceous, or clay marie. And Knight says, the strong- 
 est and most highly flavored cider which has been obtained from the 
 apple, was produced from fruit growing on a shallow loam, on lime- 
 stone basis. All the writers upon the subject seem to agree, that cal- 
 careous earth should form a component part of the soil of a cider or- 
 chard. It appears to have the effect of mitigating the harshness of 
 rough and austere fruits, and of neutralizing the juices of those which 
 are too acid. Coxe says, the soil which grows good wheat and clover, 
 is best for a cider orchard. My own observation would induce me also 
 to prefer a dry and somewhat loose soil, in which the roots, destined to 
 furnish food for the tree, and fruit, may penetrate freely, and range ex- 
 tensively, in search of nutriment. The juices of plants and fruits are 
 always more concentrated when growing on a dry than on a wet soil. 
 Mint, or other aromatic herbs, is much stronger in the specific virtues 
 of the plant, when grown on a dry soil, and greater in volume, when 
 grown on a wet one. The maple yields the sweetest sap, though less 
 in quantity, on a dry soil. Apples may grow large on a moist alluvion ; 
 but the fruit will neither be so abundant, nor so rich, as on a dry soil. 
 The thriftiest trees produce the most wood buds ; those less thrifty the 
 most fruit buds. The best aspect for an orchard is one somewhat ele- 
 vated or undulating, protected from prevailing cold winds — and facing 
 the south, south-east or east. 
 
 3. Condition of the fruit. Fruit should be used when it has attain- 
 ed its perfect state of maturity, and before it begins to decay, because 
 it then yields the greatest proportion of saccharine matter. The most 
 certain indication of ripeness, says Crocker, is the fragrance of the 
 smell, and the spontaneous dropping from the trees. Each kind of the 
 apple should be manufactured separately, or those kinds only mixed 
 which ripen at one time and which experience shall show, are not pre- 
 judicial to each other. Who would ever think of making a superior 
 wine from an indiscriminate mixture of a dozen kinds of grapes ? 
 And yet we seem to expect good cider from an indiscriminate mixture 
 of a dozen kinds of apples. It may be urged, that the evil is irreme- 
 diable, because our orchards, containing these dozen varieties, have 
 
TO FAMILY 
 
 CIDER. 
 
 been furnished to our hands ; and that neither the quantity nor quality 
 of any one kind of fruit renders it an object to manufacture it sepa- 
 rately. Is it not time, then, to set about correcting the evil, by select- 
 ing only the best kinds for new plantations. 
 
 4. Grinding, Sec. The apples should be reduced, by the mill, as 
 nearly as possible to a uniform mass, in which the rind and seeds are 
 scarcely discoverable ; and the pomace should be exposed to the air 
 from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the temperature, 
 before it is pressed. The juices of the rind of fruit, as maybe instan- 
 ced in the orange and lemon, are highly concentrated ; and those of 
 the rind of the apple have a material influence, with the aromatic bit- 
 ter of the seeds, upon the flavor and strength of the liquor. 
 
 5. Vinous fermentation. This is commonly called working. It 
 commences at the temperature of 59° Fah., and cannot be conducted 
 in safety when the heat is over 75°, for a high temperature induces a 
 too rapid fermentation, by which much of the spirit passes off with the 
 disengaged carbonic acid gas, and the acetous or vinegar fermentation 
 begins at 77°. This will show the importance of conducting the vi- 
 nous fermentation under a proper temperature, which is from 50 to 70° 
 of Fah. To show the chemical effect of the vinous fermentation, it 
 will be proper to repeat that the unfermented juice, or must, of the ap- 
 ple, consists of saccharine matter or sugar, vegetable mucilage or ex- 
 tract ; astringency or tannin ; malic, and a small matter of gallic acid, 
 the principle of flavor, tinging or coloring matter, and water. The 
 sugar becomes the basis, or spirit, of the fermented liquor ; the spirit, 
 after vinous fermentation, and the tannin, or astringent matter, pre- 
 serve it from the acetous fermentation, if the vegetable mucilage, or 
 yeast, is separated when it has performed its office. This vegetable 
 mucilage acts upon the saccharine matter in a manner analogous to 
 yeast upon the wort of the brewer — it causes fermentation, and con- 
 verts sugar into spirits— by its giving off carbonic acid gas, and imbi- 
 bing hydrogen ; the liquor becomes clear, and part of the mucilage 
 rises to the surface with the disengaged air, in the form of froth, and the 
 residue is precipitated, with the heavier impurities, to the bottom, in 
 the form of sediment or lees. This is the critical period. The liquor 
 may now be drawn off clear. If left longer, the feculent matter, or 
 froth, by parting with the gas which renders it buoyant, soon settles 
 and mixes with the liquor, renders it turbid, and as soon as the temper- 
 ature attains a proper height, causes a new fermentation. This will 
 explain the reason why ciders become harsh and sour on the approach 
 of warm weather in the spring. The elementary principles of sugar, 
 ardent spirits and vinegar, it has been ascertained by the experiments 
 of Lavoisier, are the same ; and these substances only differ in the 
 proportion of their component parts, and in the modes of their, chemi- 
 cal union. Sugar consists of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. An in- 
 creased proportion of hydrogen enters into the composition of ardent 
 spirits, and of oxygen into vinegar. The same agent, vegetable mu- 
 cilage, which converts the sugar of the apple into spirits, will convert 
 the spirits into vinegar, under a proper temperature, and aided by the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere. The process of making vinegar is greatly 
 accelerated by exposing cider or wine to the atmosphere, the oxygen of 
 which it imbibes, and which is termed by chemists the great acidify. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. Tf 
 
 CIDER. 
 
 ing principle. Here again we see the propriety of professional cider 
 manufacturers, who might be provided with cellars where the temper- 
 ature could be regulated, and who would carefully rack off the liquor 
 at the completion of the vinous fermentation. 
 
 The vinous fermentation commences and terminates at different pe- 
 riods, according to the condition and quality of the fruit, and the state 
 of the weather. The juice of unripe fruit, if the weather be warm, 
 will begin to ferment in a few hours after it passes from the press ; and 
 seidom stops at the vinous stage. The juice of ripe fruit, when the 
 temperature is lower, does not begin to ferment under a week or fort- 
 night, or longer, often continues slowly through the winter, and when 
 made from some of the finer eider apples, is not completed under six 
 or nine months. Indeed, in some cases, the liquor does not become 
 clear under a year, and the sugar is not wholly decomposed under two 
 years ; for the whole of the sugar is seldom decomposed during the 
 first sensible fermentation. Knight considers cider at two years old 
 as in the best state for bottling. For until the sugar is decomposed, 
 fermentation insensibly goes on, and the strength of the liquor increas- 
 es. The like insensible process goes on in wines, and when it is com- 
 pleted, the wines are said to be ripe, and are in their highest state of 
 perfection. (See M'Culloch.) Temperature being the same, I think it 
 may be assumed as a rule, that fermentation will be rapid and short, in 
 an inverse ratio to the proportion which the saccharine matter bears to 
 the mucilage and water ; and that the vinous liquor will be rich, high 
 flavored and durable, in proportion as the sugar and astrinerency pre- 
 ponderate in the must. 
 
 6. Precautions to prevent acetous fermentation. These are. suppo- 
 sing the previous contingencies to have been favorable, a careful sepa- 
 ration of the vinous liquor from the froth and lees, — a cool tempera- 
 ture, — racking and fining, and artificial means to destroy the ferment- 
 ing quality of the remaining mucilage. 
 
 I have already suggested the importance of drawing on the liquor 
 from the scum and sediment — at the termination of the vinous ferment- 
 ation. This period may be known by the cracking of the froth in an 
 open cask, or, if in a close one, by the application of the nose or ear to 
 the bung hole. If the fermentation has not ceased, a hissing will be 
 apparent, and the gas given off will give a pungent sensation to the 
 nose. If the liquor is not sufficiently clear, or indications appear of 
 the acetous fermentation having commenced, the cider should be racked 
 into clean strong casks, and fined with isinglas, eggs, or skimmed milk. 
 This operation may be repeated, if found necessary ; but it should be 
 performed in clear cold weather. After the first racking, the casks 
 should be kept bunged close, and further rackings be avoided, if possi- 
 ble, as every racking reduces its strength, and much of the spirit es- 
 capes with the carbonic acid gas which is evolved in the fermentive 
 process. The oxygen of the atmosphere, besides, increases the vine- 
 gar fermentation. But if these methods fail, resort may be had to the 
 means of impeding the natural operation of the mucilage, or vegetable 
 leaven. This may be done by what is called stumming, that is, burn- 
 ing a rag impregnated with sulphur, in the cask in which the liquor is 
 to be decanted, after it has been partly filled, and rolling it so as to in- 
 corporate the liquid with the gas ; or by putting a drachm or two of 
 
72 FAMILY 
 
 VINEGAR. — ALCOHOL. RUM, 
 
 sulphite of potash into each cask, which will precipitate and render in- 
 soluble the remaining leaven. If the fruit is good, and properly 
 ground, and the cider racked from the fermenting casks at a proper 
 time, most or all of the subsequent operations will be superseded. 
 
 VINEGAR is an agreeable acid liquor, prepared from wine, cider, 
 beer, and other liquors, and it is of considerable use, both as a medicine 
 and a sauce. The word is French, vinaigre; from vin, wine, and aigre, 
 sour. 
 
 There are four kinds of vinegar known in commerce ; that from wine, 
 from malt, from sugar, and from wood. This last is called the pyrolig- 
 neous acid, and is now prepared in large quantities in London, by distil- 
 ling wood in close vessels. It may be obtained eight times the strength 
 of common vinegar, so that it may be diluted by the purchaser at plea- 
 sure. It is colorless, and by many considered superior to common vin- 
 egar. It is said to be perfectly free from all flavor, save that of the 
 pure acid. 
 
 The principal requisites to form good vinegar, are, 1. contact with 
 the air ; 2. A temperature not exceeding 77° of Fahrenheit ; 3. The 
 addition of some extraneous vegetable matter, to promote the acetous 
 fermentation ; and, 4. the presence of alcohol. 
 
 The vinegar used in the United States is chiefly made from cider. 
 It may be prepared thus : to a quarter cask of good cider, add 4 lbs. of 
 white Havanna sugar, and half a pound of argol, or rough tartar, in fine 
 powder ; it will be better for the addition of some lees of wine. Ex- 
 pose it to a heat not less than 75°, nor more than 80°, with the bung 
 out. Twice or thrice a day, draw off a pail full, and after it has stood 
 exposed to the air, a quarter of an hour, return it to the bung-hole by a 
 funnel. 
 
 Vinegar is sometimes made from whey. The following directions 
 are given by Mr. Genet, of New- York. " After having clarified the 
 whey, it is poured into casks with some aromatic plants, or elder blos- 
 soms, as suits the fancy, and exposed in the open air to the sun, when 
 it soon acquires an uncommon degree of acidity." 
 
 ALCOHOL. This is said to be an Arabian word, which signifies 
 antimony ; so called from the usage of the Eastern ladies to paint their 
 eyebrows with antimony, reduced to a most subtile powder ; whence, 
 it at last came to signify any thing exalted to its highest perfection. 
 Alcohol is highly rectified spirit of wine, freed from all those watery 
 particles, which are not essential to it. When pure, it consists of hy- 
 drogen, carbon and oxygen. It is quite colorless, and clear ; of a strong 
 and penetrating smell and taste ; capable of being set on fire, without 
 wick, and burning with aflame, without leaving a residue, and without 
 smoke and soot. It is not known to freeze, in any degree of coldness. 
 It is used in those preparations, called elixirs, tinctures, essences, &c. 
 It is a powerful stimulant and antisceptic It is this, which in brandy, 
 rum, wine, &c, exhilarates, and which, at length, destroys the constitu- 
 tion of the drunkard. In England, alcohol is procured by distillation 
 from molasses ; in Scotland and Ireland, from whiskey. In the East 
 ludies, arrack is distilled from rice ; in the West Indies, rum from the 
 sugar cane ; and in France and Spain, brandy, from wine ; in the Uni- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 73 
 
 RUM. BRANDY. GIN. — ARRACK. 
 
 ted States, cider-brandy, from cider. All these afford alcohol by dis- 
 tillation. 
 
 RUM is a spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented juice of 
 the sugar-cane, or from molasses and other coarse saccharine matter in 
 the W est Indies. Rum contains a considerable portion of alcohol ; but 
 as it contains, in solution, a gross essential oil, which is apt to disagree 
 with some stomachs, it Is not so good, considered medicinally, as 
 brandy. 
 
 BRANDY is obtained by simple distillation, from real wines, or the 
 fermented juice of grapes. To distil brandy, they fill the still half full 
 of the liquor from which it is to be drawn, and raise it with a little fire, 
 till about one sixth part be distilled, or till they perceive what falls into 
 a receiver is not at all inflammable. Brandy, when first made, is per- 
 fectly colourless ; the colour it has in this country is given to it by 
 burnt sugar. The peculiar taste of brandy is produced by a small por- 
 tion of some essential oil ; whether arising from the wine from which it 
 is distilled, or added afterwards, is not known in this country. On this 
 account, in moderate doses, it is very grateful to the stomach. The 
 greatest part of the brandies in use is prepared in France. Of the 
 French brandies, those of Languedoc and Anjou, whence the well 
 known Cognac brandy, are the most esteemed. Of brandy, either plain 
 or rectified, are prepared various kinds of strong liquors, with the addi- 
 tion of other ingredients, sugars, spices, flowers, fruits, Sec. The 
 strength of brandy may be determined by olive oil or tallow, both of 
 which sink in good brandy. 
 
 GENEVA or GIN ; the name of a compound water, procured from 
 juniper berries and other ingredients, distilled with malt spirits. The 
 French name of the juniper-berry, is genievre, from which the word is 
 formed. But our common distillers leave out the juniper-berries entirely 
 from the liquor they now make and sell under that name. Our chem- 
 ists have taught them, that the oil of juniper berries and that of turpen- 
 tine are very much alike in flavor, though not in price ; and the com- 
 mon method of making what is called geneva, in London, is with com- 
 mon malt spirit, and a proper quantity of oil of turpentine distilled to- 
 gether, with sometimes angelica root, and other aromatic vegetables. 
 The Dutch, it is said, still continue the original use of juniper berries, 
 and hence the reason why Hollands is by many preferred to English 
 gin. This hot fiery spirit is too much used by the lower classes of peo- 
 ple in its undiluted state as a drain. It is most injurious to their con- 
 stitution and morals. 
 
 ARRACK ; a spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies ; used 
 by way of dram and in punch. The word arrack, according to Mr. 
 Lockyer, is an Indian name for strong waters of all kinds, for they call 
 our spirits English arrack. But what we understand by the name ar- 
 rack, he alhrms to be no other than a spirit procured by distillation 
 from a vegetable juice called toddy, which flows by incision out of the 
 cocoa-nut tree, like the birch juice procured among us. Others are or* 
 opinion, that the arrack is a vinous spirit obtained by distillation in ths 
 East Indies from rice or sugar fermented with the juice of the cocoa 
 tree. The Goa arrack is said to be made from the toddy ; the Batavia 
 arrack from rice and sugar ; there is likewise a kind of shrub from 
 
74 FAMILY 
 
 ALE. — MALT. 
 
 which arrack is made. By fermenting, distilling, and rectifying, the 
 juice of the American maple, which has much the same taste as that of 
 the cocoa tree, arrack has been made not inferior to any that comes 
 from the East Indies. 
 
 ALE is a popular beverage or drink made from malt. The zythum 
 and curmi, mentioned by Tacitus as the beverage of the ancient Ger- 
 mans, are supposed to correspond with our ale and beer. 
 
 MALT denotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it for making a pota- 
 ble liquor, under the denomination of beer, ale, &c. 
 
 The manner of making malt Sir Robert Murray describes as follows : 
 Steep good barley in a stone trough full of water, till the water be of a 
 bright reddish color, but it may be known when it is steeped enough by 
 other marks, as by the excessive swelling of the grain and the degree 
 of softness. It is afterwards taken out, and laid on heaps, to let the 
 water drain from it, then turned and laid in a new heap, where it may 
 lie forty hours, more or less. In about fifteen or sixteen hours the 
 grains put forth roots, which when they have done, the malt must be 
 turned over, otherwise the grains will begin to put forth the blade or 
 spire, w T hich must be prevented. It must now be spread to a depth not 
 exceeding five or six inches, and then turned over and over for the space 
 of forty-eight hours at least. This cools, dries and deadens the grain, 
 when it becomes mellow, melts easily in brewing, and separates easily 
 from the husk. Then throw up the malt into a high heap, and let it grow 
 as hot as your hand can endure it, which it usually does in about thirty 
 hours. This perfects the sweetness and mellowness of the malt. It is 
 now again cooled and turned over, and then laid on a kiln, with hair 
 cloth or wire spread under it, where, after one fire, it must have a se- 
 cond, and perhaps a third, before the malt be thoroughly dried. The 
 time during which the grain continues on the malt floor varies according 
 to circumstances; fourteen days is, however, the general average. 
 Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt is more or less dried 
 on the kiln, that which is the least dried tinging the liquor least in 
 brewing, and therefore called pale; whereas the higher dried, and as 
 it were roasted, makes it of a higher colour. High dried malt yields 
 less liquor or beer than low dried or pale malt does, and hence the por- 
 ter brewers are obliged to use colouring drugs and many pernicious 
 stuffs, as substitutes for malt, which is too dear to afford deep-colored 
 pure malt liquor at the common price of porter. 
 
 BREWING is the operation of preparing ale or beer from malt. In 
 brewing, a quantity of water, being boiled, is left to cool till it becomes 
 of the temperature of 175° or 180° ; or till the face can be seen pretty 
 distinctly in the w r ater. Mix the malt with the water, stirring it dur- 
 ing the process with the mashing stick. Reserve a few handfuls of the 
 dry malt to strew over the surface after it is mixed, to prevent the es- 
 cape of the heat; the vessel should also be covered besides with cloths, 
 in order to keep the mixture hot; this operation is called mashing. 
 Let the whole stand for three hours, more or less, according to the 
 strength of the wort, which is then to be drawn off into a receiver. 
 The mashing is repeated for the second wort nearly in the same man- 
 ner as for the first. After these worts are run off, a quantity of hops 
 is added, and the liquor is again boiled. The hops are afterwards 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 75 
 
 BREWING. — HOPS. 
 
 strained from it, and when it is moderately cool, the barm or yeast is 
 applied. The barm causes the whole to ferment, and when sufficient- 
 ly fermented, it is tunned up in vessels for use. One, two, three, or 
 more months are necessary to pass, be ore it will befit for use. The 
 quantity of malt for making a hogshead, sixty-three gallons, of strong 
 bter^ may be ten bushels ; for good ale five bushels are sufficient. 
 
 The following account of a London brewing establishment, from the 
 pen of Professor Griscom, will give the reader some idea of the extent 
 to which brewing operations are carried in England. This establish- 
 ment (Barclay's brewery.) covers about eight acres of ground, and man- 
 ufactured last year (1829), 340,000 barrels of 36 gallons each. The 
 building which contains the vats, and the vats themselves, are enor- 
 mous. The largest of the latter contain each 4000 barrels. The aver- 
 age number of vats is nearly one hundred. A steam engine of twenty- 
 two horse power is employed in driving the machinery, and about two 
 hundred men are engaged in the various works of the establishment ; 
 while it is supposed that the number of persons dependent upon it with- 
 out, in the sale and transportation of the beer, is three or four thousand. 
 The three coppers in which the beer is boiled, hold each 150 barrels. 
 
 Twenty-five gentlemen once dined in one of them ; after which, fifty 
 of the workmen got in and regaled themselves. One hundred and nine- 
 ty pounds of beef-steaks were thus consumed in one day, in this novel 
 dining room. The tuns in which the beer ferments, hold 1400 barrels 
 each. The carbonic acid in one of them stood about three and a half 
 feet above the liquor, and poured over the side in a continued stream. 
 A candle is instantly extinguished on being placed near the outer edge 
 of this receptacle, and on holding one's face over it, a sharp, pungent 
 sensation is felt in the mouth and fauces, not unlike that produced by 
 ardent spirits. An immersion of a few moments would be sufficient to 
 occasion a suspension of voluntary motion. 
 
 One hundred and sixty horses are kept on the premises, for the pur- 
 pose chiefly of transporting the materials to and from different parts of 
 the city. 
 
 HOPS, it is said, preserve malt liquors : if hops were not added, that 
 clammy sweetness, which the liquor retains after working, would soon 
 become acid, and render the liquor unfit for use. The whole virtue of 
 the hop resides, it appears, in a fine yellow powder, readily separable 
 from the leaves by mere rubbing, or threshing : this powder is called 
 Lupulln. 
 
 SECTION IV, 
 
 CONDIMENTS. 
 
 GINGER, the common, is a native of the East Indies, but now natu- 
 ralized in the West Indies, whence we are chiefly supplied with it. It 
 is a perennial shrub, which grows about a yard high. Its propagation 
 is effected by parting the roots in the spring, planting them in pots of 
 
76 FAMILY 
 
 NUTMEG. CLOVE 
 
 light earth, and placing them in a hot bed of tanner's bark, where they 
 remain. The different kinds of ginger found in the shops appear to be 
 the same root differently dried, or otherwise prepared ; the roots which 
 are white, soft, and woolly, are in general, less pungent than the more 
 solid and compact kinds. Ginger is much employed as a condiment, 
 and as a medicine. It is considered as a useful stimulant in dyspepsy, 
 gout, and other complaints, requiring exciting medicines. Ginger is 
 sometimes brought to this country, preserved in syrup. It is also used 
 as a plaster, wet with French brandy, to be laid upon the stomach, in 
 cases of great pain, or to check excessive vomiting in cholera ; and of- 
 ten subserves an excellent purpose. 
 
 NUTMEG is the product of a tree, which resembles the cherry tree 
 in growth, and size, and is a native of the Molucca Islands, from which, 
 except Banda, by the policy of the Dutch, it has been nearly extirpa- 
 ted ; Banda, now supplying with mace and nutmegs, the whole of 
 Europe. The flowers, which are inodorous, are present at the same 
 time with the fruit, and male and female are on the same, and on sepa- 
 rate trees. Nutmegs are inclosed in four different covers. The first 
 a thick husk, like that of our walnuts. Under this lies a thin reddish 
 coat, of an agreeable smell, and aromatic taste, called mace. This 
 wraps up the shell, and opens in proportion as the pod grows. The 
 shell, which makes the third cover, is hard, thin, and blackish ; under 
 this is a greenish film of no use ; and in this is found the nutmeg,which 
 is properly the kernel of the fruit. The nutmeg tree yields three crops 
 annually : the first, which is the best, in April ; the second in August, 
 and the third in December. The fruit requires nine months to ripen ; 
 when gathered, the outer covering is first stripped off, and then the 
 mace carefully separated and dried ; the nutmegs in the shell are next 
 exposed to heat, and smoke, for three months, then broken, and the 
 kernels thrown into a strong mixture of lime and water, after which 
 they are cleaned and packed up. This process is said to be necessary 
 for their preservation, and with the same intention, the mace is sprink- 
 led with salt water. 
 
 The CLOVE is obtained from a tree, somewhat in the form of a 
 nail ; whence the term clove, from the French clove, a nail. The clove 
 tree was anciently very common in the Molucca islands ; at present, 
 cloves are chiefly obtained from Amboyna, the Dutch having from their 
 cupidity, dug up the trees in the other islands. It is now, however, 
 cultivated in the isles of France, at Cayenne, and in the island of Dom- 
 inica, in the West Indies. The tree is very large; its bark resembles 
 that of the olive tree, and its leaves those of ihe laurel, its fruit falling, 
 takes root without any culture, and eight years after bears fruit. The 
 clove is the unexpanded flower. At Amboyna, they are collected from 
 October to December, when they begin to redden. They require to be 
 dried quickly ; on which account, they are first immersed in boiling 
 water, and then exposed to smoke and heat ; the drying is afterwards, 
 finished in the sun. Although the unopened flowers, and even the 
 leaves, are extremely aromatic, the real fruit which is a coriaceous ber- 
 ry, is not so. Clove- are hot, stimulating aromatics, which affect th© 
 breath, eyes, and hea. and are useful in palsies, &c. There is an oil 
 drawn from clo es by distillation ; it is sometimes used as a remedy for 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 77 
 
 PEPPER. — CASSIA. — CINNAMON. 
 
 the tooth-ache, but very improperly, since from its pungent quality, it i* 
 apt to corrode the gums and injure the adjacent teeth. When the tooth 
 is carious and will admit of it, a bruised clove is much to be preferred. 
 Much, however, of the oil of cloves, which is sold, is said to be obtain- 
 ed from all-spice. 
 
 PEPPER, or rather Black Pepper, is well known from its general use. 
 It is the produce of a climbing plant, or vine, growing in several parts 
 of the East Indies, chiefly Java, Sumatra, Malacca, and the coasts of 
 Malabar. It is propagated in bumatra by cuttings, or suckers ; in 
 growing, it is supported by props. The plant is three years old, before 
 it bears fruit; it yields two crops annually, the first in December, the 
 second in July. White pepper is the fruit of the same plant, perfectly 
 ripe, and freed from its outer coat by means of a preparation of lime 
 and mustard- oil applied before it is dried. 
 
 The Cayenne Pepper, or bird pepper, brought from the West Indies, 
 is very useful as a condiment, particularly with fish ; and latterly it 
 has been introduced into medicine in the shape of a tincture, which is 
 a useful stimulant in dyspepsy, &c. 
 
 Jamaica Pepper, or pimenta, is the fruit of an ever-green-tree, rising 
 sometimes fifty feet in height. It grows plentifully in Jamaica and 
 other American Islands. It is aromatic, and may supply the place 
 both of cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon, whence it is called by the Eng- 
 lish all-spice. The essential oil of pimenta contains the principal vir- 
 tues of the berry ; it is so much like oil of cloves as to be often mista- 
 ken and sold for it. 
 
 CASSIA., or Cassia Cinnamon, is the bark of a species of bay-tree, 
 growing in Malabar, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java. It has many of the 
 habits of the cinnamon tree, and is barked in the same manner. Cas- 
 sia cinnamon is chiefly distinguishable from the true cinnamon, by being 
 of a lighter color than that article ; by being also thicker, by breaking 
 shorter, and by having less bitterness in its taste, as well as very fre- 
 quently when chewed becoming mucilaginous in the mouth ; this last, 
 however, is not an invariable accompaniment. 
 
 CINNAMON is the bark of a tree growing in abundance in the isl- 
 ands of Ceyion, and also in Malabar, Cochin China, Sumatra and other 
 East India islands. It is also now cultivated in the Pirazils, the Mau- 
 ritius, and Guiana. It seldom rises above thirty feet high. Ten va- 
 rieties of this tree have been enumerated ; of these, that called the 
 sharp sv:ett cinnamon, is said to be the best. It is raised from the seed. 
 The chief part of the cinnamon in this country is brought from Cey- 
 lon. The principal difference between cinnamon and cassia consists 
 in the former being much thinner and in more irregular masses, and 
 also in its having much more astringency, and therefore in substance 
 is preferable to cassia. 
 
 SALT, COMMON SALT, muriate of soda, or chloride of sodium 
 by the most correct and recent nomenclature, is a saline crystallization 
 used to season and give pungency to various kinds of food ; as well 
 as to preserve it on numerous occasions from putrefaction. Salt is ob- 
 tained from three different sources, namely, the water of the sea, mines, 
 where it exists in a solid form, called rock salt, and from saline springs. 
 
78 FAMILY 
 
 SALT. 
 
 Rock salt is found in various places ; at Nantwich in Cheshire, at Cra- 
 cow in Poland, and in Hungary, Catalonia, in Africa, Asia ; and in 
 America, forming hills or very extensive beds above the surface. 
 
 Rock salt, it is said, was entirely unknown to the ancients. The Po- 
 lish mines near Cracow were discovered in 1251 ; their depth and ca- 
 pacity are surprising. Within them is found a kind of subterraneous 
 republic, which has its polity, laws, families, &c. ; and even public 
 roads, carriages, and horses, for the conveyance of salt to the mouth 
 of the quarry, where it is taken up by engines. These horses when 
 once down never see the light again ; but the men take frequent occa- 
 sions ©f breathing the village air. "When a traveller arrives at the bot- 
 tom of this strange abyss where so many people are interred alive, and 
 where so many are even born, and have never stirred out, he is sur- 
 prised with along series of lofty vaults sustained by huge pilasters cut 
 out with chisels ; and which, being themselves rock salt, appear by the 
 light of flambeaux, which are incessantly burning^as so many crystals 
 or precious stones of various colors, casting a lustre which the eye can 
 scarcely bear. One of the chief wonders of the place is, that through 
 these mountains of salt, and along the middle of the mine, runs a rivu- 
 let o fresh water, sufficient to supply the inhabitants. As soon as 
 the massive pieces are got out of the quarry, they break them into frag- 
 ments fit for the mills, where they are reduced to a coarse powder, to 
 be used as culinary salt. There are four kinds, white, bay, red, and 
 brilliant ; the last is the sal gemma* of the druggists, but not known in 
 this country. All these become white when pulveiized, though they 
 appear of different colors in their natural state. 
 
 Salt is obtained from sea water by different methods. At Lyming- 
 ton, in Hampshire, England, the sea water is admitted into large reser- 
 voirs, where, being exposed to the air, a part of the water evaporates ; 
 the remaining liquor is then transferred to boilers, where the water is 
 still further evaporated by artificial heat, and then set by to cool and 
 crystallize. The water which remains after the crystallization of the 
 salt is called mother water. It contains, or is said to contain, sulphate 
 of magnesia, or as it is usually called Epsom salt, a well known purga- 
 tive salt ; from this source it is that most, if not- all the Epsom salt 
 found in the shops, is obtained by mere evaporation. From the same 
 salt is also obtained the common magnesia of the shops. This is 
 what is publicly known of the method of obtaining Epsom saHs, but it 
 is believed that the manufacturers keep the real process a secret. 
 
 Besides the salt obtained from sea water, in various countries, much 
 is obtained from the rock salt produced from mines, and a good deal is 
 also produced from brine springs. 
 
 In the United States salt is manufactured, but not very extensively, 
 from sea water. Large quantities are made from brine springs. The 
 principal springs are to be found in the State of New York, in the coun- 
 ties of Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Ontario, Niagara, Genesee, Tomp- 
 kins, Wayne, and Oneida. Those of Oneida are the most valuable. 
 In 1823, 606,463 bushels were manufactured in this latter county. In 
 1800, there were not less than 50,000 bushels manufactured. Forty- 
 five gallons of water make a bushel of salt. At Nantucket, 350 gal- 
 lons of sea water arc required. Tfte following approximated analysis 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. . 79 
 
 SALT. 
 
 of the water of a spring in New York is given by Dr. Noyes of Ham- 
 ilton College. Forty gallons, or 355lbs. contain 561bs. of saline ex- 
 tract. 
 
 Pure Muriate of Soda, 5 1 lb. — oz. 
 
 Carb. Lime, colored by oxide of iron, — 6£ 
 Sulph. of Lime, 2 4 
 
 Muriate of Lime, 1 12£ 
 
 and probably muriate magnesia and sulphate of soda. 
 
 The village of Salina and other neighboring places, are the chief 
 places where salt is extensively manufactured. The mode of evapo- 
 ration is different at different places — sometimes by boiling, and again 
 by exposure to the atmosphere. "At Salina, the mode adopted," says 
 the Northern Traveller, " is that of boiling ; and a brief description 
 will convey a clear idea of the process. Each building contains six- 
 teen or eighteen large iron kettles, which are placed in two rows, 
 forming what is called u a block." They stand about three feet higher 
 than the floor ; and under them is a large furnace, which is heated 
 with pine wood, and requires constant attention, to keep the water al- 
 ways boiling. The water is drawn from a large reservoir, at one end 
 of the building, after having been allowed to stand awhile, and deposit 
 the impurities it has brought along with it. A hollow log, with a 
 pump at one end, and furnished with openings against the kettles, is 
 the only machine used in filling them. The first deposit made by the 
 water, after the boiling commences, is a compound of several substan- 
 ces, and is thrown away, under the name of w Bittern ;" but the pure 
 white salt, which soon after makes its appearance, is carefully remo- 
 ved, and placed in a store room, just at hand, ready for barrelling and 
 the market. 
 
 " Each manufactory yields about forty bushels a day, and the differ- 
 ent buildings cost about half a million. 
 
 " There are two large manufactories here, where salt is made in re- 
 servoirs of an immense size, and evaporated by hot air passing through 
 them in large pipes. The reservoir of the principal one contains no 
 less than 40,000 gallons. The pipe is supplied with heat by a furnace 
 below, and the salt is formed in large loose masses, resembling half 
 thawed ice. The crystallization, also, is different from that produced 
 by the other modes, at least in secondary forms." 
 
 As a condiment, common salt is of all others the safest, best, and 
 most extensively employed. It is used by all nations ; and, indeed, in 
 some shape, or other, by almost all animals whatever. It seems, in a 
 peculiar manner, designed to assist in the digestion, and assimilation 
 of our food. In the quantity in which it is usually taken, there is no 
 reason to doubt, that many of our aliments become thereby more 
 wholesome and digestible, as well as more agreeable. Like the other 
 condiments, however, in larger quantities it is injurious to the consti- 
 tution. It occasions heat and thirst, and seems rather to impede, than 
 to assist, digestion. Besides the usual culinary preparations, in which 
 salt is advantageously employed, it is used, also, as an antisceptic, to 
 preserve aliments from spontaneous decomposition, and particularly to 
 prevent the putrefaction of animal food. In general, however, the 
 large quantity of salt which is necessarily employed in this way, in- 
 
,80 FAMILY 
 
 SALT. 
 
 jures the alimentary properties of the meat ; and the longer it has 
 been preserved, the less wholesome and digestible does it become. It 
 is this kind of food, salted flesh and fish, which so surely occasions the 
 disease called scurvy amongst sailors, and others, who are deprived of 
 fresher and more wholesome aliment. Meat, however, which has not 
 been too long preserved, simply pickled, or corned meat, as it is called, 
 is but little injured or decomposed, is still succulent and tender, easily 
 digested, nourishing, and wholesome enough. 
 
 Salted and hung meat, and therefore all sorts of hams are more in- 
 digestible, and less nutritive. Sparingly used with other food, they 
 communicate, indeed, to it an agreeable relish, and prove a stimulus to 
 the stomach, but their freer and more frequent use cannot be whole- 
 some. 
 
 They require, in general, all the powers of the most robust stomachs. 
 It is worthy of remark, in this place, that the fat of animals seems less 
 injured, as an aliment, by salting, than the lean parts. Bacon, there- 
 fore, though long preserved, is still a very nourishing aliment ; though 
 not easily digested. 
 
 MUSTARD. There are cultivated two species of this plant, the 
 bhck, and the white : both annuals, and both natives of Great Britain. 
 
 The seed of the white mustard is celebrated for its medicinal vir- 
 tues, being at once a tonic and an aperient ; cleansing the stomach 
 and bowels, and bracing the system at the same time. The following 
 are the directions given by Loudon, for its cultivation. For spring 
 and summer consumption, sow once a w r eek or fortnight, in dry, warm 
 situations, in February and March, (of course later in the United 
 States ;) and afterwards in any other compartment. In summer, sow 
 in shady borders, if it be hot, sunny weather ; or, have the beds sha- 
 ded. Generally, sow in shallow flat drills, from three to six inches 
 apart ; scatter the seeds thick and regular, and cover in thinly with 
 the earth, about a quarter of an inch. 
 
 Black mustard is a larger plant than the w T hite, with much darker 
 leaves, and their divisions blunter. It is cultivated chiefly in fields for 
 the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is sometimes, however, sown 
 in gardens, and the tender leaves used as greens, early in the spring. 
 
 To raise seed for flour of mustard, &c, sow either in March or 
 April, in any open compartment ; or make large sowings in fields, 
 where designed for public supply. Sow moderately thick, either in 
 drills, from six to twelve inches asunder, or. broad-cast and rake, or 
 harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches in the 
 growth, hoe and thin them moderately, where too thick, and clear 
 them from weeds. They Will soon run up in stalks, and in July or 
 August return a crop of seed ripe for gathering. 
 
 KETCHUP is a sauce, which derives its name, it is said, from a 
 Japanese word kit-jap. It is made, or ought to be made, from the 
 juice of the mushroom. Wild mushrooms, from old pastures, are 
 generally considered as more delicate in flavor, and more lender in 
 flesh, than those raised in artificial beds. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 ANIMALS, 
 
 81 
 
 SECTION V.— ANIMALS. 
 
 L^iL 
 
82 FAMILY 
 
 DOMKSTIC ANIMALS. — LION, 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. For an account of neat cattle, horses, 
 sheep, and swine, together with the proper mode of rearing and man- 
 aging them, &c, see Part V. Sec. II. Art. Agriculture. 
 
 In respect to other animals, it will not comport with the design of 
 this work to give a minute and extended account. Yet, as it might 
 otherwise be thought quite incomplete, we shall proceed to notice a 
 few of the most interesting animals found on the globe, without con- 
 fining ourselves exclusively to those which are used as aliments. We 
 begin with the 
 
 LION. This noble animal is far from being as large in size, as many 
 others. His ordinary height is between three and four feet, and his 
 length six feet. Some are still larger. His head, neck, and shoulders 
 are large ; while his hinder parts are comparatively thin, and small. 
 His strength and courage are such, as to entitle him to the appellation 
 of kt King of Beasts." The only animals whichever, seriously, pre- 
 tend to cope with him, are the elephant, tiger, and rhinoceros. The 
 color of the lion is a reddish yellow ; his mane is somewhat darker, 
 and often approaches to black. He is found in most parts of Africa, 
 and the southern parts of Asia ; but is more common in the former, 
 than in the latter. The lioness is one third smaller than the male ; but 
 in disposition is more ferocious. The lion requires from twelve to 
 twenty pounds of food every day. He lives chiefly upon the flesh of 
 animals ; and, in a wild state, generally takes his prey by night. 
 
 ?riany interesting anecdotes are related of the lion. The following 
 is an account of an engagement which recently took place between a 
 lion and two tigers in the tower of London : — 
 
 M Between eleven and twelve o'clock yesterday morning, as the man 
 whose duty it is to clean the wild beasts at the Tower was in the exe- 
 cution of that oflice, he inadvertently raised a door in the upper tier of 
 cells, which separated the den of a huge lion from one in which there 
 were a Bengal royal tiger and tigress. At sight of each other the eyes 
 of the animals sparkled with rage. The lion instantly erected his 
 mane, and, with a tremendous roar, sprang at the tiger. The tiger was 
 equally eager for the combat, and, in a paroxysm of fury, flew at his 
 assailant, whilst the tigress fiercely seconded her mate. The roaring 
 and yelling of the combatants resounded through the yards, and exci- 
 ted in all the various animals the most lively demonstrations of fear or 
 rage. The timid tribes shivered with dread, and ran round their cages 
 shrieking with terror, whilst the other lions and tigers, with the bears, 
 leopards, panthers, wolves, and hyenas, flew round their dens, shaking 
 the bars witii their utmost strength, and uttering the most terrific cries. 
 The lion fought most bravely, but was evidently overmatched, having 
 to contend with two adversaries not more than a year from the woods, 
 whilst he had been upwards of seven years in confinement. Still the 
 battle ragt>d with doubtful success, until the tiger seized the lion by the 
 throat, and flung him on his back, when, after roiling over each other 
 several times, the exasperated tigress pinned her enemy against the ve- 
 randa. In that situation the prostrate lord of the forest still struggled 
 with an indomitable spirit, roaring with agony and rage. By this time, 
 however, some iron rods had been heated, the red-hot ends of which 
 were now applied to the mouths and nostrils of the infuriated tigers, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 83 
 
 LION. 
 
 who were by this means forced to relinquish their grasp ; but no soon- 
 er was the separation effected than the lion and tiger seized in their 
 mouths, the one the upper, and the other the lower jaw of his antago- 
 nist, biting and tugging at each other with deadly fury. So excited 
 was their animosity, that it was with great difficulty, by the insertion 
 into their nostrils of the glowing iron, they could be disengaged, and 
 the lion driven back to his cell, the door of which was instantly closed 
 upon him; The battle lasted full half an hour. The tiger in the last 
 onset lost one of his tusks, but the poor lion was very severely punished. 
 
 In a work entitled, u Researches in South Africa," published by the 
 Rev. Dr. Philip, is given an account of an adventure with a lion, so 
 curious, that we extract it without abridgement. 
 
 u Our wasfgons, which were obliged to take a circuitous route, arrived 
 at last, and we pitched our tent a musket shot from the kraal ; and after 
 having arranged every tiling, went to rest, but were soon disturbed ; 
 for about midnight the cattle and horses, which were standing between 
 the wagons, began to start and run, and one of the drivers to shout, on 
 which every one ran out of the tent with his gun. About thirty paces 
 from the tent stood a lion, which, on seeing us, walked very deliberate- 
 ly about thirty paces farther, behind a small thorn-bush, carrying 
 something with him, which I took to be a young ox. We fired more 
 than sixty shots at that bush, and pierced it stoutly, without perceiving 
 any movement. The southeast wind blew strong, the sky was clear, 
 and the moon shone very bright, so that we could perceive every thing 
 at that distance. After the cattle had been quieted again, and I had 
 looked over every thing, I missed the sentry from before the tent, Jan 
 Smit, from Antwerp, belonging to the Groene Kloof. We called as 
 loudly as possible, but in vain, — nobody answered ; from which I con- 
 cluded that the lion had carried him off. Three or four men then ad- 
 vanced very cautiously to the bush, which stood right opposite the dcor 
 of the tent, to see if they could discover any thing of the man, but re- 
 turned helter-skelter, for the lion, who was there still, rose up, and be- 
 gan to roar. They found there the musket of the sentry, which was 
 cocked, and also his cap and shoes. 
 
 " We fired again about a hundred shots at c 'he bush, (which was sixty 
 paces from the tent and only thirty paces -fr*»:n the wagons, and at 
 which we were able to point as at a target,) without perceiving any 
 thing of the lion, from which we concluded that he was killed or had 
 run away. This induced the marksman, Jan .^tamansz, to go and see 
 if he was there still or not, taking with him a firebrand. But. as soon 
 as he approached the bush the lion roared terr bly and leaped at him ; 
 on which he threw the fire-brand at him, and the other people having 
 fired about ten shots, he retirea directly to his former place behind that 
 bush. 
 
 " The firebrand which he hnd thrown al the lion had fallen in the 
 midst of the hu?h, and, favored by the strong south-east wind, it began 
 to burn with a great flame, so that we could see very clearly into and 
 through it. We continued our firing into it ; the night passed away, 
 and the day began to break, which animated every one to aim at the 
 lion, because he could not go from thence without exposing himself en- 
 tirely, as the bush stood directly against a steep kloof. Seven men, 
 
84 FAMILY 
 
 LION. TIGER. 
 
 posted at the farthest wagons, watched him, to take aim at him if he 
 should come out. 
 
 " At last, before it became quite light, he walked up the hill with the 
 man in his mouth, when about forty shots were fired at him without 
 hitting him, although some were very near. Every time this happen- 
 ed, he turned round towards the tent, and came roaring towards us ; 
 and I am of opinion, that if he had been hit, he would have rushed on 
 the people and the tent. 
 
 " When it became broad day-light, we perceived, by the blood. and a 
 piece of the clothes of the man, that the Jion had taken him away and 
 carried him with him. We also found behind the bush, the place 
 where the lion had been keeping the man, and it appeared impossible 
 that no ball should have hit him, as we found in that place several balls 
 beaten flat. We concluded that he was wounded, and not far from 
 this. The people therefore requested permission to go in search of the 
 man's corpse in order to bury it, supposing, that, by our continual fir- 
 ing, the lion would not have had time to devour much of it. I gave 
 permission to some, on condition that they should take a good party of 
 armed Hottentots with them, and made them promise that they would 
 not run into danger, but keep a good look-out, and be circumspect. 
 On this seven of them, assisted by forty-three armed Hottentots, follow- 
 ed the track, and found the lion about half a league farther on, lying 
 behind a little bush. On the shout of the Hottentots, he sprang up and 
 ran away, on which they all pursued him. At last the beast turned 
 round, and rushed, roaring terribly, amongst the crowd. The people, 
 fatigued and out of breath with their running, fired and missed him, on 
 which he made directly towards them. The captain, or chief head of 
 the kraal, here did a brave act, in aid of two of the people whom the 
 lion attacked. The gun of one of them missed fire, and the other mis- 
 sed his aim, on which the captain threw himself between the lion and 
 the people so close, that the lion struck his claws into the caross (man- 
 tle) of the Hottentot. But he was too agile for him, doffed his caross, 
 and stabbed him with an assagai. Instantly the other Hottentots has- 
 tened on, and adorned him with all their assagais, so that he looked like 
 a porcupine. Notwithstanding thishe did notleave off roaring and leap- 
 ing, and bit off some of the assagais, till the marksman, Jan Stamansz 
 fired a ball into his eye, which made him turn over, and he was then 
 shot dead by the other people. He was a tremendously large beast, 
 and had but a short time before carried off a Hottentot from the kraal 
 and devoured him. 1 ' 
 
 TIGER. The Tiger, commonly called the Royal Tiger, is a native 
 of Bengal, of the kingdoms of Siam and Tonquin, of China, of Suma- 
 tra, and, indeed, of all the countries of Southern Asia, situated beyond 
 the Indus, and extending to the north of China. This species of ani- 
 mal has long abounded in the above countries, while the Asiatic lion, 
 on the contrary, has only been known, within a few years. The aver- 
 age height of the tiger is about three feet, and the length nearly six feet. 
 The species, however, varies considerably in size, and individuals have 
 often been found, much taller and longer than the lion. The peculiar 
 markings of the tiger's skin, are well known. On a ground of yellow, 
 of various shades in different specimens, there is a series of black trans- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 85 
 
 PUMA OR COUGAR. DOMESTIC CAT. 
 
 verse bars, varying in number, from twenty to thirty, and becoming 
 black rings on the tail, the number of which is, almost invariably fif- 
 teen. There are oblique bauds, also, on the legs. The pupils of the 
 eye are circular. 
 
 The tiger, like the lion, springs upon its prey, from an ambush ; and, 
 in most cases, he is easily terrified by any sudden opposition from hu- 
 man beings. A party in India was once saved from a ciger, by a ladv, 
 who suddenly opened an umbrella, as she saw him about to spring. Our 
 readers" may remember the attack of a tigress upon the horses of the 
 mail, on Salisbury plain, in England, a few years ago. The creature 
 had escaped from a travelling menagerie ; and, not forgetting her natu- 
 ral habits, sprung upon the leaders as they passed her. The guard 
 would have shot her ; but her keepers drove her off, and she escaped 
 to a haystack, under which she crept, and was retaken without difficulty. 
 In narrow passages in Hindoostan, travellers have often been seized by 
 tigers ; or a bullock, or horse has fallen a victim to the ferocity of this 
 prowling beast. Horses have such a dread of the tiger, that they can 
 scarcely ever be brought to face him. Hunting him, therefore, on 
 horseback, is a service of great danger. The elephant, on the contrary, 
 though considerably agitated* will stand more steadily, while his rider 
 anticipates the fatal spring, by a shot which levels the tiger to the earth. 
 One peculiarity of the tiger, is his willingness to take to the water 
 either when pursued, or in search of the prey, which lie espies on the 
 opposite bank of a river. 
 
 The PUMA or COUGAR is a native of the American continent, and 
 is principally found in Paraguay, Brazil, and Guiana. He is sometimes 
 seen in the United States, where he is called panther or -painter. He 
 resembles the lion, both in color and voice ; but is not as lar^e and 
 has no mane. Capt. Head, in his " Journey across the Pampas, '-relates 
 the following interview between a maD and a puma. 
 
 "The man was trying to 6hootsome wild ducks ; and, in order to 
 approach them unperceived, he put the corner of his poncho (which is 
 a sort of long, narrow blanket,) over his head, and crawling along the 
 ground upon his hands and knees, the poncho not only covered his 
 body, but trailed along the ground behind him. As he was thus creep- 
 ing by a large bush of reeds, he heard a loud, sudden noise, between a 
 bark and a roar : he felt something heavy strike his leet. and instantly 
 jumping up, he saw, to his astonishment, a large puma, actually stand- 
 ing on his poncho ; and perhaps the animal was equally astonished, to 
 find himself in the immediate presence of so athletic a man. The man 
 told me he was unwilling to fire, as his gun was loaded with very small 
 shot ; and therefore remained motionless, the puma standing on his 
 poncho for many seconds ; at last the creature turned his head, and 
 walking very slowly away about ten yards, he stopped and turned 
 again : the man still maintained his ground, upon which the animal ta- 
 citly acknowledged his supremacy, and walked off." 
 
 The DOMESTIC CAT is found in almost every country on 
 globe. It is probably a domesticated variety of the wild cat, for v 
 suffered to retire to the woods, it soon becomes wild. A tame cat gen- 
 Slly attains the age of twelve years. The food most agreeable to 
 cats is the flesh of animals, or fish ; they eat vegetable aliment oily 
 
 8 
 
86 FAMILY 
 
 DOMESTIC CAT. DOG, 
 
 from necessity. There are, however, some plants of which they are 
 very fond ; of this nature is the valerian root, and the herb called nep % 
 or cat-mint. On the other hand, they shun the common rue, as a poi- 
 son, and any substance rubbed with the leaves of this plant, is said to 
 be perfectly secure from their depredations. 
 
 Cats delight in a warm temperature, and a soft couch ; moisture 
 and filth, as well as water and cold are Equally repugnant to their na- 
 ture ; hence they are continually cleaning themselves with their paws 
 and tongue. Another peculiarity is, the purring of these animals, 
 when they are cajoled or flattered, by passing the hand over their 
 backs : this singular noise is performed by means of two elastic mem- 
 branes in the larynx, or upper part of the wind-pipe. Their hair is 
 so electric, that the expanded skin of a cat makes an excellent cushion 
 for the glass cylinder, or globe, of an electrifying machine. 
 
 The flesh of cats is eaten by several nations ; but the substance of 
 the brain is said to be poisonous. From the intestines of these animals 
 is manufactured the celebrated Roman chords, for covering the violin. 
 They are manufactured out of the guts of rabbits and sheep also : they 
 are cleaned, soaked in water, stretched bv a machine, and dried. The 
 name of cat-gut comes from the circumstance of cats being used as 
 food in many parts of Italy, and their guts applied to the making of 
 strings. 
 
 With respect to their peculiarities, we shall remark, that cats pos- 
 sess a very acute sense of both smell and sight. By the structure of 
 their eyes, which sparkle in the dark, they are better enabled to discov- 
 er objects of prey, such as mice and rats, at night, than in the daytime ; 
 hence, they ought not to be luxuriously fed, if kept for the destruction 
 of these vermin. It is, however, to be regretted, that this useful do- 
 mestic creature is one of the most deceitful companions, being constant- 
 ly bent on theft and rapine. 
 
 Many persons have so invincible an antipathy against these creatures, 
 that they have been known to faint in rooms where cats were concealed, 
 and no arguments were sufficient to efface the impression. 
 
 DOG. Animals of the dog kind are distinguished by their claws, 
 which have no sheath, like those of the cat kind; but adhere to the 
 point of each toe, without the power of being extended, or drawn back. 
 Their eyes, also, are not formed for seeing clearly in the dark. By 
 comparing the habits and propensities of the two classes, we shall find, 
 that while the savage selfishness of the cat's disposition, prevents it 
 from deriving any pleasure from society, the dog seems to find its grati- 
 fication increased, by associating with the species to which he belongs; 
 and in countries where they are permitted to range with freedom, they 
 are always observed to hunt in packs. 
 
 The dog is allowed to be the most intelligent of all quadrupeds ; and 
 one that, doubtless, is most deserving of admiration ; for, independent 
 of his beauty, his vivacity and swiftness, he gives the most manifest . 
 proofs of his attachment to mankind. In his savage state, he may have 
 been a formidable enemy ; but to view him at present, he seems only 
 anxious to please ; he willingly crouches before his master, and is reaA 
 dy to lick the dust from his feet; he waits his orders, consults his 
 looks* and is more faithful than half the human race. He is constant 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 87 
 
 DOGS, 
 
 in his affections, friendly without interest, and grateful for the slightest 
 favor he can receive; easily forgets both cruelty and oppression ; and 
 disarms resentment by submissively yielding to the will of those, whom 
 he studiously endeavors to serve and please. 
 
 It is said that there are nearly thirty distinct, and well ascertained 
 varieties of the dog. Of these we can notice but a few. 
 
 The MASTIFF, the lar- 
 gest of domestic dogs, has a 
 large head, robust body,and 
 lips which hang down on 
 each side of his mouth. 
 This dog was trained, by 
 the ancient Britons, to be 
 of use in war. They are 
 now chiefly used as watch 
 dogs, which duty they dis- 
 charge with great fidelity. 
 
 The BULL-DOG is 
 smaller than the mastiff, 
 but strongly resembleshim. 
 For courage and ferocity, 
 this dog is exceeded by no 
 animal of its size. His an- 
 tipathy to the bull, from 
 which he derives his name, 
 is remarkable. 
 
 The BLOOD-HOUND 
 
 is larger than the common 
 hound, and is generally of 
 a deep tan or reddish color, 
 with a black spot over each 
 eye. They are chiefly used 
 for fox hunting. 
 
88 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 The GREY-HOUND 
 
 is distinguished by his 
 slender and curved body, 
 his narrow muzzle, and 
 his tail being curved up- 
 wards, at the extremity. 
 This kind of doghuats by 
 sight, and not by scent. 
 Such is his fleetness, thai 
 in a hilly and uneven 
 country, there are few 
 horses that can keep pace 
 with him. He is supposed to outlive all others of the deg species. 
 
 The SHEP- 
 HERD'SDOGis 
 seldom found in 
 the United States; 
 butinvariousparts 
 of Europe, he is 
 = common, espe- 
 cially where sheep 
 ^=§5 are kept in large 
 flocks, and atten- 
 ded by shepherds. 
 
 The docility and sagacity of the pure breed, indeed, surpass those of 
 every other variety of the canine race ; obedient to the voice, looks, 
 and gestures of his master, he quickly perceives his commands, and in- 
 stantly executes them. A well-trained dog of this kind, is, to a shep- 
 herd, an invariable acquisition. The faithful animal anxiously watches 
 the flock, and keeps them together in the pasture ; from one part of 
 which it conducts them to another ; and, if the sheep are driven to any 
 distance, a well trained dog will infallibly confine them within the 
 road, and, at the same time, prevent any strange sheep from mingling- 
 with them. Should, however, any straggle from the road, he will pur- 
 sue them, and drive them to the flock, without hurting them in the 
 slightest degree. In Prussia the shepherds have a kind of dog, which 
 they are able to teach never to bite a sheep, but they will push them for- 
 ward with their muzzles in the direction in which their masters wish 
 the sheep to go. 
 
 SPANIEL. Of this dog there are many varieties. They are so call- 
 ed, probably, because they are of Spanish extraction. They have gen- 
 erally pendulous and woolly ears, with long hair on all parts of the bo- 
 dy, but particularly on the breast, beneath the body, and at the back of 
 the legs. In all ages, the spaniel has been noted for fidelity and attach- 
 ment to mankind. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 89 
 
 DOGS, 
 
 WATER SPANIEL 
 
 This kind is chiefly useful 
 to sportsmen, in the hunt- 
 ing of water-fowl. 
 
 The POINTER is used by sportsmen for discovering game, which 
 he is taught to do with wonderful steadiness and attention. Aided by 
 the acuteness of their smell, pointers generally approach the spot where 
 the game lies; and at length stop, their eyes being steadily fixed upon 
 it, one foot generally somewhat raised from the ground, and the tail 
 extended in a straight line. If the bird runs, the dog discovers it, and 
 steals cautiously after it, keeping still the same attitude ; and when it 
 stops, he is again steady. 
 
 The SETTER, is a dog nearly allied to the pointer. His 6cent is 
 more exquisite, and his muscular powers, for his size, nearly unequal- 
 led. 
 
 The TERRIER, is a 
 small and hardy kind of 
 dog, the name of which is 
 derived from its subterra- 
 neous employments. He is 
 a great enemy to rats, pole- 
 cats, and other species of 
 vermin. 
 
 The TURNSPIT is a small dog, with short, and generally crooked 
 legs, and the tail curled upward. He is used on the continent of Eu- 
 rope, to turn the spit for roasting meat. 
 
 The NEWFOUND- 
 LAND DOG is but little 
 smaller than the mastiff. 
 In strength and docility, he 
 exceeds most other kinds 
 of dogs. He is often em- 
 ployed in Newfoundland 
 to draw wood on sledges, 
 from the interior of the 
 country to the sea-coast, 
 and before the introduction 
 of horses into general use 
 
90 FAMILY 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 in Canada, most of the land carriage was performed by dogs. The 
 ease with which he swims renders him of great service in cases of dan- 
 ger from the oversetting of boats, and other accidents by water. 
 
 The SIBERIAN DOG is distinguished by having its ears erect, 
 and the hair of its body and tail very long. He is employed in drawing 
 sledges over the frozen snow, five of them being yoked to each sledge, 
 with the fifth in front as the leader. The fleetness of these dogs is so 
 great, that they have been known to perform a journey of 270 miles in 
 three days and a half; and, with a sledge containing three persons and 
 their baggage, they will travel sixty miles in a day. During the most 
 severe storms, when their master cannot see his path, or even keep his 
 eyes open, they seldom miss their way. And it is said that, in the 
 midst of a long journey, when it is found absolutely impossible to pro- 
 ceed any further, the dogs, lying round their master, will keep him 
 warm, and prevent him from perishing by the cold. 
 
 Of the numerous anecdotes which we might relate, of the sagacity 
 and fidelity of the dog, we have room for but one, illustrative of the 
 latter characteristic of this sometimes noble animal. 
 
 " A French merchant, having some money due from a correspondent, 
 set out on horseback to receive it, accompanied by his dog ; and, hav- 
 ing settled the business to his satisfaction, placed it in the bag that con- 
 tained his clothes. Finding himself rather fatigued with his journey T 
 he resolved to repose under a hedge, and, untying the bag from the 
 front of his saddle, placed it carefully under his head. 
 
 " After having remained sometime in this situation, he found him- 
 self entirely recovered from fatigue; and, wholly absorbed in some 
 pleasing reflections, he remounted without even a thought of the bag. 
 The dog, who had witnessed this mark of inattention, attempted to 
 recall his recollection by barks and screams ; and, finding the bag too 
 heavy for his utmost exertion, ran howling after him, and caught the 
 horse by the heels. Roused by this mark of what he thought sudden 
 madness, he resolved to watch the animal's motions when he approached 
 a stream, and, perceiving he did not attempt to quench his thirst, as 
 usual, was absolutely confirmed in the belief that he was mad. l My 
 poor animal,' said the afflicted merchant, fc and must I, in justice, take 
 away thy life ? alas !' continued he, 'it is an act of necessity, for there 
 is no one to perform the office in my place.' So saying, he drew a pis- 
 tol from his pocket, but from affection to his favorite, averted his head ; 
 the ball, however, performed it* embassy, for the dog was mortally 
 wounded, though not dead. The bleeding animal endeavoured to 
 crawl towards its master, whose feelings revolted at the affecting sight, 
 and spurring on his horse, he pursued his journey, with the image of 
 his expiring favorite strongly impressed upon his mind. l How unfor- 
 tunate I am,' said he, mentally ; c I had rather have lost my money than 
 a dog I so much prized !' — when, stretching out his hand, as if to grasp 
 the treasure, neither bag nor money was to be seen. His eyes were 
 instantly opened to conviction : l And what a wretch I have been !' he 
 suddenly exclaimed : i Poor faithful creature ! how have I rewarded 
 thy fidelity ? Oh, madness of recollection, how severely am I to bA 
 blamed !' 
 
 " He immediately turned his horse, and set off with the fleetest m*- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 91 
 
 DOG. CAMKL. 
 
 tion, and sdoii came to the spot where the proof of his folly was dis- 
 played ; and every drop of blood that he saw seemed to reproach him 
 with injustice, and every feeling of his hea r t was severely pained. 
 These sanguinary drops proved a sufficient direction for the faithful 
 creature's footsteps to be traced, and he was found stretched beside the 
 treasure he had been so anxious to take care of, and which had been 
 the primary means of depriving him of life. 
 
 " When the merchant beheld him still guarding his possession, though 
 struggling with death and agonized with pain, his sensations of remorse 
 were very much heightened ; but all hopes of preserving his existence 
 proved vain. The poor animal no sooner perceived his master ap- 
 proaching, than he testified his joy by the wagging of his tail ; and 
 absolutely expired in licking the hand which caressed him, as if in to- 
 ken of forgiveness for having taken away his life." 
 
 CAMEL. Few animals present more points of interest than the 
 camel. His height is about five and a half feet, and his length about 
 ten. Me has long legs, a short but large body, a long and crooked neck, 
 and a small and exceedingly ill shapen head. There are too species 
 of camel, the Bactrian and Arabian. The former of these has two 
 bunches on the back ; the latter, which is sometimes called the drome- 
 dary, has but one. In general, these two varieties possess the same 
 character and qualities. Their hair is coarse, and usually, their color 
 is alike, brown. Of the two varieties, the Bactrian camel is much more 
 rare. This species is found in Turkistan, which is the ancient Bactria, 
 and in Thibet, as far as the frontiers of China. The ordinary duration 
 of the camel's life, in Arabia, is said to be forty or fifty years. 
 
 The camel is obviously fitted for the countries in which he is found. 
 He possesses uncommon strength, which enables him to carry heavy 
 burdens, over arid plains, and through tiackless deserts, which would 
 otherwise be impassable to the commodities of the East. And, in ad- 
 dition, he has an extraordinary capacity of enduring privation, being 
 able to sustain a march of several hundred miles, with a scanty supply 
 of food, and without any water. 
 
 He is provided with a bag, or reservoir, in which he may take an am- 
 ple provision of water to serve him in the time of need, having the 
 power to force the liquid back into his first stomach, and even to his 
 mouth, to allay his thirst, and soften, by rumination, the hard and dry 
 herbs, upon which he feeds : the large hump which he has on his back, 
 is a mass of fat, destined to supply the want of food, by absorption. It 
 is through this peculiar structure that the camel has become the inhab- 
 itant of flat countries — sandy, sterile, and arid. 
 
 Camels are to be found at San Rossora, in Italy. They are the pro- 
 perty of the government of Tuscany. The time of their introduction 
 into that country is uncertain. These camels walk at the rate of about 
 three miles an hour, and they travel about thirty miles a day. They 
 are so degenerated, that from them, no adequate idea can be formed, of 
 what the Arabians call the "ship of the desert." 
 
 The ordinary load of a camel is six hundred weight ; but he will car- 
 
 ^y a thousand. Mr. Buckingham saw camels carrying millstones, to 
 
 the large towns on the west of the Jordan, each of which was nearly six 
 
 feet in diameter ; one being, laid flat on the animal's back, in the very 
 
92 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 THB SWIFT DHOMEDARY 
 
 centre of the hump, and resting on the high part of the saddie, was se- 
 cured by cords passing under his belly. The camel sometimes carries 
 large panniers, or baskets, filled with heavy goods. In these baskets 
 women and children are often carried. 
 
 THE SWIFT DROMEDARY. 
 
 Above we present our readers with a view of a swift Dromedary 
 harnessed, and with his rider upon him. The saddle is placed on the 
 withers, and confined by a band under the belly. It is very small, and 
 it is difficult to sit upon it. This is done by balancing with the feet 
 against the neck of the animal, and holding a tight rein to steady the 
 hand. 
 
 The first experiment which an European makes in bestriding a dro- 
 medary, is generally a service of some little danger, from the peculiari- 
 ty of the animal's movement, in rising. The following account is giv- 
 en us by Capt. Riley, during his captivity among the Arabs. " They 
 placed me on the largest camel I had yet seen, which was nine or ten 
 feet in height. The camels were now all kneeling or lying down, and 
 mine among the rest. I thought I had taken good hold, to steady my- 
 self, while he was rising ; yet his motion was so heavy, and my strength 
 so far exhausted, that I could not possibly hold on, and tumbled off 
 over his tail, turning entirely over. 1 came down upon my feet, which 
 prevented my receiving any material injury, though the shock to my 
 frame was very severe. The owner of the camel helped me up, and 
 asked me whether 1 was injured ; I told him no. * God be praised V 
 said he, « for turning you over ; had you fallen upon your head, these 
 stones must have dashed out your brains. But the camel,' added he, 
 4 is a sacred animal, and Heaven protects those who ride on him ! Haci*. 
 you fallen from an ass, though he is only two cubits and a rialf high, it 
 would have killed you, for the ass is not so noble a creature as the cam- 
 el or the horse.' I afterwards found this to be the prevailing opinion 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 93 
 
 CAMEL. 
 
 among" all classes of the Moors and Arabs. When they put me on 
 again, two of the men steadied me by the legs, until the camel was fair- 
 ly up, and then told me to be careful, and to hold on fast ; they also 
 took great care to assist my companions in the same way." 
 
 Our readers probably well know, that immense journies are made in 
 the east by means of the camel ; and the produce of one country is con- 
 veyed to another by merchants who go in caravans. These caravans 
 sometimes consist of several thousand camels. Occasionally, they suf- 
 fer great distress for the want of water, and are sometimes overwhelm- 
 ed by the sands of the desert. The following interesting story is rela- 
 ted by Buckhardt, of a small caravan which was passing from Berber 
 to Daraou, across the Nubian desert. " It consisted of five merchants 
 and about thirty slaves, with a proportionate number of camels. Afraid 
 of the robber Naym, who at that time was in the habit of waylaying 
 travellers about the well of Nedjeym, and who had constant intelligence 
 of the departure of every caravan from Berber, they determined to take 
 a more eastern road, by the well Owareyk. They had hired an Ababde 
 guide, who conducted them in safety to that place, but who lost his 
 way from thence northward, the route being very unfrequented. Af- 
 ter five day's march in the mountains their stock of water was exhaust- 
 ed, nor did they know where they were. They resolved, therefore, to 
 direct their course toward the setting sun, hoping thus to reach the 
 Nile. After two days' thirst, fifteen slaves and one of the merchants 
 died ; another of them, an Ababde, who had ten camels with him, 
 thinking that the camels might know better than their masters where 
 water was to be found, desired his comrades to tie him fast upon the 
 saddle of his strongest camel, that he might not fall down from weak- 
 ness; and thus he parted from them, permitting his camels to take 
 their own way, but neither the man nor his camel were ever heard of 
 afterwards. On the eighth day after leaving Owareyk, the survivors 
 came in sight of the mountains of Shigre, which they immediately re- 
 cognized ; but their strength was quite exhausted, and neither men nor 
 beasts were able to move any farther. "Lying down under a rock they 
 sent two of their servants, with the two strongest remaining camels, in 
 search of water. Before these two men could reach the mountain, one 
 of them dropped off his camel deprived of speech, and able only to 
 move his hands to his comrade as a signal that he desired to be left to 
 his fate. The survivor then continued his route; bet such was the ef- 
 fect of thirst upon him that his eyes grew dim, and he lost the road, 
 though he had often travelled over it before, and had been perfectly 
 acquainted with it. Having wandered about for a long time, he alight- 
 e< under the shade of a tree, and tied the camel to one of its branches : 
 the beast, however, smelt the water, (as the Arabs express it,) and, 
 wearied as it was, broke its halter, and set off galloping furiously in the 
 direction of the spring, which, as it afterwards appeared, was at half 
 an hour's distance. The man, well understanding the camel's action, 
 endeavored to follow its footsteps, but could only move a few yards ; he 
 fell exhausted on the ground, and was about to breathe his last, when 
 Providence led tha* waj from a neighboring encampment, a Bisharye 
 Bedouin, who, by tl rowio water upon the-man's face, restored him to 
 his senses. They ,hen wc it hastily together to the water, filled the 
 skins, and returning to the caravaD, had the good fortune to find the 
 
94 FAMILY 
 
 CAMEL. LLAMA. 
 
 sufferers still alive. The Bisharye received a slave for his trouble. 
 My informer, a native of Yembo, in Arabia, was the man whose camel 
 discovered the spring ; and he added the remarkable circumstance, that 
 the youngest slaves bore the thirst better than the rest, and that, while 
 the grown up boys all died, the children reached Egypt in safety.*' 
 
 At particular seasons of the year, camel-fights are common at Smyr- 
 na and Aleppo. They are led out to a large plain, where they are 
 muzzled, to prevent their being seriously injured, for their bite is tre- 
 mendous, and are let loose, a couple at a time. Their mode of combat 
 is curious: they knock their heads together (laterally) twist their long 
 necks, wrestle with their fore legs, and seem chiefly intent in throwing 
 each other down. The following cut will give the reader a pretty just 
 idea of a camel-fight. 
 
 LLAMA. This animal is a native of South America, particularly of 
 the mountainous district of Chili and Peru, where, it is said, that they 
 abound by thousands, and almost by millions. Their heads are small 
 in proportion to thair bodies ; and are somewhat in shape between the 
 head of a horse and that of a sheep, the upper lip being cleft like that 
 of a hare, through which they can spit to the distance of ten paces : 
 and if the spittle happens to fall on the face of a person, it causes a rsd 
 itchy spot. Their necks are long, and concavely bent downwards, like 
 that of a camel, which animal they greatly resemble, except in having 
 no hump on their backs, and being much smaller. Their ordinary 
 height is from four feet to four and a half, and their ordinary burden 
 does not exceed an hundred weight. They walk, holding up their 
 heads, with wonderful gravity, and at so regular a pace, as no beating 
 can quicken. At night it is impossible to make them move with their 
 loads, for they lie down till these are taken off, and then go to graze. 
 Their ordinary food is a sort of grass called yeho, something lik 3 a small 
 rush, but finer, and has a sharp point, with which all the nounta.ins are 
 covered exclusively. They eat little, and seldom drink, so that they are 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 95 
 
 LLAMA. GIRAFFE, 
 
 easily maintained. They have cloven feet, like sheep, and are used at 
 the mines to carry ore to the mills ; and, as soon as loaded, they set or! 
 without any guide, to the place where they are usually unloaded. 
 
 They have a sort of spur above the foot, which renders them sure- 
 footed among- the rocks, as it serves as a sort of hook to hold by. Their 
 hair, or rather wool, is long, white, gray, and russet, in spots. These 
 animals are of great use and profit to their masters; for their wool is 
 very good and fine, particularly of that species named pacas, which 
 have very long fleeces : — and they are of little expense for nourishment, 
 for a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go a long time with- 
 out water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep in Castile. 
 There are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh, in all parts of 
 Peru, where the animal is found. 
 
 THE GIRAFFE, OR CAMELEOPARD. 
 
96 FAMILY 
 
 GIRAFFE OR CAMELEOPARD. 
 
 The GIRAFFE, or Cameleopard. There are at present three Gi- 
 raffes in Europe — one in the King's Menagerie, in Windsor Great 
 Park, — one at the Jardine des Plantes, at Paris, — the third at Venice, 
 which arrived late in 1828 : a fourth was sent to Constantinople, but 
 died there. These animals were all presents fom the Pasha of Egypt. 
 Till the year 1827, when a giraffe arrived in England, and another in 
 France, the animal had not been seen in Europe since the end of the 
 fifteenth century, when the Soldan of Egypt sent one to Lorenzo di 
 Medici. The absence of the giraffe from Europe, for three centuries 
 and a half, naturally induced a belief, that the descriptions of this ani- 
 mal were in a great part fabulous — that a creature of such extraordina- 
 ry height and apparent disproportions was not to be found amongst the 
 actual works of nature. 
 
 This animal is said to be the tallest in the world, the top of its head 
 being about seventeen feet from the ground, and its body about ten. 
 His size is that of the horse ; and, in shape, he resembles the camel. 
 From the manner in which he stands, his fore legs have the appearance 
 of being much longer than his hind legs ; yet this is not so. His mouth 
 is quite small. His hoofs, which are cleft, resemble those of the ox. 
 The motions of the head and neck are extremely graceful and curious, 
 possessing the flexibility and usefulness of the neck of the swan and 
 peacock. Its eye is large, prominent, and exceedingly quick at catch- 
 ing objects at a great distance ; it is well defended by the brow, and it 
 can see without turning the head, behind and below it. The ears are 
 well formed to receive sounds ; and are constantly bent forward. The 
 tongue has very peculiar properties, and can be so tapered as to enter 
 the ring of a very small key. Its taste and smell are very acute and 
 delicate, especialty in regard to the artificial food given it. It can raise 
 the little papillae at pleasure, for the tongue at times is perfectly smooth, 
 and at others exceedingly rough. It is a small feeder, but drinks about 
 eight or ten quarts of milk in the day. The upper lip is longer than 
 the lower one, which assists the tongue in drawing in boughs ; but 
 when grinding its food it is contracted. It has no teeth or nippers in 
 the upper jaw, and the two outside ones are divided to the socket; it 
 lies down when it chews the cud. 
 
 His defence,, as that of the horse and other hoofed animals, consists 
 in kicks ; and his hinder limbs are so light, and his blows are so rapid? 
 that the eye cannot follow them. They are sufficient for his defence 
 against the lion. He never employs his horns in resisting any attack. 
 The giraffes, male and female, resemble each other in their exterior, in 
 their youth. Their obtuse horns are then terminated by a knot of long 
 hair ; the female preserves this peculiarity for some time, but the male 
 loses it at the age of three years. The hide, which is at first of a light 
 red, becomes of a deeper color as the animal advances in age, and is at 
 length of a yellow brown in the female, and of a brown approaching to 
 black in the male. By this difference of color the male may be distin- 
 guished from the female, at a distance. 
 
 DEER. Animals of the deer kind, have a head which is elongated, 
 but not very large. The ears are large and pointed, the neck is of mod- 
 erate length, the body plump, and the limbs, slender though strongly 
 knit. The hair is very similar in color throughout the species of this 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 97 
 
 MOOSE. AMERICAN ELK. KEIN DEER. 
 
 genus, and is dry and harsh. The young deer or fawns are mostly spot- 
 ted with white, upon a brownish yellow ground. The males of this 
 genus are all provided with horns, which are variously branched. The 
 species which we shall notice are the Moose, American Elk, Rein Deer, 
 and the Virginia or Common Deer. 
 
 The MOOSE is the largest of the deer kind, and often exceeds the 
 largest horse in size and bulk. In his form, he is not as handsome, nor 
 are his motions as graceful, as those of the other species of deer. His 
 head is large, and his horns, which sometimes exceed fifty pounds in 
 weight, are unwieldy. In the summer, the moose frequents swampy 
 or low grounds, near the margin of lakes and rivers, through which 
 he delights to swim, as it frees him for the time from the annoyance of 
 insects. During the winter, in families of fifteen or twenty, they seek 
 the depths of the forest, for shelter and food. Their flesh, though 
 generally coarser and tougher than other venison, is esteemed excellent 
 food, and the Indians, hunters, and travellers all declare, that they can 
 withstand more fatigue, while fed on tbis meat, than when using any 
 other. The skin of the moose is of great value to the Indians, who 
 use it for tent covers, clothing, &c. This animal inhabits the northern 
 parts of both continents. In Europe it is called the Elk. Its northern 
 range in America is not ascertained. It has been found as far north as 
 the country has been explored. It w r as formerly seen in the New Eng- 
 land States; but is now rare, even as far south as the State of Maine. 
 
 The AMERICAN ELK. This animal was, for a long time, con- 
 sidered as a mere variety of the moose, if not identically the same ; 
 but more recent investigation has corrected the mistake, and shown, 
 that though inferior in size to the moose, in beauty of form, grace, and 
 agility of movement, and other attributes of its kind,- it is not excelled 
 by any deer of the Old and the New World. The hair of the elk, in 
 autumn, is of a blueish gray color ; during winter it continues of a 
 dark grey, and at the approach of spring it assumes a reddish or bright 
 brown color, which is permanent throughout the summer. Its horns 
 often rise to the height of four and five feet. The elk is shy and re- 
 tiring. When surprised by the hunter, he gazes for a moment intense- 
 ly upon the object of his fear, and then throwing back his lofty horns 
 upon his neck, he flies with the velocity of the race horse. The flesh 
 of the elk is highly esteemed by the Indians and hunters as food ; and 
 the hide is converted to the purpose of dress, &c. The elk is occa- 
 sionally found in the remote and thinly settled parts of Pennsylvania ; 
 but it is only in the western wilds, where exists a luxuriant vegetation, 
 and where the solitude is seldom interrupted, that they are seen in 
 considerable numbers. 
 
 REIN DEER. The height of this animal is generally about three 
 feet and a half, and his length about five feet and a half. His color is 
 commonly brown, with white under the belly. His horns are long, 
 slender, and branching. 
 
 This animal is of great value in the northern parts of both conti- 
 nents ; and constitutes a very considerable part of the subsistence of 
 the tribes inhabiting the region it frequents. In the northern parts of 
 Asia, and Europe, the rein-deer has b^en domesticated for a long time ; 
 
 9 
 
98 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 REIN-DEER, 
 
 and with the exception of the dog, is the only beast of draught or 
 burthen possessed by the natives. The North American Indians, how- 
 ever, have never profited by the docility of this animal to aid them in 
 transporting their families or property, though they annually destroy 
 great numbers of them, for the sake of their flesh, hides, horns, &c. 
 
 To the Laplander, they are of great importance, supplying the place 
 of the horse, cow, sheep, and goat. The milk is used as food, and is 
 often converted into cheese. Of the skins, a warm clothing is made 
 for winter, and when dressed into leather they are converted into stock- 
 ings, and shoes, and light summer clothing. Harnessed to a sledge, 
 a rein-deer will draw about 300 pounds ; but the Laplanders generally 
 limit the burden to 240 pounds. 
 
 REIN-DEER DRAWING A SLEDGE. 
 
 The trot of the rein-deer is about ten miles an hour; and his power 
 of endurance is such, that journies of 150 miles in nineteen hours are 
 not uncommon. There is a portrait of a rein-deer in the palace of 
 Drotningholm, (Sweden,) which is represented, upon an occasion of 
 emergency, to have drawn an officer with important despatches, the in- 
 credible distance of eight hundred English miles, in forty-eight hours. 
 This event is stated to have happened in 1699, and the tradition adds, 
 that the deer dropped down lifeless upon his arrival. 
 
 The number of deer belonging to a herd is from three hundred to five 
 hundred ; with these a Laplander can do well, and live in tolerable 
 comfort. He can make in summer a sufficient quantity of cheese for 
 the year's consumption ; and, during the winter season can afford to 
 kill deer enough to supply him and his family pretty constantly with 
 venison. With two hundred deer, a man, if his family be but small, 
 can manage to get on. If he have but one hundred, his subsistence is 
 very precarious, and he cannot rely entirely upon them for support. 
 Should he have but fifty, he is no longer independent, or able to keep a 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 99 
 
 DEER. ELEPHANT, 
 
 separate establishment ; but generally joins his small herd with that of 
 some richer Laplander, being then considered more in the light of a 
 menial, undertaking the laborious office of attending upon and watch- 
 ing the herd, bringing them home to be milked, and other similar offi- 
 ces, in return for the subsistence afforded him. 
 
 The VIRGINIA, or COMMON DEER. This deer is the smallest 
 American species at present known, and is found in all parts of North 
 America, and in the northern parts of South America. Considerable 
 varieties in size and color, are presented by this species, in the exten- 
 sive range of country in which it is found. The length of the common 
 deer is from five feet to five feet and a half. 
 
 This animal has always been of great importance to the Indians, 
 scattered over the country, as well as to those, who have settled our 
 western wilds. Immense numbers are still found far to the west, as is 
 evident from the vast numbers of hides and horns which are annually 
 brought into the market. 
 
 ELEPHANT. " This wonderful quadruped," says Bigland, in his 
 Natural History," is a native of Asia and Africa, but is most numerous 
 in the latter. In the extensive regions which lie between the river 
 Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope, elephants abound more than in 
 any other part of the world, and are also less fearful of man ; for the 
 savage inhabitants of those countries, instead of attempting to subdue 
 this powerful animal, and render him subservient to their necessities, 
 seem only desirous of avoiding his anger. In the countries near the 
 Cape, elephants are seen, in large herds, consisting of many hundred, 
 and in the vast regions of Monomrotana, Monocmerci, and other parts 
 of the interior of Africa, they are probably still more numerous. 
 
 " At the Cape, the height of the animal is from 12 to 15 feet. His 
 eyes are very small in proportion to his size, but lively, brilliant, and 
 full of expression. His ears are very large, long and pendulous ; but 
 he can raise them with great facility, and make use of them as a fan to 
 cool himself, and drive away the flies or insects. His hearing is re- 
 markably fine : he delights in the sound of musical instruments, to 
 which he is easily brought to move in cadence. His sense of smelling 
 is equally delicate ; for he is highly delighted with the scent of odorif- 
 erous herbs. In each jaw he has four grinders ; one of which, some- 
 times measures nine inches in breadth, and weighs four pounds and a 
 half. 
 
 41 The proboscis, or trunk, is a most wonderful instrument. With 
 it, the animal can lift from the ground the smallest piece of money, se- 
 lect herbs and h'owers, untie knots, and grasp any thing so firmly, that 
 no force can tear it from him. 
 
 " Although the elephant be indisputably the strongest, as well as the 
 largest of all quadrupeds ; yet in its native woods it is neither formida- 
 ble nor ferocious, but mild and peaceable in its disposition, equally 
 fearless and inoffensive ; and when tamed by man, and tutored by his 
 instructions, the noble animal submits to the most painful drudgery, 
 and is so attentive to the commands of his master, that a word or look 
 js sufficient to stimulate him to extraordinary exertion. 
 
 " Of all the animals that have been subjugated by the human race, 
 
100 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ELEPHANT. 
 
 the elephant is universally allowed to be the most tractable and obedi- 
 ent. When treated with kindness, he testifies his gratitude by fulfilling- 
 all the desires of his keeper, caresses him with affectionate fondness, 
 receives his commands with attention, and executes them with punctu- 
 ality and zeal. He bends the knee for the accommodation of those 
 who wis 1 to mount upon his back, suffers himself to be harnessed, and 
 seems to delight in the finery of his trappings. These animals are 
 used in drawing chariots, waggons and various sorts of machines, hav- 
 ing the strength of six horses; and they can travel near a hundred 
 miles a day, and fifty or sixty regularly, without any violent effort. 
 
 WARREN HASTINGS' ELEPHANT. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 101 
 
 ELEPHAM. 
 
 It sometimes happens, however, that domesticated elephants mi 
 their escape to the wild herd. Warren Hastings, the governor-general 
 of India, possessed an elephant, which had been ten years absent from 
 the rule of man. His keeper being dismissed, he was refractory to all 
 others, who attempted to control him ; and, at length, escaped. After 
 the long interval we have mentioned, his old keeper recognized him, 
 and the elephant instantlysubmitted himself. The preceding is an ex- 
 act portrait of this beautiful animal. The instrument which he carries 
 with his trunk is described as a cow-tail, with a silver handle, which 
 elephants of rank bear for driving off flies. 
 
 "In taking the elephant, a large piece of ground is marked out, in 
 the midst of some forest, and surrounded with strong palisades, inter- 
 woven with large branches of trees ; one end of this enclosure is nar- 
 row, from which it opens gradually, so as to take in a considerable ex- 
 tent of country. Some thousands of people assemble, kindle large 
 fires, of which the elephants are exceedingly afraid, and by these and 
 the noise of drums, they drive them towards the enclosure. Another 
 large party with the aid of female elephants trained for the purpose, 
 urge the wild ones slowly forward, the whole train closing in after them, 
 shouting and making loud noises, till, by insensible degrees, they are 
 driven into the narrow part, through which there is an opening into a 
 smaller space, strongly fenced in and guarded on all sides. As soon as 
 a wild elephant enters this narrow passage, a strong bar closes it from 
 behind, and he finds himself completely environed. He is then urged 
 forward to the end of the passage, where there is just room enough for 
 him to go through. He is then received into the custody of two tame 
 elephants, which stand one on each side ; and if he be likely to prove 
 refractory, they beat him with their trunks, till he is reduced to obedi*- 
 ence and suffers himself to be led to a tree, where he is bound by the 
 legs with stout thongs of untanned elk-skins. The tame elephants 
 are then led back to the enclosure, and other wild ones are brought to 
 submission in the same manner. Attendants are placed by the side of 
 each elephant that is caught, and in the space of fourteen days, hi3 
 subjugation is completed." 
 
 Elephants are sometimes taken, as in the kingdom of Ava, and other 
 places, by means of decoy female elephants. These elephants are so 
 trained as to favor the designs of their drivers. When a male wild ele- 
 phant is discovered alone, the decoy elephants are let loose, upon which 
 they proceed cautiously towards him, grazing along, as if they were^ 
 like him, inhabitants of the wild forest. As they approach him, he 
 generally makes up to them, and abandons himself to their caresses* 
 In the mean time, the hunters cautiously creep under him, and during 
 the intoxication of his pleasure, fasten his fore legs with a strong rope ; 
 after which the hind legs are secured in a similar manner, when the fe- 
 males quit him, he discovers his condition, and endeavors to make his 
 escape. If the ropes are sufficiently strong, he soon becomes exhaust- 
 ed with his own rage. 
 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ELEPHANT. 
 
 The following is a representation of the manner of securing a malt 
 elephant as just described. 
 
 This extraordinary quadruped is thirty years in arriving at its full 
 growth, and lives even in a state of captivity a hundred and twenty 
 years ; in a state of natural freedom, the duration of its life is supposed 
 to be much further extended. 
 
 " In regard to the Elephant's discernment and sagacity, stories have 
 been related that might seem incredible, and of which some are un- 
 doubtedly fictitious. Of such, however, as are so well authenticated 
 as not to admit of a doubt, we have a sufficient number to shew its su- 
 periority over the rest of the brute creation. Some of the actions of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 103 
 
 ELEPHANT. 
 
 this surprising animal mi^ht, indeed, almost seem to be the effects of a 
 portion of intellect, rather than of mere instinct. 
 
 " Among the several anecdotes communicated by the Marquis de 
 Montmirail, we find that the cornac or conductor of an elephant, had 
 excited the animal to make an extraordinary effort, by showing him a 
 vessel of arrack, which he pointed out as his reward ; but when he had 
 performed his arduous task, the elephant had the mortification of see- 
 ing himself disappointed of his expected recompense, and impatient of 
 being thus mocked, immediately killed his governor. 
 
 M The man's wife who was a spectator of this dreadful catastrophe, 
 in a fit of agonizing- grief, took her two Utile infants and thiew them at 
 the feet of the enraged animal, saying, M since you have destroyed my 
 husband, kill me also and my children/' The elephant immediately 
 stopped ; and, as if stung with remorse, took up the eldest boy with 
 his trunk, placed him on his neck, and would never after obey any 
 other governor. It is here to be observed, that the elephant is ex- 
 tremely fond of spirituous liquors, as well as of wine ; and the sight 
 of a vessel filled with these liquors, will induce him to make the most 
 extraordinary exertions, and to perform the most painful tasks ; and 
 to disappoint him is dangerous, and his revenge is almost certain. But 
 if he is vindictive, he is equally grateful, and will suffer no kindness 
 shown him to go unrewarded. 
 
 4 - A soldier of Pondicherry, who frequently carried one of these an- 
 imals a certain measure of arrack, being one day a little intoxicated, 
 and seeing himself pursued by the guard, who were about to conduct 
 hjm to prison, took refuge under the eirphant, where he fell sound 
 asleep. The guird attempted in vain to take him from this asylum, 
 the elephant defending him with his trunk. The next day, the soldier 
 becoming sober, was terrified at seeing himself placed under so enor- 
 mous an animal ; but the elephant caressed him with his trunk, to re- 
 move his fears, and made him understand that he might depart in 
 safety. 
 
 M The elephant is sometimes seized with a sort of phrenzy, which 
 makes him extremely formidable, so that on the first symptoms of mad- 
 ness, he is commonly killed, in order to prevent mischief: yet in these 
 fits he has been frequently known to distinguish his benefactors ; so 
 strongly are gratitude and magnanimity impressed on his nature. 
 
 u The elephant that was kept in the menagerie, at Versailles, always 
 discerned when any person designed to make a fool of him, and al- 
 ways remembered an affront, which he never failed to revenge at the 
 first opportunity. Having been cheated by a man who feigned to 
 throw something into his mouth, he struck him with his trunk, and 
 broke two of his ribs, and afterwards trampled him under his feet, and 
 broke one of his legs. A Painter being desirous of drawing him in the 
 attitude of having his trunk erect and his mouth open, ordered his ser- 
 vants to make him retain that posture, by constantly throwing him fruit ; 
 the servant however at last deceived him, which so roused his indigna- 
 tion, that perceiving the original cause of the deception to be the paint- 
 er's desire of drawing him, he revenged himself by throwing with his 
 trunk a large quantity of water on the paper, which completely spoiled 
 the design. 
 
104 FAMILY 
 
 ELEPHANT. 
 
 *♦ The elephants exhibited in Europe are commonly of a diminutive 
 size, as the coldness of the climate both checks the growth and abridges 
 the life of these animals. That which has just been mentioned, and 
 which was sent by the King of Portugal to Louis 14th A. D. 1668, died 
 in 1(38 i , beiog four years old at his arrival, and being only thirteen 
 years at the menagerie at Versailles. He was six feet and a half high, 
 at four years old, and advanced in growth only one foot, during the 
 thirteen years that he lived in France, although ho was treated with 
 care, and fed with profusion. He had every day four pounds of bread, 
 twelve pints of wine, two buckets of porridge, with four or five pounds 
 of steeped bread, and two buckets of rice boiled in water. 
 
 " The elephant that died in 1803 at Exeter change, was brought over 
 in the Rose East Indiaman, and purchased by the owner of the mena- 
 gerie for j£l000. He was generally fed with hay and straw, and could 
 also eat with avidity, carrots, cabbages, bread and boiled potatoes. 
 He was so excessively fond of beer, that he has been known to drink 
 upwards of fifty quarts in a day given by his numerous visiters. iJe 
 drank also nine pails of water daily, given at three different times ; but 
 the quantity he ate could not be precisely ascertained, as he frequently 
 scattered great part of the straw which was given him for food, and ate 
 a considerable portion of that which formed his litter. This animal 
 would kneel down, bow to the company, or search the pocket of his 
 keeper at command." 
 
 The elephant is invariably employed in India, in hunting the tiger. 
 Occasionally the hunter, with his rifle, is mounted on the elephant's 
 back. When a tiger is perceived, he is fired at ; if wounded, he gene- 
 rally bounds towards the elephant, with savage ferocity. In the mean 
 time, the elephant, assisted by the hunters, prepare to keep him at bay ; 
 but if, at any time, the elephant's proboscis be injured, the contest ends 
 from that moment. He seems tc lose his self command, his courage, 
 and even his senses, and sets off at full speed, utterly regardless of his 
 driver, and heedless of the way he takes. The following is a represent- 
 ation of an elephant thus wounded, fleeing from a tiger. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 105 
 
 GIGANTIC MASTODOX, OR MAMMOTH. 
 
 GrGAXTIC MASTODON, or MAM>]OTH. The former of these 
 names is the appropriate appellation, according to Dr. Godman, of a 
 creature of gigantic dimensions, which formerly existed in North Ame- 
 rica. The race itself is now extinct ; but nearly entire skeletons have 
 been found, and from their huge dimensions, it is apparent that they 
 were among the chief of the works of God. To these animals, the 
 
106 FAMILY 
 
 GIGANTIC MASTODON. BEAR. 
 
 name mammoth, said to be a corruption of the Hebrew word behemoth, 
 was formerly applied. But the more appropriate name of mastodon, 
 has, at length been given to it by Cuvier. 
 
 " The emotions experienced," says Dr. Godman, " when, for the first 
 time, we behold the giant relics of this great animal, are those of un- 
 mingled awe. We cannot avoid reflecting on the time, when this huge 
 frame was clothed with its peculiar integuments, and moved by appro- 
 priate muscles; when the mighty heart dashed forth its torrents of 
 blood through vessels of enormous calibre, and the mastodon strode 
 along in supreme dominion over every other tenant of the wilderness. 
 However we examine what is left to us, we cannot help feeling that 
 this animal must have been endowed with a strength exceeding that of 
 other quadrupeds, as much as it exceeded them in size ; and, looking 
 at its ponderous jaws, armed with teeth peculiarly formed for the most 
 effectual crushing of the firmest substances, we are assured that its 
 life could only be supported by the destruction of vast quantities of 
 food. Enormous as were these creatures during life, and endowed 
 with faculties proportioned to the bulk of their frames, the whole race 
 has been extinct for ages. No traditions nor human record of their 
 existence have been saved, and but for the accidental preservation of a 
 comparatively few bones, we should never have dreamed that a crea- 
 ture of such vast size and strength, once existed, — nor could we have 
 believed that such a race had oeen extinguished forever. 
 
 "£uch, however," continues Dr. Godman, "is the fact — ages after 
 ages have rolled away — empires and nations have arisen, flourished, 
 and sunk into irretrievabe oblivion, while the bones of the mastodon, 
 which perished long before the periods of their origin, have been dis- 
 covered, scarcely changed in color, and exhibiting all the marks of per- 
 fection and durability. That a race of animals so large, and consisting 
 of so many species, should become entirely and universally extinct, is 
 a circumstance of high interest ; for it is not with the mastodon as with 
 the elephant, which still continues to be a living genus, although many 
 of its species have become extinct : — the entire race of the mastodon 
 has been utterly destroyed, leaving nothing but the l mighty wreck' of 
 their skeletons, to testify that they once w T ere among the living occu- 
 pants of this land." 
 
 The BEAR in general is an animal of great strength and ferocity of 
 disposition, slow in his movements and of sluggish habits. The eyes 
 and ears are small, and the tongue smooth. The body and limbs are 
 large and powerful, and covered with a thick woolly hair. Of this 
 animal there are several species. We shall notice but three ; the 
 black, grisly and polar bear. 
 
 Black Bear. This bear is found throughout North America, from 
 the shores of the Arctic sea, to its most southern extremity. He is 
 about three feet high, and from four and a half to five feet long. His 
 feet r.re long, and crowned with five claws each. The food of this ani- 
 mal is principally grapes, plums, whortle-berrie's, bramble, and other 
 berries; he is also particularly fond of the acorns of the live oak, on 
 which he grows excessively fat, in Florida, &c. In attempting to pro- 
 cure these acorns, bears subject themselves to great perils, for after 
 climbing theso enormous oak-trees, they push themselves along the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 107 
 
 BLACK BEAR. 
 
 limbs towards the extreme branches, and with their fore-paws bend 
 the twigs within reach, thus exposing themselves to severe, and even 
 fatal accidents, in case of a fall. They are also very fond of the differ- 
 ent kinds of nuts and esculent roots, and often ramble to great distances 
 from their dens, in search of whortle-berries, mulberries, and indeed all 
 sweet flavored and spicy fruits; birds, small quadrupeds, injects, and 
 eggs, are devoured by them, whenever they can be obtained. 
 
 In the north, the flesh of the black bear is fitted for the table, after 
 the middle of July, when the berries begin to ripen ; though some kinds 
 of berries on which they feed, impart a very disagreeable flavor to their 
 flesh. They remain in good condition until the following January or 
 February ; late in the spring, they are much emaciated, and their flesh 
 is indifferent, in consequence of their long fasting through the season of 
 their torpidity. 
 
 The black bear, like all the species of this genus, is very tenacious of 
 life, and seldom falls unless shot through the brain or heart. An ex- 
 perienced hunter never advances on a bear that has fallen, without 
 stopping to load his rifle, as the beast frequently recovers to a consider- 
 able degree, and w T ould then be a most dangerous adversary. The 
 skull appears actually to be almost impenetrable, and a rifle ball, fired 
 at the distance of ninety-Bix yards, has been flattened against it, with- 
 out appearing to do any material injury to the bone. The best place to 
 direct blows against the bear is upon his snout ; when struck else- 
 where, his dense woolly coat, thick hide, and robust muscles, render 
 manual violence almost entirely unavailing. 
 
 When the bear is merely wounded, it is very dangerous to attempt 
 to kill him, with such a weapon as a knife or tomahawk, or indeed any 
 thing which may bring one within his reach. In this way hunters and 
 others have paid very dearly for their rashness, and barely escaped 
 with their lives. The following instance may serve as an example of 
 the danger of such an enterprise. 
 
 A farmer, by the name of Mayborne, residing in the county of Cayu- 
 ga, state of New York, having discovered the traces of a bear, took a 
 pitchfork and hatchet, and proceeded, in company with his son, a boy 
 10 or 11 years of age, in quest of him. The bear was at length discov- 
 ered, under a projecting cliff, below which was a deep ravine, at the 
 bottom of which was a sort of basin or pond of water. 
 
 Mayborne, desiring his boy to remain where he was, took the pitch- 
 fork, and descending to the bottom, determined, from necessity, to at- 
 tack him from below. The bear kept his position, until the man ap- 
 proached within six or seven feet, when on the instant, instead of beino- 
 able to make a stab with the pitchfork, he found himself grappled by 
 the bear, and both together rolled towards the pond, at least twenty, or 
 twenty-five feet, the bear biting his left arm, and hugging him almost 
 to suffocation. By great exertion, the man thrust his right arm partly 
 down his throat, and in that manner endeavored to strangle him, but 
 was once more hurled headlong down through the bushes, a greater 
 distance than before, into the water. Here, finding the bear gaining on 
 him, he made one desperate effort, and drew the animal's head partly 
 under water, and repeating his exertions, at last weakened him so much, 
 that, calling to his boy, vvbo stood on the other side in a state little 
 
108 FAMILY 
 
 GRISL1' BEAR, 
 
 short of distraction for the fate of his father, to bring him the hatchet, 
 he sunk the edge of it, by repeated blows, into the brain of the bear. 
 This man, although robust and muscular, was scarcely able to crawl 
 home, where he lay for nearly three weeks, the flesh of his arm being 
 much crushed, and his breast severely mangled. The bear weighed 
 upwards of four hundred pounds. 
 
 Grisly Bear. This bear is in length about seven feet, and, in 
 height, four and a half. His hair is long and generally almost black. 
 He is unable to climb trees, like other bears, and is more intimidated by 
 the voice, than the aspect of man. His ferocity, under the excitement 
 of hunger, is terrible. His name is dreadful to the Indians, and the 
 killing of one is esteemed equal to a great victory. 
 
 This bear, at present, inhabits the country adjacent to the eastern 
 side of the Rocky Mountains, where it frequents the plains, or resides 
 in the copses of wood, which skirt along the margin of water courses. 
 
 The grisly bear is remarkably tenacious of life, and on many occa- 
 sions numerous rifle-balls have been fired into the body of an individu- 
 al, without much apparent injury. Instances are related by the travel- 
 lers, who have explored the countries in the vicinity of the Rocky 
 Mountains, of from ten to fourteen balls having been discharged into 
 the body of one of these bears before it expired. 
 
 The following statement is from Major Long's Expedition to the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 * One evening, the men in the hindmost of one of Lewis and Clark's 
 canoes perceived one of these bears, lying in the open ground, about 
 three hundred paces from the river, and six of them, who were all good 
 hunters, went to attack him. Concealing themselves by a small emi- 
 nence, they were able to approach within forty paces unperceived ; 
 four of the hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball in his body, two 
 of which passed directly through his lungs. The bear sprang up, and 
 ran furiously with open mouth upon them ; two of the hunters, who 
 had reserved their fire, gave him two additional wounds, and one 
 breaking his shoulder blade, somewhat retarded his motions. Before 
 they could again load their guns, he came so close to them, that they 
 were obliged to run towards the river, and before they had gained it, 
 the bear had almost overtaken them. Two men jumped into the ca- 
 noe ; the other four separated, and concealing themselves among the 
 willows, fired as fast as they could load their pieces. Several times the 
 bear was struck, but each shot seemed only to increase his fury to- 
 wards the hunters. At last he pursued them so closely, that they threw 
 aside their guns and pouches, and jumped from a perpendicular bank 
 into the river. The bear sprung after them, and was very near the 
 . hindmost man, when one of the hunters on the shore shot him through 
 the head, and finally killed him. When they dragged him on shore, 
 they found that eight balls had passed through his body in different di- 
 rections." 
 
 Polar Bear. This animal is stated to be generally four or five feet 
 high, from seven to eight feet long, and nearly the same in circumfer- 
 ence. Individuals have frequently been met with of much greater size ; 
 Barentz killed one in Cherie Islajuld, whose skin measured thirteen feet. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 109 
 
 SEAL. 
 
 The weight is generally from six to eight hundred pounds. The hair 
 of the body is long, and of a yellowish white color, and is very shaggy 
 about the inside of the legs. The paws are seven inches or more in 
 breadth, with claws two inches long. 
 
 A considerable part of the Polar bear's food is supplied by seals, but 
 very probably he suffers long fasts and extreme hunger, owing to the 
 peculiar vigilance of these creatures ; occasionally, he is much reduced 
 by being carried out to sea on a small island of ice, where he may be 
 forced to remain for a week, without an opportunity of procuring food. 
 In this situation, they have been seen on ice-is!ands, two hundred miles 
 distant from land, and sometimes they are drifted to the shores of Ice- 
 land, or Norway, where they are so ravenous as to destroy all the ani- 
 mals they find. 
 
 SEAL. The seal has a round head, and in the fore part bears con- 
 siderable resemblance to the otter, though the whole aspect is not un- 
 like that of some varieties of the do::, whence the names of sea-dog 
 and sea-wolf have been applied to different species of the seal. The 
 general color of the seal is of a yellowish gray, varied or spotted with, 
 brown or black in different degrees, according to the age of the animal. 
 
 The common seal frequents the sea coasts, perhaps throughout the 
 world ; but is most numerous in high northern latitudes, and furnishes 
 the inhabitants of those frigid regions with nearly all their necessaries 
 and luxuries. The food of the common seal is fish, crabs, and birds, 
 which last it contrives to secure by rising under them, and seizing their 
 feet before they are aware of its approach. Feeding on much the 
 same food as some whales, the latter are not found where seals are 
 very numerous. In the spring of the year, the seals are fattest, and 
 yield several gallons of blubber ; small ones afford four or five gailona 
 of oil. 
 
 The best situation for sealing in the Arctic Seas is stated by Scores- 
 by, to be in the vicinity of Jan Main's Island, and the best season, the 
 months of March and April. 
 
 The number of seals destroyed in a single season by the regular 
 staler:, may well excite surprise ; one ship has been known to obtain a 
 cargo of four or five thousand skins, and upwards of a hundred tons 
 of oil. Whale ships have accidentally fallen in with and secured two 
 or three thousand of these animals, during the month of April. The 
 sealing business is, however, very hazardous, when conducted on the 
 borders of the Spitsbergen ice. .Many ships, with all their crews, are 
 lost by the sudden and tremendous Ftorms occurring in those seas, 
 where the dangers are vastly multiplied by the diivirng of immense 
 bodies of ice. In one storm that occurred in the year 1774. no less 
 than five seal ships were destroyed in a few hours, and six hundred 
 valuable seamen perished. 
 
 The seal is generally very fat, as his supply of food is abundant, and 
 the amount of blood contained in his body is far/greater than would be 
 inferred from comparing him with other animals. The flesh is of a 
 very dark red color, and rather soft ; that of the young animal is 
 thought to be quite good by Europeans, but the Esquimaux are ex- 
 tremely fond of it at every age, and under all circumstances. 
 
 10 
 
110 FAMILY 
 
 BEAVER. 
 
 BEAVER. This animal is represented by Dr. Godman as, about 
 two feet in length, having a thick and heavy body, especially at its 
 hinder part. The head is compressed and somewhat arched at the 
 front, the upper part being rather narrow, and the snout, at the extrem- 
 ity, quite so ; the neck is very short and thick. The eyes are situated 
 rather high up on the head, and have rounded pupils ; the ears are 
 short, elliptical, and almost entirely concealed by the fur. The whole 
 skin is covered by two sorts of hair ; one which is long, rather stiff, 
 elastic, and of a grey color for two thirds of its length next tiie base, 
 and terminated by shining, reddish, brown points, giving the general 
 color to the pelage ; the other is short, very fine, thick, tufted and soft, 
 being of different shades of silver gray, or light lead color. On the 
 head and feet, the hair is shorter than elsewhere. The tail, which is 
 ten or eleven inches long, is covered with hair similar to that of the 
 back. 
 
 The general aspect of the beaver, at first view, would remind one 
 of a very large rat, and seen at a little distance, it might be readily 
 mistaken for the common musk-rat. But the greater size of the beaver, 
 the thickness and breadth of its head, and its horizontally flattened, 
 broad and scaly tail, render it impossible to mistake it for any other 
 creature, when closely examined. 
 
 Beavers are not particular in the site they select for the establishment 
 of their dwellings ; but if in a lake or pond where a dam is not re- 
 quired, they are careful to build where the water is sufficiently deep. 
 In standing waters, however, they have not the advantage afforded by 
 a current for the transportation of their supplies of wood, which, when 
 they build on a running stream, is always cut higher up than the place 
 of their residence, and floated down. 
 
 The materials used for the construction of their dams, are the trunks 
 and branches of small birch, mulberry, willow, poplar, &c. They be- 
 gin to cut down their timber for building early in the summer, but their 
 edifices are not commenced until about the middle or latter part of 
 August, and are not completed until the beginning of the cold season. 
 The strength of their teeth, and their perseverance in this work, may 
 be fairly estimated by the size of the trees they cut down. Dr. Best 
 informs us that he has seen a mulberry tree, eight inches in diameter, 
 which had been gnawed down by the beaver. 
 
 The figure of the dam varies according to circumstances. Should 
 the current be very gentle, the dam is carried nearly straight across ; 
 but when the stream is swiftly flowing, it is uniformly made with a 
 considerable curve, having the convex opposed to the current. 
 
 The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same materials as 
 their dams, and are very rude, though strong, and adapted in size to 
 the number of their inhabitants. These are seldom more than four 
 old and six or eight young ones. Double that number have been 
 found occasionally in one of the lodges, though this is by no means 
 common. 
 
 When building their houses, they place most of their wood cross- 
 wise, and nearly horizontally, observing no other order than that of 
 leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches which project inward are 
 cut off with their teeth and thrown among the rest. The houses are 
 
YCL0PED1A. 111 
 
 BEAVER. 
 
 by no Beans built of sticks first and then plastered, but all the mate- 
 als, sticks, mud, and stones, if the latter can be procured, are mixed up 
 together, and this composition is employed from the foundation to the 
 summit. The mud is obtained from the adjacent banks or bottom of 
 the stream or pond, near the door of the hut. Mud and stones the 
 beaver always carries by holding them between his fore paws and 
 throat. 
 
 Their work is all performed at night, and with much expedition. 
 When straw or grass is mingled with the mud used by them in build- 
 ing, it is an accidental circumstance, owing to the nature of the spot 
 whence the latter is taken. As soon as any part of the materia] is 
 placed where it is intended to remain, they turn around and give it a 
 smart blow with their tail. The same sort of blow is struck by them 
 upon the surface of the water when they are in the act of diving. 
 
 The outside of the hut is covered or plastered with mud late in the 
 autumn, and after frost 'has begun to appear. By freezing, it soon be- 
 comes almost as hard as stone, effectually excluding their great enemy, 
 the wolverene, during the winter. Their habit of walking over the 
 work frequently during its progress, has led to the absurd idea of their 
 using their tail as a trowel. 
 
 The beaver feeds principally upon the bark of the aspen, willow, 
 birch, poplar, and occasionally the alder, but it rarely resorts to the 
 pine tribe, unless from severe necessity. They provide a stock of 
 wood from the trees mentioned, during the summer season, and place 
 it in the water opposite the entrance to their houses. 
 
 The beaver is a cleanly animal, and always leaves the house to at- 
 tend to the calls of nature ; the excrement being light rises to the top 
 of the water, and soon separates and disappears. Thus, however 
 great may be the number of inhabitants occupying the hut, no accumu- 
 lation of filth of this kind occurs. 
 
 The number of beavers killed in the northern parts of this country 
 is exceedingly great, even at the present time, after the fur trade 
 has been carried on for so many years, and the most indiscriminate 
 warfare waged uninterruptedly against the species. In the year 1820, 
 sixty thousand beaver skins were sold by the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 which we can by no means suppose to be the whole number killed 
 during the preceding season. If to these be added the quantities col- 
 lected by the traders from the Indians of the Missouri country, we 
 may form some idea of the immense number of these animals which 
 exist throughout the vast regions of the north and west. 
 
 SECTION VI, 
 
 FISH. 
 
 It is not our design, nor will it accord with our limits, to enter into 
 the natural history of fish in general ; but rather to notice, in brief 
 terms, a few of the more common sorts ; those which are important ei- 
 
112 FAMILY 
 
 FISH. 
 
 ther as aliments, or otherwise contributing to the comfort of man; We 
 begin with the 
 
 SALMON FISHERY. Salmon are a very general, and favorite ar- 
 ticle of food. When eaten fresh, they are tender, flaky, and nutritive ; 
 but are thought to be difficult of digestion. The flesh of the salmon 
 is of a red color, and the beauty of its appearance is increased, by soak- 
 ing the slices of it in fresh water, before they are cooked. It has two 
 fins on the back, which distinguish it from other fish. It will live both 
 in salt and fresh water, and is often found at the distance of 200 miles 
 up rivers, in the season of spawning ; and will, with this object in view, 
 leap mill-dams and falls many feet high. The modes of curing salmon 
 are various ; but are chiefly by drying, smoking, salting, and pickling. 
 The chief places in Europe where the salmon fishery is carried on, are 
 in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the rivers, and sea coasts near the 
 rivers 1 mouths. The fishing season usually begins about the first of 
 January, and ends by the last of September. It is commonly performed 
 with nets. Salmon were formerly abundant in the rivers of New Eng- 
 land, especially in the Connecticut river. At the period of their great- 
 est abundance, they were sold for two coppers a-piece. At present, 
 they are taken chiefly in the rivers, and on the coast of Maine. 
 
 COD FISHERY. The cod is a fish of passage, and is usually from 
 eighteen inches to three or four feet long ; with a large head, and teeth 
 in the bottom of the throat. Its flesh is white, its skin brownish on the 
 back, and covered witii a few transparent scales. It eats excellently 
 when fresh ; and if well prepared and salted will keep a long time. 
 The grand resort, for centuries past, of this fish, has been on the banks 
 of Newfoundland, and near Cape Breton. The vessels used are from 
 a hundred to a hundred and fifty tons burden, and they catch thirty or 
 forty thousand fish a-piece. The most essential article in this fishery 
 is, to have a master who knows how to open the fish, to cut off the 
 heads, and salt them ; upon his ability in this the success of the voyage 
 depends. The commerce in this kind offish is the most secure and ad- 
 vantageous that is known. The best fishing season is from the begin- 
 ning of February to the end of April, at which time the cods, which 
 during the winter had retired to the deepest part of the sea, return to 
 the bank and grow very fat. Those caught from March to June keep 
 well enough ; but those in July, August, and September, soon spoil. 
 The fishing is sometimes done in a month or six weeks ; sometimes it 
 holds six months. 
 
 Each fisher only takes a cod at a time ; and yet, an experienced man 
 will take three or four hundred in a day. They salt the cod on board. 
 This description respects the gree?i cod fishery. In the fishing of dry cod, 
 vessels of all sizes are employed. As cod is only to be dried in the sun, 
 the European vessels are obliged to put out in March or April, to have 
 the benefit of the summer for drying. The principal fishery for dry 
 cod is along the coasts of Placentia, a sea-port of Newfoundland. The 
 fish intended for this use, though of the same kind as the green cod, are 
 much smaller, and hence fitter to keep. The method of fishing is much 
 the same in both ; only this latter is more expensive, as it takes up more 
 time, and employs more hands ; and yet scarce half the salt is used in 
 this as in the other. When the fish have taken salt, they are laid in 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 113 
 
 FISH. 
 
 piles on the galleries of the scaffold ; when drained, they are ranged on 
 hurdles, and frequently turned, to dry the better. There are four kinds 
 of commodities drawn from cod ; viz. the tripes, or sounds, and tongues 
 salted at the same time with the fish ; the roes or eggs, which being 
 salted and barrelled up, serve to cast into the sea to draw fish together ; 
 and lastly the oil, which is used in dressing of leather. 
 
 HERRING FISHERY. The herring is a small fish, from eight to 
 ten inches in length, which feeds, in countless multitudes, in the inac- 
 cessible seas of the north ; whence they proceed along the coast of Hol- 
 land, reach the Shetland Islands in the month of June, where separa- 
 ting, they surround the British Isles. In September they unito again, 
 at Land's End, whence they proceed to the American shore, and along 
 the coast of Newfoundland, and at length, return to their polar habita- 
 tions. 
 
 The herring fishery, in different parts of the world, affords occupa- 
 tion and support to a great number of people. In Holland, it has been 
 calculated, that formerly more than 150,000 persons were employed in 
 catching, pickling, drying, and trading, in herrings ; and on the differ- 
 ent coasts of Great Britain, many thousands of families are entirely 
 supported by this fishery. The principal of the British herring fish- 
 eries are off the coasts of Scotland and Norfolk ; and the implements 
 that are used in catching the fish, are nets stretched in the water, one 
 side of which is kept from sinking, by buoys fixed to them at proper 
 distances, and the other hangs down, by the weight of lead which is 
 placed along its bottom. The herrings are caught in the meshes of the 
 nets, as they endeavour to pass through ; and unable to liberate them- 
 selves, they continue there, until the nets are hauled in, and they are 
 taken out. 
 
 Some of them are pickled, and others dried. In the preparation of 
 the latter, (which have the name of red herrings,) the fish are soaked 
 for twenty-four hours in brine, and then taken out, strung by the hand 
 on little wooden spits, and hung in a chimney formed to receive them. 
 After this, a fire of brush-wood, which yields much smoke, but no 
 flame, is kindled beneath, and they are suffered to remain until they 
 are sufficiently dried, when they are packed in barrels for exportation 
 and sale. 
 
 MACKEREL FISHERY. The mackerel is a sait water fish, usu- 
 ally from a foot to eighteen inches in length ; its weight seldom ex- 
 ceeds two or three pounds. It is found on the French, English, and 
 American coasts, and also in large shoals in the ocean. They are ex- 
 cellent food when fresh, but much greater quantities are used in a pick- 
 led state. This fishery employs a great number of men, and a large 
 capital both here and in Great Britain. The method of taking the fish 
 is either with a line or net. If with a line, the bait used is a piece of 
 red cloth or the tail of a mackerel. The method of taking the fish 
 with nets is more common, and is usually performed in the night time. 
 The water wherein mackerel have been boiled often yields a light af- 
 ter being stirred a little. 
 
 SHAD. This important and delicious fish is found, it is believed, in 
 no other country besides America. In many of the rivers of the Uni- 
 ted States, it abounds. During the months of April, May, and a part 
 
 10* 
 
114 FAMILY 
 
 LOBSTER. — OYSTERS. 
 
 of June, multitudes are caught which are eaten fresh or salted. Those 
 caught in the rivers of New England are the most esteemed. The Con- 
 necticut river shad are justly famous. This fishery employs several 
 thousand men, who pack thousands of barrels, which find their way 
 into every part of the interior. 
 
 The LOBSTER is found extensively diffused in the various salt wa- 
 ters of the globe. The common method of taking them is in pots, or 
 a kind of trap, - constructed of twigs, baited with garbage, and formed 
 similar to a wire mouse trap, so that the animal after entering it, can- 
 not escape. Such machines are fastened to a cord sunk in the sea, and 
 lace is marked by a buoy. In summer, they are found near the 
 shore, and thence to about six fathoms deep ; but, in winter, they are 
 seldom taken in less than twelve or fifteen fathoms of water. 
 
 Lobsters continue to grow in size, only while their shells are soft. 
 Those selected for the table ought to be heavy in proportion to their 
 size, and be furnished with a hard crust on their sides, which, when in 
 perfection, will not yield to a moderate pressure. 
 
 The meat of the lobster is not easy of digestion. Sometimes the 
 immoderate use of lobsters is attended with eruptions of the erysipela- 
 tous kind in the face, or a species of nettle rash over the whole body; 
 either of which, being salutary efforts of nature, to expel noxious mat- 
 ter, are more troublesome than dangerous. 
 
 OYSTERS. Of this shell fish, it is said, that there are an hundred 
 and fifty species. They are to be found in ail countries on the globe. 
 In the East Indies, they are sometimes two feet in diameter. The oys- 
 ters found on the English coast are said to have a strong copper taste, 
 which they acquire from their growing on the copper banks. This 
 tasie renders them unpleasant at first ; but, at length, it imparts to 
 them a higher relish. 
 
 During the breeding season, and for some weeks following, oysters 
 are said to be quite unhealthy ; hut in all other seasons of the year, 
 they are esteemed an excellent food, and are eaten both raw, and 
 dressed in various ways; in a fresh state, however, they are doubtless 
 preferable; for, by cooking, they are in a great measure deprived of 
 their nourishing jelly, and of the salt-water which promotes their di- 
 gestion in the stomach. Hence raw oysters, may be used with equal 
 advantage, by the robust, the weak, and the consumptive. Indepen- 
 dently of the nutritive effects peculiar to this shell fish, it generally 
 tends to open the bowels, especially if a certain quantity be swallowed 
 at one meal : hence to persons of a costive habit they afford a dietetic 
 supper. 
 
 TORTOISE. This amphibious animal is found in the West Indies, 
 and the South Seas. Between thirty and forty different species have 
 been enumerated. Some of the species, such as the common green 
 turtle and the haivksbill turtle, grow to a very large size, and are not 
 unfrequently four, five, or six hundred pounds in weight. Those who 
 take them watch them when they go from their nests on shore, in 
 moon-light nights ; and before they reach the sea, turn them on their 
 backs, and leave them till morning, for they are utterly unable to recov- 
 er their former position ; at other times they hunt them in boats, with 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 115 
 
 WHALE. 
 
 a spear, striking them with it through the shell ; and as there is a cord 
 fastened to the spear, they are taken much in the same manner as whales. 
 Tortoises will live after being deprived of the brain, and even of their 
 heads. The flesh of many of the sea-turtles is highly esteemed as food ; 
 that of the hawks-bill, however is indifferent ; this species is noticed, 
 chiefly as producing the tortoise-shell of commerce, so well known and 
 used for various purposes.. 
 
 WHALE. The whale, of which there are several species, is the 
 largest of all animals ; it is sometimes ninety feet long, and those of 
 the torrid zone are said to be much larger. The head is about one 
 third the length of the whole fish; the under lip is much broader than 
 the upper. The tongue is a spongy, fat substance, sometimes yielding 
 five or six barrels of oil. The gullet or swallow of the whale, in some 
 species, is very small for so large an animal ; it does not exceed four 
 inches in width : but it is proportioned to the food it eats, which is said 
 to be a particular kind of small snail ; or, as some say, it varies its re- 
 past with the medusa, or sea-blubber, an animal which is found in the 
 sea. The whale has two orifices in the middle of the head, through 
 which it spouts water to a great height, and sometimes with a noise 
 tike thunder. Its eves are not larger than those of an ox, and placed at 
 a great distance from each other. Under the skin the whale is covered 
 with fat or blubber, from six to twelve inches thick, which sometimes 
 yields from one to two hundred barrels of oil. The flesh is red and 
 coarse, somewhat like beef. The Greenlanders eat it, and the Iceland- 
 ers soak it in sour whey. Whales, which produce the well known arti- 
 cle of whale bone, are chiefly caught in the North seas ; the largest sort 
 about Greenland or Spitzbergen. At the first discovery of that coun- 
 try, and at the beginning of this fishery, they took nothing but the pure 
 oil and the whalebone, and all the business was executed in the coun- 
 try; by which means a ship eould bring home the product of many 
 more whales thaj^she can at present, as it is now conducted. 
 
 A whale, extended motionless, at the surfaee of the sea, can sink in 
 the space of five or six seconds, beyond the reach of its human ene- 
 mies. The usual rate at which whales swim, seldom exceeds four 
 miles an hour ; when urged by the sight of an enemy, or alarmed by 
 the stroke of a harpoon, they swim at the rate of eight or nine miles 
 an hour. But this speed never continues longer than for a few min- 
 utes. They commonly remain at the surface, to breathe, two min- 
 utes ; during which time, they blow eight or nine times, and then de- 
 scend for an interval, usually, of five or ten minutes. When struck, 
 their descent extends, sometimes, to the depth of 700 or 800 fathoms. 
 
 The maternal affection of the whale, is striking and interesting. 
 When her cub is harpooned, she will join it at the surface of the water, 
 and encourage it in its attempt to escape ; and for this purpose, will 
 take it under her fin, and seldom deserts it while life remains. At such 
 times, 6he loses all regard for her own safety, and it is exceedingly dan- 
 gerous to approach her. 
 
 Every whale ship is furnished with six boats. Those called six oared 
 boats, adapted for carrying seven men, six of whom, including the 
 harpooner, are rowers, are generally from 26 to 28 feet in length, and 
 about five feet nine inches in breadth. Six-men boats, and four-oared 
 boats are proportionably smaller. 
 
116 FAMILY 
 
 WHALE. 
 
 The instruments in general use, in the capture of the whale, are the 
 harpoon and lance. The harpoon is an instrument of iron, about three 
 feet in length. It consists of three conjoined parts, called the socket, 
 shank, and mouth ; the latter of which, includes the barbs or withers. 
 The next in importance to the harpoon is the lance. It consists of a 
 hollow socket, six inches long, and swelling from half an inch, the size 
 of the shank, to near two inches in diameter ; into which is fitted, a 
 four feet stock, or handle, of fir; a shank five feet long, and half an 
 inch in diameter; and a mouth of steel, which is made very thin, and 
 exceedingly sharp, seven or eight inches in length, and two and a half 
 inches in breadth. 
 
 Qn the arrival of a ship, at the fishing station, the master, or officer 
 of the watch, takes his station in the crow's ntst, a place fitted for shel- 
 tering him from the wind, on the main top-mast, or top-gallant-mast 
 head, from which he keeps an anxious watch, for the appearance of a 
 whale. The moment that a fish is seen, he gives notice to the watch 
 upon deck, part of whom leap into a boat, are lowered down, and push 
 off towards the place. On coming near, the harpoon is thrown. The 
 wounded whale, in the surprise and agony of the moment, makes a 
 convulsive effort to escape. Then is trie moment of danger. The 
 boat is subjected to the most violent blows from its head, or its fins ; 
 but particularly from its ponderous tail, which sometimes sweeps the 
 air with such tremendous fury, that both boat and men, are exposed to 
 one common destruction. 
 
 A signal is now given to the people on board of the vessel, by setting 
 up one of their oars in the middle of the boat. On perceiving this* 
 the men on the waich, alarm all the rest by the cry of fall, fall, and 
 the other boats go* immediately to the assistance of the first. The 
 whale, finding himself wounded, runs off with prodigious violence, 
 sometimes horizontally, at others descending perpendicularly. The 
 rope which is fastened to the harpoon is about two ^undred fathoms 
 long ; but sometimes several ropes are united together. The velocity 
 with which the whale draws it over the sides of the boat is so great, 
 that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire. The fishermen find it ne- 
 cessary to let go the rope for a time, till the whale is spent, otherwise 
 its violence would sink the boat. The whale soon, however, comes up, 
 for it cannot stay long below water, and being now fatigued and 
 wounded, stays above longer than usual. It is now struck again with 
 a harpoon, and again descends, but with less force; when it comes up 
 again, it is generally incapable of descending, but suffers itself to be 
 wounded and killed with long lances, with which the men are provided. 
 It is known to be near death when it spouts up the water deeply tinged 
 with blood. The whale being dispatched, the body floats ; the fins* 
 and tail are now cut off, and it is drawn to the vessel ; the blubber or 
 fat cut off, and the whalebone cut off from the upper jaw ; the fat and 
 the bone being all which is wanted, the remains of the whale are 
 left. When the ship is thus sufficiently laden, it sails homewards, 
 during which voyage the fat is melted down into oil. One of the lar- 
 gest fish will fill more than seventy butts. The produce of a large 
 whale is valued at about a thousand pounds. 
 
 A considerable whale fishery is also carried on in the South Seas ; 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 117 
 
 FOWL. COCK. 
 
 here the object of the fisherman is the spermaceti uhaie, which produ- 
 ces not only a much more valuable oil than the preceding, but also the 
 peculiar substance called spermaceti. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 FOWL, 
 
 No part of nature exhibits a more beautiful variety, than the feather- 
 ed tribe?. Did our limits permit, it would be pleasant to ourselves, and 
 not without interest, we trust, to our readers, to describe, at some 
 length, these tenants of the air; but, as utility rather than amusement 
 is the object of our work, we must content ourselves with noticing 
 chiefly that part of the feathered creation which contributes to the com- 
 fort of man, with a notice of a limited number belonging to other class- 
 es. 
 
 t Birds of the more useful description are of the poultry kind, in which 
 class are ranked all those which have white flesh, and bodies bulky, 
 when compared with the size of their head and limbs. These are the 
 common cock, the peacock, the turkey, the Guinea hen, the pheasant 
 and the partridge. 
 
 The COCK is allowed originally to have been a native of Persia, 
 imported into Europe many centuries ago. Few animals of the flying 
 species exhibit so many varieties as the cock ; there being scarcely two 
 birds of this description that resemble each other in plumage and shape. 
 Some species are without the tail, and others destitute of a rump. 
 Instead of feathgrs, which usually belong to this fowl, a species is 
 found in Japan, which is covered with hair. In the island Tinian, and 
 several others in the Indian Ocean, the plumage of the cock is black 
 and yellow, and his comb and wattles are of the latter color and pur- 
 ple combined. 
 
 No animal in the world has greater courage than the common do- 
 mestic cock, when opposed to one of his own species: and in every 
 part of the world, where refinement and polished manners have not 
 entirely taken place, cock fighting is a principal diversion. In several 
 parts of Europe, this vulgar amusement is still common, and is not un- 
 frequent in some of the southern states of our own country. The fol- 
 lowing story is authentically related of a gentleman, some years since 
 in England, who was passionately fond of this species of gamin?. He 
 possessed a favorite cock, on which he had won many profitable match- 
 es. The last bet he laid on this cock, he lost; which so enraged him, 
 that he had the bird tied to a spit, and roasted alive, before a large fire. 
 The screams of the miserable anima^rere so affecting, that some gen- 
 tlemen, who were present, attemptWto interfere, which so increased 
 the gentleman's anger that he seized a poker, and with the most furious 
 vehemence declared, that he would kill the first man who should inter- 
 pose ; but in the midst of his passionate asseverations, befell down 
 
118 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 HEN. 
 
 dead upon the spot — a solemn warning to all, who violate the common 
 and obvious principles of humanity. 
 
 The HEN. If well fed and allowed to roam in a farm-yard, a good 
 hen will deposit, in the course of twelve months above 200 eggs ; but 
 if left entirely to herself, she seldom lays more than fifteen eggs in the 
 same nest without attempting to hatch them ; but, if eggs only be de- 
 sired, they should be removed, one only being left, and she will contin- 
 ue to lay for a long time. When the hen begins to sit, nothing can 
 exceed her perseverence and patience ; she continues for some days 
 immoveable, and when forced away by the importunities of hunger, 
 she quickly returns. While the hen sits, she carefully turns her eggs, 
 till at length, in about three weeks, the young brood begin to give signs 
 of a desire to burst their confinement. When all are produced, she 
 then leads them forth to provide for themselves. Her affection and 
 pride seem then to alter her very nature, and correct her injfcrfections. 
 No longer voracious and cowardly, she abstains from all foWd that her 
 young can swallow, and flies* ^oldly at every creature that she thinks is 
 likely to do them mischief. 
 
 The proper heat for hatching a hen's egg according to some, is 104 c 
 of Fahrenheit ; according to others 96° ; to which degree the surface 
 of the body of the hen will raise the thermometer, when she sits upon 
 her eggs. In those birds who do not sit constantly, but trust chiefly to 
 the heat of the sun, as the crane, heron, ostrich, &c. &c, the tempera- 
 ture of the eggs is probably below 104 degrees. 
 
 The full period of the hen in this country, is know r n to be 21 days. 
 In warmer climates, it is said to be a day or two less. The following 
 table was compiled by Count Morozzo, in a litter from him to Lace- 
 pede, to show the periods of incubation, compared with those of the life 
 of certain birds. 
 
 Name of the Bird. 
 
 Swan, 
 
 Parrot, 
 
 Goose, 
 
 Eagle, 
 
 Bustard, 
 
 Duck, 
 
 Turkey, - 
 
 Peacock, 
 
 Pheasant, - 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Nightingale, 
 
 Hen, 
 
 Pigeon, 
 
 Canary, 
 
 Goldfinch, - 
 
 Artificial means have been 
 
 Period of Incuba. 
 
 Duration of Life 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 42 days 
 
 about 200 vears. 
 
 40 
 
 100 years. 
 
 30 
 
 80 or more. 
 
 IU 
 
 
 30 { 
 
 30 i 
 
 not known. 
 
 30 J 
 
 
 26 to 27 
 
 25 to 28 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 18 to 20 
 
 20 
 
 100 or more. 
 
 19 to 20 
 
 17 to 18 
 
 19 to 21 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 17 to 18 
 
 16 to 17 
 
 13 to 14 
 
 13 to 14 
 
 13 to 14 
 
 18 to 20 
 
 aerated, in different parts of the world, 
 to catch chickens from the eggs, without the assistance of the hen. In 
 Egypt, the method adopted is to place the eggs in stoves, erected for 
 their reception, and to supply them with such a degree of heat, as* is 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 POULTRY, 
 
 necessary to call them into life. By this means, it is said tbnt tens of 
 thousands of chickens are annually hatched in the above • 
 
 Reaumur, the celebrated naturalist, instituted a s [ieri- 
 
 raents, to reduce the art of hatching chickens, to fixed \>y\ Ac- 
 
 cording to him, the degree of heat necessary to acco; iect, 
 
 is 96 of Fahrenheit. He also invented a kind of hollow cover.-, or low 
 boxes, without bottoms, and lined with fur, which he called ' pa- 
 
 rents. These were designed to shelter the chicken :ied, 
 
 and to afford them protection similar to that of the wings of '.' 
 
 Hens which do not. lay in the winter, should have a< :ed 
 
 lime, pounded bones, oyster shells, or other matter, whi rne, 
 
 or some of its compounds, because something of the kind is nece rsary 
 to form the shell of their eggs. This is not necessar 
 which are fed on wheat, as that grain contains phospha lime, the 
 
 substance of which egg-shells are composed. 
 
 It is o^ftusly an important point to ascertain the most economical 
 method or keeping and fattening poultry. Boiled potato >d 
 
 for poultry, is both excellent and economical. Some wr m- 
 
 mend a proportion of beets, ripe and sweet pumpkins, and squashes, to 
 . be mixed with the potatoes; others recommend a small portion of 
 bran, or Indian meal. 
 
 To fatten chickens expeditiously, the Domestic Encyclopedia recom- 
 mends, to take a quantity of ground rice, and an equal quantity of 
 common flour ; mix sufficient for present use with milk and a little 
 coarse sugar; stir the whole well over the fire, till it makes a thi 
 paste ; and feed the chickens in the day time only, by putting as much 
 of it as they can eat, but no more, into the troughs belonging to the 
 coops. It must be eaten while warm ; and if they have also beer to 
 drink, they will soon grow very fat. A mixture of oat-meal and trea- 
 cle, combined till it crumbles, is said to form a food for chickens, of 
 which they are so fond, and with which they thrive so rapidly, that at 
 the end of two months, they become as large as the generality of full- 
 grown fowls, fed in the common way. But no common fowl is to be 
 compared with a capon thus fed. 
 
 A writer in the New England Farmer recommends to confine fowls 
 in a large airy enclosure, and feed them on broken Indian corn, Ind 
 meal, or mush with raw potatoes, cut into small pieces, not larg I 
 a filbert ; placing within their reach a quantity of charcoal, broken into 
 small pieces, which he says they will greedily eat, and thereby promote 
 a rapid digestion of their food. By this method, they will fatt 
 one halPthe usual time, and with much less expense. 
 
 The French, who are great egg eaters, take unusual pains to obtaia 
 fresh laid eggs in winter. For this purpose, they keen their hens in a 
 dry warm place, it being well known that exposure to wet weather, es- 
 pecially cold, wet weather,diminishes their propensity to lay. Stimulating 
 food is given them, such as barley* wheat, boiled, and given warm, 
 and also curds, buckwheat, parsley, and other herbs, chopped fine, cats 
 and wheat, and occasionally hemp-seed, and the seed of nettles. 
 White cabbages, chopped up, ■^excellent in winter for all sorts of 
 poultry. ** • 
 
 The ailments of fowls are numerous ; but they would seldom be ?rw> 
 if the proper care were taken. If well fed, and kept perfectly clean-- 
 
120 FAMILY 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 fowls will seldom be sick ; and in respect to age, they should never be 
 kept more than two or three years, since beyond this period, they are 
 of little value as layers. 
 
 With ordinary management, however, fowls will sometimes be trou- 
 bled with diseases, among the most fatal of which is the disorder called 
 gapes; a disease which, in New England, we believe, generally goes 
 by the name of pip. 
 
 In chickens, the gapes is said to arise from a worm, and some say a 
 collection of worms in the wind-pipe ; according to others, it is a thick 
 viscous matter, which lines the windpipe. Mr. Mowbray informs us, 
 that the pip is a white scale, growing on the tip of the tongue, which 
 must be torn off, and the part rubbed with salt. Whatever be the na- 
 ture of the disease, it usually destroys a large proportion of all the chick- 
 ens that are hatched. Various prescriptions have been suggested, for 
 its cure. Some advise to mix soft soap with meal dough^fcthers, to 
 make a decoction of red pepper, with which to wet up mus^P> be giv- 
 en to the chickens. Others recommend, in respect to full grown fowls, 
 which are afflicted with this disease, to pull the feathers from the tail. 
 The TURKEY, it is thought, belonged originally to North America ; 
 but is now common throughout Europe. It was formerly found wild, 
 in the forests of Canada and the United States ; and flocks are, to this 
 day, occasionally seen. The wild Turkey is generally larger than the 
 domesticated. 
 
 Young turkies are liable to the pip, which often proves speedily fatal. 
 The remedies suggested in respect to chickens, which have this dis- 
 ease, may, perhaps, be found equally beneficial in respect to turkies. 
 A writer remarks, however, that on inspecting the rump feathers, two 
 or three of their quills will be found to contain blood ; but on drawing 
 them out, the chick soon recovers, and afterwards requires no other 
 care than common poultry. 
 
 The GUINEA HEN, is a bird well known in England, but is a na- 
 tive of Africa and America. The flesh is thought by many to be deli- 
 cious ; it requires great care in being reared in this climate ; a good 
 common hen will hatch the eggs much better than the Guinea hen her- 
 self, and to common hens in this country should the eggs of the Guinea 
 hen always be entrusted. The Guinea hen does not conform to cli- 
 mate, like many other birds : it lays its eggs on the bare ground, and 
 after the young are hatched, it often neglects them. This bird will lay 
 many eggs ; but they are extremely small for the size of the bird ; 
 much less than a pullet's egg. 
 
 The GOOSE. This common bird is probably the wild goose do- 
 mesticated. The latter, it is well known, is a bird of passage, and on 
 the approach of spring, large flocks of them are seen wending their 
 way towards the polar "regions. The fortunate sportsman sometimes 
 brings one down from his airy height. If only wounded, he may be 
 tamed, and will readily pair with the common grey goose. 
 
 The goose is a valuable, but expej^re bird ;— valuable, as it furnish- 
 es feathers for our beds ; and, in thiWiew, may be regarded as necessa^ 
 ry,— expensive, requiring considerable food, during the winter season, 
 but more expensive, from the injury that it occasions to our meadows 
 and pasture lands. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 121 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 The method of rearing geese is so well known, and so uniform, that 
 it will be unnecessary to describe it. It may be proper, however, to no- 
 tice a recommendation found in Willich's Encyclopedia ; viz. to break 
 the shell near the beak of the young goslin, about the period of its 
 hatching. This we should deem injudicious and unnecessary. Wild 
 geese can have no assistance of this kind, and we conclude that goslins 
 can, generally speaking, make their way into the world, without the 
 proposed manipulation. 
 
 As geese form a principal delicacy at our tables, the most expeditious 
 mode of fattening them, is an object of some importance. Hence, it 
 has been recommended to keep them cooped up in a dark and narrow 
 place, where they are to be fed with ground malt, mixed with milk, or, 
 if milk be scarce, with barley meal, mashed up with water. Cobbett 
 recommends feeding them with corn, some raw Swedish turnips, car- 
 rots, whita»abbages, or lettuce. 
 
 The CmKplete Farmer, an English work, says; "if you would fatten 
 geese, you must shut them up when they are about a month old, and 
 they will be fat in about a month more. Be sure to let them have al- 
 ways, in a small rack, some fine hay, which will much hasten their fat- 
 ting. But for fatting older geese, it is commonly done when they are 
 about six months old, or soon after harvest, when they have been in 
 stubble fields, from which food they will grow tolerably fat. But those 
 who are desirous of having them very fat, shut them up for a fortnight 
 or three weeks, and feed them with oats, split peas, barley meal, or 
 ground malt mixed with milk. But the best thing to fatten them with, 
 is malt mixed with beer. You must, however, observe, in fattening all 
 sorts of water-fowl, that they usually sit with their bills upon their 
 rumps, where they suck out the greater part of the moisture and fatness, 
 at a small bunch of feathers, which you will find standing upright on 
 their rumps, and always moist, with which they trim their feathers, 
 which renders them more oily and slippery than the feathers of other 
 fowls, and causes the water to slip orTthem. If, therefore, the upright 
 feathers are cut away close, they will become fat in less time, and witrj 
 less food than otherwise. If you give them rye, before or about mid- 
 summer, it will strengthen them, and keep them in health, that being 
 commonly their sickly time.'' 
 
 In choosing geese for table, care should be taken that the feet and 
 legs be yellow, which is an indication of the bird being young ; the legs 
 of old geese are red. If recently killed, the legs will be pliable, but if 
 stale, they will generally be found dry and stiff. 
 
 A new breed of geese, called Bremen geese, has been introduced into 
 the United States, which is said to be decidedly superior to any hereto- 
 fore known in this country. They were first imported, we believe, by 
 Mr. James Sisson, of Warren, (R. I.) who received a premium, in Oc- 
 tober, 1K26, from the Rhode Island Society for the Encouragement of 
 Domestic Industry, for the exhibition of some geese of this breed. 
 They are said to possess the following advantages, over any other ani- 
 mals of their kind : they grow to a greater size, may be raised with 
 more facility, are fattened with less grain, and make more delicious 
 food. 
 
 DUCK. Of the duck there are many varieties ; but they may be 
 
 11 
 
122 FAMILY 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 reduced to two general classes — the wild and the tame. Of the wild 
 duck, the canvass-backed is peculiar to America ; where it is in higher 
 estimation than any other, on account of the exquisite flavor of its 
 flesh. It abounds in the neighborhood of Chesapeake bay ; but is sel- 
 dom seen north of Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Mallard is the most common of wild ducks, and is the original 
 of our domestic duck. Wild ducks pair in the spring, build their nests 
 among rushes near the water, and lay from ten to sixteen eggs. The 
 female is a very artful bird, and does not always make the nest close 
 to the water, but frequently at a good distance from it ; in which case, 
 •he will carry the young to it in her beak, or between her legs. There 
 are various means used to catch wild ducks and geese, of which one 
 seems worth mentioning. The person washing to take these, wades in- 
 to the water up to the chin, and, having his head covered with a cala- 
 bash, approaches the place where the ducks are: when^^y, not re- 
 garding an object of this sort, suffer the man freely to ml" with the 
 flock ; alter this, he has only to pull them by the legs into the water, 
 one after the other, till he is satisfied ; returning as unsuspected by the 
 remainder, as when he first came among them. This method is fre- 
 quently put in practice on the river Ganges, using the earthen vessels 
 of the Gentoos, instead of the calabashes ; these vessels are what the 
 Gentoos boil their rice in, and after being once used, they consider 
 them defiled, and throw them into the river as useless. The ducks, 
 seeing these vessels float down the stream, look upon them with disre- 
 gard, and the duck-takers find them, on this account, convenient for 
 their purpose. 
 
 The tame duck is the most easily reared of all our domestic animals ; 
 and in the neighborhood of a sufficiently sluggish and muddy stream 
 will procure their living, and even grow fat without being led. It is 
 better, however, to confide them to the care of a hen, because the duck 
 is a heedless and inattentive mother, and frequently leaves her eggs, 
 until they spoil. After hatching her brood, she forthwith leads them 
 to a pond, shows them the water, and appears to think that she has 
 performed every duty which is required of her. 
 
 A singular mode of fattening ducks obtains in France. In the au- 
 tumn, when tolerably fat, they are shut up, eight by eight, in a dark 
 place, and crammed with boiled corn. They are sometimes suffocated, 
 but if they are soon bled, they are not the worse for it. They pass 
 fifteen days in a state of oppression and suffocation, which makes their 
 livers grow large. When the tail spreads out like a fan, they are fat 
 enough ; they are then turned out to bathe, after which they are killed. 
 
 Two days after killing, they are opened below, and their wings and 
 legs taken off, and the flesh covering the rump and stomach. The : 
 whole is put into a salting tub, with the neck and end of the rump, and 
 left covered with salt for fifteen days, after which they are cut into four ! 
 quarters, and put into the pot. They are first seasoned with cloves, 
 and other spices put in them. Some leaves of Spanish laurel, and a 
 little salt-petre having been put in the brine to give the meat a red ' 
 color. 
 
 WILD PIGEON of America. "The wild pigeon of the United 
 States," says Wilson in his Ornithology, " inhabits a wide and exten- 
 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 123 
 
 WILD PIGEON. 
 
 sive region of North America, on this side of the Great Stony Moun- 
 tains, beyond which, to the westward, I have not heard of one being 
 seen. According to Mr. Hutchins, they abound in the country round 
 Hudson's bav, where they usually remain as late as December, feeding, 
 when the ground is covered with snow, on the buds of juniper. They 
 are spread over the whole of Canada, were seen by Capt. Lewis and 
 his party, near the great falls of the Missouri, upwards of 2500 miles 
 from its mouth, reckoning the meanderings of the river, were also met 
 with in the interior of Louisiana, by Col. Pike, and extend their range 
 as far south as the Gulf of Mexico; occasionally visiting or breeding 
 in almost every quarter of the United States. 
 
 M But the most remarkable characteristic of these birds is their asso- 
 ciating together, both in their migrations, and also during the period of 
 incubation, in such prodigious numbers as almost to pass belief; a cir- 
 cumstance which has no parallel among any other of the feathered 
 tribes on die face of the earth, with which naturalists are acquainted. 
 
 " These migrations appear to be undertaken, rather in quest of food 
 than merely to avoid the cold of the climate. Vast multitudes congre- 
 gate in the western forests, particularly in the states of Ohio, Kentucky, 
 and Indiana. These extensive regions abound with the beach nut, 
 which constitutes the chief food of the wild pigeon. During theirstay 
 they fix upon some spot in a forest as their roosting place. These roost- 
 ing places sometimes occupy a large extent. When they have fre- 
 quented one of these places for some time, the appearance it exhibits 
 is surprising. The ground is covered to the depth of several inches 
 with their excrement ; all the tender grass and underwood is destroyed ; 
 the surface strewed with large limbs of trees broken off by the weight 
 of the birds clustering one above another ; and the trees themselves, 
 for thousands of acres, killed as completely as if girdled with an axe. 
 The marks of this desolation remain for many years on the spot; and 
 numerous places could be pointed out, where, for several years after, 
 scarce a single vegetable made its appearance. 
 
 " When these roosts are first discovered, the inhabitants from con- 
 siderable distances visit them in the night, w T ith guns, clubs, long poles, 
 pots of sulphur, and various other engines of destruction. In a few- 
 hours they fill many sacks and load their horses with them. By the 
 Indians, a pigeon roost, or breeding place is considered an important 
 source of national profit and dependence for that season ; and all their 
 active ingenuity is exercised on the occasion. The breeding place dif- 
 fers from the former in its greater extent. In the western countries 
 above mentioned, these are generally in beech woods, and often extend 
 in nearly a straight line, across the country for a great way. Not far 
 from Shelby ville, in the state of Kentucky, about five years ago, there 
 was one of these breeding places, which stretched through the woods in 
 nearly a north and south direction ; was several miles in breadth, and 
 was said to be upwards of forty miles in extent! In this tract almost 
 every tree was furnished with nests wherever the branches could ac- 
 commodate them. The pigeons made their first appearance there 
 about the tenth of April, and left it altogether, with their young, before 
 the twenty-fifth of May, 
 
 " To form a rough estimate," continues Mr. Wilson, " of the daily 
 consumption of one of these immense flocks, let us first attempt to cal- 
 
124 FAMILY 
 
 WILD PIGEON. CARRIER PIGEON. 
 
 cuiatc the numbers of that above mentioned, as seen in passing between 
 Frankfort and the Indiana territory. If we suppose this column to 
 have been one mile in breadth, — and I believe it to have been much 
 more, and that it moved at the rate of one mile in a minute, four hours* 
 the time it continued passing, would make its whole length two hun- 
 dred and forty miles. Again, supposing that each square yard of this 
 moving body comprehended three pigeons, the square yards in the 
 whole square multiplied by three, would give two thousand two hundred 
 and thirty millions, two hundred and seventy -two thousand pigeons ! 
 an almost inconceivable multitude, and yet probably far below the ac- 
 tual amount. Computing each of these to consume half a pint of mast 
 daily, the whole quantity, at this rate, would equal seventeen millions, 
 four hundred and twenty-four thousand bushels per day. Heaven has 
 wisely and graciously given to these birds rapidity of flight and a dis- 
 position to range over vast uncultivated tracts of the earth; otherwise 
 they must have perished in the district where they resided;*r devoured 
 the whole productions of agriculture, as well as those of the forest. 
 
 " Happening to go ashore one charming afternoon, to purchase some 
 milk at a house that stood near the river, and while talking with the 
 people within doors, I was suddenly struck with astonishment, by a 
 loud rushing roar, succeeded by instant darkness, which, at the first 
 moment, I took for a tornado, about to overwhelm the house, and every 
 thing around in destruction. The people, observing my surprise, said 
 coolly, 4 it is only the pigeons,' and on running out, I beheld a flock, 
 thirty or forty yards in width, sweeping along, very low, between the 
 house and the mountain, or height that formed the second bank of the 
 river. These continued passing for more than a quarter of an hour t 
 and at length varied their bearing, so as to pass over the mountain, 
 behind which they disappeared before the rear came up." 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON. This is a name given to a variety of the 
 tame pigeon, or house dove, from being sometimes employed to con- 
 vey letters, or small packets, from one place to another. Mention is 
 made of them by ancient writers. Modern history records several in- 
 teresting accounts of the employment of these aerial messengers. 
 "When the city of Ptolemais, in Syria," says the Percy Anecdotes, 
 " was invested by the French and Venetians, and it was ready to fall 
 into their hands, they observed a pigeon flying over them, and immedi- 
 ately conjectured that it was charged with letters to the garrison. On 
 this, the whole army raising a loud shout, so confounded the poor aeri- 
 al post, that it fell to the ground ; and on being seized, a letter was 
 found under its wings, from the sultan, in which he assured the garri- 
 son that " he would be with them in three days, with an army sufficient 
 to raise the siege." For this letter the besiegers substituted another, 
 to this purpose, " that the garrison must see to their own safety, for the 
 sultan had such other affairs pressing him, that it was impossible for 
 him to come to their succour ;" and with this false intelligence, they 
 let the pigeon pursue his course. The garrison, deprived by this de- 
 cree of all hopes of relief, immediately surrendered. The sultan ap- 
 peared on the third day, as he had promised, with a powerful army, 
 and was not a little mortified to find the city already in the hands of 
 the Christians. 
 
 " Carrier pigeons were again employed, but with better success, a.1 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 125 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON. 
 
 the siege ofLeyden, in 1675. The garrison were, by means of the in- 
 formation thus conveyed to them, induced to stand out, till the enemy, 
 despairing of reducing the place, withdrew. On the siege being rais- 
 ed, the Prince of Orange ordered that the pigeons, which had rendered 
 such essential service, should be maintained at the public expense, and 
 that at their death they should be embalmed and preserved in the town 
 house, as a perpetual token of gratitude. 
 
 "In the East, the employment of pigeons for the conveyance of let- 
 ters, is still very common ; particularly in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. 
 They are also employed in several parts of Europe, but rather for the 
 purposes of amusement, than for objects of great utility. 
 
 " The diligence and speed, with which these feathered messenger! 
 wing their course, is extraordinary. From the instant of their libera- 
 tion, their flight is directed through the clouds, at an immense height to 
 the place of their destination. They are believed to dart onwards in a 
 straight line, and never to descend, except when at a loss for breath, 
 and then they are to be seen commonly at dawn of day, lying on then- 
 backs on the ground, with their bills open, sucking in with hasty avidi- 
 ty the dew of the morning. Of their speed, the instances related, are 
 almost incredible. 
 
 " Some years ago, a gentleman sent a carrier pigeon from London, 
 by the stage coach, to his friend in Edmundsbury, together with a 
 note, desiring that the pigeon, two days after the arrival there, might 
 be thrown up, precisely when the town clock struck nine in the morn- 
 ing. This was done accordingly, and the pigeon arrived in London, 
 and flew to the Bull Inn in Bishopgate street, into the loft, and wai 
 there shown at half an hour past eleven o'clock, having flown seventy- 
 two miles in two hours and a half. 
 
 " It is through the attachment of the animals to the place of their 
 birth, and particularly to the spot where they have brought up their 
 young, that they are thus rendered useful to mankind. 
 
 " When a young one flies very hard at home, and is come to its full 
 strength, it is carried in a basket, or otherwise, about half a mile from 
 home, and then turned out ; after this it is carried a mile, then two, 
 four, eight, ten, twenty, &c, till at length it will return from the fur- 
 thermost parts of the country." 
 
 11* 
 
126 FAMILY 
 
 PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF HEALTH, &C. 
 
 Every one is liable to suffering, either from accident or disease. Yet, 
 it is certain that a large proportion of the accidents which occur, as 
 well as many of the diseases which afflict mankind, are the result of 
 carelessness and neglect. Less haste, or a little more forethought, 
 would often save a bone from being broken ; and a little more atten- 
 tion to diet, air, exercise, cleanliness, moderation in drink, needless ex- 
 posure, &c. &c, would frequently prevent dangerous and protracted 
 illness, and especially those chronic diseases, which, if less immediate- 
 ly dangerous, occasion suffering and distress, perhaps through life. 
 
 Yet, it is nevertheless true, that accidents and diseases will some- 
 times occur. They will occur suddenly and unexpectedly. A physi- 
 cs -;n may not be within immediate call; and before he can be summon- 
 ed, life may have become extinct, or the foundation laid for months of 
 debility and suffering. 
 
 Such calamities, it cannot be doubted, might not unfrequently be pre- 
 vented, by a little knowledge of the human frame, and of a few simple 
 medicines, or expedients easily comprehended ; almost always at hand, 
 and which every person of common understanding may administer and 
 apply. 
 
 Without, therefore, infringing upon the province of the regularlv 
 bred physician, or appearing to advocate empyricism, the editor believes 
 an article devoted to the prevention of diseases and accidents, and the- 
 management of the latter more especially, which shall be divested of 
 the technical language of the profession — may be useful to those fami- 
 lies, for which this work is designed. 
 
 It is needless to say that a regular treatise on surgery and practice is 
 not here attempted. Such an attempt would justly subject the con- 
 ductor of this work to ridicule ; nor will it fall within the object and 
 scope of this part of the work to sanction "nursery gossip" — nor to 
 countenance and spread abroad the " mendacious reports of nostrum 
 makers and venders." But rather to select such hints on the subject 
 of preserving the health, and to recommend such remedies for certain 
 accidents as have been furnished by enlightened experience, and which 
 are safe and useful in the hands of the professionally unlearned. 
 
 Hence, it will be obvious, that this article is not designed for the crit- 
 ically learned. Should such an one — to use the language employed in 
 an admirable work of a similar character, and written by a distinguish- 
 ed physician — " cast his eye on these pages, he will here learn, this 
 book was written for the unlearned ; and he will also learn that a hand- 
 kerchief tied loosely round a man's leg above a wounded and bleeding 
 artery, and a stick twisted into it, will as effectually save life as a sur- 
 geon's turniquet — and many other such things. He will therefore 
 please to spare this little ,work, r or the sake of him whose house is far 
 removed from the surgeon, and who has no money to pay the physi- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 127 
 
 RULES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 
 
 SECTION. I. 
 
 RULES AND HINTS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF LIFE AND 
 HEALTH, &C. 
 
 Rules of Sir R. Philips. — I. Rise early, and never sit up late. 
 
 2. Wash the whole body every morning with cold water, by means 
 of a large sponge, and rub it dry with a rough towel, or scrub the whole 
 body for ten or fifteen minutes with flesh brushes. 
 
 3. Drink water generally, and avoid excess of spirits, wine, and fer- 
 mented liquors. 
 
 4. Keep the body open by the free use of the syringe, and remove su- 
 perior obstructions by aperient pills. 
 
 5. Sleep in a room which has free access to the open air. 
 
 6. Keep the head cool by washing it when necessary with cold wa- 
 ter, and abate feverish and inflammatory symptoms when they arise, by 
 persevering stillness. 
 
 7. Correct symptoms of plethora and indigestion, by eating and drink- 
 ing less, per diem for a few days. 
 
 8. Never eat a hearty supper, especially of animal food ; and drink 
 wine, spirits, and beer, if these are necessary, only after dinner. 
 
 Rules of Dr. Boerhaave. — The following were the simple and un- 
 erring directions of this great man for the preservation of health ; they 
 contained the sum and substance of his vast professional knowledge 
 during a long and useful life : — " Keep the feet warm ; the head cool ; 
 and the body open." If these were generally attended to, the physi- 
 cian's aid would seldom be required. 
 
 Experience of Howard. — We give the following account of Mr. 
 Howard's experience, which was furnished by him to a friend, as con- 
 taining suggestions of a most important and valuable sort; and which, 
 if adopted by many of the dyspeptics of the day, would go farther to- 
 ward their restoration to a healthful state of body and mind, than the 
 most learned prescriptions of the most celebrated doctors. 
 
 " A more 'puny whipster' than myself, in the days of my youth, was 
 never suen. I could not walk out in the evening, without being wrap- 
 ped up : I could fiot put on my linen without its being aired : I was, 
 politely speaking, enfeebled enough to have delicate nerves, and was, 
 occasionally troubled with a very genteel hectic. To be serious, I am 
 convinced that whatever enfeebles the body debilitates the mind, and 
 renders both unfit for those exertions, which are of such use to us all as 
 social beings. I therefore entered upon a reform of my constitution, 
 and have succeeded in such a degree, that I have neither had a cough, 
 cold, the vapors, nor any more alarming disorder, since I surmounted 
 the seasoning. Prior to this, I used to be a miserable dependant on 
 wind and weather ; a little too much of the one, or a slight inclemency 
 of the other, would postpone, and frequently prevent, not only my 
 
128 FAMILY 
 
 DIRRCTIONS FOR THE P»{ KSERVATION OF HKALTH. 
 
 amusements, but my duties : or, if pressed by my affections, or by the 
 necessity of affairs, I did venture forth in despite of the elements, the 
 consequences were equally absurd and incommodious, not seldom afflic- 
 tive. I muffled up even to my nostrils; a crack in the glass of my 
 chaise was sufficient to distress me ; a sudden slope of the wheels to the 
 right or left, set me a trembling ; a jolt seemed like a dislocation, and 
 the sight of a bank or a precipice, near which my horse or carriage was 
 to pass, would disorder me so much, that I would order the driver to 
 stop, that I might get out and walk by the difficult places. Mulled 
 wines, spirituous cordials, and large fires, were to comfort me, and to 
 keep out the cold, as it is called, at every stage, and if I felt the least 
 damp in my feet, or other parts of my body, dry stockings, linen, &c. 
 were to be instantly put on ; the perils of the day were to be baffled by 
 something taken hot on going to bed ; and before I pursued my jour- 
 ney, the next morning, a dram was to be swallowed, in order to fortify 
 the stomach. In a word, I lived, moved, and had my being so much 
 by rule, that the slightest deviation was a disease. 
 
 " Every man must, in these cases, be his own physician. He must 
 prescribe for, and practise on, himself. I did this by a very simple, but 
 as you will think, a very severe regimen, namely, by denying myself 
 almost every thing in which I had long indulged. But as it is always 
 harder to get rid of a bad habit, than to contract it, I entered on my 
 reform gradually ; that is to say, I began to diminish my usual indul- 
 gences by degrees. I found that a heavy meal, or a hearty one, as it is 
 termed, and a cheerful glass, that is, one more than does you good, 
 made me incapable, or at least, disinclined to any useful exertions for 
 some time after dinner hours ; and if the dilutive powers of tea assisted 
 the work of a disturbed digestion, so far as to restore my faculties, a 
 luxurious supper came in so close upon it, that I was fit for nothing but 
 dissipation, till I went to a luxurious bed, where I finished the ener- 
 vating practices, by sleeping eight, ten, and sometimes a dozen hours 
 on the stretch. You will not wonder that I rose the next morning 
 with the solids relaxed, the juices thickened, and the constitution weak- 
 ened. 
 
 " To remedy all this, I ate a little less at every meal, and reduced my 
 drink in proportion. It is really wonderful to consider, how impercep- 
 tibly a single morsel of animal food, and a tea spoonful of liquor de- 
 ducted from the usual quantity daily, will restore the mental functions, 
 without any injury to the corporeal — nay, with increase of vigour to 
 both. I brought myself, in the first instance, from dining on many 
 dishes, to dining on a few, and then to being satisfied with one ; in like 
 manner, instead of drinking a variety of wines, I m#de my election of 
 a single sort, and adhered to it alone. 
 
 My next business was to eat and drink sparingly of that adopted 
 dish and bottle. My ease, vivacity, health, and spirits augmented. My 
 clothing, &c. underwent a similar reform ; the effect of all which is, 
 and has bfeen for many years, that I am neither affected by seeing my 
 carriage dragged up a mountain, or driven down a valley. If an acci- 
 dent happens, I am prepared for it, I mean so far as respects unneces- 
 sary terrors ; and I am proof against all changes in the atmosphere, 
 wet clothes, damp feet, night air, transitions from heat to cold, and the 
 long train of hypochondria affections." 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 129 
 
 HINTS TO STUDENTS. 
 
 Hints to Students. — Students, more than most persons, are apt to 
 bring upon themselves a train of stomachic and nervous affections, in 
 consequence of an intense application of mind, and neglect of appro- 
 priate exercise in the open air. No one, however, can long hope for 
 the enjoyment, either of health or vigor of mind, who is not in the daily- 
 habit of exercise abroad. It is important, also, that his study should be 
 large, perfectly dry, and often well ventilated. Great attention should 
 also be paid to position. Students, whether they stand or sit, and by 
 turns they should do both, should maintain an erect posture. Care 
 should be exercised not to press, for any length of time, against a hard 
 substance. The rocking chai r - with a leaf, or round table, situated in 
 front of them, and which are often found in our colleges, are highly 
 improper. It is also recommended to students, for the purpose of giv- 
 ing exercise and strength to the lungs, frequently to read and speak 
 loud. But some caution will be necessary, lest the exercise be carried 
 too far. Vociferation should never be indulged. A naturally weak 
 voice may be greatly strengthened by exercise ; and even a natural im- 
 pediment removed, by careful and judicious perseverance. The case 
 of Demosthenes illustrates this. His voice was so weak, and indis- 
 tinct, that he could be scarcely heard or understood ; vet he contrived 
 to remedy both defects, by declaiming, while ascending the brow of a 
 hill or walking amid the noise of the waves along the se^. shore. 
 
 We must also enter our protest against midnight studies. The late 
 President Dwight, whose experience rendered him perfectly compe- 
 tent to impart advice on this subject, gave it as his opinion, that as a 
 general rule, nothing was gained by any student, by application to his 
 books, after ten o'clock at night. The morning is the season most ap- 
 propriate to study. It is also the best season for exercise. But both 
 objects may be accomplished by early rising ; a point of great impor- 
 tance, both in respect to clearness of mind, health of body, and rapid 
 improvement. But in few things, perhaps, do students fail more than 
 in the kinds of exercise adopted. They should not be those kinds, 
 which are of course violent ; nor those which exercise only particular 
 parts of the body. Great fatigue should be avoided. In general, ri- 
 ding on horseback, walking, or working in the garden, are to be prefer- 
 red to most other kinds of exercise. 
 
 The utility of exercise, however, is often much diminished, by its be- 
 ing taken as exercise. On this point we quote the language of a dis- 
 tinguished writer, as well as student : M A solitary walk, or ride, mere- 
 ly for the sake of exercise, and with no other object to stimulate our 
 progress, as it is of all amusements the dullest, so it is found rather 
 hurtful than advantageous. The mind still meditates in solitude, and 
 the body, at the same time, labours ; so that both are exhausted at once, 
 and the student returns to his closet fatigued, dejected, and disappoint- 
 ed. Some little amusement must therefore be contrived, or some bu- 
 siness engaged in, which may operate as a loadstone, in attracting us, 
 without being sensible of our own efforts, from our libraries, up the 
 mountain, and along the forest, where health, with all her thousand 
 joys, delights to fix her abode." 
 
 With regard to diet, no good reason exists, why the student should 
 deny himself any plain and wholesome food, provided that he eats not 
 to complete satiety. This should always be avoided, as should supper 
 late in the evening. 
 
130 FAMILY 
 
 QUANTITY OF FOOD. ABSTINENCE. 
 
 And in regard to drink, water doubtless should constitute his princi- 
 pal drink. But more than most persons, should the student abstain 
 from the use of spirituous liquors. They are a bane, to which none of 
 the habits of his life present any antidote whatever. The laborer in 
 the field, by his powerful exercise, may perspire away in a measure the 
 effects of stimulating liquors : but the student in his application has no 
 such effort to anticipate. Stimulating liquors, and close study, will 
 soon undermine and destroy the best constitution ever given to man. 
 
 QUANTITY OF FOOD. In respect to the quantity of food adapt- 
 ed to the preservation of health, perhaps no invariable rule can be 
 given. "As a general rule," observes the authors of the Journal of 
 Health, "it will be found, that those who exercise much in the open 
 air, or follow laborious occupations, will demand a larger amount of 
 food than the indolent, or the sedentary. Young persons, also, com- 
 monly require more than those advanced in years; and the inhabit- 
 ants of cold, more than those of warm climates. We say this is a 
 general rule ; for very many exceptions are to be found, in each of 
 these particulars. Thus, we not unfrequently find, that one individu- 
 al requires more food to support his system than another, of the same 
 frame of body and trade, and who partakes of the same degree of exer- 
 cise. Jn fact, ene person will support his strength, or even become 
 more robust upon the same quantity of food, which will occasion in 
 another, debility and emaciation." 
 
 In general, persons eat by far too great quantity of food. The digest- 
 ive powers are constantly put upon the stretch, and the ultimate effect 
 is, that they become weakened and incapable of converting into nutri- 
 ment a quantity of food, essential to a vigorous state of the system. It 
 should not be forgotten — an observation we believe of the celebrated 
 Dr. Abernethy — that it is not the quantity of food, which is eaten, but 
 the quantity digested^ which administers to the support of the body. 
 Hence, all that is consumed beyond the point of easy digestion tends 
 to load and clog the machine — to impair the energies — and to render it 
 less fit for future agreeable movements. The exact point when a per- 
 son should lay aside his knife and fork we do not, and cannot perhaps 
 determine ; but each one may judge in general, for himself. But if 
 he experience any sensation of oppression— any "load at the stomach" 
 — he has eaten too much. A single mouthful taken after feeling satis- 
 fied, is injurious; indeed, we should contrive to stop short of that 
 point. . 
 
 In regard to children, a somewhat different regimen may doubtless 
 with safety be adopted. A judicious writer remarks, " whatever regi- 
 men you prescribe for children, provided you only accustom them to 
 plain and simple food, you may let them eat, run, and play as much as 
 they please, and you may be sure they will never eat too much, or be 
 troubled with indigestion. But if you starve them half the day, and 
 they find means to escape your observation, they will make themselves 
 amends, and eat till they are sick, or even burst." 
 
 ABSTIN ENCE. Abstinence is the avoiding or refraining from any 
 thing to which there is a natural or habitual propensity. As a reli- 
 gious service it has often been enjoined in various systems of religion ; 
 but in the present article we design to speak of abstinence in relation 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 131 
 
 AUSTIN RXCE. 
 
 to its importance to health. As a preventive of disease, too much, 
 perhaps, cannot be said in its favor; while wonderful effects, in the 
 cure of disease, have been ascribed to it. One of these is recorded in 
 the history of Cornaro, a noble Venetian, who, after a life of luxury, 
 was, at the age of forty, attacked by a disease attended with mortal 
 symptoms; yet he not only recovered, but lived nearly one hundred 
 years, from the mere effects of abstemiousness. We are told of several 
 individuals that have reached a century, a century and a half, nay, 
 have even approached to the age of two centuries, supported on an 
 extremely slender diet, which was thought to contribute materially to 
 the preservation of their health. It is related of Howard, the celebra- 
 ted philanthropist, that he used to fast for the purposes of health, one 
 day in ihe week. Franklin for a period did the same. Napoleon, 
 when he felt his system unstrung, suspended his wonted repast and 
 took exercise on horseback. We are not of the opinion, indeed, of a 
 French Physician that it is necessary ahsolutely to fast, in order to at- 
 tain old age ; but occasional fasting powerfully tends to renew the en- 
 ergies of the system, as the stopping of grinding at the mill presents an 
 opportunity for the head waters to increase their power. The above 
 Physician, to convince every one of the truth of his proposition, that 
 fasting is essential, selects one hundred and fifty-two hermits, or bish- 
 ops, who are known to have led a strictly temperate life — frequently 
 fasting, and regularly alternating their studies and religious observ- 
 ances, with bodily labor, or distant journies, for purposes of charity 
 and other duties. These he compares with the same number of acade- 
 micians, one half from the Academy of Sciences, and the other half 
 from that of Belles-lettres. On the one side, their joint lives amount- 
 ed to 11589 years, and on the other only 10511 ; hence he concludes, 
 that even frequent fasting would prolong the lives of men of letters 
 more than seven years. 
 
 Whatever deductions might be made from the above account, certain 
 it is that a moderate diet, with occasional fasting, is essential to unin- 
 terrupted health and cheerful spirits. It is related of Sir Isaac Newton, 
 that while he was composing his cebbrated treatise on Optics, he con- 
 fined himself entirely to bread, with a little sack and water. Gen. El- 
 liott, the defender of Gibraltar, during eight of the most anxious days 
 of the siege, lived upon four ounces of rice per day. Most of the stand- 
 ard works of English literature were composed by men whose circum- 
 stances compelled them to adopt a spare diet — they fasted often times 
 from necessity, rather than choice ; yet their ideas were doubtless pro- 
 portionately more clear — their conceptions more rapid and bold. Pres- 
 ident Edwards in his diary records it as the result of his experience, 
 that he was more sprightly and healthy, both in body and mind, for the 
 practice of self-denial, in eatingand drinking. - By a sparing diet," 
 says he, "and eating (as much as may be) what is light and easy of 
 digestion, I shall doubtless be able to think clearer and shall gain time, 
 first by lengthening out my life. Secondly, shall needless time for di- 
 gestion after meals. Thirdly, shall be able to study closer without 
 wrong to my health. Fourthly, shall need less time to sleep. Fifthlv, 
 shall seldom be troubled with the head-ache/' It was the reply of Car- 
 dinal de Sallis, arch-bishop of Seville, who died at the advanced age 
 of one hundred and ten years, when asked what rule he had observed 
 
132 FAMILY 
 
 ABSTINENCE, 
 
 to preserve his health, " Why," said he, "by being old, when I was 
 young, I find myself young, now when I am old." Shakespeare has 
 well expressed the same idea in one of his plays. 
 
 " Though I look old, yet I am strong and lusty : 
 For in my youth I never did apply 
 Hot and rebellious liquors in my blood ; 
 Nor did not, with unbashful forehead woo 
 The means of weakness and debility. 
 Therefore, my age is as a lusty winter — 
 Frosty, but kindly." 
 
 As You Like it.— Act II. Scene 3. 
 
 " Most of all the chronical diseases, the infirmities of old age, and the 
 short periods of the lives of Englishmen," said Dr. Cheyne, more than a 
 hundred years ago, u are owing to repletion." 
 
 " I tell you honesty," says Mr. Abernethy, " what I think is the cause 
 of the complicated maladies of the human race : tt it is their gorman- 
 dizing, and stuffing, and stimulating their digestive organs to an ex- 
 cess, thereby producing nervous disorders and irritation." 
 
 " It is the opinion of the majority of the most distinguished phy- 
 sicians," says another medical writer, " that intemperance in diet, de- 
 stroys the bulk of mankind ; in other words, that what is eaten and 
 drank, and thus taken into the habit, is the original cause of by far 
 the greatest number of diseases, which afflict the human race." 
 
 Abstinence, after excessive fatigue, or rather peculiar moderation in 
 respect to eating and drinking, is important for all. This perhaps will 
 not be doubted, in relation to men of sedentary habits. But its import- 
 ance is not much less to farmers, who, after the toils of the day are wont 
 to indulge a heightened appetite to complete satiety. This is wrong. 
 For however they may think that when the machine is exhausted, it 
 requires much refreshment, a slight examination of the effects of reple- 
 tion, will be sufficient to condemn the practice. " For after eating and 
 drinking copiously under such circumstances," remarks Wallace, in his 
 Art of Preventing Diseases, " the system grows dull and heavy, and 
 general lassitude comes on ; the pulse grows quick, the face flushes, a 
 temporary fever ensues ; the skin is dry — the mouth clammy ; thirst 
 attends, and in the place of that recruited strength, alacrity and cheer- 
 fulness, they expected to obtain from their hearty meal and night's re- 
 pose, they arise in the morning, after a few hours of disturbed sleep, 
 weary and depressed with pain, or stiffness in the joints, an aching 
 head, and a stomach loathing its accustomed food. Nor can it be oth- 
 erwise ; for the digestive powers of the stomach, in that state of ex- 
 haustion induced by fatigue, are incapable of performing the task to 
 which they are excited : and the load of food which is taken, in place 
 of recruiting the strength and activity of the system, is a cause of suf- 
 fering and disease, extending from the stomach itself to the residue of 
 the system." 
 
 EXERCISE. In our hints to students, we have alluded to the im- 
 portant subject of exercise. It deserves, however, a more serious and 
 extended notice. At the present day, exercise, temperance, and pure 
 air, none of which are costly articles, are considered indispensable to 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 133 
 
 EXERCISE. FRICTION. — AIR. 
 
 health. u These constitute the arcana of health and longevity ; and it 
 is curious, that man should so often evince a total disregard for those 
 principles on which his existence depends. Exercise of too violent na- 
 ture, and a total want of it, are attended with equal disadvantages. 
 Violent exercise is very injurious to those persons who are unaccustomed 
 to it, particularly where excesses in eating and drinking have been com- 
 mitted. All sudden transitions from a state of rest to violent action are 
 extremely injudicious, particularly in hot weather. Exercise admit*? 
 of being diversified ; viz. walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, 
 different games, gardening, &c. Passive exercise, which consists of 
 riding in a carriage, sailing, friction, swinging, &c. is better calculated 
 for debilitated constitutions, particularly the asthmatic and consump- 
 tive. At all times, that exercise is to be preferred, which, with a view 
 to brace and strengthen the body, we are most accustomed to ; and it 
 should always be begun and finished gradually. Exercise should never 
 be takeil before a meal, when the body is in a state of perspiration, as 
 digestion might be thereby retarded ; and for the same reason, it is also 
 hurtful if taken immediately after a meal. By walking, the appetite 
 and perspiration are promoted ; the mind is enlivened by the change of 
 scene, the lungs are strengthened, and the contraction of the legs is re- 
 lieved. The inhabitants of large towns require longer walks than those 
 who breathe a pure atmosphere; therefore, those who lead sedentary 
 lives, or are troubled with nervovs affections, should use daily exercise, 
 but it should be that species which is agreeable to the feelings. Exer- 
 cise ought only to be continued till an agreeable perspiration is felt ; if 
 carried further, instead of the body being strengthened, it will be weak- 
 ened. The thirst generally felt after exercise must not be immediately 
 satisfied by cooling drink." 
 
 FRICTION. One of the most gentle and useful kinds of exercise, 
 is friction of the body, either by the naked hand, a piece of flannel, or, 
 what is still better, a flesh brush. This was in great esteem among the 
 ancients, and is so at present in the East Indies. The whole body may 
 be subjected to this mild operation, but chiefly the belly, the spine, or 
 back-bone, and the arms and legs. But, in rubbing the belly, the opera- 
 tion ought to be performed in a circular direction, as being most favor- 
 able to the course of the intestines, and their natural action. " It should 
 be performed," says Sir A. Cooper, "in the morning, on an empty sto- 
 mach, or rather in bed, before getting up, and continued, at least for 
 some minutes at a time." 
 
 AIR. The air, or atmosphere, which we breathe, is a compound' 
 consisting of oxygen and nitroj^eii^ in the proportions of 21 or 22 parts 
 of the former to 78 or 79 of the latter. In neither of these elements 
 alone could we live ; by the former, we should be so exhilarated, as 
 quickly to exhaust our vital powers ; in the latter we should die instant- 
 ly. But Providence has so proportioned them, as to render them fitted 
 for respiration, and in that proportion they contribute to health. 
 
 Whenever the above proportion of oxygen is seriously altered, or its 
 due supply withheld, the lungs must suffer, and with them the heart 
 and circulation also. Various causes may operate to injure the vitality 
 of the air. In a tight room, candles may consume so much of the ox- 
 ygen as to render it less fitted for the purpose of respiration ; or, car- 
 
 12 
 
134 FAMILY 
 
 AIR. SLEEP. 
 
 bonic acid gas, otherwise called ckoke-damp, may become mingled with 
 it, and render it incapable of sustaining life. This often occurs in 
 wells and caverns; or, it may become vitiated or impure by being re- 
 peatedly breathed, as is sometimes the case, when a large number of 
 persons are crowded together, in a small and confined apartment. In 
 the process of respiration, air undergoes an important change. Nothing 
 is lost, indeed, in respect to weight ; but the oxygen, combining with 
 the carbon found in the blood, forms carbonic acid gas, and in that form, 
 is the air found, as it issues from the air-cells of the lungs. Hence, it 
 soon becomes entirely unfitted for respiration, and incapable of sup- 
 porting either life, or combustion. The memorable history of the Eng- 
 lish prisoners in Calcutta, who were crowded into a room eighteen feet 
 square, parlly under ground, and having only one small opening to the 
 light and air of day, is probably familiar to our readers. Of the whole 
 number, 146, who were confined in that single apartment, only from 
 eight o'clock at night until six tho next' morning, but 23 were living. 
 In this case, the heat which was generated, produced a sudden and high 
 fever, and the carbonic acid given out by the crowd in breathing, pro- 
 duced the awful effects above related. Few persons can estimate the 
 importance of pure air to a healthy state of the system, or to persons 
 who are suffering under disease, especially fevers. Apartments in 
 which the sick are confined, should in general be well ventilated, and 
 this may be easily effected, without exposing the patient to a current of 
 air, which is always to be avoided. 
 
 SLEEP. If exercise be important and even indispensable to health* 
 as has been remarked in a preceding article, not less so is sleep ; and 
 constituted as we are, it is a wise provision of the Author of Nature, 
 that night comes at proper intervals, when the exhausted energies of 
 the system may be revived by " tired nature's sweet restorer." And 
 here it may be observed, in borrowed language, that " night is evidently 
 the period appropriated by nature for repose, and general experience has 
 proved that it is the only one during which we can, with certainty, ob- 
 tain that sound, sweet, and refreshing slumber, so necessary for the 
 preservation of health. Sleeping during the day is, indeed, on many 
 accounts, a pernicious practice, which should be carefully avoided, ex- 
 cepting under particular circumstances of disease, or when a sufficient 
 amount of repose cannot be obtained at the natural periods. This, 
 however, does not apply to infants. For the first months after birth, a 
 healthy child sleeps full two thirds of its time. This propensity re- 
 quires to be indulged by day as well as by night ; but, with judicious 
 management, it may be brought, in a short time, to require and enjoy 
 repose during the latter period only. Young children, when fatigued 
 by exercise, will also, in general, be found inclined to sleep during the 
 day ; from indulging them in a short repose, under such circumstances, 
 no bad effects can result, provided their clothing be perfectly loose, so 
 that every part of their bodies is freed from bands or ligatures. 
 
 " The popular maxim, l early to bed and early to rise,' is one which 
 should be rigidly observed by every individual. It has been remarked 
 that, in the natural state, the disposition to sleep usually comes on soon 
 after the commencement of darkness ; and, according to the oldest and 
 most accurate observers, three or four hours' sleep before midnight, is 
 very nearly as refreshing as double that portion in the morning. Per- 
 
FA' CYCLOPEDIA. 135 
 
 EARLY RISING. SLEEPING APARTMENTS. 
 
 sons who spend the day in manual labor, or active exercise in the open 
 air, with great difficulty keep awake for a few hours after the night 
 has closed in ; and this disposition to early sleep is, perhaps, one of the 
 strongest indications of perfect health. 
 
 u Early rising is equally important to the health of the system as 
 early rest. On no account should any one permit himself to again 
 slumber, after the moment of his first awaking in the morning, whether 
 this happen at the early dawn, or before the sun has risen ; even though 
 from accident or unavoidable causes he may not have enjoyed his six 
 or eight hours of repose. It is much better to make up the deficiency, 
 if necessary, at some other time, than to attempt taking another nap. 
 Whoever shall accustom himself thus to rise, will enjoy more undis- 
 turbed sleep during the night, and awake far more refreshed, than those 
 who indolently slumber all the morning. 
 
 " Even this second nap is, however, by no means so injurious to 
 health, as the practice of continuing in bed of a morning, long after 
 waking ; nothing tends, especially in children, and young persons gen- 
 erally, more effectually to unbrace the solids, exhaust the spirits, and 
 thus to undermine the vigor, activity, and health of the system, than 
 such a practice. 
 
 " Let any one, who has been accustomed to lie in bed till eight or nine 
 o r clock, rise by live or six, spend an hour or two in walking, riding, or 
 any active diversion in the open air, and he will find his spirits more 
 cheerful and serene throughout the day, his appetite more keen, and 
 his body more active and vigorous. 
 
 " No one should retire to rest immediately after a full meal, or in an 
 agitated state of mind. Indeed, after a light supper, at least two hours 
 ought to elapse before bed-time ; and as a requisite for sound and invi- 
 gorating repose, it is necessary to banish all anxious, gloomy, or de- 
 pressing ideas and thoughts, and every species of mental exertion. To 
 the same intent, every circumstance calculated to excite the senses 
 should be removed. The pernicious practice, adopted by many, of 
 reading in bed until they fall asleep, is particularly to be avoided. In 
 place of this dangerous expedient to invite sleep, it would be more salu- 
 tary to walk up and down the room for a few minutes, or to partake of 
 any other gentle exercise. Fortunately, however, the individual who 
 lives a life of temperance and virtue, and partakes daily of sufficient 
 active exercise, requires no opiate to lull him to repose : 
 
 On him the balmy dews 
 
 Of sleep with double nutriment descend." 
 
 SLEEPING APARTMENTS. A sleeping apartment is one of the 
 most important rooms in a house ; and cannot well fail to have either a 
 beneficial or injurious influence upon the health, as it is well or ill suited 
 to the purpose to which it is appropriated. 
 
 " It is all important," observes the Journal of Health, " that the lar- 
 gest and most lofty room, upon the second floor, be appropriated for the 
 sleeping apartment, and that it be freely ventilated, during the day 
 time, at all seasons, when the weather is not rainy, or otherwise very 
 humid. There are few houses, the rooms of which are so situated as 
 to render the latter impracticable ; and the influence of the practice up- 
 
136 FAMILY 
 
 SLEEPING APARTMENTS. — BEDS. 
 
 on the health of the inmates is too important to permit its being neg- 
 lected from any slight cause. 
 
 " A bed-chamber should be divested of all unnecessary furniture, 
 and, unless, of considerable size, should never contain more than one 
 bed. There cannot be a more pernicious custom, than that pursued in 
 many families, of causing the children, more especially, to sleep in 
 small apartments, with two or three beds crowded into the same room- 
 
 "The practice of sleeping in an apartment which is occupied during 
 the day is extremely improper. Perfect cleanliness and a sufficiently 
 free vcntillation cannot, under such circumstances, be preserved, espe- 
 cially duiing cold weather ; hence, the atmosphere becomes constantly 
 more and more vitiated, and altogether unfitted for respiration. 
 
 "A person accustomed to undress in a room without fire, and to 
 seek repose in a cold bed, will not experience the least inconvenience, 
 even in the severest weather. The natural heat of his body will very 
 speedily render him even more comfortably wann, than the individual 
 who sleeps in a heated apartment, and in a bed thus artificially warmed, 
 and who will be extremely liable to a sensation of chilliness as soon as 
 the artificial heat is dissipated. But this is not all — the constitution of 
 the former, will be rendered more robust, and far less susceptible to the 
 influence of atmospherical vicissitudes, than that of the latter. 
 
 " All must be aware, that in the coldest w T eather, a fire in the bed- 
 chamber can only be necessary during the periods occupied in dressing; 
 and undressing. When the individual is in bed, it is not only altoge- 
 ther useless, but to a certain extent injurious. It might be supposed* 
 however, that bad effects would result from rising out of a warm bed, 
 of a morning, in a cold chamber. We are assured, however, that if the 
 business of dressing be performed with rapidity, and brisk exercise be 
 taken, previously to entering a warm apartment, they who would pur- 
 sue this plan would render themselves less dependent for comfort up- 
 on external warmth — a circumstance of very great importance as a 
 means of guarding against colds, coughs, and consumptions. 
 
 " We would advise those who are so excessively delicate as to be in- 
 capable of passing a few minutes, morning and evening, in a cold room, 
 to seek some more genial climate — to such our winter cannot fail to be 
 a season of constant suffering, if not of actual danger, 
 
 u A practice equally imprudent with that of occupying a heated bed- 
 chamber during cold weather, is the one very commonly pursued, of 
 attempting to reduce the temperature of this apartment in summer, by 
 leaving the windows open at night. Many persons have experienced 
 serious and irreparable injury to their health, by being in this manner 
 subjected, whilst asleep, to a current of cold air from without. 
 
 " While a free admission of air is permitted throughout the day, the 
 direct rays of the meridian sun, being, however, at the same time, as 
 much as possible excluded, the windows of the bed chamber should be 
 invariably closed after night." 
 
 BEDS. Writers on the means of preserving health, have much to* 
 say, and not without reason, upon the subject of beds. Few, perhaps,, 
 are sufficiently aware of the enervating tendency of feather beds, espe- 
 cially for youth ; and even for persons of maturer years, it cannot rea- 
 sonably be doubted, that they greatly impair the strength, especially u* 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 137 
 
 BF.DS. 
 
 the warmer season, by increasing the heat to an unnatural degree, and 
 inducing a more profuse perspiration, than is consistent with the con- 
 tinuance of health. 
 
 The best bed, under almost any circumstances, is a mattrass compos- 
 ed of hair or moss. Cotton, however, will answer well. With a pro- 
 per amount of covering, such a bed will be found sufficiently warm for 
 health and comfort, during even the severest nights of winter. 
 
 Should it be said that an exception should be made in respect to in- 
 fants, it may be observed that during infancy a greater degree of warmth 
 is at all times demanded than is necessary, or would be proper, in after 
 life ; but, as an infant should never be allowed to sleep alone, it can al- 
 ways be preserved of a sufficient temperature, without having recourse 
 to the doubtful expedient of subjecting it to immersion in a bed of 
 feathers. 
 
 u Doctor Darwin has advised that young children " should not lie on 
 very hard beds, as it may occasion them to rest on too few parts at a 
 time, which hardens these parts by pressure, and prevents their propor- 
 tionate growth." A bed, such as is here described, would most un- 
 doubtedly be improper at any period of life. There is a very material 
 difference, however, between a soft and elastic mattrass, and a bed so 
 hard as to occasion uneasiness to the parts with which it is in contact. 
 From sleeping on the former, even the most delicate need not be de- 
 terred, by any apprehensions of the injurious consequences to which the 
 doctor alludes. 
 
 " If ever feather beds be admissible, it is in the case of the aged, who 
 are nearly as susceptible to the influence of cold as infants ; to such, 
 therefore, a warm bed is often a matter of indispensable comfort. 
 
 " Feather pillows are not less injurious than feather beds* By pre- 
 serving the head of an immoderate warmth, they are apt to induce ca- 
 tarrhs, and, in the young, may become the remote or exciting cause of 
 inflammation in the ear — eruptions — pain of the head, or even more 
 serious diseases. For the same reason, all coverings for the head at 
 night, excepting in the instance of females who are accustomed to wear 
 a cap during the day, are productive of bad effects. Children, there- 
 fore, of both sexes, should be accustomed from an early age to sleep 
 with the head bare — the covering with which nature has, in general, so 
 plentifully supplied this portion of the body, being amply sufficient to 
 protect it from cold. 
 
 " After what has been said above, upon the injurious tendency of sub- 
 jecting the body to an undue degree of heat, during the period of re- 
 pose, cautions against an excess of bed clothes would appear unnecessa- 
 ry. It is all important that the body be covered with a sufficiency of 
 clothing to preserve it comfortably warm ; and this may be effected 
 during health, and in individuals accustomed to exercise, by fewer blan- 
 kets, coverlets, aud comfortables than many are accustomed to pile upon 
 the bed. 
 
 " So injurious is an excess of heat, during repose, esteemed by Dr. 
 Beddoes, that he has advised, and with great propriety, that young 
 persons, especially when they present symptoms of languor and debili- 
 ty, or complain of unrefreshing sleep, should be examined when in bed, 
 ■* and if found too warm, awakened without compunction." — The bed 
 
 12* 
 
138 FAMILY 
 
 BEDS. CLI ANLINESS. 
 
 clothes should then be thrown off, " or if the dry heat of the surface be 
 considerable," he adds, "it will be best to walk up and down the room 
 in a dress so contrived as to guard the extremities from chill, while it 
 permits the residue of the body to be freely ventilated." Cool rooms 
 — mattresses, and light bed clothes, will in all cases prevent the neces- 
 sity of having recourse to the expedient here directed. 
 
 w A proper night-dress is an object of no little importance. — A loose 
 flannel gown for winter, and one of muslin for summer, will be found 
 the most proper, more especially for children. No part of the clothing 
 worn during the day ought, in fact, to be retained at night. Those, in 
 particular, who are accustomed to wear flannel will find it advantageous 
 to dispense with it whilst in bed — or to exchange it for an under-dress 
 of cotton. Whatever dress is adopted, it should be free from every 
 species of ligature, particularly at those parts which encompass the 
 neck or the extremities. This is an all important caution, from a neg- 
 lect of which serious injury has repeatedly resulted. 
 
 " Closely shrouding a bed with curtains, is one of those numerous 
 instances in which the requisitions of fashion are found to be opposed 
 to health. By preventing a free circulation of the air, they oblige the 
 individual who reposes within them, to breathe an atmosphere vitiated 
 by repeated respiration. They become likewise receptacles for fine 
 particles of dust, which are liable to be inhaled during sleep, whenever 
 disturbed by the motion of the curtains or of the bedstead : this alone 
 according to Wiliich, is a cause to which many young persons may re- 
 fer the first developement of a consumptive attack. 
 
 " Equally pernicious is the practice of sleeping with the face envel- 
 oped in the bed-clothes, as well as that most ridiculous custom, so pre- 
 valent in this country, of suspending a curtain over the front of an in- 
 fant's cradle. 
 
 u Their own feelings might be supposed sufficient to induce all to as- 
 sume in bed that position, in which every portion of the body will be 
 left the freest from constraint ; yet in the case of children, some cau- 
 tions may be necessary, in order to prevent an awkward position from 
 being indulged in, calculated to produce a prejudicial effect upon the 
 symmetrical growth arid perfect developement of the system. Hence 
 it is prudent when young persons lie upon their backs, to reduce the 
 size of the pillows, in order to guard against a contortion of the spine ; 
 while lying on the side requires pillows sufficiently large to fill up the 
 space between the head and point of the shoulder. A constrained po- 
 sition, if it have no other bad effect, is a certain preventive to sound 
 and refreshing sleep. 
 
 " Beds should never be placed upon the floor, as it is well known that 
 in all apartments occupied by living beings, the inferior portions of the 
 atmosphere are always the most impure. The most wholesome situa- 
 tion for the bed is in the middle of the room, and raised some feet from 
 the floor. From the vitiated state of the atmosphere immediately 
 above the latter, and the great importance of a free ventilaton, the 
 practice of placing the children's bed beneath another bedstead during 
 the day, cannot be too severely reprobated." 
 
 CLEANLINESS. It would be quite idle to attempt to prove, in a 
 formal manner, the importance of cleanliness to individual comfort and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 139 
 
 BATHING. COLD BATHS. 
 
 health ; because he who should soberly maintain the contrary, would 
 be entitled to no better appellation than that of a fool, or a madman. 
 
 On viewing the surface of the skin, even with the naked eye, we find 
 it porous; but, by means of a good glass, these pores will be discovered 
 to be very numerous. The object of these pores is to give out perspi- 
 ration, and when abundant, it appears in what is called sweat. Besides 
 this, there is also a discharge of an oily fluid, also carbonic acid gas, 
 and nitrogen or azote. These discharges are all essential to health. 
 Hence, when the pores become closed by the disuse of water, or from 
 any other cause, colds, rheumatisms, eruptions, &c. are the conse- 
 quence, i 
 
 Shall we wonder, therefore, that medical writers insist so much on 
 the importance of frequent ablutions, and on a change of linen in re- 
 spect to our persons, beds, &c. Hufeland, a distinguished writer, gives 
 us the following rules for preserving cleanliness, and a sound state of 
 the skin, and which, in his opinion, if properly observed, would tend to 
 the prolongation of life. 
 
 1. " Remove carefully every thing that the body has secreted, as cor- 
 rupted or prejudicial. This may be done by changing the linen of- 
 ten ; daily, if it be possible, and also the bed clothes, or at least the 
 sheets; by using instead of a feather bed, a mattress, which attracts 
 less dirt; and by continually renewing the air in apartments, and par- 
 ticularly in one's bed-chamber. 
 
 2. " Let the whole body be washed daily with cold water, and rub 
 the skin strongly at the same time, by which means it will acquire a 
 great deal of lite and vigor. 
 
 3. " One ought to bathe once a week, the whole year through, in te- 
 pid water ; and it will be of considerable service to add to it some 
 soap." 
 
 BATHP< T G. Bathing is a practice coeval with mankind. The an- 
 cient Greeks, Romans, and Germans, as well as the Persians, Turks, 
 and especially the modern Egyptians, enjoy the comforts and luxuries 
 procured by bathing, in a degree of which we can scarcely form an ad- 
 equate conception. Considered as a species of universal domestic reme- 
 dy, as one which forms the basis of cleanliness, bathing, in its differ- 
 ent forms, may be pronounced one of the most extensive and beneficial 
 restorers of health and vigor. Baths may be considered as cold, cool, 
 warm, and hot. 
 
 COLD BATHS. Cold baths are those of a temperature varying 
 from the 33d to the 55th degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The 
 general properties of the cold bath, consist in its power of contracting 
 the animal fibres, and imparting action and energy to the system. It 
 cannot be resorted to, however, with advantage and safety in certain 
 cases, as — 1. "In a full habit of body, or what is called general pletho- 
 ra, on account of the frequent febrile disposition attending such indi- 
 viduals. 2. In hemorrhages or fluxes of blood, open wounds or ul- 
 cers, and every kind of inflammation, whether external or internal. 3. 
 In obstructions of the intestines, or habitual costiveness. 4. In affec- 
 tions of the breast and lungs, such as difficult respiration, short and dry 
 coughs, &c. 5. When the whole mass of the fluids appears to bevitta- 
 
140 FAMILY 
 
 COLD BATHS. 
 
 ted, or tainted with a peculiar acrimony, which cannot be easily defin- 
 ed, but is obvious from a sallow color of the face, slow healing of the 
 flesh when cut or bruised, and from a scorbutic tendency of the whole 
 body. 6. In gouty and rheumatic paroxisms. 7. In cutaneous erup- 
 tions, which tend to promote a critical discharge of humours by the 
 pores. U. During pregnancy. And, 9. In a distorted or deformed 
 state of the body, except in particular cases to be ascertained by profes- 
 sional men." 
 
 In respect to the cold bath, the following things should be observed. 
 1. " Itis a vulgar error, that it is safer to enter the water when the bo- 
 dy is coo/, and that persons heated by exercise, and beginning to per- 
 spire, should wait till they are perfectly cooled. Thus, by plunging in- 
 to it, in this state, an alarming and dangerous chillness frequently seizes 
 them, and the injury sustained is generally ascribed to their going into 
 it too warm ; while it doubtless arises from the contrary practice. 
 Dr. J. Currie, of Liverpool, in his valuable " Treatise on the effects of 
 Water in Fevers" says, with equal truth and precision, that " in the 
 earlier stages of exercise, before profuse perspiration has dissipated the 
 heat, and fatigue debilitated the living power, nothing is more safe, 
 according to my experience, than the cold bath. This is so true, that I 
 have, for some years, constantly directed infirm persons to use such a 
 degree of exercise, before immersion, as may produce some increased 
 action of the vascular system, with some increase of heat, and thus se- 
 cure a force of reaction under the shock, which otherwise might not al- 
 ways take place. But, though it be perfectly safe to get into the cold 
 bath in the earlier stages of exercise, nothing is more dangerous than 
 this practice, after exercise has produced profuse perspiration, and ter- 
 minated in languor and fatigue ; because, in such circumstances, the 
 heat is not only sinking rapidly, but the system parts more easily with 
 the portion that remains. 5 ' In short, it is a rule, liable to no exception, 
 that moderate exercise ought always to precede cold bathing, to pro- 
 mote the re-action of all the vessels and muscles, on entering the wa- 
 ter ; for neither previous rest, nor exercise to a violent degree, are pro- 
 per on this occasion. 
 
 2. The duration of every cold bathing applied to the whole body 
 ought to be short, and must be determined by the bodily constitution, 
 and the sensations of the individual ; for healthy persons may continue 
 much longer in it than valetudinarians ; and both will be influenced by 
 the temperature of the air, so that in summer they can enjoy it for an 
 hour, when, in spring or autumn, one or two minutes may be sufficient. 
 Under similar circumstances, cold water acts on aged and lean persons 
 with more violence than on the young and corpulent ; hence the former, 
 even in the hottest days of summer, can seldom with safety remain in 
 the bath longer than a quarter of an hour, while the latter are generally 
 able to sustain its impressions for double that time. 
 
 3. The head should first come in contact with the water, either by 
 immersion, pouring water upon it, or covering it for a minute with a 
 wet cloth, and then diving head foremost into the water. 
 
 4. As the immersion will be less felt when it is effected suddenly ; 
 and as it is of consequence that the first impression should be uniform 
 over the body, we must not enter the bath slowly or timorously, but 
 with a degree of boldness. A contrary method would be dangerous ; 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 141 
 
 COLD BATHS, 
 
 as it mi^ht propel the blood from the lower to the upper parts of the 
 body, and thus occasion a fit of apoplexy. For these reasons the show 
 nrbalk'is attended with considerable advantages, because it transmits 
 the water quickly over the whole body ; and, consequently, is more 
 consistent with the rules before mentioned. 
 
 5. The morning is the most proper time for using the cold bath, un- 
 less it be in a river : in which case the afternoon, or from one to two 
 hours before sunset, will be more eligible ; as the water has then ac- 
 quired additional warmth from the rays of the sun, and the immersion 
 will not interfere with digestion ; on the whole, one hour after a light 
 breakfast, — or two hours before, or four hours after dinner, are the best 
 periods of the day for this purpose. 
 
 6. While the bather is in the water, he should not remain inactive, 
 but apply brisk general friction, and move his arms and legs, to pro- 
 mote the circulation of the fluids from the heart to the extremities. It 
 would, therefore, be extremely imprudent to continue in the water till 
 a second chillness attacks the body ; a circumstance which would not 
 only defeat the whole purpose intended, but might, at the same time, 
 be productive of the most injurious effects. 
 
 Immediately after the person leaves the bath, it will be necessary for 
 him to wipe and dry his body with a coarse and clean cloth. He should 
 not afterwards sit inactive, or enter a carriage, unless warmly clothed 
 and wearing flannel next the skin ; if season and circumstances permit, 
 it will be more proper, and highly beneficial, to take gentle exercise 
 till the equilibrium of the circulation be restored, and the vessels, a* 
 well as the muscles, have acquired a due degree of re-action. 
 
 The best place for cold bathing is in the invigorating water of the 
 sea, or a clear river ; and where neither of these can be conveniently 
 resorted to, we recommend the Shower Bath. Its effects are doubtless 
 more powerful than those of the common bath : and though the latter 
 covers the surface of the body more uniformly, yet this circumstance 
 by no means detracts from the excellence of the former : because those 
 intermediate parts, which the water has not touched, receive an elec- 
 tric and sympathetic impression, in a degree similar to those brought 
 into actual contact. As every drop of water from the shower bath op- 
 erates as a partial cold bath, its vivifying shock to robust individuals is 
 more extensive and beneficial than from any other method of bathing. 
 
 Hence this bath is possessed of the following important advantages ; 
 1. The sudden contact of the water may be repeated, prolonged, and 
 modified at pleasure. 2. The head and breast are tolerably secure, as 
 it descends towards the lower extremities : thus, the circulation is not 
 impeded, breathing is less affected, and a determination of blood to the 
 head and breast is effectually obviated. 3. As the water descends in 
 single drops, it is more stimulating and pleasant than the usual immer- 
 sion, and can be more readily procured and adapted to circumstances. 
 And, 4. The degree of pressure from the weight of water is here, like- 
 wise, in a great measure prevented ; nor is the circulation of the fluids 
 interrupted so as to render the use of this bath in any degree danger- 
 ous ; — a circumstance of the highest importance, because, by the ordi- 
 nary immersion, persons are often exposed to injuries which they least 
 apprehend. 
 
142 FAMILY 
 
 COOL BATHS. WARM BATHS HOT BATHS. 
 
 COOL BATHS may be called those which arc of a temperature be- 
 tween the 56th and 76th degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. They are of 
 great service in all cases where cold bathing has before been recom- 
 mended, and require nearly similar precautions. As their influence, 
 however, on first entering them is less violent, though their subsequent 
 effect may be attended with equal advantages, it follows, that even 
 persons of a more delicate organization may resort to them with great- 
 er safety. 
 
 With respect to rules for cool bathing, we refer the reader to those 
 stated in the preceding article ; and shall only remark, that notwith- 
 standing its effects are less perceptible while the body continues in 
 the water, it is necessary that the bather, on coming out of it, should 
 be wiped dry with the greatest expedition, to prevent catarrhal affec- 
 tions. 
 
 WARM BATHS, are such as have the temperature above the 76, 
 and not exceeding the 96 or 98 degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 
 " Physicians, as well as patients, have hitherto been too generally ac- 
 customed to consider a warm bath as weakening the body, and useful 
 only for the removal of certain diseases, especially those of the skin. 
 Experience, however, has amply proved, that there can be no safer and 
 more efficacious remedy, in a variety of chronic or inveterate com- 
 plaints, than the warm bath, if properly used, and continued for a 
 sufficient length of time. Instead of heating the human body, as has 
 erroneously been asserted, it has a cooling effect, insomuch as it obvi- 
 ously abates the quickness of the pulse, and reduces the pulsations in 
 a remarkable degree, according to the length of time the patient con- 
 tinues in the water. After the body has been overheated by fatigue 
 from travelling, violent exercise, or from whatever cause, and likewise 
 after great exertion or perturbation of mind, a tepid bath is excellently 
 calculated to invigorate the w T hole system, while it allays those tem- 
 pestuous and irregular motions, which otherwise prey upon, and at 
 length reduce the constitution to a sick-bed. Its softening and assua- 
 sive power greatly tends to promote the growth of the body ; on which . 
 account it is peculiarly adapted to the state of such youth as manifest 
 a premature disposition to arrive at a settled period of growth; and it 
 has uniformly been observed to produce this singular effect in all cli- 
 mates." 
 
 HOT BATHS are those which have a temperature above 93 or 100 
 degrees of Fahrenheit, and are occasionally increased to 110 or 120 de- 
 grees, and upwards, according to the particular nature of the case, and 
 the constitution of the patient. There can be no stated rules laid 
 down for its use, as every thing depends upon the particular circum- 
 stances of each patient. No prudent person will, we trust, have re- 
 course to a hot bath without medical advice. 
 
 CONTAGION, or infection, is the communication of disease from 
 one body to another. Without entering into the disputed points on 
 this subject, it is probable, without debate, that some diseases are con- 
 tagious ; and hence the propriety of certain rules to be observed in the 
 apartments of those who are confined by infectious disease. 
 
 1. It is of the utmost importance to the sick, and their attendants, 
 that there be a constant admission of fresh air into the room, and es^ 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 143 
 
 CONTAGION. PURIFYING AND DISINFECTING AGENTS. 
 
 pecially about the patient's bed. The door, or a window, should there- 
 fore be kepf open both day and night, care being taken to prevent the 
 wind from blowing directly on the patient. 
 
 2. An attention to cleanliness is indispensable. The linen of the 
 patient should be often changed ; and the dirty clothes, <fcc. should be 
 immediately put into fresh cold water, and afterwards well washed. 
 The floor of the room should be cleansed every day with a mop, and 
 all discharges from the patient should be immediately removed, and 
 the utensils washed. 
 
 3. Nurses and attendants should endeavour to avoid the patient's 
 breath, and the vapor from the discharges ; or, when that cannot be 
 done, they should hold their breath for a short time. They should 
 place themselves, if possible, on that side of the bed from which the 
 current of air carries off the infectious vapors. 
 
 4. Visiters should not come near to the sick, nor remain with them 
 longer than is absolutely necessary ; they should not swallow the spit- 
 tle, but should clear the mouth and nostrils when they leave the room. 
 
 4. No dependence should be placed on vinegar, camphor, or other 
 supposed preventives, wmich, without attention to cleanliness and ad- 
 mission of fresh air are not only useless, but by their strong smell ren- 
 der it impossible to perceive when the room is filled with bad air, or 
 noxious vapors. 
 
 If these rules be strictly observed, an infectious disease will seldom 
 if ever, be communicated; but, if they be neglected, especially where 
 the patient is confined to a small room, scarcely one person in fifty who 
 may be exposed to it can resist the contagion ; even infants at the 
 breast do not escape it, though providentially less liable to be affected 
 than adults. 
 
 Since infection originates in close, crowded, and dirty rooms, those 
 who make a practice of admitting the fresh air, at some convenient 
 time, every day, and of frequently cleansing and fumigating their 
 apartments, bedding, furniture, &c, and washing the wall w T ith quick- 
 lime, mixed with water, in the room, may be assured they will preserve 
 their families from malignant fevers, as well as from other diseases. 
 The process of fumigation is as follows : 
 
 Take an equal quantity of powdered nitre, and strong vitriolic acid, 
 or oil of vitriol, (about six drams of each are sufficient) ; mix them in 
 a tea-cup, stirring them occasionally with a tobacco-pipe, or piece of 
 glass; the cup must be removed occasionally to different parts of the 
 room, and the fumes will continue to arise for several hours. The oil 
 of vitriol should be in quantity not iveig/it. 
 
 PURIFYING AND DISINFECTING AGENTS. In connection 
 with the above observation on contagion, it may be proper in this place 
 to state, that certain purifying and disinfecting agents have within a 
 few years been discovered, and which promise to be of the utmost im- 
 portance to the world. These are the chlorides of soda and lime. Al- 
 ready have they been extensively used on the Continent, and are be- 
 ginning to be used in the United States. By means of these, gutters, 
 vaults, sinks, sewers, hospitals, alms-houses, may be entirely purified ; 
 and even putrefaction disarmed of its noxious and destructive inrlu- 
 t ence. 
 
144 FAMILY 
 
 TOBACCO, 
 
 The chloride of soda, which is liquid, is more expensive, and more 
 powerful than the chloride of lime, which is in form of a white powder, 
 and hence the former is applicable to disinfecting 1 operations on a small 
 scale. They are both used, mixed with more or less water, according 
 to the intention in view. If a body is to be preserved before burial, 
 add about a pint of the concentrated chloride of soda to a bucket-fuil 
 of water, and cover the body with a sheet dipped in this solution, 
 which must be sprinkled occasionally over the corpse. Or if the chlo- 
 ride of lime is emplo} 7 ed, make a mixture of about a pound of the 
 chloride with two buckets-full of water, and proceed as before. 
 
 For Vaults, take two ounces of the chloride of lime to three or four 
 pints of water, and sprinkle from time to time, by means of a watering- 
 pot. 
 
 To preserve the health of workmen employed in common sewers, a 
 pound of the chloride of lime should be dissolved in three buckets-full 
 of water, and a bucket-full of the solution should be placed by the side 
 of the workmen, to be employed by them in washing their hands and 
 arms, and moistening their nostrils, and for sprinkling on the filth. 
 
 For Ships, take a spoonful or more of either chloride, add it to a 
 bottle of water, and sprinkle the solution in the hold, and over the 
 decks. 
 
 For purifying 1 offensive Water, mix it with the chloride of lime in 
 the proportion of one or two ounces of the latter to about sixty-five 
 gallons of the former. After being thus disinfected, the water must be 
 exposed to the air, and allowed to settle for some time before it can be 
 drunk. 
 
 TOBACCO. The chewing of tobacco has been and is still very 
 extensive throughout our country, and indeed throughout the world, 
 wherever it is known. Extensive however as its use is, and " bewitch- 
 ing" as Sir Hans Sloan says it is ; it no longer remains doubtful that 
 it is a practice, fraught with almost innumerable evils. Were other 
 testimony insufficient, that of the ablest physicians of the country 
 should decide the question. M The chewing of tobacco'- says Dr. John 
 C. Warren, as quoted by the author of Dyspepsia forestalled and resist- 
 ed — u is not necessary or useful in any case, that I know of: and 1 
 have abundant evidence to satisfy me, that its use may be discontinued 
 without pernicious consequences. The common belief, that it is bene- 
 ficial to the teeth, is, I apprehend, entirely erroneous. On the contra- 
 ry, by poisoning and relaxing the vessels of the gums, it may impair 
 the healthy condition of the vessels, belonging to the membranes of 
 the socket, with the condition of which the state of the tooth is closely 
 connected." 
 
 Similarly strong is the testimony of the editors of the Journal of 
 Health. '• Tobacco," say they, " is, in fact, an absolute poison. A 
 very moderate quantity introduced into the system— even applying the 
 moistened leaves over the stomach — has been known very suddenly 
 to extinguish life. The Indians of our own country were well aware 
 of its poisonous effects, and were accustomed, it is said, on certain oc- 
 casions, to dip the points of their arrows in an oil obtained from the 
 weaves, which being inserted into the flesh, occasioned sickness and 
 tainting, or even convulsions and death. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CERTAIN LIQUORS, 
 
 It must be evident to every one. that the constant use of an article 
 possessing such deleterious properties, cannot fail, at length, to influ- 
 ence the health of the system. 
 
 In whatever form it may be employed, a portion of the active princi- 
 ples of the tobacco, mixed with the saliva, invariably finds its way into 
 the stomach, and disturbs or impairs the functions of that organ. 
 Hence, most, if not all, of those who are accustomed to the use of to- 
 bacco, labour under dyspeptic symptoms. They experience, at inter- 
 vals, a want of appetite — nausea — inordinate thirst — vertigo — nains 
 
 and distention of the stomach — disagreeable sensations of the head 
 
 tremors of the limbs — disturbed sleep, and are more or less emacia- 
 ted. 
 
 Of smoking and snuffing, it will only be necessary to add that the 
 practice is followed in general by the same evils which afflict the to- 
 bacco chewer. Nor is there any safety or immunity for such pen 
 but abstinence — resolute and entire abstinence. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CERTAIN LIQUORS. The late Dr. Rush, who 
 paid great attention to the subject, has presented us with the follow- 
 ing view of the physical, moral and immoral effects of certain liquors 
 upon the body and mind of men, which we appropriately assign to this 
 place. 
 
 23 
 
146 
 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 - 
 
 OPIUM AND LAUDANUM. 
 
 --«-■• - - • * — * — * 
 Liquors. Upon his body. Upon his mind. Upon his condh 
 
 tion in Society. 
 
 Water, (to which 
 
 
 ' Good appetite, 
 
 A peaceable dispo- 
 
 f 
 
 may be added 
 
 
 Health, 
 
 sition, 
 
 j Reputation 
 
 Soda-water,) 
 
 <i5 
 o 
 
 Sound sleep, 
 
 Serenity of mind, 
 •J Industry and 
 
 and 
 
 Molasses and wa- 
 
 ■ -§ 
 
 . An agreeable com- 
 
 ^ Wealth. 
 
 ter, 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 plexion and long 
 
 Domestic happi- 
 
 1 
 
 Molasses-beer & 
 
 
 life. 
 
 ness. 
 
 
 Small beer, 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 ) f Strength and a 
 
 ' 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 power in the sys- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tem to resist the 
 
 
 
 Cider, 
 
 
 extremes of heat 
 
 Cheerfulness, 
 
 Friendship, 
 
 Perry, 
 
 c5 
 
 o 
 
 and cold, provid- 
 
 < Good humour, 
 
 Honour, 
 
 Wine, 
 
 'J 
 
 . ed they are taken 
 
 Generosity and 
 
 "j Public and pri- 
 
 Porter and 
 
 in small quanti- 
 
 Social pleasures. 
 
 vate confidence- 
 
 Strong beer, 
 
 P-t 
 
 ties, and chiefly 
 with meals. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 'Tremors in the 
 
 hands, 
 Sickness and puk- 
 
 Idleness, 
 Peevishness, 
 Quarrelling and 
 
 
 
 
 ing in the morn- 
 
 Scolding, 
 
 Poverty, discov- 
 
 Punch, 
 
 
 ing, 
 
 Obscene conver- 
 
 ered in a filthy 
 
 Toddy, 
 
 
 Indigestion, 
 
 sation, 
 
 house, and in 
 
 Grog, 
 
 
 Belching, 
 
 Uncleanliness, 
 
 ragged cloth- 
 
 Milk-punch, 
 
 
 Hiccup, 
 
 Black eyes from 
 
 ing, 
 
 Slings, 
 
 
 Red eyes andnose, 
 
 fighting, 
 
 Debt, 
 
 Flip, 
 
 
 Rose-buds over the 
 
 Broken bones 
 
 Detestation b}' 
 
 Egg-nog, 
 
 
 whole face, and 
 
 from falls, 
 
 family and 
 
 Liquors, 
 
 
 after a while a 
 
 Adultery, 
 
 friends, 
 
 Bitters made with 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 pallid face, 
 
 Gaming, 
 
 Hospital, 
 
 spirits, 
 
 -a . 
 o 
 
 Fetid breath, 
 
 Lying, 
 
 Jail, 
 
 Raw-rum, 
 
 
 Hoarseness, 
 
 Cursing, blasphe- 
 
 Hard-labour, ' 
 
 Brandy, 
 
 
 A short cough, 
 
 ming. 
 
 Chains, 
 
 Whiskey and 
 
 
 Sore and swelled 
 
 Swearing, 
 
 A solitary cell. 
 
 Spirits in the 
 
 
 legs, 
 
 Pilfering, 
 
 Disgrace, 
 
 morning, 
 
 
 Pains in the limbs, 
 
 Stealing, 
 
 Universal con- 
 
 The same two or 
 
 
 Burning in the 
 
 Perjury, 
 
 tempt, 
 
 three times a 
 
 
 palms of the 
 
 Picking pockets, 
 
 Imprisonment 
 
 day, 
 
 
 hands and soals 
 
 House breaking, 
 
 for life, 
 
 The same every 
 
 
 of the feet, 
 
 Assaults on the 
 
 The Gallows. 
 
 hour in the day, 
 
 
 Jaundice, 
 
 highway, 
 
 
 and in the 
 
 
 Dropsy, 
 
 Murder. 
 
 
 night, 
 
 
 Loss of memory 
 and self respect, 
 Palsy, Apoplexy, 
 Madness, Death. 
 
 L 
 
 
 OPIUM AND LAUDANUM. In the hands of the judicious physi- 
 cian, opium is a valuable medicine, and both that and laudanum in 
 certain cases indispensable. But when taken habitually as they fre- 
 quently are to mitigate unpleasant feelings, or remove melancholy, the 
 habit is to be placed along side of the disgusting practice of chewing 
 tobacco, and what is worse, the awful vice of drinking to excess. In 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 147 
 
 "•• ' f 
 
 WOUNDS, 
 
 point of morality it can make little difference whether a person stupi- 
 ries his faculties by the use of brandy or opium ; and among men, the 
 infamy which is now attached to excess in the use of the former, 
 should alike follow excess as to the latter.^ 
 
 " We have indeed few genuine opium eaters among us," observes the 
 author of M Dyspepsy Forestalled and Resisted" — more we believe, 
 than this author seems to be aware of — "but," continues he " the lau- 
 danum and paregoric phial are considered almost indispensable in eve- 
 ry family. Nor does the mother hesitate night after night, to quell the 
 cries of her infant child, by administering increasing doses of these 
 poisons." Less danger, it is believed, results from this practice, than 
 this author imagines. It is not that children are so often injured : it is 
 older folks. It is " the nervous invalid" and M the delicate votary of 
 fashion." And in respect to their habitual use of opium and lauda- 
 num, no terms of condemnation are too severe. Truly and even elo- 
 quently have the Editors of the Journal of Health expressed their ab- 
 horrence of this practice. " However repugnant to our feelings," say 
 they, u as rational beings, may be the vice of drunkenness, it is not 
 more hurtful in its effects than the practice of taking laudanum." 
 " This is not the language of exaggeration or speculative fear. We 
 speak from a full knowledge of facts. We repeat it— the person who 
 gives into the habit for weeks, (he may not reach to months, or if he 
 pass these, his years will be but few and miserable,) of daily measuring 
 out to himself his drops of laudanum, or his pills of opium, or the de- 
 leterious substance, call it tincture, solution, mixture, potion, what you 
 will, is destroying himself, as surely as if he were swallowing arsenic, 
 or had the pistol applied to his head. The fire of disease may for a 
 while be concealed — he may smile incredulous at our prediction : but 
 the hour of retribution will come, and the consequences will be ter* 
 rible." 
 
 WOUNDS are recent divisions of the soft parts of the body, occa- 
 sioned by external causes. They are generally divided into five classes, 
 viz. incised, lacerated, contused, punctured, and poisoned wounds. We 
 propose to offer a few remarks upon the first and last kinds of wounds. 
 
 Incised wounds are those which are cut with a sharp instrument. 
 These wounds generally occur suddenly and accidentally ; and not 
 unfrequently are of so severe a nature, as to demand immediate atten- 
 tion, even before a surgeon can be procured. In such a case, what 
 shall be done ? The first step is to stop the bleeding. If an artery be 
 cut, the blood is of a bright scarlet color, and gushes from the bleeding 
 vessel in a jet, with great force. In this case, the pressure of the 
 thumb, or palm of the hand, must be on the side of the wound, next 
 the heart ; and if this be not sufficient, pass a handkerchief round the 
 limb above the wound, tie its two ends together, and twist it, by means 
 of a cane, or stick, until the blood ceases to flow, so as to endanger the 
 life of the patient. Now send immediately for a surgeon. 
 
 But, if a surgeon be not to be obtained, and the life of the patient 
 be in danger, any discreet person may wax together three or four threads 
 of a sufficient length, cut the ligature they form, into as many pieces 
 as you think there are vessels to be taken up, each piece being about a 
 foot long. Wash the parts with warm water, and then with a sharp 
 
148 FAMILY 
 
 WOUNDS. 
 
 hook, or a slender pair of pincers in your hand, fix your eye steadfast- 
 ly upon the wound, and direct the handkerchief to be relaxed by a turn 
 or two of the stick ; you will now see the mouth of the artery from 
 which the bl6od springs, seize it with }^our hook or pincers, draw it a 
 little out, while some one passes a ligature round it, and ties it up tight, 
 with a double knot. In this way, take up in succession every bleeding 
 vessel you can see, or get hold of. 
 
 If the wound is too high up a limb to apply the handkerchief, don't 
 lose your presence of mind, the bleeding can still be commanded. If 
 it is the thigh, press firmly in the groin, if in the arm, with the hand 
 end, or ring of a common door-key, make the pressure above the col- 
 lar bone, and about its middle against the first rib, which lies under it. 
 The pressure is to be continued until assistance is procured, and the 
 vessel tied up. 
 
 If the wound is on the head, press your finger firmly on it, until a 
 compress can be brought, which must be bound firmly over the artery 
 by a bandage. If the wound is in the face, or so situated that pressure 
 cannot be effectually made, or you cannot get hold of the vessel, and 
 the blood flows fast, place a piece of ice directly over the wound, and 
 let it remain there, till the blood coagulates, when it may be removed, 
 and a compress and bandage be applied. 
 
 But, if a vein only be cut, and this will be known by the running of 
 the blood in an unbroken stream, and of a dark purple, red color* 
 cleanse the wound with a soft sponge, and warm water, dry the skin 
 with a warm soft cloth, bring the parts neatly and closely together,, 
 keeping them in that position by narrow strips of sticking or adhe- 
 sive plaster. The number of straps should be in proportion to the ex- 
 tent of the wound, and at some little distance from one another, to 
 allow the escape of any fluid, which may run from the wound. A soft 
 compress of old linen, or lint may be laid over the wound, thus dres- 
 sed, and the whole bandaged agreeably tight. Under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, this dressing should not be removed, until the third or 
 fourth day, or longer. If pain or heat ensue, wet the part with spirit 
 and water. A cooling diet and regimen should be observed, and every 
 kind of motion and disturbance of the part avoided. 
 
 Poisoned wounds. By these are meant wounds occasioned by 
 the bite of the mad dog, rattle-snake, or by the sting of the wasp, 
 hornet, &c. 
 
 The signs of madness in a dog are as follows. At the commence- 
 ment he becomes sullen — retires from the family, ceases to bark, but 
 growls continually at strangers, and without any apparent cause refu- 
 ses to eat, or drink. His gait is unsteady, nearly resembling that of a 
 man almost asleep. At the end of three or four days, he abandons 
 his dwelling, roving continually in every direction ; he walks or runs* 
 as if tipsy, and frequently falls. 
 
 His hair is bristled up ; his eyes haggard, fixed, and sparkling ; his 
 head hangs down ; his mouth is open, and full of frothy slaver ; his 
 tongue hangs out, and his tail is between his legs. He has for the 
 most part, but no* always, a horror of water, the sight of which 
 seems generally to redouble his sufferings. He experiences from time- 
 to time transports of fury, and endeavors to bite every object v 
 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 149 
 
 WOUNDS. — STRAINS. 
 
 presents itself, not even excepting his master, whom, indeed, he begins 
 not to recognize. Light and lively colors greatly increase his rage. 
 At the end of thirty or thirty-six hours, he dies in convulsions. 
 
 The instant a person is bitten by a mad dog, rattle-snake, or any 
 rabid animal, or reptile, he should apply a ligature, by means of the 
 stick, above the wound, as tightly as he can well bear it, and without 
 hesitation, or delay, cut out the parts bitten, taking along with them a 
 portion of the surrounding sound flesh. The wound should then be 
 freely touched with caustic, or have turpentine poured into it. A de- 
 coction of Spanish flies, in turpentine, may also be applied to the skin 
 surrounding the w r ound. By these means inflammation will be exci- 
 ted, and suppuration follow, which may prevent the usual dreadful 
 consequences of such accidents. As soon as the parts are cut out, 
 take off the ligature. 
 
 Should the patient be too timid to allow the use of the knife, burn 
 the wound very freely with caustic, and place in it a tuft of tow or 
 cotton, well moistened with the above decoction. The discharge of 
 matter that follows should be kept up for some time. The only rea- 
 sonable chance for safety, is found in the above plan. 
 
 The use of the chlorurets, however, in treating wounds from rabid 
 animals, is now becoming general, in France and Germany, and many 
 satisfactory cases are recorded. M. Schoenberg, a German surgeon, 
 states, that of three persons who w T ere bitten by a dog, two who used 
 the chloruret of lime, recovered from their wounds, whilst the third, 
 who refused to submit to the treatment, died raving mad. This gen- 
 tleman applies to the wounds, twice a day, a piece of lint dipped in a 
 solution of the chloruret, and orders his patients to take three times a 
 day, from two drachms, to one ounce of the chloruret in water. 
 
 A medicine, highly recommended in hydrophobia, is said to have 
 been lately adopted in France, viz. the injection of warm water into the 
 veins. To make the employment of the remedy safe, and to prevent 
 pressure of the brain, the same quantity of blood should be previously 
 abstracted, as it is intended there should be w r ater injected ; with this 
 precaution, it is believed the remedy is a very proper one. The blood 
 may be set flowing from one vein, while the water is injected at another. 
 For the stings of bees, wasps, and hornets, the part may be plunged 
 into extremely cold water, where it should be held for some time, or 
 which, perhaps is still more effectual, an application may be made of 
 hartshorn, or of laudanum. 
 
 Musquito bites may be treated in the same manner, or a solution of 
 common salt and water made very strong, will speedily remote the 
 pain. Camphorated spirits, vinegar, &c, may also be used for the 
 same purpose. A solution of Prussian blue in soft water, with which 
 the parts are to be kept constantly moist, is a highly celebrated remedy 
 for the stings of bees, w r asps, &zc. &c. 
 
 STRAINS or SPRAINS. An experienced physician holds the 
 following language on the subject of strains. 
 
 " Strains are often attended with w T orse consequences than broken 
 bones. The reason is obvious ; they are generally neglected. When 
 a broken bone is to be healed, the patient is compelled to keep quiet, 
 
 13* 
 
150 FAMILY 
 
 FROZEN LIMBS. BURNS AND SCALDS. 
 
 because he cannot do otherwise. Bat when only a joint is strained, 
 th-e person finding he can still make a shift to move, is sorry to lose his 
 time, for so trifling an accident. In this way he deceives himself, and 
 converts into an incurable evil, what might have been removed bv 
 keeping the part easy for a few days. 
 
 Country people generally immerse a strained limb in cold water. 
 This is very proper, provided it be done immediately, and not continu- 
 ed too long ; in which case the parts are relaxed, instead of being- 
 braced. 
 
 Wrapping a bandage around the strained part is also of use. It 
 helps to restore the proper tone of the vessels, and prevents the action 
 of the pr.rts from increasing the disease. It should not, however, be 
 applied too tight. But what we would recommend above all is ease. 
 It is more to be depended on, than any medicine, and seldom fails to 
 remove the complaint. 
 
 A great many external applications are recommended for sprains, 
 some of which do good, and others hurt. The following are such as 
 may be used with the greatest safety, viz. camphorated spirit, volatile 
 liniment, common fomentations of bitter herbs, with the addition of 
 spirit or brandy. 
 
 Previous to other applications, the sprained joint should be immersed- 
 in warm soap suds, and rubbed for an hour lightly with the balls of the- 
 fingers. The evening is the best time for this operation. 
 
 TREATMENT OF FROZEN LIMBS. To thaw frozen limbs., 
 they should be rubbed in snow or water, with ice in it, until sensibility 
 and motion return. Dae care should be taken not to break slender 
 parts, such as fingers, ears, &c. When feeling and the power of mo- 
 tion are restored, continue the friction with brandy, oil of amber, tinc- 
 ture of myrrh, or camphorated spirit. Put the patient to bed in a room 
 with a fire in it ; give mulled wine ; and in this situation let him re- 
 main until a perspiration appears, and a perfect recover}'' of sensibility 
 takes place. If the whole body be frozen, the above prescription is tc 
 be observed. When signs of life appear, strong volatiles should be 
 applied to the nose ; blow into the lungs. Tobacco injections should 
 never be used, in cases of suspended animation. 
 
 BURNS and SCALDS. For these, some persons make use of cot- 
 ton bats ; and, if the parts are not blistered, and the injury not very 
 extensive, the remedy is a good one ; yet children will seldom endure 
 the application of cotton wool to any serious burn. It is well to cover 
 the surface of the cotton, which is applied to the burn, with olive oil. 
 
 Others recommend the constant application of brandy, vinegar, and 
 water mixed together, the bathing to be continued till the pain is gone. 
 The celebrated Mr. Abernethy, however, recommends the use of the 
 oil of turpentine mixed with basilicon ; at the same time, to give the 
 patient some warm wine and a few drops of opium, and afterwards to 
 place him in a warm bed. This stimulating plan of treatment, how- 
 everts not to be continued after the equilibrium of the temperature is- 
 restored. The following application for a burn has been used with 
 great success ; viz. olive oil, three ounces ; lime water, four ounces — 
 the mixture to be applied to the affected part with a feather, or earners- 
 hair pencil. 
 
EN( YCLOPEDIA. 151 
 
 1)RE?S A>"D DIET OF CHILDREN. 
 
 Burns produced by gunpowder should have the cause removed by the 
 point of a needle to be followed by an emollient poultice to the part af- 
 fected. In order that the most correct treatment for burns and scalds 
 should be known, Mr. Abernethy lately recommended his pupils to dip 
 two of their fingers in boiling water, and let them be fairly scalded ; 
 and then take them out, and dip one into a basin of cold water, and 
 dress the other with the turpentine and basilicon. M I do not want to 
 try, (remarked Mr. A. ;) I have decided already, and therefore have no 
 occasion to scald my fingers." In addition to the opinion of Mr. Aber- 
 nethy, we beg to subjoin that of Sir A. Cooper. "Lime water and 
 milk have been commonly used ; but oil of turpentine is the best appli- 
 cation. Give opium and wine, as long as the chilly state continues ; 
 but as soon as the heat is developed, and the pulse has recovered its 
 power, do not continue it any longer; other means must then be em- 
 ployed to reduce the inflammation."' 
 
 DRESS OF CHILDREN. The dress of children should be warm, 
 but so soft and pliable as not to obstruct the easy motion of the joints-. 
 " The absurd custom,'" observes the Book of Health, M of confining the 
 body of the infant by heavy bandages, formerly prevalent, is yielding 
 to the more rational dictates of nature and common sense ; but the ri- 
 diculous length of clothing in the earlier periods of infancy, still keeps 
 its ground, though equally absurd. To the child it is a continual 
 source of considerable uneasiness; obstruction is continually made to 
 the freedom of circulation and breathing; and the more the child en- 
 deavors to relieve itself, the more it wastes its power, and, consequent- 
 ly, interferes with its growth. Be careful, therefore, not to increase the 
 perspiration to an unnecessary degree. A short shift, and a flannel 
 waistcoat tied behind, with a short petticoat sewed to it, and a short 
 gown, rather stouter in winter than in summer, are all the clothes which- 
 a child requires. If the child be weakly, a flannel shirt may be useful ; 
 otherwise, too many clothes will render it tender, and susceptible of the 
 least cold. Stockings are an unnecessary appendage, until the child 
 be seven or eight months old ; for it is beneficial to expose the legs, arms, 
 and breasts of healthy children to the open air : the clothing of infants 
 cannot be made too short." 
 
 DIET OF CHILDREN. " Remember, (says Mr. Abernethy,) it is 
 not the quantity of food we eat, but the quantity we digest, which af- 
 fords the nourishment to our bodies." Over-feeding, as well as im- 
 properly feeding of children, is highly injudicious ; therefore the strict- 
 est attention ought to be paid to dieting. Fortunate is the child who 
 (during the first four months of its existence) is nourished with no oth- 
 er aliment than the milk of its mother ; but, if the child be weakly, and 
 the mother's milk insufficient, a cup of beef tea, and a crumb of bread 
 may be daily given. At four months old, the child may be fed twice 
 in the day ; once with biscuits or stale bread, boiled in an equal mix- 
 ture of milk and- water, and once with light broth and bread, arrow- 
 root, or rice. After the first six months, weak veal or chicken broth 
 may be given ; and, progressively, with broth, vegetables which are not 
 very flatulent ; viz. carrots, endive, spinage, parsnips, k.c. "When the 
 infant is taken early from the breast, the diet should principally con- 
 sist of cow's milk warmed, and poured on bread, f first soaked in wa- 
 ter,) and of light broth with bread : should the child be purged, the milk 
 
152 FAMILY 
 
 SLEKP. EXERCISE, 
 
 must be boiled. When the child is weaned, and has acquired its pro- 
 per teeth, it will be necessary to let it have small portions of meat and 
 vegetables ; also, dishes prepared of flour, as the most simple food is the 
 most nutritive. Pastry, confectionary, heavy or compound dishes, 
 ought to be withheld, particularly from delicate children. Potatoes 
 should be allowed only in moderation, and those not eaten with butter, 
 but mashed up with other vegetables. It is advisable to accustom chil- 
 dren to a certain regularity in their aliment, by giving them their meals 
 at stated periods of the day ; which will render them less subject to de- 
 bility and disease, give the stomach time to recover its tone, and to 
 collect the juices necessary for digestion. To children of four or five 
 years old, animal food may be allowed at dinner; and bread and milk 
 night and morning; due regard being, at all times, paid to the health 
 and habits of the child. 
 
 SLEEP. "Infants, from the time of their birth, should be encour- 
 aged to sleep in the night in preference to the day ; therefore, mothers 
 and nurses ought to remove every thing which may tend to disturb 
 their rest, and not to attend to every call for taking them up and giving 
 food at improper periods. Infants cannot sleep too long; when they 
 enjoy a calm, long-continued rest, it is a favorable symptom. Until the 
 third year, children generally require a little sleep in the middle of the 
 day ; for, till that age, half their time may safely be allotted to sleep. 
 Every succeeding year, the time ought to be shortened one hour; so 
 that a child seven years old may sleep about ten hours. Children ought 
 to rise at six o'clock in the summer, and at seven in the winter. It is 
 extremely injudicious to awaken children with a noise, or to carry them 
 immediately from a dark room into the glaring light, or against a daz- 
 zling wall : the sudden impression of light may debilitate the organs of 
 vision, and lay the foundation of weak eyes. — Wet clothes or linen 
 should never be allowed to be hung to dry in the bed-room, as an im- 
 pure atmosphere is attended with various and often fatal consequences. 
 " Banish (says Professor Hufeland) feather beds, as they are unnatural 
 and debilitating contrivances." The bedstead should not be placed too 
 low on the floor ; and it is highly improper to suffer children to sleep 
 on a couch which is made without a sufficient elevation from the 
 ground. 
 
 EXERCISE. "The effort at exercise is both pleasant and service- 
 able to a child ; and as it grows up, it is proper to regularly exercise it. 
 Children who are perfectly healtjiy are in almost uninterrupted mo- 
 tion ; but if exercise, either from its violence or too long duration, ex- 
 ceed the proper limits, it naturally quickens the circulation and respi- 
 ration, which may occasion the rupture of small blood-vessels and in- 
 flammatory diseases. A weakly child ought not to be allowed to stand 
 or walk long together ; but should be alternately carried, drawn in a 
 vehicle, and invited to walk. If a child seek to put its feet on the 
 ground, let it do so ; but do not force it to walk. In the first period of 
 life, the exertion of crying is almost the only exercise of the infant; by 
 which the circulation of the blood, and all the other fluids, are render- 
 ed more uniform ; digestion, nutrition, and the growth of the body, are 
 thereby promoted, and the different secretions of the skin (together 
 with insensible perspiration) are duly performed. The loud complaints 
 of infants deserve attention ; for if their cries be violent and long con- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 153 
 
 WASHING AND BATHING. — TEETHING. 
 
 tinued, and they draw their legs towards the belly, it may safely be 
 concluded, they are troubled with colic pains ; and no time should be 
 lost in yielding relief. To endeavor to prevent an infant from crying 
 on e7ery occasion, is to do it an irreparable injury ; for, by such mis- 
 management, it never acquires a perfectly formed breast, and frequent- 
 ly the foundation is laid in the pectoral vessels for obstructions and 
 other diseases. If children have been properly exposed to the air from 
 infancy, they may, if healthy, be safely exercised in it in all seasons. 
 The sooner infants are taken into the air, they become less subject to 
 cold, convulsions, disordered bowels, and the rickets, — diseases so fre- 
 quent among those who are reared in nurseries." 
 
 WASHING and BATHING. " The benefit to be derived from the 
 daily practice of washing a child with cold water from head to foot, is 
 almost incredible ; it strengthens the nerves, maintains a sound and 
 healthy state of the pores of the skin, and renders the surface of the 
 body less susceptible of external impressions. In general, a child may 
 be begun to be washed in this manner in the third or fourth week, 
 warm water being used till that period, which must be changed for 
 cooler, until it be gradually reduced to cold. In frosty weather, a lit- 
 tle warm water may be added to the cold. It is highly imprudent to 
 wash children directly after they rise from their bed, as the pores are 
 then open ; but, in about half an hour afterwards, if they be cool, they 
 should be washed quickly. Avoid wetting the skin gradually ; else the 
 skin is not excited by the friction. After washing, rub the body until 
 it be dry and warm. Delicate children should be washed in the eve- 
 ning, and placed in bed immediately afterwards. — In a striking manner 
 does the cold bath preserve and promote the health of children; it re- 
 freshes and invigorates the organs of the skin, and considerably miti- 
 gates the diseases of measles and small-pox. It is proper to begin the 
 practice in warm weather, and to continue it through every season af- 
 terwards. Delicate and weakly children must be bathed in luke-warm 
 water ; but, as they increase in strength, the degree of warmth may be 
 diminished. For the first two or three months, the child should re- 
 main in the bath for a few minutes only at a time ; which as it grows 
 older, may be gradually increased to a quarter of an hour. The body, 
 while in the bath, should be gently rubbed with the hand, or a piece of 
 sponge, and the greatest care taken in rubbing it dry. If the shock of 
 a cold bath appear too powerful for the constitution, bathing in salt 
 and water may be substituted. If a child after bathing should feel dis- 
 posed to sleep, it may be indulged ; and weakly children using the cold 
 bath, may wear a flannel shirt. A child should not be bathed directly 
 after eating ; nor, in cold weather, after coming out of the bath, exposed 
 to the cold air." 
 
 TEETHING. This is an important and critical period of a child's 
 life, and the danger generally increases in proportion to the delay of a 
 child's getting its teeth. In general, children begin to cut their teeth 
 between the fifth and eighth month. The symptoms attendant upon 
 teething are well known ; but many of the evils may be prevented by 
 a strict attention to the bowels of the patient ; for if the child be of a 
 full habit of body, it is essential to have hem j a lax state. If there 
 be considerable fever, the gums may be scarified, and leeches applied 
 behind the ears ; but blisters have been used instead of leeches, with 
 
154 FAMILY 
 
 SUMMER COMPLAINT. HOOPING COUGH. 
 
 considerable effect. With strong healthy children, the process of teeth- 
 ing" passes off without the least difficulty ; but it is generally the con- 
 trary with those who are weak or unhealthy. The practice of giving a 
 child a coral, or other hard substance into its hand, cannot be too se- 
 verely reprobated; a crust of bread, or a piece of wax candle, will be 
 found much better. Opium is sometimes given in order to allay the 
 pain and irritation ; but as it is attended with some danger, it ought to 
 be prohibited from being used in the nursery, and a tea-spoonful of sy- 
 rup of poppies substituted ; and this only in cases of urgency. To ena- 
 ble a child to pass easily through this dangerous period, every thing 
 that has a tendency to promote general health, and prevent fever, 
 should be resorted to ; such as pure air, exercise, nutritious food, &c. 
 
 SUMMER COMPLAINT. This is a disease which is said to de- 
 stroy nearly one fourth of all the children who die, in the Middle and 
 Southern States. Its chief causes are, doubtless, heated and impure 
 air, and errors in regard to diet. Hence, as might be supposed, the dis- 
 ease is most prevalent in crowded cities, and among the poorer classes, 
 whose children are badly nursed, and especially neglected as to clean- 
 liness of their persons and clothing. 
 
 One of the most effectual means, therefore, of preserving children 
 from an attack of this complaint, is to seek for them a healthy situa- 
 tion in the country, where they can enjoy the benefit of pure air. This, 
 however, cannot always be effected — still much may be done by pa- 
 rents, who are confined with their families to the city, to prevent this 
 disease. In such cases, the children should occupy, always, the largest 
 and most airy room in the house ; if possible, on the second|iloor. The 
 room should be guarded from exposure to the direct ray- of the sun, 
 while a constant and free ventilation is kept up. The utmost cleanli- 
 ness must also be observed in the room, as well as in the person and 
 clothing of the children. 
 
 During the summer months, the daily use of the cold or tepid bath, 
 while it ensures the cleanliness of the skin, is a very powerful means 
 of preventing this disease. It should not, therefore, be neglected, pro- 
 vided there is no circumstance connected with the health and constitu- 
 tion of the child to forbid its employment. 
 
 In clear weather, and in the cool of the day, children should be fre- 
 quently carried abroad, in the most open and Healthy parts of the neigh- 
 borhood ; or, when the parents have it in their power, a considerable 
 benefit will be derived from repeated rides in an open carriage, into the 
 neighboring country. 
 
 HOOPING COUGH. This is a disease distinguishable from all 
 others by its shrill whoop, and which is terminated by vomiting; and 
 is also indicated by a slight difficulty of breathing, hoarseness, &c. 
 
 In general, it is sufficient to guard the child from taking cold, and 
 from eating to repletion. If the attack, however, be more than ordina- 
 rily severe, an emetic of ipecacuanha in the morning, and a gentle pur- 
 gative during the day, will prove extremely serviceable. Small doses 
 of elixir paragoric with ipecac orantimonial wine may be occasionally 
 and beneficially administered. It is recommended, also, to give roasted 
 apples, stoned prunes, &c, and frequently to bathe the feet in warm 
 water. The vapor arising from a quantity of hot water, into which a, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 155 
 
 CROUP.— ME ASLLs. 
 
 little vinegar or ether has been put, may be beneficially inhaled. A 
 teaspoonful of equal portions of linseed oil and flour of sulphur is some- 
 times found useful. This quantity may be given to a child under four 
 years of age. Vaccination is now often practised as an effectual reme- 
 dy for the hooping cough. Change of air is at all times important, and 
 if practicable, the sea-coast should be visited in severe cases. Flannel, 
 next the skin is very beneficial; a light diet should be used ; and when 
 the patient is in bed, his head and shoulders must be raised. Parents 
 ought to pay the greatest attention, when the cough comes on, by bend- 
 ing the patient a little forward, which will be of great service, and guard 
 against suffocation. Cold bathing has been attended with the most 
 beneficial results. 
 
 CROUP. This is a disease generally confined to children, and which 
 comes on, imperceptibly and suddenly. The first indications of it are 
 a hoarse dry cough and wheezing, which is followed by rattling in the 
 throat. No time should be lost in obtaining medical aid ; yet while the 
 physician is coming, something should be attempted. A distinguished 
 physician recommends the giving of emetics of ipecac, and oxymel of 
 squills between ; the former as often as every two hours at least ; 
 warm bath often repeated ; a blister put between the shoulder blades : 
 calomel two grains, doses every two hours. For children above eight 
 years old, the calomel may be increased to six, eight and ten grains, 
 according to the severity of the disease. A strong decoction of seneca 
 (or snaked root, frequently taken into the mouth in small quantities, 
 has been successfully used to promote a separation of the films and co 
 agula that form and adhere to the windpipe and cells of the lungs. 
 The decoction is made by boiling an ounce of seneca root in two pints 
 of water down to a pint, and then straining. In all cases of croup, the 
 child must be kept nearly upright in bed, to guard against suffocation. 
 If the child be threatened with suffocation, sneezing may be excited by 
 introducing strong snuff up trie nostrils by means of a camel-hair pen- 
 cil. 
 
 MEASLES. This disease is contagious, and spreads widely by its 
 effluvia. It commences, observes Dr. Clutterbuck, with symptoms of 
 sneezing, red and watery eyes, and a short, dry, hoarse cough ; which 
 symptoms continue for some time, after the eruption has disappeared. 
 Frequently the inflammation extends to the substance of the lungs, giv- 
 ing rise to difficulty of breathing, with a pain in the chest, and a founda- 
 tion is often laid for the pulmonary consumption. As the inflammation 
 of the nose, eyes^ and- throat declines with the other symptoms, it is of 
 little consequence ; and unless the habit or mode of treatment be bad, 
 the disease seldom proves fatal. It differs much in different seasons ; 
 and its most frequent consequences are the various forms of scrofula, 
 obstinate sores, and a weak and inflamed state of the eyes : the continu- 
 ance of inflammation in the chest, in a chronic form, is another source 
 of danger, which ought to be carefully guarded against. On the fourth 
 day small red pimples appear, first on the face, spreading over the whole 
 body ; the pimples hardly elevated above the surrounding skin, but by 
 the touch are found to be a little prominent. On the fifth or sixth day, 
 they turn brown, and disappear with the peeling otf of the scarf-skin, 
 ,Mild cases of measles require only careful nursing, and a free expecto* 
 
156 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 POISOxXS. 
 
 ration, by means of mild purgatives, diluting drinks, and a spare, low 
 diet. Barley water, tamarind tea, and any thing of a simple nature 
 should be taken freely ; but fermented liquors, and every kind of animal 
 food, must be avoided. All the drink should be tepid. When the 
 measles suddenly disappear, every exertion must be made, in order to 
 restore the eruption. The patient must be placed in a warm bath, and 
 warm wine and water, with ten drops of antimonial wine, frequently 
 given. It may, also, be necessary to apply blisters to the inside of the 
 thighs or legs, and to the throat. After the patient has recovered, it 
 will be expedient to give two or three doses of cooling, opening medi- 
 cines, and to cautiously avoid exposure to cold. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 POISONS. — SUSPENDED ANIMATION, 
 
 POISONS may be denned substances which prove fatal to the life of 
 animals, whether taken by the mouth, mixed with the blood, or applied 
 to the nerves by friction of the skin, or other means. Most of the sub- 
 stances called poisonous are only so in certain doses ; when given in 
 smaller quantities, they are, many of them, active medicines. Others 
 are fatal in the smallest quantities ; such are those of hydrophobia and 
 the plague. 
 
 As we cannot treat of poisons at large, we think our object will be 
 best accomplished by the following tabular statements ; the first column 
 containing the names of the poisons ; the second the symptoms, and the 
 last the remedies. But we nevertheless advise, in every case where 
 poisons have been taken, recourse to the best medical assistance at 
 once. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Remedies. 
 
 CONCENTRA- Burning pain, vomiting ; Calcined magnesia ; one ounce 
 
 TED ACIDS: , matter thrown up effer- to a pint of warm or cold water. A 
 
 The vitriolic or sul- vescing with chalk, salt glassful to be taken every two mi- 
 
 phuric, nitric, muri- of tartar, lime or mag- nutes, so as to excite vomiting. 
 
 atic, oxalic, &c. nesia. Soap, or chalk and water : muci- 
 
 laginous drinks afterwards, such as 
 lint-seed tea or gum-arabic and wa- 
 ter. 
 
 ALKALIES: Nearly the same: the Vinegar or lemon-juice; a spoon- 
 
 Potash, Soda, am- ejected matter does not ful or two in a glass of water very 
 
 .monia, lime, &c. effervesce with alkalies, frequently ; simply warm water. ' 
 but acids. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 157 
 
 POISONS. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Remedies. 
 
 MERCURIAL Sense of constriction in White of e°-gs ; twelve or fifteen 
 
 PREPARA- the throat ; matter vomit- eggs beaten up, and mixed with a 
 
 TIONS: ed sometimes mixed with quait of cold water. A glassful 
 
 Corrosive subli- blood. every three minutes ? milk, gum 
 
 mate,&c. water, lintseed tea. 
 
 ARSENICAL Extreme irritation, Warm water with sugar, in large 
 
 PREPARA- pain, sickness, and speedy quantities, to excite vomiting. 
 
 TIONS : death, if the poison be not Lime-water, soap and water, pearl- 
 
 White arsenic, &c. soon counteracted. ash and warer.mucilaginous drinks. 
 
 PREPARA- 
 TIONS of COP- 
 
 PER: 
 Brass, verdigris, 
 halfpence, &c. 
 
 Symptoms nearly the 
 same as from mercury. 
 
 White of eggrs ; mucilaginous 
 drinks. See Mercurial Pre- 
 parations, above. 
 
 PREPARA- Extreme sickness, with 
 
 TIONS of ANTI- other symptoms of poison, 
 
 MONY : as above stated. 
 Emetic tartar, <&c. 
 
 Warm water or sugar and wa- 
 ter ; afterwards a grain of opium, 
 or fifteen drops of laudanum, every 
 quarter of an hour, for two or three 
 times. 
 
 NITRE, or 
 SALTPETRE. 
 
 Obstinate vomiting 
 sometimes of blood, &c. 
 
 The same as for arsenic, with 
 the exception of lime-water and al- 
 kalies. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. 
 
 Like mineral acids. 
 
 Like mineral acids. 
 
 LEAD : 
 
 Sugar of lead, Gou- 
 lard's extract, &c. 
 
 Great pain in the sto- Large doses of Glauber's or Ep- 
 mach. with constriction of som salts, in warm water, 
 the throat. <£c. 
 
 BARYTES: 
 
 The carbonate, mu- 
 riate, &c. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID. 
 
 SAL AMMO- 
 MAC. 
 
 Vomiting, convulsions, Half an ounce of Epsom or Glau- 
 
 palsy, pain in the sto- ber's salts dissolved in a quart of 
 
 mach, &c. water. Several glasses to be taken. 
 
 In place of these salts, large 
 
 draughts of hard well-water. 
 
 The most virulent poi- Emetics; afterwards oil of tur- 
 son, producing almost in- pentine, ammonia, brandy, with 
 stant death, when applied warmth, friction, and blisters. 
 even in small quantities to 
 the surface of the body. 
 
 Excessive vomitings, Vomiting to be rendered easy by 
 convulsions, pain in the large draughts of warm sugar and 
 bowels, alteration in the water. If vomiting be notprodu- 
 features: death. ced by the poison, it must be ex- 
 
 cited by the finger. Afterwards 
 opiates. 
 
 14 
 
158 
 
 Substances. 
 
 GLASS, or 
 ENAMEL. 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 POISONS. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Remedies. 
 
 If taken in coarse pow- Large quantities of crumb of 
 der, produces irritation bread should be eaten ; afterwards 
 and inflammation of the an emetic of white vitriol, and de- 
 bowels, mulcent drinks. 
 
 ALCOHOL : 
 
 Brandy, rum, gin, 
 wine, &c. 
 
 Intoxication ; when ta- A powerful emetic of white vi- 
 
 ken in large quantities, in- rriol, or emetic tartar ; vomiting to 
 
 sensibility, apoplexy, or be encouraged by warm water, and 
 
 paralysis ; countenance large clysters of salt water ; bleed- 
 
 swoln, and of a dark red ing ; if the head be very hot, cold 
 
 colour ; breathing difficult ; wet cloths may be applied ; if the 
 
 often death. extremities be cold, friction. 
 
 IRRITATING 
 
 VEGETABLE 
 
 POISONS : 
 
 Monk's hood, mea- 
 dow saffron, ipeca- 
 cuanha, hellebore, 
 bear's foot, savine, 
 &c. 
 
 Acrid taste; excessive 
 heat ; violent vomiting ; 
 purging ; great pain in 
 the stomach and bowels. 
 Externally applied, many 
 of them produce inflamma- 
 tion, blisters, pustules. 
 
 If vomiting be produced by the 
 poison, large draughts of warm 
 water, or thin gruel, to render it 
 easier. If insensibility be present 
 white vitriol, or other active eme- 
 tic ; after the operation of which, a 
 brisk purgative ; then a strong 
 infusion of coffee or vinegar dilu- 
 ted with water. 
 
 Four or five grains of emetic 
 tartar in a glass of water. If this 
 dose does not succeed, four grains 
 of blue vitriol as an emetic. Do 
 not give large quantities of water. 
 After the poison has been ejected,, 
 give vinegar, lemon juice, or cream 
 of tartar and strong coffee. 
 
 ACRID Nausea; heat; pain in Three grains of emetic tartar in 
 
 NARCOTICS : the stomach and bowels : a glass of water : in fifteen minuter 
 Mushrooms. vomiting ; purging ; thirst ; the dose to be repeated. After 
 
 convulsions ; cold sweats ; vomiting, frequent doses of Glau- 
 death. ber's or Epsom salts, and stimula- 
 
 ting clysters. 
 
 NARCOTICS : Stupor ; desire to vomit ; 
 
 Opium, henbane, heaviness in the head ; di- 
 hemlock, night- lated pupil of the eye ; de- 
 shade, &c. -^ lirium ; speedy death. 
 
 Nux vomica, 'St. None of these inflame 
 Ignatius's bean, the the parts they touch. In- 
 upas, coculus indi- troduced into the stomach, 
 eus, <fcc. or applied to wounds, they 
 
 are rapidly absorbed, pro- 
 ducing generally rigidity, 
 convulsions, and death. 
 
 The emetic as under Mush- 
 rooms : lungs to be inflated. Two 
 ounces of water, one drachm of 
 ether, two drachms of oil of turpen- 
 tine, and half an ounce of sugar, 
 mixed together ; two spoonfuls of 
 which to be taken every ten min- 
 utes. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 159 
 
 POISONS. 
 
 /Substances. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Remedies. 
 
 POISONOUS In an hoar or two, or An emetic ; vomiting to be ex- 
 
 FISH : sooner, after some fish have cited by tickling the throat with 
 
 Oldwife, lobster, been eaten, more especially the finger, and by' draughts of 
 crab, dolphin, con- if stale, weight at the sto- warm water. After vomiting, an 
 £er eel, muscle, &c. mach, sickness, giddiness, active purgative ; afterwards vine- 
 thirst, &c. come on: in gar and water, or water sweetened 
 some cases, death. with sugar, and an addition of 
 
 ether. After the evacuations, lau- 
 danum. 
 
 POISONOUS 
 SERPENTS : 
 
 The viper, or adder, 
 prattle-snake, &c. 
 
 A sharp pain in the 
 wounded part, soon extend- 
 ing over the body ; great 
 swelling ; first hard and 
 pale, then reddish; faint- 
 ings, vomitings,' convul- 
 sions ; inflammation, often 
 extensive suppuration, gan- 
 grene, and death. 
 
 A moderately tight ligature to 
 be applied above the bite, and the 
 wound left to bleed, after being 
 washed with warm water. The 
 actual cautery, lunar caustic, or 
 butter of antimony to be applied ; 
 then lint dipped in equal parts of 
 olive oil and spirit of hartshorn. 
 Ligature to be removed if the in- 
 flammation be considerable. Warm 
 diluting drinks, with small doses 
 of ammonia or hartshorn, to cause 
 perspiration. The patient should 
 be well covered in bed, drinking 
 occasionally warm wine. If gan- 
 grene threaten, wine and bark 
 must be freely given. 
 
 SPANISH Nauseous odor of the Vomiting freely excited by 
 FLIES. breath ; burning heat in sweet oil, sugar and water, or lint- 
 the throat and stomach ; seed tea ; emollient clysters. Cam- 
 vomiting, often bloody ; phor dissolved in oil may be rub- 
 painful priapism, heat in bed over the belly and thighs, 
 the bladder, convulsions, 
 delirium, death. 
 
 VENOMOUS In general only a slight Hartshorn and oil, salt and wa- 
 
 INSECTS: degree of pain and swell-' ter : a few drops of hartshorn may 
 
 Tarantula, scorpi- ing ; sometimes sickness be taken internally in a glass of wa- 
 
 oti, hornet, wasp, and fever. ter. The sting may, in general, 
 
 bee, gnat, &c. be removed by making a strong 
 
 pressure over it with the barrel of a 
 small watch key. 
 
 In many cases of poisoning, emetics are necessary, in order to remove 
 the poison from the stomach. It has, however, been proved, that a late 
 invention, 
 
 The STOMACH PUMP, is much more expeditiously effectual than 
 emetics, and is now very often resorted to by medical practitioners for 
 such purposes; but the use of this instrument can scarcely be confided 
 to inexperienced hands. 
 
 POISON from the inhalation of, or being imfnersed in noxious Gas. 
 Whenever persons are found in a state of apparent death from being 
 
160 FAMILY 
 
 POISON. DROWNING. 
 
 immersed in, or having inhaled noxious gas, whether from the fumes of 
 burning charcoal, the exhalations of lime-kilns, the gas from fermenta- 
 tions, the choak-damp of mines, the gas from wells, or the gas in the 
 lower parts of caverns, the following method must be pursued for their 
 recovery. 
 
 Expose the patient to atmospheric air without any fear of the cold ; 
 remove all his clothes and place him upon his back, with the head and 
 breast somewhat elevated so as to promote respiration. On no ac- 
 count administer tobacco fumigations or place the sufferer in a warm 
 bed. Give a few glasses of lemon-juice and water, or vinegar weak- 
 ened by the addition of three parts water; sprinkle the body, particu- 
 larly the face and breast, with cold vinegar ; after this rub the body 
 with cloths steeped in vinegar, camphorated spirits of wine, or any 
 other spirituous fluid ; at the end of two or three minutes wipe the 
 parts which have been wetted with a warm towel, and after the interval 
 of two or three minutes recommence the sprinkling and rubbing with 
 cold vinegar and spirits. These means must be persevered in for some 
 time. Irritate the soles of the feet, and palms of the hands, and the 
 whole course of the back with a brush ; administer a clyster consisting 
 of one part vinegar and two parts water ; after a few minutes admin- 
 ister another prepared with two ounces of common salt and one ounce 
 of Epsom salts dissolved in water. Irritate the nostrils by a little roll 
 of paper or a feather ; or burning matches, or volatile alkali, taking 
 care that the phial containing this last article be not held long at the 
 nose. The lungs should also be inflated. All these methods failing, 
 the patient should be bled in the foot if the face continue red, the lips 
 swoln, and the eyes as it were starting from their sockets. Emetics 
 should be avoided, except where persons recovering are troubled with 
 excessive nausea; when the patient is restored to his senses, he may 
 be put into a warm bed in an apartment having all the windows open. 
 He may then take a few spoonfuls of some good wine, as sherry, or 
 Madeira ; the wine may be warmed and sugar added. It has often 
 happened that five or six hours have elapsed before persons have been 
 restored. 
 
 A well attested account has recently been published, of the speedy 
 recovery of a person, who had become insensible by reason of noxious 
 vapor, at the bottom of a well, by means of cold water dashed from 
 above on his head. 
 
 DROWNING is the act of suffocating or being suffocated, by a to- 
 tal immersion in water. The length of time during which a person 
 may remain in this element, without being drowned, is very unequal 
 in different individuals, and depends as much on the temperature of 
 the water as on the particular constitution of the subject : in general, 
 however, there is less prospect of recovery, after having continued 
 fifteen minutes in a watery grave. In such cases, death ensues from 
 impeded respiration, and the consequent ceasing of the circulation of 
 the blood, by which the body loses its heat, and with that the activity 
 of the vital principle. Dr. Goodwyn justly observes, that the water 
 produces all the changes which take place in drowning, only indirect- 
 ly, by excluding the atmospheric air from the lungs, as they admit but 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 161 
 
 DROWNING. 
 
 a very inconsiderable quantity of fluid to pass into them during im- 
 mersion. Hence we find, that inflation of the lungs is one of the 
 principal means of restoring life. 
 
 Previous to any active measures being "taken for recovering drowned 
 persons, the following circumstances ought to be duly weighed by those 
 engaged in this humane office : — 1. The season and weather. 2. 
 Length of time the person has continued under water. 3. The state 
 of his mind when the accident happened ; whether he was intoxicated, 
 frightened, &c. 4. Constitution of the body, and whether he was in 
 a state of perspiration. 5. The height from which he fell, and whether 
 his head plunged foremost. 6. Depth of the water ; whether it was 
 cold or warm, sea, or river water, and how he was dressed. Lastly, 7. 
 The manner in which he was taken out, whether by the legs, and with- 
 out receiving any injury, or by instruments ; and whether he was rolled 
 about in a tub, or what other methods were pursued for his restoration. 
 Few improvements appear to have been made in the treatment of 
 the drowned, since this important branch of medical science was first 
 discussed. We shall briefly state the principal rules of conduct to be 
 observed, with respect to persons in that deplorable situation. 
 
 Symptoms of Apparent Death by Drowning. — Coldness ; pale- 
 ness of the whole body ; the lips of a livid hue ; the mouth either 
 open or firmly closed ; the tongue blue, swelled and protruded ; the 
 eye-lids closed, the eyes turned, and their pupils dilated ; the face 
 swelled and blue ; the lower belly hard and inflated. The first signs 
 of returning animation are, convulsive starting of the muscles of the 
 face, or feet ; motion of the eye-lids ; a spasmodic shivering of the 
 body. 
 
 Treatment. — 1. After having been carefully taken out of the water 
 by the arms, so as to prevent the least injury to the head and breast, 
 the body ought to be carried to the nearest house, in a bier if possible, 
 with the head somewhat raised ; or, in fine warm weather, the resus- 
 citative process may with more advantage be performed in the open 
 air,es pecially in sun-shine. 
 
 2. When the subject is deposited, the upper part of the body should 
 be supported half-sitting, with the head inclining towards the right 
 side. 
 
 3. The clothes are to be taken off without delay, but with the great- 
 est precaution ; as violent shaking of the body might extinguish the 
 latent spark of life. 
 
 4. The mouth and nose must be cleansed from the mucus and froth, 
 by means of a feather dipped in oil. 
 
 5. The whole body should now be gently wiped and dried with warm 
 flannel cloths, then covered with blankets, feather-beds, hay, straw, 
 &c. In cold or moist weather, the patient is to be laid on a mattress 
 or bed, at a proper distance from the fire, or in a room moderately heat- 
 ed ; but in the warm days of summer, a simple couch is sufficient. 
 
 6. If the patient be very young, or a child, it may be placed in bed 
 between two persons, to promote natural warmth. 
 
 7. In situations where the bath cannot be conveniently procured, 
 
 14* 
 
162 FAMILY 
 
 DROWNING, 
 
 bladders rilled with lukewarm water should be applied to different 
 parts of the body, particularly to the pit of the stomach ; or a warm- 
 ing-pan wrapped in flannel gently moved along the spine ; or aromatic 
 fomentations frequently and cautiously repeated. 
 
 8. As the breathing of many persons in an apartment would render 
 the air rnephitic, and thus retard, or even prevent the restoration of 
 life, not more than five or six assistants should be suffered to remain in 
 the room where the body is deposited. 
 
 Stimulants generally employed. 1. Moderate friction with soft 
 warm flannel at the beginning, and gradually increased by means of 
 brushes dipped in oil till pulsations of the heart are perceptible. 
 
 2. Inflation of the lungs, which may be more conveniently effected 
 by blowing into one of the nostrils, than by introducing air into the 
 mouth. For the former purpose, it is necessary to be provided with a 
 wooden pipe, fitted at one extremity for filling the nostril, and at the 
 other for being blown into by a healthy person's mouth, or for receiv- 
 ing the muzzle of a pair of common bellows, by which the operation 
 may be longer continued. At first, however, it will always be more 
 proper to introduce the warm breath from the lungs of a living person, 
 than to commence with cold atmospheric air. During this operation, 
 the other nostril and the moulh should be closed by an assistant, while 
 a third person gently presses the chest with his hands as soon as the 
 lungs are observed to be inflated. 
 
 3. Stimulating clysters, consisting of warm water and common salt, 
 or a strong solution of tartar emetic, or decoctions of aromatic heibs, 
 or six ounces of brandy should be speedily administered. We do not 
 consider injections of the smoke of tobacco, or even clysters of that 
 narcotic plant, in all instances safe or proper. 
 
 4. Let the body be gently rubbed with common salt, or with flannels 
 dipped in spirits ; the pit of the stomach fomented with hot brandy, 
 the temples stimulated with spirits of hartshorn, and the nostrils oc- 
 casionally tickled with a feather. 
 
 5. Persons of a very robust frame, and whose skin after being dried 
 assumes a rigid and contracted surface, may be put into a sub-tepid 
 bath, of about 65° which must be gradually raised to 75° or 80° of 
 Fahrenheit's scale, according to circumstances ; or the body carried 
 to a brewhouse. and covered with warm grains for three or four hours ; 
 but these expedients generally require medical assistance. 
 
 6. Violent shaking and agitation of the body by the legs and arms, 
 though strongly recommended, and supposed to have often forwarded 
 the recovery of children and boys, apears to us a doubtful remedy, 
 which can be practised only in certain cases. 
 
 7. Sprinkling the naked body of a drowned person with cold water ; 
 submitting it to the operation of a shower-bath, or the sudden shocks 
 of the electric fluid ; as well as whipping it with nettles, administering 
 emetics, and blood-letting, are desperate expedients, which should be 
 resorted to only after the more lenient means have been unsuccessfully 
 employed. 
 
 It is, however, a vulgar and dangerous error to suppose that persons 
 apparently dead by immersion under water are irrecoverable, because 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 163 
 
 CHOKING. 
 
 life does not soon re-appear ; hence we seriously entreat those who are 
 thus employed in the service of humanity to persevere for three or four 
 hours at least in the application of the most appropriate remedies 
 above described ; for there are many instances recorded of patients 
 who recovered after they had been relinquished by all their medical 
 and other assistants. 
 
 Treatment ox the return of life. As soon as the first symp- 
 toms of that happy change become discernible, additional care must 
 be taken to cherish the vital action by the most soothing means. All 
 violent proceedings should, therefore, be immediately abandoned, no 
 farther stimulants applied, nor even the ears of the patient be annoyed 
 by loud speaking, shouting, fee. At that important crisis, moderate 
 friction only is requisite. And, if the reviving person happen to be in 
 the bath, he may either remain there, provided his sensations be easy 
 and agreeable, or be removed to a comfortable bed, after being expe- 
 ditiously dried with warm flannels : fomentations of aromatic plants 
 may then be applied to the pit of the stomach ; bladders filled with 
 warm water, placed to the left side ; the soles of the feet rubbed with 
 salt ; the mouth cleared of froth and mucus, and a little white wine, or 
 a solution of salt in water, dropped on the tongue. But all strong 
 stimulants, such as powerful electric shocks, strong odors of volatile 
 salts, ice. are at this period particularly injurious. Lastly, the patient 
 after resuscitation, ought to be for a short interval resigned to the 
 efforts of Nature, and left in a composed and quiescent state : as soon 
 as he is able to swallow, without compulsion or persuasion, warm 
 wine, or tea, with a few drops of vinegar, instead of milk, or gruel. 
 warm beer, and the like, should be given in small quantities frequently 
 repeated. 
 
 CHOKING. As soon as any person is observed to be choked^ and 
 more particularly children, the obstructing body should be felt for with 
 a finger at the top of the throat ; it is possible many times to remove 
 it directly, and should we fail in this, the puking excited by the finger 
 frequently removes the offending body. 
 
 Food, and foreign substances are sometimes lodged in the top of the 
 wind-pipe and produce immediate suffocation ; help in this case must 
 be afforded at the moment, by introducing the finger. Sometimes, 
 however, a bunch of thread with several small nooses, secured upon the 
 end of a piece of whalebone, will frequently be serviceable, in remov- 
 ing sharp pointed bodies, as fishbones, needles, &c. Should this fail, 
 a piece of sponge may be fastened to the whalebone, and passed into 
 the stomach, and when it becomes enlarged by moisture, it most fre- 
 quently brings away any foreign substance which may be present : the 
 enlargement of the sponge may be forwarded by the patient swallow- 
 ing a little water. Vomiting will sometimes succeed ; though this 
 should not be attempted when the substance is sharp and pointed. 
 
 Unless the offending body can be seen, any apparatus is unsafe ex- 
 cept in the hands of an experienced surgeon. 
 
 Presence of mind will enable any person to do much, in all cases of 
 casualty, and particularly in this, and the directions above, are suifi- 
 cient. The finger, and the vomiting it is sure to produce, will do much 
 more at the instant than is commonly thought. 
 
164 FAMILY 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY. 
 
 LIGHTNING. Persons apparently dead from lightning may be 
 frequently restored by proper means. Sprinkling or affusion of cold 
 water, and in general the means laid down for aerial poisons, are to be 
 persevered in. A rigidity of thp limbs usually attends persons recov- 
 ering from a stroke of lightning ; sprinkling, and rubbing the parts 
 with cold water should often be used. 
 
 The means to be used for the recovering of persons suddenly depri- 
 ved of life, are nearly the same in all cases. They are practicable by 
 every one who happens to be present at the accident, and require no 
 great expense, and less skill. 
 
 The great aim is to preserve or restore the vital warmth and motion. 
 This may in general be attempted by heat, frictions, blowing air into 
 the lungs, administering clysters, cordials, <fcc. These must be varied 
 according to circumstances. Common sense and the situation of the 
 patient, will suggest the means of relief. Above all we would recom- 
 mend perseverance. Much good may, and no harm can result ; who 
 would grudge pains in such a case ? * 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY. 
 
 Every family should know something about the weights and meas- 
 ures which are used by apothecaries, and the signs by which they are 
 denoted. 
 
 WEIGHTS. 
 
 The pound - Ife contains twelve ounces, 
 
 - ounce - 3 - eight drachms, 
 
 - drachm -3 - three scruples, 
 
 - scruple - B - twenty grains. 
 
 - grain - gr - 
 
 The grain weights are stamped with punch marks, indicative of the 
 number of grains each is equivalent to. 
 
 MEASURE OF FLUIDS. 
 The gallon - cong. contains eight pints. 
 , - pint - (octavus.) - sixteen fluid drachms. 
 
 - fluid ounce f 3 eight fluid drachms. 
 
 - fluid drachm f 3 sixtv minims. 
 
 - minim or drop TT[ 
 
 A table spoonful is supposed to be equal to half an ounce, or four 
 drachms — yet many of the modern spoons will contain five drachms. 
 A tea spoonful will equal sixty or seventy drops. A drop will contain 
 a quantity proportioned to the size of the mouth of the vial from which 
 it falls. A common ounce vial should be a medium size. 
 
 Where the dose furnished for an adult is a certain quantity, the 
 proper dose for a person of fourteen years will be two thirds of that 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 165 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY. 
 
 quantity — for seven years, one half — for live years, one third — for 
 three years, one fourth — for twenty-eight months, one fifth — for four- 
 teen months, one eighth — for seven months, one twelfth — for two 
 months, one fifteenth — for one month, one twentieth — under, one 
 twenty -fourth. 
 
 It is recommended that laudanum, antimonial wine, and other active 
 fluids, should not be given to young children after there is a cloud in 
 them, as the strength is then uncertain. In such cases, the substance 
 having fallen to the bottom, the top of the fluid is weaker, and the 
 bottom stronger. 
 
 Laxative Pills. Take of powder of cinnamon, 10 grains ; socoto- 
 rine aloes in fine powder, and castile soap, of each one drachm. Beat 
 them together in a stone or iron mortar, adding one or two drops of 
 sirup or molasses. Make into 32 pills. Dose for grown persons, two 
 at bed time. 
 
 Pills of Aloes and Fetida. Take socotorine aloes, assafcetida, 
 and soap, equal parts. Pill with gum arabic. These pills are good in 
 indigestion, attended with costiveness, and wind in the stomach and 
 bowels. 
 
 Hull's Colic Pills. Take cinnamon, cloves, mace, myrrh, saffron, 
 ginger, castile soap, of each one drachm, socotorine aloes one ounce, 
 essence of peppermint sufficient to moisten it. Make common sized 
 pills, and take them till they operate. 
 
 Purging Pills. Take rhubarb one part, cream tartar three parts, 
 grind together, and take a tea-spoonful in molasses occasionally to 
 prevent costiveness. 
 
 Sir H. Halford's Aperient Pills. Take of blue pill, twenty 
 grains ; compound extract of colocynth, half a drachm : mix and di- 
 vide into twelve pills. One or two to be taken for a dose every second 
 or third night. 
 
 Strengthening Pills. Take of subcarbonate of iron, two drachms ; 
 ipecacuanha, in powder, one scruple ; extract of gentian, two scruples ; 
 socotorine aloes, powdered, eight grains ; simple sirup or mucilage, 
 enough to form a mass ; divide into forty pills. Take two or three 
 twice or thrice a day. 
 
 To Excite Perspiration. Take of opium, six grains ; camphor, 
 twelve grains ; James' powder, twelve grains ; conserve enough to 
 form into twelve pills. One to be taken at bed time, occasionally. 
 
 Adhesive Plaster. Take of yellow resin, half a pound ; lead 
 plaster, three pounds ; melt the lead plaster by a gentle heat, then add 
 the resin in powder, and mix. This is the plaster commonly applied 
 to cuts, and to hold together the edges of recent wounds. 
 
 Anodyne Plaster. Take of hard opium, powdered, half an ounce ; 
 resin of spruce fir, powdered, three ounces ; lead plaster, a pound, melt 
 the plaster and resin together, and then add the opium and mix. 
 
 Strengthening Plaster. Take of litharge plaster, four ounces; 
 white resin, one ounce ; yellow wax, olive oil, of each half an ounce : 
 
166 FAMILY 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY, 
 
 rub the iron with the oil, and adding the other ingredients, mix the 
 whole. 
 
 Picra. Socotorine aloeg, one pound ; white canella, three ounces; 
 separately powdered and then mixed. Good purgative. Dose be- 
 tween a scruple and a drachm. May be taken in sirup or molasses. 
 
 Sweating Powder, or Dover's Powder. Ipecac in powder ; 
 opium, (dry,) of each one part ; sulphate of potash, eight parts ; grind 
 them together to a fine powder. Dose from five to twenty grains, as 
 the stomach and strength will bear it; lessen the dose if it threatens to 
 puke. This is a powerful sweating remedy in fevers, rheumatisms, 
 and dropsy, excellent in colds and suppressed respiration. In general, 
 this is the best opiate, as the Ipecac lessens the danger of a habitual 
 use of opium — a tiling- to be avoided next to habits of intoxication. 
 
 Elixir Proprietatus, Elix. Pro., or Tincture of Myrrh and 
 Aloes. Take of myrrh in powder, two ounces ; alcohol, one pound 
 and a half; water, half a pound; mix the alcohol with the water and 
 add the myrrh. Steep four days, and then add, socotorine aloes, an 
 ounce and a half; saffron, an ounce. Steep three days, and pour off 
 the clear liquor from the sediment. Laxative and stomachic. 
 
 Tincture of Bark, or Huxham'S Tincture. Take of Peruvian 
 bark in powder, two ounces ; orange peel dried, half an ounce ; Vir- 
 ginia snake root bruised, three drachms ; saffron, one drachm ; proof 
 spirits (rum,) two pounds ; steep fourteen days and strain. Good pre- , 
 paration of the bark taken as a bitter, a tea-spoonful to a glass of wine 
 before eating ; useful in low fevers. 
 
 Tincture of Guaiao. Take of gum guaiac, one pound ; alcohol, 
 two pounds and a half; steep for seven days, and strain. A powerful 
 sweating remedy in rheumatism and old gouty affections. Dose, a tea- 
 spoonful in spirit. 
 
 Laudanum. Take of opium, two ounces ; diluted alcohol, two 
 pounds ; digest seven days. This is an elegant opiate, but separates 
 by keeping. 
 
 Elixir Asthmatic. Take liquorice root, (pounded pretty fine,) one 
 pound ; common honey, one pound; Benzoic acid, or flowers, half an 
 ounce ; gum opium (good,) half an ounce ; gum camphor, a third of 
 an ounce ; oil of annise, two drachms ; common pearlash, half an 
 ounce ; best old spirits, eight pints. To the liquorice pounded pretty 
 fine, add the other ingredients, taking care to pulverize the opium. 
 When prepared, it should be kept in a warm place ten or twelve days, 
 and decanted clear. The remaining liquor must be squeezed from the 
 roots and filtered through a piece of unsized paper. 
 
 Linseed Meal Poultice. Scald your basin by pouring a little hot 
 water into it ; then put a small quantity of finely ground linseed meal 
 into the basin, pour a little hot water on it, and stir it round briskly, 
 until you have well incorporated it ; add a little more meal and a little 
 more water, then stir it again. Do not let any lumps remain in the 
 basin, but stir the poultice well, and do not be sparing of your trouble. 
 
 Bread and Water Poultice. Put half a pint of hot water into 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 167 
 
 PAMILX DISPENSATORY. 
 
 a pint basin, add to this as much of the crumbs of bread as the water 
 will cover, then place a plate over the basin, and let it remain about 
 ten minutes ; stir the bread about in the water, or, if necessary, chop 
 it a little with the edge of the knife, and drain off the water by hold- 
 ing the knife on the top of the basin ; but do not press the bread as is 
 usually done ; then take it out lightly, and spread it about one third of 
 an inch on some soft linen, and lay it Jfc)on the part. If • the part to 
 which it is applied be a wound, a bit ofnnt dipped in oil may be pla- 
 ced beneath the poultice. " This poultice/' says Mr. Abernethy, u may 
 be made with poppy water, if thought necessary ; it may be made with 
 hemlock juice, if recently expressed, which is a very good application 
 to irritable sores ; but there is nothing better, that I know of, than the 
 bread poultice to broken surfaces." 
 
 Mustard Povltice. Take of mustard seed, and linseed, of each, 
 (in powder,) half a pound ; hot vinegar, a sufficient quantity ; mix 
 them to the consistency of a poultice, and the poultice will be fit for 
 use. 
 
 Yeast Poultice. Take of flour, a pound ; yeast of beer, half a 
 pint ; mix, and expose the mixture to a gentle heat, until it begins to 
 swell, when it is fit for use. 
 
 Simple Ointment. Take olive (sweet) oil, five parts ; white wax, 
 two parts ; melt together. May be used for softening the skin, and 
 healing chaps and excoriations. 
 
 Golden Ointment. Take of purified quicksilver, an ounce ; nitric 
 acid, eleven drops ; lard, six ounces ; olive oil, four ounces ; dissolve 
 the mercury in the acid, then mix the hot solution, with the oil and 
 lard melted together. This is an excellent ointment for sore eyes, scald 
 head and most sorts of ulcers. When first used, it should be mixed 
 with an equal quantity of simple ointment. 
 
 Sulphur Ointment. Take of hog's lard, four parts ; flowers of 
 sulphur, one part ; to each pound of this ointment may be added, vol- 
 atile oil of lemons, or oil of lavender, half a drachm. A certain reme- 
 dy for the cure of itch. A pound serves for four unctions. The pa- 
 tient should be rubbed four nights in succession, each time one fourth 
 part of the body. 
 
 Sir H. Halford's Pile Ointment. Take one ounce of golden oint- 
 ment, and the same quantity of almond oil ; mix them carefully in a 
 mortar. Apply this ointment to the part affected once or twice daily. 
 
 Yellow Basilicum Ointment. Take of yellow wax, white resin, 
 and frankincence, of each one quarter of a pound ; mix, and melt over 
 a gentle fire, then add lard, one pound : strain the ointment while 
 warm. This ointment is the best dressing for all heathy ulcers. 
 
 Simple Sirup. Take of double refined sugar, fifteen parts ; water, 
 eight parts. Let the sugar be dissolved by a gentle heat, and boiled a 
 little, so as to form a sirup. 
 
 Sirup of Ginger. Take of best ginger, three ounces; boiling wa- 
 ter, four pounds ; double refined sugar, seven and a half pounds ; steep 
 the ginger in the water, in a close vessel, for twenty-four hours, then 
 
168 FAMILY 
 
 FAMILY DISPENSATORY. 
 
 to the strained liquor add the best sugar, so as to make a sirup. This 
 is an agreeable and mqderately aromatic sirup ; impregnated with the 
 flavor and the virtues of the ginger. 
 
 Sirup of Lemons. Take of juice of lemons, suffered to stand till 
 the sediment falls, then strain oft' the liquor, three parts ; double refined 
 sugar, five parts ; dissolve the sugar in the juice till it forms a sirup. 
 In the same way, are prepared sirup of mulberry juice ; sirup of rasp- 
 berry juice, and sirup of black currant juice. All these are pleasant 
 cooling sirups ; quenching thirst ; and may be used in gargles for sore 
 mouths. 
 
 Volatile Liniment. Take spirit of hartshorn, one part ; sweet oil, 
 or fresh butter, two parts ; mix, and shake in a viol. Sometimes a lit- 
 tle landanum or camphor is added. 
 
 Liniment of Oil and Lime. Take of linseed oif, lime water, of 
 each equal parts ; mix them. This liniment is extremely useful in 
 burns and scalds; efficacious in preventing inflammation after such ac- 
 cidents. 
 
 Camphorated Oil. Take of olive oil, two ounces; camphor, half 
 an ounce ; dissolve the camphor in the oil. Good, applied to local 
 pains ; to glandular swellings, and to the bowels in tympany. 
 
 Opodeldoc. Take of the best hard soap, two ounces ; camphor, 
 one ounce ; very strong spirit, one pint : mix the soap with the spirit, 
 and let them stand in a moderate heat, until the soap is dissolved, occa- 
 sionally shaking the vial ; then add the camphor, and continue to shake 
 the vessel frequently until the whole is dissolved. Useful in sprains, 
 bruises, and in rheumatic pains. Good to disperse swellings, tumors 
 and the like. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 169 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 MANUFACTURES, 
 
 COTTON. The rearing of cotton, and 
 the manufacture of it into various fabrics, 
 have of late years become objects of so 
 much attention, in several parts of the 
 world, that we shall devote the greater 
 space to a notice of these two subjects, 
 than our limits would otherwise seem to 
 justify. 
 
 The plant which produces cotton is cul- 
 tivated in the East and West Indies, in 
 North and South America, of which it is a 
 native, and in Egypt, and other parts of 
 the world. It is an annual plant, propaga- 
 ted from seeds. It grows to a considerable 
 height, and has leaves of a bright green 
 color marked with brownish veins, and 
 each divided into five lobes. The pods 
 which contain the cotton, are triangular in 
 shape, and have each three cells. These, 
 on becoming ripe, burst, and disclose their 
 snow white contents. 
 
 The cotton which is cultivated in the southern parts of the Uniteu 
 States is of three kinds — the nankeen cotton, so called from its color; 
 the green seed cotton, producing white cotton, and green seeds; and 
 the black seed cotton. The two first kinds are cultivated in the middle 
 and upper country, where they go by the name of short staple cotton ; 
 the last is raised in the lower country near the sea, and on the islands 
 adjacent to the continent. This is denominated sea island cotton ; it is 
 stronger, finer, and longer than the short staple cotton, and bears a high- 
 er price in market. 
 
 The manner of raising cotton, upon which it will be proper to make 
 a few observations, is as follows : — 
 
 If the land has been recently cleared, or has long remained fallow, 
 turn it up deep in winter; and in the first week in March, bed it up in 
 the following manner. Form 25 beds m 105 square feet of land, (be- 
 ing the space allotted to each able laborer for a day's work) ; this 
 leaves about four feet two and one-half inches from the centre of one 
 bed to the centre of the next. The beds should be three feet wide, 
 and flat in the middle. About the 15th of March, in the latitude of 
 from 29° to 30°, the cultivator should commence sowing, or as it is 
 generally termed planting. The seed should be well scattered in open 
 trenches, made in the centre of the beds and covered ; the proportion 
 of seed is one bushel to an acre ; this allows for accidents occasioned 
 by worms, or night chills. The cotton should be well weeded by hoes 
 once every twelve days, until blown, and even longer, if there is grass, 
 
 15 
 
170 FAMILY 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 observing to hoe up, that is, to the cotton, till it pods ; and hoe down, 
 when the cotton is blown, in order to check the growth of the plant. 
 From the proportion of seed mentioned, the cotton plants will come 
 up plentifully, too much so, to suffer all to remain. They should be 
 thinned moderately at each hoeing. When the plants have got 
 strength and growth, which may be about the third hoeing, to disre- 
 gard worms, and bear drought, they should be thinned according to 
 the fertility of the soil, from six inches to near two feet between the 
 stocks or plants. In rich river grounds, the beds should be from five 
 to six feet apart, measuring from centre to centre ; and the cotton 
 plants, when out of the way of worms, from two to three feet apart. 
 It is adviseable to top cotton once or twice in rich low grounds, and also 
 to remove the suckers. The latter end of July is generally considered 
 a proper time for topping. 
 
 The month of August in South Carolina and Georgia, is the season 
 for commencing the business of picking cotton. 
 
 The quantity of black seed cotton produced on an acre of Georgia 
 sea island, is about 200)bs. ; in Carolina, from 130 to 150lbs. ; an acre 
 of upland will commonly produce 3001'os. of green seed cotton. 
 
 The preparation of the ground for cotton is almost entirely effected 
 by the hoe. The plough is scarcely used. 
 
 For many years the separation of the seeds was a work of great labor. 
 But this is now much diminished by means of gins, of which there are 
 two kinds — the roller-gin and the saw-sin. 
 
 The first of these gins consists of two small cylinders, which revolve 
 so closety, that while the cotton passes through, the seeds are prevent- 
 ed. 
 
 The second kind, or saw-gin, was the invention cf Mr. Whitney of 
 New Haven, Connecticut, and is one of the most important labor sav- 
 ing machines ever introduced into the country. It is used in disenga- 
 ging the seeds of the black seeded cotton, which adhere too strongly to 
 be separated by the roller-gin. This machine consists of a. receiver, 
 one side of which is covered with strong parallel wires, about an eighth 
 of an inch apart. Between these wires pass a number of circular saws, 
 revolving on a common axis. In the revolutions of the-e saws, the cot- 
 ton becomes entangled, and is drawn through the grating, while the 
 seeds are, from their size, denied a passage. 
 
 The earliest seat of the manufacture of cotton w r as Hindoostan, 
 where it is still carried on, as at the first, by hand labor. But by means 
 of the inventions of Hargreaves and Ark \v right, between the years of 
 1768 and 1780, the manufacture of cotton has so far outstripped that 
 of the East, that the countries of the latter are now receiving the pro- 
 ducts of British manufactories at a cheaper rate than they can manu- 
 facture for themselves. Cotton fabrics are also beginning to be export- 
 ed from the United States to the East to advantage. 
 
 Next to the facilities for preparing cotton for the loom, which have 
 arrived to an astonishing degree of perfection, nothing has contributed 
 to extend the manufacture more than the invention of the power-loom, 
 by which the laborious process of weaving is converted into the mere 
 superintendence of two and sometimes three of these machines, each 
 
ENCYCLOPE DIA. 171 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 one of which is capable of producing from thirty to fortv yards of cloth 
 per day. Added to this, is the discovery of a process for transferring 
 in the manufacture of calicoes, the most delicate patterns from copper 
 cylinders, instead of from wooden blocks; by means of which the la- 
 bor and expense are surprisingly diminished. 
 
 We shall next speak of the process observed in the manufacturing 
 of cotton into cloth, which we abridge from the Encyclopedia Ameri- 
 cana. 
 
 "After the cotton has been ginned and picked or batted, the first op- 
 eration of the manufacturing, is carding. The carding engine consists 
 of a revolving cylinder covered witli cards, which is nearly surrounded 
 by a fixed concave framing, also lined with cards, with which the cylin- 
 der comes in contact. From this cylinder, called the breaker, the cotton 
 is taken oil by a comb called the dotfing-p\a.te, and passes through a se- 
 cond carding in the finishing cylinder. It is then passed through a 
 kind of funnel, by which it is contracted into a narrow band or sliver, 
 and received into tin cans, in a state of uniform, continued carding. 
 The next step in the process, is called drawing the cotton. This is ef- 
 fected by the drawing-frame, which in principle is similar to the spin- 
 ning-frame. Roving the cotton, which is the next part of the process, 
 gives a slight twist, which converts it into a soft and loose thread, call- 
 ed the roving. The machine for performing this operation is called the 
 roving-frame, or double-speeder. In order to wind the roving upon the 
 bobbins of the spindles, in even, cylindrical layers, the spindle rail is 
 made to rise and fall slowly by means of heart- wheels in the interior 
 of the machine. And as the size of the bobbins is augmented by each 
 layer, the velocity of the spindles -and of the spindle-rail is made to di- 
 minish gradually, from the beginning to the end of the operation. This 
 is effected by transmitting the motion to both, through two opposite 
 cones, one of which drives the other with a band, which is made to pass 
 slowly from one end to the other of the cones, and thus continually to 
 alter their relative speed, and cause a uniform retardation of the velo- 
 city. The bobbins are now transferred to the spinning frame. The 
 twist is given to the thread when drawn out by flyers driven by 
 bands, which receive their motion from a horizontal fly-wheel. The 
 yarn produced by this mode of operation is called wjil.tr twist, from 
 the circumstance that the machinery from which it is obtained was at 
 first generally put in motion by water. In 177.5 the m>ve-jenny or 
 mule was invented by Samuel Crompton of Bolton. The spindles are 
 mounted on a moveable carriage, which recedes when the threads 
 are stretched, and return when they are to be wound up. By means 
 of this machine the size and twist of the thread become uniform 
 throughout." 
 
 The following process of a pound of cotton may not be uninteresting 
 to our readers. It appeared originally in the English Monthly Maga- 
 zine. " There was sent to London lately, from Paisley, a small piece 
 of muslin, about one pound weight, the history of which is as follows. 
 The wool came from the East Indies to London ; from London it went 
 to Manchester where it was manufactured into yarn ; from Manches- 
 ter, it was sent to Paisley, where it was woven. It was sent to Ayr- 
 shire next, where it was tamboured ; it was then conveyed to Dunbar- 
 ton, where it was hand-sewed, and again returned to Paislev, whence it 
 
172 FAMILY 
 
 SILK MANUFACTURE. SATIN. VELVET. GAUZE. 
 
 was sent to Glasgow and finished, and then sent per coach to London. 
 It took three years to bring this article to market, from the time that it 
 was packed in India till it arrived complete in the merchant's ware- 
 house in London ; whither it must have been conveyed 5,000 miles by 
 sea, and nearly 1000 by land, and contributed to reward the labors of 
 nearly 150 persons, whose services were necessary in the carriage and 
 manufacture of this small quantity of cotton, and by which its value 
 was advanced more than 2000 per cent." 
 
 SILK MANUFACTURE. Silk is a very soft, fine, bright, delicate 
 thread, the production of an insect or moth, called by the ancients bom' 
 byx ; by the moderns, phalcena mori, or silk worm. Silk is manufactur- 
 ed into a variety of fabrics, of which we shall notice the following : 
 
 SATIN is a kind of thick silken stuff, very smooth and shining; the 
 warp is very fine and prominent, the woof coarser and hidden under- 
 neath : on which depends its gloss and beauty. Some satins are quite 
 plain, others wrought, some flowered with gold or silk, others striped. 
 The finest satins are those of Florence and Genoa, yet the French will 
 not allow those of Lyons to be at all inferior. Indian satins, or satins 
 of China, are silken stuffs, much like those manufactured in Europe. 
 Of these some are plain, others worked, either with gold or silk, flow- 
 ered, damasked, striped, &c. They are mostly valued because of their 
 bleaching easily, without losing any thing of their lustre. In other re- 
 spects they are inferior to those of Europe. Some very good satins are 
 made in England. 
 
 VELVET ; a rich kind of thick, shaggy stuff made of silk ; the nap, 
 or velveting, of this stuff is formed of part of the threads of the warp, 
 which the workman puts on a long narrow-channelled ruler, and which 
 he afterwards cuts by drawing a sharp steel tool along the ruler to the 
 end of the warp. The principal and best manufactures of velvet are 
 in England and France ; there are others in Italy, as at Venice, Milan, 
 Florence, Genoa, and Lucca, and in Holland at Haerlem ; those in Chi- 
 na are the worst of all. A good imitation of silk velvet is now to be 
 obtained, made of cotton ; but the dyes are less permanent on cotton 
 than on silk. 
 
 TAFFETY ; a kind of fine, smooth, silken stuff, having usually a 
 remarkable gloss. There are taffeties of all colors, some plain, others 
 striped with gold, silver, silk, &c. others chequered or flowered. There 
 are three things that contribute to the perfection of taffeties, the silk, 
 the water, and the fire. The silk should not only be of the finest kind, 
 but must be worked a long time aud very much before it is used. The- 
 watering seems only intended to give it that fine lustre, by a peculiar 
 property not found in all waters ; and lastly, the perfection of the stuff 
 depends greatly on a particular application of the fire. 
 
 GAUZE, a transparent kind of stuff, which is woven sometimes of 
 silk, and at other times only of flax. There are figured gauzes, .some 
 with flowers of gold and silver, on a silk ground ; these last are chiefly 
 brought from China. The gauze loom is much like that of a common 
 weaver's, though it has several appendages peculiar to itself. 
 
 TABBY: in commerce a kind of coarse taffety, watered. It is ma- 
 nufactured like the common taffety, excepting that it is stronger and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 173 
 
 BROCADE. STOCKINGS. HISTORY OF S[LK. 
 
 thicker both in the woof and warp. The watering is given to it by 
 means of a calender; the rollers are of iron or copper variously engra- 
 ven, which, bearing unequally on the stuff, render the surface thereof 
 unequal, so as to reflect the rays of light differently. It is usual to tabby 
 mohairs, ribbons, Szc. Tabbying is performed without the addition of 
 any water or dye^ and furnishes the modern philosophers with a strong 
 proof, that colors are only appearances. 
 
 BROCADE, in commerce, a sort of stuff made of cloth, of cr ld, sil- 
 ver, or silk, raised and enriched with flowers, foliage, or other figures, 
 according to tiie fancy of the manufacturer. Formerly the term was 
 applied only to cloths woven either wholly of gold, both woof and 
 warp, or of silver, or both together; but by degrees it came likewise to 
 pass for such as had silk intermixed, to fill up and terminate the flower3 
 of gold and silver. At present any stuff or silk, satin, or even simple 
 tapestry, when wrought and enriched with raised flowers, &c. obtains 
 the appellation of brocade. 
 
 STOCKINGS. Anciently the only stockings in use were made of 
 cloth, or milled stuffs sewed together ; but since the invention of knit- 
 ting and weaving stockings of silk, wool, and cotton thread, the use of 
 cloth stockings is laid aside. The modern stockings, whether woven 
 or knit, are a kind of plexus, formed of an .infinite number of little 
 knots, calied stitches, loops, or meshes, intermixed. Knit stockings are 
 wrought with needles made of polished iron, or brass wire, which in- 
 terweave the threads, and form the meshes of which the stocking con- 
 sists. This operation is called knitting, the time of the invention of 
 which it is difficult to fix precisely, though it is commonly attributed to 
 the Scots, because the first works of this kind came from Scotland. 
 Woven stockings are manufactured on a frame or machine made of 
 iron, the structure of which is exceedingly ingenious, yet complex. 
 On this account it is not easily described. 
 
 HISTORY OF SILK. The silk worm is a native of China. The 
 Seres, who inhabit the northern part of that country, cultivated the 
 precious article. Having been expelled by the Huns, A. D. 93, they 
 settled in Little Bucharia. Silks were first brought from China to Sy- 
 ria and Egypt by traders, who in caravans performed journies of 243 
 days through the deserts of Asia. The price was far beyond the reach 
 of any but the rich; and for a long time the use of silk among the 
 Romans was confined to women of fortune. The emperor Aurelian 
 refused his queen a garment of silk, by reason of the high price it bore 
 — its weight in crold. In the sixth century, two monks, who had been 
 employed as missionaries in the East, penetrated into the country of the 
 Seres, and observed the labors of the silk worms, and the manner of 
 working their production into elegant fabrics. They imparted the 
 secret to the emperor Justinian, at Constantinople, who 'induced them, < 
 by a great reward, to return and bring away a quantity of the silk worms' 
 eggs. • They put the eggs into the hollow of a cane, and brought them 
 safely to Constantinople, about the year 555. The eggs were hatched, 
 and the worms were fed with mulberry leaves ; and the insects produ- 
 ced from this cane full of eggs were the progenitors of all the silk worms 
 of Europe, and the western parts of Asia. The people of the Morea, 
 
 15* 
 
174 FAMILY 
 
 HISTORY t)F SILK. 
 
 and of the cities of Athens and Thebes enjoyed the profit of the culture 
 and manufacture of silk upwards of 400 years ; but in 1146, the king 
 of Sicily made war upon Greece, and carried off a great number of silk 
 weavers, who taught the Sicilians to raise silk worms, and weave silk 
 stuffs. The Saracens introduced the silk manufacture into Spain and 
 Portugal ; and subsequently the Italian States, France and England 
 engaged in it. 
 
 It 'will not consist with our limits to enter minutely into the history 
 of the silk business in foreign countries. Much of the silk used in the 
 manufactures of France is raised at home ; yet it is stated that that 
 country pays nearly twenty millions of dollars annually for raw silk, 
 raised in other countries. 
 
 The art of reeling silk from the cocoons, so as to convert it into a 
 saleable article, is known only in China, in Bengal, in the Turkish do- 
 minions, in Italy, and in the south of France. It is not known in Great 
 Britain, where the climate is not suited for that culture. Her manu- 
 facturers are obliged to depend upon foreign countries for the raw and 
 thrown or twisted silk, which they use, and of which several millions of 
 pounds are annually imported into that country. 
 
 The manufacture of this silk into various fabrics, employs a large 
 capital, and many thousands of men and women. " I calculate," said 
 Mr. Wilson, a well informed and extensive silk manufacturer, while 
 under examination before a committee of the House of Lords, M that 
 40,000 persons are employed in throwing silk for the weaver, whose 
 wages will, I think, amount to £350,000. I estimate that half a mil- 
 lion pounds of soap, and a large proportion of the most costly dye- 
 stuffs are consumed, at a further expense of £300,000 ; and 265,000 
 more are paid to 16,500 winders to prepare it. The number of looms 
 may be taken at 40,000 ; and including weavers, warpers, mechanics, 
 harness-makers, enterers, twisters, cane-spreaders, quill-winders, and 
 draw boys, at two hands to a loom, will employ 80,000 more persons, 
 and the wages amount to £3,000,000. If we include infants and de- 
 pendents, about 400,000 mouths will be fed by the silk manufacture, the 
 value of which I estimate at ten millions." Mr. Hale, of Spital- 
 fields, estimates the number of persons supported by the silk manufac- 
 ture, at 500,000 ; but Mr. Bell, and some other intelligent gentlemen 
 engaged in the trade, do not carry their estimate so high as Mr. Wil- 
 son ; perhaps his, which is the medium, may be regarded as the most 
 accurate. 
 
 Since the settlement of the United States by the English, several 
 experiments have been made on the subject of raising silk. The cul- 
 ture of it first commenced in Virginia. As early as 1666, the rearing 
 of silk w T orms was a part of the regular business of many of the far- 
 mers. One man had 70,000 mulberry trees growing in 1664. Georgia 
 sent eight pounds of raw silk to England, in 1735, and 10,000 pounds 
 in 1759. Some attention was paid to the culture of silk in South Car- 
 olina, and in 1755, Mrs. Pinckney raised and spun silk enough for three 
 complete dresses. In Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the culture of silk 
 began in 1771, but was suspended by the war of the revolution. 
 
 Mulberry trees and silk worms were introduced into the town of 
 Mansfield, in the county of Windham, Conn., about the year 1760 ; 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 175 
 
 STATISTICS OF SILK. MULBERRY TREE. 
 
 and in 1789, two hundred pounds of raw silk were made in that town. 
 At present, three-fourths of the families in Mansfield are engaged in 
 raising silk, and make annually from live to ten, twenty, and fifty 
 pounds in a family, and one or two have made, each, one hundred 
 pounds in a season. It is believed that there are annually made in 
 that town and the vicinity, from three to four tons of silk. 
 
 From the experiments which have already been made, ample evi- 
 dence exists that the culture of silk may be profitably pursued in the 
 United States to almost any extent, since the mulberry tree grows indi- 
 genously throughout the country : and it is a fact well ascertained that 
 American silk is decidedly superior to that, of any other country on 
 the globe. In France, twelve pounds of cocoons are required to 
 produce one pound of raw silk, while eight pounds are amply suffi- 
 cient to produce the same quantity in this country. 
 
 Were the culture of silk only equal to our home consumption, an 
 immediate attention to it would be a saving to the country of not 
 less than ten millions of dollars annually, as may be seen by the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 Statement of the value of silk goods imported and exported in the years 
 1821/0 1825 inclusive. 
 
 Years. Imported. Exported. 
 
 1821 $4,486,924 $1,057,233 
 
 1822 6,480,928 1.016,262 
 
 1823 6,713,771 1,512,449 
 
 1824 7,203,344 1,816,325 
 
 1825 10,271,527 2,565,742 
 
 $35,156,494 $7,968,011 
 
 Yet there cannot be a doubt that a quantity may be annually produ- 
 ced, which shall not only meet the home demand ; but, in a few 
 years, leave a surplus for exportation. The most important step to- 
 wards this state of things is the extensive cultivation of the white 
 mulberry tree, the leaves of which form the p-oper aliment of the 
 silk-worm. 
 
 Mulberry tree. All practical writers agree that the proper soils 
 for the mulberry tree are dry, sandy or stony. Indeed, a soil which is 
 of little value to the farmer, on account of its sterility, will answer 
 well for the mulberry tree. The methods of propagating the tree are 
 .various. A writer in the New England Farmer speaks as follows of 
 four methods. 
 
 First, From the seed ; 2d from roots ; 3d from layers, and 4th from 
 cuttings. The 1st and 4th can at present be alone generally resorted 
 to in this country. An ounce of good, well cleaned seed, well mana- 
 ged, will probably produce ten or twelve thousand plants. It should 
 be sowed towards the last of April. The ground being properly pre- 
 pared, by previous ploughing, or digging, and manuring, is to be clean- 
 ed, levelled, and divided into beds of four or five feet in width. Drills 
 from six to ten inches asunder, and from one to two inches deep, must 
 then be made by a line. The seed may be sown in these drills dry, or 
 having been steeped two days in water, rub it on pack thread to which 
 
176 FAMILY 
 
 EGGS OF SILK WORMS. HATCHING THE EGGS. 
 
 it will adhere, lay the thread in the bottom of the drill and cover it 
 with earth. In two or three weeks, if kept moist, the young plants 
 will appear. Keep the beds clear of weeds. On the approach of 
 winter it may be well to cover them with leaves. H the seedlings 
 grow the first season to the height of one foot or more, take them up 
 in the spring following, cut the top so us to leave about three inches 
 above ground, cut off the lower part of the root, and set them in nur- 
 series in rows, like other fruit trees, where the following spring. they 
 may or may not be grafted, pruned and cultivated, until they become , 
 sufficiently large to set in hedges or planlatv.ns. Cuttings should be 
 taken from perpendicular shoots, and particularly from those which 
 terminate branches: They should be of the last summer's growth, and 
 from 6 to' 15 inches in length. Plant them in shady borders, early in 
 the spring, about tw T o-thirds of their length in the ground ; close the 
 earth well about them, and in dry weather let them be watered. After 
 a year, they may be transplanted in open nursery rows, if well rooted. 
 
 Another mode of cultivating the mulberry, and one which has been 
 to some extent adopted in New England is to sow the seed broadcast* 
 like turnips in the spring ; and in the following season to cut the plants 
 with a scythe when wanted. The mowing is regularly prosecuted 
 every morning, in the quantities required, and unless the season is one 
 of severe drouth, the field will be cut twice or thrice before the worms 
 begin to wind up. 
 
 The advantages of this last mode are stated to be 
 
 1. The leaves are gathered with less labor and expense, being cut 
 and taken together like hay, or grain. 
 
 2. The leaves are larger and more tender, than on the grown tree, 
 and the worms eat with more appetite and produce more silk. 
 
 3. The time of gathering the supply is so short, that the leaves are 
 got with the morning dew upon them, which is deemed by practical 
 men an essential advantage. Other writers say that the leaves when 
 given to the worms should be thorougly dry. 
 
 4. , More worms can be supported from a given space of ground, and 
 the mulberries are ready after one season, instead of waiting several 
 years for the formation of an orchard. 
 
 The importance of the culture of silk will be our apology forgiving 
 at some length, directions for the raising of silk worms, for which we 
 are indebted to a valuable work entitled " Essays on American Silk, 
 &c. by John D. Homergue." 
 
 EGGS OF SILK WORMS. The eggs of silk worms so strongly 
 resemble the seeds of the poppy, that they may easily be taken for 
 them ; and the contrary. In Europe, the latter have sometimes been 
 sold for the former. Pure water, however, is an effectual test ; good 
 eggs sinking to the bottom, while poppy seeds and bad eggs will swim. 
 Eggs, which have been washed, should be dried by exposure to cool 
 and dry air. They should be kept in a cool place until the hatching 
 season. Cold does not injure them provided that they do not freeze. 
 
 HATCHING THE EGGS. The general rule in Europe is to put 
 the worms to hatch, as soon as the mulberry trees begin to bud. In this 
 country, this happens usually about the 21st of May. Should the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 177 
 
 REARING SILK WORMS. — RISING OF THE SILK WORMS. 
 
 j season of budding, however, be delayed, the hatching should be pro- 
 
 ' portionally deferred. 
 
 The manner of putting the eggs to hatch, according to M. D'Ho- 
 
 i merguc, is as follows : — M They should be put in a pasteboard or wood- 
 
 I en box, not covered at the top, and the sides not more than half an inch 
 high, so that the worms, when hatched, may easily crawl out, as will 
 be presently mentioned. The size of the box should be suited to the 
 quantity of eggs to be hatched, so that they be not on the top of one 
 another ; but they may touch each other. The box should be covered 
 with paper, perforated with holes of the size of a large pin's head, so 
 that the worms, when hatched, may easily pass through them. They 
 are usually hatched in three days, after being put into the box. When 
 they are near coming out, young mulberry leaves should be put on the 
 top of the box, leaving spaces. The worms as soon as hatched, will 
 smell those leaves, crawl up to them through the holes in the paper 
 cover, and begin feeding. Now remove such leaves as are covered 
 with worms, gently, to the table or hurdle, which has been prepared 
 to receive them. It should be added that a warm place should be pro- 
 vided for the eggs to hatch iu, where the temperature is at least 80 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit. 
 
 REARING SILK WORMS. The worms, after being hatched as 
 above described, are to be laid on wicker hurdles, which are to be kept 
 quite clean. Pine tables will answer well. 
 
 During the first day, the room should be kept in the same degree of 
 heat ; but, afterwards, as the strength of the insect increases, a lower 
 temperature is admissible. Dry air from the north and west may be 
 let in ; but all dampness should be carefully excluded. 
 
 The greatest cleanliness should be maintained. In order to clean a 
 table, place another table close to it, on which lay fresh mulberry leaves. 
 The worms will immediately crawl to them, leaving the first table 
 empty. This shifting of the worms, however, should not take place, 
 until after their first moulting. They generally moult, or shed their 
 skin, four times. During the moulting, which lasts twenty-four hours, 
 they lie torpid, and do not feed. They should then be left quiet. 
 
 RISING OF THE SILK WORMS. " When the silk worms are 
 ready to make their cocoons, which in this country, generally, is on 
 the 31st day after they have been hatched, a kind of artificial hedge, 
 not above one foot high, must be prepared, by means of some brush- 
 wood without any leaves, which is to be fixed along the wall, behind 
 the table on which the worms are. They crawl of themselves in this 
 hedge, which is called rising, and there make their cocoons. This 
 brushwood must not be fixed straight up along the wall, but should be 
 inclined above and below, m the form of a semicircle towards the table 
 on which it is to rest, because the worms always move in a circular di- 
 rection ; and also in order that, if they should fall, they may not fall 
 upon the table or floor, but on some part of the artificial hedge, whence 
 they may crawl up and carry on their work. 
 
 It is easy to know when the worms are ready to rise. They crawl on 
 the leaves without eating them ; they rear their heads, as if in search 
 of something to climb on, their rings draw in, the skin of their necks 
 
178 FAMILY 
 
 COCOONS KEPT FOR USE, 
 
 becomes wrinkled, and their body becomes like soft dough. Their 
 color also changes to a pale yellow. When these signs appear, the 
 table should be cleaned, and the hedge prepared to receive them. 
 
 From the moment that the cocoons begin to rise, they cease to eat; 
 they must not be touched, nor their cocoons, until they are picked off, 
 as will be presently mentioned. " 
 
 PICKING OFF THE COCOONS. « The worms generally form 
 their cocoons in three days after their rising ; but they are not perfect 
 until the sixth day, when they may be picked off from the hedge. In 
 Europe this is not done until the eighth day, nor should it be done 
 sooner in this country, if during the six days there have been violent 
 thunder-storms, by which the labors of the moth are generally inter- 
 rupted. The cocoons must be taken down gently, and great care taken 
 not to press hard on them ; because, if in the least flattened, they fall 
 into the class of imperfect cocoons, and are greatly lessened in value. 
 
 In picking the cocoons from the hedge, the floss or tow with which 
 they are covered must be delicately taken off, always taking care not to 
 press too hard on the cocoons. 
 
 After the cocoons are thus taken down, some are preserved for eggs 
 and others kept for sale." 
 
 COCOONS KEPT FOR USE. "In order that the farmer may 
 judge of the quantity of cocoons that it will be proper or advisable for 
 him to put aside and preserve for eggs, it is right that he should be told 
 that fourteen ounces of cocoons will produce one ounce of eggs, and 
 one ounce of eggs will produce a quintal of cocoons. 
 
 In selecting the cocoons to be kept for eggs, it is recommended to se- 
 lect the white ones in preference, and keep the colored ones for sale ; 
 attention should be paid to having an equal number of males and fe- 
 males, and they are generally known by the following signs : the male 
 cocoons, that is to say those which contain the male insects, are in gen- 
 eral smaller than the female, they are somewhat depressed in the mid- 
 dle, as it were w T ith a ring ; they are sharp at one end and sometimes 
 at both, and hard at both ends; the female cocoons, on the contrary, 
 are larger than the male, round and full, little or not at all depressed in 
 the middle, and not pointed at either end. They may easily be dis- 
 cerned by a little habit. 
 
 It is particularly recommended to take off all the floss or tow from 
 these cocoons, so that the moth may find no difficulty in coming out. 
 
 After the cocoons have been taken down from the hedge, those which 
 are intended for eggs should be laid, but not crowded, on tables, that is 
 to say, the males on one table and the females on another, that they 
 may not copulate too soon, and before they have discharged a viscid 
 humor, of a yellow reddish color, which prevents their fecundity. 
 They discharge this humor in one hour after coming out of the co- 
 coons, which is generally ten days after these have been taken down 
 from the hedge ; but this may be accelerated by heat. 
 
 At the expiration of one hour after the moths have come out of their 
 cocoons, the males and females may be put together on tables or on tho 
 floor ; the tables or floor ought to be previously covered with linen or 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 179 
 
 COCOONS INTENDED FOR SALE. 
 
 cloth, on which, after copulation, the females lay their eggs. One fe-' 
 1 male moth or butterfly generally lavs 500 eggs ; the male and female 
 ■ remain about six hours together, during which time they copulate ; 
 after which they separate, and the female is 48 or 50 hours laying eggs ; 
 ibut the greatest quantity during the first 40 hours. 
 
 From the moment the moths have come out of their cocoons until 
 the females have laid all their eggs, the room must be kept entirely 
 dark ; the light debilitates them and makes them produce but few eggs, 
 and the worms that come from them are weak and puny. 
 
 When the female moths have done laying eggs, all the insects must 
 be taken away, and may be given as food to the fowls. The eggs must 
 remain on the cloth where they have been deposited during fifteen or 
 twenty days, until they shall have become of an ash or slate color, 
 when they are perfectly ripe, and may be considered as good eggs. 
 Then the cloth or linen must be folded, and kept in a cool and dry 
 I place, until it shall be thought proper to take off the eggs, which is 
 done by putting the cloth into pure water, and when thoroughly wet- 
 ted, scraping gently the eggs from the cloth, taking care not to injure 
 them. When thus scraped into the water, all the good eggs will go to 
 the bottom, and the bad, if any, will swim at the top. 
 
 The eggs being thus washed, must be dried in the open air, and when 
 perfectly dry, the best mode to preserve them is to put them into hollow 
 reeds, or cane's, perfectly dry, and closed at the two extremities with a 
 thin piece of flaxen or cotton linen well fastened. It is also the best 
 means to transport them from one place to another." 
 
 COCOONS INTENDED FOR SALE. " In order to prevent the 
 cocoons from being perforated by the moths escaping from them, which 
 greatly lessens their value, it is necessary to kill the moths. This is 
 generally done by baking in an oven or by steam, but the best mode, 
 which is peculiarly well adapted to warm climates, is to lay the cocoons 
 on linen or cotton sheets, but not too close, or one upon another, and 
 to expose them thus to the heat of the sun in open air, when it is per- 
 fectly dry, during four days, from 11 A. M. to 4 P. M. taking great 
 care in handling them not to crush or flatten them, which is of the 
 highest importance. In that time there is no doubt that the moths will 
 be killed. 
 
 The processes of steaming and baking are not always safe, because 
 they may be overdone and the silk greatly injured. Yet if the weath- 
 er should prove obstinately damp or rainy, those processes must be re- 
 curred to, but not in dry sunshiny weather, when they can be avoided. 
 
 The last thing to be spoken of is the packing of the cocoons to send 
 to market. They must be put in boxes with great care, not pressed too 
 close, lest they should be flattened, and close enough that they should 
 not suffer in like manner by striking hard upon each other in conse- 
 quence of the motion of carriages or stages. The boxes being dry 
 and well conditioned may be transported by steam-boats; if transport- 
 ed by sea, they should not remain longer than fifteen days on salt wa- 
 ter, lest they should become mouldy. On river water, and particular- 
 ly by steam boats, there is not the same danger. The boxes in ev2ry 
 case should be covered with a tarpaulin or good oiled cloth, that they 
 may in no case suffer from dampness or rain. 
 
180 FAMILY 
 
 LINEN. CAMBRIC. — LACE, 
 
 The priee of good cocoons in France is from twenty-five to thirty- 
 five cents per pound of sixteen ounces ; I mean of perfect cocoons. 
 Perforated cocoons, from which the moth has escaped, those which are 
 spotted, and the imperfect ones, called chiques, command no price, and 
 are generally given away by the silk culturists. There are but few of 
 them, because those who raise silk worms being: experienced in the bu- 
 siness, produce hardly any but good cocoons. "When these are sold, 
 the bad ones are thrown into the bargain. 
 
 The price of cocoons in this country cannot yet be settled ; but it 
 will be the interest of the silk culturist to sell them in the beginning as 
 cheap as possible, to encourage the silk manufactures, which alone can 
 procure them regular purchasers, and without which their produce must 
 lie upon their hands." 
 
 LINEN. Lixien cloth, it is well known, is manufactured from flax, 
 an annual plant, with a slender hollow stem usually about two feet 
 high, the bark of which consists of fibres, which when dressed, are ex- 
 tensively worked into this cloth, and other articles, in various countries 
 of the globe. Linens are manufactured for exportation to the greatest 
 extent, and of the finest quality, in Ireland, Holland, Bohemia, Sile- 
 sia, Moravia, and the Netherlands. The linen manufacture is the sta- 
 ple branch of Irish industry ; and in Bohemia alone, it is said to em- 
 ploy more than three hundred thousand persons. The annual value of 
 it in Silesia is 1,500,000/. sterling ; and there are whole villages and 
 towns occupied by weavers. Russia has three hundred factories of 
 linen ; and this forms the most important manufacture and export of 
 the Hessian States in Germany. In other parts of Europe, and in the 
 United States, it has been carried on to a limited extent, and chiefly 
 for home-consumption. A late writer remarks, that " the length and 
 comparative rigidity of the fibres of flax, present difficulties in the way 
 of spinning it by the machinery which is used for cotton and wool. It 
 cannot be prepared by carding, as these other substances are, and the, 
 rollers are capable of drawing it but very imperfectly. The subject of 
 spinning flax by machinery, has attracted much attention ; and the 
 Emperor Napoleon, at one time, offered a reward of a million of francs 
 to tne inventor of the best machine for this purpose. Various individ- 
 uals, both in this country and in Europe, have succeeded in construct- 
 ing machines which spin coarse threads very well, and with great rapid- 
 ity. But the manufacture of fine threads, such as those used for cam- 
 brics and lace, continues to be performed by hand upon the ancient 
 spinning wheel." 
 
 CAMBRIC is a species of linen made of flax, very fine and white, 
 the name of which was originally derived from the city of Cambray, 
 where it was first manufactured. It is now made at other places in 
 France, as well as in different parts of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land ; but French cambrics are still preferred for their extreme fineness 
 and durability. 
 
 LACE is a complicated, ornamental fabric, formed of fine threads 
 of linen, cotton, or silk. It consists of a net work of small meshes, 
 the most common form of which is hexagonal. In perfect thread lace, 
 four sides of the hexagon consist of threads which are twisted, while 
 in the remaining two, they are simply crossed. Lace is commonly 
 
EN CYCLOPEDIA. 181 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. 
 
 made upon a cushion or pillow, by the slow labor of artists. A piece 
 of stiff parchment is stretched upon the cushion, having- holes pricked 
 through it, in which pins are inserted. The threads previously wound 
 upon small bobbins, are woven round the pins and twisted in various 
 ways, by the hands, so as to form the required pattern. The expen- 
 siveness of the different kinds of lace, is proportioned to the tedious- 
 ness of the operation. Some of the more simple fabrics are executed 
 with rapidity, while others in which the sides of the meshes are plait- 
 ed, as in the Brussels lace, and that made at Valenciennes, are difficult, 
 and bear a much higher price. 
 
 The cheaper kinds of lace, have long been made by machinery. And 
 recently the invention of Mr. Heathcoat's lace machine, has effected 
 the fabrication of the more difficult or twisted lace, with precision and 
 despatch. This machine is exceedingly complicated and ingenious, 
 and is now in operation in this country and in France, as well as in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The best white lace has usually been made of flax ; but cotton can 
 now be spun so neatly and finely, that the use of it, even in Lone-lace, 
 has completely, in England, superseded the use of flax ; and indeed 
 woven lace is now got up in that country, so neatly as to have also su- 
 perseded in a great degree, the use of that made by the hand. Gold and 
 silver thread is also wrought into lace. This is a stout fabric, common- 
 ly close, but wrought so as to exhibit some sort of figure. It is made 
 of different widths, but all narrow like ribbon. There is also a worsted 
 lace, of a similar texture, commonly wrought with various patterns in 
 colors. This was formerly much used on liveries, and may still be seen 
 occasionally on the lining of carriages. 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. While the people of the United States 
 were British colonies, the culture of flax was more attended to than 
 since they have become independent. In the year 1770, there were 
 exported in one year upwards of 312,000 bushels of flax seed. For 
 twenty years preceding 1816, the annual export of this article averaged 
 but about 250,000 bushels. The causes of this decrease it is unneces- 
 sary in this place to mention. It cannot be doubted, that the cultiva- 
 tion might be profitable to the people of this country, and that it will 
 be more extensively cultivated in future years, scarcely admits of a ques- 
 tion. Much of the soil is excellently well adapted to the raising of 
 flax. This is true of considerable portions of the state of Maine, of 
 New England, the western parts of the state of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, and southward to the cotton latitude. In view of the 
 importance of this subject to our country, we shall give, at some length, 
 directions for the cultivation of flax, for which we are indebted to an 
 able essay from the pen of S. W. Pomeroy, Esq. published in the Mass. 
 Agricultural Repository. 
 
 £>oil. " The soils which rank first in this country,'' says Mr. Pome- 
 roy, are the flat bottoms, that are covered by the fall and spring floods, 
 which subside early enough in the season to get in a crop ; those river 
 flats on the second banks, that have a depth of strong alluvial soil ; the 
 reclaimed marshes and swamps, with a black, unctuous soil, not too 
 peaty, with as much clay in the composition, as will permit its being 
 rendered soon dry and mellow, and not retain water on or near the sur- 
 
 16 
 
182 FAMILY 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. 
 
 face ; if it stands two feet below, so much the better, but must be well 
 guarded by ditches and dykes against sudden freshets. Such is the 
 soil of the province of Zealand, where more flax is raised, and of a bet- 
 ter quality, than in any other part of Holland. The next in estimation 
 are the strong black loams on clay, or hard pan, that will retain mois- 
 ture. Yellow loams, with a holding sub-soil, may be rendered suitable 
 for flax, by proper cultivation ; and since the discovery, that plaster of 
 Paris is an excellent manure for it, a crop may be obtained with much 
 more certainty on lighter land than formerly. Perhaps the character- 
 istic of best garden mould may be applied to a flax soil, viz. retaining 
 sufficient moisture, and all that falls, without ever being saturated ; but 
 on any soils the surface should be completely pulverized, and never 
 worked when wet. 
 
 Manures. v " No dung should be applied to the land, when the flax 
 is sown ; but may be put on bountifully with the previous crop. The 
 objection is, that dung forces the growth so rapidly, that the plants draw 
 weak, have a thin harle, and are more liable to lodge. Lime, marie, 
 shells, leached ashes, &c. do not produce such effects. Top dressings, 
 soon after the plants appear, or plaster, ashes, soot, &c. are highly bene- 
 ficial, as they not only encourage the growth, but are a protection 
 against worms, which sometimes attack the young plants, and may be 
 considered the only enemy they have, except weeds. 
 
 " Salt has been mentioned by the late Dr. Elliott, of Connecticut, as 
 an excellent manure to plough in with the flax, at the rate of five 
 bushels to the acre ; probably more would be better. Plaster is now- 
 much used in Dutchess county, the best cultivated district in New York, 
 as a manure for flax, on which its good effects are as apparent as on 
 corn. 
 
 Preparation of the land. u It is not unfrequent in Ireland to ob- 
 tain crops of flax from green sward, on which they put lime, shells, 
 limestone, gravel, &c. and break up in the fall, cross ploughing and 
 harrowing fine in the spring ; but it most commonly succeeds a crop 
 of potatoes, which receive the manure. In Flanders, hemp was for- 
 merly more used as a preparation for flax than since the introduction 
 of potatoes. In Italy, it commonly precedes flax, and although the 
 land gets no tillage, as the hemp is well manured it grows strong, and 
 is then a powerful destroyer of weeds. In England, on some of the 
 fen soils of Lincolnshire, the usual course is hemp two or three years 
 in succession, well manured, then flax without manure ; a crop of tur- 
 nips is often taken the same season after the flax, and hemp succeeds 
 again. In Russia, it is said, that extensive crops of flax are drawn 
 from new cleared lands, afterburning them over, and harrowing in the 
 seed with ashes. The best preparatory crops in this country, at pre- 
 sent, appear to be potatoes, corn, and roots ; they will most generally 
 repay the extra manure, and if well managed, check the production of 
 weeds. 
 
 " The following rotations may serve as an outline, subject to be 
 varied, and hemp or other crop introduced, as circumstances require, 
 viz. — ■ 
 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 183 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. 
 
 No. I.-^LOW, COLD, OR RECLAIMED SOILS. 
 
 1st year, Potatoes. 
 2d do. Flax, with seed. 
 
 3d do. Herds grass and red top, or tall meadow oat grass, to contin- 
 ue three years or more, and the course repeated. 
 
 No. II. — Strong uplands. 
 1st year, Potatoes or corn. 
 2d do. Cora or roots. 
 3d do. Flax with seed. 
 4th do. Clover. 
 
 5th do. Orchard grass or Herds grass, to continue three years or 
 more. 
 
 No. III.— Light Lands. 
 
 1st year, Potatoes or corn. 
 
 2d do. Corn or roots. 
 
 3d do. Flax with seed. 
 
 4th do. Clover, to be mown once, the after growth to be turned in, 
 and rye sown, thick on the furrow, which may be soiled or fed in the 
 spring by sheep or milch cows, and plowed in ; for 
 
 5th year, Corn. 
 
 6th do. Spring wheal, or barley. 
 
 7th do. Clover, and the course to be pursued as before, when flax 
 will occupy the land every seventh ye . . In all cases except when hemp 
 is substituted, the tillage crops should receive the dung. 
 
 " If the land is ploughed into beds, or convex ridges like turnpike 
 roads, about a rod wide, especially if low and level, the crop will be 
 much more secure from injury by heavy rains, and the grass crop will 
 be better if it remains in that form. On any soils, fall ploughing in nar- 
 row ridges will facilitate its early working in the spring, and should not 
 be dispensed with. 
 
 Choice of seed. — " That of the last year's growth should be obtain- 
 ed, if possible. The usual marks of good seed are, that it be plump, 
 oily, and heavy, of a bright brown color, sinking readily in water, and 
 when thrown into the fire to crackle and blaze quick. A very simple 
 method of trial is to sprinkle it thin > between two pieces of wet paper, 
 which plunge into a hot bod or dung hill, and in less than twenty-four 
 hours, the proportion that will vegetate can be discerned, which should 
 be ascertained, in order to regulate the 
 
 " Quantity of seed to be sown. On this head no particular direc- 
 tions can be given, as it depends on the various qualities of soil, good- 
 ness of seed, &c. The rule for seeding small grains is reversed ; flax 
 requiring to be sown thickest on a rich soil, as not more than one stalk 
 is wanted for a plant. In England and Scotland never less than two, 
 nor more than three bushels to the acre are sown. Two and u. naif is 
 the most usual portion. In Flanders and Ireland, seldom less than three 
 bushels are sown, except when seed is an object. Thick sowing is to 
 obtain fine flax. In this country, it will be important, at present, to 
 sow at such a rate as will ensure good crops of each ; and experience 
 only can determine the exact pcint. 
 
 " If sown very thin, too many lateral branches will be thrown out, 
 each producing a boll or pod, affording more seed, but shorter and in- 
 
184 FAMILY 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. 
 
 ferior flax. If sown too thick, the plants will draw up weak, with a 
 single boll on a plant, and, subject as our climate is to heavy showers 
 and thunder gusts, very liable to lodge — one of the greatest dangers a 
 flax crop has to encounter. The commissioners for promoting flax cul- 
 ture in Scotland, considered it as practicable, and strongly recommended 
 that the system should be so conducted, as to obtain good flax and good 
 seed at the same time. It is so viewed in Ireland ; among the more 
 extensive cultivators, except when wanted for fine linen, cambric, lawn, 
 &c." Dr. Dean, in the l New England Farmer,' a work of great merit, 
 published some thirty years since, when flax culture was more attended 
 to than at present, recommends from six to seven pecks. It is probable 
 that six pecks is the least, and two bushels the extent that should be 
 sown to obtain the most profitable results, till the demand for seed is 
 considerably lessened. 
 
 Sowing. " The seed should be got in as early as it is possible to 
 prepare the ground. Dr. Deane observes that a slight frost after the 
 plants are up will not injure them. For no crop is it more important 
 that the seed should be equally distributed. Fortunately what has long 
 been a desideratum is now attained. A machine, (Bennet's machine,) 
 for sowing small seeds broad cast, with perfect regularity, great expe- 
 dition, and in any desired quantity, has lately been invented, and per- 
 forms to great satisfaction. 
 
 Weeding. " Weeding is considered in Europe, and by good hus- 
 bandmen in this country, as necessary to secure a good crop of flax, 
 which is a very tender plant when young, and more easily checked in 
 its progress by weeds than any other. It is not supposed to be injured 
 by the clover and grass sown with it ; on the contrary, the Flemish far- 
 mers think them beneficial, by protecting the tender roots from drouth, 
 and keeping the weeds under. It should be carefully wed when the 
 plants are three or four inches high ; they are not then injured by the 
 laborer going barefooted over them. 
 
 Pulling. " This should be performed as soon as the leaves begin 
 to fall, and the stalks show a bright yellow color, and when the bolls 
 are turned a little brown. The seed will continue to ripen afterwards. 
 When the flax is lodged, it should be pulled immediately, in any stage 
 of its growth, or it will be entirely lost ; great care is requisite in sorting 
 the different lengths, and keeping them separate till after the flax is 
 hackled, or much waste will ensue in that process. 
 
 Saving seed. "As soon as the flax is dry enough to put under 
 cover, the bolls should be rippled, as it is termed. A comb resembling 
 the head of a rake, but with teeth longer and nearer together, made of 
 hickory or oak, is fastened upon a block, and the flax taken in parcels 
 no larger than the hands can firmly grrsp, is drawn through, and the 
 bolls rippled oft; attention to sorting at the same time should be con- 
 tinued. The bolls are to be riddled and winnowed immediately ; spread 
 thin on a clean floor, or on sheets, in the sun, and when sufficiently dry, 
 and beginning to open, threshed. By this method, the foul seeds are 
 .completely separated with little trouble, and good clean seed is ready 
 for an early market, often the best, without the use of expensive ma- 
 chinery to make it so. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 185 
 
 CULTURE OF FLAX. 
 
 " The preparation of flax by steeping is very general in the great flax 
 growing countries in Europe, but it is not quite finished in the water. 
 It remains spread some days on the grass, which is necessary to render 
 it soft and give that silvery appearance so desirable. The d ,structive 
 process of dew rotting, is most commonly practised in this countrv, and 
 when water is resorted to, it is at an improper season, and the p ocess 
 imperfect ; which is the cause of its being so harsh and brittle. Per- 
 haps no part of the system requires such an allowance for difference of 
 climate. In the humid atmosphere of Ireland, it is not very material 
 when it is spread ; but in this climate, when exposed to a July or 
 August sun, every drop after a shower, beco.. si a burning-glass, and 
 literally scorches the fibres ; besides, such a highly putrid ferme tion 
 as will then take place in the water, though it separates the hark, more 
 speedily, not only injures it, but communicates a stain that renders the 
 process of bleaching much more tedious and expensive. 
 
 " The flax should not be put into the water till about the first of Oc- 
 tober, and remain from ten to fourteen days, according to the tempe- 
 rature of the weather, and should be taken out before the fibres will 
 separate freely, spread on the grass, when the frost will very much as- 
 sist the operation, and the flax exhibits a gloss and softness, that it is 
 impossible to give it otherwise. 
 
 " Clear, soft, stagnant water is preferred in Europe. A canal, forty 
 feet long, six broad, and four deep, is said to be sufficient for the pur- 
 pose of an acre of flax at one time. It should be formed on a clay, or 
 some holding soil, where the water from a spring or brook can be con- 
 ducted in with convenience ; the expense would not be great, and on 
 most farms suitable sites may be had. May not boiling or steaming be 
 found the most advantageous process of preparing flax ? The very su- 
 perior sample of thread exhibited at Brighton, in 1818, for which Mrs. 
 Crowninshield, of Danvers, Mass. received a premium, was spun from 
 flax prepared by boiling 1 It appears by the fc Transactions of the Swe- 
 dish Academy,' that a method v/as practised in S wee on of preparing 
 flax to resemble cotton, by boiling it ten hours in salt water, spreading 
 on the grass, and frequently watering, by which it becomes soft and 
 bleached. Boiling or steaming will not appear very formidable or ex- 
 pensive, when we examine the subject. A box twenty feet long, six 
 feet wide, and four deep, well constructed with stout plank, a boiler, 
 from which a large tube extends into, and communicates with the wa- 
 ter in the box, will boil the produce of a quarter of an acre in a day, 
 that is, if we allow double the room to boil in that is required for steep- 
 ing. A steam pipe, instead of a tube, and having the top of the box 
 well secured, would permit the process of steaming to go on. It is pro- 
 bable that by either method, grassing will be necessary, to obtain soft 
 flax. The yarns of which the sail cloth is made at Patterson, are all 
 steamed. The navy board expressly forbid their being boiled in alka- 
 line lye, as is usual in most manufactures of linen. It is from tins pre- 
 caution that their canvass has the pliable, oily feeling, which so n ch 
 recommends it. It should not be lost sight of, that by boiling or steam- 
 ing, much time and expense will be saved in bleaching. 
 
 Dressing. " In this process our climate gives us a decided advan- 
 tage over Ireland, Flanders, or the north of Europe, where the flax is 
 dried on hurdles, over a peat fire, in ovens, or in kilns requiring great 
 
 16* 
 
186 FAMILY 
 
 HEMP. 
 
 care in regulating the heat, so as to prevent injury. All this trouble 
 and hazard is obviated by our dry atmosphere and keen north-west " 
 winds. — Dr. Deane estimated the expense of dressing flax by hand at 
 one-third the product. I believe the present price does not much vary 
 from his estimate. A respectable gentleman from Dutchess county, 
 New York, informed me that mills or machines, impelled by water, have 
 been erected there, that break and completely dress the flax for the toll 
 of one tenth ! It is said that one or more of them are in operation in 
 the western part of Massachusetts. These mills were invented in 
 Scotland, and are now said to be brought to great perfection. They 
 are erected in all directions in the principal flax districts in Ireland, and 
 notwithstanding the low price and limited demand for labor, are resort- 
 ed to by the poorer classes of people, the dressing by hand being mostly 
 abandoned. There are machines in England that dress flax immedi- 
 ately from the field, without any preparation whatever. An account 
 of them may be found in the 5th volume of the Massachusetts Agri- 
 cultural Journal. It appears, by the report of a committee of the 
 House of Commons, that in 1817 they were in successful operation. A 
 man and three children impelled the machines and dressed sixty pounds 
 a day. We have no information of any further improvements. Should 
 they be susceptible of the application of water or steam power, in any 
 degree proportionate, the advantages may be incalculable, but in the 
 present enquiry, we place these machines, however desirable, entirely 
 out of the question. 
 
 Product. " It is not uncommon in Great Britain and Ireland to ob« 
 tain eight hundred pounds of flax from an acre ! Six hundred pounds: 
 in some distiicts is estimated as an average ; but it should be observed, 
 that little, if any seed is obtained. The average crop in New England, 
 as far as our information extends, cannot be estimated at more than two 
 hundred pounds, or six or eight bushels of seed. (We do not include; 
 the rich bottoms on the Connecticut and some other rivers.) Dr. Deane 
 was of opinion that four hundred pounds might be calculated on, with 
 proper management. 
 
 wt W^e think that four hundred pounds of good clean flax, and eight 
 or ten bushels of seed may fairly be assumed as a medium crop on fa- 
 vorable soils, where the culture becomes such an object as to make oth- 
 er farming operations subservient to it, and due attention is paid to the 
 change of seed. 
 
 " Those who grow flax to any extent are of opinion, that the 
 seed, at the price it has been for some years past, pays for all the labor 
 bestowed on the crop to the time the flax is ready to be prepared or 
 rotted.'* 
 
 HEMP is an annual plant of great use in the arts and manufac- 
 tures, furnishing thread, cloth, and cordage. Hemp bears a near anal- 
 ogy to flax, not only in form but also in culture and use. The bark of 
 the stalk, as in flax, is the chief object for which it is cultivated. Hemp 
 is manufactured into Canvass, Russia Duck, Russia Towelling, Ticks, 
 Dowlass, &c. The process of manufacturing these various articles, we 
 shall not find room to detail. This portion of our work will be mor? 
 usefully occupied by directions as to the best mode of cultivating hemp 
 in the United States. 
 
ENC YCLOPEDIA. J87 
 
 CULTIVATION OF HEMP. 
 
 That the cultivation of hemp is important to the farmers of the land 
 can scarcely be questioned. 1 he climate and soil are well adapted to 
 it. The annual import of the article from Prussia does not probably 
 fall short of half a million of dollars. In addition to this, we annually 
 import in Duck, and other manufactures of hemp, exclusive of cord- 
 age, to the amount of more than a million and a half of dollars. This 
 amount of hemp, and even more, might be b/ought to market in a short 
 time, from our own soil, and the manufacture of the various articles 
 now imported might be carried on in our country, as well as those of 
 cotton or woollen goods. American hemp, to say the least, is equal to 
 the best Russia hemp. By an experiment made in 1H24, by direction 
 of the commissioners of the Navy, it would appear that American 
 hemp justly claims the superiority in respect to strength. M Two ropes, 
 each 2% inches, one made of American and the other of Russian hemp, 
 broke the former with 3209 ios. the latter with 31 18 lbs." 
 
 Cultivation of Hemp. " Hemp, (says a writer in the New Eng- 
 land Farmer,) requires a deep and rich soil. Any attempt to raise it 
 upon a light soil, or upon land worn out and exhausted, until it is re- 
 cruited by manure, and a fertilizing course of husbandry, will result 
 only in disappointment. Nor can it long be continued upon the same 
 piece of ground, without an annual supply of manure. But upon a 
 £ood soil, with an annual sprinkling of manure, at the rate of eight or 
 ten loads to the acre, it may be continued for a succession of years, 
 without any material diminution of the value of the crop. 
 
 The ground must be prepared for the seed, much in the same man- 
 ner as for flax. It must be ploughed and harrowed sufficiently to break 
 the clods, and to render the soil fine and mellow. As different soils 
 require different degrees of labor to produce this effect, it must be left 
 to the judgment of the cultivator to determine when his ground is in a 
 proper state te receive the seed. I can safely say, that few farmers err, 
 in ploughing and harrowing too much. 
 
 The time for sowing is about the 10th of May. A few days earlier 
 or later will make no difference. It must not be so early as to expose 
 the tender plant to severe frosts, and if sown late in May, it will pro- 
 duce a light crop — the stalks will have a thin coat. 
 
 No further attention to the crop is required until the season of pull- 
 ing and cutting. Although the latter mode of gathering is attended 
 with less labor, our farmers almost universally adopt the former as the 
 most profitable. This commences about the iOth of August. The 
 time of pulling is determined by the appearance of the hemp. There 
 are two kinds of hemp in every field, distinguished by the names of 
 the male and the female. The latter produces the seed, the former the 
 isom and the farina. The male hemp has but few and slender 
 branches When this has turned white, or a paJe yellow, has shed its 
 leaves, and the farina has chiefly fallen off, then it is time to pull it. 
 The female hemp has more and stronger branches, and continues fresh 
 and green until the seed is ripe. It is common to leave patches, or 
 narrow strips, where the seed hemp is most abundant, until the seed 
 has ripened, which will be about a month after the time of pulling ; in 
 which case, the economical farmer will pull out the male hemp as far 
 as it is practicable ; for the fibres of the hemp that stands in the field 
 
:S8 FAMILY 
 
 CULTIVATION OF HEMP. 
 
 until the seed is ripe, are always stiff and harsh, and will bring less in 
 the market than that which has been pulled at the proper season. 
 
 The pulling is a heavy job. One-fourth of an acre is considered as 
 a day's work, though expert hands will pull a third of an acre. No 
 precaution is necessary except to guard against breaking the stalks. 
 The laborer gathers a few stalks in his hands and pulls them up, and 
 having repeated this three or four times, he strikes the roots once or 
 twice with his foot, in order to kick off the dirt, then holding the whole 
 loose in his hands, lets the roots drop on the ground for the purpose of 
 making that end of his handful even. And in spreading his hemp on 
 the ground, he is careful to lay the butts stiaight and true. This will 
 greatly facilitate the labor of binding. 
 
 Rain upon the hemp after it is pulled, produces the same effect as 
 upon mown grass. It discolors it and injures its quality. It must 
 therefore be suffered to lie upon the ground no longer than it is neces- 
 sary for its preservation. As soon as it is sufficiently dried, w T hich, in 
 w rm and drying weather, will be after two days sun, it must be bound 
 up in small bundles or sheaves. A little rye straw is the cheapest and 
 best thing for bands. Let the band be put on towards the top of the 
 bundle, and then shoved 'lown to about the middle, otherwise it will 
 be difficult to bind close enough to hold together, through all the sub- 
 sequent handlings. Set up 15 or 20 bundles together, well braced at 
 the roots to admit a free circulation of air, and to prevent it from blow- 
 ing over, and let it lemain in this situation, until it is cured sufficiently 
 to put into a stack or under cover. This may be done, in good 
 weather, after two or three days. In the construction of the stack, 
 great pains must be taken, lest the rain should find a passage into it. 
 It is safest to put it under cover, either under sheds about the barn, 
 or by erecting one for the purpose. 
 
 It may be asked, why not transport it to the place of rotting and 
 immerse it in the water, immediately after it is pulled, or as soon as 
 it is dry, and save the trouble of securing it from the weather ? I am 
 not prepared to say that this cannot be done with safety, under vigi- 
 lant care and attention. It is believed, however, that it would be ex- 
 posed to greater hazard of loss, than at a later period. At the time 
 of pulling, the weather is hot, and the water warm. Putrefaction 
 proceeds with great rapidity. If the hemp should remain in the wa- 
 ter a little too long, or if, after it is drawn from the water there should 
 be a long rain, or a continuance of damp weather to prevent its dry- 
 ing, it w r ould be rotted too much, and the fibre would be materially 
 injured, if not destroyed. But when the hemp is immersed later in 
 the season, after the weather and water have become cool, there is no 
 risk in suffering it to remain in the water a short time longer than is 
 necessary. It is also supposed that v/hen the hemp is rotted in hot 
 weather, there will be a greater proportion of tow — and after it is 
 drawn from the water, the bands must be opened and the hemp spread, 
 in order that it may dry quickly. It is also a busy season with the 
 farmer, and he can a i I to it at a later period, with less interruption 
 to other branches 01 Husbandry. These are the reasons which have 
 induced our farmers to postpone the rotting till the latter part of Oc- 
 tober. As I have never tried any experiments in reference to this 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 189 
 
 CULTIVATION OF HEMP. 
 
 part of the process, and indeed have had but little experience in the 
 culture of hemp on my own farm, I will not give an opinion whether 
 their reasons are well founded or not. I have not undertaken to point 
 out the best n'.etkod. in relation to any part of the process, but only to 
 describe the course pursued in my own neighborhood. 
 
 It has sometimes been made a question whether running or stagnant 
 water was to be preferred. The latter is more generally used in Eng- 
 land. The former has been universally applied here. A place is se- 
 lected near the margin of some brook or small stream, which will af- 
 ford a basin in which the hemp can be deposited, and where, by erect- 
 ing a dam across the stream, the hemp can be covered with water. 
 
 In the first place, the dam is built of a sufficient height to secure the 
 requisite supply of water, leaving a gale-way in the natural course of 
 the stream, and the top of the gate a little lower than the height of the 
 dam, to let off the surplus water. After the dam is completed, shut 
 the gate and try the dam, in order to ascertain whether it is water 
 tight, and will stand against the pressure produced by raising the pond. 
 If it proves sufficient, then let off the water and put in the hemp. A 
 space of two or three feet should be left between the hemp and the dam, 
 so that if a leak should be discovered, there may be room to stop it. 
 This precaution may be unnecessary in an old and long tried dam, but 
 should not be omitted in a new one. Put down a layer of hemp, laying" 
 the bundles compactly, then a second course on the first, in a transverse 
 direction, and so on successively, until the whole crop is deposited in 
 the bed, or as much as the basin will receive. Weights, consisting of 
 long and heavy timber, or plank, or slabs with stones upon them, must 
 then be laid across the bed to prevent it from floating. Having de- 
 posited the hemp and secured it from rising, the gate way may be clo- 
 sed, and the water raised upon the hemp. It will be observed that the 
 level of the hemp must be lower than the top of the gate-way, so that 
 the whole body may be immersed in water, and continued so until it is 
 rotted. 
 
 The length of time necessary to complete the rotting process de- 
 pends much on the weather, and the temperature of water. It may be 
 ascertained whether it has lain in the water long enough, by taking out 
 one of the bundles, drying and braking it. If the seed cracks easily, 
 and the rind, or harl readily separates from the wood, it is sufficiently 
 rotted. 60 also, if while it lies in the water, the roots will twist off 
 easily. Hemp put into the water the last week in October, will gener- 
 ally require about three weeks. When put in later, I have known it 
 lie seven weeks. If put into stagnant water, soon after it is pulled, 
 five or six days is enough. 
 
 When the hemp is rotted, open the gate-way and drain off the pond. 
 T'.e hemp must then be removed to a piece of grass land — the bundles 
 lu.id upon the ground singly, and, after two or three days, turned over. 
 When partially dried, it is carried and set up, inclining against a fence, 
 where it remains until it is fit for the brake. It may then be carried 
 to the building or shed where it is to be dressed ; or the brake may be 
 carried to the hemp, as is generally the case here, and after it is broken, 
 it is removed to the barn for the finishing process — or if the weather 
 is not too severe, it may be dressed where it is broken. 
 
190 FAMILY 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 A cheap vehicle or sled, for the removal of the hemp from the pond, 
 may be made of two pieces of slit work, about nine feet in length, with 
 three cross beams of the same material. The stakes, driven closely 
 through each beam and runner, will serve the double purpose of hold- 
 ing the sled together, and keeping the hemp from falling off. No 
 tongue will be necessary. It may be drawn with chains. If however 
 the grass ground is at any considerable distance from the pond, wheels 
 may be necessary. 
 
 In dressing, two brakes are used. The first, coarser than a common 
 flax brake, the second, as fine as a flax brake at the head, with one ad- 
 ditional bar in each jaw. If the hemp is well rotted and faithfully 
 broke, but little remains for the swingling board. A man, accustomed 
 to the business, w T ill brake and dress from 50 to 75lbs. a day. 
 
 The labor required to prepare a crop of hemp for market, is not in- 
 considerable. But it will be observed, that but a small portion of the 
 labor comes at a season when the farmer is most busily occupied in 
 gathering and securing his other crops. The pulling comes on soon 
 after the hay and grain are secured. The rotting does not commence till 
 after Indian harvest, and the winter grain is sown. The dressing is 
 wholly done in cold weather, when the farmer has little occupation be- 
 sides that of taking care of his stock and providing fuel. Every con- 
 siderable farmer who has land suitable for hemp, might raise a few 
 acres, without greatly interfering with his ordinary course of husbandry. 
 
 The average crop is six or seven hundred pounds to the acre. I have 
 raised nine or ten — but this was an unusual crop. The land w T as strong, 
 and in very fine tilth. The hemp grew to a great height, and wa3 very 
 uniform throughout the piece. The price of hemp in market, has va- 
 ried, of late years, from § 10 to £> 12,50 a hundred. Scarce any crop of 
 field culture can be put upon the land, which will produce so great a 
 result. 
 
 TANNING is the process of converting the skins of animals into 
 Leather. 
 
 It is difficult to determine when the art of tanning was first practi- 
 sed ; but that it was known at a very early period, there is little doubt. 
 The real change, however, which skins undergo by being tanned has 
 not been accurately known till of late years. It is now indubitably 
 ascertained that a mixture of gelatin and tannin, of which we shall 
 presently speak, although each is separately soluble in water, becomes 
 insoluble in that fluid, and forms the substance so well known as leath- 
 er : hence, as the chief constituent of all animal skins is gelatin, the 
 ease with which, by immersion in a solution of tannin, they are con- 
 verted into that useful substance. The processes of tanning are nev- 
 ertheless numerous, and somewhat complicated and tedious. The 
 skins are in general, after being freed from their horns, ears and blood, 
 and other impurities, placed in lime-pits for a longer or shorter period, 
 in order to their hair and scarf-skins being more readily removed ; af- 
 ter which they are immersed in a pit containing water and sulphuric 
 acid. This operation is called raising, which disposes the skin more 
 readily to combine with the tannin. It is next placed in the tan-pit, 
 with a layer of oak -bark, ground fine between each skin ; the pit is 
 then filled with tanning ooze prepared from oak-bark and water, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 191 
 
 TANNIN. CUKKYING. PAKCHMENT, 
 
 where the skins remain a month or six weeks, when they are taken out, 
 a fresh quantity of bark and ooze is put in as before, and the process is 
 thus continued till the skins are completely tanned ; and they will be- 
 come so in a shorter or longer time, depending upon the thickness of 
 the skin and the manner in which the application of the tannin has 
 been made. When sufficiently tanned, they are taken out, and after 
 undergoing certain manipulations, are dried and weighed. The time 
 required for the processes of tanning varies exceedingly ; the larger 
 skins require from six to fifteen months to be effectually tanned. The 
 processes are also varied for different skins ; but we cannot detail them. 
 
 TANNIN, to which we have adverted in the preceding article, exists 
 in large quantity in various vegetable substances : it is found particu- 
 larly in abundance in the bark of oak, Spanish chestnut, willow, elm, 
 ash, &c. In this country, however, leather is tanned chiefly by the use 
 of the bark of the oak, which is ground in a mill by tanners for the 
 purpose. 
 
 CURRYING is the last process to which tanned skins are subjected; 
 it is applied to those destined for the upper leather, legs of boots, seats 
 of saddles, and such purposes as do not require either great strength 
 or impermeability by water, and never to sole leather. Currying leath- 
 er consists in shaving or scraping the flesh side of the tanned skin with 
 a straight edged two handled knife, against a wooden bench or stock, 
 and thus reducing the tanned skin to a uniform and determined thick- 
 ness, according to the purpose for which it is designed. After being 
 thus shaved (if designed for common shoes and boots,) it is rubbed 
 with train oil and rendered soft and flexible, while the shaved side of 
 the leather has assumed a shining fibrous appearance. In this state the 
 flesh side is waxed or blackened with a mixture of oil and lamp-black. 
 But where the leather is not oiled in dressing, the hair side of the skin, 
 if it be required to be black, after being duly scoured clean with a 
 pumice-stone, is dyed with a solution of sulphate of iron in water, or 
 some other dye. 
 
 PAPv.CII.MENT is the skins of sheep or goats, prepared after such 
 a manner as to render them proper for writing upon, covering books, 
 <fcc. When parchment was first used as a material for the reception of 
 writing, is not exactly determined. It is however tolerably certain, 
 that it was used long before the Christian era ; and it is said that the 
 name parchment, or charta pergamcna, is derived from Pergamus, a city 
 of Asia Minor, where it was invented in consequence of Ptolemy ha- 
 ving forbidden the exportation of the papyrus from Egypt. Before 
 the invention of paper, parchment necessarily formed a considerable 
 article of commerce, as, for many centuries, most of the books of Eu- 
 rope were written on it. Its use is now confined chiefly to legal instru- 
 ments and the covers of books. 
 
 The manufacture of parchment is begun by the skinner, and finished 
 by the parchment maker. The skin, having been stripped of its wool, 
 and passed the lime-pit, is stretched on a frame, perforated lengthwise, 
 with holes furnished with wooden pins, which may be turned at plea- 
 sure, like those of a violin. When sufficiently stretched, the flesh is 
 pared off with a keen-edged instrument ; the skin is then moistened 
 with a white rag, and a kind of white stone or chalk, reduced to fine 
 
192 FAMILY 
 
 SHAGREEN. MOROCCO. 
 
 dust, being strewed over it with a large pumice-stone, flat at bottom, 
 similar to a muller for grinding colors, the remainder of the flesh is 
 scoured off. It is then gone over again with the iron instrument, mois- 
 tened as before, and rubbed with the pumice-stone without any chalk 
 ' underneath. The flesh-side being thus treated, the iron is passed over 
 the wool or hair-side : the skin is then stretched again tight on the 
 frame by means of the pins, and the flesh side is again gone over with 
 the iron. More chalk is now thrown on, and the skin is swept over 
 with a piece of lamb-skin that has the wool on ; this smooths it still 
 further, and gives it a white down or nap. It is now left to dry, and 
 when dried, taken off the frame, by cutting it all round. The skin, 
 thus far prepared by the skinner, is taken out of his hands by the 
 parchment-maker, who first scrapes or pares it dry on the summer^ a 
 calf-skin well stretched on a frame, serving as a support to the skin, 
 which is fastened over it with a wooden implement that has a notch 
 cut in it, with an iron instrument like that above mentioned, only finer 
 and sharper ; with this, worked with the arm from the top to the bot- 
 tom of the skin, he takes away about one half of its thickness. The 
 skin being thus equally pared on both sides, the pumice-stone is passed 
 over each side, to smooth it. This last process is performed on a kind 
 of form or bench, covered with a sack stuffed wilh flocks, and leaves 
 the parchment in a condition for writing on. The parings taken off 
 the leather are used in making glue, size, &c. As there is a great 
 waste in reducing the skins to a proper thinness in this mode, an instru- 
 ment has lately been invented for splitting each skin into two. 
 
 SHAGREEN, a kind of very hard, grained leather, brought from 
 Turkey, Poland, Algiers, &c. ; it is used as covers for cases, books, &c. 
 It is made thus : — The skin, having undergone the necessary prepara- 
 tions, is covered, while wet, with a layer of small round seeds, which 
 are pressed down upon it by weights. In this state it is suffered to dry, 
 and then the rising parts are shaved off, till the surface is quite smooth. 
 Being w 7 etted, the parts depressed by the seeds swell up, and appear 
 like so many tubercles, which retain their figure after the skin is again 
 dried. The best is of a brownish color. It is extremely hard ; yet, 
 when steeped in water, becomes very soft and pliable, whence it becomes 
 of great use among case-makers. It takes any color that is given to it ; 
 red, green, black, yellow. The skin of some of the species of shark or 
 dog-fish, being very rough, was formerly sold as shagreen, but its pro- 
 minences have not the roundness of those of shagreen, and it has long 
 been known by its proper name ofjish-skin. The skins of which sha- 
 green is made are not exactly known in this country. 
 
 MOROCCO is the skin of a goat, or some othor animal resembling 
 it, called menon, common in the Levant ; dressed with sumach or galls, 
 and colored with any color, much used in upholstery, book-binding, for 
 ladies' shoes, &c. But most of the morocco to be obtained in this coun- 
 try is prepared here from sheep-skins. The name is derived from the 
 kingdom of Morocco, whence it is supposed the manner of preparing 
 this leather was first borrowed. Morocco is however brought from the 
 Levant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders, and Russia; red, black, yellow, blue, 
 &c. ; the methods of preparing which are too long to be detailed here. 
 The process has been latterly greatly simplified, and the brilliancy and 
 durability of the Turkey red successfully imitated. The abundance 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 193 
 
 GLUE. SIZE. HATS. 
 
 and excellence of the Spanish goat skins enabled the Spaniards to take 
 the lead in this manufacture ; the Russians followed them : but mo- 
 rocco of various colors is now prepared in England equal to any im- 
 ported. 
 
 GLUE, or GELATIN, is a viscid, tenacious matter, soluble in water, 
 and used in the arts as a cement, to bind or connect things together. 
 There are many kinds of glues ; as common glue, glove glue, parch- 
 ment glue. Common glue is used by joiners, cabinet-makers, case- 
 makers, hatters, book-binders, &c. The consumption of it is very con- 
 siderable. The best glue is made in England, in square pieces, of a 
 ruddy brown color. Flanders glue is esteemed next to the English. 
 Glue is made of the skins of all kinds of beasts, as oxen, cows, calves, 
 sheep, &c The older the beast is, the better the glue that is made of 
 its hide. Indeed, it is rare that whole skins are used for this purpose, 
 they being too valuable ; but shavings, parings, or scraps of skins, and 
 sometimes the feet, sinews, ice. of beasts are used. Glue made entirely 
 of skins is the best ; and that of sinews, <Scc. the worst : and hence 
 chiefly arises the difference of glues. 
 
 To make glue of parings. They first steep them two or three days 
 in water, then, washing them well, boil them to the consistence ot a 
 thick jelly. This done, they pass the jelly, while yet hot, through osier 
 baskets to separate it from any impurities ; and in order to purify it 
 still further, they let it rest some time. "When the impure matter is 
 precipitated to the bottom of the vessel, it is dissolved and boiled down 
 a second time. It is then poured into flat frames, or moulds, whence 
 it is taken out, when rather hard and solid, and cut into square pieces, 
 or cakes. Nothing now remains but to dry it in the air, on a sort of 
 coarse net, and afterward to string it, to finish the dryingr. The glue 
 made of feet, sinews, &zc. is managed after the same manner, with this 
 difference only, that they bone and scour the feet, and do not lay them 
 to steep. The surest test of the goodness of glue, besides its clearness 
 and hardness, is, when it dissolves completely in water, without leaving 
 the least sediment. All the glues, when pure, are very nutricious as 
 food. 
 
 Size is less adhesive than glue, and is obtained from parchment 
 vines, fish-skins, and several animal membranes. It is employed by 
 book-binders, paper-hangers, kc. 
 
 Fish glue is a sort of glue made of the gelatinous parts offish. It is 
 of considerable use in refining liquors, in pastry, and various other arts. 
 It is better known by the name of isinglass. 
 
 HATS are chiefly made of hair, wool, &:c., worked, fulled, and fash- 
 ioned to the required figure. Hats are said to have been first worn in 
 Europe about the year 1400. They now make a very considerable ar- 
 ticle of commerce. The finest, and those most valued, are made of the 
 fur of the beaver. They are also made either of the wool or hair of 
 other animals, as the hare, rabbit, camel, goat, lamb, sheep, seal, mole, 
 and of cotton, fee. 
 
 The process is much the same in all ; and we shall therefore give 
 that with beaver. The skin of this animal is covered with two kinds 
 
 17 
 
194 FA MILY 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF HATS. 
 
 of hair ; the one long, stiff, and glossy ; the other, short, thick, and soft, 
 which alone is used in hats. When the hair is cut off, the whole is 
 carded with cards, like those used in the woollen manufacture, only 
 finer. The stuff is now laid on the hurdle, which is a square table, 
 having longitudinal chinks cut through it ; on this hurdle, with an in- 
 strument called a bow, much resembling that of a violin, but larger, the 
 string of which is worked with a little bow-stick, and thus made to play 
 on the hair or w T ool, it is mixed together, the dust and filth at the same 
 time passing through the chinks. This is considered one of the most 
 difficult operations of hat-making, as upon the proper bowing and ad- 
 mixture of the fur depends greatly the goodness of the hat. The quan- 
 tity bowed at once is called a bait, and never exceeds half of that wbich 
 is required to make one hat. With this they form gores, or tw r o ca- 
 pades, of an oval shape. They are designedly made thicker in the 
 brim, near the crown, than towards the circumierence, or in the crown 
 itself. 
 
 Thecapades or batts being finished, they are reduced into closer and 
 more consistent flakes, by pressing them down with a hardening skin, 
 or leather. This done, they are carried to the basin, a sort of bench 
 with an iron plate fitted therein, having a small fire underneath it ; upon 
 which, laying one of the hardened capades, sprinkled over with water, 
 and a sort of mould applied thereon, the heat of the fire, w T ith the water 
 and pressing, embody the wool into a slight hairy sort of stuff or felt; 
 after which, turning up the edges all round over the mould, they lay it 
 by, and thus proceed with the other. This finished, the two are next 
 joined together, so as to meet in an angle at the top, forming one coni- 
 cal cap. The hat thus basined, is removed to a large trough, resem- 
 bling a mill-hopper, sloping from the edge to the bottom, which is a 
 kettle, filled with water and grounds of beer, or water rendered sour by 
 sulphuric acid, and kept hot for the purpose. On the sloping side, 
 called the plank, the basined hat, being first dipped in the kettle, is 
 laid. Here it is worked, by rolling and unrolling it again and aa:ain, 
 first with the hand, and then with a little wooden roller, taking care to 
 dip it from time to time; till at length, by thus felting or thickening it 
 for four or five hours, it is reduced to the extent or dimensions of the 
 hat intended. 
 
 After being thus wrought, the proper form is given to it, by laying 
 the conical cap on a w T ooden block, of the intended size of the crown 
 of the hat, and thus tying it round with a pack-thread, called a com- 
 mander ; after which, with a piece of iron, or copper, bent for the 
 purpose, and called a stamper, they gradually beat or drive the com- 
 mander all around, till it has reached the bottom of the block, and thus 
 the crown is formed; what remains at bottom below the string being 
 the brim. The hat being now set to dry, they proceed to singe it, by 
 holding it over a flare of straw, or the like ; then it is pounced, or rub- 
 bed with pumice stone, to tako off the coarser nap ; then rubbed over 
 afresh with seal-skin, to lay the nap still finer ; and lastly carded with 
 a fine card, to raise the fine down, with which the hat is afterward to 
 appear. It is then sent upon its block, tied about with pack-thread as 
 before, to be dyed. 
 
 The dyer's copper is usually very large, holding ten or twelve dozen 
 hats. The dye or tincture, is made of logwood, verdigris, sulphate of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 195 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF HATS. BUTTONS. 
 
 iron, and alder bark, to which some add galls, sumach, kc. After the 
 hat has been boiled in the coloring liquor about three quarters of an 
 hour, it is taken out and set to cool, and then returned to the dye ; 
 and this for ten or twelve times successively. The hat being dyed, is 
 returned to the hatter, who proceeds to dry it, by hanging it up in a 
 suitable stove or oven. When dry, it is stiffened with a solution of 
 glue, or gum-senegal. It is next steamed on the steaming-basin, a lit- 
 tle fire-place, raised three feet high, with an iron plate laid over it, 
 exactly covering it. On this plate they first spread cloths, which being 
 sprinkled over with water, to secure the hat from burning, the hat is 
 placed, brim downwards, thereon. When moderately hot, the work- 
 man strikes gently on the brim, with the flat of his hand, to make the 
 jointings incorporate and bind, so as not to appear ; turning it from time 
 to time, and at last setting it on the crown. When steamed sufficiently 
 and dried, it is again put on the block, and brushed and ironed on a ta- 
 ble called the stall-board. This is done with irons like those commonly 
 used in ironing linen, and heated like them ; which being rubbed over 
 each part of the hat, with the assistance of the brush, smoothens and 
 gives it a gloss, which is the last operation. 
 
 Hats are distinguished in trade either as stuff-hats, those which con- 
 sist chiefly, if not wholly, of beaver and other fine fur; plale-hotz, 
 which consist of wool covered with a better material on the outside 
 only ; or, cordies* made wholly of wool, or other coarse material. 
 Silk-hats are also now worn ; they are formed of a stout oil case or 
 some such material, and merely covered with silk ; these hats are wa- 
 ter-proof. 
 
 A BUTTON is an article of dress, serving to fasten clothes on the 
 body, and made in various forms of siik, mohair, thread, metal, horn, 
 bone, mother of pearl, wood, <Scc. Metal buttons, which are now the 
 most common, are formed in two ways, and are either solid metal, or 
 consist of thin plates or caps, bottomed with bone or wood. Metal 
 buttons, properly so called, are either white or yellow, gilded or plated, 
 and consist of solid metal, generally copper, with more or less alloy of 
 zinc. The tops of such buttons are either cut out of sheet metal, or 
 cast ; in the latter case the shanks or eyes are fixed exactly in the cen- 
 tre of each mould, so as to have their extremities immersed in the melted 
 metal, by which means they are firmly fixed in the button when cooled. 
 The former method is used for yellow buttons, the latter for those of 
 white metal. The shanks or eyes of the former kind are made with 
 great expedition ; by a curious engine, they are attached to the bottom 
 of each button by a wire clamp, like a pair of sugar-tongs ; solder is 
 applied, and they become fixed to the button after exposure on a hot 
 iron. The button is then burnished for plating or gilding ; the latter 
 is effected by covering the surface with a thin coat of mercury, over 
 which is laid an amalgam of mercury and gold, and the mercury evapo- 
 rated by heat. Five grains of gold will thus cover 144 buttons one inch 
 in diameter. Plating or silvering may be performed nearly in the 
 same manner, or with muriate of silver. 
 
 Wrought or figured buttons are made of mohair or silk, and a very 
 inferior kind of thread. In order to make a button, the mohair must 
 he previously wound upon a bobbin, and the mould fixed upon a board, 
 
196 FAMILY 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 by means of a bodkin thrust through the hole in the middle of it. This 
 being done, the workman wraps the mould in three, four, or six columns, 
 according to the button. The moulds of horse-hair buttons are covered 
 with a kind of stuff, composed of silk and hair ; the warp being bella- 
 dine silk, and the shoot horse-hair. 
 
 Gold twist buttons are first covered in the same manner as common 
 buttons. Then the whole is covered with a thin plate of gold or silver. 
 It is afterwards wrought all over with purl, a kind of thread composed 
 of silk and gold wire twisted together, and gold gimp. 
 
 Glass buttons of different colors are made when the glass is in a state 
 of fusion, the button being nipped out of it by a pair of iron moulds, 
 like those for casting pistol-shot ; the shank having been inserted in 
 the mould, so that it may be found imbedded in the glass when cool. 
 
 Mother of pearl buttons are a somewhat ingenious manufacture. The 
 mode of fixing the eye or shank is by drilling a hole at the back, which 
 is under cut ; that is, larger at the bottom than the top, like a mortise, 
 and the shank being driven in by a steady stroke, its extremity expands 
 on striking the bottom of the hole, and thus becomes firmly riveted in- 
 to the button. Steel studs are thus often riveted into buttons of this 
 and other kinds. In cases where stones and foil are used, the shanks 
 are usually attached with isinglass glue. 
 
 GOLD. The method of refining gold, and its application to manu- 
 factures, are as follows. In separating the gold, the mineral ore is first 
 broken with iron mallets, then ground in mills to a fine powder, and 
 passed through several sieves. The powder is then placed in troughs, 
 with mercury and water. After this the water and earth are forced out 
 of the troughs by pouring on a stream of hot water. This done, there 
 remains nothing but the mercury and the ore. The mercury is after- 
 ward separated by distillation, and the gold is melted and cast into in- 
 gots. 
 
 For refining gold, either antimony, oxymuriate of mercury, ornitro- 
 muriatic acid, is used. Gold having the property which no other met- 
 al has, except platina, of resisting the action of the simple acids, 
 &c. it may be purified by the above agents from all metallic substan- 
 ces, and consequently refined. Another method of purifying gold 
 and silver consists in adding to the alloyed gold and silver a certain 
 quantity of lead, and exposing afterward this mixture to the action of 
 the fire. 
 
 Gold wire, as it is called, is most generally made of a cylindrical in- 
 got of silver, superficially gilt, and afterward drawn successively 
 through a great number of the holes of a wire-drawing iron, each less 
 than the other, till it is sometimes no thicker than a hair of the head. 
 Before the wire is reduced to this excessive fineness, it is drawn through 
 above a hundred and forty different holes ; previously to each time of 
 drawing, it is rubbed afresh over with new wax, both to facilitate its 
 passage, and prevent the silver appearing through it. 
 
 Gold thread or spun gold, is flatted gold, wrapped or laid over a 
 thread of silk, by twisting it with a wheel. To dispose the wire to be 
 spun on silk, it is passed between two rollers of a small mill ; the gold 
 wire is thus made quite flat, without losing any thing of its gilding, and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 197 
 
 GILDING. 
 
 is rendered so exceedingly thin and flexible, that it is easily spun on 
 silk thread, by means of a hand-wheel. 
 
 Gold leaf is gold beaten with a hammer into exceedingly thin leaves* 
 so that it is computed that an ounce may be beaten into sixteen hun" 
 dred leaves, each three inches square. That for the gold wire is left 
 much thicker than that for gilding picture frames. The gold is beaten 
 between pieces of skin on a block, commonly of black marble, about a 
 foot square. The hammers are of polished iron. The gold is first 
 formed from the ingot to the thickness of a sheet of paper, then it is 
 cut into pieces about an inch square; they are then beaten thinner, and 
 again cut into several smaller pieces. 
 
 GILDING is the art of covering a thing over with gold either in the 
 state of a leaf or liquid. The art of gilding was not unknown to the 
 ancients, though it never arrived at the perfection among them, to 
 which the moderns have carried it. Pliny assures us, that the first 
 gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under the 
 censorship of Lucius Mummius, when they began to gild the ceilings 
 of their temples and palaces, the Capitol being the first place on which 
 this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds, that luxury advanced on 
 them so hastily, that in a little time you might see all, even private and 
 poor persons, gild the very walls, vaults, Sec. of their houses. Tvlodern 
 gilders make use of gold leaves of various thicknesses ; but there are 
 some so fine, that a thousand do not weigh above four or five drachms. 
 The thickest are used for gilding on iron, and other metals ; and the 
 thinnest on wood. 
 
 A color of gold is given by painting and varnishes, without employ- 
 ing gold, but this is a false kind of gilding. Thus a very fine golden 
 color is given to brass and silver, by applying upon these metals a gold 
 colored varnish, which, being transparent, shows all the brilliancy of 
 the metals beneath. Many ornaments of brass are varnished in this 
 manner, which is called gold LA.cauES.UfO, to distinguish them from 
 those which are really gilt. Silver leaves thus varnished are put upon 
 leather, which is then called gilt leather. Among the false gilding may 
 also be reckoned that which is done with thin leaves of copper or brass, 
 called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made most kinds of what is 
 called gilt paper. 
 
 The gold intended for gilding ought, in general, to be beaten into 
 thin leaves, or otherwise divided into very fine parts. As metals can- 
 not adhere well merely by contact to any but other metallic substances, 
 when gold is to be applied to the surface of some non-metallic body, 
 this surface must be previously covered with some gluey and tenacious 
 substance, by which the gold will be made to adhere. Such substan- 
 ces are in general called sizes, some of which are made of vegetable 
 and animal glues, and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Upon 
 them the leaves of gold are applied, and pressed down with a little cot- 
 ton, or a hare's foot ; and when the whole is dry, the work is to be 
 finished, polished, or burnished with a hard instrument, called a dog's 
 tooth, to give it lustre. 
 
 The method of applying gold upon metals is entirely different. The 
 surface of the metal to be gilt is first to be cleaned ; and then leaves are 
 
 17* 
 
198 FAMILY 
 
 SILVERING. 
 
 to be applied to it, which y by means of rubbing with a polished blood- 
 stone, or pumice-stone, are made to adhere perfectly well. In this 
 manner silver leaf is fixed and burnished upon brass in the making of 
 what is called French platt ; and sometimes also gold leaf is burnished 
 upon copper and iron. Gold is applied to metals in several other man- 
 ners. One of these is by previously forming the gold into a paste or 
 amalgam with mercury, with which the surface of the metal to be gild- 
 ed must be covered - r then a sufficient heat is applied to evaporate the 
 mercury ; and the gold, which is left on the surface of the copper, is 
 lastly, burnished with a blood-stone. 
 
 Some metals, particularly silver, may be gilt in the following man- 
 ner :— Let gold be dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid. In this solution 
 pieces of linen are dipped, and burnt to black ashes. These ashes be- 
 ing rubbed on the surface of the silver by means of a wet linen rag, 
 apply the particles of gold which they contain, and which, by this meth- 
 od, adhere very well. The remaining part of the ashes is washed off; 
 and the surface of the silver, which in this state does not seem to be 
 gilt, is burnished with a blood-stone till it acquires a fine color of gold. 
 This method of gilding is very easy, and consumes a very small quanti- 
 ty of gold. Most gilt ornaments upon fans, snuff-boxes, and other toys 
 of much show and little value, are nothing but silver gilt in this man- 
 ner. Gold may also be applied to glass, porcelain, and other vitrified 
 matters. After the gold leaf is laid on the glass, &:c., the pieces are ex- 
 posed to a certain degree of heat, and burnished slightly to give them 
 a lustre. A more substantial gilding is fixed upon glass, enamel, and 
 porcelain, by applying to these substances powder of gold mixed with 
 a solution of gum arabic, or with some essential oil, and a small quan- 
 tity of borax ; after which a sufficient heat is applied to soften the 
 glass and the gold, which is then burnished. With this mixture any 
 figures may be drawn. The powders for this purpose may be made, — 
 1. By grinding gold leaf with honey, which is afterward to be washed 
 away with water. 2. By distilling to dryness a solution of gold in 
 nitro-muriatic acid. 3. By evaporating the mercury from an amalgam 
 of gold, taking care to stir well the mass near the end of the process. 
 4. By precipitating gold from its solution in nitro-muriatic acid, by ap- 
 plying to it a solution of green vitriol in water, or copper, and perhaps 
 other metallic substances. 
 
 SILVERING. Wood, paper, Szc. are silvered in the same manner 
 as gilding is performed, using only silver leaf instead of gold. For 
 common purposes, copper or brass may be plated by dissolving silver 
 in nitric acid, neutralizing the acid with alkali, and rubbing the polish- 
 ed surface of the article with this mixture, till it assumes a white sil- 
 ver color, which will continue for some timo, if not exposed to much 
 friction. Dial plates of clocks, barometers, &c, are plated with old 
 silver lace dissolved in nitric acid, and then precipitated with common 
 salt ; this precipitate is mixed with carbonate of potash and whiting, 
 until it forms a dry mass, with which the metal to be plated is rubbed. 
 The most permanent plating, however, is performed in the following 
 manner : — Take two thin plates of silver and copper, the former in the 
 proportion of one to twelve of the latter ; put a little powdered borax 
 between them, and expose them to a white heat, when the silver will 
 be found firmly united to the copper, after which, it is passed between 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 199 
 
 COI>~I.\G. 
 
 rollers, till it has acquired the proper thickness for the manufacture in- 
 tended. 
 
 COINING is the art or act of making money. Coining is either 
 performed by the hammer or the mill. The first method is now little 
 used in Europe, although it was the only one known until the year 
 1553, when a new coining-mill was invented by Anthony Bruchor ; 
 and first tried in the French king's palace at Paris, for coining counters. 
 In either kind of coining, the pieces of metal are stamped, or struck 
 with a kind of moulds or dies, Therein is engraven the device fixed 
 upon. The first operations in cWning are mixing and melting the 
 metal : for there are no species of money coined of pure gold or silver. 
 but always with a certain quantity of alloy of copper, or other metals, 
 mixed with them ; the reasons are partly the necessity of making those 
 metals harder, by some foreign admixture, and partly to defray the 
 expenses of coining. Melting, if the metal be gold, is performed in 
 earthen crucibles ; if silver or copper, in iron ones. When the gold or 
 silver is melted, it is poured into moulds for casting into plates or 
 sheets ; the method of doing this is exactly the same with that used 
 by the founders in sand. 
 
 Coining by the mill. The plates being taken out of the moulds, 
 scraped and brushed, are passed several times through the mill, to flat- 
 ten them, and brin^ them to the just thickness of the particular species 
 to be coined ; with this difference, however, that the plates of gold are 
 heated again in a furnace, and quenched in water, before they undergo 
 the mill ; which softens, and renders them more ductile : whereas those 
 of silver pass the mill just as they are, without any heating; and when 
 afterward they are heated, they are left to cool of themselves, without 
 water. The plates, whether gold, silver, or copper, thus reduced as 
 nearly as possible to their thickness, are cut into round pieces, nearly 
 the size of the intended species ; these pieces are adjusted, and brought, 
 by filing or rasping, to the weight of the standard, whereby they are to 
 be regulated ; and what remains of the plate between the circles is 
 melted again. The pieces are adjusted in a fine balance ; and those 
 which prove too light are separated from those too heavy ; the first to 
 be melted again, and the second to be filed down : for the mill through 
 which the plates are passed, can never be so just, but there will be 
 some inequality. They are then carried to the blanching or whitening 
 house, i. e. the place where the gold pieces have their color given them, 
 and the silver ones are whitened ; which is done by heating them in 
 the furnace, and afterwards boiling them successively in two copper 
 vessels, with water, common salt, and tartar. After scouring them 
 well with sand, and washing them with common water, they are dried 
 over a wood fire in a copper sieve. They formerly were next marked 
 with an engine on the edges, to prevent the clipping and paring of the 
 species ; but latterly, the edges and faces of the money are struck at 
 once. This marking of the edges is called milling. Some of the 
 larger pieces, as crowns, have legends impressed on the edge. A new 
 method of coining has been introduced by Messrs. Bolton and Watt. 
 which is now the only mode used in England. For this purpose build- 
 ings are erected on Tower Hill. The machinery invented by those 
 able mechanics has been long used in the manufacture of copper 
 money. A steam-engine works the screw presses for cutting out the 
 
200 FAMILY 
 
 COINING. PLUMBERY. 
 
 circular pieces of copper, and coins both the edges and faces of the 
 money at the same time, with such superior excellence and cheapness 
 of workmanship, as will prevent clandestine imitation. By this ma- 
 chinery, four boys are capable of striking 30,000, pieces of money 
 in an hour ; and the machine acts at the same time as a register, and 
 keeps an unerring account of the number of pieces struck. These 
 having now all their marks and impressions, both on the edges and fa- 
 ces, become money ; but have not currency till they have been weigh- 
 ed and examined. 
 
 For t/ie coining of Medals the process is the same, in effect, with that 
 of money ; the principal difference consists in this, that money, having 
 but a small relievo, receives its impression at a single stroke ; whereas 
 for medals, the height of their relievo makes it necessary that the stroke 
 be repeated several times. Medallions, and medals of high relievo, 
 from the difficulty of stamping them in the press, are usually first cast or 
 moulded in sand, like other works of that kind, and are only put into 
 the press to perfect them. 
 
 PLUMBERY is the art of casting, preparing, and working lead; 
 and using it in building, &c. The lead used in plumbery is furnished 
 from the lead-works in large ingots, or blocks, called pigs of lead, each 
 weighing generally about 100 pounds. Lead melting very easily, is 
 used for figures of any kind, by running it into moulds of brass, clay, 
 plaster, Szc. But the chief articles in plumbery are sheets and pipes of 
 lead. These constitute the basis of the plumber's work in building: 
 the following is the process: — 
 
 For casting large sheets of lead. The lead is melted in a large caul- 
 dron or furnace ; near the furnace is a table, or mould, whereon the 
 lead is to be cast. Around it runs a frame, consisting of a ledge or 
 border of wood, four or five inches high from the table. The table is 
 covered with fine, moist, smooth sand. At the end of the table nearest 
 to the furnace is adapted a box equal in length to the width of the ta- 
 ble ; at the bottom of the box is a horizontal slit to let out the melted 
 metal ; the box moves upon rollers along the edges of the projecting 
 rim of the table, and is set in motion by ropes and pulleys properly at- 
 tached. The box is made to contain as much lead as will cast the 
 whole sheet at the same time ; and the slit in the bottom is adjusted so 
 as to permit the proper quantity of lead to run out during its progress 
 over the table. The lead is taken out of the cauldron with an iron la- 
 dle. Over the table is a strike or rake of wood, which bears and plays 
 on the edges of the frame ; and so placed, as, that between it and the 
 sand, is a space proportionable to the intended thickness of the sheet. 
 The use of this strike is to drive the matter, while yet liquid, to the 
 extremity of the mould, and give the sheet an equal thickness. The 
 sheets thus cast, there remains nothing but to edge them, in order to 
 render them smooth and straight. 
 
 This is called cast lead. Milled lead is not made by the plumber, but 
 at the lead works ; in the operation of making it, a roller or flatting- 
 mill is used, whence its name. Milled lead is a slighter article than 
 cast lead. Sheet lead is of different thicknesses, varying in its weight 
 from 5 to 91bs. in each square foot. 
 
 For casting thin sheets of lead. The table or mould here used is of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 201 
 
 TIX. FOUNDRY. 
 
 a length and breadth at discretion. Instead of sand, it is covered with 
 a piece Of woollen stuff, nailed down at both ends to keep it tight; and 
 over this is laid a very fine linen cloth. These fine smooth sheets of 
 lead are sometimes used between the joints of large stone9 in great 
 buildings, Szc. 
 
 TLX. The mineral ore, being taken from the mine, is broken into 
 pieces with large iron mallets ; then brought to a stamping mill, where 
 it is beaten still smaller, and the water, passing through, washes away 
 the earthy parts, leaving the metallic ones behind. It is then dried in 
 a furnace on iron plates, and ground fine, washed and dried again, and 
 in this* state is called black tin. To convert it into white tin, L e. pure 
 tin, they carry it to a furnace, where it is melted, and ultimately cast in- 
 to large oblong square masses, called blocks. 
 
 Tin plate is iron plated over with tin. 
 
 FOUNDRY is the art of melting and casting all sorts of metals ; 
 particularly brass, iron, bell-metal, &c. The word is also used for a 
 place or house furnished with furnaces, or forges. 
 
 Foundry of smull works, or casting in sand. The sand used by the 
 founders, in casting brass, &c, is yellowish, rather soft, and greasy ; but 
 after it has been used becomes quite black, from the charcoal-dust used 
 in the moulds. With this sand a mould is made of dimensions suita- 
 ble for the things to be cast ; wood or metallic patterns are then placed 
 on the mould, and pressed down into the sand, so as to leave their form 
 indented. Along the middle of the mould is laid half a little cylinder 
 of brass, which is to be the chief conduit, funnel, or canal, for running 
 the metal ; being so disposed as to touch the ledge at one side, and only 
 reach the last pattern on the other. From this are placed several 
 smaller conduits or funnels, reaching to each pattern, whereby the 
 metal is conveyed through the whole frame- After the same manner 
 they proceed to work the counter-part, or other half of the mould, 
 with the same patterns, in a* frame exactly like the former ; excepting 
 that it has pins, which, entering holes corresponding thereto in the 
 other, make, when the two are joined together, the two cavities of the 
 pattern fall exactly on each other. When both parts of the mould are 
 sufficiently dried, they are joined together by means of pins ; and to 
 prevent their starting or slipping aside by the force of the metal, which 
 is poured in a melted state, through a hole contrived as the chief con- 
 duit, they are locked in a kind of press. The moulds thus secured in 
 the press are ranged near the furnace, to be in readiness to receive the 
 metal as it comes out of the crucible. While the moulds are prepar- 
 ing, the metal is fused in an earthen crucible, in a furnace adapted to 
 the crucible, so that the fire may completely envelope it. The founder 
 now takes the crucible out of thefire with a pair of iron tongs, and car- 
 ries it to the mould, into which he pours the fluid metal. Thus he 
 goes successively from one to another, till his crucible is empiied. 
 When sufficiently cool, the mould is opened, the cast matter taken out, 
 and the sand and moulds applied again to other castings. 
 
 In casting statues,Jigures, busts, Sco., there are three thingB chiefly re* 
 quired, viz. the mould, wax, and core. 
 
 In casting bells, the metal is different ; there being, in bwnze. or the 
 
202 FAMILY 
 
 FOUNDRY. 
 
 metal of statues, from nine to twelve parts tin to 100 of copper, where- 
 as bell-metal is generally composed of three parts copper and one tin. 
 The mirrors for telescopes consist chiefly of two parts copper and one 
 tin, with smaller portions of brass, silver, and arsenic. The dimensions 
 of the core and the wax of bells are not left to chance or the caprice 
 of the workman, but must be measured on a kind of scale, which gives 
 the height, aperture, and thickness necessary for the several tones re- 
 quired. It is on the wax also that the several mouldings, and other 
 ornaments and inscriptions to be represented in relievo on the outside 
 of the bell, are formed. The clapper, or tongue, is not properly a part 
 of the bell, but furnished from other hands. In Europe it is usually 
 of iron, and is suspended in the middle of the bell. In China, it is 
 only a huge wooden mallet, struck by force of arm against the bell : 
 whence they can have but little of that consonancy, so much admired 
 in some of our rings of bells. 
 
 Bells have been cast in China of an enormous weight : some at Pe- 
 kin are said to weigh 120,000 lbs. each ; one at Nankin weighs 50,000 
 lbs. Few European bells can compete with these. One at Erfurt, in 
 Saxony, weighs 25,400 lbs. ; another at Rouen, in France, weighs 
 35,000 lbs. ; the bells of England sink into comparative insignificance 
 after those. One at Oxford weighs 17,000 lbs. ; the great bell of St. 
 Paul's, London, weighs only 11,474 lbs. ; and Tom of Lincoln, 10,854 
 lbs. But, if the testimony of some authors may be relied on, two 
 bells at Moscow far exceed all others in size : one is said to weigh 
 288,000 lbs. ; and the other, the enormous weight of 432,000 lbs. ; its 
 height is said to be 19 feet, its circumference at the bottom 21 yards, 
 and its greatest thickness 23 inches. 
 
 The casting of cannons, mortars, and other pieces of artillery, is per- 
 formed like that of statues and bells, as to what regards the mould, 
 furnaces, &c. Cannons are made of a mixture of brass, copper, and 
 tin, or of cast iron, but more commonly with the last. A cannon is al- 
 ways shaped a little conical, being thickest of metal at the breech, 
 where the greatest effort of the gun-powder is made, and diminishing 
 thence to the muzzle ; so that if the mouth be two inches thick of 
 metal,, the breech is six. Its length is measured in calibres, i. e. in di- 
 ameters of the muzzle. Six inches at the muzzle require twenty cali- 
 bres, or ten feet in length ; there is about one-sixth of an inch allowed 
 as play for the ball. The guns are cast without any core, and after- 
 wards bored with a steel trepan," that is worked either by horses, a 
 water-mill, or steam. 
 
 There is a large iron foundry two miles from Falkirk, in Scotland, 
 called Carron Works, Above 100 acres of land have been converted 
 into reservoirs and pools for water, diverted from the river by magnifi- 
 cent dams built about two miles above the works, wmich, after turning 
 eighteen large wheels, falls into a tide navigation, that conveys their 
 castings to the sea. These works are the greatest of the kind in Eu- 
 rope, and were established in 1760. At present the buildings are of 
 vast extent ; and the machinery is the first in Britain both in elegance 
 and correctness. There are 1600 men employed, who receive weekly 
 650/. sterling, which has greatly enriched the adjoining country ; 6500 
 tons of iron are melted annually from the mineral, and cast into can- 
 non, cylinders, &c. In the founding of cannon these works have lately 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 203 
 
 LETTER FOUNDRY. 
 
 arrived at such perfection, that they make above 5000 pieces a year ; 
 and their iron guns of the new construction are the lightest and neatest 
 now in use, not excepting brass guns. 
 
 The words Crucible and Forge having been repeatedly used, it may 
 be proper to describe them. A Crucible is a vessel commonly made of 
 earth, sometimes of iron, plumbago, platina, &c., without any handle; 
 considerably higher than wide ; sometimes triangular, sometimes round 
 at top, which is the widest part, and assuming a circular figure below ; 
 in which chemists, coiners, goldsmiths, and other artificers, melt gold, 
 silver, &c. Earthen crucibles are made of potter's clay, and hold from 
 one ounce to 800 ; the iron ones are larger, some holding 10,000 ounces. 
 Forge signifies a kind of small furnace, wherein smiths and other arti- 
 ficers heat their metals. The word forge is also used for a large fur- 
 nace, wherein iron ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down, though 
 this is not so properly a forge as a furnace. A forge is more properly 
 used for another kind of furnace, wherein pigs of metal are heated, 
 fused, beaten with large hammers, and thus rendered soft, ductile, and 
 fit for use. Of these forges there are two kinds, through which the 
 iron successively passes, before it comes to the smith. Forge-mills are 
 turned by water, which serves to raise and let fall one or more huge 
 hammers, to beat and form the iron into bars, anchors, or other massive 
 works. 
 
 In LETTER-FOUNDRY, or the casting of printing letters, two 
 things are principally to be regarded — the matter and the matrices. 
 The matter, or type-metal is composed of lead alloyed with a small 
 portion of antimony. Every letter-founder preparing his own metal, 
 the proportions of lead and antimony are as various as the founders 
 differ in skill and experience. The excellence of type-metal consists 
 in hardness, tenacity, and stiffness ; hard, that the face of the type 
 may not be disfigured with a slight blow, that it may endure consider- 
 able wear ; tenacious, that it may not be too easily broken ; and stiff, 
 that the types may not be bent from their rectilinear position. 
 
 The matrices of the letters are pieces of copper or brass whereon the 
 impression of the intended character has been cut, or struck in a cavity 
 by means of punches. Each letter has its proper matrice ; and there 
 are particular ones for points, figures, rules, head-pieces, and other or- 
 naments of printing : excepting the quadrats, which being only of lead, 
 and not intended to leave any impression, are cast without matrices, 
 and only in moulds. Each matrice has its punch made of steel, or 
 iron well tempered. The matrices being struck, and touched up, or 
 repaired where needful, are put at the end of an iron mould enclosed 
 between two thin pieces of board. Every thing belonging to the 
 mould being disposed, they begin to prepare the matter. The furnace, 
 whereon the basin is placed for the metal to be melted in, is made of 
 the same matter as crucibles. Over the furnace is placed the melting 
 basin, or copper, which is divided into two equal parts by a perpendic- 
 ular partition. This basin contains the melted type-metal. One work- 
 man is employed at each furnace. To run the metal into the mould, 
 the founder holds in his ladle just enough for one letter. Having filled 
 this ladle with liquid metal, he pours it through a jet or funnel into the 
 matrice or character. He then opens the mould, and takps out the 
 character, and without loss of time shuts it again, replaces the matrice, 
 
204 FAMILY 
 
 ■ ■» _ ■*' ■■■ " ■ ■ — 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 and costs a new letter. It is incredible with what expedition all this is 
 done \ an expert workman being able to cast 3000 letters in a day. 
 The letter being cast, it is examined, to ascertain that it is perfect ; if 
 it be not, it is thrown among the refuse of the fount. When the let- 
 ters ore cast, they remain to be justified, both as to thickness and height. 
 The justification of the height is guided by the m of some body of 
 characters already justified. All that remains is to dress the letters, 
 and make that sort of groove, which every letter has in its bottom, in 
 order that it may stand perpendicular. This is performed by turning a 
 long line of them upside down, between two cheeks of wood, which, 
 pressing tqtj tight, enable the workman to run his plane along the 
 line of letters so inverted, and thus to form the groove. The letters 
 are now fit for the printer's use. The perfection of letters thus cast 
 consists in their being all square and straight on every side, of the 
 same height, evenly lined, well grooved, &c. An inspection of the 
 letters themselves will assist the reader in understanding this descrip- 
 tion, and afford a clearer idea than can be otherwise conceived. 
 
 FOUNT, or FONT, among printers, is a 6et or quantity of charac- 
 ters, ot letters of each kind, cast by the letter-founder and sorted. We 
 say a founder has cast a fount of pica, of english, pearl, &c, meaning he 
 has cast a set of characters of these kinds. A complete fount includes 
 capitals, small capitals, little letters, called lower-case, double letters, 
 accented letters, figures, points, characters for reference, spaces, and 
 quadrats. The letter founders have a kind of list, by which they reg- 
 ulate their founts. Some letters being much more used than others, it 
 is necessary to have more of them cast, than of those which occur less 
 frequently. Thus the and t, for instance, are always in greater 
 quantity than the k or z. In a fount, or bill, of the size called pica, 
 weighing in all 800 pounds, the number of the letter e is 12,000 ; of/ 
 9,000 ; of a 8,500 ; of e, w, o, and s, 8000 each ; of c there are 3000 ; 
 of b 1600 ; k 800 ; x 400 ; s 200. This is for the English language. 
 In other languages the comparative frequency must be different. 
 
 Sizes. Different names are given to the various sizes of types, cf 
 which the following are most employed in common book printing. 
 
 Pica. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
 Small Pica. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
 Lotig Primer. — abcdefghijkImnopqr8tuvvvxyz&,. 
 
 J^ou7^e^w.--abcclefgiiijk]inriopqretuv\vxyz&. 
 Brevier. — abcdefghijklmnopqrBtuvwxyz&. 
 
 Minion. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
 Jfbnp ami- ab c d e fglri jjtl m wopqrstu vwxy z& . 
 
 PRINTING is the art of making an impression upon one body by 
 pressing it with another. This art, in some way or other, has been 
 known in all ages. It has been done upon wax, plaster, and iron, by 
 the ancients ; their seals, rings, and money prove it. It has been done 
 with wooden blocks upon cotton and silk by the Indians. Printing 
 therefore in this unlimited sense was common to all nations. This art 
 is now divided into four distinct branches. Common or letter-press 
 printing ; rolling-press printing ; Calico printing ; and Stereotype 
 printing. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 205 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF PRINTING INTO BRITAIN. 
 
 Letter -pr^ss printing is the most useful and curious branch of the art. 
 To this are chiefly owing our deliverance from ignorance and error, 
 the progress of learning, the revival of sciences, many of the modern 
 inventions and discoveries, and numberless improvements in the arts, 
 which, without this noble invention, would have been either lost to 
 mankind, or confined to the knowledge of a few. 
 
 History of printing. — The honor of having given existence to the 
 present method of printing has been claimed by the cities of Haerlem, 
 Mentz, and Strasburg : and to each of these it may be applied in a 
 qualified sense, as they severally made many improvements upon one 
 another, in the art. But the origin, however, of printing, was at Haer- 
 lem ; the first book was printed in the year 1430; and to Laurence 
 Coster, of that city, is this discovery to be ascribed ; although there is 
 no doubt, that soon after Guttemberg, as well as Fust and Schoeffer, 
 who invented metal types, the first types being of wood, all added ma- 
 terially to the perfection of this important discovery. It is said, indeed, 
 that Gu'temberg invented moveable types, and that he began his experi- 
 ments at Strasburg, and completed them at Mentz ; it is also said that 
 Coster's method was to cut out the letters upon a wooden block ; that 
 he took for apprentice John Fust or Faustus, and bound him to secrecy, 
 but that Fust, notwithstanding his oath, went off, not only with the 
 knowledge of the art, but with the types and all the implements of his 
 master ; first to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, and afterwards to 
 Mentz. Here, assisted by Schoeffer, they printed a number of Bibles 
 in imitation of manuscript, and Fust carried them to Paris for sale. 
 The Parisians were astonished at their exact similarity, and accused 
 Fust of some diabolical art ; hence the origin of the story of the Devil 
 and Dr. Faustus. Wooden types not being found sufficiently durable, 
 and not answering expectation in other respects, it caused the first in- 
 vention of cut metal types. The honor of completing the dicovery is, 
 therefore, due to Peter Schoeffer, who found out the method of form- 
 ing the characters in a matrice, that the letters might be cast singly, in- 
 stead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet ; 
 and when he showed his master Fust, who appears to have assisted 
 Guttemberg in his attempts to bring the art to perfection, the letters 
 cast from these matrices, Fust was so pleased with the contrivance, that 
 he promised to Peter his only daughter in marriage ; a promise which 
 he soon after performed. Fust and Schoeffer concealed this new im- 
 provement, by administering an oath of secrecy to all whom they en- 
 trusted, till the year 1462, when, by the dispersion of their servants 
 into different countries at the sacking of Mentz by the Archbishop 
 Adolphus, the invention was publicly divulged. 
 
 Introduction of printing into Britain. — Printing was practised at 
 Rome in the year 1467, and the year following, it was introduced into 
 England by Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, who sent 
 W. Turner, Master of the Robes, and W. Caxton, merchant, to the 
 continent to learn the art. While there they met with one Corsellis, 
 an under workman, whom they induced to come to England. This be- 
 ing accomplished, a press was set up at Oxford, and the first book 
 printed in England in 1468, by Corsellis. Oxford was afterwards found 
 inconvenient to be the sole printing place in England, as being too far 
 
 18 
 
206 FAMILY 
 
 PRINTING IN THE UNITED STATES.— PRESS. 
 
 from London and the sea. The king therefore set up a press at St. 
 Alban's, and another in the city of Westminster, where several books 
 of Divinity and physic were printed. By this means the art grew fa- 
 mous. But although Caxton has been heretofore considered the first 
 printer in England, and it is now clear that that honor must be conce- 
 ded to Corsellis, yet Caxton was the first in England that used fusile 
 types, and consequently the first that brought the art to comparative 
 perfection ; whereas it is said that Corsellis printed with separate cut 
 types in wood, being the only method which he had learned at Haerlem. 
 Caxton's printing-office was in the Abbey of Westminster ; he pursued 
 his business with extraordinary diligence till 1494, in which year he 
 died very old. 
 
 History of printing in the United States — The first printing in New 
 England, was done in 1639, by one Day — the proprietor of the press 
 was a clergyman, by the name of Glover, who died on his passage to 
 America. The first thing printed was the Freeman's oath, the second 
 an Almanack, and the third an edition of the Psalms. No other print- 
 ing press was established in America, until near the close of the seven- 
 teenth century. John Elliot, the celebrated missionary, having trans- 
 lated the Bible into the Indian language, had it printed at Cambridge, 
 by means of this press, in 1664. 
 
 The first newspaper in North America, called The Boston Weekly 
 Neus- Letter, was established in 1704. About the middle of the 18th 
 century, ten other printing presses were established — four in New En- 
 gland ; two in New York ; two in Pennsylvania; one in South Caro- 
 lina ; and one in Maryland. The number of books published at this 
 time was also considerable, although they were executed in a coarse 
 style, and were generally books of devotion or for the purposes of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 As to the method of printing, we shall only observe, that the types, 
 or letters, are distributed each kind by itself, in cases. The composi- 
 tor, placing the copy of the work before him, picks up letter by letter, 
 and arranges them in order to form words and sentences, till he has 
 composed a page, and so on for the whole work ; the degree of expe- 
 dition and despatch, with which this is carried on, is not easily to be 
 conceived. The instrument in which the letters are set is called a 
 composing stick. When full, the compositor empties it on a thin board, 
 called a galley, till he has composed a page. When a certain num- 
 ber of pages are completed, they are firmly placed in due order in a 
 chase, which is a rectangular iron frame. In this condition the work 
 is called a/orm; and the next thing is to work it off at the printing- 
 press. This press is a very complex machine ; its two principal parts 
 are the body of the press, which serves to give the weight or stroke for 
 the impression, and the carriage on which the form is laid. 
 
 The wonderful power kf the steam-engine has lately been applied to 
 work the printing-press, and two different machines have been invented 
 for the purpose, by means of which three boys can perform in one hour 
 the work that in the usual way would employ two men eight hours. 
 One of the boys lays the paper on the machine, which of itself distri- 
 butes the ink on. the forms, and prints first one side of the sheet and then 
 the other ; the second boy removes the sheets thus printed ; and the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 207 
 
 STEREOTYPE PRINTING. — INK. — BOOKS. — ROLLING-PRESS. 
 
 third boy lays them evenly on the bank. In this way a thousand sheets 
 are printed in an hour. The press is of the rolling kind. Several of 
 the daily newspapers are now printed by steam, as well indeed as many 
 valuable books. 
 
 Stereotype Printing, although on a principle which was anterior 
 to printing by moveable types, was invented in Scotland by Mr. Ged 
 and Mr. Tiiloch respectively, carried to France, and at a subsequent 
 date was introduced into England. It has arrived at great perfection 
 in the United States, within a few years. 
 
 The mode of Stereotype Printing is first to set up a page in the com- 
 mon way, with moveable types ; and when correct, a cast of plaster of 
 Paris is taken from it; in this cast the metal for the stereotype is pour- 
 ed ; and so for every page intended to be stereotyped, each pa^e thus 
 forming a single block or plate. When the plates are prepared, they 
 are printed off like other works ; if by a rolling press, the plates are 
 bent to suit the rotundity of the cylinder. But it is only for standard 
 books of very extensive circulation and constant demand, and wherein 
 no material additions, corrections, or alterations, as to plan, or size, are 
 wanted, that the stereotype can be used to advantage. Such works 
 are comparatively very few. It is true, the stereotype plates can be, 
 and occasionally are, altered by punching out words or letters, and 
 inserting others; but the trouble of doing this is great, and, of course, 
 expensive. 
 
 The Ink used in printing is composed of nut or lintseed oil, boiled 
 and purified ; w T ith this oil are mixed common resin, to give it tenacity, 
 and soap, to destroy the greasiness of the oil, and make the ink easily 
 wash oft: these ingredients varying in proportions according to the 
 experience of the ink-maker, are ground up with a quantity of lamp- 
 black. For red ink, Vermillion is used instead of lamp-black. 
 
 Books are printed in China from wooden blocks, cut like those used 
 in printing calico, paper, kc. among us. These blocks are made of a 
 smooth, firm wood, and of the size of the leaf required ; upon the face 
 side some able penman draws out the several letters with a kind of 
 pencil ; when finished, the block is cut by the sculptor, with his sharp 
 small instruments, which make all the characters appear in relievo 
 on the wood. Their paper is inferior to ours in color. It is made of 
 the inner bark or rind of a kind of rushes, beaten up with water into a 
 pulp or paste, and formed in moulds much like ours. The advantage 
 of the Chinese printing consists in this, that they are not obliged to 
 take off the whole edition at once, but print their books as they need 
 them. Their blocks are easily retouched and made to serve again, and 
 there needs no corrector of the press. Its disadvantages are, that a 
 large room will scarcely hold all the blocks of a moderate volume ; the 
 color of their ink easily fades ; and their paper is too thin, apt to tear, 
 and subject to worms, whence it is that we see so few ancient books in 
 China. 
 
 Roll in? -press Printing is employed in taking offprints, or impressions 
 from copper-plates engraven or etched ; an account of which shall 
 appear under the article Engraving. 
 
 VARNISH is a thick, glossy liquor, used by painters, gilders, and 
 other artificers, to give a gloss and lustre to their works, and also to 
 
208 FAMILY 
 
 JAPANNING. — BRICKS. 
 
 defend them from the weather. There are several kinds of varnish, 
 which are divided into two classes, spirit and oil varnishes. The finest 
 of the former class is the copal varnish, made of gum-copal dissolved in 
 spirit of wine, or essentia] oils. Shell lac, and the other gum-resins 
 are next. The white varnish is made of oil of turpentine, fine turpen- 
 tine, and mastic. The transparent varnish, used for window-blinds, is 
 made of mastic dissolved alone, or with the addition of Canada balsam, 
 in oil of turpentine. Drying varnish is made of oil, turpentine, and 
 sandrac, melted together. The common varnish is only yellow or black 
 resin dissolved in oil of turpentine. The word varnish is also used for 
 the* glossy coat wherewith potters' ware, China ware, &c, are covered 
 to give them a lustre ; but the common term, glaze, is more proper, as 
 it is in reality a glass. This will be noticed under Pottery. 
 
 JAPANNING is the art of varnishing and drawing figures on wood, 
 in the same manner as is done by the natives of Japan. The s lbstan- 
 ces which admit of being japanned are almost every kind that are dry 
 and rigid, or not too flexible or extensible ; as wood, metals leather, and 
 prepared paper. Wood and metals do not require any other prepara- 
 tion, but to have their surface perfectly even and clean : but leather 
 should be securely strained, either on frames or boards, as its bending* 
 or forming folds would otherwise crack and force off the coats of var- 
 nish ; the paper should be treated in the same manner, and have a pre- 
 vious strong coat of size; but it is rarely made the subject of japan- 
 ning, till it is converted into papier mache', that is, reduced to a pulp, 
 mixed with gum and size, and dried to hardness, or wrought by other 
 means into such form, that its original state, particularly with respect 
 to flexibility, is lost. 
 
 Bricks are formed by means of a wooden mould, dried in the open 
 air, and then baked or burnt, to serve the purposes of building. The 
 first step in the process of brick making is casting the clay. The next 
 step is to tread or temper it. This is commonly done by means of ox- 
 en who are employed to tread it. The goodness of brick depends chief- 
 ly upon this preparation. The clay itself, before it is wrought, is gen- 
 erally brittle, but by working and incorporating it together with water, 
 the whole becomes a homogeneous paste. Bricks are commonly of a 
 red color. Bricks may be made of any clayey earth that is clear of 
 stones, but all will not burn red. The clay ought to be dug before 
 winter, but not made into bricks before spring. 
 
 Bricks are burnt either in a kiln or clamp. Those in a kiln are burnt 
 either with wood or coal, as may suit the particular convenience of the 
 spot for obtaining most readily one or the other material ; and as the 
 fire can be, in kilns, continued at the pleasure of the superintendant, 
 the bricks can be more equally and uniformly burnt. About London, 
 however, bricks are chiefly burnt in clamps, built of the bricks them- 
 selves, after the manner of arching in kilns, with a vacancy between 
 every two bricks for the fire to play through ; but with this difference, 
 they span it over by making the bricks project one over another on 
 both sides of the place, for the wood and coal to lie in till they meet, 
 and are bounded by the bricks at the top, which close all up. The 
 place for the fuel is carried up straight on both sides, till about three 
 feet high; then they almost fill it with wood, and over that iay a cover- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA . 209 
 
 TILES. PIPES. 
 
 . - A 
 
 ino- of coal. They also strew coal over the clamp, upon every row of 
 bricks, which are packed loosely, so that the hre may more readily 
 communicate with each row ; and lastly thev kindle the wood, which 
 gives tire to the coal : when all is consumed, they conclude the bricks 
 ?ire sufficiently burnt. 
 
 TILE is a sort of thin laminated brick, used for the roofs of houses ; 
 or. more properly, a fat clayey earth, moulded into a certain form, and 
 dried and burnt like bricks. Tiles are made of better clay than bricks. 
 The method of burning is similar to brick, but tiles are always burnt in 
 kilns. There are various kinds of tiles for building ; but hollow and 
 plain tiles are the chief. Dutch tiles, or, as they are sometimes called 
 Flemish tiles, are of two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient, for 
 chimney foot-pieces; they were painted with ancient figures and mo- 
 resque devices, but came short, both as to the design and coloring, of 
 the modern ones. The more modern Dutch tiles are commonly used 
 plastered up in the jambs of chimneys, and are much better glazed and 
 painted than the former kind. But these seem to be made of the same 
 white clay of which glazed earthenware is made. Both these are now 
 fallen into disuse. The blue slate used to cover houses are sometimes 
 called tiles. 
 
 A PIPE is a well known machine, used in smokine tobacco, consist- 
 ing of a long slender tube, made of clay. Pipes are of various fashions, 
 as long, short, plain, worked, white, varnished, unvarnished, and of va- 
 rious colors, Szc. The Turks use pipes three or four feet long, made of 
 rushes, or wood bored ; at the end of which they fix a kind of nut of 
 baked earth, which serves as a bowl, and which they take off after smo- 
 king. The clay with which pipes are made is brought to the makers 
 in lumps of six or eight inches square. When used, it is thrown into 
 a large pan, moistened with water, and beaten and moulded till it is soft 
 and mellow, and exceedingly well tempered. Thence it is removed to 
 the rolling board, where the workman readily breaks off an exact quan- 
 tity for a couple of pipes, rolls out both at once, one in each hand, to the 
 proper length and form, leaving a sufficient quantity at one end for the 
 bowl ; then lays them on a board by dozens, where they remain till 
 they have acquired a greater degree of hardness. The tube is then 
 formed by running a wire through the clay. The pipe, before the wire 
 is withdrawn, is closed in a mould of polished iron, and now, by the 
 help of another machine, the bowl instantly receives its form, and the 
 whole pipe is returned in its exact figure. It is now again left to 
 harden yet more, before it undergoes its last smoothing and finish, 
 which is quickly done by a kind of knife, &c. and thence It is taken to 
 the kiln. 
 
 The Kilns are of various sizes ; some hold twentv ^ross. others eighty, 
 and even a hundred ; but the more usual size contains forty or fifty 
 gross of pipes. Here they are six or eight hours exposed to'a strong 
 clear fire. This brings them to their state of whiteness; and is the 
 last operation. They are then taken and packed up in boxes for sale. 
 
 POTTERY is the art of making earthen pots or vessels ; or the man- 
 ufacture of earthenware. The clay used for this purpose, 
 cous earth, of ditferent kinds and properties, and may be found in va- 
 
 18* 
 
210 FAMILY 
 
 . POTTERY 
 
 rious places. The better kinds of English stone ware are composed of 
 pipe clay and pounded flints, in the proportion of four parts of flints to 
 eighteen parts of clay. The yellowish white or queen's ware, so gene- 
 rally in use, is made of the sanfc materials, with larger proportions of 
 clay. The common red earthenware appears to be merely common clay, 
 similar to that with which bricks are made. The first is glased, by 
 throwing 1 sea-salt into the furnace in which it is baked, when the heat 
 is strong : the salt is converted into vapor, and this being applied to 
 the surface of the stone-ware, vitrifies it, and forms an excellent glazing. 
 The queen's ware is glazed by dipping the baked ware into a mixture of 
 the consistence of cream, composed of white lead, ground flint, and 
 ground glass, and submitting the ware afterwards to heat. The com- 
 position is, however, sometimes varied. But the glaze for most of our 
 common earthenware containing so large a portion of lead, such ves-' 
 sels should never be employed for acid liquors of any kind, as the acid 
 will dissolve the lead, and thus render whatever is contained in the ves- 
 sel poisonous. 
 
 Among the instruments used in pottery, the wheel and lathe are the 
 principal ; the first for large works, the second, for small. The potter's 
 wheel consists principally in its nut, which is its beam or axis, the 
 pivot of which plays perpendicularly ona free-stone sole at the bottom. 
 From the four corners of this beam proceed four iron bars, which, form- 
 ing diagonal lines with the beam, descend and are fastened at bottom 
 to a strong wooden circle. On the top of the nut is laid a piece of the 
 clay to be turned and fashioned. The wheel, thus disposed, is encom- 
 passed on all sides with four different pieces of wood, sustained on a 
 wooden frame. The hind piece, which is that whereon the workman 
 sits, is made a little inclining towards the wheel. On the fore pieces 
 is placed the prepared clay ; by the workman's side is a trough of wa- 
 ter, wherewith, from time to time, he wets his hands, to prevent the 
 clay's sticking to them. The potter having prepared his clay, and laid 
 a piece of it, suitable to the work he intends, on the top of the beam, 
 turns the wheel, till it has got the proper velocity ; forming the cavity 
 of the vessel, and widening it till it has received its intended form. 
 When the vessel is found to be too thick, he pares off what is redun- 
 dant with an instrument. When the vessel is finished, he takes it off 
 the circular head by a wire passed underneath the vessel. 
 
 The potter's lathe is also a kind of wheel, but simpler and slighter 
 than the former. Its three principal parts are an iron beam or axis, 
 placed perpendicularly ; a small wooden wheel, placed horizontally at 
 the top of the beam, and serving to form the vessel on ; and a thick 
 wooden wheel placed horizontally at the bottom. The potters work 
 with the lathe with the same instruments, and after the same manner, 
 as with the wheel. The lathe and wheel serve only to give the form 
 of the body of the vessel ; the feet, handles, and other occasional orna- 
 ments are made and set by the hand. If there be any sculpture in the 
 work, it is usually done in earthen or wooden moulds, and afterwards 
 stuck on the outside of the vessel. 
 
 DELFT-WARE is a kind of pottery of baked earth, covered with 
 an enamel, or white glazing, which gives it the appearance of porcelain* 
 It is sometimes ornamented with paintings of figures. &c. The basis 
 
ENCYCLOPE DIA. 211 
 
 PORCELAIN GLASS — WORKING OR BLOWING MOUND GLASS. 
 
 of this pottery is clay, which is mixed in such quantity as to produce 
 enough ductility to be worked, moulded, and turned easily, without 
 cracking or shrinking too much in drying or baking. The vessels, be- 
 ing slightly baked, are covered with an enamel or glazing. They are 
 then painted with colors composed of metallic oxides, mixed and ground 
 with fusible glass. When dry, they are again baked, and exposed to a 
 heat capable of fusing the enamel, and completing the baking. — The 
 furnace and colors used for painting this ware are the same as for por- 
 celain. For making these enamel* there are many recipes, but all of 
 them are composed of sand and flints, vitrinable salts, and oxide of lead 
 or tin. The sand must be perfectly vitrified, so as to form a gloss con- 
 siderably fusible. The kinds of clay chiefly used for delft-ware are 
 blue and green : to give it a greater solidity, some red clay is added; 
 which on account of its ferruginous matter, possesses the requisite 
 binding quality. Three parts blue clay, two red, and five marl, form 
 the composition used in several manufactures. 
 
 PORCELAIN", or CHINA, as it is commonly called, because former- 
 ly brought chiefly from that country, is imported occasionally into Eu- 
 rope from many other places of the east, especially Japan, Siam, Surat, 
 and Persia. But very good porcelain is now made in various parts of 
 England, as well as at Dresden, and in France. 
 
 The Chinese call this manufacture tse-ki ; the origin of the term por- 
 celain does not appear to be decidedly known : the French call it por- 
 c^laine; the Italians porcellana. Whether porcelain was known to the 
 Romans is uncertain, as the Roman writers give us no decisive infor- 
 mation concerning it. It is not known who was the inventor of this el- 
 egant manufacture ; the Chinese annals are said to be silent about it ; 
 it appears, however, pretty certain, that porcelain must have been 
 known as early as the fifth century. 
 
 It is said that the porcelain of China is made chiefly, if not entirely, 
 at Kingteching, which has had the honor of supplying the greatest part 
 of the world with this commodity, but England now bids fair to deprive 
 China of much of her trarlic in this elegant production. 
 
 The most perfect and beautiful porcelains of Japan and China are 
 said to be composed of two distinct earths; a porcelain is produced 
 which scarcely vitrifies at the utmost furnace heat which art can ex- 
 cite. It is also very hard, beautifully semi-transparent, very white 
 when not artificially coloured, tough and cohesive, so that it may be 
 made very thin, and bears sudden heating and cooling without crack- 
 ing. 
 
 GLASS is a transparent, solid, brittle body, produced by a mixture 
 of earthy or metallic with saline substances melted together by an in- 
 tense heat. There are three principal kinds of glass, distinguished by 
 the form or manner of working them, viz., round glass, as our vessels, 
 phials, drinking glasses. &c. : table or window glass, of which there are 
 divers kinds; and crown-glass and plate-glass, or looking-glass. 
 
 WORKING OR BLOWING ROUND GLASS. The furnace in 
 which the glass is melted is round, and has several apertures, through 
 one of which the fuel is introduced; the others serve to lade out the 
 melted metal, which is fused in pots made of tobacco-pipe clay, or some 
 
212 FAMILY 
 
 BOTTLES — PUTTY, 
 
 other material capable of resisting the heat. When the ingredients 
 are perfectly fused and sufficiently hot, part of the melted matter is ta- 
 ken out at the end of a hollow tube about three feet long-, which is dip- 
 ped into it and turned about till a sufficient quantity is taken up ; the 
 workman then rolls it gently upon a plate of iron or marble, to unite 
 it more intimately ; he then blows through the tube, till the melted 
 mass at the extremity swells into a bubble ; after which, he rolls it 
 again on a smooth surface to polish it, and repeats the blowing till the 
 glass is brought to the size and form necessary for the required vessel ; 
 he shaping it with pincers or scissors, according to circumstances. 
 
 Crown or Window Gla*s is formed in a similar manner, except that 
 the liquid mass is blown into large globes, and detached from the first 
 iron tube by the assistance of a second person, who fixes his iron tube 
 at the opposite side of the globe ; and the man who originally blew it, 
 then separates his tube from it ; the mouth of the globe is gradually 
 widened till it ultimately becomes, in the hand of the workman a cir- 
 cular planisphere. 
 
 Plate Glass for Looking Glasses and some superior windows, is made 
 by causing the melted glass to flow upon a table made either of pot- 
 metal or of copper, with iron ledges to confine the melted matter ; and 
 as it cools, a metallic roller is passed over it, to reduce it to an uniform 
 thickness. After being annealed, that is cooled in an oven or furnace 
 very gradually, it is ground and polished thus : — The glass is laid hor- 
 izontally upon a flat stone table made of a very fine grained free-stone ; 
 then taking a smaller piece of rough glass, and fastening it to a heavy 
 wooden plank, the workmen continue to rub one glass backwards and 
 forwards upon another, till they acquire a great degree of smoothness. 
 While they are thus employed, they pour in water and sand, then a 
 finer sort of sand, and lastly powder of smalt. When the grinder has 
 done his part, by bringing the glass to an exact plainness, it is turned 
 over to the polisher, who with the fine powder of Tripoli stone, or em- 
 ery, and a putty formed of lead and tin calcined together, brings it to 
 a perfect evenness and lustre. 
 
 Glass is colored blue by oxide of cobalt ; red by the oxide of gold ; 
 green by oxides of copper or iron ; yellow by oxides of silver or anti- 
 mony ; and violet by oxide of manganese. 
 
 BOTTLES. Glass bottles are better for liquors than those of stone. 
 Foul glass bottles are cleaned by rolling sand or small shot in them. 
 But it frequently happens, that some of the shot are left behind ; and 
 when wine or beer is again poured into the bottles, this mineral poison 
 will slowly dissolve, and impregnate those vinous liquors with its dele- 
 terious qualities. The sweetness which is sometimes perceived in red 
 port wine may arise from this cause, when it is neither designed nor 
 suspected. It is much better, therefore, to use nothing but sand, or the 
 dust of coal, and coarse brown paper, which are very effectual for the 
 purpose. 
 
 PUTTY sometimes denotes powder of calcined tin, which is used 
 in polishing and giving a lustre to works in marble, glass, iron and 
 steel. The putty commonly used by glaziers is composed of lintseed 
 oil and whiting, with or without the addition of white lead. The 
 whiting is first powdered very fine, then oil and white lead (should an}' 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 213 
 
 PINS. NEEDLES. 
 
 be deemed necessary for the purpose intended) are well wrought with 
 it, and incorporated together. The mixture is beaten till the whole is 
 • o roughly blended, and becomes a tenacious mass like dough. 
 
 A PIN is an article well known. It is not easy to trace the invention 
 of this useful implement. It is first noticed in the English statute- 
 book, in the year 1483, prohibiting foreign manufactures. In the reign 
 of Henry VIII. it would seem pins were then considered a new inven- 
 tion, and probably brought from France, where they were esteemed ar- 
 ticles of luxury. Hence arose the term pin-money, an allowance made 
 by the husband to the wife for her own spending. The art, however, 
 of making pins from brass wire, was not known in England before 
 1543 ; before that period they were either made of bone, ivory, or box. 
 Pins are made in the following manner : — The brass wire, reduced 
 to its proper dimensions by drawing, is straightened, and afterwards 
 cut into lengths of three or four yards, and then into smaller ones, ev- 
 ery length being sufficient for six pins ; each end of these is ground to 
 a point, upon grind-stones by boys, who will point 16x00 pins in an 
 hour. When the wire is thus pointed, a pin is taken off from each 
 end ; and this is repeated, till it is cut into six pieces. The heads are 
 next formed by means of a spinning wheel ; one piece of wire being 
 thus with astonishing rapidity wound round another, and the interior 
 one being drawn out, leaves a hollow tube between the circumvolu- 
 tions ; it is then cut with shears, every two circumvolutions or turns of 
 the w T ire forming one head ; these are softened by placing them in a 
 furnace till red hot. When cold they are distributed to children, w r ho 
 sit with anvils and hammers before them, which they work with their 
 feet by means of a lathe, and taking up one of the lengths, they thrust 
 the blunt end into a quantity of the heads which lie before them, and 
 catching one at the extremity, they apply them immediately between 
 the anvil and the hammer, and by a motion or two of the foot, the pin 
 and the head are fixed together in a very expeditious manner. The pin 
 is now thrown into a copper containing a solution of tin, and the lees 
 of wine. Here it remains for some time, when it assumes a white, 
 though dull appearance ; to give it a polish, it is put into a tub with a 
 quantity of bran, which is set in motion by turning a shaft that runs 
 through its centre, and thus, by means of friction, it becomes entirely 
 bright. The pin being complete, the bran is winnowed from it, leaving 
 the pin fit to be stuck in paper for immediate sale. Pins are distin- 
 guished in commerce by numbers ; the smallest are called minikins ; 
 the next short whites; the next larger ones, No. 3, 3^, 4, 4^, and 5, to 
 the 14th ; whence they go by twos ; viz. 16, 18, and 20, which is the 
 largest size. Pins are sold in papers and packets as thus numbered, 
 and also by the pound weight in assorted sizes. There are also black 
 pins, pins with double heads, Szc. 
 
 NEEDLES were first made in England by a native of India, in 
 1545, but the art was lost at his death ; it was however recovered by 
 one Christopher Greening, in 1.560. This familiar little instrument 
 makes a very considerable article of commerce ; and the consumption 
 is almost incredible. The German and Hungarian steel is of most re- 
 pute for needles. The steel being placed in the fire, and afterwards 
 hammered to bring it to a round form, is passed through successive 
 
214 FAMILY 
 
 BLEACHING. 
 
 holes of the wire-drawing machine, till it is of the proper size ; it is 
 then cut into suitable lengths ; these pieces are flatted at one end on 
 the anvil, to form the head or eye ; they are then put into the fire to 
 soften them further, thence taken out, and pierced at the extreme of 
 the flat part on the anvil, by a puncheon of well-tempered steel, and 
 laid on a leaden block to bring out, with another puncheon, the small 
 piece of steel remaining in the eye. The corners are then filed ofFthe 
 square of the heads, and a small cavity filed on each side of the flat of 
 the head ; this done, the point is formed with a file, and the whole 
 filed over : they are then made red hot over a charcoal fire, and after- 
 wards thrown into a basin of cold water to harden. When hardened, 
 they are laid in a shovel on a brisk fire, to temper and take off their 
 britileness. They are then straightened one after another with the 
 hammer; the next process is the polishing : 12 or 15,000 needles are 
 ranged in small heaps on a piece of new buckram sprinkled with em- 
 ery dust ; they are afterwards sprinkled with oil of olives ; lastly the 
 whole is.made up into a roll, and laid on a polishing table, and over it a 
 thick plank loaded with stones, which two men work backwards and 
 forwards, till the needles are polished. When taken out, they are 
 washed with hot water and soap, and wiped in bran. The good are 
 now separated from the bad, and the points smoothed on an emery 
 stone. This operation finishes them; and nothing remains but to 
 make them up in packets. 
 
 Needles are distinguished into common and Whitechapel, this last by 
 having a c marked upon each needle; sharps, bttweens, and blunts; 
 darning needles, double longs, and No. 50, Szc. ; besides which there is 
 the netting needle, the knitting needle, the glover's needle, with a trian- 
 gular point, the tambour needle, surgeon's needles, &c. 
 
 BLEACHING is the art of whitening linens, stuffs, silk, and many 
 other substances. 
 
 Although the ancient inhabitants of India, Egypt and Syria, knew 
 in some sort a method of carrying off the coloring matters with which 
 cloth is stained ; and although Fliny mentions that the Gauls were ac- 
 quainted with a lixivium extracted from the ashes of vegetables, and 
 knew how to combine it with oil to form soap, .yet their knowledge of 
 bleaching w T as very imperfect. Even in India, at the present time, it is 
 said that the art of bleaching is no further advanced than it was in the 
 time of Herodotus. Indeed in Europe, till toward the end of the 18th 
 century, the art of bleaching advanced slowly ; but the discovery of 
 oxymuriatic acid, as a material for bleaching, has given an impulse un- 
 known in any other art. 
 
 Blenching Silk. Raw Silk is put into a thin linen bag, thrown into 
 a vessel of boiling river water in which soap has been dissolved, and 
 then boiled two or three hours, the bag being turned out several times ; 
 taken out, beaten, and washed in cold water, mixed with soap and a 
 little indigo. The indigo water being slightly wrung out, the silk is 
 put into a vessel of cold water ; after taking it out of which, it is 
 wrung, and all the water and soap expressed ; shaken out to untwist 
 and separate the threads ; and hung up in a kind of stove made on 
 purpose, where sulphur is burnt, the vapor from which gives the last 
 degree of whiteness to the silk. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 215 
 
 BLEACHING. 
 
 Bleaching of woollen stuffs. There are three ways of whitening 
 these ; the first, with water and soap; the second with vapor of sul- 
 phur ; the third, with chalk, indigo, and vapor of sulphur. For the 
 first : the stuffs, being taken from the fulling mill, are put into soaped 
 water rather hot, and worked afresh by force of arms over a bench, 
 which finishes the whitening the fulling mill had begun ; and lastly 
 washed out in clear water and dried ; this is called the natural way of 
 bleaching. In the second method they begin by washing the stuff in 
 river water ; it is then laid to dry on poles, and, when half dry, spread 
 out in a kind of stove well closed, wherein is burnt sulphur ; the va- 
 por, diffusing itself, sticks by degrees over all the stuff, and ghes it a 
 line whitening ; this is commonly called bleaching by the flower. In the 
 third method, after the stuffs have been washed, they are thrown into 
 cold water impregnated with chalk and indigo ; after they have been 
 well agitated here, they are washed afresh in clear water, half dried on 
 poles, and spread in a stove to receive the vapor of the sulphur, which 
 finishes the operation. This is not esteemed the best method of bleach- 
 ing, though agreeable enough to the sight. It may be here observed, 
 that when a stuff has once received the steam of sulphur, it will scarce- 
 ly receive any beautiful dye but black or blue, unless well washed in 
 alkaline ley, and rinsed previously to being put into the dye vat. 
 
 Bleaching of Hollands or fine linens. After taking them from the 
 loom, while yet raw, they are steeped in clean water, rinsed out, and 
 cleared of their filth in a tub filled with a cold lixivium or ley. When 
 taken out of the ley, they are washed in clean water, spread on a mea- 
 dow and watered from time to time. After lying a certain time on the 
 ground, they are boiled in a new ley of potash or barilla, and again 
 washed in clean water, soaped with black soap, passed through rubbing 
 boards, and the soap washed out in clean water ; they are then steeped 
 in sour milk, which finishes their whitening and scouring, gives a soft- 
 ness, and makes them cast a little nap : when taken out of the milk, 
 they are washed in clean water for the last time. After all this pro- 
 cess, they give the linen its first blue, by passing it through water, 
 wherein a little starch and smalt, or powder blue has been steeped. 
 Lastly, the proper stiffness and lustre are given with starch, pale malt, 
 and certain gums, the quantity and quality whereof is adjusted accord- 
 ing to occasion. In fine weather, the whole process of bleaching is 
 completed in a month's time ; in bad* it takes up six weeks or more. 
 
 Coarse linens are taken from the loom, and laid in wooden frames 
 full of cold water, whereby means of wooden hammers worked by a 
 water-mill, they are beaten so as insensibly to wash and purge them- 
 selves of their filth ; then spread on the ground, where the dew 
 which they receive for a week, takes off more of their impurity ; they 
 are then put into a kind of wooden tubs, or pans, with a hot ley over 
 them, and afterwards boiled with potash, kelp, or barilla. Thus lixivi- 
 ated, they are again purged in the mUl, laid afresh on the ground, 
 and after about a week more passed through a second ley, and all things 
 repeated, till such time as they have acquired their just degree of 
 whiteness. 
 
 The process of bleaching, not only linens and cottons, but rags for 
 paper, with oxymuriatic acid, or rather with solutions of oxymuriate of 
 pulash, or oxymuriate of lime, has now been generally adopted ; and with 
 
216 FAMILY 
 
 WOOL. — CLOTH. 
 
 the use of these, linens can be made as white in six days, as formerly 
 they were in six weeks. 
 
 WOOL. Woollen cloths are extensively manufactured in England, 
 France, Netherlands, Prussia, and in some other places on the conti- 
 nent of Europe. Those of Silesia, in Prussia, are among the most 
 perfect produced; and they annually amount to more than £50,000 
 in value. Ihe woollen cloths of France have long been distinguished 
 for fineness and durability. In Spain and most other countries of Eu- 
 rope, this manufactuie is in an imperfect state. Coarse cloths are 
 made in considerable quantities in the northern countries ; but not 
 enough generally for home-consumption. England furnishes the great 
 supply of woollen goods ; a due portion of which, are of superior 
 excellence. The woollen manufacture of that country employs about 
 halfa million of persons, and amounts annually to more than ,£16,000,- 
 000 sterling. 
 
 Within a few years great attention has been paid to the growth and 
 manufacture of wool, in various parts of the United States, and parti- 
 cularly in New England, and some of the Middle States. It is doubt- 
 ed, however, whether as much capital is at present invested in estab- 
 lishments of this kind, as a few years ago ; and in consequence of the 
 recent depressed state of the price of wool, there are probably fewer 
 sheep by several millions. In a speech delivered in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives on the 31st of January, 1827, by the Hon. John Davis, of 
 Massachusetts, the amount of w T ool worked up was estimated by that 
 gentleman at 32,000,000 lbs. and that 3,000,000 yards of broad, and 
 32,000,000 narrow cloths were annually produced, giving employment 
 directly or indirectly to 100,000 persons. It was stated also, that more 
 than one hundred millions capital were vested in the growth and man- 
 ufacture of wool, The number of sheep were put at that time at 
 15,000,000. 
 
 CLOTH, in commerce, in its general sense, includes all kinds of 
 clothing woven or manufactured in the loom, except silk ; whether the 
 threads be of wool, cotton, hemp, or flax. Cloth is, however, more 
 peculiarly applied to woollen threads interwoven ; some of which are 
 called the warp, and extend lengthwise, from one end of the piece to 
 the other : the others are called the woof, and disposed across the first, 
 or breadthwise of the piece. Cloths are of various qualities, fine, 
 coarse, strong, &c. ; some are of different colours ; other are wrought 
 white, and afterwards dyed in the piece. Their breadths and lengths are 
 various. The goodness of woollen cloth consists in the wool being fine 
 and well dressed ; in its being spun equally, always observing, how- 
 ever, that the thread of the warp be finer and better twisted than that of 
 the woof; in its being well cleared of the knots and other imperfec- 
 tions, and well cleansed with fullers' earth, and afterwards properly 
 dyed, dressed, and pressed. 
 
 Cloth is distinguished by being either plain or kersey woven. The 
 first method consists simply in the threads crossing each other at right 
 angles ; in the last they are crossed so as to give an additional strength to 
 the cloth ; hence it appears in diagonal lines or rows running obliquely 
 across the piece ; and, in general, this style of weaving adds thickness 
 as well as strength to the fabric. In the cotton manufacture, cloth so 
 woven is called twilled. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 21' 
 
 MAKUFACTimiNG OF CLOTHS FOK DYKING. 
 
 Manufacturing of white cloths for dating. The wool is first scoured 
 in a liquor composed of three parts of water, and one of urine ; it is 
 then drained, washed in running water, and hung out to dry in the 
 shade. When dry, it is beaten with rods on hurdles of wood, or on 
 ropes, to clear out the dust and grosser filth. After beating, it is well 
 picked, to clear the rest of the filth that had escaped the rods. It is 
 now oiled, and carded on large iron cards, placed aslope. The best oil 
 for the purpose is olive oil. The wool is now given out to the spinner3. 
 who first card it on the knee with small fine cards, then spin it by a 
 wheel, observing to make the thread for the warp smaller than that for 
 the woof, and much closer twisted. When warped, it is stiffened with 
 size : that which is made with shreds of parchments is the best. When 
 dry, the weavers mo;:nt it in the loom. Formerly there were two weav- 
 ers to each loom, one on each side, treading at the same time alternate- 
 ly on the same treadle; i. e. now on the right step, and now on the 
 left, which raised and lowered the shreads of the warp equally ; be- 
 tween which they threw, transversely, the shuttle from one to the other. 
 This, however, is now performed by one person, by means of what is 
 called a flying shuttle. Each time that the shuttle is thrown, so that a 
 thread of the woof is inserted within the warp, he strikes it with the 
 frame wherein the comb, or reed, is fastened, between the teeth of which 
 the threads of the warp are passed, repeating the stroke as often as is 
 necessary. The weaver having continued his work, till the whole warp 
 is filled will wool, the cloth is finished. It is then taken off the loom 
 by unrolling it from the beam whereon it had been roiled in proportion as 
 it was woven, and given to be cleared of the knots, ends of thread, 
 .straws, and other filth, which is done with little iron nippers. In this 
 condition it is carried to the fullerj, to be scoured with urine, or fullers' 
 earth well cleaned and steeped in water, put along with the cloth into 
 the trough, wherein it is fulled ; and after undergoing a variety of other 
 manipulations and processes necessary to the perfection of the cloth, 
 and being also dyed of the particular color desired, it is ready for the 
 market. 
 
 The above is the usual process of weaving woollen cloth in the 81 
 way, as formerly, as well as now sometimes practised ; but the ingenu- 
 ity of modern times and the steam engine have very materially altered 
 many of the processes above described. The spinning in particular is 
 now, in our large manufactories, no longer performed by the hand and 
 the wheel, but a method is adopted by which one person can direct the 
 spinning of thirty or more threads at once, and this so regularly and 
 expeditiously as to set at nought the former practice. The machinery 
 of such spinning is moved by steam, as indeed is even the carding of the 
 wool, and many other processes not formerly thought capable oi' being 
 brought to machinery subjection. 
 
 For the manufacture of mixed cloths, or those wherein the wools are 
 first dyed, then mixed, spun, and woven, of the colors intended, the 
 process, except in what relates to the color, is mostly the same with 
 that just spoken of. The method of adjusting the mixture is by first 
 making a felt of the colors of the intended cloth, as a specimen; tho 
 wool of each color is weighed, and when the specimen is to the man- 
 ufacturer's mind, he mixes, for use a quantity in the same proportion . 
 
 19 
 
218 FAMILY 
 
 BAIZE. — BOMBAZET. WORSTED. FLANNEL. TAPESTRY. 
 
 estimating each grain of the specimen at twenty pounds' weight of the 
 same in the cloth to be made. 
 
 BAIZE is a kind of coarse, open, woollen stuff, having a long nop; 
 sometimes friezed on one side, and sometimes not, according to the uses 
 for which it is intended ; it is of various colors, white, green, &c. It 
 is without wale, being wrought on a loom with two treadles like flannel. 
 The manufacture of baize is very considerable in England, and in 
 Flanders about Lisle and Tournay, &c. Formerly the French, as well 
 as the Italians, were furnished with baize from England ; but for 
 sometime the French workmen have undertaken to imitate it, and set 
 up manufactures of their own, and with success, especially at Nantes, 
 Montpelier, <fcc. The export of baize is very considerable to Spain, 
 Portugal, and Italy. Its chief use is for the religious, and for linings 
 in the ermy ; t}ie looking-glass makers also use it behind their glasses, 
 to preserve the tin or quicksilver ; and the case makers to line their 
 cases. 
 
 SERGE is kersey wove, and either white, colored, or figured. Co- 
 lored serges and figured Duroys were very commonly worn by the low- 
 er orders in the west of England some years ago ; but these manufac- 
 tures have been superseded by bombaztts and printed cottons. White 
 serge is however still in use, and is a useful and durable material, supe- 
 rior in strength to flannel or baize. 
 
 BOMBAZET, a woollen manufacture of various colors, now much 
 worn ; some of it is got up to look glossy aud very much like silk ; it is 
 a valuable and useful manufacture. It is commonly w r oven plain, some- 
 times however it is twilled. 
 
 WORSTED is a kind of hard-twisted and doubled or trebled wool- 
 len thread. It is chiefly used either to be knit or woven into stockings, 
 caps, gloves, and the like. The name worsted is supposed to be derived 
 from the town of Worstead in Norfolk, noted for fine spinning They 
 who write it woolst.ed, do it on a supposition of the word being formed 
 from wool, the matter of this thread. 
 
 FLANNEL, a kind of soft, slight, loose woollen stuff, but very warm, 
 composed of a woof and warp, and woven on a loom, with two tread- 
 les, after the manner of baize. 
 
 CALAMINCO, or Minco, a sort of woollen stuff manufactured in 
 England and Brabant. It has a fine gloss, and is checquered in the 
 warp, whence the checks appears only on the right side. Some cala- 
 mincoes are quite plain, and others with broad stripes, some with narrow 
 stripes, and others watered. 
 
 TAPESTRY is a curious kind of manufacture, formerly used to 
 adorn a chamber or other apartment, by hanging or lining the walls. 
 The term is appropriated to a kind of woven hangings of wool and silk, 
 frequently raised and enriched with gold and silver, representing figures 
 of men, animals, landscapes, &c. 
 
 Two methods are adopted in weaving tapestry : in the high warp 
 the cloth is woven perpendicularly, in the low warp horizontally. The 
 low w r arps in Flanders have been said to exceed those of France. The 
 chief are at Brussels and Antwerp, where they have succeeded in hu- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 2J9 
 
 CAMLET. — CARPET. DYEING, 
 
 man figures, animals, and landscapes, equally in the designing and the 
 workmanship. It would be difficult and tedious to give a clear idea of 
 the loom, or the manufacture of tapestry ; it may be observed however, 
 that it is all wrought on the wrong side; so that the workman cannot 
 see the right side of his tapestry till the piece is finished, and taken off 
 the loom. 
 
 CAMLET or CAMBLET is a stuff made of hair, silk, or wool. In 
 some, the woof is hair ; the warp, silk and wool twisted together. Carrf- 
 lets are manufactured in Holland and Flanders, and in Ireland and En- 
 gland. The true or oriental camlet is made of the pure hair of a sort 
 of goat, frequently about Angora, in Natolia, and which makes the riches 
 of that city. 
 
 A CARPET is a beautiful figured cloth, used for covering the 
 floors of rooms, stairs, &c, generally composed of woollen stuff, either 
 wrought in a loom, or with the needle. Formerly there were Persain 
 and Turkish carpets made of silk, and some are still made of this sub- 
 stance, and of hair; but the principal part are now made of colored 
 woollen yarn, manufactured into divers patterns and figures, often ap- 
 proaching to those of tapestry. In Germany, carpets are made of 
 wool, and embellished with silk in needle- work. But the first and most 
 extensive manufactures ot carpeting exist in England, particularly 
 those at Axminster, Wilton, Kidderminster, &c. There are three prin- 
 cipal sorts of carpeting; the Turkey, the Wilton or Brussels, and the 
 Kidderminster, or Scotch. Both the first and second have smooth 
 backs, and a nap on one side. The Turkey is distinguished by a very 
 thick nap ; it is the dearest, the warmest, and the most durable. The 
 Brussels, as it is called, though manufactured in England, has now 
 nearly superseded the Wilton. The best of the Kidderminster and 
 Scotch carpets are woven double, without any nap, so as to be similar 
 in texture on both sides, and similar in pattern, the colors only being 
 reversed. These are cheaper than the Brussels or Wilton, and nearly 
 as durable. Carpets are sometimes woven in one piece for a room, 
 with a border ; but most commonly they are woven in long pieces, 
 which are afterward sewed together to make the breadth desired. At 
 Axminster and in London, excellent carpets of the Wilton or Brussels, 
 as well as of the Turkej* kind, are made of the largest dimensions, 
 suited to the full extent of drawing-rooms, all in one piece. The large 
 carpets are made on frames and rollers, somewhat similar to tapestry. 
 Carpet making has become a very nourishing, and valuable manufac- 
 ture, which employs a great number of industrious people, and being 
 almost wholly performed with the produce of our own country, is of 
 great importance as a national concern. Carpets having hair or shag 
 on one side only were called by the ancients tapttes, those with shag on 
 both sides, amphilapetes. The use of carpets is of great antiquity, and 
 they were no less a luxury among the ancient Greeks than among the 
 moderns. They also give an appellation to a kind of knights, who be- 
 ing mercantile or professional men, not addicted to the art of war, re- 
 ceive the honor of knighthood from the king's hands, kneeling at court 
 on a carpet, and hence called Carpet- Knights. 
 
 DYEING, the art of staining cloth and other articles of different co- 
 lors, is of great antiquity, as appears from the traces of it in the oldest, 
 
220 FAMILY 
 
 DYEINfJ 
 
 sacred as well as profane, writers. The honor of the invention is 
 attributed to the Tyrians ; though what lessens the merit of it is, that 
 it is said io have owed its origin to chance. The juices of certain 
 fruits, leaves, &c. accidentally crushed, are supposed to have furnished 
 the first hint. Pliny assures us, that even in his time the Gauls made 
 use of no other dyes : it is added, that colored earth and minerals, 
 washed and soaked in rain, gave the next dyeing materials. But pur- 
 ple, an animal juice, found in a shell-fish, pwrpurci^ seems from history, 
 to have been prior to any of them. This, indeed, was reserved for the 
 use of kings and princes ; private persons were forbidden by law to 
 wear any of it. The discovery of its tinging quality is said to have 
 been taken from a dog, which, having caught one of the purple fishes 
 among the rocks, and eaten it up, stained his mouth and beard with the 
 precious liquor; this struck the fancy of a Tyrian nymph so strongly, 
 that she refused her lover Hercules, any favors, till he had brought her 
 a mantle of the same fine color. 
 
 Of the great variety of known dyes, few only can be applied to ani- 
 mal or vegetable fibre, without any other preparation than that of 
 cleansing the stuff, and immersing it in a decoction or infusion of the 
 dye. And hence it is necessary, to render most colors permanent, that 
 the article to be dyed should be previously impregnated with what has 
 been termed a mordant, generally a salt having an alkaline, earthy, or 
 metallic base : thus alum, sulphate of lime, muriate of tin, sulphate of 
 iron, tannin, and oil, are mordants, according to the dyes, and to the 
 substances to which they are to be applied. When the dye imparts to 
 cloth a permanent color, without the intervention of a mordant, it is 
 called a substantive color; when it requires a mordant to impart a per- 
 manent color, it is called an adjective color. Indigo is a substantive, 
 madder an adjective color ; cochineal is also an adjective color : for 
 although the red of the cochineal will stain the cloth while it remains 
 immersed in the solution ; yet, as soon as it is taken out and washed, 
 this temporary stain will immediately vanish, and the cloth become as 
 white as before. But if the cloth be dipped in a solution of some alka- 
 line or metallic salt, and then immersed in the solution of cochineal for 
 gome time, it will come out permanently colored ; nor will the color ever 
 be discharged, even by washing with soap and water. 
 
 The materials for dyeing different colors are many and various* 
 Some ingredients produce durable colors, which cannot be discharged 
 either by exposure to air or washing with soap ; others, though they 
 may be made to stand the action of soap pretty well, cannot by any 
 means be enabled to resist the action of air. These are distin- 
 guished by the different names of true and false, permanent and fading, 
 or substantive and adjective colors ; nor is there any method yet discov- 
 ered of giving the false colors an equal degree of durability with the 
 true ones. A solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid will give most of 
 the fading colors a high degree of beauty, arid some share of durability, 
 though even this is not able to make them equal to the others. The 
 most permanent dyes we have are cochineal and lac for fine reds and 
 .scarlets : indigo and woad for blue ; and, when mixed in different pro- 
 portions with cochineal or lac, for purple and violet colors : weld and 
 some other vegetables for yellow : and madder for coarse reds, purples, 
 and blacks. The fading colors are much more numerous. In this class 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 221 
 
 DYEING, 
 
 are included brazil-wood, logwood, peach-wood, red-wood, fustic, tur- 
 meric root, annotto, archil, fee. 
 
 With regard to the mordants used in dyeing, it has been too often 
 customary to mix a quantity of different ones, by which the color has 
 been generally spoiled. This truth should, therefore, be constantly be- 
 fore us, that, in general, one single mordant will answer for this pur- 
 pose better than a hundred. A mixture should only be made, where it 
 is necessary to produce the color desired ; and if a dyer proceed in this 
 simple manner, he may not only attain to great perfection in the art 
 from his own experience, without being taught by others, but even 
 make considerable discoveries ; as dyeing is at present far from being 
 brought to perfection. The mordants chiefly to be used in dyeing are 
 fixed alkalies ; solutions of tin in sulphuric and muriatic acids, and in 
 nitro-muriatic acid ; sugar of lead ; cream of tartar ; alum ; sulphuric 
 acid ; and solution of iron in the acetous acid. By means of these, 
 almost all kinds of colors may be dyed at an easy rate, and with very 
 little trouble. Observe, the acids, and acid solutions, must be diluted 
 with a considerable quantity of water, before they are used. , 
 
 General Rules for Dyelvg all Colors. Having well cleans- 
 ed the substance to be dyed, and made choice of the mordant proper 
 for fixing the color desired, dissolve it in water, and steep the substance 
 in this solution for twenty-four hours. Then take it out, and without 
 wringing hang it up to dry, but without heat, and for this it will be 
 proper to allow a pretty long time ; as the more perfectly the mordant 
 penetrates the cloth, the more durable will the color be. Having then 
 prepared a colored solution or decoction, put the cloth into it. The 
 less heat is applied during the time the cloth remains in the dye, the 
 finer the color will be ; but the longer time will be required for comple- 
 ting the operation. If time cannot be spared, so that a strong heat 
 must be applied, it will be necessary to roll the cloth during the time 
 of dyeing, or the color will be in danger of proving unequal. After 
 the dyeing is completed, rinse the cloth in cold water, but do not wring 
 it strongly ; and then hang it up to dry. Tn this way may be dyed a 
 great variety of colors, on wool, silk, cotton, and linen, without any 
 variation in the process. A solution of tin in the sulphuric acid will 
 produce all degrees of red, from the palest pink or rose color, to the 
 highest crimson and scarlet ; and this, on all the before-mentioned 
 substances, without exception. 
 
 Cotton and Linen may be dyed, by means of the before-mentioned 
 solution, of the most beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colors. The 
 same may be done by a solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid : but un- 
 less the nitrous acid prevail greatly in the mixture, the colors produced 
 by this last will incline more to purple than the former. With solution 
 of tin in muriatic acid they incline remarkably to purple, and are like- 
 wise deficient in lustre. The first two solutions therefore are capital 
 ingredients in dyeing. Latterly, cottons have been dyed a fine and 
 permanent Turkey red by means of madder, but the manipulations are 
 too complex to detail. 
 
 The same preparations will also serve for dyeing all other colors, blue 
 and green excepted. Thus, a piece of cloth prepared with solution of 
 tin in sulphuric acid, if boiled with the decoction of cochineal, will 
 
 19* 
 
222 FAMILY 
 
 DYEING, 
 
 come out of a scarlet color ; if with turmeric, weld, fustic, or many of 
 the common yellow flowers, it will come out different degrees of yel- 
 low ; with Brazil-wood, peach-wood, &c. it will give a fine purplish 
 crimson ; with log-wood, a fine deep purple, Sic. : and by combining 
 these in different ways, an infinity of different shades may be produced. 
 
 Green colors are to be produced only by a mixture of blue and yel- 
 low : no ingredient being yet discovered, that will, by itself, produce a 
 good green dye. It is usual first to dye the cloth blue with indigo, and 
 then yellow with any yellow-coloring ingredient, by which means a 
 green color is produced. Cloth and silk may be dyed green with indi- 
 go ; but they must first be boiled in yellow dye, and then in blue. 
 
 Black col ;rs are dyed by preparing the cloth with any solution of 
 iron, but that in the acetous acid is the best ; and then boiling it in a 
 decoction of any astringent vegetable. Those chiefly made use of for 
 the purpose are galls, sumach, logwood, and madder. Of these the 
 last is most durable ; though galls will also produce a pretty lasting 
 color, if properly managed. Logwood dyes a very pretty, but fading 
 black color. It appears, however, by an experiment made by Mr. 
 Clegg, that by a proper preparation of the cloth with fixed alkaline 
 salts, black colors dyed with logwood might be improved, both as to 
 beauty and durability. The finest blacks are first dyed blue, with indi- 
 go ; and afterwards black, with a solution of iron, and some astringent 
 vegetable. These are the best methods of producing permanent colors 
 of all kinds. As it is necessary, however, often to give another color 
 to stuffs which have already been dyed, it is also necessary that a dyer 
 should know how to discharge colors, as well as to make the cloth im- 
 bibe them. 
 
 Thread is dyed a bright blue with braziletto and indigo. Bright 
 green is first dyed blue, then black, boiled with braziletto and verditer, 
 and lastly welded. A d trk £re*n is given like the former, only dark- 
 ening more before welding. Lemon or pale yellow is given with weld, 
 and rocou or annotto. Orange and Isabella, with fustic, weld, and an- 
 notto. Red, both bright and dark, with flame-colors, &c, are given 
 with brazil, either alone, or with a mixture of annotto. Violet, dry 
 rose, and amaranth, are given with brazil, taken down with indigo. — 
 FilUmot and olive color are given with galls and copperas, taken down 
 with weld, annotto, or fustic. Black is given with galls and sulphate 
 of iron, taken down and finished with braziletto wood. 
 
 Tanned Leather, Skins, kc, are dyed of a black color, by rubbing 
 them over three or four times w r ith a solution of sulphate of iron, or a 
 solution of iron in the vegetable acids. For leathers that have not- 
 been tanned, some galls or other astringents are added to the solution 
 of iron ; and in many cases, particularly for the finer parts of leather, 
 and for renewing the blackness, ivory black or lamp black is used. A 
 blue color is given by steeping the subject a day in urine and indigo, 
 then boiling it with alum ; or by tempering the indigo with red wine, 
 and washing the skins therewith. Red is given by washing the skins 
 and laying them in galls ; then wringing them out ; dipping them in a 
 liquor made with privet, alum, and verdigris in water; and lastly in a 
 dye made of brazil wood boiled in ley. Purple is given by wetting the 
 skins with a solution of roche alum in warm water, and, when dried, 
 
ENC YCLOPEDIA. 223 
 
 DYEING. — SOAP. 
 
 with a decoction of logwood in cold water. Green is given by smear- 
 ing the -kin with sap green and alum- water boiled ; to darken the co- 
 lor, a little indigo may be added. Dark green is also given with steel 
 filings and sal ammoniac steeped in urine till soft, then smeared over 
 the skin, which is to be dried in the shade. Sky color is given with in- 
 digo steeped in boiling water, and the next morning warmed and smear- 
 ed over the skin. Yellow by smearing the skin over with aloes and 
 linseed oil, dissolved and strained ; or by infusing it in weld. Orange 
 color is given by smearing with fustic berries, boiled in alum water ; or, 
 for a deep orange, with turmeric. 
 
 Wood, for inlaying, veneering, Szc, is dyed red by boiling it in water 
 and alum; then taking it out, adding brazil to the liquor, and giving 
 the wood another boil in it. Black, by applying a solution of logwood, 
 boiled in vinegar, hot, with a brush, and afterwards washing the wood 
 over with a decoction of galls and sulphate of iron till it be of the hue 
 required. Any other color may be given by squeezing out the mois- 
 ture of horse-dung through a sieve, mixing it with roche alum and gum 
 arabic, and to the whole adding green, blue, or any other color de- 
 signed. After standing two or three days, the wood, cut to the thick- 
 ness of half a crown, is put into the liquor boiling hot, and suffered to 
 remain till it is sufficiently colored. New mahogany may be made of 
 a dark color, by smearing it over with a paste made of quick lime and 
 water. 
 
 Bone, Horn, and Ivvry are dyed Black by steeping brass in aquafor- 
 tis till it is turned green ; with this, the bone, Sec. is to be washed 
 once or twice, and then put into a decoction of logwood and warm 
 water. Green is begun by boiling the bone, &c. in alum-water ; then 
 with verdigris, sal ammoniac, and vinegar, keeping it hot therein till 
 sufficiently green. Red is begun by boiling it in alum-water, and fin- 
 ished by decoction in a liquor compounded of quicklime steeped in 
 rain water, strained, to every pint of which an ounce of brazil wood is 
 added : the bone, &c. to be boiled till sufficiently red. 
 
 SOAP is a kind of paste, sometimes hard and dry, and sometimes 
 soft, much used in washing, and whitening linens, and for various oth- 
 purposes, by dyers, perfumers, hatters, fullers, &c. 
 
 Soap is a chemical compound produced by the union of any of the 
 fixed oils with alkalies, earths, or metallic oxides. The alkalies, and 
 particularly soda, are necessary to the production of good soap ; and 
 it is also necessary that they should be applied to the oil or tallow in a 
 caustic stale ; to this end when an alkali is dissolved in water, lime is 
 added to the solution to absorb the carbonic acid of the alkali ; the li- 
 quor deprived of its carbonic acid is called soap ley: it is exceedingly 
 caustic and will decompose human flesh. This ley is usually made 
 strong enough to float a new-laid egg. With this ley, oil, or tallow, or 
 resin, according to circumstances, is boiled till it unites into the com- 
 pound known as soap. The tallow for making soap is reckoned very 
 good if thirteen cwt. of it yield with alkali a ton weight of soap. 
 
 White soap of the best quality is made with olive oil and soda; or 
 with tallow and soda, obtained from barilla, or impure carbonate of so- 
 da. 
 
*m FAMILY 
 
 SOAP. CANDLES, 
 
 Yellow soap is made with tallow and yellow resin in the proportion of 
 ten parts tallow and three and a half of resin, these with the addition 
 of the ley, make twenty of soap. 
 
 Mottled soap obtains its speckled appearance either by dispersing 
 the ley through it towards the end of the operation, or by adding sul- 
 phate of iron, oxide of manganese, or indigo. 
 
 Windsor soap is the common white soap scented with oil of caraway 
 seeds or other scent. 
 
 Black soap and other soft soaps are made from fish oil and a ley of 
 potash made in a similar manner as soap ley above, or with inferior tal- 
 low and such ley. 
 
 Castile soap is sometimes made from common white soap having a 
 solution of sulphate of iron mixed with it in cooling, to give the mar- 
 bled appearance. But the best Castile soap is brought from Marseilles, 
 although it is also brought from Spain. It is most probably composed 
 of olive oil and soda, and sulphate of iron to impart to it the marbled 
 appearance. 
 
 Soap balls for washing the hands, are made of various colors by sim- 
 ply cutting white soap into small pieces, rolling them in vermillion, blue, 
 or other color, and squeezing them together into balls : they are scented 
 at the will of the maker. 
 
 A cheap soap is sometimes made of woollen rags,&c. and even with 
 the horns of animals instead of oil ; but the smell is commonly very 
 disagreable. 
 
 Soap as a medicine (the foreign Castile soap is, for this purpose, con- 
 sidered the best) is generally regarded as purgative, lithontriptic, and 
 tonic ; it is also given to counteract the effects of metallic and other 
 poisons ; but common white soap is better for such purpose. Soap is 
 also used externally for sprains and bruises ; it is an ingredient in the 
 well known soap liniment or opodeldoc, 
 
 CANDLES. There are two sorts of tallow candles ; dipped an 
 moulded. The moulded are the invention of the Sieurle Brege, of Paris. 
 In making candles, the general method is, after weighing and mixing 
 the tallow in due proportions, to cut it into small pieces, that it may 
 more readily melt. When properly melted and skimmed, a certain 
 quantity of water is poured into it, in order that all remaining impurities 
 may precipitate to the bottom. No water, however, must be thrown 
 into the tallow designed for the first three dips; because the wick would 
 imbibe the water, and thus render the candles unfit for burning. — The 
 tallow, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a coarse sieve of 
 horse-hair, to purify it still more, and may be used after having stood 
 three hours. It will continue fit for use twenty-four hours in summer, 
 and fifteen in winter. The wicks are made of spun cotton, several 
 threads of which the tallow-chandlers wind into bottoms or clews ; 
 whence they are cut off with an instrument, into pieces a little more 
 than twice the length of the candle ; and then put on the sticks for dip- 
 ping. To make a tallow candle good, there must be an equal quantity 
 of sheep's and bullock's tallow. Lard is always inadmissible. The 
 wick ought to be properly twisted, neither too hard nor too loosely, 
 sufficiently dry and pure, otherwise the candle will emit an irregular 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 225 
 
 CANDLES. WAX. 
 
 inconstant flame. Lately machinery has been invented by which the 
 facilities of clipping the wicks have been increased,, and the labors of 
 the tallow chandler considerably abridged. 
 
 Mould candles are so called because made in moulds of brass, 
 pewter, or lead ; but pewter is the best. Each candle has its mould. 
 A number of these moulds, having the wick fixed in the middle, are 
 placed in a table or frame, full of holes, and filled with melted tallow. 
 After the moulds have stood long enough to cool, the candles are drawn 
 out ; and they are sometimes rendered whiter by hanging them on 
 rods, exposed to the dew and the earliest rays of the sun for several 
 days. 
 
 "Wax candles. The wicks of wax candles are made of cotton or flax 
 slightly twisted, and covered with white or yellow wax, but chiefly the 
 former, well bleached. Of these candles there are several kinds ; some 
 of a conical figure, are used in funeral processions, Sic. Others are of 
 a cylindrical form, used on common occasions. To make wax candles, 
 an iron circle, on which are hung a dozen wicks at equal distances, is 
 suspended over a large basin full of melted wax. A large ladle-full of 
 this wax is poured gently on the tops of the wicks, one after another ; 
 and this operation is continued, till the candle arrives at its proper size. 
 The first three ladles must be poured on the top, the fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth, lower down, at certain distances, to give the candle its conical 
 form. The candies are then taken down, and afterward rolled and 
 smoothed upon a walnut-tree table, with a long square instrument of 
 box, smoothed at the bottom. When wax candles are made by the 
 hand, they begin to soften the wax by working it in hot water, in a 
 narrow but deep cauldron. A piece of wax is then taken out, and 
 disposed by little and little round the wick. Wax tapers are either 
 made as the former, with a ladle, or drawn. The latter are drawn in 
 the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers of wood, turned 
 by a handle, which pass the wick through melted wax contained in a 
 brass basin, and at the same time through the holes of an instrument. 
 
 Spermaceti candles are now universally used in theatres, drawing- 
 rooms, 8cC. as, should any drops fall from them on the clothes of the 
 company, the spermaceti more readily cornes off, whereas wax adheres 
 more closely, and cannot be removed without disfiguring the cloth. 
 
 WAX is a yellowish matter, of which the bees form cells for their 
 honey. There are two or three substances, which resemble each other 
 so closely as to have received the name of wax. The first, and by far 
 the most important, is bees-wax, which is consumed in such vast quan- 
 tities for giving light, and is also used for a variety of other purposes. 
 Another kind of wax is the myrtle wax, which is extracted pretty largely 
 in Louisiana, and some other parts of America, from the myrica cerifera, 
 or candle-berry myrtle. The next substance, very similar to wax, is 
 thepella of the Chinese, the product of an insect: and the white matter 
 extracted from lac has also a strong resemblance to wax. But although, 
 from the latest researches, wax is not obtained from vegetables exactly 
 as we And it in the combs of this animal, it being elaborated by some 
 peculiar process of the animal itself, and hence may be considered 
 an animal product, yet the constituents of wax, with slight modifica- 
 tions, arc found in many vegetables ; and hence wax may be also con- 
 
226 FAMILY 
 
 STARCH. PAPER. 
 
 sidered a vegetable production. The wax, however, obtained from 
 the candle -berry myrtle, is much more like hard colored mutton suet 
 than bees- wax. 
 
 SEALING WAX may be made very good of the following materi- 
 als ; Shell lac, eight ounces ; rectified spirit of wine, two ounces; 
 camphor, half an ounce ; Venice turpentine; four ounces ; vermillion, 
 two ounces and a half. Dissolve first the camphor in the spirits of wine, 
 next the shell lac, then add the Venice turpentine, and lastly the vermil- 
 lion. A careful application of heat is absolutely necessary, or the mass 
 will take fire. An inferior wax may be made by adding" yellow resin, 
 and taking away a portion of the shell lac. Black wax may be made 
 by merely substituting lamp-black for vermillion. 
 
 STARCH is obtained from innumerable vegetable substances ; but 
 the starch of commerce is separated from wheat by steeping the grain 
 in cold water till it becomes soft, then putting it in coarse bags, which 
 are pressed into vats of water ; a milky juice exudes, and the starch 
 falls to the bottom of the vat. The deposited starch is collected, and 
 dried in a moderate heat; when dried, it splits into the columns or 
 fragments in which it is usually sold. A little smalt or indigo is added 
 to it to give it a blue tinge. Starch is used to stiiTen linen, and for vari- 
 ous other purposes. Made into a fine powder, it is used as powder for 
 the hair. It is the nutritive part of most grains or roots, and may be 
 extracted in considerable quantities from potatoes, and other roots. 
 Vegetables indeed are esteemed nutritious in proportion to the quanti- 
 ty of this matter and gluten which they contain. Arrow-root, tapioca, 
 and sago, are principally if not entirely, starch. 
 
 PAPER, sheets of a thin matter, made of some vegetable substance 
 used principally for writing and printing. The materials, on which 
 mankind have, in different ages, contrived to write their sentiments, 
 have been extremely varied. In the first ages they made use of stones, 
 and tables of wood, wax, ivory, <foc. At a more advanced period, skins 
 were employed ; and latterly, paper. The different kinds of paper, 
 and materials employed in making them, are reducible to the following : 
 Egyptian paper, made of the rush papyrus, (the paper used by the Greeks 
 and Romans was made of this plant, and hence the origin of the term 
 paper ;) bark paper, made of the inner rind of several trees ; cotton 
 paper, made of cotton wool ; incombustible paper, made of asbestos; 
 and European paper, made of linen rags. It appears that paper made 
 from cotton was used as early as the ninth century. There are several 
 Greek MSS. on such paper. The most ancient MS. on cotton pa- 
 per, with a date, in the library of the King of France, was written in 
 1050. 
 
 Linen, or European paper was first introduced towards the beginning 
 of the thirteenth century ; but by whom this valuable commodity was 
 invented is not known. The method of making paper of linen, cotton, 
 or hempen rags is as follows : — the rags are first placed in a machine 
 formed of wire, which is made to turn round with great velocity to 
 whirl out the dust ; they are then sorted according to their different 
 qualities ; after which they are put into a trough perforated with holes, 
 defended by wire gratings, through which constantly flows a stream of 
 clear water. In this trough is placed a cylinder, set thick with rows of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 22' 
 
 PAPER. 
 
 iron spikes ; at the bottom of the trough are fixed corresponding spikes. 
 The cylinder is made to whirl round with great rapidity, so fhat the 
 cloth is torn to atoms, and with the aid of the water reduced to a thin 
 pulp. By the same process, all the impurities are removed, and the 
 pulp becomes perfectly white. The pulp being thus properly prepared, 
 is carried to a vat, called the priming vat, and mixed with a proper' 
 quantity of water. The vat is rightly primed when the liquor has 
 such a proportion of the pulp, as that the mould on being dipped into it, 
 will just take up enough to make a sheet of paper of the thickness re- 
 quired. The mould is a kind of sieve, exactly of the size of the paper 
 to be made, and about an inch deep, the bottom being formed of fine 
 brass wire, guarded underneath with sticks, to prevent its bagging down, 
 and keep it horizontal ; and further to strengthen the bottom, ihcre are 
 large wires, placed in parallel lines, at equal distances, which form those 
 lines often visible in white paper when held up to the light : the mark 
 of the paper is also made in this bottom, by inverweaving a large wire 
 in any particular form. This mould the maker dips into the liquor, and 
 gives it a shake as he takes it out, to clear the water from the pulp. 
 He then slides the mould along a groove to the coucher, who turns out 
 the sheet upon a felt or woollen cloth, lays another cloth on it, and re- 
 turns the mould to the maker, who by this time has prepared a second 
 sheet in another mould ; and thus they proceed laying alternately a 
 sheet and a felt, till they have made six quires of paper, which is called 
 a post ; and this they do with such swiftness, that in many sorts of pa- 
 per two men make twenty posts or more in a day. A post of paper 
 being made, it is placed under a press, and all the water squeezed from 
 it ; after which it is separated sheet by sheet from the felts, and laid 
 regularly one sheet upon another ; and having undergone a second 
 pressing, it is hung up to dry. When sufficiently dried, it is rubbed 
 smooth with the hands, and laid by to be sized. The size is made by 
 Iwiling shreds and parings of the tanner, currier, or parchment maker; 
 and after mixing it with a certain quantity of alum, in a large tub, they 
 dip as much paper at once as they can conveniently hold, and with a 
 quick motion give every sheet its share of the size, which must be as 
 hot as the hand can well bear ; the superfluous size is then pressed out 
 of the paper, which is afterwards hung up sheet by sheet to dry, and 
 being taken down, is sorted, and what is only fit for outside quires laid 
 by themselves ; it is told into quires, which are folded and pressed. The 
 broken sheets are commonly put together, and two of the worst quires 
 are placed on the outside of every ream or bundle ; and being tied up 
 in wrappers made of the settling of the vat, it is fit for sale. Every 
 common quire of paper contains twenty-four sheets ; that for printing 
 twenty-five eheets. Each ream contains twenty quires. 
 
 Paper is of various kinds, and used for various purposes : with regard 
 to color, it is principally distinguished into white, blue, and brown ; and 
 with regard to its dimensions, into atlas, elephant, imperial, super-royal, 
 royal, medium, demy, crown, post, foolscap, pot-paper, &c. Wove pa- 
 per is made in moulds, the wires of which are so fine that the marks of 
 them are scarcely visible. Blotting paper is made of woollen ragrs and 
 without size. Pasteboard is made in a similar way to that of paper ; 
 when it is wanted very thick, it is made by pasting the sheets one upon 
 another. JlUl-board, used for covers of books, is made at once of very 
 
228 FAMILY 
 
 PAPER. 
 
 coarse rags, or old ropes, &c. ; of which also brown paper is made. 
 Besides paper from these materials, it is also occasionally made from 
 straw : a Mr. Koop, in 1820, obtained a patent in England for straw 
 paper. ]n the Maldive islands, the natives are said to write on the 
 leaves of a tree called macarequean, which are a fathom and a half long, 
 and a foot broad : and in divers parts of the East Indies, the leaves of 
 the musa paradisiaca, or plantain tree, dried in the sun, served the 
 same use, till of late the French taught them the use of European 
 paper. 
 
 The process of paper-making takes about three weeks. The great- 
 est modern improvement in paper-making is the bleaching of the rags. 
 This is done by different methods ; one of the best consists of an air- 
 tight chamber in which the rags are placed ; a mixture of manganese, 
 sea salt, and sulphuric acid being heated in proper retorts to a certain 
 extent, a gas is disengaged, which destroys all the color which the rags 
 contain. 
 
 The machinery for fabricating the paper from the pulp has been 
 simplified, so that an immense saving of labor has been thus obtained. 
 
 Another improvement in the manufacture of paper has been made in 
 the United States by Messrs. Gilpin & Co., who have invented a ma- 
 chine by which paper of any length, in one continued succession of fine 
 or coarse materials may be produced. 
 
 Egyptian paper is that which was principally used among the an- 
 cients ; made of a rush called papyrus, or biblus, growing chiefly in 
 E<rypt about the banks of the iNile ; though it was also found in India ; 
 and Pliny describes the papyrus or paper rush as having a root of the 
 thickness of a man's arm, and ten cubits long ; from this arise a great 
 number of triangular stalks, six or seven cubits high, each thick enough 
 to be easily spanned. Its leaves are long like those of the bulrush ; its 
 flowers staminous, ranged in clusters at the extremities of the stalks; 
 its roots woody and knotted like those of rushes, and its taste and smell 
 near to those of the cypress. The moderns have arranged the papyrus 
 under the genus cyperus or cyper-grass, and thus designate it ; cyperus 
 papyrus, or paper rush, having a three-sided naked culm, umbel longer 
 than the involucres : involucels three-leaved, setaceous ; spikelets in 
 threes ; a native of Ethiopia and Egypt. This tribe of plants contains 
 numerous species, many of which have fragrant roots. 
 
 " Marbl'd paper is paper stained so as to appear in variegated colors, 
 like marble. The operation of marbling is thus performed : gum is 
 first dissolved in a trough, into which they plunge each sheet of paper ; 
 this done, and all the colors ranged on the table, where also the trough 
 is placed, they begin by dipping a brush of hog's hair into any color, 
 commonly the blue first, and sprinkle it on the surface of the liquor. 
 The red is next applied in the liivc manner, but with another pencil ; 
 after this, the yellow, and lastly the green. When all the colors are 
 thus floating on the liquor, to produce that agreeable marbling which 
 w r e admire, the floating colors are curled and otherwise tastefully 
 varied with a pointed stick ; to these the surface of the paper is ap- 
 plied. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 229 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 Ivory Paper is a paper lately invented by Mr. Einslie, to be used in- 
 stead of ivory for drawing, and miniature painting, and is said to be 
 superior to ivory itself. It consists in the preparation of a size from 
 the cuttings of parchment, uniting, by a similar size, several sheets of 
 drawing paper, and afterwards covering it with the size, having previ- 
 ously mixed with it some plaster of Paris in fine powder. Plaster of 
 Paris gives a white ; but oxide of zinc, mixed in proper proportions, 
 gives a tint nearly resembling ivory. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. Architecture, is the art of building, or the 
 science which teaches the method of eroding buildings, either for ha- 
 bitation, defence, or ornament. It is an art of the first necessity, and 
 almost coeval with the human species. Man, from seeking shade and 
 shelter under the trees of the forest, soon felt the necessity and saw the 
 utility of bending them to more commodious forms than those in which 
 he found them disposed by nature. To huts made of trees and branch- 
 es leaning together at top, and forming a conical figure, plastered 
 with mud, succeeded more convenient, square, roofed, habitations; the 
 sides of these habitations, and the inner supports of the cross beams 
 of the roofs, being trunks of trees ; from them were derived those 
 beautiful, and symmetrical columns, the orders of Architecture. 
 
 Although this art was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, Assy« 
 rians, and Persians, yet the Greeks justly claim the honor of having 
 raised the first structures in which elegance and symmetry were com- 
 bined with comfort and convenience in the plan. 
 
 The established five orders of architecture, the Tuscan, the Doric, 
 the Ionic, the ( orinthian, and the Composite, were brought to perfec- 
 tion under the Greeks and Romans. Modern efforts have added little 
 or nothing to the beauty and symmetry or" these columns, and the parts 
 dependent on them ; but much has been done in the internal improve- 
 ment of mansions and houses. 
 
 THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 From the above the reader will be able to form but an indistinct con- 
 ception of the beauty of those ornamental columns which in both an- 
 cient and modern times have excited the admiration of even the un- 
 learned, and the uncultivated portion of mankind, which have had an 
 opportunity to see them. A better conception will be had of the dif- 
 
 •20 
 
230 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ierent orders of architecture from the following cuts, which stand in the 
 same order as the above, and represent the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Co- 
 rinthian, and Composite : 
 
 ("TV 
 
 w 
 o 
 > 
 
 3 
 
 \J 
 
 /T 
 
 VU *■ 
 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 231 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Tuscan Order. Although there are no ancient remains of this or- 
 der, it is generally placed first on account of its plainness. The Tro- 
 jan and Antonine columns at Rome are commonly called Tuscan, 
 though they do not exhibit Tuscan plainness. It is probable the Tus- 
 can is only a simplification of the Doric, of which there are numerous 
 ancient remains ; but to Tuscany it evidently owes its name. 
 
 Doric Order. The origin of this order is ascribed to Dorus, who 
 built a temple to Juno, in the ancient city of Argos. This order has 
 a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of strength to either of the 
 other Grecian orders, viz. Ionic and Corinthian. It is therefore best 
 adapted to works of great magnitude and of a sublime character. Of 
 this order is the temple of Theseus at Athens, built ten years after the 
 battle of Marathon, and at this day almost entire. 
 
 lovic Order. The distinguishing characteristics of this order are 
 lightness and elegance. Ft is likewise simple ; for simplicity is an es- 
 sential requisite of true beauty. Of this order were the temple of 
 Apollo at .Miletus, the temple of the Delphic Oracle, and the temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 Corinthian Order. This is considered the finest of all the orders. 
 It has been styled the " virginal order," from the delicacy, tenderness 
 and beauty of the whole composition. Exceptions however have been 
 taken to it, it being thought to savor too much of pomp and splendor, 
 and to mark an age of luxury and magnificence. Thompson has well 
 characterized the three orders in the following appropriate lines : 
 
 u First unadorned, 
 
 " And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; 
 
 " The Ionic then, with decent matron grace, 
 
 ;t Her airy pillar heav"d ; luxuriant last 
 
 " The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath. " 
 The most correct specimens of this order that remain in existence 
 are to be collected from the Stoa, the arch of Adrian, the monument of 
 Lysicratus at Athens, the Pantheon of Agrippa, and the three columns 
 of the Campo Vaccino at Rome, particularly the last. 
 
 Composite Order. This order is what its name implies ; it shews 
 that the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all the prin- 
 ciples of grandeur and beauty, and that it was not possible to form a 
 fourth, except by combining the former. 
 
232 FAMILY 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Gothic Architecture. To the above five orders was afterwards 
 added another, called the Gothic or Saracenic, the marks of which are 
 its numerous and prominent buttresses, its lofty spires and pinnacles* 
 its large and ramified windows, its ornamented niches and canopies, 
 the sculptured saints and angels, the delica'e lace-work of its fretted 
 roofs, and an indiscriminate profusion of ornaments. But its most dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics are the small clustered pillars; and pointed 
 arches, formed by the segments of two intersecting circles. 
 
 Of Gothic Architecture thecontinent furnishes some fine specimens? 
 but the best examples it is said, are to be found in England. In the 
 edifices of that country the whole progress of this style of architecture 
 can be traced. The period from 1272 to 1400 marks the golden age of 
 the Gothic. From the time of Henry VIII. this style began to decline. 
 This was succeeded by a mixture of the Grecian and Gothic. In the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the chaste architecture of the 
 Greeks and Romans was revived. The first improvements took place 
 in Italy, whence they passed into other parts of Europe, and though 
 the Italians were long accounted the first architects, England produced 
 Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, who hold the most exalted 
 station. 
 
 The banqueting-house at Whitehall : queen Katharine's chapel at 
 St. James' : the piazza of Covent Garden, and many other public 
 buildings are monuments of the taste and skill of Inigo Jones. 
 
 The churches, royal courts, stately halls, magazines, palaces, and 
 public structures designed by Sir Christopher Wren, are proud trophies 
 of British talent. If the whole art of building were lost, it might be 
 again recovered in the Cathedral of St. Paul, and in that grand historical 
 pillar called the Monument. To these we superadd Greenwich, Hospital, 
 Chelsea Hospital, the Theatre at Oxford^ Trinity College Library, and 
 Emanuel College, Cambridge, the cnurches'of St. Sttphen in Walbrook* 
 St. Mary-le-bon, and fifty -two others in London serve to immortalize his 
 memory. While we contemplate these, and n.iny other public edifices 
 erected and repaired under his direction, we are at a less which most 
 to admire — the fertile ingenuity, or the persevering industry of the ar- 
 tist. 
 
 The English architectural history of the eighteenth century differs 
 from that of the preceding ages in two essential circumstances. 
 
 1. The public buildings erected during this period, are, in general, 
 not so grand and massive, as those of some former periods. But while 
 they fall short of splendor and magnificence, they are superior to most 
 ancient structures in simplicity, convenience, neatness, and elegance. 
 
 2, Private dwellings have been made more spacious, convenient, and 
 agreeable to a correct taste, than in any preceding period. The liber- 
 al use of glass in modern buildings, contributes greatly to their beauty 
 and comfort, and is a point in which the ancients were totally deficient. 
 In descending to the various minute details of human dwellings, espe- 
 cially those which have reference to elegance and enjoyment, it is ob- 
 vious the artists of the eigl.Leenth century exceed all others. 
 
 Architecture in the United States. In the United States, we 
 are yet in our infancy, both in respect to elegant and enduring specU 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 233 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 mens of architecture. This might well be imagined, considering the 
 recent settlement of the country, and the creation, by means of industry 
 and toil, of the capital which we possess. Still, architectural skill exists 
 among us, and in respect to some buildings, it has been judiciously ap- 
 plied. We shall give a brief account of a few of the most important 
 public buildings to be found among us. 
 
 CITY HALL, NEW-YORK. 
 
 The foundation stone of this noble building, was laid on the 26th 
 Sept. 1803, and was finished in 1812, at an expense, exclusive of the 
 furniture, of half a million of dollars. 
 
 It is one of the handsomest structures in the United States, and per- 
 haps, of its size, in the world. It is of a square form, two stories in 
 height, besides a basement story. It has a wing at each end, projecting 
 from the front, and in the centre the roof is elevated, to form an attic 
 story. The whole length of the building is 216 feet, breadth 105, 
 height 51. Including the attic story it is 65 feet in height. The front 
 and both ends, above the basement story, are built of native white mar- 
 ble, from Stockbridge, Mass. ; the rest of the building is constructed of 
 brown free stone. The roof is covered with copper. Rising from the 
 middle of the roof is a cupola, on which is placed a colossal figure of 
 justice, holding in her right hand, which rests on her forehead, aba- 
 lance, and in her left, a sword pointing to the ground. The first story, 
 including the portico, is of the Ionic, the second of the Corinthian, the 
 attic of the Fancy, and the cupola of the Composite orders. 
 
 20* 
 
234 
 
 r x^.ivliu x 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 This spacious edifice is finely situated on an eminence, and commands 
 not only a view of the city, but a considerable extent of the adjacent 
 country — the heights of Georgetown. &c, and 1he windings of the Po- 
 tomac, as far as Alexandria. The following are the dimensions of the 
 building : 
 
 Length of Front, , 352 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Depth of wings, 121 do. 6 do. 
 
 East projection and steps, 65 do. 
 
 West do. do. 83 do. 
 
 covering i£ acre, & 1820 do. 
 
 Height of Wings, to top of Balustrade, 70 do. 
 
 Height to top of Centre dome, 170 do. 
 
 "It is composed of white freestone, and the entire cost, of it is estima- 
 ted at three millions of dollars. It is surrounded by an elegant iron 
 railing, enclosing twenty acres of ground, planted with various kinds 
 of trees and shrubs. The north wing is occupied by the Senate ; the 
 south by the House of Representatives. There are also rooms for the 
 Supreme Court of the United States, the National Library, and other 
 purposes. 
 
 The .Senate and Representative halls are both finished in a style of 
 great elegance and splendor. The latter is of semicircular form, sur- 
 rounded by twenty-one massy pillars or columns, and four pilasters of 
 the Potomac marble, which stand upon an e'ievated base of freestone. 
 The capitals of these pillars are formed of Carara marble, and are very 
 beautiful; and there is supported by them a laroe dome, in the centre 
 of which is placed an ornamental cupola, which admits the light into 
 the hall from above. In front of the Speaker's Chair, and over the en- 
 trance into the Chamber, stands an allegorical figure, formed of Italian 
 marble, representing History, in the act of recording the proceedings 
 of the nation. Sbe stands on a winged car. which seems to roll over a 
 sec ion of the terrestrial globe, exhibiting in bass-relief the signs of the 
 Zodiac. The wheel of the car is intended as the face of a clock, which 
 is to be placed behind, and the front contains in bass-relief, a figure of 
 Fame, and a profile bust of Washington. Above the Speaker's Chair 
 
JL..N ^ 1 V>JU\Ji"li,iJiA. 
 
 &£ 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 is a colossal figure of Liberty, in plaster, pointing to the hall below, and 
 supported on the right by an American ea^le, and on the left by the 
 Romanfasctti which are partially enveloped in the folds of a serpent. 
 Immediately under this figure, on the frieze, is carved in high relief, 
 another eagle, in the attitude of flying. This hd 11 has been pronoun- 
 ced by an intelligent English traveller, to be the most beautiful one he 
 ever 3a w." 
 
 Jt w;is our design, to give descriptions similar to the above, of seve- 
 ral other principal buildings in the United States ; but want of room 
 obliges us to present to our readers views of these buildings, without 
 the contemplated descriptions. 
 
 PRESIDENT'S HOUSE, WASHINGTON. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA CAPITOL. HARRISBURG. 
 
236 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 BALTIMORE EXCHANGE. AND WASHINGTON MONUMENT. 
 
 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. 
 
 M In respect to Gothic style, observes Professor Silliman, (American 
 Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. xviii. No. 2, p. 224) our country la- 
 bors under many disadvantages. Its expensive character, is in most 
 cases far beyond our means. It flourished in Europe, at a time when 
 the revenues of the church were princely, and no style demands such 
 lar^e pecuniary resources as this. Still enough has already been done 
 among 1 us to shew that it is not an insurmountable obstacle among us." 
 Several fine Gothic structures are to be found in the. United States, a 
 particular description of which our limits entirely forbid. 
 
 The Gothic arrangement of churches appears not quite compatible 
 with the nature of Protestant worship. " The best form for a Protes- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 237 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 tant church, remarks the writer before quoted, is a rectangular paral- 
 lelogram, though I have seen the circle, and other simple forms employ- 
 ed seemingly without any inconvenient results. But any thinn- like a 
 cross, the favorite form of the Gothic, is entirely inadmissible. There is 
 at Washington a church in the form of a Greek cross, in good taste as to 
 its general architecture ; but in consequence of its shape, a part of the 
 congregation cannot see the minister, and the want oFjitness in the in- 
 terior is exceedingly unpleasant. Simplicity in the form of our church- 
 es, seems nearly essential — a quality entirely at variance with this 
 sty'.e, and without something to conceal and draw attention from this 
 plainness, their interior will appear meagre and bare. Galleries assist 
 in doing this, but the edifice should be accommodated to them, and they 
 to it, more than is now usually done. The windows should he so con- 
 structed, that we may feel that the gallery is not concealing their beau- 
 ty from our view; and on the other hand, the gallery should not bo 
 carried in a straight horizontal line from pillar to pillar, in the manner 
 of a Grecian entablature, but should be supported by low arches, of the 
 third order, and should be made to preserve the Gothic character 
 throughout. The great variety of arches and ornaments admitted by 
 the style, will easily allow the architect to do this. 
 
 " In respect to the management of spires, our taste, it is said, is ex- 
 ceedingly defective. The spire itself is of Gothic origin, and may be 
 considered as belonging to the Gothic style ; with us it is applied to all 
 species of churches. Among the Italians il is unknown, the tower alone 
 being employed. As we go northward from Italy, the spire comes in- 
 to use, and it is often a most striking and beautiful object. That of the 
 cathedral of Vienna, is four hundred and sixty-five feet in height, and 
 ; that of Strasburg- four hundred and fifty-six; the diminution in both 
 these, however, commences at the base, as is frequently the case in that 
 part of the continent, and the effect is less imposing than when the 
 tower and spire are combined. England is remarkable for happy com- 
 binations of the two, though in that nation, the tower without the 
 spire is frequently to be seen. There are few parts of architecture in 
 which our taste is so bad as in this. The steeple is almost uniformly 
 thrust and made the first and main object of our attention, no matter 
 what the cost may be to the body of the edifice. It stands out. either 
 wholly or in part, from the facade or front, which is thus broken up, 
 and is incapable of receiving either majesty or beauty of expression. 
 The facade is, obviously, every thing to the exterior of a buildin r. On 
 it the architect labors most ; to it the^other parts are made to conform, 
 and from it the edifice receives the unity and singleness of character, 
 which constitutes what artists call a whole. The English architects do 
 better. They make the steeple rise from the front of the edifice, but 
 its lower part is not seen ; the facade is left to take its full power ; 
 the church becomes the main subject of our thoughts, and the steeple is 
 felt to be only a necessary appendage ; often it is in good ta ), and 
 adds greatly to the character of the edifice. 
 
 M As to the shape of the steeple, it is thought that we err in giving 
 too little height, in proportion to the tower. The spire in England, 
 most admired for its proportions, is one hundred and fourteen feet in 
 height, the diameter of its ba-e being nineteen ; the tower on which 
 it rests is seventy-five feet high, and twenty-two feet square. It would 
 
238 FAMILY 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 be better to banish all fishes, arrows, and every thing of the kind, every- 
 thing resembling a vane, from the top of our spires. They are no or- 
 nament ; what can they mean ? A stranger would think us wonder- 
 fully anxious about the wind : if we must have them let them be put in 
 some other place. 
 
 "It is seldom that the erection of our public buildings fails to be ac- 
 companied with hurry and parsimony. Our architecture has hitherto 
 exerted itself among frail and perishable materials. The awkward 
 wooden buildings it has erected are fast passing away, and we should 
 be glad that it is so. Eut the case is hereafter going to be a different 
 one. We are beginning to build entirely with bricks and stone, and 
 what is hereafter to be erected, will go down to other ages to tell of 
 our taste, and to exert its influence on theirs. Let us bear constantly 
 fn mind, then, that not one of these edifices is built for ourselves alone ; 
 let us extend our views through other generations, down to the far dis- 
 tant boundaries of time, and as we contemplate our works binding these 
 ages to us, and us to them,fet us indulge the feeling as our characters 
 swell out and form themselves to this long series of years, and to this 
 constantly thickening population. Let us remember, too, that it will be 
 an intelligent and a keen-sighted population. We wish them to re- 
 spect our memory; let us shew that we have respect for them: we 
 wish them to reverence our laws and institutions, for we believe them 
 good ; let the objects we associate strongly with these laws and institu- 
 tions, objects to be seen every day by them, and to influence their opin- 
 ion of us, let these objects be such as to heighten reverence, at least let 
 them be such as not to provoke their ridicule. 
 
 Domestic architecture. u Dwelling houses are capable of such end- 
 less modifications, and depend so much on circumstances for their 
 character, that it is extremely difficult to reduce them to rule, or, at all 
 events, to bring the subject within moderate bounds in cities, houses 
 must be crowded, and generally of considerable height; in towns they 
 are of less elevation and at greater intervals ; while in the country 
 they take a still different character. We will endeavour, however, to 
 give the subject a brief consideration. The architecture of dwelling 
 houses should be marked by two qualities, first and mainly by conve- 
 nience, and secondly by cheerfulness. The former we must leave to 
 take care of itself. As regards the latter, a choice of one of the three 
 ancient orders will in most cases be necessary, and on this the charac- 
 ter of the edifice will chiefly depend. The Doric, it has already been 
 remarked, is grave and majestic ; the Ionic, cheerful and graceful; — 
 the Corinthian gay. If this is true, the Ionic is the most proper order 
 for a dwelling. If the facade is large and imposing, the Roma?) Doric 
 may some times be used for the sake of variety ; but where the taste is 
 Jeftfree to its exercise we should always prefer the Grecian Ionic. It 
 has a good mixture of simplicity and richness ; it is pure and extreme- 
 ly graceful ; it is, in short, just that to which we would desire all the in- 
 ternal arrangements, and even the manners of a family to correspond. 
 The character of a family will generally be found to have some resem- 
 blance to the house in which they live. The Grecian Ionic does not 
 appear well, however, in small objects; and where the dwelling is bro- 
 ken into a number of diminutive parts, or where none can be large ; 
 the Composite or the Modern Ionic may be more advantageously em- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 239 
 
 ARCHITECTUKH. 
 
 ployed. These are frequently used in small porticoes and the like ; 
 and to them they are very well suited. The Grecian Doric may per- 
 haps be mu.de to appear well in a dwelling house, but the attempt may 
 be considered as hazardous. Its character of bold and manly gran- 
 deur, coupled with simple majesty, is not at all suited to such a build- 
 ing ; the Corinthian errs as greatly on the other side. 
 
 ** We are fond of variety in cities or towns. In the former it is more 
 difficult than in the latter, but we often make the case even worse than 
 our necessities require. It is so when we erect a large block of build- 
 ings, each one corresponding exactly with the rest. Why is this ? Is 
 there not uniformity enough in the constant recurrence of streets of the 
 same breadth, and perhaps meeting at the same angle, in an unbroken 
 range of houses, each advanced to the same line, and finished with the 
 same proportionate number of windows and doors? But there is an- 
 other consideration. In a block of this kind, the whole mass takes an 
 unity which requires vastness in the other parts to correspond. We 
 look for this, and find, with disappointment, the doors, windows, and 
 porches, the same as those of any other houses; the details become 
 more minute from a comparison with the vastness of the whole, and 
 the discrepancy becomes more strongly forced on us, and more pain- 
 ful. 
 
 "Smaller cities and towns have a great advantage in the intervals 
 which occur between the houses, and in New-England this advantage 
 is turned to good account. The houses there are frequently built at a 
 distance of twenty or thirty feet from each other, a space of several 
 yards being also left between them and the street. The whole of this 
 is planted with delicate shade trees and shrubs, and as the houses 
 themselves are usually painted white, and have small tasteful porticoes 
 in front, the effect is the most agreeable that can be imagined. Gen- 
 tlemen who have travelled extensively in Europe, frequently inform 
 us that they have never seen any thing that, as a whole, would compare 
 in neatness and real beauty with some of the New-England villages; 
 the houses, though as comfortable and durable as in other places, 
 cost, it is believed, even less than is usual for edifices of their size. — 
 Nearly the whole is effected by the neat little yard, with its verdure in 
 contrast with the pure white of the facade, and the little portico over 
 the door. There is another characteristic in these towns, which it is 
 desirable should become more common in the country, viz. the habit 
 of planting trees along the streets. We should not have all the streets 
 in a town treated in this manner ; those for business should be kept 
 clear, but in all others trees should be planted more or less thickly, as 
 taste or convenience will admit. They give a town the appearance of 
 richness and comfort, which cannot be so cheaply procured in any 
 other manner. The elm is our most graceful shade tree, and will be 
 found most suitable when the streets are wide ; when narrow, the ma- 
 ple is thought to be the best. 
 
 " As to country houses and their premises, so much depends on the 
 character of the ground, and of all objects, even to a distance of miles, 
 that the subject swells entirely beyond our limits. We must be al- 
 lowed, however, to remonstrate against the warfare which is every 
 where carried on against our noble forest trees j trees which should be 
 
240 FAMILY 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 estimated by us far above all price. The first thing done in the new 
 parts of our country, when a spot is determined on for a house, is to 
 cut down all the trees within many rods of it ; and then, year by 
 year, the work of destruction goes on, as if the very sight of a forest 
 tree were odiuus. The house stands alone in the clearing, its inmates, 
 and particularly the children, roasted and browned under the hot sum- 
 mer's sun; but by and by, the nakedness and dreariness of the situa- 
 tion is felt, and then are planted some Lombardy poplars u all in a 
 row." Now, the trees which we cut down with such an unsparing 
 hand, are the very kind which English gardiners cultivate with the 
 most persevering diligence, and are planted here just as they labor 
 most to plant. And we too shall cultivate them before long, and shall 
 then think, with the most bitter regret, of the sad destruction which 
 we and our ancestors have made. But in vain ; for all the art of man 
 will not be able to restore in any length of time, such glades and 
 thickets, and lawns, as we now possess. When about to build in a 
 new country, we should save, near our house, an acre or two of the 
 forest, and should guard it with the most watchful care. Morning, 
 noon, and evening, it would be an agreeable retreat ; its shade would 
 be refreshing in our scorching heats ; it would connect us in some 
 measure, with ages long since gone, and bring before us the wild, but 
 high-souled Indian, his council, his battle song, the war, the chase, the 
 feast and dance ; its noble and manly form would gratify our taste ; 
 it would raise our thoughts to Him who is " a shadow from the heat, a 
 strength to the needy in his distress." Let us then spare our noble 
 forest trees. Many political considerations might be adduced to shew 
 the imprudence of our rude havoc among them, but for these we havtf 
 not room." 
 
 I 
 
PART V. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 f 
 Agriculture, considered as a science, explains the means of making 
 the earth produce, in plenty and perfection, those vegetables, which are 
 necessary to the subsistence, or convenience of man, and of the animals 
 reared by him for food, or labor. 
 
 Considered as an art. every human being has an interest in it. since it 
 is the foundation of all other arts — the basis of civilization and refine- 
 ment — and essential to the existence of some of the nations which inhabit 
 certain portions of our globe. 
 
 Besides the healthfulness of the pursuit, agriculture u is intimately 
 connected" — to use the language of a distinguished literary journal of 
 our country* — "with our national character, because it powerfully 
 acts upon the morals and constitution of our citizens. Ifitbetrue 
 that the torch of liberty has always burned with a purer and brighter 
 lustre on the mountains than on the plains, it is still more true, that the 
 sentiments of honor and integrity more generally animate the rough, 
 but manly form of the farmer, than the debilitated body of the artisan. 
 There is in that primitive and honorable occupation, the culture of the 
 earth, something which, while it pours into the lap of the State an in- 
 crease beyond every other employment, gives more than the fabled 
 stone, not only a subsistence, but a placid feeling of contentment : not 
 only creates the appetite to enjoy, but guaranties its continuance, by a 
 robust constitution, fortified with the safe-guards of temperance and 
 virtue." 
 
 To this we may add a remark of Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Na- 
 tions, viz. that " the capital employed in agriculture not only puts in 
 motion a greater quantity of productive labor, than any equal capital 
 employed in manufactures ; but, also in proportion to the productive 
 labor which it employs, it adds a much greater value to the annual pro- 
 duce of the land and labor of the country, while it increases the real 
 wealth and revenue of its inhabitants." 
 
 Notwithstanding these high testimonials — and a hundred more equally 
 weighty might be adduced — in favor of the profession of agriculture, 
 it has been, until within a few years. " a degraded and unpopular pur- 
 suit among us. : ' In Europe, the fact has been otherwise. In England 
 and on the continent, every state, since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 has turned its assiduous attention to this most important department 
 of domestic economy, and ultimately borrowed from it the resources 
 
 ■ North American Review. 
 1 
 
FAMILY 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 which have carried them through the prodigious conflicts of the last 
 generation. 
 
 Several causes have contrihuted to lessen the apparent importance 
 of agricultural skill in the United States. But two only can here be 
 noticed. 
 
 The first is the peculiar situation of Europe since the peace of '83, 
 which has afforded opportunities for commercial enterprise, too tempt- 
 ing to be resisted. "American merchants received in the lapse of a 
 very few years, the most astonishing accessions of wealth : and for- 
 tunes, ordinarily the fruit of a laborious life, and never the portion of 
 many, were amassed with unparalleled rapidity, and by large numbers. 
 Our domestic prosperity more than equalled the extension of our trade. 
 It was then that the counting-houses of our merchants were filled with 
 youth from the country, who forsook the slower but surer emoluments 
 of agriculture, for the mushroom, but unsubstantial fortunes of com- 
 merce ; nay, who preferred the meanest drudgery behind the counter of 
 a retailer, to the manly and invigorating toil of the cultivator of his 
 paternal acres. Unfortunately this spirit of migration was encouraged 
 by too great a success in trade. Feelings of vulgar pride contracted 
 in town, caused the manual labor of the farmer to be regarded as de- 
 grading. This unworthy sentiment spread its baleful influence ; and 
 when the compting-houses became overstocked, and afforded no longer 
 a resource, it was no uncommon thing to see a young man, with no 
 qualifications, but a little bad Latin, picked up at a miserable village 
 school, forsake a large and comfortable farm, and apprentice himself to 
 a poor country attorney." 
 
 The second cause of the late depressed state of agriculture in the 
 United States, especially in New-England, has been owing to the con- 
 stant emigration to the West. No sooner had the farmer reduced his 
 land by successive crops, than he removed to a country, which offered 
 him jan untouched surface, needing for some years no aid of composts and 
 manures. 
 
 But it is occasion of gratitude, that, at length, the importance of a 
 regular and more enlightened and more energetic system of farming 
 is beginning to be felt in our country. Men of talents, wealth, and dis- 
 tinction, no longer think it beneath them to enrol their names on the list 
 of practical farmers. By means of agricultural associations, and liberal- 
 ly patronized, and ably conducted papers, information on the subject, 
 considered both as an art, and a science, is rapidly spreading abroad — 
 a taste for farming is diffusing itself, and ere long, it is believed, that this 
 species of employment will be as much prized and coveted, as once it 
 was considered low and despicable. 
 
 To aid in advancing the interests of this important branch of national 
 industry will be the object of the pages which we design to appropriate 
 to this subject. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF NEAT CATTLE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED 
 
 STATES. 
 
 I. The Wild Cattle — of a bull of which race the above is a por- 
 trait, — were the original stock of the kingdom of Great Britain before 
 enclosures were known. They are said to be still found at Chartlry 
 Park, in Derb) shire, and perhaps, in one or two more ; but it is believed 
 that the only pun- breed is that preserved, in a wild state, L* Chillhigham 
 Castle in Northumberland, the seat of the Earl of Tanker^Llle, whose 
 steward, Mr. Bailey, thus describes them : 
 
 ''Their color is invariably white ; muzzle lack; the whole of the 
 inside of the ear, and about one-iuLH of the outside, from the tip down- 
 wards, red; horns white win. blac^. tips, very fine and bent upward?. 
 Some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half 
 or two inches long: the weight of the oxen is from thirty -five to forty- 
 five stone, of fourteen pounds; and that of the cows, from twenty -five to 
 thirty-five stone the four quarters. The beef is finely marbled and of 
 excellent flavor. 
 
 " The mode of killing them was, perhaps, the only modern remains 
 of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given that a wild 
 bull would be killed upon a certain day, the inhabitants of the neigh- 
 borhood came in great numbers, both horse and foot ; the horsemen 
 rode off the bull from the rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a 
 marksman dismounted and shot. At some of these huntings, twenty or 
 thirty shots have been fired before he was subdued : on such oca. 
 the bleeding victim grew desperately furious from the smarting of his 
 wounds, and the shouts of savage joy that were echoing on every side. 
 From the number of accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has 
 been seldom practised of late years ; the park-keeper generally shooting 
 them with a rifle gun at one shot. 
 
 " When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days 
 in some sequestered situation and go and suckle them two or three 
 times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap their heads 
 
FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 close to the ground, and lie like a hare in a form, to hide themselves 
 This is a proof of their native wildness, and is corroborated by the fol- 
 lowing circumstance, that happened to the writer of the narrative, who 
 found a hidden calf two days old, very lean and very weak ; on stroking 
 its head, it got up, pawed two or three times, like an old bull, bellowed 
 very loud, retired a few steps, and bolted at his legs with all its force ; it 
 then began to paw again, bellowed, stepped back, and bolted as before ■ 
 but knowing its intention, and stepping aside, it missed him, fell and 
 was so very weak that it could not rise, though it made several efforts; 
 but it had done enough ; the whole herd were alarmed, and coming to 
 its rescue, obliged him to retire ; for the dams will allow no person to 
 touch their calves without attacking them with impetuous ferocity. 
 
 " When any one happens to be wounded, or grown weak or feeble 
 through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it and gore it to 
 death." b 
 
 II. The Devonshire Breed, delineated above, is supposed to have 
 descended directly from the wild race. It is found in its purest state in 
 North Devon ; in the agricultural report of which district its peculiar 
 qualities are thus described by the late Mr. Vancouver : — 
 
 "Its head is small, clean, and free from flesh about the jaws; deer- 
 like light and airy in its countenance ; neck long and thin ; throat free 
 from jowl or dewlap ; nose and round its eyes of a dark orange color; 
 ears thin and pointed, tinged on their inside with the same color that is 
 always found to encircle its eyes ; horns thin, and fine to their roots, 
 of a cream color, tipped with black,* growing with a regular curve up- 
 wards, and rather springing from each other ; light in the withers, rest- 
 ing on a shoulder a little retiring and spreading, and so rounded below 
 as to sink all appearance of its pinion in the body of the animal ; open 
 bosom, with a deep chest, or keel ; small and tapering below the knee, 
 
 * The late Rev. Arthur Young, formerly Secretary to the Board of 
 Agriculture, describes thorough bred Devons as of a bright red, neck 
 and head small, eye prominent, and round it a ring of bright yellow ; 
 the nose round the nostril having the same color ; the horn clear and 
 transparent, upright, tapering, and gently curved, but not tipped with 
 black. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 fine at and above the joint, and where the arm begins to increase it be- 
 comes suddenly lost in the shoulder ; line of the back straight from the 
 withers to the rump, lying completely on a level with the pin, or huckles, 
 which lie wide and open ; the hind quarters seated high with flesh, 
 leaving a fine hair-ham tapering from the hock to the fetlock : long 
 from rump to huckle, and from the- pinion of the shoulder to the end of 
 the nose ; thin loose skin, covered with hair of a soft and furry nature, 
 inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good condition and in full 
 coat, when it also becomes mottled with darker shades » , its permanent 
 color, which is that of a bright blood red, without white, or other spots, 
 particularly on the male ; a wliite udder is sometimes passed over, but 
 seldom without objection. 
 
 M This description may be considered as a summary of the perfections 
 M to the exterior appearance of the animal : what, under the same head, 
 may be regarded as defects, appear first in the sudden retiring of the 
 vamp from behind the huckle to a narrow point backwards ; the 
 great space between the huckle and first rib ; the smalhiess of the angle 
 inwards at which the ribs appear to be projected from the spine or back- 
 bone, often giving the appearance of a flat-sided animal, and in its being 
 so much tucked up in the girth as to show an awkward cavity between 
 the keel and naval, the line of which, it is presumed, should always be 
 found to hold a position as nearly as possible parallel with that of the 
 back from the withers to the Kin. The animal is, however, generally 
 well grown, and filled up behind the shoulder^ 
 
 ill. The Sussex Breed differs but little from the Devonshire ; when 
 pure, the cattle are invariably dark red ; and those which are marked 
 with a mixture of either white or black, although passing under the 
 denomination of Sussex, are always crossed with foreign blood. In 
 other respects they are thus described by an eminent breeder, the accu- 
 racy of whose judgment has been confirmed by many intelligent graziers : 
 
 11 A thin head, and a clean jaw ; the horns pointing forward a little, and 
 then turning upward, thin, tapering, and long ; the eye large and full : 
 the throat clean, no dew-lap ; long and thin in the neck ; wide and deep 
 in the shoulders ; no projection in the point of the shoulder, when looked 
 at from behind ; the fore-legs wide ; round and straight in the barrel. 
 and free from a rising back-bone ; no hanging heaviness in the belly ; 
 
 1* 
 
FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 wide across the loin ; the space between the hip-bone and the first rib 
 very small ; the hip-bone not to rise high, but to be large and wide ; the 
 loin, and space between the hips to be flat and wide, but the fore part of 
 the carcass round ; long and straight in the rump, and wide in the tip ; 
 the tail to lay low, for the flesh to swell above it ; the legs not too long ; 
 neither thick nor thin on the thigh ; the leg thin ; shut well in the twist ; 
 no fulness in the outside of the thigh, but all of it within ; a squareness 
 behind, common in all long-horned beasts, greatly objected to ; the finer 
 and thinner in the tail the better. 
 
 " Of these points, the Sussex beasts are apt to be more deficient in the 
 shoulder than in any other part. A well made ox stands straight, and 
 nearly perpendicularly, on small clean legs ; a large bony leg is a very 
 bad point, but the legs moving freely, rather under the body than as if 
 attached to the sides; the horns pushing a little forward, spreading mode- 
 rately, and turning up once. The horn of the Devonshire, which very 
 much resembles the Sussex, but smaller and lighter, is longer, and rises 
 generally higher. The straitness of the back line is sometimes broken, 
 in very fine beasts, by a lump between the hips." 
 
 On a comparison between the Devon and Sussex breeds, the former 
 has been considered by competent judges as thinner, narrower, and 
 sharper than the latter, on the top of the shoulder, or blade bone ; the 
 point of the shoulder generally projects more, and they usually stand 
 narrower in the chest ; their chine is thinner and flatter in the barrel, 
 and they hang more in the flank ; but they are wider in the hips, and 
 cleaner in the neck, head, and horns, and smaller in the bone, than the 
 Sussex ; their hides are thinner and softer, and they handle as mellow. 
 The distinction between them however is not very striking ; they are 
 equally profitable to the grazier, and as working cattle, they both stand 
 unrivalled. 
 
 IV. The Hereford Breed is a variety of the Devon and Sussex, but 
 is larger and weightier than either; being generally wider and fuller 
 over the shoulders or chine, and the breast, or brisket, as well as in the 
 after part of the rump. The prevailing color a reddish 4>rown, with 
 white faces ; the hair fine and the skin thin. 
 
 In the true bred Hereford cattle there is no projecting bone in the point 
 of the shoulder, which in some breeds forms almost a shelf, against 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 which the collar rests ; but on the contrary tapers off: they have a great 
 breadth before, and are equally weighty in their hind quarters : the 
 tail not set on high ; a great distance from the point of the rump to the 
 hip bone ; the twist full, broad, and soft : the thigh of the fore legs to 
 the pasteni joint tapering and full, not thin, but thin below the joint; 
 the horn pushes aside a little, and then turns up thin and tapering ; 
 remarkably well feeling ; mellow on the rump, ribs, and hip bone. The 
 quality of "the meat not hard, but fine as well as fat ; little coarse flesh 
 about them, the offal and bone being small in proportion to their weight ; 
 whilst their disposition to fatten is equal or nearly so, to that of any other 
 breed in the island. They are, however, ill calculated for the dairy ; their 
 constitutional disposition to accumulate flesh being in opposition to the 
 qualities of good milking cows, an observation which will equally apply 
 to every breed, when similarly constituted. A breed of cattle, equally 
 adapted to the shambles, the dairy, and the plough, is indeed not to be 
 met with ; and experience teaches that these properties are inconsistent 
 with each other. The Hereford cattle are by many good judges con- 
 sidered to approach the nearest to that perfect state of any of the large 
 breeds ; they arrive early at maturity, and are fit for labor ; but it is as 
 fatting stock that they excel, and it is a different variety of the same breed 
 that is preferred for the dairy. There is, indeed a more extraordinary 
 disproportion between the weight of Herefordshire cows, and that of the 
 oxen bred from them, than is to be found in any other of the superior 
 breeds; they are comparatively small, extremely "delicate and light flesh- 
 ed, and it is said that they are not unfrequently the mothers of oxen, 
 nearly three times their own weight. 
 
 On comparison with the Devon and Sussex, the Hereford breed will 
 probably not be found equally active and hardy in the yoke : but it is 
 generally considered to exceed them in the quality of fattening : and 
 when compared with any other breed, it may fairly rank at least among 
 the very best in the country. 
 
 V. The Short Horxed Cattle, under which denomination are in- 
 discriminately included the Dutch, Holderncss. and Teeswater breeds, are 
 supposed to have acquired the appellation of Dutch, from a cross with 
 some large bulls that were imported, uear a century ago, from Holland 
 into Yorkshire, (Eng.) in the east and north ridings of which county the 
 two latter had been long established. It has, however, been doubted 
 whether any advantage was derived from this intermixture ; for the in- 
 crease thus obtained in size was thought to have been counterbalanced 
 by a more than proportionate increase of offal. But, fortunately, the 
 error was not universal ; for some intelligent breeders aware, even at 
 that day, of the superiority of symmetry to bulk, preserved the breed, of 
 which they were already in possession, in its native purity ; and it is 
 from some of that stock, so maintained, that the present improved short 
 horned cattle, now generally distinguished as the Durham, or Yorkshire 
 breed, are descended. 
 
 This breed was introduced about forty years ago, by Messieurs Col- 
 ling, of Darlington, and has rapidly risen in the public estimation. The 
 cattle are very large, and are beautifully mottled with red or black upon 
 a white ground ; their backs level ; throat clean ; neck fine ; carcass 
 full and round ; quarters long ; hips and rumps even and wide ; they 
 stand rather high on their legs ; handle very kindly ; are light in their 
 bone, in proportion to their size ; and have a very fine coat, and thin 
 
FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE, 
 
 hide. They differ from the other breeds, not only in the shortness of 
 their horns, but as being wider and thicker in their form, and conse- 
 quently feeding to greater weight ; in affording the greatest quantity of 
 tallow when fatted ; and in having very thin hides, with much less hair 
 upon them than any other kind except the Alderneys. They also possess 
 the valuable properties of fattening kindly at an early age, and of yield- 
 ing large quantities of milk ; but the quality of the latter is not so rich as 
 that of some other species. 
 
 Of this breed, Mr. Charles Colling, of Ketton, sold a bull — Comet — by 
 public auction, in the year 1810, for the extraordinary sum of one thou- 
 sand guineas ; and the history of the celebrated Durham ox, the property 
 of the same gentleman, is too remarkable not to merit attention. 
 
 He was bred in the year 1796, and at five years old was not only 
 covered thick with fat upon all the principal points, but his whole carcass 
 appeared to be loaded with it, and he was then thought so wonderful an 
 animal, that he was purchased in February, 1801, for £140, to be ex- 
 hibited as a show; his live weight being then 2*26 stone, of 14 pounds. 
 In the following May he was again sold for £250, to Mr. John Day, who, 
 two months afterwards refused for him two thousand guineas ! He was 
 exhibited in the principal parts of the kingdom until April, 1807, when 
 he was killed, in consequence of having accidentally dislocated his hip in 
 the previous February, and although he must have lost considerably in 
 weight during his illness, besides the disadvantages of six years' travelling 
 in a caravan, yet his carcass weighed 187 stone 12 pounds ; and Mr. Day 
 "tated his live weight at ten years old, to have been 270 stone. 
 
 Uncommon as this animal then was, he has, however, been since ex- 
 ceeded in size by a Yorkshire ox, bred by Mr. Dunhill, of Newton, near 
 Doncaster, the carcass of which weighed, when killed, 264 stone 12 
 pounds ; and he was supposed to have lost near forty stone while being 
 exhibited in London. 
 
 Still more recently, another beast of uncommon size, fed by Lord 
 Yarborough, has been exhibited under the title of " the Lincolnshire Ox :" 
 but, though bred in that county, from a favourite cow belonging to 
 Mr. Goulton, he was got by a descendant of Comet, out of Countess, also 
 of the Durham breed. This extraordinary animal measured five feet 
 six inches in height at the shoulders, eleven feet ten inches from the nose 
 to the setting of the tail, eleven feet one inch in girth, and three feet three 
 inches across the hips, shoulders, and middle of the back; the lowest 
 point of his breast was only fourteen inches from the ground, and he 
 stood one foot ten inches between the fore legs ; the girth of the fore leg 
 was nine inches. 
 
 The variety of this breed known as the Yorkshire Polled Cattle, 
 only differs from those already described, in being without horns ; they 
 are in considerable estimation among the London cow-keepers, as milk- 
 ers, and at the same time maintain their flesh in a state nearly fit for the 
 shambles. 
 
 It may not be improper in this place to give some account of several 
 remarkable oxen raised in the United States, — the land in which, it is a 
 current opinion on the other side of the water, animals of every descrip- 
 tion are wont to degenerate. 
 
 The first ox we notice has been exhibiting for several years in different 
 parts of the country. He is called " Mammouth Ox Columbus." He 
 was bred in the town of Greenland, State of New Hampshire. By com- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 9 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 petent judges he is supposed to weigh alive nearly 4,000 pounds. His 
 dimensions are as follows : — 
 
 feet, inches. 
 Length from the nose to the rump, - - 11 00 
 
 Height, - - - - 5 
 
 Girth around the body. - - - 11 
 
 Shoulder to brisket, - ' - - 4 
 
 Horns from tip to tip, - - - 3 
 
 In the spring of 1819, two oxen of extraordinary weight and dimen- 
 sions, were slaughtered in Baltimore. The one of these was called 
 " Columbus," the other " the Delaware ox." Their weight and dimen- 
 sions, ascertained with great care and exactness, follow : 
 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 3 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 
 DELAWARE OX. 
 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Alive, - 
 
 2962 
 
 Alive, - 
 
 2688 
 
 Head and tongue, 
 
 24* 
 
 Head and tongue, 
 
 23 
 
 Feet, 
 
 26 
 
 Feet, 
 
 22* 
 
 Liver, 
 
 18 
 
 Liver, 
 
 20* 
 
 Heart, 
 
 10 
 
 Heart, 
 
 10* 
 
 Lights, 
 
 16 
 
 Lights, 
 
 11 
 
 Rough tallow, 
 
 218 
 
 Rough tallow, 
 
 2734 
 
 Hide, 
 
 154* 
 
 Hide, 
 
 101 
 
 Blood, 
 
 94 
 
 Blood, 
 
 651 
 
 Other offal weight, 
 
 222* 
 
 Other offal weight, 
 
 198 
 
 
 783* 
 
 
 731* 
 
 Neat beef, 
 
 2090 
 
 Neat beef, 
 
 1851 
 
 
 2873* 
 
 2582* 
 
 Loss unaccounted for, 
 
 88* 
 
 Loss unaccounted for, 
 
 105* 
 
 2962 
 
 268* 
 
 OX COLUMBUS. 
 
10 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Hind Quarter. 
 
 Fore Quarter. 
 
 1 Sirloin, 
 
 11 Middle Rib ; four Ribs, 
 
 2 Ruinp, 
 
 12 Chuck; three Ribs, 
 
 3 Edge bone, 
 
 13 Shoulder, or Leg of Mutton 
 
 4 Buttock, 
 
 piece, 
 
 5 Mouse Buttock, 
 
 14 Brisket, 
 
 6 Veiny Piece, 
 
 15 Clod, 
 
 7 Thick Flank, 
 
 16 Neck, or Sticking piece, 
 
 8 Thick Flank, 
 
 17 Shin, 
 
 9 Leg, 
 
 18 Cheek. 
 
 10 Fore Rib; five Ribs, 
 
 The above drawing represents the form and attitude of the ox Co- 
 lumbus. The plain horizontal line, describes his length from the root 
 of the horn to the tip of the rump. The plain perpendicular line, hi9 
 height on the shoulders. The dotted lines, point out the manner of cutting 
 up beef, as practiced by victuallers ; and the figures, in their centres, 
 refer to the proper technical name of each piece. For this diagram 
 we are indebted to the American Farmer. It is given in this place as 
 a pattern, which may be useful as a guide to housekeepers, in many parts 
 oi our land. 
 
 VI. The Long Horned Cattle are descended from a breed which 
 had long been established in the Craven district, in Yorkshire, (Eng. ;) 
 some cows of which race, and a Lancashire long horned bull, of the kind 
 delineated above, were brought, early in the last century, by a Mr. 
 Webster, to Canley, in Warwickshire, where they produced a stock that 
 soon became remarkable for its beauty. 
 
 Of this Canley stock, the late Mr. Robert Bake well, of Dishley, in 
 Leicestershire, procured some cows, which he crossed with a Northum- 
 berland bull, and thus reared that celebrated race now so well known 
 as the Dishley breed. They were long and fine in the horn, had small 
 heads, clean throats, straight broad backs, wide quarters, and were light 
 in their bellies and offal ; and, probably from the effect of domestication 
 and gentle treatment, remarkably -docile ; they grew fat upon a smaller 
 proportion of food than the parent stock ; but gave less milk than some 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 11 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 other breeds ; and the chief improvements effected seem to have been, 
 in their aptitude to fatten early on the most valuable points, and in the 
 superior quality of the flesh. 
 
 The modern improvements made in the long horned cattle, since the 
 first attempts of Bakewell, are considered to consist chiefly in the 
 coarser parts having been reduced, and the more valuable enlarged. 
 The present breed is finer boned and finer in the neck, throat, and 
 breast ; the back is straight, wide, and well covered with flesh : the rump 
 is also wide, and particularly fleshy on the points, and about the root of 
 the tail. Even when only in store order, the flank feels thick and fleshy, 
 and in every part the animal handles loose and mellow. 
 
 These, indeed, were always the distinguishing points of these cattle ; 
 but they were not thought attainable except they were fed on the richest 
 pasture. This, however, has proved to be an error: for not only are 
 they now found on land of no extraordinary quality, but it even appear* 
 to be generally admitted, that well bred cattle will do better on ordinary 
 food than those of an inferior kind: it was indeed asserted by Bakewell, 
 that this breed kept themselves in good condition on less food than any 
 other of equal weight : an opinion that seems to have been fully justified 
 by the large prices that have been repeatedly given for the stock.* 
 
 * At a sale of Mr. Fowler's stock (of this breed) at Little Rollright, 
 in Oxfordshire, in 1791, fifteen head of oxen, five bulls and ten cows. 
 were sold for various sums, amounting to £2464, or upon an average, 
 at £163 each. The finest bull, named Sultan, only two years old, pro- 
 duced two hundred and ten guineas; and Washington, another of the same 
 age, was sold for two hundred and five guineas; while Brindled Beauty, a 
 cow, brought the sum of two hundred and sixty guineas ; but at a subse- 
 quent sale of stock belonging to Mr. Paget, in 1793. Shakspeare, a bull 
 bred by Mr. Fowler from a grandson of Mr. Bake well's famous bull, 
 Twopenny, and a cow of the Canley blood, was disposed of for four 
 hundred guineas. 
 
 At a still later period. Mr. Princep, of Croxhall, in Derbyshire, is said 
 to have refused £2000 for twenty long horned dairy cows, and 1500 
 guineas for the use of his best bull to thirty cows. 
 
 Large as these prices were, they have, however, been exceeded by 
 those actually obtained for short horned cattle. At the sale already allu- 
 ded to, of Mr. Charles Colling's stock, at Ketton. in the county of Dur- 
 ham, in 1810, seventeen cows and eleven bulls produced £49i6; being 
 an average of £175 10s. each. Of these, two cows. Countess and Lilly, 
 both got by Comet, were sold, the one for four hundred, and the other 
 for four hundred and ten guineas. Petrarch, a bull, by Favorite, the sire 
 of Comet, brought threchundred aud sixty-five guineas, and Comet himself 
 one thousand. 
 
 Still more recently, however, in February, 1827, at a great sale of 
 «tock. the property of Mr. Rennie, of Phantassie. in East Lothian, 
 (which amounted to the large sum of £13,582), the highest price ob- 
 tained for a bull of this breed was £115 10s., and for a cow £63; but, 
 as not more than half the stock on the farm was supposed to have been 
 sold, it is probable that some of the best cattle were reserved. Many 
 other instances might however be adduced to prove — not that the rela- 
 tive value of the short-horned cattle has declined — but that extravagant 
 prices are not now so generally given for superior stock as formerly. 
 
12 FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 VII. The Galloway Breed derives its appellation from the county 
 of the same name, where, and also in some parts of the Lowlands of 
 Scotland, these cattle are chiefly reared, and whence vast numbers are 
 annually sent to Norfolk, and other English counties, to be fattened for 
 the markets. In general, they are black, or dark brindled ; are without 
 horns, except occasionally, a small excrescence resembling them, and 
 are rather under the medium size, being smaller than the Devons, though 
 in some other respects resembling them, yet considerably larger than the 
 north, or even the west Highlanders. 
 
 A true Galloway bullock is straight and broad in the back, and nearly 
 level from the head to the rump ; closely compacted between the shoul- 
 der and ribs, and also betwixt the ribs and the loins ; broad at the loins, but 
 not with hooked or projecting knobs. He is long in the quarters, but 
 not broad in the twist ; deep in the chest, short in the leg, and mode- 
 rately fine in the bone ; clean in the chop, and in the neck. His head is 
 of a moderate size, with large rough ears, and full but not prominent 
 eyes, and he is clothed in a loose and mellow, though rather thick skin, 
 covered with long, soft, and glossy hair. 
 
 In roundness of barrel, and fulness of ribs, the Galloway cattle may 
 perhaps vie with even the most improved breeds. Their breadth over 
 the hook-bones is not, indeed, to be compared to that of some of either 
 the short or long horned, but their loins bear a greater proportion in 
 width to the hook bones, and they are shorter between the hooks and 
 the ribs, which is in itself a valuable point, when accompanied with 
 length of body. They are, however, rather coarse in the head and 
 neck, and though short in the leg, are generally fine in the bone. 
 
 Of this breed there is a variety termed Suffolk Duns ; they are also 
 polled, but possess little of the beauty of the original stock, and are 
 chiefly remarkable for the abundance of milk given by the cows. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 13 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 VIII. The Highland Breed of Horned Cattle are chiefly reared in 
 the western parts of Scotland. Their horns are usually of a middle 
 size, bending upwards, and their color is generally black, though some- 
 times brindled, or dun. Their hides are thick, and covered with long 
 hair of a close pile, which nature seems to have intended as a protection 
 against the severity of the climate under which they are bred, for they 
 lose much of this distinction when reared in this country. In other re- 
 spects they are not unlike the Galloway breed, many of whose best qual- 
 ities they possess, and more particularly their hardiness of constitution, 
 it being repeatedly proved that they will thrive with such food and treat- 
 ment as no tender cattle could endure ; but, from being mostly bred in 
 more exposed and mountainous situations, they rarely attain equal size. 
 
 Of this breed there are several distinct varieties, of which the princi- 
 pal are the Kyloes — a short-horned breed, so named from the district of 
 Kyle, in Ayrshire, — which are chiefly esteemed for the superior quality 
 of the milk given by the cow; the Argyllshire, Dunlops, Western Kyloes 
 or Ise of Sky, Norlands, 8?c. 
 
 IX. The Welsh Breed are chiefly black, slightly marked with white, 
 and have thick horns, of a medium length, curving upwards. They are 
 small, and short in the leg, but well proportioned, and clean, though not 
 small boned, with deep barrelled bodies, and thin, short haired hides. 
 They are very quick feeders, and make excellent beef; and the cows 
 
 .are generally good milkers. The best kinds of this race of cattle, are 
 principally bred in the counties of Cardigan and Glamorgan, and in the 
 southern and midland English counties, where they are in considerable 
 demand for stocking inferior pastures. There is, however, a larger 
 breed of a brown color intermixed with white, and also having white 
 horns; but they are long in the leg, thin in the thigh, and narrow in the 
 chine. They are neither so compact as the black cattle, nor dp they 
 fatten so kindly, or make such good beef; but, though not in esteem with 
 the grazier, they are active, and well adapted for the yoke. 
 
 X. The Alderney Breed are so named from the island, on the coast 
 of Normandy, whence they were first imported, although they are also 
 bred in the neighbouring islands of Guernsey and Jersey. They aro 
 small sized ; color light red or dun, mottled with white ; horns short, and 
 
 2 
 
14 FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 bone fine. As fatting cattle, they have but few good points; being 
 thin and hollow in the neck, hollow and narrow behind the shoulders, 
 sharp and narrow on the hucks, light in the brisket, and lean on the 
 chine, with short rumps and small thighs ; but their flesh is fine grained, 
 high colored, and of excellent flavor. They are also very large in the 
 belly ; but this, as well as some of the points already mentioned, is 
 rather an advantage to milch cows, to which purpose this stock is 
 usually applied in England ; and their udder is well formed. 
 
 The Alderney cows are very rich milkers ; and both on that account, 
 and because of a certain neatness in their appearance, notwithstanding 
 the defects in their shape, they command high prices. They are, 
 therefore, mostly in the possession of gentlemen; who, rarely keeping a 
 regular breeding stock, the cows are consequently crossed by any neigh- 
 boring bull, and thus the pure breed is preserved in the hands of but 
 very few persons. 
 
 Such are the chief breeds of neat cattle in Great Britain; and the de- 
 scription, being taken from the best authorities, may be considered as 
 accurate as possible, in a general view. 
 
 We shall next proceed to speak of several varieties found in the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 Neat cattle were originally imported by our ancestors from England. 
 They consisted of the Devonshire breed. In this opinion the late 
 Timothy Pickering, of Massachusetts, and John Hare Powell, two gen- 
 tlemen who, within a few years, have written largely, on the best mode 
 of improving our stock, both unite. It was also the remark of the late 
 Mr. Jay, soon after his return from Great Britain, in 1795, that the cattle, 
 which he had generally seen in New England, appeared to be of the 
 Devonshire breed, that he had seen in Great Britain. 
 
 Towards the conclusion of the last century, several cattle were im- 
 ported, by Charles Vaughan, and a Mr. Stuart; but on the New Eng- 
 land stock at large, it is not probable that any effect was produced, by 
 these importations. Some traces of their progeny, it is thought, might 
 be noticed in the neighbourhood of Boston ; perhaps in Vermont, whith- 
 er some of the above stock were sent, and in Maine, where according 
 to the testimony of Mr. Powell, some of Mr. Vaughan's stock were 
 driven. 
 
 Although the original breed introduced into this country by our an- 
 cestors was that of the Devon, it is probable that some other breeds were 
 also introduced by them; particularly the Herefordshire breed. On 
 this point, Mr. Pickering observes, " Although I suppose the Devon 
 race of cattle to be predominant in New England, I doubt not that some 
 of other breeds were early introduced by our ancestors ; some Herefords 
 unquestionably, whose descendants are yet distinguished by their white 
 faces.' 7 A white face, or as Mr. Marshall terms it, " a bald face," is es- 
 teemed characteristic of the true Hereford breed. 
 
 The importation of cattle from England ceased at an early period, 
 after the settlement of the country. The Editors of the Massachusetts 
 Agricultural Journal, assume it as probable that few cattle, if any, were 
 imported after 1650. 
 
 From that period until towards the close of the last century, few, 
 :fany importations were made, and for the reason, probably, that the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 15 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 improvements in the breeds of English cattle, which had, for a half cen- 
 tury been going on in Great Britain, had not attracted the notice of 
 our countrymen, owing chiefly to the depressed state of agriculture 
 among us. 
 
 Should it be asked, what was the general character of the neat cattle 
 introduced by our ancestors into America, we reply, in the language 
 of the Editors of the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal: " It is well 
 known, that the agriculture of England, was then in a low state, com- 
 pared with its present condition. Successions of crops were nearly un- 
 known ; root crops for winter fodder were, we believe, entirely so. The 
 prices of cattle were small, no great encouragement had been given to 
 improve the breed. It is probable, therefore, that the cattle imported 
 were not of a very improved race." 
 
 "On the other hand," continues the above Journal, "there can be 
 no doubt, that our climate and pastures are well adapted to the preser- 
 vation of cattle, in as good a state as when imported, and rather to im- 
 prove them. This we infer from the fact, that they are so fine, rather 
 than from any general reasoning derived from our climate and soil ; 
 and still less from our treatment of them. If we regarded those only, we 
 should say, that the he^at of our summers, and the length and severity 
 of our winters, were unfavorable to an animal, impatient of great heat 
 and severe cold, and thriving much better on green succulent food than 
 on dry meadow hay. 
 
 "It may perhaps, be matter of surprise, that our horned cattle have 
 been preserved as perfect as they are, considering the little attention, 
 which for more than a century, was paid to them. That the cattle of 
 England, at the present time, are far superior to our own, as a body, 
 can scarcely be questioned. Great attention has been paid, in that 
 country, to the improvement of horned cattle; and strange, indeed, 
 would it be, if the efforts of more than half a century had been without 
 effect." 
 
 Within a few years, an interesting controversy was carried on, be- 
 tween two gentlemen of great distinction, as enlightened and patriotic 
 agriculturalists — Col. Pickering, and Col. Powell, to whom we have 
 already referred. 
 
 Under a conviction of the superiority of the English breeds of cattle, 
 especially the improved short horns, the latter gentleman had, at much 
 trouble and expense, introduced several of that species into the country. 
 Others, also, with similar views, had taken a similar course ; and seve- 
 ral importations had, from time to time, been made of different foreign 
 breeds, under the impression that our native breeds of cattle might be 
 more speedily raised in their qualities, by crossing with the above, 
 than to select only the best of our native breeds and improve upon 
 them. 
 
 The views of Col. Pickering were different. In a communication 
 to the Editor of the New England Farmer, on the subject of improving 
 our native breed cattle, Mr. Pickering remarks : " Were but two or 
 three farmers, in every township in the state, to turn a zealous attention 
 to it, the object would in a few years be accomplished — whereas, half a 
 century or more might elapse, before a general improvement, by foreign 
 crosses would be effected. It remains, too, to be ascertained, whether 
 any other breeds really deserve the preference, in New-England, to our 
 
16 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 native race, improved as it may be, and in so much less time, than will 
 be possible, by means of a small number of imported cattle." 
 
 The controversy between these two gentlemen, growing out of their 
 difference of opinion, was conducted with great ability, and numerous 
 facts were collected, which had an important relation to the different 
 positions, which the respective gentlemen had taken. It is not the de- 
 sign of the editor of this work to estimate the merits of either view of 
 the subject, with reference to a settlement of the question involved. The 
 reader will find the papers, relating to this controversy, in the third and 
 fourth volumes of the New England Farmer, and an able review of the 
 controversy by the enlightened Editor of that paper, in the latter volume,, 
 uncommonly interesting and instructive. 
 
 It was our design to introduce to our readers, notices of several of 
 the most celebrated animals, which have been imported into this country, 
 within a few years, with reference to an improvement of our breed of 
 neat cattle. But, not being able to obtain portraits of them, we must 
 content ourselves, in this edition, with a brief notice of only the two 
 following : 
 
 COKE DEVON BULL, HOLKHAM. 
 
 This is a correct drawing of the celebrated bull, whose name we have 
 given above. He was purchased in the fall of 1819, by Samuel Hurlbut, 
 & Co. when seven months old, of William Patterson, Esq. of Balti- 
 more. He was sired by Torrence, and out of a cow, both of which were 
 imported by Messrs. Patterson and Caton, in June 1817. They were a 
 present from the celebrated English Agriculturalist, the Hon. Mr. Coke, 
 Meiriber of Parliament, from Norfolk. Much of the fine Devon stock, 
 in this country, has been derived from the above bulk 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 17 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 WYE COMET. 
 
 The above is a portrait of the thorough bred Improved Durham short 
 horned bull. Wxje Comet, from an original painting, by Fisher, in the pos- 
 session of Henry Watson, of Windsor. Con., to whom the Editor is 
 indebted for a full pedigree of the animal, but which want of room must 
 exclude. 
 
 Wye Comet was begotten in England, but was calved in the United 
 States, in November, 16*2*2. His sire was Blaizc. dam, White Rose, by 
 Warrior (bred by Charles Champion Esq.) g-d by Mr. Mason's Charles; 
 gr. g-d. by Prince ; gr. gr. g-d by Nesvriek. 
 
 White Rose, the dam of Wye Comet, was imported by John S. Skin- 
 ner of Baltimore, in the spring of 1^*2*2, by whom she was sold to the 
 Hon. Edward Lloyd, of Maryland. Wye Comet was sold in 1823, by 
 the latter gentleman, to John Hare Powell, Esq. of Philadelphia ; and in 
 l***2ij. was purchased for the sum of 8500. by Messrs. Ward Woodbridge 
 and Henry Watson. Esqrs. of Connecticut, to whose patriotic exertions. 
 and pecuniary sacrifices, the county of Hartford is indebted for much of 
 its fine stock of various descriptions, for which it is becoming justly 
 celebrated. 
 
 OS BUYING AND STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 In stocking a farm, the first object should be to consider the amount 
 of stock which the farm will keep, and keep in good condition; as it is 
 not only highly disreputable to a farmer, but injurious to his interests, 
 to keep a stock of meagre, half starved cattle. 
 
 This point being settled, regard should next be had to the kind of stock 
 which is desirable ; and this will be determined by considering, whether 
 you wish to rear cattle for the fair, or for supplying the market. 
 
 2* 
 
IS FAMILY 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 These two particulars being settled, the farmer should consider the 
 following things : — 
 
 I. Beauty, or symmetry of shape; in which the form is so compact, 
 that every part of the animal bears an exact consistency, while the car- 
 cass should be deep and broad, and the less valuable parts (such as the 
 head, bones, &c.) ought to be as small as possible. The carcass should 
 be large, the bosom broad, and chest deep ; the ribs standing out from 
 the spine, both to give strength of frame and constitution, and likewise 
 to admit of the intestines being lodged within the ribs; but yet not so 
 much as to be what is called high ribbed, as the butchers consider it an 
 indication of deficiency in weight of meat. Further, the shoulders ought 
 not only to be light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, but also 
 broad, to impart strength, and well covered with flesh. The back also 
 ought to be wide and level throughout; the quarters long, the thighs ta- 
 pering and narrow at the round bone, but well covered with flesh in the 
 twist ; and the flank full and large. The legs ought to be straight below 
 the knee and hock, and of a moderate length ; light boned ; clean from 
 fleshiness, yet having joints and sinews of a moderate size, for the uni- 
 ted purposes of strength and activity. In these points all intelligent 
 breeders concur; but, as beauty of shape too often depends on the ca- 
 price of fashion, it is more requisite to regard, 
 
 II. Utility of form, or that nice proportion of the parts which has 
 already been noticed. 
 
 III. The flesh, or texture of the muscular parts; a quality which was 
 formerly noticed only by butchers, but the knowledge of which is justly 
 deemed essential by the enlightened breeders of the present day ; and 
 although this quality necessarily varies according to the age and size 
 of cattle, yet it may be greatly regulated by attention to the food employ- 
 ed for fattening them. As a knowledge of this requisite can only be 
 acquired by practice, it is sufficient to state, that the best sign of good 
 flesh is that of being marbled, or having the fat and lean finely veined, 
 or intermixed, when the animals are killed; and, while alive, by a firm 
 and mellow feel. 
 
 IV. In rearing live stock of any description, it should be an invariable 
 rule to breed from small-boned, straight-backed, healthy, clean, kindly- 
 skinned,* round-bodied, and barrel-shaped animal*, with clean necks 
 and throats, and little or no dewlap ; carefully rejecting all those which 
 may have heavy legs and roach backs, together with much appearance 
 cf offal. And, as some breeds have a tendency to generate great 
 quantities of fat on certain parts of the body, while in others it 
 is more mixed with the flesh of every part of the animal, this circum- 
 stance will claim the attention of the breeder as he advances in business. 
 
 V. In the fm chasing of cattle, whether in a lean or fat state, the farmer 
 should on no account buy beasts out of richer or better grounds than those 
 into w r hich he intends to turn them; for, in this case, he must inevitably 
 sustain a very material loss, by the cattle not thriving, particularly if they 
 be old. It will, therefore, be advisable to select them, either from stock 
 
 * As this w r ord may probably often appear in the course of the subse- 
 quent pages, it may not be altogether irrelevant to state, that it implies 
 a skin which feels mellow, i. e. soft, yet firm to the touch, aud which is 
 equally distant from the hard, dry skin, peculiar to some cattle, as it is 
 from the loose and flabby feel of others. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 19 
 
 STOCKING A FARM. 
 
 feeding in the neighborhood, or from such breeds as are best adapted to 
 the nature and situation of the soil. 
 
 VI. Docility of disposition, without being deficient in spirit, is of equal 
 moment ; for, independently of the damage committed by cattle of wild 
 tempers on fences, fields, &c, which inconvenience will thus be obvia- 
 ted, it is an indisputable fact, that tame beasts require less food to rear, 
 support, and fatten them ; consequently every attention ought to be paid, 
 early to accustom them to be docile and familiar. 
 
 VII. Hardiness of constitution, particularly in bleak and exposed dis- 
 tricts, is indeed a most important requisite ; and in every case it is highly 
 essential to a farmers interest to have a breed that is liable neither to 
 disease nor to any hereditary distemper. A dark color, and in cattle 
 which are kept out all the winter a rough and culled pile or coat of hair, 
 are, in the popular estimation, certain indications of hardiness: but it 
 must be obvious to every thinking person, that this quality, though in 
 some respects inherent in particular breeds, depends, in a great measure, 
 upon the method in which cattle are treated. 
 
 There is, indeed, a rather prevalent opinion, that white is a mark of 
 degeneracy, and that animals of the most vivid hues possess the greatest 
 portion of health and strength; in proof of which it has been instanced 
 that among mankind, a healthy habit is visible in the floridness of the 
 complexion; as sickness is perceptible in the paleness of the looks, and 
 the decripitude of age in the whiteness of the hair. It has also been re- 
 marked that gray horses are commonly of a tender constitution, until 
 crossed with darker breeds ; and that among the feathered tribe, the 
 common poultry, with high colored plumage, are in all respects superior 
 to the white. But it has been justly observed in reply, that the powerful 
 Poler bears, and many of the strongest birds, as the goose and swan, are 
 white : nor will it escape observation, as more immediately touching 
 the present subject, that the wild cattle are invariably of that color ; and 
 that the highest bred Herefords are distinguished by white faces. * 
 
 VIII. Connected with hardiness of constitution is early maturity, which 
 however, can only be attained by feeding cattle in such a manner as to 
 keep them constantly in a growing state. By an observance of this 
 principle, it has been found that beasts and sheep, thus managed, thrive 
 more in three years, than they usually do in five when they have not suffi- 
 cient food during the winter, by which, in the common mode of rearing, 
 their growth is checked. 
 
 IX. A kindly disposition to take fat on the most valuable parts of the 
 carcass, at an early age, and with little food, when compared with the 
 quantity and quality consumed by similar animals. On this account 
 
 * It is stated, in the Agricultural Survey of Leicestershire, England, 
 as the remark Of a scientific observer of the cattle usually bred in that 
 county, "that those of a deep red, dark liver color, or black, with tanned 
 sides, are the hardiest, and have the best constitutions ; will endure the 
 severest weather, perform the most work, live to the greatest age, and 
 fatten on such food as would starve those of weaker colors." But in 
 opposition to this we have, in the Annals of Agriculture, the assurance 
 of Mr. Campbell, a practical and extensive breeder, that, upon repeated 
 comparative trials, " he has had bulls, oxen, and cows, of a white breed, 
 as healthy and hardy as any others." 
 
20 FAMILY 
 
 STOCKING A FARM. 
 
 smaller cattle have been recommended as generally having a more natu- 
 ral disposition to fatten, and as requiring, proportionably to the larger 
 animal, less food to make them fat ; consequently, the greater quantity 
 of meat for consumption can be made per acre. u In stall-feeding" — the 
 nature, method, and advantages of which will be stated in a subsequent 
 chapter, — it has been remarked, that, u whatever may be the food, the 
 smaller animal pays most for that food ; in dry lands, the smaller animal 
 is always sufficiently heavy for treading; in wet lands less injurious." 
 But this opinion is combatted by many able judges, who still contend 
 that the largest animals are the most profitable. They doubtless are so 
 on good keep : but the smaller animals will thrive on soils where heavy 
 beasts will decline. 
 
 X. Working, or an aptitude for labor : a point of infinite importance 
 in a country whose population is so extensive as that of Britain, and 
 where the consumption of grain by horses has so .material an influence 
 on the comforts and existence of the inhabitants. As, however, there is 
 a difference of opinion on this subject, the reader is referred to the chap- 
 ter where the question is fully discussed. But, whether kine be purchas- 
 ed for the plough, or for the purpose of fattening, it will be necessary to 
 see, in addition to the essentials already stated, that they are young, in 
 perfect health, full-mouthed, and not broken either in tail, hair, or pizzle; 
 that the hair stare not. and that they are not hidebound, otherwise they 
 will not feed kindly. The same remark is applicable to cows intended for 
 the pail, the horns of which should be fair and smooth, the forehead broad 
 and smooth, udders white, yet not fleshy, but thin and loose when empty, 
 to hold the greater quantity of milk, but large when full ; provided with 
 large dug-veins to fill it, and with four elastic teats, in order that the milk 
 may be more easily drawn olF. 
 
 XI. Beside the rules above stated, there are some particulars with 
 regard to the age of neat or black cattle and sheep, which merit the 
 farmer's consideration. 
 
 " Neat cattle cast no teeth until turned two years old, when they get 
 two new teeth ; at three they get two more ; and in every succeeding 
 year get two, until five years old, when they are called full-mouthed , 
 though they are not properly full-mouthed until six years old, because 
 the two corner teeth, which are last in renewing, are not perfectly up 
 until they are six."* 
 
 The horns of neat cattle also supply another criterion by which the 
 judgment may be assisted, after the signs afforded by the teeth become 
 uncertain. When three years old, their horns are smooth and hand- 
 some ; after which period there appears a circle, or wrinkle, which is 
 annually increased as long as the horn remains ; so that, acoording to the 
 number of these circles or rings, the age of a beast may be ascertained 
 with tolerable precision, unless such wrinkles are defaced, or artificially 
 removed, by scraping or filing ; a fraudulent practice, which is but too. 
 frequently adopted, in order to deceive the ignorant or inexperienced 
 purchaser with respect to the real age of the animal. There is also a tip 
 at the extremity of the horn, which falls off about the third year. 
 
 Culley on Live Stock, pp. 203, 209. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 21 
 
 OF THE BULL. 
 
 OF THE BULL. 
 
 A bull ought to be the most handsome of his kind ; he should be tall 
 and well made ; his head should be rather long, but not coarse, as .fine- 
 ness of head indicates a disposition to fatten ; and as it is designed by 
 nature to be the chief instrument both of offence and of defence, it 
 ought to present every mark of strength ; his horns clean, and bright ; 
 his large black eyes lively and protuberant ; his forehead broad and 
 close set, with short, curled hair ; his ears long and thin, hairy within 
 and without; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open; neck strong and 
 muscular, not incumbered with a coarse, wreathy skin, but firm, rising 
 with a gentle curve from the shoulders, tapering to the part where it is 
 connected with the head ; dewlap thin, and but little loose skin on any 
 part. Further, his shoulders should be deep, high, and moderately 
 broad at the top ; the bosom open ; breast large and projecting well 
 before his legs ; back straight and broad, even to the setting on of the 
 tail, which should not extend far up the roof, but be strong and deep, 
 with much lank hair on the under part of it ; ribs broad and circular, 
 rising one above another, so that the last rib shall be rather the highest; 
 the fore thighs strong and muscular, tapering gradually to the knees ; 
 the belly deep, straight, and also tapering a little to the hind thighs, 
 which should be large and square ; the roof wide, particularly over the 
 chine and kips, or hooks i the legs straight, short jointed, full of sinews, 
 clean and fine boned ; knees round, big, and straight ; feet distant one 
 from another, not broad, nor turning in, but easily spreading; hoofs 
 long and hollow ; the hide not hard, or stubborn to the touch; the hair 
 uniformly thick, short, curled, and of a soft texture; and the body long, 
 deep, and round, filling well up to the shoulder and into the groin, so 
 as to form what has not improperly been termed a round, or barrel-like 
 carcass. 
 
 The bull attains the age of puberty generally at the end of from twelve 
 months to two years ; but it has been thought advisable to restrain him 
 from the propagation of his species until he has arrived at his full growth, 
 which is about four years: for, if this animal be suffered to breed earlier 
 than three years, the stock is liable to degenerate. It must, however, be 
 admitted, that a contrary opinion prevails among many eminent breeders; 
 who maintain that the bull is in his full vigor at eighteen months old, at 
 which age his progeny will display the most strength. 
 
 The bull, as well as the cow and ox, generally lives about fourteen 
 years ; but the progress of decay is usually perceptible after lie has 
 attained the age often years. 
 
 For the prevention of accidents from mischievous bulls, an ingenious 
 and simple contrivance has been suggested by Henry James Nicholls, 
 Esq. of Woodhall, near Wisbeach, on whom "the Society for the En- 
 couragement of Arts, Agriculture, &c. in 1S15 conferred a premium of 
 ten guineas for his invention. Of its form and application, the following 
 engravings will convey a correct idea. 
 
32 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 OF THE BULL. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. I. Represents a front view of the apparatus, as affixed to the head 
 of the animal. It consists of a straight piece of wood or iron (the latter is 
 the preferable material) stretching from horn to horn, perforated at each 
 end so as to pass over the tips, and fastened on them by the usual metal 
 nuts. On the centre of this is rivetted a curved bar of iron, bending up- 
 wards, which moves easily on the rivet, and has holes at each end con- 
 taining the upper round link of a chain. These chains again unite in a 
 strong iron ring, which opens by a hinge and screw, and passes through^ 
 the bull's nose. The effect of this contrivance is as follows: — any per-' 
 son seeing a vicious animal approach may easily avoid him ; but if the 
 beast should make a push forward, the curved iron bar will prevent any 
 bad consequences ; and if he move in the smallest degree to the right or to 
 tJie left, the bar communicating by the chain with the ring upon his nose, 
 will bring him immediately to check. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 23 
 
 OF THE COW. 
 
 This lateral operation is delineated in Fig. 2. An additional advantage 
 resulting from the use of this invention is, that a beast may, with the 
 smallest power, be led in any direction. 
 
 COW. 
 
 A perfect breeding cow ought to have a fine head, with a broad, smooth 
 forehead ; black eyes ; clean horns ; a smooth, elastic skin ; a large deep 
 body ; strong muscular thighs ; a large white udder, with long and 
 tapering teats ; together with every other token requisite in a bull, allow- 
 ing for the difference in sex. Further, such animals ought particularly 
 to be young. Milch kine are not good for breeding after they are twelve 
 years old: indeed, it is said the first calf which a cow brings is the beat 
 for raising. 
 
 The criteria of a beautif id coic, according to Wilkinson, may be thus 
 expressed : 
 
 u She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn, 
 
 She'll quickly get fat, without cake or corn, 
 
 She's clear in her jaws, and full in her chine, 
 
 She's heavy in flank, and wide in her loin. 
 
 " She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump, 
 
 A straight and flat back, with never a hump ; 
 
 She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eves, 
 
 She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs — 
 
 M She's light in ner neck, and small in her tail, 
 
 She's wide in her breast, and good at the pail ; 
 
 She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin, 
 
 She's a Grazier's without, and a Butcher's within." 
 
 CuUey's marks of a good cow arc these : wide horns a thm head and 
 neck, dewlap large, full breast, broad back, large and deep belly ; the 
 udder capacious, but not too fleshy ; the milky veins prominent, and the 
 bag tending far behind ; teats long and large ; buttocks broad and fleshy ; 
 tail long and pliable ; legs proportionable to the size of the carcass, and 
 the joints shut. To these outward marks may be added a gentle dispo- 
 sition, a temper free from any vicious tricks, and perfectly manageable 
 on every occasion. On the other hand, a cow with a thick head, and a 
 short neck ; prominent back bone, slender cheek, belly tucked up. small 
 udder, or a flehsy bag, short teats, and thin buttocks, is to be avoided as 
 totally unfit for the purposes either for the dairyman, the stickler, or the 
 grazier. 
 
 Cows are purchased either with a view of being fattened for sale, for 
 breeding, or for the purposes of the dairy. In the first case, attention 
 must be paid to the kindliness of the skin and disposition to fatten. With 
 regard to those which are intended for breeding, care should be taken to 
 select the best of that particular stock intended to be raised; and for the 
 dairy, those which yield the most and the richest milk. 
 
 The cow is supposed, by some eminent naturalists, to arrive at pu- 
 berty at the end of eighteen months, though instances have occurred 
 where these animals have produced calves before that time. It is, in- 
 deed, said by some breeders, in the northern part of England, that young 
 
24 FAMILY 
 
 OF THE COW. 
 
 cows may be sent to the bull as early even as one year old; but there is then 
 much danger in calving ; and although the practice would certainly be 
 an essential improvement, where the dairy constitutes a primary object, 
 provided their growth would not thus become stinted, it is yet generally 
 considered as injurious. It is, therefore, advisable not to permit cows to 
 take the bull earlier than two years, though many breeders defer it an- 
 other year ; and, in conformity to the latter opinion, the late eminent 
 Mr. Bakewell deferred sending his cows to bull till they were three years 
 old ; but they often missed calf, which accident Sir John Sinclair attri- 
 butes to this circumstance : but the most proper period must in some 
 measure depend on the breed, on the time at which the heifer was herself 
 dropped, and on her condition ; as some which have been well kept will 
 be more forward at two, than others, which have been stinted, at three 
 years of age. Incase, however, a cow produces a calf before she enters 
 upon her third year, the animal should be removed from her; and it will 
 be proper to milk her for the three following days, to preserve the udder 
 from becoming sore, but afterwards to forbear milking. 
 
 The period of time during which cows are allowed to run dry previ- 
 ously to calving, is by no means settled. By some graziers, they are 
 recommended to be laid dry when they are five or six months gone 
 with calf; but repeated and successful experiments prove that six weeks. 
 or two months, are sufficient for this purpose. Indeed, cows kept in 
 good condition, are some times drawn until within a fortnight of calving. 
 Gov. Lincoln, of Massachusetts, says of a heifer of the Denton blood — 
 " a heifer of three years, with her second calf, has not been dry since 
 she dropped her first, having given four quarts on the morning of her 
 second calving." This practice, however, is not to be recommended, 
 for if the cow springs before she is dry, serious injury, it is said, may en- 
 sue. Some cows, it is well known, are in the habit of drying up quite 
 unseasonably. To prevent this, such cows should be milked by a skilful 
 hand expeditiously and entirely clean : and even then it is doubtful 
 whether the evil admits of an entire remedy, if a habit of drying up 
 early have been formed. To prevent the evil in respect to a cow, a wri- 
 ter in the New-England Farmer. (Vol. VII. p. 162.) recommends to 
 begin young. ;; I have found." says he, " that young cows, the first year 
 they give milk, may be made, with careful milking and good keeping, 
 to give milk almost any length of time required, say from the first of 
 May to the first of February following ; and will give milk late always 
 after, with careful milking. But, if they are left to dry up of their milk 
 early in the fall, they will be sure to dry up their milk each succeeding 
 vear, if they have a calf near the same season of the year ; and nothing 
 but extraordinary keeping will prevent it, and that but for a short time. ' 
 
 No animal on the farmer's premises pays better for good keeping than 
 the cow. They need to be kept in good condition the tchole time, for if 
 they are suffered to become very lean, and that in the winter season, it 
 is impossible that they should be brought'^ afford a large quantity of 
 milk, until they have had the advantage of the following summer. 
 When cows are lean at the period of calving, no management is ever 
 capable of bringing them to afford for that season anything near the 
 proportion of milk they would have done, had they been in proper 
 condition. 
 
 If in any one point the New England farmers seem to fail more than 
 in another it is in not feeding cows sufficiently early in the fall. They 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 25 
 
 OF THE COW. 
 
 are left to pick a scanty and frost-bitten food, on the coming on of the 
 chilly and rainy season ; and it is not uncommon to find cows, which at 
 an early period of the fall were in good condition, poor and ill-condition- 
 ed by the setting in of winter. The solids of the beast are dissipated ; 
 her milk reduced, and her value to the owner greatly diminished. These 
 remarks, it may be observed, will apply with nearly equal truth to the 
 whole stock of many of the farmers in New England. 
 
 Many excellent heifers for milk are nearly ruined by bad milkers. If 
 they are ticklish, as the farmers express it, they should be treated with 
 great gentleness. If the udder be hard and painful, as it sometimes is, 
 let it be tenderly fomented with lukewarm water, and gently rubbed, in 
 order to bring the creature into good temper. 
 
 It will, however, sometimes happen, if a cow (especially a young one) 
 is managed with ever so much care, she will kick, and exhibit other 
 svmptoms of a vicious disposition. In such cases, the editor of the New 
 England Farmer recommends the following mode of managing a cow, 
 suggested by one of his correspondents. (See New England Farmer. 
 vol. III. p. 10.) 
 
 " I have seen," observes the above correspondent, M very promising 
 heifers spoiled, when first beginning to milk them, by banging and hal- 
 looing at them because of their kicking. I have also seen cows give a 
 good mess of milk, and when they had done, kick it over. I can always 
 tell when a heifer is inclined to kick, before her calf is gone. If she is, 
 I take a strong strap, buckle it tight round her hind legs, below the 
 gambril joints, including her tail if it is long enough. This method will 
 cause much uneasiness at first. If the cow falls down, no matter for 
 that., let her he a minute or two. Then unbuckle the strap, let her get 
 up, and then fit it on again. Perhaps she may throw herself down again, 
 but she will be very careful how she throws herself down the third time. 
 After she stands still put the calf to her, and let her stand in this manner 
 till the calf has done sucking. Let this be done a few times, and it will 
 generally break the cow of kicking, also of starting and running when 
 part milked, as some cows will. I put on the strap before the calf is 
 ofone, because if let alone till afterwards, the cow is apt to hold up her 
 milk, when the strap is first put on. 
 
 If the teats of a cow are sore, they should be washed with sugar of 
 lead and water. The proportion recommended, is two drachms of sugar 
 of lead to a quart of water. If tumours appear, a warm mash of bran, 
 with a little lard is said to be a good application. The following lini- 
 ment is said to be efficacious. Linseed oil, 4i oz., Liquor of Ammonia. 
 *oz." 
 
 Another method (see New England Farmer, Vol. II. p. 132) is, after 
 tying the cow t in the stanchels, to make one end of a rope fast round her 
 horns, and put the other end over the girt which is about two Feet higher 
 than the top of the stanchels, and about the same distance in front, 
 draw it pretty tight and fasten it to a stud. This so effectually secures 
 her that she may be milked with the most perfect ease and safety ; and 
 after practising this method two or three times, she will give no more 
 trouble. 
 
 It is said that several trials on different cows have proved this method 
 not only vastly superior to all others, but an effectual remedy ; and it is 
 so easy and simple that a female or boy can secure a cow without any 
 
26 FAMILY 
 
 REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 difficulty. Another advantage this method has over any other, is, that 
 by keeping the cow's back hollow, it is believed, she cannot hold up 
 her milk. 
 
 It is desirable sometimes to dry cows more expeditiously than can be 
 well done in the common way ; especially when they have a plenty of 
 fresh food. The following method is recommended in Monk's Agricul- 
 tural Dictionary. Take an ounce of powdered alum ; boil it in tw6 
 quarts of milk until it turns to whey : then take a large handful of sage, 
 and boil it in the whey, till you reduce it to one quart ; rub her udder 
 with a little of it, and give her the rest by way of drink ; milk her clean 
 before you give it to her ; and as you see need repeat it. Draw a little 
 milk from her every second or third day, lest her adder be overcharged. 
 The period of gestation, or time during which the cow goes with calf, 
 is various : with a bull calf, she usually goes about forty-one weeks, with 
 a difference of a few days either way; a cow calf comes in less time. 
 Between nine and ten months, therefore, may be assigned for the period 
 of gestation; at the end of which time she produces one calf; though 
 instances sometimes occur when two, or even three, are brought forth. 
 It may not, however, be useless to remark, that some cows are naturally 
 barren, which is said to be the case when a male and female calf are pro- 
 duced at-the same time. The male animal is perfect in all respects ; but 
 the female, which is denominated a free martin, is incapable of propaga- 
 ting her species ; it does not vary very materially in point of form or size 
 from other neat cattle, though its flesh is erroneously supposed to be 
 greatly superior with regard to flavor and fineness of the grain. 
 
 Some very interesting experiments respecting the periods of gestation 
 in different animals, were made a few years ago, by M. Teissier, of the 
 Society for the Encouragement of Arts at Paris, from which it appears, 
 that out of 575 cows, 
 
 21 calved between the 240th and 270th day ; mean term 259£ 
 544 .... 270th . . 299th .... 282 
 
 10 .... 299th . . 321st .... 303 
 
 Thus, between the shortest and longest gestation there was a difference 
 of eighty-one days, which is more than one fourth of the mean duration. 
 
 ON THE TREATMENT AND REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 The importance of forwarding calves to maturity, with the greatest 
 possible advantage, to the full developement of their natural qualities, 
 has called forth the ingenuity of the most careful observers, and best 
 breeders. The most approved plan, and certainly, the best general plan, 
 is to adhere, as closely as possible, to nature. 
 
 On the birth of the calf, the cow generally shows an inclination to clean 
 its skin by licking it. To facilitate this object, it is a frequent practice 
 to throw a handful of common salt over the calf, or to rub a little brandy 
 on it. 
 
 Some practice taking the calf from the dam immediately, and in an 
 hour after birth, to give it a pint of luke-warm gruel, in lieu of the 
 beestings, or first milk of the cow. This practice appears, however, ob- 
 jectionable, since it is obvious, that nature has provided the beestings as 
 the proper aliment of the newly born animal. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 27 
 
 REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 The mode of rearing calves, both in England and the United States, is 
 various. The usual method in Yorkshire, and most parts of Scotland, 
 says Loudon, is tlwt of giving them milk to drink, there being few in- 
 stances where they are allowed to suck. For the first two or three weeks, 
 they mostly get milk warm from the cow ; but for the next two or three 
 weeks, half the new milk is withdrawn, and skimmed milk substituted in 
 its stead ; and at the end of that period, the new milk is wholly with- 
 drawn: they are then fed on skimmed milk alone, or sometimes mixed 
 with water,*till they are able to support themselves by eating grass, or 
 other food of that sort. 
 
 In Cheshire, the practice is to allow the calves to suck, for the first three 
 weeks. They are then fed on warm new whey, or scalded whey and 
 buttermilk, mixed ; with the green whey, water is frequently mixed, 
 and either oatmeal, or wheat and bean flour added. A quart of meal or 
 flour, is thought sufficient to mix with forty or fifty quarts of liquid. 
 Oat meal gruel, and buttermilk, with an addition of skimmed milk, are 
 also used for the same purpose. Some one of these prepared kinds of 
 food, is given night and morning, for a few weeks after the calves are 
 put on that diet, but afterwards only once a day, till they are three months 
 old or more. 
 
 The calves in Gloucestershire are not allowed to suck above two or 
 three days ; they are then fed on skimmed milk, which is previously 
 heated over the fire. When they arrive at such an age as to be able to 
 eat a little, they are allowed split beans, or oats ; and cut hay, and water, 
 all mixed with the milk. 
 
 In Sussex, it is common to allow the calves to suck for ten or twelve 
 weeks, or to wean them at the end of three or four, and give them a liberal 
 allowance of skimmed milk, for six or eight weeks longer. 
 
 In Middlesex, the methods pursued for rearing calves, are either by giv- 
 ing them a pail-full, containing about a gallon, warm from the teat of tlie 
 cow, morning and evening, for eight or ten weeks, or which is certainly 
 the most agreeable to nature, and therefore to be preferred to any other 
 that can be adopted, to allow the calf to suck its dam, as is sometimes 
 done in the county of Sussex, and generally in Wigtonshire. 
 
 According to Marshall, the best method is this : The calves suck a 
 week or fortnight, according to their strength, (a good rule ;) new milk in 
 the pail, a few meals; next, new milk and skim milk-mixed, a few meals 
 more ; then, skim-milk alone, or porridge made with milk, water, ground 
 oats, &c. and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese making commences : 
 after which, whey, porridge, or sweet whey, in the field ; being careful 
 to house them in the night, until warm weather be confirmed. This 
 method of suckling is not, however, free from objection ; and in. the ordi- 
 nary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan, to begin 
 at once to learn them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the 
 teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, however scanty or irregular 
 it maybe ; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated 
 according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which 
 a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number 
 of calves reared on the same quantity. Yet it would seem to be a good 
 practice to allow calves to suck for a few days at first, if there was no 
 inconvenience to be apprehended both to themselves and their dams, 
 from their separation afterwards. 
 
28 FAMILY 
 
 REARING OF CALVES, 
 
 When fed from the pail, the average allowance to a calf is about two 
 English wine gallons of milk daily for twelve or thirteen weeks ; at first, 
 fresh milk as it is drawn from the cow, and afterwards skim-milk. But 
 after it is three or four weeks old, a great variety of substitutes for milk 
 are used in different places, of which linseed oil-cake, meal, and turnips, 
 are the most common. 
 
 When calves are reared with skim-milk, it should be boiled, and suf- 
 fered to stand until it cools to the temperature of that first given by the 
 cow, or a trifling degree more warm, and in that state given to the calf. 
 Milk is frequently given to calves warm only ; but that method will not 
 succeed so well as boiling it. If the milk be given over cold, it will cause 
 the calf to skit or purge. When this is the case put two or three spoon- 
 fuls of rennet in the milk, and it will soon stop the looseness. If, on the 
 contrary, the calf is bound, bacon broth is a very good and safe thing to 
 put into the milk. One gallon of milk per day will keep a calf well, till 
 it be thirteen weeks old. A calf may then be supported without milk, by 
 giving it hay and a little wheat bran, once a day, with about a pint of oats. 
 The oats will be found of great service as soon as the calf is capable of 
 eating them. The bran and oats should be given about mid-day ; the- 
 milk in portions, at eight o'clock in the morning, and four in the after- 
 noon. But whatever hours are chosen to set apart for feeding the calf, 
 it is best to adhere to the particular times, as regularity is of more conse- 
 quence than many people think. If the calf goes but an hour or two 
 beyond his usual time of feeding, he will find himself uneasy, and pine for 
 food. It is always to be understood that calves reared in this manner, are 
 to be enticed to eat hay as early as possible ; and the best way of doing 
 this is to give them the sweetest hay that can be got, and but little at a 
 time. Turnips or potatoes, are very good food, as soon as they can eat 
 them, and they are best cut small and mixed with the hay, oats, bran, 
 and such articles. It may be observed, that it is not absolutely neces- 
 sary to give milk to calves after they are one month old ; and to wean 
 them gradually, two quarts of milk, with the addition of linseed boiled in 
 water, to make a gruel, and given together, will answer the purpose, 
 until by diminishing the milk gradually, the calf will soon do entirely 
 without. Hay tea will answer the purpose, with tiie like addition of two 
 quarts of milk ; but is not so nutritious as linseed. It is a good method 
 of making this, to put such a proportion of hay as will be necessary into a 
 tub, then pour on a sufficient quantity of boiling water, covering up the 
 vessel, and letting the water remain long enough to extract the virtues of 
 the hay. When bacon or pork is boiled, it is a good way to preserve the 
 liquoror broth, and mix it with the milk for the calves. 
 
 Another mode of rearing calves, said to have been suggested by the 
 Duke of Northumberland, is to take one gallon of skim-milk, and to about 
 a pint of it add half an ounce of common treacle, stirring it until it is well 
 mixed, then to take one ounce of linseed oil cake, finely pulverize, and 
 with the hand let it fall gradually, in very small quantities, into the milk, 
 stirring it in the mean time, with a spoon or ladle, .until it be thoroughly 
 incorporated; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk, 
 and the whole be made nearly as warm as new milk, when it is first taken 
 from the cow ; and in that state it is fit for use. 
 
 The quantity of oil-cake powder may from time to time be increased, 
 as occasion may require, and as the calf becomes inured to the flavor 
 of it. Crook's method is to make a jelly of one quart of linseed boiled 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 29 
 
 REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 ten minutes, in six quarts of water, which jelly is afterwards mixed 
 with a small quantity of the best hay-tea ; on this he rears many calve* 
 without milk. 
 
 On this important subject, many individuals of careful observation, 
 and great practical skill, in the United States, have written copiously. 
 Our limits will permit us to notice the methods recommended by only 
 a few. 
 
 The following is the method of Mr. William Budd, which obtained the 
 gold medal of the Agricultural Society of Massachusetts: 
 
 " Take the calves, when three days old, from the cows, and put them 
 into a stable by themselves; feed them with gruel, composed of one- 
 third barley, two-thirds oats, ground together very fine, sifting the mix- 
 ture. Each calf is to receive a quart of gruel morning and evening, and 
 to be made in the following manner : to one quart of the flour add twelve 
 of water, boil the mixture half an hour, let it stand until milk-warm. In 
 ten days, tie up a bundle of soft hay in the middle of the stable, which 
 they will eat by degrees. A little of the flour put into a small trough, 
 for them occasionally to lick, is of service. Feed them thus till they are 
 two months old increasing the quantity. Three bushels of the above 
 mixture will raise six calves." 
 
 Mr. Clift, of the New-York Agricultural Society, takes the calf from 
 the cow at two or three days old ; he then milks the cow, and while the 
 milk is warm, teaches the animal to drink by holding his head down 
 into the pail; if the calf will not drink, he puts his hand into the niilk. 
 and a finger into the mouth, till the beast learns to drink without the 
 finger.* After he has been fed with new milk for a fortnight, the 
 cream is taken off the milk, with which an equal or larger portion of 
 thin flax-seed jelly is mixed, and the whole is given milk-warm. Thus, 
 as the spring is the most favorable season for making butter, he is ena- 
 bled, during the six or seven weeks the animals are kept previously to 
 weaning, to make as much butter as they are worth ; a practice which 
 merits the attention of our farmers, to whom it will afford a very essen- 
 tial saving. 
 
 The next method which we notice, is that practiced by the religious 
 society denominated Shakers, at Canterbury, N. H., and which appears 
 to be highly judicious. 
 
 We let calves that come in the fore part of March suck about a week 
 or ten days, then take them from the cow, giving them a moderate allow- 
 ance of new milk to drink, till they have learnt to drink it freely ; then 
 put in some skimmed milk: and we feed them wholly on skimmed 
 milk, taking care to give it at about the temperature of milk directly 
 taken from the cow, by heating a part of it, and mixing it with the rest. 
 Care should be taken not to scald the milk when heated ; also not to 
 give them any sour milk, for this will make them scour. The trough 
 
 * It is sometimes found difficult to teach a calf to drink or even to suck 
 the milk by means of the fingers. This generally arises from ignorance, 
 as to the proper manner of using the fingers. These— the first and 
 second fingers of the right hand will be sufficient — should be so pressed 
 upon the calf's tongue as to form a curve of the tongue, in which case the 
 calf will invariably draw; at least, the Editor has never experienced any 
 difficulty since he has practiced in the above way. 
 
 c2 
 
FAMILY 
 
 REARING OF CALVES. 
 
 or vessel in which they drink this milk, should be kept clean, and not 
 suffered to get sour. 
 
 We let the milk stand about twelve hours before it is skimmed ; giving 
 a calf at first about four quarts night and morning ; increasing the mess 
 as need requires, till he is six weeks old, from which time till ten weeks 
 old, he will require perhaps about twelve quarts per day. 
 
 When about ten weeks old, we begin to diminish the quantity of 
 milk for about the space of two or three weeks, at which time we wean 
 them. During the whole process, from two to fourteen weeks old, 
 calves should be well supplied with good hay, salt, and provender ; such 
 as oats, wheat-bran, and oil-cake ground fine ; they should also be sup- 
 plied with scurf or dirt, (though scurf is the best,) which is a preventive 
 against scouring. 
 
 The particular advantages to be derived from the above method of 
 treatment are the following : 
 
 1. It is much cheaper than to let them suck in the ordinary way; 
 whereas it makes a great saving of cream for butter, and that without 
 injuring the calves, if they are properly attended to. 
 
 2. It prevents calves from moaning or pining so much while weaning, 
 as they would otherwise do, when taken from the cows. 
 
 3. It not only prevents the cows being injured in consequence of the 
 calves biting the teats ; but also prevents their holding back their milk 
 from the milker, which often serves to diminish the milk afterwards. 
 The only disadvantage to be found in the above method of treatment 
 is that it requires some more labor, to feed them, where they thrive equal- 
 ly well in every respect, as those do which are permitted to suck in the 
 ordinary way." 
 
 A writer in the American Farmer, Vol. V., page 17*2, observes, that 
 the most proper way of rearing calves is, to wean them at about eight 
 days old, to keep them constantly in the stable, and teach them to drink 
 out of a bucket, which is easily accomplished by putting new milk into a 
 basin and letting them suck your fingers with the hand immersed in the 
 milk, and in a few days withdrawing the fingers gradually from the 
 mouth, afterwards giving as much new milk, as they can drink, for five 
 or six weeks, when they will begin to eat a little grass or clover, which 
 can be pulled and given in small quantities twice a day, and when they 
 eat freely you may mix a little water with the milk ; or at eight or ten 
 weeks old, give sweet skimmed milk, slightly warmed, which soon after 
 dilute with water and add a little meal; should milk be wanted for other 
 purposes give flax-seed tea, which commence by mixing with milk slight- 
 ly warmed ; indeed, by keeping calves constantly in the house, you may 
 induce them to eat almost any kind of nutricious food; they also become 
 perfectly docile, have fine round bodies, with clean smooth hair, and a 
 sprightly look; but if turned out into the field, they are tormented by 
 flies and heat, never in good condition the first year, but remarkable for 
 pot bellies, rough hair, heavy look, and ugly flat sides ; indeed the con- 
 trast in appearance is so great, that I think laziness alone would induce 
 any one to turn their calves into a field the first summer. If change of 
 food produces either costiveness or looseness, give about half a pint of 
 spermaceti oil, to be repeated if found necessary ; it will prove a cure, 
 and can easily be given out of a black bottle ; it is also good for cows, 
 that are drooping or unwell, adding of course to the above quantity. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 31 
 
 OF STEERS AND DRAUGHT OXEN. 
 
 Calves intended for the butcher, the same writer adds, ought always 
 to be tied up in a stable, and if kept in darkness, so much the better, as 
 they will be less disturbed by flies, and will sleep more, than if constant- 
 ly in the light ; the mother ought to be turned in twice or thrice a day, 
 and the calf permitted to suck as much as it wants, never taking any 
 milk from the mother until it is satisfied. If every farmer would thus 
 manage, we should see less poor veal than is now exhibited in our 
 market. 
 
 In noticing the above methods of treating and managing calves, men- 
 tion has been made of flaxseed jelly, and clover tea. To make the former, 
 8. W. Pomeroy, of Massachusetts, recommends " to take one part of 
 flax-seed and five or six parts of water; let it soak from 12 to 48 hours 
 
 according to the temperature of the \s eather ; then boil for a quarter 
 
 of an hour, stirring it to prevent burning — keep it in a cool place, and 
 not more than will suffice for a week should be made at a time in warm 
 weather. 
 
 For clover tea, cut the best cured clover hay, about as fine as com- 
 mon straw-chaff, press it into a kettle and fill it up with water— cover 
 and boil half an hour — if soaked six or twelve hours, less boiling will 
 answer- Express as much of the juice as possible and the residuum 
 will be eaten greedily by store swine, if mixed with their swill. Unless 
 the clover was cured with salt (a method I always practice) some should 
 be put into the kettle, which may sometimes require to be filled up with 
 water. 
 
 In the rearing of calves, much certainly depends on regularity in 
 feeding them. The common practice is, to supply them with food twice 
 in the day, in the morning and at evening, when they generally receive 
 as large a quantity as their craving appetites can take. Hence the di- 
 gestive organs are necessarily impaired, and disease is perhaps engender- 
 ed. These evils may be avoided by feeding thrice in a day, at equi-distant 
 intervals, and allowing sufficient room for exercise, when the calves are 
 not intended to be fattened. 
 
 OF STEERS AND DRAUGHT OXEN. 
 
 A good ox for the plough should be neither too fat nor too lean, as in 
 the former case he will be too lazy ; and in the latter he will be too weak 
 and unfit for labor. His body ought to be full, joints short, legs small, 
 eyes full, his coat smooth and fine, (which latter circumstance is a certain 
 indication of good health,) and every part symmetrical or well put 
 together, so that his strength may be easily seen. 
 
 Those calves which are designed for draught may be easily accustom- 
 ed to the yoke, with proper care. At even an early age, a light yoke may 
 be frequently put upon them ; in which they may be suffered to stand, 
 or wander in the field, for an hour or two each day. But it is doubted 
 whether in any case they should be put to hauling burdens, even the 
 lightest, lest they should be strained. Some of the most docile and u§e- 
 ful oxen we have ever seen, were trained in this way. 
 
 Calves thus managed, may doubtless be put to labor, at an earlier 
 period than others. Much labor should not be required of steers, until 
 
£2 FAMILY 
 
 OF STEERS AND DRAUGHT OXEN. 
 
 they are three years of age ; and even at this period, if orer worked they 
 seldom recover from it. Oxen whose work is so proportioned to their 
 strength and keeping, as not to affect their growth, will continue to in- 
 crease in size till about their seventh year. Many oxen, however, cease 
 growing sometime before they have attained to this age ; but it is gene- 
 rally owing to poor keeping and being overworked. 
 
 It is often objected to oxen, that they are too slow for profit For some 
 kinds of work they doubtless are so. But the slow pace at which oxen 
 move generally is entirely unnecessary. With a proper load, they might 
 doubtless be made to travel with double their usual expedition, and with 
 equal ease to themselves. 
 
 It is also desirable that oxen should be accustomed to work equally 
 well on either side. To this they may be easily trained, especially when 
 young. 
 
 The strength of an ox, when properly trained, and managed, is very 
 great ; and he has patience to endure fatigue. The only method by 
 which success can be attained, says The Complete Grazier, is, by patience, 
 mildness, and even by caresses ; for compulsion and ill treatment will 
 irritate and disgust him. Hence, great assistance will be derived from 
 gently stroking the animal along the back, oy patting him, and encourag- 
 ing him with the voice, and occasionally feeding him with such aliments 
 as are most grateful to his palate. It will also be proper to tie his horns 
 frequently, and after a few days to put a yoke upon his neck, when he 
 should be fastened to a plough with a tame old ox, of equal size ; next, 
 the oxen should be employed in some light work, which they may be 
 suffered to perform easily and slowly ; thus they will draw equally, and 
 the young steer will be gradually inured to work. After working in this 
 maimer, he should be yoked with an ox of greater spirit and agility, in 
 order that the steer may learn to quicken his pace ; and, by thus frequent- 
 ly changing his companions, as occasion may allow, he will, in the course 
 of the first month or six weeks of his labor, be capable of drawing with 
 the briskest of the stock. 
 
 After a steer is thus properly broken, it will be advisable, for the 
 future, to match such as are intended to draw in the same team, or yoke ; 
 attention being paid to their size, strength, and spirit or temper ; other- 
 wise, by being unequally matched, they will not only spoil their work, 
 and be greatly disqualified for draught, but the slower or weaker animal 
 of the two being urged beyond its natural powers, will inevitably receive 
 material injury. 
 
 Another circumstance of essential importance in breaking-in young 
 os.en is, that when first put to work, whether at the plough or in teams 
 for draught, they be not fatigued, or over-heated. Till they are 
 thoroughly, trained therefore, it will be necessary to employ them in 
 labor only at short intervals ; to indulge them with rest during the noon- 
 day heats of summer, and to feed them with good hay, which, in this case 
 is preferable to grass. In fact while oxen are worked, they must be 
 kept in good condition and spirits, by moderate, but wholesome suste- 
 nance. Further, on their return home from labor, it will greatly con- 
 tribute to preserve their health, if their feet be well washed previously to 
 leading them into their stalls; otherwise diseases might be generated by 
 the filth adhering to them ; while their hoofs becoming soft and tender, 
 would necessarily disable them from working on hard or stony soils. 
 The extremes of heat and cold ought also to be carefully guarded against, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 33 
 
 METHOD OF ACCUSTOMING ANIMALS TO DRAW. 
 
 as disorders not unfrequently arise from excess of either temperature ; 
 and they are peculiarly exposed to fevers and the flux, if chased or 
 hurried) especially in the hot weather. 
 
 Steers are sometimes refractor)'. In such cases it will be advisable to 
 keep them till they are hungry ; and when they have fasted long enough, 
 they should be made to feed out of the hand. On returning to labor, they 
 should be tied with a rope; and if at any time they become refractory, the 
 gentle measures above described should be adopted, in order to bring 
 them to work readily and quietly. 
 
 The following easy method, of accustoming animals to draw, is given 
 bv the Editor of the American Farmer from the French. ( See American 
 Farmer, Vol. VII. p. 76.) 
 
 AN EASY METHOD OF ACCUSTOMING ANIMALS TO DRAW. 
 
 <; The readiest way to make animals submit to the yoke or harness, 
 is to habituate them gradually to the draft in the very act of satisfying 
 the cravings of hunger. P'or this purpose aitach them to the manger, 
 bv means of a cord which runs through a ring — and at the extremity of 
 which a weight is attached as represented in the above figure, so that the 
 animal may at pleasure approach or recede from the manger. A collar 
 is put on the animal, with two cords fixed to a bar or swingle tree, to 
 which another cord is attached at B, which passes through the pulley at 
 C, and to which is suspended a weight, to be increased at pleasure — 
 things being thus arranged, forage is put in the rack. The animal when 
 pressed by hunger approaches his food ; in doing which he raises the 
 weight, and keeps it suspended as long as he continues to eat — and thus 
 contracts the habit of drawing in a few days. He is free to relax his 
 exertions, for whenever he recedes, the weight reposes on the ground. 
 
 In working oxen to advantage, much depends on the mode of har- 
 nessing them, and upon what has been termed the principle of draught. 
 This principle depends on the joint power of the necf and base of the 
 horn. In Portugal, these animals are harnessed in the following man- 
 ner : a long leather strap is wrapped round the yoke, whence it passes 
 round the lower part of the horns, and is again fastened to the yoke. 
 
34 FAMILY 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF YOKING OXEN IN FRANCE. 
 
 By this contrivance, the heads of the oxen become more steady, while 
 performing their work, and these useful animals are rendered more 
 tractable. 
 
 In France, and on the Peninsula, oxen are worked by the head, and are 
 yoked in a manner which is better expressed by the aid of figures than by 
 description. 
 
 REPRESENTATION OF YOKING OXEN IN FRANCE. 
 
 Figure 1 represents a view of the hinder part of the head and neck of 
 these animals, in the yoke as they appear to a spectator ; and figure 2 ex- 
 hibits a front view of the upper parts of their heads, in order to convey a 
 more accurate idea of the mode in which the French oxen are fastened 
 to the bow. 
 
 The question, u whether it is most advantageous to yoke oxen by the 
 head or by the collar?'' has occasioned much discussion, and is even 
 yet undetermined. The prejudice throughout Great Britain is, generally 
 speaking, decidedly in favor of the collar ; but throughout Spain and 
 Portugal, where oxen are the only animals employed in agricultural 
 labor, whether of road or field draught, they are invariably yoked by the 
 head. The strength of the animal indeed lies in his neck ; of the power 
 of which the yoke affords him all the advantage ; while the collar de- 
 prives him of it, as he does not draw by the shoulders. The far greater 
 cost and trouble of harness than of yokes and bows, are slso considerations 
 of moment ; and in summer, harness has been found an incumbrance, 
 the ox requiring all the relief and liberty that can be given in hot weather. 
 The advocates for the collar insist upon the advantages of single-ox-carts ; 
 and of ploughing with the team at length, by which, as they walk in the 
 furrow, the land is not so much subject to be poached, as when they are 
 yoked abreast. They affirm also that the pace is quicker in harness ; and 
 that the animal works with greater ease. But their opponents allege, 
 that oxen are more advantageously worked in couples than singly ; inas- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 38 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 much as that, being nearer to the draught, they possess greater power 
 over it than when drawing at length : they consider the additional ex- 
 pense occasioned by a double number of one-ox-carts and drivers, as not 
 counterbalanced by any advantage, even if any were admitted, in their 
 use; and they deny that the animal works either quicker or with 
 greater ease. 
 
 It would be endless to detail the various comparative trials that have 
 been published on this long contested subject; and it may be deemed 
 sufficient to state the result of two, made some years ago, in Sussex, 
 (Eng.) ; where, from oxen being extensively used, the dispute has excited 
 more than common interest. 
 
 In order to decide the respective merits of the two methods, it was 
 agreed that an acre of land should be ploughed by two teams, the one of 
 six oxen in double yokes, the other of four oxen in collars ; and then, 
 again, with four oxen in single yokes, against four in collars. In the first 
 trial, the six in yoke beat the four in collar easily ; and in the second, 
 there were only three minutes difference. The work was equally well 
 performed ; but the ploughing must have been very light, as the last 
 match was completed in four hours and ten minutes. 
 
 So far as this experiment may be considered decisive, it re-established 
 the equality of the teams ; but had it been tried by more severe labor, 
 or on hilly ground, it might have proved different ; and in steep ascents, 
 more particularly, the yoke would probably have been found best adapted 
 to the animal. It is a prevalent idea in England, that oxen are unfit for 
 draught in hilly countries ; but a large portion of the Peninsula is moun- 
 tainous, and they there draw heavy weights in carts of a very rude con- 
 struction. Being worked in yokes they possess the power of preserving 
 the line of draught, by lowering the head according to the inclination of 
 the ground; an advantage which is lost in the application of the collar. 
 
 ON GRAZING, SOILING AND STALL FEEDING NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 The feeding and fattening of cattle, whether for labor or for sale, is 
 the most important in the whole economy of the grass farm : hence the 
 farmer should previously consider the nature and fertility of his pastures, 
 and the extent and quality of his other resources ; and, according to these, 
 he ought to regulate his system of grazing, soiling, or stall-feeding; select- 
 ing, in the first instance, those beasts only which evince the most thriving 
 disposition to fatten with the least consumption of food, and depasturing 
 them upon such lands as are best calculated for the respective breeds ; 
 and especially taking care not to bring cattle from rich to inferior soils, 
 but, wherever it is practicable, to choose them from lands of nearly the 
 same quality as those destined for their reception ; besides which pre- 
 cautions, it will be necessary, in all situations which are not provided 
 with wholesome water, to avoid selecting cattle from those districts 
 where that fluid abounds in a state of purity. 
 
 The introductory view of breeds prefixed to this work, will probably 
 supply some hints for enabling the farmer to decide what sort of stock is 
 calculated for peculiar situations ; in addition to those remarks, we would 
 observe, generally, from the practice of the most eminent graziers, that 
 
36 FAMILY 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE, 
 
 the larger beasts are preferable for the more luxuriant pastures ; while, 
 in such as are less rich small stock answer best. Thus, a grazier who 
 has fine and fertile pastures, may select his beasts as large as he can find 
 them ; provided they are of the right sort and shape. But it is requisite 
 that those who are upon indifferent grass take care to proportion the 
 size of their beasts to the goodness of their pastures ; for it is preferable to 
 have cattle rather too small than too large, because there are numerous 
 tracts of ground which will be profitable for grazing such cattle, which 
 are not capable of supporting large breeds. 
 
 With regard to the species of cattle best calculated for grazing, spayed 
 heifers and oxen are certainly superior to any other stock ; the former, 
 indeed, are of less frequent occurrence, though they fatten with more ex- 
 pedition. Many graziers consider heifers more kindly in their disposi- 
 tion to feed than steers ; particularly when they have already had a calf; 
 and some are of opinion that they are superior to oxen for fatting at 
 any age, and that they will produce a greater weight of beef per acre. 
 
 In order to graze cattle to advantage, it ought to be a fundamental 
 principle so to stock them that they may feed without restraint : beside 
 which, as often as opportunity or other circumstances will allow, it will 
 be profitable to change them from one pasture to another, beginning 
 with the most inferior grass, and gradually removing them into the best. 
 By this expedient, as cattle delight in variety, they will cull the upper- 
 most or choicest part of the grass, and by filling themselves quickly, as 
 well as by lying down much, they will rapidly advance towards a proper 
 state of fatness ; while the grass which is thus left, may be fed off with 
 laboring cattle, and lastly with sheep. Hence it will be advisable to have 
 several enclosures, well fenced and sheltered, and abundantly supplied 
 with wholesome water. 
 
 Further; it will be of service to erect rubbing -posts in different parts of 
 the various enclosures, where stock are feeding; as such posts furnish 
 them, no doubt, with an agreeable, and perhaps a salutary amusement, 
 besides that they keep the cattle from the fences. 
 
 In the grazing of cattle a variety of circumstances will claim the 
 farmer's attention, in order to conduct his business with regularity, or 
 with profit. Hence he ought to take especial care not to turn his stock 
 out into the pastures in the spring, before there is a full bite, or the grass 
 has obtained a sufficient degree of length and maturity; for neat cattle, 
 whose tongues chiefly enable them to collect the food neither can nor 
 will bite near the ground unless they are compelled by extreme hunger, 
 in which case it is obvious they cannot enjoy their feed, and consequently 
 cannot thrive in proportion. 
 
 Further : where beasts are turned into fields, consisting either of clover 
 entirely, or of a mixture of natural and artificial grasses, great circum- 
 spection is required to see that they do not eat so eagerly, or to such 
 excess, as to become blown or hoven, an affection to which cows are more 
 peculiarly liable than any other neat cattle. That disorder, however, 
 may be prevented, either by feeding the animals so as to gratify the 
 cravings of appetite before they are turned into the pasture, or by con- 
 stantly moving them about the field for a few hours after they have been 
 turned in, that the first ball at least may sink into their maw before the 
 next be deposited. 
 
 It is also important to remove fattening cattle from time to time into 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 37 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 fresh grounds; so that by takitg the uppermost and choicest part of the 
 grass, they may feed both expeditiously and thoroughly. The grass left 
 behind them may be fed off first with laboring cattle, and afterwards 
 with sheep. This last mentioned point cannot be too minutely regard- 
 ed; for, if cattle be in want, they will lose more flesh in one day than they 
 can possibly gain or recover in three. Hence those meadows, or pas- 
 tures, (particularly such as lie in fenny or other situations,) which retain 
 moisture for a long time, ought to be fed off as early as possible, lest 
 sudden or long-continued rains descend, which will not only render the 
 juices of the grass thin and watery, and ultimately putrescent, but which 
 will also materially affect the health and constitution of the animals. 
 To prevent the losses consequent on such accidents, it will therefore 
 be indispensably necessary, daily and attentively to inspect the grazing 
 stock ; and if any beasts appear to be affected by eating wet grass, they 
 should be immediately conducted into dry shelters, and fed with hay or 
 straw : though, if no shelter be conveniently at hand, they must be 
 driven to the driest spot, and there supplied with sweet cut grass, and 
 dry fodder. 
 
 The hard or light stocking of pasture ground, is a point on which many 
 experienced graziers are by no means agreed. By some it is contended, 
 that pastures ought to be stocked very lightly ; alleging, that although 
 much of the produce is thus allowed to run to seed, which the cattle will 
 not eat, and which is consequently trodden under foot, where it i* rotted 
 by rain, and thus wasted ; yet experience, say the advocates for light 
 stocking, evinces, that a greater profit will, upon the whole, be thence 
 derived than by any other practice, on account of the superior thriving 
 of the animals. 
 
 By others, on the contrary, it is maintained that the practice of light 
 stocking is highly to be condemned ; because it not only tends gradually 
 to diminish its produce, but also to encourage the growth of coarse and 
 unprofitable grasses, which materially deteriorate the pastures ; and that 
 the hard stocking of grass lands, particularly those of a rich quality, is an 
 indispensable requisite of good management. 
 
 It is recommended by a third party, (who*e opinion, perhaps, approxi- 
 mates more nearly to the truth,) that mixed stock should be always kept 
 on the same field ; for the foul grass produced by the dung of some 
 animals, will be consumed by others ; and as it is well known that dif- 
 ferent species of cattle prefer different kinds of grass, there is an evident 
 advantage in this practice. 
 
 In every field, numerous plants spontaneously spring up, some of 
 which are disliked by one class of animals, while they are eaten by others ; 
 and some of which plants, though eaten with avidity at a particulai 
 period of their growth, are entirely rejected by the samebeasts at another 
 period of their age. Hence it becomes necessary, not only to have ;i 
 great variety of cattle in the same pasture, but also a very particular 
 attention is required to augment or diminish the proportions of some of 
 these classes of animals at certain periods of the year ; otherwise some 
 part of the produce will run to waste, unless, indeed, it be hard stocked 
 to such a degree as to retard their thriving. 
 
 Where, however, a great variety of animals are allowed to go at large 
 in the same pasture, they rarely feed with that tranquility which is neces- 
 sary to ensure thriving. It frequently happens, that one class or sort of 
 
38 # FAMILY 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 beasts wishes to feed or to play, while others are inclined to rest ; thus 
 they mutually tease and disturb each other ; and this inconvenience is 
 materially augmented, if any sort of penning, or confinement, be attempt- 
 ed. Hence it is obvious, that the practice of intermixing various kinds 
 of live stock, is productive of evils, which are, in many instances, greater 
 than those resulting from the waste of food intended to be prevented by 
 this practice. There is, indeed, no doubt but that by hard stocking, the 
 grass will be kept short, and will consequently be more palatable in 
 general to the animals that eat it, than if it were allowed to grow to a great 
 length ; and that even unpleasant patches may thus be consumed ; but 
 as animals, which are to be fattened, must not only have sweet food, but 
 also an abundant bite at all times, in order to bring them forward in a 
 kindly manner, it appears scarcely possible to unite both these advantages 
 with an indiscriminate mixture of stock ; it may, therefore, be generally 
 prudent to confine the practice to neat cattle and sheep. 
 
 Soiling comes next to be considered. By this is meant, the feeding 
 of animals with new mown grass, or grass not dried in racks or 
 otherwise. 
 
 This method of keeping cattle is probably not generally applicable to 
 the present state of agriculture in our country. It may be of use where 
 fencing stuff is dear — where grass is of great value — where cultivation 
 is carried to great perfection — where population treads close upon the 
 heels of production. But even in the populous parts of New England, 
 it is doubtful whether it can be adopted to advantage, except on lands 
 in the vicinity of great cities, or on farms reduced to a state of great im- 
 provement and high cultivation, or on very small farms. A large pro- 
 portion of the lands of New England, and indeed in other parts of our 
 country, are too rough and rocky to admit of any sort of cultivation, yet 
 they answer well for pasture grounds, and to no other purpose can they 
 be appropriated. 
 
 Still, it is believed, that, under certain circumstances, soiling may be 
 resorted to with great advantage. Within a few years, an experiment 
 has been made by the Hon. Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, of soiling 
 cattle, the result of which was communicated for the Massachusetts Agri- 
 cultural Journal, and is published in vol. VI. Nos. II. and IV. of that 
 work. According to Mr. Quincy, the advantages of soiling consist in, 
 " 1st. the saving of land. 2d. The saving of fencing. 3d. The econo- 
 mising of food. 4th. The better condition and greater comfort of the cat- 
 tle. 5th. The greater product of milk. 6th. The attainment of manure.'' 
 For an illustration of these several particulars, we must refer our readers 
 to the above work. 
 
 In respect to stall-feeding neat cattle, it maybe observed, that good hay 
 is undoubtedly the best for fattening cattle, when judiciously combined 
 with cabbages, carrots, parsnips, turnips, or similar succulent plants, 
 though hay will rarely be found capable of fattening animals, without the 
 aid of other food when finishing off for the market. 
 
 In England, great use is made of the cabbage, and which the Editors 
 of the Complete Grazier say, will fatten oxen or bullocks, when com- 
 bined with good hay, in the short space of five months, besides yielding 
 a larger quantity of manure, than almost any other article used for 
 winter feed. 
 
 Parsnips, also, have been employed to considerable extent in England 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 39 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 for fatting oxen, and the benefit thence derived in the estimation tf 
 some graziers is nearly equal to that derived from oil-cake : but they are 
 apt to cloy the appetite, and should therefore be given with other food ; 
 or, if alone, they should net be continued for a long time together. 
 
 Carrots, also, are an excellent root, not only for fatting cattle, but also 
 for milch cows and even for working horses. The butter made from 
 cows fed on carrots is said to be generally of an excellent quality, and 
 much richer in color. On a good soil, and when well attended, carrot* 
 are often very productive. 
 
 Turnips, especially when steamed, also supply a nutritive article of 
 winter food; though' from their peculiarly moist nature, they will proba- 
 bly require to be combined with cut hay, to which a little meal may oc- 
 casionally be added. In England, it is well known, turnips are much 
 more abundantly used than in this country. Great numbers of cattle, 
 it is said, are annually fatted for the London market on little other food 
 than turnips. 
 
 Much has been written on the Mangle wurzel, or root of scarcity, both 
 in this country and in Europe. Some years since the highest expecta- 
 tions were formed in Britain respecting its usefulness, as an article of 
 fodder. Although highly esteemed in that couutry, especially for cows, 
 it is not so much valued, perhaps, as in some parts of the continent, where 
 it is preferred for feeding cattle to every other root. In this country, it i3 
 now frequently raised and deserves to be cultivated still more than it is. 
 In the opinion of the editors of the Complete Grazier, it does not fat cattle 
 as fast as the potatoe, and some other roots. 
 
 In this country, potatoes are extensively used for the stall feeding of 
 cattle. They are generally given in a raw state, but would doubtless 
 answer a better purpose if steamed. It is sometimes difficult to give 
 cattle a sufficient quantity, in consequence of their causing them to scour. 
 When this happens, meal or other dry food should be administered, and 
 the quantity of potatoes, for the time, diminished. The editor of this 
 work has known an ox of middle age to be fatted surprisingly quick. 
 on hay of good quality and raw potatoes. No other article of food was 
 given, and during the process of fattening not a gallon of water was 
 given to the animal. 
 
 Besides the above vegetable productions, others might be mentioned, 
 such as the ruta baga, or Swedish turnip, sugar beet, &c. which are 
 highly valued in many parts of the country. Passing over a more ex- 
 tended notice of these, we proceed to detail a few hints respecting other 
 articles which are or may be likewise employed with advantage. For 
 this purpose linseed oilcake has long been celebrated as eminently use- 
 ful ; it is asserted to have a very extraordinary effect on cows, greatly 
 increasing their milk ; but it is said that linseed jelly is much superior to 
 the cake, and that when mixed with a due proportion of hay or meal 
 affords an excellent composition for stall feeding and fattening. It is pre- 
 pared in the following manner: To seven parts of water let one pare of 
 linseed be put, for forty-eight hours ; then boil it slowly for two hours, 
 gently stirring the whole lest it should burn. Afterwards it ought to be 
 cooled in tubs, and mixed with meal, bran, or cut chaff, in the proportion 
 of one bushel of hay to the jelly produced by one quart of linseed, well 
 mashed together. This quantity given daily, with other food, will for- 
 ward cattle rapidly ; but it must be increased when they are intended to 
 b« completely fattened. 
 
40 FAMILY 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 The above jelly is said to be more agreeable to cattle than cake, while 
 it renders them less liable to surfeit in case an extra quantity should be 
 accidentally given, and is less liable to affect the meat with a peculiar 
 taste than either oil or cake, and consequently it merits a trial ; but it will 
 be requisite to change this food about a month before the beast is killed, 
 to prevent, if possible, the flesh from retaining the flavor of the oilcake 
 or jelly. 
 
 Cattle fed on sour food, prepared by fermenting rye flour and water into 
 a kind of paste, and then diluted with water, and thickened with hay cut 
 small, are also said to fatten quickly. This practice chiefly prevails in 
 France. Concerning the efficacy of acid food in fattening animals, there 
 is much difference of opinion. It is well known that hogs derive more 
 benefit from sour milk and swill than when those articles are in a fresh 
 state ; and it is highly probable, that sour articles may contribute to pro- 
 mote digestion, and by facilitating the consumption of a large quantity of 
 food in a stated period, consequently expedite the fattening of cattle. 
 Brewer's grains are sometimes used in that state ; but distillers grains 
 differ from them in having a proportion of rye frequently mixed with 
 the malt, which renders them more naturally sour. But such acid 
 messes can only, we conceive, be considered as preparatory to the more 
 forcing and essential articles of dry food ; without which, it is scarcely 
 possible that any steer, or bullock can acquire that firmness of muscle and 
 fat which is so deservedly admired, and considered as the criterion of 
 excellence. 
 
 The wash, or refuse of malt, remaining after distillation, which was 
 formerly applied exclusively to the feeding of swine, has of late years 
 been applied with success to the stall feeding of cattle. It is conveyed 
 from the distillery in large carts, closely covered, and well jointed, in 
 order to prevent leaking. The liquor is then discharged into vats, or 
 other vessels, and when these are about two-thirds filled, a quantity of 
 sweet hay, previously cut small, is immersed for two or three days, that 
 the wash may imbibe the taste or flavor of the hay before it is used. In 
 this'state it is carried to the stalls, and poured into troughs, whence it 
 is generally eagerly eaten by cattle. Sometimes, however, the beasts are 
 at first averse to this mixture, in which case it has been recommended 
 frequently to sprinkle their hay with the wash ; thus, having the smell 
 continually before them, and seeing other animals eating the same compo- 
 sition with avidity, they gradually become accustomed to it, and at length 
 greatly relish it. The cattle fed in this manner, are asserted not only to 
 repay the expense of their keeping by fattening speedily, but also yield 
 a large quantity of valuable manure. 
 
 With equal success has molasses or treacle been employed ; though the 
 expense incurred by the use of this article will probably prevent its gene- 
 ral adoption in this country. It has been used in the West Indies, in 
 combination with farrinaceous substances, and, when these could not be 
 procured, with cane-tops, oilcake, and other articles of dry food, together 
 with a little hay, or not too green fodder, and has been found greatly to 
 expedite the fattening of cattle in general, and of old and decayed oxen in 
 particular ; in the proportion of half a pint to a pint of molasses, twice in 
 the day, to animals which have been exhausted by continual and severe 
 labor for a long series of years. 
 
 In the preceding facts and statements we have referred chiefly to the 
 feeding and fattening of middle aged and old cattle; young stock, how- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 41 
 
 FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 ever, require particular attention, lest their growth be impeded — which 
 no summer food can restore — and therefore should be fed on the best 
 and most nutritive food the farm can supply. Hence, yearlings should 
 be fed during the winter with hay, turnips, carrots, potatoes, or other 
 roots : where hay cannot be obtained, good straw must be substituted, 
 the proportion of roots being increased and given with attention. For 
 steers and heifers two years old, the proper food is hay, if it be cheap, or 
 <traw, with baits of turnips, cabbages, carrots, &c. In summer their 
 food varies so little from that above specified, as to require no particular 
 details on this head. 
 
 With regard to oxen used in draught, it should be observed, that they 
 ought to be well fed, and every attention bestowed, that no food be wasted, 
 while they are to he kept in constant employ, particularly in the com- 
 mencement of spring and in autumn, when their labor is most wanted. 
 
 Some farmers indeed endeavor to support working oxen on straw 
 alone, and the possibility of this is one great argument used in favor of 
 their employment ; but "it will be generally found to injure them in a 
 greater proportion than the saving in food. 
 
 Next to a proper stock of keep for cattle, is regularity in giving them 
 food. In stall feeding it is too common a practice to give a certain 
 mess, or allowance, every day, without regard to any circumstance; 
 the absurdity of which conduct is too obvious to be here pointed out. 
 It is a fact, that a bullock, or a fattening beast will eat with a keener 
 appetite on a cold day, than in warm damp weather ; hence his food 
 ought to be proportioned accordingly. By giving the same quantity 
 every day, the animal may be cloyed ; thus his appetite becomes im- 
 paired, the food is wasted, and several days will necessarily elapse be- 
 fore he can recover his natural appetite. By such delay he must fall 
 away, and many weeks, perhaps months, will be required to bring him to 
 his former flesh. 
 
 Animals have been not uncommonly supposed to consume a quantity 
 of food in proportion to their weight: but this is purely theoretical; for 
 in fact, various experiments have proved that although small cattle may 
 be supported on pastures that will not carry heavy beasts, and also on 
 more indifferent soiling food, yet, when put up to fatten the difference is 
 of no account in proportion to their weight ; though cattle of the same 
 weight and breed will sometimes consume different quantities. 
 
 But whatever articles of food may be given, they ought to be appor- 
 tioned with as much regard to regularity of time and quantity as is practi- 
 cable ; and if any small part be at any time left unconsumed, it should 
 be removed before the next feed is given, otherwise the beast will loath it. 
 Hence three periods of the day, as nearly equidistant as possible, should 
 be selected, when such an allowance should be given to each animal as 
 he can eat with a good appetite ; which point can be regulated best by 
 attending duly to the state of the weather, or season, and the progress 
 he makes in flesh ; for as he fattens, his appetite will become more deli- 
 cate, and he will require more frequent feeding, in smaller quantities ; 
 thus the beast will improve progressively and uniformly, while a trifling 
 loss of food only can occur by this method. 
 
 Of equal if not superior importance with regularity in feeding, is 
 cleanliness, a regard to which is admitted, by all intelligent breeders, to 
 be one of the most essential requisites to the prosperity of cattle. Tht 
 
 d2 
 
42 FAMILY 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
 
 mangers snd stalls should be kept as clean as possible ; and the former 
 especially should be cleared every morning from dust and filth ; other- 
 wise they acquire a sour and offensive smell from the decay of vegetable 
 matter left in them ; which nauseates the cattle and prevents their feed- 
 ing. After the stalls have been cleansed by constantly removing the 
 dung and sweeping the pavement, a sufficient quantity of fresh litter 
 ought to be strewed over, which will invite them to lie down ; for nothing 
 contributes more to expedite the fattening of cattle than moderate warmth, 
 ease, and repose. In fact, where straw can be obtained at a moderate 
 price, supposing the farm does not yield an adequate supply for thw 
 purpose, the stalls and farm yards ought always to be well littered, espe- 
 cially during the winter season. 
 
 The quantity of manure thus made is an essential object; for it has 
 been found that forty-five oxen, littered, while fatting, with twenty wag- 
 gon loads of stuble, have made two hundred loads, each three tons, of rotten 
 dung. Every load of hay and litter, given to beasts fatting on oil-cake, 
 yields seven loads of dung, of one ton and a half each, exclusive of the 
 "weight of the cake. And on comparing the dung obtained by feeding 
 with oil-cake with that of the common farm-yard, it has been found that 
 the effects produced by spreading twelve loads of the former on an acre, 
 considerably exceeded those of twenty-four loads of the latter manure. 
 It is, in fact, invariably found that the value of the manure is in pro- 
 portion to the nutriment contained in the aliment. By another trial it 
 appears, that thirty-six cows and four horses, when tied up, ate fifty tons 
 of hay, and had twenty acres of straw for litter; they made two hundred 
 loadsof dung, in rotten order for the land : — a difference in weight which 
 is accounted for by the absorption of moisture by straw. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ON THE ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
 
 OF MILCH KINE, AND OF THE PASTURE AND OTHER FOOD BEST CALCULATED 
 FOR COWS, AS IT RESPECTS THEIR MILK. 
 
 We have already had occasion to remark, that the farmer should take 
 especial care to select his stock with reference to the great object he has 
 in view. This is eminently true in respect to the particular branch of 
 dairying, which he means to pursue; for if his object be to sell or suckle 
 calves, quantity must be the material consideration ; and quality, if he 
 means to produce butter and cheese. 
 
 It is a general observation that the richest milk is produced by the red 
 cow, while the black sort is reckoned best for the purpose of breeding, as 
 her calf is usually both stronger and more healthy than the offspring of 
 the red species. This, however, is one of those errors which have been 
 transmitted, through a long series of years, without being founded on 
 fact. The red cows have, indeed, been long celebrated for the excellen- 
 cy of their milk ; and the calves of black cows have been proverbially 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. . 43 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
 
 deemed good ; but color in this respect is a matter of no moment ; the 
 breed alone should claim the farmer's attention. But cows even of the 
 same, and of the best breeds, will not always yield the same quantity of 
 milk ; and of those which yield the most, it is not unfrequently deficient 
 in richness. Trials, are, however, easily made, by keeping the 
 cows on the same food, weighing the quantity consumed by each, and 
 measuring their milk ; then keeping and churning it, a few times, sepa- 
 rately : thus, reckoning the cost of the provender, and the produce of 
 the milk of each, and comparing the result, it will be soon discovered 
 which is the most profitable animal. Comparisons of this kind are not 
 often made ; for farmers usually purchase whatever stock they can most 
 conveniently, or most cheaply, lay their hands on ; and are then content 
 to keep them so long as they turn out tolerably well. This, however, is 
 the height of bad economy; for an indifferent cow will eat as much and 
 require as much attendance as the best ; and thus occasions a daily loss, 
 that will soon exceed any probable saving in the original price ; whereas 
 the man who takes the pains to acquire a good stock, and has the sense 
 to keep it, lays the sure foundation of a fortune. 
 
 Whatever breed may be selected, there is still a material distinction to 
 be observed between the form of a cow, intended for the dairy, and that 
 of one intended for fatting. While the latter should possess, as nearly 
 as possible, all the most remarkable points, already described, of the best 
 oxen, the milch cow should, on the contrary, be thin and hollow in the 
 neck ; narrow in the breast and point of the shoulder, and altogether 
 light in the fore quarter ; with little dewlap, and neither full fleshed along 
 the chine, nor shewing, in any part, much indication of a disposition in 
 any part to put on fat. The hide should be thin, the hair fine, and the tail 
 small. But especially the udder should be full and round, yet thin to the 
 touch, and should be of equal size and substance throughout. If it shews 
 more behind than before, it is deemed a sign of the milk falling off* soon 
 after calving, and if it feel coarse and lumpy, the bag will be found not 
 to contain a large quantity. The teats should stand square, at equal dis- 
 tances, and should be neither very large nor very thick towards the 
 udder, but nearly equal, yet ending in a point. Another very material 
 consideration is the temper; for kindly cows will not only give less 
 trouble than those of an opposite disposition, but they are generally 
 marked to possess a greater quantity of milk ; and from parting with it 
 more readily, they are less subject to fall off in their milking. 
 
 As the nature of the grass, or other vegetables, has a very considerable 
 influence both on the quality and on the quantity of milk which cows 
 produce, the attention of the industrious farmer will, of course, be direct- 
 ed to this point; for, as instances have occurred, where six milch kine, 
 fed on some pastures, have yielded as much milk as nine, or even a dozen 
 will afford on an inferior ground, it is obviously his interest to have his 
 «ows well fed and in good condition, rather than to keep up a particular 
 number, without heeding whether they are properly supplied or not. 
 Hence, it will be proper to suit the milch cows to the nature and fertility 
 of the soil ; and on no account to purchase them from pastures superior 
 to those destined for their reception. 
 
 The feeding of milch kine is divided into two branches, viz. pasturing 
 and Itouse-feeding. 
 
 In order to obtain an abundant supply of good milk, where the pastur- 
 ing of cows is adopted, they ought uniformly to be well fed ; for this 
 
44 FAMILY 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
 
 purpose, grass growing spontaneously on good, sound meadow land is, 
 in general deemed the most proper food. Another requisite is, that the 
 grass be plentifully produced, and of that quality which is relished by the 
 cattle. This property will generally be found in old natural pastures that 
 have been properly managed. 
 
 Long, rank grass, growing in orchards or other places, in general feeds 
 well, and produces a flush of milk, yet such milk will neither be so rich, 
 nor carry so much cream in proportion, as the milk of those cows which 
 are fed upon short fine grass ; nor, of course, will their butter be so good. 
 
 Further, the quality and quantity of milk is materially affected by driv- 
 ing them to a distance from one pasture to another ; hence it will be proper 
 to have the cow sheds in as central a part of the farm as possible. It is 
 also of essential importance to have pastures inclosed, as the produce of 
 milch kine will be greatly improved, or deteriorated, according to the 
 attention or disregard bestowed on this point ; for, when confined within 
 proper inclosures they not only feed more leisurely but are also less liable 
 to disturbance than when they wander into other fields. 
 
 In summer, milch cows need less care ; but in winter, they should be 
 stabled, or at least should have warm sheltered yards, furnished with open 
 sheds, in which they can feed without exposure to the severities of the 
 weather; a measure, of which the expense will be more than counter- 
 balanced by the increased quantity of milk, which they will yield. 
 
 In the management of milch kine, it is essential that they be, at all times, 
 as has been observed in the preceding page, kept in high health and 
 good condition ; for if they are suffered to fall in flesh during the winter, 
 it will be impossible to expect an abundant supply of milk by bringing 
 them into a high condition in the summer. Hence, if cows are lean when 
 calving, no subsequent management can bring them to yield, for that sea- 
 son, any thing like the quantity they would have furnished, in case they 
 had been well kept throughout the winter. During that inclement season, 
 therefore, the most nutritious food should be provided for them, and the 
 animals kept in warm stables; for beasts will jKrt eat so much when kept 
 warm, as when they are shivering with cold; and if they are curried in the 
 same manner, and kept cleanly as horses in a stable, the happiest conse- 
 quences will ensue, both in regard to the milk they yield, and the rapid 
 improvement of the cows themselves. Such is the practice pursued in 
 Holland, where it is well known that the management of cows is carried 
 to the highest perfection ; and if that be closely followed, if they be well 
 supplied with the purest water, kept very clean, and laid dry, they will 
 produce milk more copiously, and afford a quantity of rich manure that will 
 amply repay the trouble and attention thus bestowed on them. 
 
 It has already been intimated that the best summer food for cows is good 
 grass, spontaneously growing on sound meadows. The other additions to 
 hay for winter food are those most commonly employed for fatting cattle : 
 parsnips and carrots, which roots not only render the milk richer, but also 
 communicate to the butter made from such milk, a fine color, equal to that 
 produced by the most luxuriant grasses: — the mangel-umrzel, which, on 
 the continent, is preferred to every other vegetable for feeding cattle in 
 general : — potatoes, on which cows will thrive well, so that with one bushel 
 of these roots, together with soft meadow-hay, they have been known to 
 yield as large a quantity of sweet milk, or butter, as they usually afford 
 when fed on the finest pastures; but alone, it has been proved by various 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 45 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 experiments that potatoes will not support a cow in milk ; they may add 
 to the flow of it when given to a cow with hay, but the chief dependence 
 must be upon the latter ; carrots are far superior. Cabbages are likewise 
 of eminent service in this respect, but they require to be given with a good 
 portion of fine hay ; and as well as turnips, the utility of which is too well 
 known to require any particular detail here ; they are apt to impart an un- 
 pleasant flavor to butter, unless great care be taken to remove allthedecav- 
 ed leaves. And even then if a cow be in any wise full fed on turnips, her 
 milk, and the butter made from it will taste of it. To avoid this taste in 
 the butter, the following receipe from Hunter's Georgical Essays may be 
 found useful. — " Let the vessels in which the milk is put, be kept con- 
 stantly clean and well scalded with boiling water before using. When 
 the milk ifl brought into the dairy, to every eight quarts of milk, mix one 
 quart of boiling icater: then put up the milk into the pans to stand for 
 cream." — Roiccn grass, also, dried and reserved for winter's use. is an ex- 
 cellent food for milch cows; as are oil-cake, linseed-jelly, and grains. By 
 the judicious use of these various articles, together with a due admixture 
 of dry food, considerable nutriment is thrown into the system, while the 
 regular secretions will be excited, and the quality of the milk very materi- 
 ally improved. 
 
 It is important, also, that due attention should be paid to the salting of 
 cows, as well as other cattle. The advantages of salt, are 
 
 I. It restores the tone of the stomach when impaired by excess in other 
 food, and corrects the crudity of moist vegetables and grasses in a green 
 state. 
 
 II. It helps digestion, keeps the body cool, by which many disorders 
 are prevented; and it destroys botts. 
 
 III. It renders inferior food palateable ; and is so much relished by 
 cattle, that they seek it with eagerness in whatever state it may be found, 
 and have been rendered so tame by its use, that if they stray from their 
 pastures, they will return at the usual time for their accustomed allowance. 
 
 IV. When given to cows, it increases the quantity of their milk, and 
 lias a material effect in correcting the disagreeable taste it acquires from 
 turnips. 
 
 OF THE MANAGE-IENT OF MILK AND CREAM J AND THE MAKING AND 
 PRESERVING OF BUTTER. 
 
 Before speaking of th.2 management of milk and cream, it will be proper 
 to make a few observations on the Situation, and Buildings proper for a 
 Dairy. 
 
 I. A dairy ought if possible to be so arranged, that its lattices may never 
 front the south, south west, south east, or west; — a northern aspect is the 
 best ; but there should be openings on two sides of the building, in order to 
 admit, when necessary, a free current of air. 
 
 II. The temperature of the milk-room, should be as nearly uniform a* 
 possible, that is from fifty to fifty-five degrees of Farenheit's thermometer. 
 This may be effected by making use either of a well ventilated cellar, or, 
 of a house constructed for the purpose, consisting of double walls, so thick 
 as not to subject the interior to the changes of temperature abroad. 
 
46 FAMILY 
 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 III. As great cleanliness is requisite, and at the same time coolness, the 
 floor should be made of stones, bricks, or tiles, in order that it may be fre- 
 quently washed, both to sweeten and to cool the air. 
 
 IV. If practicable, a small current of water should be so introduced as 
 to run in a constant stream along the pavement. This will contribute 
 much to preserve the air, pure, fresh, and cool. If a current of water 
 cannot be obtained an ice-house should be attached to the dairy. 
 
 V. Cream which is put by for churning ought never to be kept in that 
 apartment, which contains the milk ; because acidity in cream is expected, 
 and necessary before butter will come. 
 
 VI. If necessary at any time during the winter months to raise the tem- 
 perature of the milk room, hot water should be made use of, or a few hot 
 bricks ; but on no account whatever, should a chafing dish with burning 
 coals be used, as it will certainly impart a bad taste to the milk. 
 
 We shall now proceed to speak of the management of milk and cream, 
 and the making and preserving or butter. 
 
 In this country, it is the general practice to milk cows twice in the 
 course of twenty-four hours, throughout the year ; but in summer the 
 proper periods are, at kast three times every day, and at intervals as 
 nearly equidistant as possible ; viz. in the morning, at noon, and a little 
 before the approach of night. For it is a fact, confirmed by the experi- 
 ence of those who have tried it, that cows, when milked thrice in the day 
 will yield more milk in point of quantity, and as good, If not better quali- 
 ty, than they will under the common mode of milking only on the morn- 
 ing and evening. 
 
 With regard to the process of making butter we would observe : 
 
 I. The milk first drawn from a cow is always thinner, and inferior in 
 quality to that afterwards obtained, and this richness increases progress- 
 ively to the very last drop that can be drawn from the udder. 
 
 II. The portion of cream rising first to the surface, is richer in point 
 of quality, and greater in quantity, than that which rises in the second 
 equal space of time, and so of the rest ; the cream continually decreas- 
 ing, and growing worse than the preceding. 
 
 III. Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of cream than that 
 which is thinner, though the cream of the former is of a richer quality. 
 If thick milk, therefore, be diluted with water, it will afford more cream 
 than it would have yielded in its pure state, though its quality will at the 
 same time be inferior. 
 
 IV. Milk carried about in pails, or other vessels, agitated and partly 
 cooled before it be poured into the milk pans, never throws up such 
 good and plentiful cream as if it had been put into proper vessels im- 
 mediately after it came from the cow. 
 
 From these fundamental facts, many very important corollaries serv- 
 ing to direct the practice, may be deduced, among which we can only 
 notice the following : 
 
 I. It is evidently of much importance, that the cows should be always 
 milked as near the dairy as possible, to prevent the necessity of carrying 
 and cooling the milk before it be put into the dishes ; and as cows are 
 much hurt by far driving, it must be a great advantage in a dairy farm 
 to have the principal grass fields^as near the dairy or homestead as pos- 
 sible. In this point of view, also, the practice of feeding cows in the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 47 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 house, rather than turning them out to pasture in the field, must appear 
 to be obviously beneficial. 
 
 II. The practice of putting the milk of all the cows of a large dairy 
 into one vessel, as it is milked, there to remain till the whole milking 
 be finished, before any part is put into the milk pans, seems to be highly 
 injudicious, not only on account of the loss sustained by the agitation 
 and cooling; but also, and more especially, because it prevents the own- 
 er of the dairy from distinguishing the good from the bad cow's milk, 
 no as to enlighten his judgment respecting the profit that he may derive 
 from each. Without this precaution, he may have the whole of his dairy • 
 produce greatly debased by the milk of one bad cow, for years together, 
 without being able to disover it. A better practice, therefore, would be, 
 to have the milk drawn from each cow separately, put into the creaming- 
 pans as soon as milked, without being ever mixed with any other; 
 and if these pans were all made of such a size as to be able to contain 
 the whole of one cow's milk, each in a separate pan, the careful dairy wo- 
 man would thus be able to remark, without any trouble, the quantity of 
 milk afforded by each cow every day, as well as the peculiar qualities 
 of the cow's milk. And if the same cow's milk were always to be pla- 
 ced on the same part of the shelf, having the cow's name written beneath, 
 there never could be the smallest difficulty in ascertaining which of the 
 cows it would be the owner's interest to dispose of, and which he ought 
 to keep and breed from. 
 
 A small quantity of clear water, cold in summer, and warm in winter, 
 put into the bottom of the milk-pan, is said to assist the rising of the 
 cream. 
 
 III. If it be intended to make butter of a very fine quality, it will be 
 advisable, not only to reject entirely the milk of all those cows which 
 yield cream of a bad quality, but also, in every case, to keep the milk 
 that is first drawn from the cow, at each milking, entirely separate from 
 that which is got last; as it is obvious, if this be not done, the quality 
 of the butter must be greatly debased, without much augmenting its 
 quantity. It is also obvious, that the quality of the butter will be im- 
 proved in proportion to the smallness of the quantity of the last drawn 
 milk which is used, as it increases in richness to the very last drop that 
 can be drawn from the udder at that time ; so that those who wish to 
 be singularly nice, will do well to keep for their best butter a very small 
 proportion only of the last-drawn milk. 
 
 With respect to the operation of churning, we would particularly re- 
 mark, that it ought to be regularly continued, till the butter is come, or 
 formed ; nor, unless from absolute and irremediable necessity, should 
 any assistant be allowed to churn; because, if the motion be, in summer, 
 too quick, the butter will in consequence ferment and become ill-tasted ; 
 and, in winter, it will go back. The business of churning may, however, 
 be much facilitated, by immersing the pump-churn (if such be employed) 
 about one foot deep into a vessel of cold water, and continuing it there 
 till the butter is made. Where other churns are made use of, the addi- 
 tion of one or two table-spoonsful of distilled vinegar, after the cream 
 has been considerably agitated, will, it is said, produce butter in the 
 course of an hour. After the butter is formed, the usual practice is to 
 wash it in several waters till all the milk is removed ; but some advise 
 the milk to be forced out of the cavities of the butter by means of a flat, 
 wooden ladle, furnished with a short handle, at the same time agitating 
 
48 FAMILY 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 the butter as little as possible, lest it become tough and gluey. The beat- \ 
 ing of butter up by the hand is an indelicate practice ; and, as it is ! 
 hurtful to the quality of the butter to pour cold water on it during 
 this operation, the butter, if too soft to receive the impression of the 
 mould, may be put into small vessels, and these be permitted to float 
 in a trough of cold water beneath the table, without wetting the butler, 
 which will soon become sufficiently firm. Or, when butter is first 
 made, after as much of the milk has been got out as possible, it may be 
 thinly spread on a marble slab, and the remaining moisture be absorbed 
 by patting it with clean dry towels. 
 
 Dr. Anderson observes that wooden vessels are most proper for con- 
 taining salted butter. Oak is said to be the best kind of wood. Iron 
 hoops should not be used, as the rust of them will sink through the wood 
 and injure the butter. It is difficult to season new vessels, and there- 
 fore it is best to use old ones as long as they will last. Unslacked lime, 
 salt and water well boiled, hot water, and wood ashes, are recommend- 
 ed for scouring them. The vessels having been repeatedly scrubbed, 
 with some or all of these, should afterwards be thrown into cold water 
 to remain three or four days, or till wanted. They should then be 
 scrubbed as before, and well rinsed with cold water, and before the 
 butter is put in, every part of the inside should be well rubbed with 
 salt. 
 
 Dr. Andersons famous recipe for preserving butter has been often 
 published, but it may not be amiss to give it again, as things of the 
 greatest utility are a long time in making their way to general adoption. 
 " Best common salt, two parts; saltpetre, one part; sugar, one part — 
 beat them up together, so that they may be completely blended. To 
 every pound or sixteen ounces of butter add one ounce of the compo- 
 sition. Mix it well in the mass, and close it up for use." Butter pre- 
 pared in this manner will keep for years, and cannot be distinguished 
 from that recently salted. It should however be remarked, that butter 
 .thus cured does not taste well till it has stood a fortnight or three weeks. 
 Dr. Anderson remarks, that he has found by experience, that the above 
 mentioned composition not only preserves the butter more effectually 
 from any taint of rancidity, but makes it also look better, taste sweeter, 
 richer and more marrowy, than if it had been cured with common salt 
 alone. 
 
 A writer in the New England Farmer proposes an alteration, which 
 he considers an improvement in the above recipe of Dr. Anderson, 
 namely, that the sugar made use of should be loaf sugar, and that the 
 salt should be well dried before weighing it. 
 
 When butter is put into firkins, or other vessels for preservation, it 
 should be so closely packed and crowded, that no air can come in con- 
 tact with it. The butter should be carefully covered with a piece of 
 fine cloth, previously dipped in melted sweet butter. When more is 
 put into the tub, take up the cloth ; and after that is well crowded in, 
 and levelled, put on the cloth again, so nicely as to shut out the air. 
 When the tub is filled in this manner, pour a little melted butter over the 
 surface to fill up every vacuity, before the top is put on. 
 
 " For keeping butter sweet that is salted in the usual way," says the 
 Farmer's Guide, " it should be salted with an ounce and a half more of 
 the strongest and best salt, finely powdered, to each pound, and so tho- 
 roughly mixed that every part may be equally salt ; made into rolls, and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 49 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVATION OF CHEESE. 
 
 then put into a cask of pure strong brine ; and for keeping the rolls com- 
 pletely immersed in this liquid, there should be a cover, suitable to the 
 dimensions of the inside of the cask, to be laid on the rolls, and sunk 
 beneath the surface of the brine by a weight, which may be a block of 
 wood, fastened to the cover, that will sink only to a given depth. The 
 brine does not penetrate the butter so as to give out any additional salt- 
 ness. For clarifying the brine, it should occasionally be scalded, the 
 scum taken off, and more salt added if necessary. Butter made in May 
 is observed to be best for keeping. 
 
 OF THE MAKING AND PRESERVATION OF CHEESE. 
 
 The goodness of cheese, as well as of butter, depends much on the 
 quality of the milk : though the season, and particular process adopted 
 in making it, also, have a very considerable influence upon it in this 
 respect — more, perhaps, than the material of which it is prepared. We 
 shall, therefore, briefly notice these circumstances ; and, as different 
 modes of making cheese are practised in different countries or places, 
 we shall then concisely state those which are more particularly deserving 
 of notice. 
 
 The best season for this purpose is from the commencement of May 
 till the close of September ; or, under favorable circumstances, till the 
 middle of October ; during which interval cows are, or can in general, 
 be pastured. In many large dairies, indeed, cheese is often manufac- 
 tured all the year round ; but the winter cheeses are much inferior in 
 quality to those made during the summer months ; though there is no 
 doubt but that good cheese may be made throughout the year, provided 
 the cows be well fed in the winter. 
 
 With regard to the rennet, as no good cheese can be made without it, 
 great attention is necessary in preparing it for coagulating the milk. 
 Strictly speaking, rennet is the coagulated lacteous matter, or substance, 
 found in the stomach or maws of calves that have been fed only with 
 milk, and which was formerly used in coagulating milk ; though it is, 
 in a more extensive sense, applied to the bait, veil, maw, or stomach, as 
 it is variously termed, which possesses the same properties ; and which 
 is now invariably used for that purpose. 
 
 Dairy women usually preserve the maw, and the curd contained in it, 
 after salting them, and then, by steeping this bag and curd, make a ren- 
 net, to turn their milk for making cheese. But a more simple method, 
 and which is equally good in every respect, is to throw away the curd, 
 and, after steeping it in pickle, stretch out the maw upon a slender bow 
 inserted into it, which will soon be very dry, and keep well for a long 
 time. Take an inch or two of the maw thus dried, and steep it over 
 night in a few spoonsfull of warm water, which water serves full as well 
 as if the curd had been preserved for turning the milk. It is said, that 
 one inch will serve for the milk of five cows. 
 
 An ingenious writer, who has made strict inquiry into this subject, 
 recommends the following method of preparing a rennet, which he has 
 found to be better than any other : " Throw away the natural curd, 
 which is apt to taint and give the bag a bad smell ; then make an artifi- 
 
50 FAMILY 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVATION OF CHEESE. 
 
 cial curd, or rather butter, of new cream, of sufficient quantity to fill the 
 bag. Add three new laid eggs well beaten, one nutmeg grated fine, or 
 any other good spice ; mix them well together, with three teacups full of 
 fine salt ; fill the rennet-bag with this substance, tie up the mouth, lay it 
 under a strong brine for three days, turning it over daily. Then hang it 
 up in a cool and dry place for six weeks, and it will be fit for use. When 
 it is used, take with a spoon out of the bag a sufficient quantity of this 
 artificial butyrous curd for the cheese you propose to make, dissolve it 
 in a small quantity of warm water, and then use it in the same manner 
 as other rennet is, mixed with the milk for its coagulation." 
 
 In the Bath papers, Mr. Hazard gives the following recipe for mak- 
 ing rennet: "When the raw skin is well prepared and fit for the pur- 
 pose, three pints of soft water, clean and sweet, should be mixed with 
 salt, wherein should be put sweet briar, rose leaves and flowers, cinna- 
 mon, mace, cloves, and almost every sort of spice ; and if these are put 
 into two quarts of water, they must boil gently, till the liquor is reduced 
 to three pints, and care should be taken that this liquor is not smoked. 
 It should be strained clear from the spices, &c. and when found to be 
 not warmer than milk from the cow, it should be poured upon the 
 cawl or maw ; a lemon might be sliced into it, where it may remain a 
 day or two ; after which it should be strained again and put into a bot- 
 tle, where if well corked, it will keep good for twelve months. It will 
 smell like a perfume, and a small quantity of it will turn the milk, and 
 give the cheese a pleasing flavor." He adds, " If the maw be salted 
 and dried for a week or two near the fire, it will do for the purpose 
 again, almost as well as before." 
 
 Another recipe is as follows : after the maw has been well cleansed, 
 and salted, and dried upon sticks or splints, take boiled water, two 
 quarts, made into a brine that will bear an egg. Let it be blood warm, 
 and put in the maw either cut or whole : let it steep twenty-four hours, 
 and it will be fit for use. About a tea-cup full will turn the milk often 
 cows. It should be kept in glass bottles well corked. 
 
 The Massachusetts Agricultural Repository gives still another recipe 
 for making rennet, which is as follows. The rennet is prepared by 
 taking some whey and salting it till it will bear an egg ; it is then suf- 
 fered to stand over night, and in the morning it is skimmed and racked 
 off clear ; to this is added an equal quantity of water briue, strong as the 
 whey, and into this mixture, some sweet brier, thyme, or other sweet 
 herbs, also a little black pepper and salt petre ; the herbs are kept in the 
 brine three or four days, after which it is decanted clear from them. 
 Into six quarts of this liquor four large calves' bags, or more properly 
 called calves' stomachs are put. No part of the preparation is heated, 
 and frequently the calves' bags are only steeped in cold salt and water. 
 But whatever kind of rennet the dairy-woman may choose to prepare, 
 it should be remembered, that this animal acid is extremely apt to be- 
 come rancid and putrescent, and that great care is necessary to apply a 
 sufficient quantity of salt to preserve it in its best state. The rank and 
 disagreeable taste too frequently found, is often caused by the rennets 
 having been badly preserved. 
 
 In respect to the process of making cheese, the Massachusetts Agri- 
 cultural Repository gives the following directions. 
 
 The milk is universally set for cheese as soon as it comes from the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 51 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVATION OF CHEESE. 
 
 cow. The management of the curd depends on the kind of cheese ; 
 thin cheese requires the least labor and attention. 
 
 Breaking the curd is done with the hand and dish. The finer the 
 curd is broken the better, particularly in thick cheeses. The best color 
 of this kind of cheese is that of beeswax, which is produced by annotta, 
 rubbed into the milk after it is warmed. The dairy-woman is to judge 
 of the quality by the color of the milk, as it differs much in strength. 
 Turning the milk differs in different dairies ; no two dairy-w r omen con- 
 duct exactly alike. 
 
 Setting the milk too hot inclines the cheese to heave, and cooling it 
 with cold water produces a similar effect. The degree of heat varies 
 according to the weather. The curd, when formed, is broken with what 
 is called a tripple cheese knife. The use of this is to keep the fat in the 
 cheese ; it is drawn the depth of the curd two or three times across the 
 tub, to give the whey an opportunity of running off clear ; after a few 
 minutes, the knife is more freely used, and the curd is cut into small 
 pieces like chequers, and is broken fine in the whey with the hand and 
 a wooden dish. The curd being allowed about half an hour to settle, 
 the whey is laded off with the dish, after it is pretty well separated from 
 the curd. 
 
 It is almost an invariable practice to scald the curd. The mass is 
 first broken very fine, and then the scalding whey is added to it, and 
 stirred a few minutes ; some make use of hot water in preference to 
 whey, and in both cases heated according to the nature of the curd ; 
 if it is soft, the whey or water is used nearly boiling ; but if hard, it is 
 only used a little hotter than the hand. After the curd is thoroughly 
 mixed with the hot stuff, it is suffered to stand a few minutes to settle, 
 and i3 then separated, as at the first operation. After the scalding 
 liquor is separated, a vat, or what is often called a cheese hoop, is laid 
 across the cheese ladder over the tub, and the curd i3 crumbled into it 
 with the hands, and pressed into the vat, to squeeze out the whey. The 
 vat being filled as full and as firmly as the hand alone can fill it, and 
 rounded up in the middle, a cheese cloth is spread over it, and the curd 
 is turned out of the hoop into the cloth ; the vat is then washed, and 
 the inverted mass of curd with the cloth under it, is returned into the 
 vat and put into the press ; after standing two or three hours in the 
 press, the vat is taken out, and the cloth is taken off, washed, and put 
 round the cheese and replaced in the vat and in the press. In about 
 seven or eight hours it is taken out of the press and salted, the cheese i3 
 placed on a board, and a handful of salt rubbed all over it, and the edges 
 are pared off if necessary; another handful of sale is strewed on the 
 upper side, and as much left as will stick to it ; afterwards, it is turned 
 into the bare vat without a cloth, and au equal quantity of salt is added 
 to it, and the cheese is returned into the press. Here it continues one 
 night ; and the next morning it is turned in the vat, and continues till 
 the succeeding morning, and the curd is taken out and placed on the 
 dairy shelf; here they are turned every day, or every other day, as the 
 weather may be. If it is hot and dry, the windows and door are kept 
 shut : but, if wet or moist, the door and windows are kept open night 
 and day. 
 
 Cleaning the Cheese. — The cheeses having remained about ten days 
 after leaving the press, are to be w r ashed and scraped in the following 
 manner ; a large tub of cold sweet whey is placed on the floor, the 
 
52 FAMILY 
 
 HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 cheeses are immersed in it, where they continue one hour, or longer, if 
 necessary to soften the rind. They are then taken out and scraped 
 with a common case knife, with great care, so as not to injure the ten- 
 der rind, till every part of the cheese is smooth ; they are after the last 
 operation rinsed in the whey and wiped clean, with a coarse cloth, and 
 placed in an airy situation to dry, after which they are placed in the 
 cheese room. 
 
 The floor of the cheese room is generally prepared by rubbing it with 
 bean or potatoe tops, or any succulent herb, till it appears of a black 
 wet color ; on this floor the cheeses are placed, and turned twice a week, 
 their edges are wiped hard with a cloth once a week, and the floor is 
 cleansed and rubbed with fresh herbs once a fortnight. They must not 
 lie too long or they will stick to the floor. This preparation of the floor 
 gives the cheese a blue coat, which is considered of great consequence. 
 
 Skippers in Cheese. — Wrap the cheese in thin brown paper, so thin 
 the moisture may strike through soon — dig a hole in good sweet earth 
 about two feet deep, in which the cheese must be buried about 36 
 hours, and the skippers will be found all on the outside of the cheese ; 
 brush them off immediately, and you will find your cheese sound and 
 good. 
 
 To prevent Cheese having a rancid nauseous flavor. — Put about one 
 table-spoonful of salt to each gallon of milk, when taken from the cows 
 in the evening, for the cheese to be made the next day : put the salt at 
 the bottom of the vessel that is to receive the milk ; it will increase the 
 curd, and prevent the milk from growing sour or putrid the hottest 
 nights in the summer. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. 
 
 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Although the native country of the horse cannot with certainty be 
 traced, it seems probable that he was first domesticated in Egypt, but 
 the precise period it is difficult to settle. 1920 years before the birth of 
 Christ, when Abraham, having left Haran, in obedience to the divine 
 command, was driven into Egypt by the famine, which raged in Canaan, 
 (Gen. xii. 16.) Pharaoh ottered him sheep and oxen, and asses and 
 camels. Horses would doubtless have been added, had they then exist- 
 ed, or had they been subdued in Egypt. 
 
 When fifty years afterwards, Abraham journied to Mount Moriah, 
 to offer up his only son, he rode upon an ass ; which, with all his wealth 
 and power, he would scarcely have done had the horse been known. 
 Gen. xxii. 3. 
 
 Thirty years later, when Jacob returned to Isaac with Rachael and 
 Leah, an account is given, Gen. xxii. 14. of the number of oxen, sheep, 
 camels, goats, and asses, which he sent to appease the anger of Esau, 
 but not one horse is mentioned. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 53 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 It was not until twenty-four years after this, when the famine devas- 
 tated Canaan, and Jacob sent into Egypt to buy corn, that horses are 
 first heard of. " Waggons," probably carriages drawn by horses, were 
 sent by Joseph into Canaan to bring his father to Egypt. It would 
 seem, however, that horses had been but lately introduced, or not used 
 as beasts of burden ; for the whole of the corn, which was to be convey- 
 ed some hundred miles, and was to afford sustenance for Jacob's large 
 household, was carried on asses. Gen. xiv. 19. 
 
 About the year 1740, before Christ, is the period when horses appear 
 to have been used first in Egypt. They appear, however, to have rap- 
 idly increased and spread abroad ; for when the Israelites returned into 
 Canaan, the Canaanites went out to fight against Israel with chariots and 
 horsemen very many. 
 
 The sacred volume seems therefore to decide the important point, 
 that the first domestication of the horse was in Egypt. Another point 
 also, it decides, that x \rabia by whose breed of horses those of other 
 countries have been so much improved, was not the native place of the 
 horse. 600 years after the time just referred to, Arabia had no horses. 
 .Solomon imported silver, gold ; and spices from Arabia, 2 Chron. ix. 14, 
 but all the horses for his own cavalry and chariots he procured from 
 Egypt. 2 Chron. i. 17. In this place, it is mentioned that a horse 
 brought from Egypt cost 150 shekels of silver, which at two shillings 
 threepence, and one half farthing each, amount to about £ 17,2s. ster- 
 ling, an enormous price for those days. 
 
 The horses of Arabia itself, and of the southeastern parts of Europe 
 are clearly derived from Egypt ; but whether they were there brad or 
 imported from the southwestern regions of Asia, or, as is more proba- 
 ble, brought from the interior or northern coasts of Africa, cannot with 
 certainty be determined. 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 It has been stated in the preceding section, that the earliest records of 
 the horse trace him to Egypt, as the country where he was domesticat- 
 ed ; but as it is probable that he was derived from the neighbouring and 
 interior districts of Africa, in giving an account of the most celebrated 
 and useful breeds of different countries, it is natural to begin with those 
 of Africa. 
 
 Barb. At the head of the African breeds, and, perhaps, at the head 
 of all other breeds, may be placed the Barb from Barbary, and particu- 
 larly from Morocco and Fez, an animal remarkable for its fine and 
 graceful action. It is rather lower than the Arabian, seldom exceeding 
 fourteen hands and an inch. The shoulders are flat, the chest round, 
 the joints inclined to be long, and the head particularly beautiful. The 
 Barb is decidedly superior to the Arab in form, but has not his spirit, or 
 speed or countenance. 
 
 The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Spanish 
 horse ; and, when the improvement of the breed of horses began to be 
 systematically pursued in Great Britain, the Barb was very early intro- 
 duced. The Godolphin Arabian, as he is called, of whom we here pre* 
 
 e2 
 
54 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 sent our readers with a cut, and who was the origin of some of the best 
 English racing blood, was a Barb ; and others of their most celebrated 
 turf-horses, trace their descent from African mares. 
 
 The Godolphin Arabian, 
 
 As to the manner in which the above horse was introduced into Eng- 
 land, different accounts have been given. x\ccording to one writer,* 
 
 his introduction was by means of a Col. Coke, an Englishman of for- 
 tune and education, who on account of several crimes was obliged to 
 flee from England, and during his absence, travelled into Syria, and 
 thence into Arabia. 
 
 In this latter country, he accidentally heard of the above horse, which 
 it was stated, belonged to a certain " Sheik." He visited the Sheik, 
 but was unable to purchase him, on account of the great value put upon 
 him. He contrived, however, to steal him — made his escape — reached 
 Damietta, a seaport near the mouth of the Nile, whence he sailed with 
 the horse, and took up his residence in France, until he could appear in 
 England, and be restored to his family. 
 
 The Earl of Godolphin was, at this time, prime minister of England. 
 To him Coke addressed several letters, but his Lordship paid no atten- 
 tion to them. — At length, by some means, Coke discovered that his Lord- 
 ship at that season of the year, was afflicted with the gout ; and daily 
 took an airing in his carriage in Hyde Park, London — he wrote to his 
 Lordship, that at a particular time, and place, in said Park, he would 
 see a man, (describing his stature and dress, riding a beautiful brown 
 horse, which he also described, having his off heel behind white,) who 
 had no designs whatever on his person, but on the contrary a great 
 friendship for him, who wished to have an interview with him, and that 
 when his Lordship in his next ride saw him, he the said Coke, would 
 take it as a particular favor, if his Lordship would direct his outriders to 
 withdraw, so that the interview as aforesaid might be effected. 
 
 * American Farmer, vol. 9. p. 134. 
 
ENCYC LO PEDIA. 55 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 The next day Lord Godolphin took his usual jaunt — at the place and 
 time appointed he saw Col. Coke, who, after the withdrawal of the out- 
 riders, rode up to his Lordship's carriage, and after making his obeisance 
 asked him respecting the receipt of his former letters ; his Lordship an- 
 swered in the affirmative. 
 
 Col. Coke immediately dismounted, and made his Lordship another 
 low bow, and in a very condescending manner told him, that from 
 hearing of his Lordships very great partiality for being possessed of the 
 finest horses in the kingdom, he, after travelling several years in Arabia, 
 had brought over the very finest and best bred horse in the whole world, 
 as a present for him. 
 
 Lord Godolphin very politely refused the present, alleging that it 
 would be entirely inconsistent with his dignity and station, to accept of 
 so very valuable a present, (which must have cost an immense sum to 
 procure,) from an entire stranger. 
 
 His Lordship, after a minute inspection of the horse, pronounced him 
 to be the very finest and best looking Arabian horse, he ever saw, or had 
 been brought into England, and if Col. Coke, as he styled himself, at 
 that time, would part with the horse, he would give him a blank check 
 upon the Bank of England, which he, Coke, might fill up with any sum 
 he pleased. 
 
 Col. Coke told his Lordship that he never would sell the horse — 
 alleging, at the same time, that he, with great difficulty, labor, and ex- 
 pense, and after travelling in Arabia upwards of three years, procured 
 The horse for the express purpose of presenting to his Lordship, on his 
 arrival in England — he further said, that if his Lordship would not accept 
 him, he would not part with him to any other person. Lord Godolphin 
 was inexorable. 
 
 Col. Coke solicited his Lordship again and again, without success, 
 until Coke's entreaties, after a very considerable time became so very 
 urgent, that, at length, Lord Godolphin accepted of this very Arabian, 
 as the greatest present of the animal creation in the world. 
 
 After his Lordship had presented his compliments to Coke, he told 
 him, if he could in any way whatever serve him, he would do it with a 
 great deal of pleasure. 
 
 About this time, by means (it was supposed) of the servants of Col. 
 C.'s relations hearing his name frequently mentioned in their respective 
 families, and no doubt with a view of receiving the reward of " 150 
 guineas," which government had formerly offered for his apprehension, 
 they lodged information against him and he was arrested for his former 
 offences, and committed to prison ; he wrote to Lord Godolphin (dis- 
 covering to him who he was, and his real name) to intercede in his 
 behalf with his Majesty, who ordered a writ of " nolle prosequi" to be 
 issued, saying that Col. C. was an innocent man, and could not be the 
 same person who committed the felonious acts, for which he fled from 
 England. . 
 
 Colonel Coke was immediately restored to his former rank, and his 
 family. 
 
 It will be perceived that if the foregoing account were true, this cele- 
 brated horse could not be a Barb. It seems probable, therefore, from the 
 testimony of others, that the above writer labored under some mistake, 
 for we find it asserted by high authority, (American Farmer, Vol. VIII. 
 
56 FAMILY 
 
 ARABIAN HORSE, 
 
 page 215) that he was in reality a Barb— a horse of the desert. His 
 color was entire brown bay, with mottles on the buttocks and crest, ex- 
 cept a small streak of white upon the hinder heels. He was imported 
 into France, from some capital or royal stud in Barbary, whence it was 
 suspected he was stolen, and said to" have been foaled in 1724. So little 
 was he valued in France, that he was actually employed in the drudgery 
 of drawing a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr. Coke brought him over 
 from France, and gave him to Williams, master of St. James' Coffee 
 House, who presented him to the Earl of Godolphin. 
 
 From still higher authority, (Library of useful Knowledge, Farmer's 
 Series, No. 2, page 48,) we learn that he was picked up in France where 
 he was actually employed in drawing a cart, and when he was afterwards 
 presented to Lord Godolphin, he was in that nobleman's stud a consider- 
 able time before his value was discovered. It was not until the birth of 
 Lath, one of the first horses of that period, that his excellence began to be 
 appreciated. He was then styled an Arabian, and was in higher esti- 
 mation than even the Darley, the founder of the modern thorough-bred 
 horses. He died in 1753, at the age of 29. 
 
 To this account, it is added, that an intimate friendship subsisted be- 
 tween him and a cat, which either sat on his back when he was in the 
 stable, or nestled as closely to him as she could. At his death the cat re- 
 fused her food — pined away, and soon died. Mr. Holcroft gives a simi- 
 lar relation of the attachment between a race-horse and a cat, which the 
 courser would take in his mouth, and place in his manger and upon his 
 back, without hurting her. 
 
 The DONGOLA HORSE. The kingdom of Dongola, and the neigh- 
 boring districts of Egypt, and Abyssinia, contain a horse not at all like 
 any other oriental. 
 
 The Dongola horses stand full sixteen hands high, but the length of 
 the body, from the shoulders to the quarter, is considerably less. Their 
 form, therefore, is opposite to that of the Arabian or English thorough- 
 bred, which are longer by some inches than they are high. The neck is 
 long and slender, the crest fine, and the withers sharp and high, giving a 
 beautiful fore-hand ; but the breast is too narrow, the quarters and flanks 
 too flat, and the buck carped. They constitute excellent war-horses, from 
 their speed, durability, and size. Several of them have been lately im- 
 ported into Europe, but they are little valued. 
 
 The ARABIAN. Going further eastward we arrive at Arabia, whose 
 horses deservedly occupy the very highest rank. 
 
 There are said to be three breeds or varieties of Arabian horses: — the 
 Altecki, or inferior breed, on which they set little value, and which are 
 found wild on some parts of the deserts ; the Kadischi, literally horses of 
 an unknown race, answering to our half bred horses — a mixed breed ; 
 and the Kotchlani, horses whose genealogy, according to the Arab ac- 
 count, is known for two thousand years. 
 
 The Arabian horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to pos- 
 sess a perfect form : his head, however, is inimitable. The broadness 
 and squareness of the forehead, the shortness and firmness of the muzzle, 
 the prominency and brilliancy of the eye, the smallness of the ears, and 
 the beautiful course of the veins, will always characterize the head of the 
 Arabian horse. 
 
 His body may be considered as too light, and his cheat as too narrow ; 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 57 
 
 ARABIAN HORSE. 
 
 but behind the arms, the barrel generally swells out, and leaves sufficient 
 room for the play of the lungs. 
 
 In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head, the Arab is 
 superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder- 
 blade inclined backward, and so nicely adjusted, that in descending a hill 
 the point or edge of the ham never ruffles the skin. He may not be 
 thought sufficiently high ; he seldom stands more than fourteen hands 
 and two iuches. 
 
 The fineness of his legs, and the oblique position of his pasterns, may 
 be supposed to lessen his apparent strength ; but the leg, although small, 
 is flat and wiry : anatomists know that the bone has no common density, 
 and the starting muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that 
 he is fully capable of accomplishing many of the feats, which are recorded 
 of him. 
 
 The Barb alone excels him in noble and spirited action ; and if there 
 be defects about him, he is perfect, for that for which he was designed. 
 He presents the true combination of speed and bottom — strength enough 
 to carry more than a light weight, and courage that would cause him to 
 die rather than give up. 
 
 Several interesting anecdotes are related of the Arabian. A few of 
 these may not be unacceptable to our readers. When the Arab falls from 
 his mare, observes a writer, and is unable to rise, she will immediately 
 stand still, and neigh until assistance arrives. If he lies down to sleep, 
 as fatigue sometimes compels him, in the midst of the desert, she stands 
 watchful over him, and neighs and rouse3 him if either man or beast ap- 
 proaches. An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for 
 fifteen years in many a hard fought battle, and in many a rapid weary 
 march ; at length, eighty years old, and unable longer to ride her, he 
 gave her, and a scimitar that had been his father's, to his eldest son, and 
 told him to appreciate their value, and never he down to rest until he had 
 rubbed them both as bright as a looking-glass. In the first skirmish in 
 which the young man was engaged he was killed, and the mare fell into 
 the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man, he 
 exclaimed that "life was no longer worth preserving, for he had lost both 
 his son and his mare, and he grieved for one as much as the other;" and 
 he immediately sickened and died.* 
 
 The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare has 
 often been told, but it comes home to the bosom of every one possessed 
 of common feeling. " The whole stock of an Arab of the desert consist- 
 ed of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to 
 send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected 
 the proposal at once with indignation and scorn ; but he was miserably 
 poor. He had no means of supplying his most urgent wants, or pro- 
 curing the barest necessaries of life. Still he hesitated ; — he had scarce- 
 ly a rag to cover him — and his wife and his children were starving. The 
 sum offered was great, — it would provide him and his family with food 
 for life. At length, and reluctantly, he consented. He brought the 
 mare to the dwelling of the consul, — he dismounted. — he stood leaning 
 upon her ; he looked now at the gold, and then at his favorite ; he sighed, 
 he wept. ' To whom is it,' said he, * I am going to yield thee up ? Tt» 
 Europeans, who will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — who will ren- 
 
 * Smith on Breeding p. 80. 
 
58 FAMILY 
 
 ARABIAN HORSE. 
 
 der thee miserable. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and rejoice 
 the hearts of my children.' As he pronounced the last words, he sprung 
 upon her back, and was out of sight in a moment." 
 
 The next anecdote is scarcely less touching, and not so well known. 
 Ibrahim, a poor but worthy Arab, unable to pay a sum of money which 
 he owed, was compelled to allow a merchant of Rama to become partner 
 with him in a valuable mare. When the time came, he could not re- 
 deem his pledge to this man, and the mare was sold. Her pedigree 
 could be traced on the side of sire aud dam for full five hundred years. 
 The price was three hundred pounds ; an enormous sum in that country. 
 Ibrahim went frequently to Rama to inquire after the mare ; he would 
 embrace her, — wipe her eyes with his handkerchief, — rub her with his 
 shirt sleeves, — and give her a thousand benedictions during whole hours 
 that he remained talking to her. ' My eyes V would he say to her y ' my 
 soul! my heart ! must I be so unfortunate as to have thee sold to so 
 many masters and not keep thee myself? I am poor, my antelope ! I 
 brought thee up in my dwelling as my child. I did never beat nor chide 
 thee ; I caressed thee in the proudest manner. God preserve thee, my 
 beloved ! thou art beautiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely ! God defend 
 thee from envious eyes!" 
 
 Sir John Malcomb gives two anecdotes to the same purpose, but of a 
 more amusing nature. 
 
 " When the envroy, returning from his former mission, was encamped 
 near Bagdad, an Arab rode a bright bay mare of extraordinary shape 
 and beauty before his tent until he attracted his attention. On being 
 asked if he would sell her, — ' What will you give me ?' was the reply : 
 'That depends upon her age; I suppose she is past five?' 'Guess 
 again/ said he. 'Four?' ' Look at her mouth,' said the Arab with a 
 smile. On examination she was found to be rising three. This, from 
 her size and symmetry, greatly enhanced her value. The envoy said, 
 ' I will give you fifty tomans' (a coin nearly of the value of a pound 
 sterling.) 'A little more, if you please,' said the fellow, apparently en- 
 tertained. 'Eighty. A hundred.' He shook his head and smiled. The 
 offer at last came to two hundred tomans ! ' Well,' said the Arab, ' you 
 need not tempt me further ; it is of no use. You are a rich elchee (noble- 
 man.) You have fine horses, camels, and mules, and I am told, you 
 have loads of silver and gold. 'Now,' added he, 'you want my mare, 
 but you shall not have her for all you have got.'* 
 
 The East Indian- Horse. The horses of the East Indies are the 
 Toorky, which is said to be beautiful in form, graceful in action, and do- 
 cile in temper; the Iranee, well limbed, but ears large and loose, and 
 deficient in spirit ; the Covakee, patient and docile, but with an unsight- 
 ly head ; hardy and calculated for long journies and severe service; the 
 Mojinniss, spirited, beautiful, fleet, and persevering, and the Tazsee, hollow 
 backed, and therefore deficient in strength, irritable in temper; yet 
 sought after on account of the peculiar easiness of his pace. A general 
 remark applies to all the native horses throughout India, that they want 
 bone below the knee. 
 
 The Chinese Horse. This breed is small, weak, ill formed, without 
 spirit, and altogether undeserving of notice. 
 
 The Persian Horse, is next in estimation, and deservedly so, to the 
 * Malcom's Sketches of Persia, Vol. I. p. 41. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 59 
 
 TURKISH HORSE. 
 
 Arabian. The head is almost equally beautiful, the crupper superior : 
 he is equal in speed, but far inferior in endurance. The whole frame is 
 more developed than in the Arabian. They never exceed, it is said, four- 
 teen hands, or fourteen hands and a half high, yet certainly, in the whole, 
 are taller than the Arabs. 
 
 The Toorkoman Horse. Turkistan is that part of South Tartary, 
 north-east of the Caspian Sea, and has been celebrated from very early 
 times, for producing a pure and valuable breed of horses. They are 
 called Toorkomans ; are said to be preferable even to the pure Persians 
 for service. They are large, standing from fifteen to sixteen hands high; 
 swift and inexhaustable under fatigue. Some of them have travelled 
 nine hundred miles in eleven successive days. They however, are some- 
 what too small in the barrel, — too long on the legs, — occasionally ewe- 
 necked, and always have a head out of proportion large ; yet, such are 
 the good qualities of the horse, that one of pure blood is worth two or 
 three hundred pounds, even in that country. 
 
 The Tartar and Kalmuck Horse. The horses of the other parts of 
 Tartary, comprehending the immense plains of Central Asia, and a con- 
 siderable part of European Russia, are little removed from a wild state : 
 they are small and badly made ; but capable of supporting the longest and 
 most rapid journey, on the scantiest fare. 
 
 The Turkish Horse. The Turkish horses are descended principally 
 from the Arab, crossed by the Persian and certain other bloods. The 
 body, however is even longer than the Arabian's, and the crupper more 
 elevated. They have contributed materially to the improvement of the 
 English breed. 
 
 There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish horse, or more respectful 
 to his master, or the groom that dresses him. The reason is, because 
 they treat their horses with great lenity. This makes their horses great 
 lovers of mankind ; and they are so far from kicking, wincing, or growing 
 untractable by this gentle usage, that you will hardly find a masteries* 
 horse among them. 
 
 The German Horses, are generally large, heavy, and slow. The 
 Hungarian may be an exception, being fighter, speedier, and giving 
 greater proof of Eastern blood. Every part of the continent, however, 
 following the example of England, has been diligently engaged in the 
 improvement of its breed, andthe German and Prusi an horses are now 
 better proportioned and have considerable endoran t . but are still defi- 
 cient in speed. The Prussian, German, and the reater part of the 
 French cavalry are procured from Holstein. The; a - e of a dark, glossy, 
 bay color, with small heads, large nostrils, and full - ; eyes, the fire and 
 clearness of which seem to denote the inward spirit of the annual. They 
 are beautiful, active, and strong. 
 
 The Swedish, Finland, and Norwegian Hor^ Of the Swedish 
 horses, Clarke, in his " Scandinavia," says, that the) a re small, but beau- 
 tiful, and remarkable for their speed and spirit. ' r i riose of Finland he 
 describes as yet smaller, not more than twelve hands high, beautifully 
 formed and very fleet. The peasants take them fr< m the forests when 
 they are wanted for travellers. Although apparen wild, they are un- 
 der perfect control, and they trot along with ease at the rate of twelve 
 miles an hour. 
 
 The following story is told of one of the Norwegian horses. Hi* 
 
60 FAMILY 
 
 ENGLISH HORSE. 
 
 master had been dining at a neighboring town, and when it was time 
 to return, had exceeded so much, that he could not keep a firm seat in his 
 saddle. The horse regulated himself, as well as he could, according to 
 the unsettled motion of his rider, but, happening to make a false step, 
 the peasant was thrown, and hung with one foot entangled in the stirrup, 
 the horse immediately stopped, and twisting his body in various direc- 
 tions, endeavored to extricate his master, but in vain. The man was 
 severely hurt, and almost helpless ; but the shock had brought him to his 
 senses. The horse looked at him as he lay on the ground, and stooping, 
 laid hold of the brim of his hat, and raised his head a little; but the hat 
 coming off, he fell again. The animal then laid hold of the collar of his 
 coat, and raised him by it so far from the ground, that he was enabled 
 to draw his foot out of the stirrup. After resting awhile, he regained 
 the saddle, and reached his home. Grateful to his preserver, the man 
 did, what every good feeling bid him, — he cherished the animal until it 
 died of old age. 
 
 The Iceland Horse, is small, strong, and swift. The island abounds 
 in troops of horses, which Jive upon the mountains, where they obtain 
 only a scanty living. A few are usually kept in the stable, but when the 
 peasant wants more, he catches as many as he needs, and shoes them 
 himself, and that sometimes with a sheep's horn. 
 
 The Flemish and Dutch Horses are large, and strongly and beauti- 
 fully formed. The English are indebted to them for some of the best 
 blood of their draught horses. 
 
 The French Horse. France contains, like England, numerous 
 breeds of horses, and considerable attention has lately been paid to their 
 improvement ; but they are far inferior, it is said, to the English, in 
 beauty, fleetness, and strength. The provinces of Auvergne and Poitou, 
 produce good ponies and galloways ; but the best French horses are bred 
 in Limousin and Normandy. 
 
 The Spanish Horse. Spain was early celebrated for her breed of 
 horses. The Andalusian charger and the Spanish jennet are familiar to 
 all readers of romance. The subjugation of so great a portion of the 
 peninsula to the Moorish sway, by introducing so much of the Barbary 
 blood, mainly contributed to the undisputed excellence of the Spanish 
 horse. One breed, long in the limbs, and graceful in all its motions, was 
 the favorite war horse of the knight ; while another race, carrying the 
 esquire, although inferior in elegance, possessed far more strength and 
 endurance. The Spanish horse of the present day is not much unlike 
 the Yorkshire half-breed; perhaps with flatter legs and better feet, but far 
 inferior figure. 
 
 The Italian Horses were once in high repute, particularly the Nea- 
 
 Eolitans ; but like every thing else in those mismanaged countries, they 
 ave sadly degenerated. One circumstance has mainly contributed to 
 this falling off in reputation and value, viz. that the breed has been kept 
 up by occasional intermixture not of Eastern but of European blood. A 
 few of the Neapolitan horses, from their superior size and stateliness, are 
 well adapted for the carriage. 
 
 The English Horse. The earliest record of the horse in Great 
 Britain, is contained in the history given by Julius Csesar of his invasion 
 of that island. The British army was accompanied by numerous war- 
 chariots, drawn by horses. What kind of horse the Britons then 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 61 
 
 ENGLISH HORSE. 
 
 possessed, it would be useless to enquire ; but from the cumbrous struc- 
 ture of the car, and the fury with which it was driven, they must have 
 been both active and powerful. By the introduction of the Roman 
 cavalry, the English horse received its first cross. Several centuries # 
 passed by and we have no record of the value or character, improvement 
 or deterioration of the animal. 
 
 Soon after the time of Alfred the Great, some attention appears to 
 have been paid to the improvement of the horse, by Athelstan, his son. 
 and the second in succession to him. This was about the year 930. In 
 A. D. 1000, it was decreed, and from this decree something may be gath- 
 ered of the relative value of the horse, that if a horse were destroyed or 
 negligently lost, the compensation should be at thirty shillings ; a fnare 
 or colt, twenty shillings; a mule or young ass, twelve shillings: an 
 thirty pence ; a cow, twenty-four pence ; a pig, eight pence ; and it 
 -trangely follows, a man, one pound. 
 
 About this time, or a little before, laws were passed, which fixed 
 value of a foal, not fourteen days old, at fourpeuce ; at one year and a 
 day, it is estimated at forty-eight pence, and at three years sixty pence. 
 It was then to be tamed with the bridle, and brought up either a- a 
 palfrey or a serving horse ; when its value became one hundred and 
 twenty pence; and that of a wild unbroken mare, sixty pence. 
 
 In those days the buyer was allowed time to ascertain whether the 
 horse was free from three diseases. He had three nights to prove him 
 for the staggers : three months to prove the soundness of his lungs ; and 
 one year to ascertain whether he was infected with the glanders. For 
 -very blemish discovered after the purchase, one third of the money was 
 to be returned except it should be a blemish of the ears or tail. 
 
 It was also decreed, " whoever shall borrow a horse, and rub the b 
 <o as to gall the back, shall pay four-pence ; if the skin is forced into 
 rlesh, eight pence ; if the skin be forced to the bone, sixteen pence." 
 
 With William the Conquerer, about A. D. 1050, came a marked im- 
 provement in the British horse. In the reign of Henry I., A. D. 1121, 
 the first Arabian horse, or at least the first on record, was introduced 
 Forty years afterwards, Smithfield was celebrated as a horse market 
 From this time, until Henry VIII., the English horse advanced l 
 - by slow degrees. 
 
 In the time of this last monarch, an English treatise on the management 
 of horses and cattle was written by Sir A. Fitzherbert, Judge of the Com- 
 mon Pleas, and was the first of the kind produced. The learned Judge 
 shared the common fate of those who have to do with the horse. H^ 
 thus writes : " Thou grasyer, that mayst fortune to be myne opinion <>i 
 -iidytion to love horses, and young coltes and foles to go anion*, 
 cattle ; take heed that thou be not beguiled as I have been an hui 
 tymes and more. And first, thou shalt know that a good horse ha* 
 54 properties ; viz. 2 of a man, 2 of a badger, 4 of a lion, 9 of r :n ox 
 a hare, 9 of a fox, 9 of an asse, and 10 of a woman." Later writers have 
 pirated from Sir A., but have not improved upon him. The following 
 description of the horse is well known. " A good horse should have 
 three qualities of a woman ; a broad breast, round hips and a Long mane 
 — three of a lion; countenance, courage, and fire — three of a bullock; 
 the eye, the nostril, and joints — three of a sheep : the nose, gentleness, 
 and patience — three of the mule ; strength, constancy, and foot — three 
 of a deer ; head, legs, and short hair — three of a wolf* throat, neck, and 
 
(32 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ENGLISH HORSE. 
 
 hearing — three of a fox; ear, tail, and trot — three of a serpent; memory, 
 sight, and turning — and three of a hare, or cat; running, walking, and 
 suppleness." 
 
 The tyrannical edicts of Henry VIII. caused the number of horses to be 
 much diminished, and for a long time little improvement of the breed was 
 made. About the time of Oliver Cromwell, a South-Eastern horse wm 
 brought into England. This beautiful animal was called the White 
 Turk, and his name, and that of his keeper will long be remembered. 
 Shortly afterwards appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by Villiers, 
 the first Duke of Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco 
 barb. These horses speedily effected a considerable change in the charac- 
 ter of the English breed, so that Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, 
 complained that the great horse was fast disappearing, and that horsea 
 were now bred light and fine, for the sake of speed only. 
 
 At the Restoration, a new impulse was given to the cultivation of 
 the horse, by the inclination of the court to patronize gaiety and dissi- 
 pation. The races at Newmarket were restored, and as an additional 
 spur to emulation, royal plates were now given at each of the principal 
 courses. Charles II. sent his master of the horse to the Levant to purchase 
 brood mares and stallions. These were principally Barbs and Turks. 
 
 Terms commonly made use of to denote the external parts of the Horse, 
 
 From that period to the middle of the last century, the system of im- 
 provement was zealously pursued ; every variety of Eastern blood wa? 
 occasionally engrafted on the English, and the superiority of the engraft- 
 ed, above the very best of the original stock, began to be evident. Still 
 tome imagined that the speed and stoutness might possibly be increased : 
 and Mr. Darley, in the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne, had re- 
 course to the discarded and despised Arabian. He had much prejudice 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 63 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to contend with, and it was some time before the Darley Arabian attract- 
 ed notice. At length the value of his stock produce began to be recog- 
 nized, and to him the English are greatly indebted for a breed of horses 
 of unequalled beauty, speed and strength. 
 
 This last improvement now furnishes all that can be desired ; nor is 
 this true of the thorough-bred or turf horse only ; it is, to a very mate- 
 rial degree, the case with every description of horse. By a judicious 
 admixture and proportion of blood, the English have rendered their 
 hunters and hackneys, their coach, nay, even their cart horses, much 
 stronger, more active and more enduring than they were before the in- 
 troduction of the race horse. 
 
 For a better understanding of our future observations, we give on the 
 previous page an outline of the horse with the terms commonly made lue 
 of to denote his external parts. 
 
 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE. 
 
64 FAMILY 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 A The Head. 
 
 /; The posterior maxillary or under jaw. 
 
 b The superior maxillary or upper jaw. Opposite to the latter is a 
 foramen through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which 
 chiefly supply the lower part of the face. 
 c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye. 
 d The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. 
 
 The suture dividing the parietal bones below, from the occipital bones 
 above. 
 / The inferior maxillary bone containing the upper incisor teeth. 
 B The Seven Cervical Vertebrse, or bones of the neck. 
 C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebras, or bones of the back. 
 D The Six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the loins. 
 E The Five Sacral Vertebras or bones of the haunch. 
 F The Caudal Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen 
 G The Scapula, or shoulderblade. 
 H The Sternum or fore-part of the chest. 
 
 I The Costae or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and 
 called the true ribs, and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, 
 called the false ribs. 
 J The Humerus, or bone of the arm. 
 K The Radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 
 
 L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon 
 M The Carpus or knee, consisting of seven bones. 
 N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank 
 
 in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splent bone behind. 
 g The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os SufTraginis, or the up- 
 per and larger pastern bone, with the sessamoid bones behind arti- 
 culating with the cannon and greater pastern; the Os Coronae, or 
 lesser pastern; the Os Pedis or coffin bone ; and the Os Naviculare. 
 or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating with the 
 smaller pastern and coffin bones. 
 h The corresponding bones of the hind-feet. 
 O The Haunch, consisting of three portions, the Ilium, the Ischium, and 
 
 the Pubis. 
 P The Femur or thigh. 
 Q, The stifle joint with the Patalla. 
 
 R The Tibia, or proper leg bone — behind is a small bone called the fibula. 
 S The Tarsus or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is 
 
 the Os Calcis or point of the hock. 
 T The Metatarsals of the hind leg. 
 
 English writers describe several varieties of the horse which are found 
 in Great Britain. We shall briefly notice these, and begin with the 
 
 Roadster or Hackney. This horse is used by the farmer to ride over 
 his grounds, and by the man of business on his journies. The following 
 cut represents the old English hackney or road horse. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 65 
 
 THE ROAD HORSE. 
 
 THE ROAD HORSE. 
 
 The present road horse is said to be a much superior animal to the 
 portrait here given. In describing a good road horse, the Editors of the 
 Library of Useful Knowledge dwell with much emphasis upon the im- 
 portance of the maimer in which he brings down his feet to the ground. 
 He should not, indeed, carry his legs too high, say they, but the main 
 question is, does he dig his toe into the ground ? if the shoe, after having 
 been on a week or a fortnight, is not unnecessarily worn at the toe, and 
 you feel him put his foot flat on the ground, do not scruple to buy him, 
 nay, esteem him a u choice gifted hackney.'" 
 
 Every horse, however, is liable to fall, and therefore comes the golden 
 rule of riding, " never trust to your horsed Always feel his mouth lightly. 
 You will thus be able to give the animal assistance immediately, before he 
 is too much off his centre, and when a little check will save him. By 
 this constant gentle feeling, you will likewise induce him to carry his head 
 well, than which few things are more conducive to the beautiful, safe and 
 easy going of a horse. 
 
 The hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with these exceptions. 
 His height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He will be 
 sufficiently strong and more pleasant, for general work, below that stand- 
 ard. He should be of a more compact form than the hunter : more bulk 
 according to his height, for he has not merely to stand an occasional, 
 although severe burst, but a great deal of every -day work. 
 
 It is of essential consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be 
 deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in. 
 
 The pastern should be short, and although oblique or slanting, yet far 
 less so than that of the race horse, and considerably less than that of the 
 hunter. There should be obliquity enough to give pleasant action, but 
 not enough to render the horse incapable of the wear and tear of constant. 
 and sometimes hard work. 
 
 The foot is a matter of the greatest consequence in a hackney. It 
 
 f2 
 
m FAMILY 
 
 should be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither 
 too hollow, nor too flat ; open at the heels ; and free from corns and 
 thrushes. 
 
 The fore legs should be perfectly straight. There needs not a mo- 
 ment's consideration to be assured that a horse, with his knees bent, 
 will, from a slight cause, and especially if he be over-weighted, come 
 down. 
 
 The back should be straight and short ; yet sufficiently long to leave 
 comfortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the huck with- 
 out pressing on either. Some persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. 
 It is generally an easy one to go. It will canter well with a lady ; but it 
 will not carry a heavy weight, or stand much hard work. 
 
 The road horse should be high in the forehead, round in the barrel, 
 and deep in the chest ; the saddle will not then press too forward, but 
 the girths will remain, "without crupper, firmly fixed in their proper place. 
 
 The points of shape essential to be attended to in the choice of a 
 hackney, are — the shoulders, and the fore legs and feet : because a horse 
 whose shoulders are properly formed and placed, is not liable to fall 
 down ; and because his soundness depends chiefly upon his legs and feet. 
 The shoulders should not be too upright, but should slope backwards from 
 the shoulder points to the withers. It is desirable, if the horse is intend- 
 ed to carry a man of much weight, that the shoulders should be rather 
 thick than thin ; 'but it is essential that they should not be too large at the 
 points. A horse whose shoulders are good, stands, when in his natural 
 position, with his fore legs in a line perpendicular to the ground ; it is 
 therefore very desirable that the purchaser should see him in the stable, 
 and before he has been moved ; for he will then find him in his natural 
 position, in which it may be difficult to place him after he has been once 
 disturbed. Another mode of ascertaining whether the shoulders are 
 properly placed is, by allowing the horse to walk past you, and to ob- 
 serve whether he places his fore foot more forward than the shoulder 
 point when he puts it on the ground. A horse whose shoulders are 
 properly formed, will always do so; one whose shoulders are upright, 
 cannot. The fore quarters of a horse intended to be used as a hackney, 
 constitute an essential point ; his carcass should be round, and his ribs 
 deep. A horse's fore leg, of the proper form, should be flat, and as large 
 under the knee as it is just above the fetlock. The pastern should be so 
 joined to the leg at the fetlock, that the horse should neither turn his feet 
 out or in; but it is less objectionable that a horse should turn his feet a 
 little outwards, provided it is not so much as to make him hit his fetlocks, 
 than that he should turn them inwards. 
 
 The FARMER'S HORSE is an animal of all work; to be ridden 
 occasionally to market or for pleasure, but to be principally employed 
 for draught. He should be higher than the road-horse ; about fifteen 
 hands and two inches may be taken as the best standard. A horse with 
 a shoulder thicker, lower, or less slanting than would be chosen in a 
 hackney, will better suit the collar; and collar-work will be chiefly 
 required of him. A stout compact horse should be selected, yet not a 
 heavy cloddy one. Some blood will be desirable, but the half-bred 
 horse will generally best suit the farmer's purpose. He should have 
 weight enough to throw into the collar, and sufficient activity to get over 
 the ground. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 67 
 
 COACH HORSE. DRAUGHT HORSE. 
 
 The COACH HORSE. This animal has fully shared in the prog re.- 1 
 of improvement, and is as different from what he was fifty years ago, as 
 is possible to conceive. The clumsy-barrelled, cloddy-shouldered, round- 
 legged, black family horse, neither a coach nor a dray -burse, but some- 
 thing between both, as fat as an ox, and, with all his pride and prancing 
 at first starting, not equal to more than six miles an hour, and knocking 
 up with one hard day's work, is no more seen : and we have, instead 
 of him, an animal as tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in 
 the shoulders, fiat in the legs, with even more strength, and with treble 
 the speed. 
 
 There is a great deal of deception, however, even in the best of these 
 improved coach-horses. They prance it nobly through the streets ; and 
 they have more work in them than the old clumsy sluggish breed ; but 
 they have not the endurance that conld be wished, — and a pair of poor 
 post horses would, at the second day, beat them hollow. 
 
 The knee-action, and high lifting of the feet in the carriage-horse i> 
 deemed an excellence, because it adds to the grandeur of his appear- 
 ance; but, as has already been stated, it is necessarily accompanied 
 by much wear and tear of the legs and feet, and this is very soon appa- 
 rent. 
 
 The principal points of the coach-horse are, substance well placed, a 
 deep and well proportioned body, bone under the knee r and sound, open, 
 tough feet. 
 
 Heavy Draught Horses. The Cleveland horses have been known 
 to carry more than seven hundred pounds, sixty miles in twenty-four 
 hours, and to perform this journey four times in a week ; and mill horses 
 have carried nine hundred and ten pounds two or three miles. 
 
 Horses for slower draught, and sometimes even for the carriage, are 
 produced from the Suffolk Punch, so called from his round punchv 
 make, and descended from the Norman stallion and the Suffolk cart- 
 mare. The true Suffolk, like the Cleaveland, is now nearly extinct. It 
 stood from fifteen to sixteen hands high, of a sorrel color ; was hirst 
 headed, low shouldered and thick on the top ; deep and round chested ; 
 long backed ; high in the croup ; large and strong in the quarters : full in 
 the flanks ; round in the legs ; and short in the pasterns. It was the 
 very horse to throw his whole weight into the collar, with sufficient 
 activity to do it effectually, and hardihood to stand a long day's work 
 
68 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSE. 
 
 CLEAVELAND BAYS.-SUFFOLK PUNCH. 
 
 The present breed possesses many of the peculiarities and good quali- 
 ties of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to a sorrel color ; it is a 
 taller horse ; higher and finer in the shoulders ; and is a cross with the 
 Yorkshire half or three-fourths bred. 
 
 The excellence, and a rare one, of the old Suffolk, (the new breed has 
 not quite lost it,) consisted in nimbleness of action, and the honesty and 
 continuance with which he will exert himself at a dead pull. Many a 
 good draught horse knows well what he can effect ; and after he has at- 
 tempted it and failed, no torture of the whip will induce him to strain his 
 powers beyond their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug 
 at a dead pull until he dropped. It was beautiful to see a team of true 
 Suffolks, at a signal from the driver, and without the whip, down on 
 their knees in a moment, and drag every thing before them. Brutal wa- 
 gers were frequently laid as to their power in this respect, and many a 
 good team was injured and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk 
 is accounted for by the low position of his shoulders, which enables him 
 to throw so much of his weight into the collar. 
 
 Although the Punch is not what he was, and the Suffolk and Norfolk 
 farmer can no longer boast of ploughing more land in a day than any one 
 else, this is undoubtedly a valuable breed. 
 
 The Duke of Richmond obtained many excellent carriage horses, with 
 strength, activity, and figure, by crossing the Suffolk with one of his best 
 hunters. The Suffolk breed is in great request in the neighboring coun- 
 ties of Norfolk and Essex. Mr. Wakefield, of Barnham in Essex, had 
 a stallion for which he was offered four hundred guineas. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 69 
 
 BLACK HORSE. — DRAY HORSE. CAVALRY HORSE. 
 
 The Clydesdale is a good kind of draught horse, and particularly for 
 farming business and in a hilly country. It derives its name from the 
 district on the Clyde, in Scotland, where it is principally bred. The 
 Clydesdale horse owes its origin to one of the Dukes of Hamilton, wh< 
 crossed some of the best Lanerk mares with stallions which he had 
 brought over from Flanders. The Clydesdale is larger than the Sul" 
 folk, and has a better head, a longer neck, a lighter carcass, and deeper 
 legs ; strong, hardy, pulling true, and rarely restive. 
 
 The Heavy black Horse, is the last variety it may be necessary to 
 notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties, from Lincolnshire to 
 Staffordshire. Many are bought up by the Surry and Berkshire fann- 
 ers at two years old, — and being worked moderately, until they are four, 
 earning their keep all the while, they are then sent to the London mar- 
 ket, and sold at a profit often or twelve per cent. 
 
 The Dray Horse should have a broad breast, and thick upright 
 shoulders, (the more upright the collar stands on him the better ;) a low 
 forehead, deep and round barrel ; loins broad and high, ample quarters, 
 thick fore-arms and thighs, short legs, round hoofs, broad at the heels, 
 and soles not too flat. The great fault of the large dray-horse is his 
 slowness. 
 
 THE DRAY HORSE. 
 The Cavalry Horse. The English cavalry horses were formerly 
 large and heavy ; but a considerable change has taken place in the cha- 
 racter of their war-horses — lightness and activity have succeeded to bulk 
 and strength ; and for skirmishing and sudden attack the change is an 
 improvement. It is particularly found to be so in long and rapid marches, 
 which the lighter troops scarcely regard, while the heavier horses, with 
 their more than comparative additional weight to carry, are knocked up. 
 There was, however, some danger of carrying this too far ; for it was 
 found that in the engagements previous to, and at the battle of Waterloo, 
 the heavy household troops alone were able to repulse the formidable 
 charge of the French guard. 
 
70 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 RACE HORSE. DARLEY ARABIAN. 
 
 The Race Horse. There is much dispute with regard to the origin 
 of the tliorough bred horse. By some, he is traced through both sire and 
 dam, to Eastern parentage: others believe him to be the native horse, 
 improved and perfected by judicious crossing with the- Barb, the Turk, 
 or the Arabian. 
 
 RACE HORSE. 
 
 Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-horse, the 
 strictest attention has for the last fifty years been paid to pedigree. In 
 the descent of almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be 
 discovered. 
 
 The racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head : 
 his fine, and finely-set on neck ; his oblique, lengthened shoulders ; — 
 well bent hinder legs ; his ample, muscular quarters ; his flat legs, rather 
 short from the knee downwards, although not always so deep as they 
 should be : and his long elastic pastern. 
 
 The racer, however, with the most beautiful form, is occasionally a 
 very sorry animal. There is sometimes a want of energy in an appa- 
 rently faultless shape, for which there is no accounting ; but there are 
 two points among those just enumerated, which will rarely or never de- 
 ceive — a well placed shoulder, and a well-bent hinder leg. 
 
 The Darley Arabian was the parent of our best racing stock. He 
 was purchased by Mr. Darley's brother, at Aleppo, and was bred in the 
 neighboring desert of Palmyra. The figure here given of him is sup- 
 posed to be an accurate delineation. It contains every point, without 
 much shew, which could be desired in a turf horse* 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 71 
 
 DARLEY ARABIAN. FLYING CHILDERS. 
 
 THE DARLEY ARABIAN. 
 
 The immediate descendants of this invaluable horse, were the Devon- 
 shire or Flying Childers; the Bleeding or Bartlett's Childers, who was 
 never trained ; Almanzor and others. 
 
 The two Childers were the means through which the blood and fame 
 of their sire were widely circulated, and from them descended another 
 Childers, Snap, Sampson, Eclipse, and a host of excellent horses. 
 
 The Devonshire, or Flying Childers, so called from the name of 
 his breeder, Mr Childers of Carr-House, and the sale of him to the Duke 
 of Devonshire, was the fleetest horse of his day. The following is said 
 to present a true portrait of him. 
 
 I I HNG CHILI ! 
 
72 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 ECLIPSE. 
 
 He was at first trained as a hunter, but the superior speed and cour- 
 age which he discovered, caused him to be soon transferred to the turf. 
 Common report affirms that he could run a mile in a minute, but there 
 is no authentic record of this. Childers ran over the round course at 
 Newmarket (three miles, six furlongs and ninety-three yards,) in six 
 minutes and forty seconds; and the Bacon course, (four miles, one fur- 
 long and one hundred and thirty-eight yards,) in seven minutes and 
 thirty seconds. 
 
 Eclipse was got by Mask, a grandson of Bartlett's Childers. Of the 
 beauty, yet peculiarity of his form, much has been said. The very great 
 size, obliquity, and lowness of his shoulders were the objects of general 
 remark — with the shortness of his fore-quarter* ; his ample and finelj 
 proportioned quarters, and the swelling muscles of his fore arm and 
 thigh. Ofhis speed no correct estimate can be formed, for he never met 
 with an opponent sufficiently fleet to put it to the test. 
 
 ECLIPSE. 
 
 He was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold at his death to 
 Mr. Wildman, a sheep salesman, for-seventy five guineas. Col. O'Kel- 
 iy purchased a share of him from Wildman. In the spring of the fol- 
 lowing year, when the reputation of this wonderful animal was at its 
 height, O'Kelly wished to become the sole owner of him, and bought the 
 remaining share for one thousand pounds. 
 
 Eclipse was what is termed a thick winded horse, and puffed and 
 roared so, as to be heard at a considerable distance. For this or home 
 other cause he was not brought on the turf, until he was five years old. 
 
 O'Kelly aware ofhis horse's powers, had backed him freely on his first 
 race, in May 1769. This excited curiosity, or perhaps, roused suspi- 
 cion, and some persons attempted to watch one of his trials. Mr. John 
 Lawrence says that " they were a little too late," but they found an old 
 woman who gave them all the information they wanted. On enquiring, 
 whether she had seen a race, she replied "that she could not tell wheth- 
 er it was a race or not ; but that she had just seen a horse with white 
 legs running away at a monstrous rate, and another horse a great way 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 73 
 
 WELLESLEY ARABIAN. 
 
 behind him, trying to run after him ; but she was sure he would never 
 catch the white legged horse, if he ran to the world's end." 
 
 The first heat was easily won, when O'Kelly observing that the rider 
 had been pulling at Eclipse during the whole race, offered a wager that 
 he would distance the horses in the next heat. This seemed a thing so 
 highly improbable, that he immediately had bets to a large amount. 
 Being called on to declare, he replied " Eclipse first, and the rest no 
 where!" The event justified his prediction: all the others were dis- 
 tanced by Eclipse with the greatest ease, or, in the language of the turf, 
 they had no place. 
 
 In the spring of the following year, he beat Mr. Wentworth's Buce- 
 phalus, who had never before been conquered. Two days afterward-, 
 he distanced Mr. Strode's Pensioner, a very good horse : and in August 
 of the same year he won the greatest subscription at York. No horse 
 daring to enter against him, he closed his short career of seventeen 
 months, by walking over the Newmarket course for the king's plate, on 
 October the 18th, 1770. He was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit; 
 and won for his owner more than twenty-five thousand pounds. 
 
 THE WELLESLEY ARABIAN. 
 
 Wellesley Arabian. This is the very picture of a beautiful wild 
 horse of the desert, his precise country was never determined, although 
 it is known that he was a horse of foreign extraction. He is evidently 
 neither a perfect Barb, nor a perfect Arabian, but from a neighbouring 
 province, where both the Barb and Arabian would expand to a mor« 
 perfect fullness of form. This horse has been erroneously selected as 
 the pattern of a superior Arabian, and therefore we have introduced 
 him ; few, however, of his produce were trained who can add much to 
 his reputation. 
 
 It has been imagined that the breed of racing horses has lately very 
 considerably degenerated. This is not the case. Thorough-bred horses 
 were formerly fewer in number and their performances created greater 
 
 G 
 
74 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 HUNTER. GALLOWAYS AND PONIES. 
 
 wbnder. The breed has now increased twenty fold, and superiority is 
 not so easily obtained among so many competitors. If one circumstance 
 could more than any other, produce this degeneracy, it would be the 
 absurd and cruel habit of bringing out horses too soon, and the frequent 
 failure of their legs before they have come to their full power. Child- 
 ers and Eclipse did not appear until they were five years old ; but ma- 
 ny of our best horses and those, perhaps, who would have shown equal 
 excellence with the most celebrated racers, are foundered and destroyed 
 before that period. 
 
 THE HUNTER. 
 
 The Hunter, is derived from horses of entire blood, or such as arc 
 but little removed from it, uniting with mares of substance, correct 
 form, and good action. In some instances hunters are derived from 
 large mares of the pure breed propagating with powerful stallions of 
 the old English road horse. This favorite and valuable breed is a happy 
 combination of the speed of the Arabian, with the durability of the na- 
 tive horse. More extended in form, but framed on the same principles, 
 he is able to carry a considerable weight through heavy grounds with a 
 swiftness equalled only by the animal he pursues, and with a persever- 
 ance astonishing to the natives of every other country. Hence the ex- 
 treme demand for this breed of horses in every European country, the 
 English racing stallions being now sent to propagate in the eastern 
 climes, from whence some of them were originally brought. 
 
 Galloways and Ponies. A horse between thirteen and fourteen 
 hands in height is called a Galloway, from a beautiful breed of little 
 horses once found in the south of Scotland, on the shore of the Solway 
 Frith, but now sadly degenerated, and almost lost, from the attempts of 
 the farmers to obtain a larger kind, and better adapted to the purpose of 
 agriculture. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 GALLOWAYS AND PONIES, 
 
 75 
 
 GALLOWAYS AND PONIES. 
 
 Dr. Anderson thus describes the Galloway : There was once a breed 
 of small elegant horses in Scotland, similar to those of Iceland and Swe- 
 den, and which were known by the name of Galloways ; the best of 
 which sometimes reached the height of fourteen hands and a half. One 
 of this description I possessed, it having been bought for my use when a 
 boy. In point of elegance of shape it was a perfect picture; and in dis- 
 position was gentle and compliant. It moved almost with a wish, and 
 never tired. I rode this little creature for twenty-five years, and, twice 
 in that time I rode an hundred and fifty miles at. a stretch, without stop- 
 ping except to bait, and that for not above an hour at a time. It came in 
 at the last stage with as much ease and alacrity as it travelled the first. 
 I could have undertaken to have performed on this beast, when it was in 
 its prime, sixty miles a day for a twelve month running, without any 
 extraordinary exertions. 
 
 The Welsh Posey is one of the most beautiful little animals that can 
 be imagined. He has a small head, high- withers, deep yet round barrel, 
 short joints, flat legs, and good round feet. He will live on any fare, and 
 can never be tired out. 
 
 The Highland Poney is far inferior to the Galloway. The head is 
 large, he is low before, long in the back, short in the legs, upright in the 
 pasterns, rather slow in his paces, and not pleasant to ride, except in the 
 canter. His habits make him hardy, for he is rarely housed in the sum- 
 mer or the winter. The Rev. Mr. Hall, in his Travels in Scotland, says, 
 " that when these animals come to any boggy piece of ground, they first 
 put their nose to it, and then pat on it in a peculiar way with one of their 
 fore feet, and from the sound and feel of the ground, they know whether 
 it will bear them. They do the same with ice, and determine in a minute 
 whether they will proceed." 
 
76 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 SHETLAND PONEY 
 
 SHETLAND PONEY. 
 
 The Shetland Poxey, called in Scotland Sheltie, an inhabitant of the 
 extreme northern Scottish isles, is a very diminutive animal, sometimes 
 not seven hands and a half in height, and rarely exceeding nine and a 
 half. He is often exceedingly beautiful, with a small head, good temper- 
 ed countenance, a short neck, fine towards the throttle, shoulders low 
 and thick, (in so little a creature far from being a blemish,) back short, 
 quarters expanded and powerful, legs flat and fine, and pretty round feet. 
 They possess immense strength for their size, will fatten on any thing, 
 and are perfectly docile. One of them nine hands, or three feet in height, 
 carried a man of twelve stone, forty miles in one day. 
 
 The Irish Horse is generally smaller than the English. He is stinted 
 in his growth, for the poverty and custom of the country have imposed 
 upon him much hard work, at a time when he is unfit for labor of any 
 kind. For this reason, too, the Irish horse is deficient in speed. There 
 is, however, another explanation of this. The Irish thorough-bred horse 
 is not equal to the English. He is comparatively a weedy, leggy, worth- 
 less animal, and very little of him enters into the composition of the 
 hunter or the hackney. 
 
 For leaping, the Irish horse is unrivalled. Jt is not, however, the leap- 
 ing of the English horse, striding, as it were, over a low fence, and stretch- 
 ed at his full length over a higher one ; it is the proper jump of the deer, 
 beautiful to look at,difficult to sit, and both in height and extent unequalled 
 by the English horse. 
 
 There are very few horses in the agricultural districts of Ireland exclu- 
 sively devoted to draught. The minute division of the farm renders it 
 impossible for them to be kept. The occupier even of a tolerable sized 
 Irish farm, wants a horse that shall carry him to market, and draw his 
 small car, and perform every kind of drudgery — a horse of all work ; 
 therefore the thorough draft horse, whether Leicestershire or Suffolk, is 
 rarely found. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 77 
 
 AMERICAN HORSE. 
 
 The American Horse. In the extensive territory and varied climate 
 of the Western Continent, several breeds of horses are found. Our limits 
 will permit us to notice briefly, only the following. 
 
 Wild Horse. Troops of wild horses which are of Spanish descent, are 
 found in several parts of South America. Some of these troops are 
 supposed to contain several thousands. They appear to be under the 
 command of a leader, the strongest and boldest of the herd, and whom 
 they implicitly obey. In the thinly inhabited parts of South America, it 
 is dangerous to fall in with any of their troops. 
 
 The manner in which these horses are taken, is interesting and curi- 
 ous. This is generally accomplished by the Guacho, or native inhabitant 
 of the plains, who uses for this purpose the lasso, a strong plaited thong, 
 of equal thickness, half an inch in diameter, and forty feet long; made 
 of many stripes of green hide, plaited like a whip-thong, and rendered 
 supple by grease. It has at one end an iron ring, above an inch and a 
 half in diameter, through which the thong is passed, and this forms a 
 running noose. 
 
 When the Guacho wishes to take a wild horse, he mounts one that has 
 been used to the sport and gallops over the plain. One end of his lasso 
 is affixed to his saddle-girth ; the remainder, he coils carefully in his left 
 hand, leaving about 12 feet belonging to the noose end in a coil, and a 
 half of which he holds in his right hand. He then swings this long noose 
 horizontally around his head, the weight of the iron ring at the end of the 
 noose assisting in giving it by a continued circular motion, a sufficient 
 force to project it the whole length of the line. 
 
 Thus equipped, the Guacho, as we have remarked, gallops over the 
 plain. As soon as he comes sufficiently near his prey, the lasso is 
 thrown round the two hind legs, and as the Guacho rides a little on one 
 side, the jerk pulls the entangled horse's feet laterally so as to throw 
 him on his side, without endangering his knees, or his face. Before 
 the horse can recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his 
 poncho, or cloak, from his shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate ani- 
 mal's head. He then forces into his mouth one of the powerful bridles 
 of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him, removes 
 the poncho ; upon which the astonished horse springs on his legs, and 
 endeavors by a thousand vain efforts, to disencumber himself of his 
 new master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and by a discipline 
 which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete obedience, that he 
 is soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the capture of his 
 companions. 
 
 Canadian Horse. This horse is found principally in Canada and the 
 northern states. He is supposed to be of French descent, and many 
 of the celebrated American trotters are of this breed. This species of 
 horse is generally small, but remarkably compact. He will keep in good 
 condition, and even grow fat on indifferent fare. 
 
 Conestoga Horse. This horse is found in Pennsylvania and the mid- 
 dle States. He is generally long in the leg, and light in the carcass, — 
 sometimes rising seventeen hands, used principally for the carriage ; 
 but when not too high, and with sufficient substance, useful for hunting 
 and the saddle. 
 
 English Horse in the United States. The horses generally found in the 
 United States, are the descendants of English importation. Until 
 
 g2 
 
78 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 AMERICAN ECLIPSE, 
 
 within a few years little attention has been paid to the raising of first 
 rate horses. This is particularly true of New England. A deeper in- 
 terest, however, is beginning to be felt on this important subject, and 
 many valuable horses are to be found in all parts of the country. More 
 attention has for years been paid to the rearing of good horses in Vir- 
 ginia, Kentucky, and other southern states. Importations of the best 
 English blood have at different times been made which has been diligent- 
 ly and purely preserved. 
 
 Our limits forbid even the mention of the names of distinguished 
 horses, which from time to time have been imported into the country, 
 and to which we are indebted for the finest horses of the present day. 
 Nor shall we attempt an enumeration of the valuable horses which have 
 been bred in our own country ; but content ourselves with present- 
 ing to our readers the following portrait of the celebrated American 
 Eclipse, named after his English ancestor Eclipse, when only five 
 months old, from the promise which he then gave of peculiar strength 
 and speed. 
 
 AMERICAN ECLIPSE. 
 
 This was a sorrel horse, with a star, and the near hind foot white, fif- 
 teen hands three inches high, possessing a large share of bone and muscle, 
 and excelling all horses of his day in the three great essentials of speed, 
 stoutuess, and ability to carry weight. He was foaled in the year 181 4. 
 His pedigree is traced through the celebrated English horse, Messenger, 
 Eclipse; up to the distinguished Godolphin Arabian, of which we have 
 given a particular account, in a previous page. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 79 
 
 BEELFOUNDER. 
 
 5^ ^|P*> 
 
 BELLFOUNDER. 
 
 This celebrated horse is a bright bay, with black legs, standing 15 
 hands high ; his superior blood, symmetry and action excel those of 
 every other trotting stallion. He is allowed by the best judges in 
 Norfolk [Eng.] to be the fastest and best bred horse ever sent out of that 
 country. 
 
 CRITERIA, AGE, &C OF HORSES. 
 
 The general criteria of the qualities of the horse, observes Loudon, art- 
 derived from inspection and trial. His outward appearance aaumg 
 judges affords a pretty just criterion of his powers, and a moderate trial 
 usually enables the same judgment to decide on the disposition to exercise 
 such powers. 
 
 Color as a criterion of mental and personal qualities, is laid much 
 stress on by many persons : and notwithstanding the adage, that " a good 
 horse cannot be of a bad color;" long experience has shown that, in 
 general cases, certain tints are usually accompanied by certain qualities 
 of person or disposition. As a general rule, dark colored horses are 
 certainly the best; but black, as the darkest of all, seems to form an ex- 
 ception to this rule. Light shades appear unfavorable to strength and 
 durability ; they are also accompanied frequently with iritability, and 
 perverseness of temper. Something like a general law in the animal 
 economy seems to prevail to make white a distinctive mark of weakness. 
 Age, which is the parent of weakness, brings with it white hairs> both in 
 man and in horses, and most other quadrupeds. The hair formed, after 
 a wound has robbed a part of its original covering, is often white, be- 
 
 * Bellfounder now stands on Long Island. 
 
80 FAMILY 
 
 CRITERIA, AGE, &C. OF HORSES. 
 
 cause the new formed surface is yet in a state of debility. It is likewise 
 a fact, well known among the observant, that the legs and feet when 
 white, are more obnoxious to disease, than those of a darker tone. The 
 Arabs remark that light chesnut horses, have soft tender feet. It is the 
 observance of these peculiarities, that has, at length, guided our taste and 
 formed our judgment of beauty. With the English, much white on the 
 legs is considered as a deformity, and is expressively called, foul marked ; 
 whereas pied markings in other parts are reckoned beautiful. In 
 Africa, however, Capt. Lyon iuforms us, a superstitious dependence is 
 placed on horses with legs and feet stockined with white. It does not 
 appear that climate has the same influence on the color of horses, as on 
 other domesticated animals. In all latitudes, in which the horse can 
 live, he is black or white, indiscriminately ; but as he cannot endure ex- 
 treme rigour, it is not necessary he should vary. 
 
 The criteria of action. are derived from a due consideration of the form 
 generally, and of the limbs particularly ; as well as from seeing the horse 
 perform his paces in hand. 
 
 The criteria of hardihood are derived from the form of the carcass, which 
 should be circular or barrelled ; by which, food is retained, and strength 
 gained, to perform what is required. Such horses are also generally 
 good feeders. 
 
 The criteria of spirit, vigor, or mettle, as it is termed, are best deriv- 
 ed from trial. It should always be kept in mind, that a hot fiery horse 
 is as objectionable as a horse of good courage is desirable. Hot horses 
 may be known by their disinclination to stand still ; by their mettle being 
 raised by the slightest exercise, especially when in company. Such 
 horses seldom last long, and under accident are impetuous and frighten- 
 ed in the extreme. A good couraged horse, on the contrary, moves 
 with readiness as well alone as in company : he carries one ear forward 
 and one backward ; is attentive and cheerful; loves to be talked to, and 
 caressed, even while on his journey ; and if in double harness, will play 
 with his mate. Good couraged horses are always the best tempered, 
 and, under difficulties, are by far the most quiet, and least disposed to 
 do mischief. 
 
 The criteria of a horse peculiarly adapted to the labors of agriculture, are 
 thus given by Culley. His head should be as small as the proportion 
 of the animal will admit ; his nostrils expanded, and muzzle fine; his 
 eyes cheerful and prominent ; his ears small, upright, and placed near 
 together ; his neck, rising out from between his shoulders with an easy 
 tapering curve, must join gracefully to the head; his shoulders, being 
 well thrown back, must also go into his neck (at what is called the points) 
 unperceived, which perhaps facilitates the going much more than the 
 narrow shoulder ; the arm, or fore thigh should be muscular, and taper- 
 ing from the shoulder, to meet a fine, strait, sinewy, and bony leg ; the 
 hoof circular, and wide at the heel; his chest deep, and full at the girth ; 
 his loins or fillets broad and straight, and body round ; his hips or hooks 
 by no means wide, but quarters long, and the tail set on so as to be near- 
 ly in the same right line as his back ; his thighs strong and muscular ; 
 his legs clean and fine boned ; the leg-bones not round, but what is called 
 lathy or fiat." 
 
 The criteria, relative to the age and the essential characteristics of a 
 good horse, may not improperly form a part of the present outline. In 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 81 
 
 CRITERIA, AGE, &C. OF HORSES. 
 
 old horses, the eye-pits are generally deep ; though this mark is very 
 uncertain, as it also occurs in young horses that are descended from 
 aged stallions. But the most certain criterion is that derived from the 
 teeth, the number of which amounts to forty ; namely, twenty-four 
 grinders or double teeth, (which in fact afford no certain guide,) and 
 sixteen others, viz. four tushes or tusks, and twelve fore-teeth : these 
 last are the surest guides for discovering the age of a horse. As mares 
 usually have no tusks, their teeth are only thirty-six. A colt is foaled 
 without teeth ; in a few days he puts out four, which are called pincers, 
 or nippers ; soon after appear the four separaters, next to the pincers ; 
 it is sometimes three or four months before the next, called corner teeth, 
 push forth. These twelve colt's teeth, in the front of the mouth, con- 
 tinue, without alteration, till the colt is two years or two years and a half 
 old. which makes it difficult, without great care, to avoid being imposed 
 on during that interval, if the seller find it his interest to make the colt 
 pass for either younger or older than he really is : the only rule you have 
 then to judge by is his coat, and the hairs of his mane and tail. A colt 
 of one year has a supple, rough coat, resembling that of a water- 
 spaniel, and the hair of his mane and tail feels like flax, and hangs like a 
 rope untwisted : whereas a colt of two years has a flat coat, and straight 
 pars like a grown horse. 
 
 At about two years and a half old, sometimes sooner, sometimes later, 
 according as he has been fed, a horse begins to change his teeth. The 
 pincers which come the first, are also the first that fall ; so that at three 
 years he has four horse's and eight colt's teeth, which are easily known 
 apart, the former being larger, flatter, and yellower, than the other, and 
 streaked from the end quite into the gums. 
 
 These four horse pincers have in the middle of their extremities, a 
 black hole, very deep ; whereas those of the colt are round and white. 
 When the horse is coming four years old, he loses his four separaters, or 
 middle teeth, and puts forth four others, which follow the same rule as 
 the pincers. He has now eight horse's teeth and four colt's. At five 
 years old he sheds the four corner, which are his last colt's teeth, and is 
 "called a horse. 
 
 During this year, also, his four tusks (which are chiefly peculiar to 
 horses) come behind the others ; the lower ones often four months be- 
 fore the upper; but whatever may be the common opinion, a horse that 
 has the two lower tusks, if he has not the upper, may be judged to be 
 under five years old, unless the other teeth show the contrary ; for some 
 horses that live to be very old never have any tusks at all. The two 
 lower tusks are one of the most certain rules that a horse is coming five 
 years old, notwithstanding his colt's teeth may not be all gone. 
 
 It is not an unfrequent practice of jockies aud breeders, in order to 
 make their colts seem five years old, when they are but four, to pull out 
 their last colt's teeth ; but if all the colts teeth be gone, and no tusks ap- 
 pear, the purchaser may be certain this trick has been played : another 
 artifice they use is to beat the bars every day with a wooden mallet, in 
 the place where the tusks are to appear, in order to make them seein 
 hard, as if the tusks were just ready to cut. 
 
82 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 CRITERIA, AGE, &C. OF HORSES. 
 
 Figure 1 of the annexed engravings of the horse's teeth, represents 
 them at 2 years and and a half old ; fig. 2, at 3 years old ; fig. 3, at 4 years ; 
 fig. 4, at 5 years ; and fig. 5, at 6 years. 
 
 No.l. No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 JVb.4. 
 
 JVb.5. 
 
 When a horse is coming six years old, the two lower pincers fill up, and 
 instead of the holes above mentioned, show only a black spot. Betwixt 
 six and seven the two middle teeth fill up in the same manner ; and be- 
 tween seven and eight the corner teeth do the like ; after which it is said 
 to be impossible to know certainly the age of a horse, he having no longer 
 any mark in the mouth. In this case recourse can only be had to the 
 tusks, and the situation of the teeth. 
 
 With respect to the tusks, the purchaser must with his finger feel the 
 inside of them from the point quite to the gum. If the tusk be pointed 
 rlat, and have two little channels within side, he may be certain the horse 
 is not old and at the utmost only coming ten. Between eleven and 
 twelve the two channels are reduced to one, which after twelve entirely 
 disappears, and the tusks are as round within as they are without; he 
 has no guide then but the situation of the teeth. The longest teeth are 
 not always a sign of the greatest age, but their hanging over and pushing 
 forward, as also their meeting perpendicularly, is a certain token of 
 youth. 
 
 Many persons, whilst they see certain little holes in the middle of the 
 teeth, imagine that such horses are but in their seventh year, without 
 regard to the situation the teeth take as they grow old. 
 
 When horses are young, their teeth meet perpendicularly, but grow 
 longer and push forward with age ; besides, the mouth of a young horse 
 is very fleshy within, in the palate, and his lips are firm and hard : on 
 the contrary, the inside of an old horse's mouth is lean both above and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 83 
 
 CRITERIA, AGE, &C. OF HORSES. 
 
 below, and seems to have only the skin upon the bones. The lips are 
 soft and easy to turn up with the hand. 
 
 All horses are marked in the same manner, but some naturally and 
 others artificially. The natural mark is called begue ; and some "igno- 
 rant persons imagine such horses are marked all their lives ; because 
 for mauy years they find a little hole, or a kind of* void in the middle of 
 the separaters and corner teeth : but when the tusks are grown round, 
 as weli within as without, and the teeth point forward, there is room to 
 conjecture, in proportion as they advance from year to year, what the 
 horse's age may be, without regarding the cavity above mentioned. 
 
 This artificial manner is made use of by dealers and jockies. who 
 mark their horses after the age of being known, to make them appear 
 only six or seven years old. They do it in this manner : they throw 
 down the horse to have him more at command, and, with a steel graver, 
 like what is used for ivory, hollow the middle teeth a little, and the cor- 
 ner ones somewhat more : then fill the holes with a little rosin, pitch, 
 sulphur, or some grains of wheat, which they burn in with a bit of hot 
 wire, made in proportion to the hole. This operation they repeat from 
 time to time, till they give the hole a lasting black, in imitation of nature ; 
 but notwithstanding this fraudulent attempt, the hot iron makes a little 
 yellowish circle round the holes like that which it would leave upon 
 ivory ; they have therefore another trick to prevent detection, which is 
 to make the horse foam from time to time, after having nibbed his 
 mouth, lips, and gums with salt, and crumbs of bread dried and pow- 
 dered with salt. This foam hides the circle made by the iron. 
 
 Another thing which they cannot accomplish, is to counterfeit young 
 tusks, it being out of their power to make those two crannies above men- 
 tioned, which are given by nature ; with files they make them shorter or 
 flatter, but then they take away the shining natural enamel, so that one 
 may always know, by these tusks, horses that are past seven, till they 
 come to twelve or thirteen. The figures prefixed to these remarks on 
 horse's teeth, will illustrate the preceding hints : being drawn from the 
 teeth themselves, at the various ages therein specified. 
 
 With regard to the circumstances indicating a sound horse, it may be 
 observed, that where a horse is free from blemish, the legs and thighs are 
 well shaped ; the knees straight ; the skin and shanks thin : the back 
 sinews strong and firm. The pastern joints should be small and taper. 
 and the hock lean, dry, and not puffed up with wind. With respect to 
 the hoof itself, the coronet ought to be thick, without any tumour or 
 swelling ; the horn bright, and of a grayish color. The fibres of a 
 strong foot appear very distinctly, running in a direct line from the 
 coronet to the toe, like the grain of wood. Such a foot, however, ought 
 to be kept moist and pliable, as it is subject to fissures and cracks, by 
 which the hoof is sometimes cleft through the whole length of the cor- 
 onet. A narrow heel is likewise a great defect ; and, if it do not exceed 
 two fingers in breadth, it forms an imperfect foot. A high heel often 
 causes a horse to trip or stumble: while a low one with long yielding 
 pasterns, is apt to be worn away on a long journey. On the other hand, 
 afoot disproportionately large, renders the animal weak and clumsy in 
 its gait. 
 
 The head of a horse ought to be small, and rather lean than fleshy : 
 his ears should be erect, thin, sprightly, and pointed ; the neck arched 
 
84 FAMILY 
 
 NICKING HORSES, 
 
 towards the middle, tapering gradually towards the head ; the shoulders 
 I rather long ; the withers thin, and enlarged by degrees as they extend 
 downwards, yet so as to render his breast neither too gross nor too nar- 
 row. Such are the principal marks by which the best form and propor- 
 tion of that useful animal may be determined, without reference to the 
 deviations from those general rules which characterize the cart-horse, 
 and which have been already noticed. 
 
 Nicking is an operation performed for the purpose of making a horse 
 carry an elegant artificial tail. To such an operation some farmers have 
 a strong objection, on account of the suffering it causes, to the animal, 
 and a belief of its injurious effects, especially in relaxing the muscles 
 about the hinderparts. The former objection has more weight than the 
 latter; since those tendons, muscles, nerves, arteries &c. which are sepa- 
 rated in nicking, are always cut in docking, an operation often made, 
 and never to the permanent injury, or weakening of the horse. 
 
 Several methods for nicking horses have been adopted by different 
 persons. The following, however, it is believed has the sanction of the 
 most experienced.* 
 
 Having provided a convenient stall, pulleys, halter and manger, you 
 may proceed to secure the horse, by putting a twitch on his upper lip, 
 but not so high, as to prevent his breathing ; next make a cord fast to 
 the fet-lock of one of his hind legs, and carry it thence, and fasten it to 
 the fore leg, above the knee. Thus confined, the horse can do no injury 
 to the operator, and his attendants. The tail of the horse is now to be 
 closely and neatly platted from the root to the end, at whicfcfpoint it should 
 be dubbed or turned over a small stick, and securely tied with a waxed 
 string. Being now provided with a sharp knife, and a crooked iron, or 
 buck's horn, turn the tail up in a direct line with the back bone, and make 
 a transverse incision, immediately across the tail, one and a half inches 
 from the root, and deep enough to separate the tendons on each side of 
 the under part of the tail, which will be found about a quarter of an inch 
 from the, hair on the outer edge ; the incision in the middle may be shal- 
 low. Should the horse bleed beyond two gallons, the flow of blood may 
 be checked by putting him in the pulleys, or by wrapping the tail up 
 moderately tight with a linen rag from the root to the end. Next, at 
 the distance of two or two and a half inches from the transverse incision 
 make two longitudinally, about three inches in length, which will expose 
 the large tendons on each side. Make two other incisions of the same 
 kind, commencing about one inch from the second, and in length running 
 within about two inches of the end of the tail. Make a transverse incis- 
 ion within half an inch of the termination of the longitudinal incisions, 
 pretty deep. With the buck's horn, or crooked iron take up the large 
 tendons in the second incision, and draw the ends out of the first; 
 take up those in the third, and draw the ends out of the second ; and 
 at the upper part of the wound cut off the tendons even and smooth. 
 Now strain up the tail opposite the second incisions, until the bone slips 
 or breaks ; serve the tail opposite the third incisions in the same manner ; 
 also the fourth and last, which should be made across. 
 
 The operation being thus performed, the tail of the horse should be 
 washed in strong salt and water, after which he may be put in a stall, 
 or turned to pasture for two or three days. 
 
 * Mason's Farmer Improved. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 85 
 
 FATTENING HORSES. 
 
 At the end of this time, wash the wound and tail with strong soap 
 suds, and place the horse in the pulleys, where he should remain about 
 three weeks, or until his wounds have healed. Abstract half a gallon of 
 blood each week ; and double that quantity should the tail be much in- 
 flamed. Keep the parts clean, by frequently washing with soap suds. 
 Twice a week take the tail from the pulleys, and let it remain down du- 
 ring the night. Before putting it up again, the horse may be rode a few 
 hundred yards. 
 
 Great pains should be taken to have the weights equal, in order to pre- 
 vent the tail from permanently twisting, as this would ruin the animal 
 in appearauce. During the continuance of the horse in the pulleys, his 
 diet should be light, and if practicable consist of green food. His legs 
 should be frequently washed or bathed with pot-liquor, in which bacon 
 has been boiled. Vinegar, sweet oil, or lard and spirits may be substi- 
 tuted. Occasionally the wounds may be washed in copperas water, 
 which will accelerate the process of healing. 
 
 Pricking. This operation, which consists in simply dividing the 
 great tendons of the tail, is now generally abandoned, having seldom 
 been found to accomplish the desired effect. 
 
 Foxing. This consists in depriving a horse of a portion of his ears, 
 for the purpose of improving his looks. An easy mode of performing 
 the operation is to take a small paint brush, and with paint in contrast 
 to the color of the horse, mark the ears of the length and shape desired; 
 then place a switch on the horse's nose, at the same time holding up a 
 fore foot; with a sharp knife cut the ears in the line made by the paint. 
 Wash the wound with salt and water, once a day for a week, after which 
 apply sweet oil until healed. Those horses only, which have small, thin, 
 delicate heads, are improved by foxing. 
 
 Docking. To perform this operation safely, put a switch on the 
 upper lip of the horse, and hold one of his fore legs up well nigh his 
 body. Tie a waxed string tight round the tail above where it is to be 
 cut off. Lay the tail on a smooth block of wood, and with a sharp knife, 
 and mallet, you may easily sever it at a single blow. When this has 
 been effected, place a little rosin on the wound, and sear it moderately 
 with a hot iron. In a few days remove the waxed string, and to the 
 wound apply occasionally a little fresh butter or sweet oil. 
 
 Fattening. To fatten a horse in a short space of time, is justly con- 
 sidered a desirable art. Should the animal which you wish to fatten be 
 quite poor, commence by subtracting one quart of blood — to be repeat- 
 ed once in eight or ten days. If he be in tolerable condition, the bleed- 
 ings may consist of two quarts at a time. Commence also giving at 
 the same time, the following mash, to be repeated every eight days : flax 
 seed, one pint, boiled to a strong tea of one quart; powdered brimstone, 
 one table spoonfull ; saltpetre, one tea spoonfull ; bran, one and a half 
 gallons, scalding the bran with the tea. After the mash, the horse should 
 not drink cold water for eight or ten hours. It is important also to take 
 of assafoetida half an ounce, which being wrapped in a clean rag is to 
 be nailed to the bottom of the manger, where the animal is fed, and of 
 which in a few days he will become remarkably fond. Caution is to be 
 exercised in feeding an extremely poor horse, lest you produce a foun- 
 der or some other injury ; but at the expiration of three or four days the 
 danger will be passed, and the horse may be full fed. It will be well to 
 
 H 
 
86 FAMILY 
 
 EXCESSIVE FATIGUE. 
 
 moisten his food occasionally with strong sassafras tea, which tends to 
 enrich the blood, and open the bowels. A handfull of salt two or three 
 times a week thrown into his water w T ill prove grateful, and serve to 
 increase his appetite. Should the object be to fatten a horse in the 
 shortest possible space, he should not be rode, nor even led out of the 
 stable : but if solidity of flesh be desired, moderate exercise once in three 
 days will be of service. Great care should be taken to have his hoofs 
 cleaned every morning and evening, and stuffed with clay and salt, or 
 fresh cow manure, to keep the feet cool, and prevent the swelling of the 
 legs. It is indispensible that the curry-comb and brush should be used 
 upon him every day, until he be quite clean. A blanket, as a covering, 
 will add to his comfort, and assist in improving his appearance and 
 condition. 
 
 Excessive Fatigue. It is sometimes necessary to require a horse to 
 undergo great fatigue. To accomplish this, without injury, requires 
 some preparation. Previous to entering him on his journey, a writer* 
 remarks, he should be fed plentifully on solid old food, such as corn, 
 fodder, hay, or oats, and exercised from five to ten miles a day. He 
 should be well rubbed two or three times every twenty -four hours, which 
 will have the effect of making his flesh not only firm, but hard. 
 
 Experience has proved, that rainy or drisly weather, is more favorable 
 to the performance of an excessive hard ride, than a day that is fair or 
 sultry with sunshine ; rain having the effect of keeping a horse cool, ren- 
 dering his limbs supple, of moistening and refreshing him. 
 
 On the night previous to his engaging in this laborious undertaking, 
 the same writer recommends to feed the horse six quarts of oats or four 
 of corn, with as much good hay as he can eat ; in the morning to feed one 
 quart of oats or corn only, and offer some salt and water, of which a 
 horse is apt to drink but little. At a distance of fifteen or eighteen miles 
 give him a bucket of salt and water, with two handfuls of corn meal 
 thrown therein, and one quart of oats or corn; at twelve o'clock, and at 
 dinner time feed and water him in the same manner. Your horse will 
 require nothing more till night. 
 
 The day's ride being performed, turn him into a lot to cool and wal- 
 low; after which let him be placed in a stall on a good bed of straw. 
 1st. Offer him a bucket of water. 2nd. Remove all dirt and dust from 
 his legs and ancles with soap and warm water. 3d. Bathe him from his 
 belly to his hoofs with equal parts of vinegar and spirits, to which add a 
 little sweet oil, fresh butter, or hog's lard, stewing them all together, and 
 make use of the mixture as warm as the hand can bear it. 4th. He must 
 be well curried, brushed, and finally polished with a sheep skin or 
 woolen cloth. 5th. His feet should be nicely cleaned out and stuffed 
 with clay and salt, or fresh cow manure. 6th. He should be fed with 
 one gallon of old corn, or one and a half gallons of oats, and six bundles 
 of old fodder. Your horse being now in possession of every attention 
 and comfort you could offer him, will soon be refreshed, forget his hard 
 service, and be again prepared, by the next morning, to obey you, 
 whither you may direct his footsteps. If you have more than one day's 
 journey to perform with great rapidity, observe the same rules of feeding, 
 watering and attention, as directed for the first day, except th*feeding at 
 twelve o'clock, which quantity must be doubled. Many elegant and 
 
 •"Mason. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 87 
 
 TREATMENT OX A JOURNEY. 
 
 high spirited horses have been ruined and rendered useless, by persons 
 wanting experience on the above subject, who were disposed to treat 
 those faithful animals with every kindness in their power ; yet, being 
 under the necessity of performing a long journey in a limited time, and 
 not knowing that the will of a heated and fatigued horse should be con- 
 trolled, they have permitted him to eat as much as he pleased, or when 
 heated to drink as much cold pond or branch water, as his great thirst 
 would induce him, which have often been the means of producing cholic. 
 founder and other diseases, that too frequently prove fatal in the hands of 
 a common farrier, to which title every ostler blacksmith, and every 
 blockhead of a servant, who does not even understand the currying of a 
 horse, have pretensions. The loss of two or three quarts of blood to a 
 horse that has undergone excessive fatigue, will remove the soreness 
 and stiffness of his limbs, the natural consequence of violent exertion. 
 
 Treatment on a journey. To perform a long journey with comfort 
 and ease to a horse, requires, as in the case of excessive fatigue, several 
 <lays previous preparation. A horse which has been kept only at gras*. 
 or which is uncommonly fat, or unaccustomed to exercise and fatigue. 
 is quite unfit to perform a journey. A horse about half fat is in the best 
 condition to bear the fatigue and labor of a journey, especially if for eight 
 or ten days previous to setting out, he be fed with old corn, oats, or hay. 
 and be moderately exercised. Thus prepared, the following mode of 
 treatment is recommended upon the authority of Mason, in his " Farrier 
 Improved." 
 
 " 1st. Never permit your horse, while travelling, to drink cold branch, 
 well, or pond water, or more than is necessary to wet or moisten his 
 mouth. 2nd. Every time you stop to feed, (which will be morning, 
 breakfast, and dinner time,) give him a bucket of water made a little salt. 
 with about two handfuls of corn meal stirred in it; he will very soon 
 grow fond of it, and indeed prefer it to every other drink : it cools the 
 system, relieves thirst, and contains considerable uutriment. 3d. When- 
 ever you stop for the purpose of breakfasting, let your horse cool about 
 ten minutes; then feed with half a gallon of oats or corn and two bun- 
 dles of fodder, not forgetting to offer him again the water, meal and salt. 
 4th. At dinnertime observe the same treatment, as directed at breakfast. 
 5th. At night (having arrived at the place you intend stopping at) have 
 your horse turned into a lot, for the purpose of wallowing, cooling, &c. 
 6th. With soap and water have all dirt removed from his legs. 7th. Have 
 him placed on a good bed of straw, then take of spirits of any kind half a 
 pint, of vinegar half a pint, mix them together, and let his legs be washed 
 with the mixture until they are dry. 8th. Let him be well curried, brush- 
 ed, and rubbed with straw. 9th. Water him plentifully. 10th. Feed 
 him with two gallons of oats, or one and a half gallons of corn or homi- 
 ny, and eight or ten bundles of fodder. 11th. Let his hoofs be nicely 
 cleaned out and stuffed with fresh cow manure : this application keeps 
 them tough, moist, and cool. 12th. Change your food as often as possi- 
 ble, carefully avoid eating any that is new, or just gathered. Observe 
 the above rules to your journey's end, except your horse should prove a 
 great feeder, and in that case you may indulge him a little ; but the quan- 
 tity I have here recommended, is enough for any common horse when 
 travelling. It may not be amiss to remind the young traveller, to inspect 
 his horses shoes once a day, and whatever appears amiss about them to 
 have immediately rectified. It frequently happens that the skin of 
 
88 FAMILY 
 
 REARING AND TRAINING OF COLTS. 
 
 young horses, unaccustomed to travel, is chafed and scalded by the fric- 
 tion of the girth ; the part, washed and cleaned with a little soap and 
 water, and then washed with a little salt and water, will immediately 
 cure and toughen the skin." 
 
 OX THE REARING AND TRAINING OF COLTS. 
 
 During the first summer, the foals may be allowed to run with their 
 dams until September or October, if the weather continue open and 
 mild. They should then be weaned and kept in fold-yards, or paddocks, 
 containing open sheds, with low racks and mangers for receiving their 
 food ; which ought, at first, to be the sweetest hay that can be procured. 
 Where rowen can be commanded, it will furnish a succulent and in- 
 vigorating article ; but, both with hay and rowen, bran or oats should be 
 given in due proportions, which indeed can only be ascertained by expe- 
 rience. When, however, oats form a part of the food, it has been recom- 
 mended to bruise or crush them previously in a mill ; which necessarv 
 precaution will prevent the distention of the lower jaw veins, which 
 would otherwise attract the blood and humors down into the eyes, and 
 thus occasion blindness. Further ; by feeding young colts with oats, in 
 conjunction with other articles, their limbs become better knit than when 
 they are fed only with bran and hay ; while they will also be enabled to 
 endure greater severity of weather, and to acquire the vigor requisite to 
 their future improvement. It may, indeed, be assumed as an axiom, 
 that there is no greater error in breeding any animals, than that too com- 
 mon one of stinting them during the early period of their growth. It is 
 then that they require the greatest nourishment ; and if it be withheld, 
 they will be injured in their constitution, and consequently in their value, 
 to a far greater extent than any saving that can be effected in their food ; 
 but to no animal does this remark apply more strongly than to the horse. 
 
 It is a common practice, on weaning foals, to put them into warm sta- 
 bles during the following winter ; from a notion that they are not, at that 
 early age, able to support the cold of an open shed. Whether this may 
 be judicious with regard to the more tender breeds of blood cattle, it is not 
 our present object to enquire ; but with respect to the cart species, it is 
 unquestionably wrong. These, from the nature of their future employ- 
 ment, must necessarily be exposed to every vicissitude of weather ; and 
 they cannot be too early inured to a certain degree of hardship. They 
 should, indeed, be carefully kept from lying out, in the wet, at night ; 
 but during the day, they cannot be too much abroad; and dry hovels are 
 far to be preferred to warm stables for their nightly shelter. It has been 
 even found that young colts, which had shown symptoms of disease while 
 kept with all the care usually bestowed on hunters, have recovered when 
 removed to a paddock, and that weaned foals have thriven better when 
 only sheltered in a rick yard than when housed. 
 
 Colts, thus treated, will have acquired sufficient strength and hardihood 
 before the second winter, to be enabled to brave the inclemency of the 
 season, without any other food than hay, or any other covering than that 
 with which nature has provided them. The largest dray horse3 are thus 
 reared in the Lincolnshire marshes, in England : yet if they can be allow- 
 ed the shelter of a straw-yard, with the addition, to their hay, of unthrash- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 89 
 
 REARING AND TRAINING OF COLTS. 
 
 ed oat-straw, or some of the succulent roots, but especially carrots, it 
 will be of material benefit ; but they should be daily turned out into a 
 field, as exercise is not merely conducive to their general health and 
 growth, but particularly requisite in strengthening the sinews of their 
 liinbs. and giving firmness to their feet. This, indeed, is attended with 
 additional trouble ; for, in severe seasons, or when the pasture is quite 
 bare, it becomes uecessary to feed them in the pasture to which they are 
 turned. 
 
 The following summer the colts should be allowed the range of the best 
 pastures, though they are too frequently turned on the worst : and in 
 autumn they should be taken in, for the purpose of being broke to labor. 
 The process of training horses for the saddle is one of considerable nice- 
 ty : for those intended for the plough, it is much more simple ; but for 
 both, the chief and best means are, gentleness and patience. The horse 
 is an animal of much observation: capable of great attachment, and cf 
 equally strong resentment ; if treated with kindness he becomes docile : 
 but severity generally fails of its object, and renders him intractable. 
 There is certainly much difference in their natural temper, some requir- 
 ing much more care and time to reduce them to obedience than others; 
 but even the most restive may be rendered manageable by mild usage. 
 
 From the moment of its being weaned, the foal should he accustomed 
 to the halter, and to be wisped over and occasionally tied up : but this 
 should be done by the same person who feeds it. and that care should 
 never be entrusted to lads, who will probably teaze the animal and teach 
 it tricks, or to any hasty, ill-tempered man, who would be likely to ill- 
 treat it. The cok will thus early become accustomed to be handled, and 
 will consequently occasion much less trouble, than if he had been previ- 
 ously neglected. After being a day or two in the stable, a bridle should 
 be put on ; but with a small bit at first, instead of the large one usually 
 employed by horse breakers, and which by the horse r s champing on it 
 with impatience, sometimes occa-ions the mouth to become callous. He 
 should then be led about, and accustomed to obey the rein in turning and 
 stopping, which he will very soon learn ; and, after a few days he should 
 be completely harnassed, and out into a team among steady cattle. Care 
 should, however, be taken, neither to whip him nor to force him to draw, 
 but leave him quietly to walk with the other horses, and in a very short 
 time he will imitate them and begin to pull. It may then be as well to let 
 some one mount him, even if he should not be intended to be commonly 
 ridden, as it will render him the more docile ; but this had better be done 
 while he is in the team, as the other horses will prevent him from plung- 
 ing. Let no violence be used ; for such is his power of observation, that 
 while he will readily learn every thing that he is taught, he will also re- 
 collect many things that might be wished forgotten : thus, if flogged for 
 starting at any particular object, he will only start the more on meeting it 
 again, for he will remember the chastisement it occasioned ; and if hurt 
 in shoeing, or on any other occasion, he will never forget the pain it occa- 
 sioned, and will never suffer a repetition of the same without impatience. 
 Castration is commonly performed when the colt is twelve or eighteen 
 months old : some defer it longer, thinking that the later the operation is 
 performed, the more strength and spirit he will have acquired ; but it is 
 attended with greater danger at that period ; and it is much to be doubt- 
 ed whether it may not even be prejudicial to his temper. It is, besides, 
 to be observed, that the severity of the operation occasions a check to hi* 
 
 h2 
 
90 FAMILY 
 
 BREEDING, REARING, &C. OF SHEEP, 
 
 growth, which is more felt and of more consequence at an advanced pe- 
 riod, than when he is quite young. It is also worthy of consideration, in 
 a pecuniary view that the older the animal is the greater will be the loss ; 
 in case he should die ; and therefore perhaps the most prudent time will 
 be, during the summer the foal is sucking. Fears are sometimes enter- 
 tained of performing the operation in hot weather, lest inflammation take 
 place ; but extreme heat may be avoided, and there is even less danger 
 from that than from cold, and the exercise of running with the mare will 
 promote the suppuration, which will also be assisted by the warmth of her 
 milk. At a more advanced age, the colt should be guarded from wet, and 
 not allowed to drink cold water till the suppuration is complete. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Among the various animals given by the benevolent hand of Prori- 
 dence, for the benefit of mankind, there is none, perhaps, of greater utili- 
 ty than the sheep : which not only supplies us with food and clothing, but 
 also affords constant employment to numerous indigent families, in the 
 various branches of the woollen manufacture ; and thus contributes, in 
 110 small proportion, to the productive labor, and commercial prosperity, 
 and opulence of a people. 
 
 In a wild, or natural state, the sheep is a vigorous animal, lively, and 
 capable of supporting fatigue ; when domesticated, indeed, it loses these 
 properties, but amply compensates for the absence of them, by the supe- 
 rior advantages, arising from the rearing of this sort of cattle. In fact, 
 sheep constitute a material part of a farmer's live stock and profits ; and 
 as particular attention has of late years been bestowed on the improve- 
 ment of the respective breeds, we shall first present the reader with an 
 introductory view of them ; which will, we trust, convey an adequate 
 idea of the principal varieties, together with their specific characters, and 
 the peculiar advantages they respectively possess. The general manage- 
 ment of these animals will afterwards form a subject of discussion. 
 
 The sheep is an inhabitant of every part of the globe, from Iceland 
 to the regions of the torrid zone. According to Linnaeus, they are, the 
 hornless, horned, black-faced, Spanish, many-horned, African, Guinea, 
 broad-tailed, fat-rumped, Bucharian, long-tailed, Cape, bearded, and 
 morvant ; to which some add the Siberian sheep, cultivated in Asia, Bar- 
 bary, and Corsica, and the Cretan sheep, which inhabits the Grecian 
 islands, Hungary, and Austria. 
 
 The principal countries, in which special attention has been paid to 
 sheep, are Spain, parts of Germany, France, Great Britain, and the 
 United States. The present article will relate principally to the different 
 breeds of sheep raised in Great Britain, as these embrace the principal 
 varieties to be found in the countries already alluded to. 
 
 The following synopsis will give the reader not only a knowledge of 
 the different breeds of sheep in Great Britain, but many interesting par- 
 ticulars concerning them. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 91 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SHEEP IN G. BRITAIN. 
 
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92 FAMILY 
 
 LINTON, SHORT, OR FOREST SHEEP. 
 
 LINTON, SHORT, OR FOREST SHEEP. 
 
 I. The Heath, Linton, Short, or Forest Sheep depicted above, 
 are names indiscriminately given to the several varieties of the same 
 breed, which is found in the north-western counties of England, and 
 thence forward to the western highlands of Scotland. 
 
 The specific characters of this race are, large spiral horns; faces black 
 or mottled, and legs black; eyes wild and fierce ; carcass short and firm ; 
 wool long, open, coarse and shaggy ; fleece averaging about three pounds 
 and a half at four years and a half. They are of a hardy constitution, 
 admirably calculated for elevated, heathy, and exposed districts: and, 
 judging from this aptitude to support the hardships of constant exposure 
 in a wild pasturage country, as well as from the form of the horns, which 
 is characteristic of the animal in its unimproved state, it may be not im- 
 probably inferred, that they are directly descended from the parent 
 stock of the kingdom. The true black-faoed breed is said to be distin- 
 guished by a lock of white wool on the forehead, termed the snow-lock. 
 
 The other horned breeds of English sheep are 
 
 IL The Exmoor and the Dartmoor, which derive their names from 
 the districts in the northern and western parts of Devonshire, where they 
 are chiefly found. They are long-woolled, with white legs and faces, and 
 are delicately formed about the head and neck ; they make very finely 
 flavoured mutton ; and arrive when fatted, at two and a half to three 
 years old, to fourteen and sixteen pounds weight per quarter. 
 
 III. The Norfolk Breed is indigenous in the counties of Norfolk 
 and Suffolk. The horns are large and spiral ; bodies long ; loins narrow, 
 with a high back and thin chine ; the legs long, black, or gray ; of a roving, 
 wild disposition, and not easily confined within any but strong inclosures. 
 The wool is short, weighing about two pounds per fleece, and the flesh is 
 well flavored, and of a fine grain, but only fit for consumption in cold 
 weather. 
 
 IV. The Wiltshire Breed are distinguished by large spiral horns 
 bending downwards, close to the head ; they are perfectly white in their 
 faces and legs ; have long Roman noses, with large open nostrils ; are 
 wide and heavy in their hind quarters, and light in the fore quarter and 
 offal, but with little or no wool on their bellies. The quality of the fleece 
 is that of clothing wool of moderate fineness, averaging about two 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 93 
 
 LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 pounds and a half in weight; and the carcasses of the wethers when fat. 
 usually weigh from 651hs. to lOOlbs. : the mutton good : they sometimes, 
 however, reach much higher and maybe considered as our largest breed 
 of fine woolled sheep. 
 
 V. The Dorset Breed have small horns with white faces and lea 
 their wool is of an intermediate kind, between long and short, and of 
 middling fineness, weighing from three and a half to five pounds per 
 fleece: and the carcass averaging eighteen pounds per quarter, of excel- 
 lent mutton. They are a hardy race, being chiefly bred on open downs, 
 and inured to the fold; but their principal value consist- in ihe peculiar for- 
 wardness of the ewes, which take the ram at a much earlier period than 
 any other species, and are therefore much sought for, and command high 
 prices for the purpose of producing house-lamb for winter consumption. 
 
 The polled sheep may be divided into two classes — the long, and the 
 short woolled — the peculiar merits of which have for many years formed 
 a subject of discussion among agriculturalists. Each has valuable pro- 
 perties, and efforts have been made to blend them by crosses, but with- 
 out complete success : nature seems to have intended them for different 
 soils, and the short woolled breeds, which thrive upon the bleakest hill*. 
 degenerate when removed into rich pastures, which are alone capable of 
 maintaining the long woolled species. 
 
 THE LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 VI. The Leicester sheep take the lead among the long-woolledhind: 
 and of these there are three nearly distinct species : — 1. The Forest 
 sheep: 2. The Old Leicester; 3. The New Leicester or Dishleij Breed — 
 portrayed above — which are an improved kind of the latter species. 
 Their forms are handsome ; color white. Their heads are clean and 
 small, their necks short, and their breasts full ; their bodies are round, 
 with broad, straight backs, but the bellies rather light, or tucked up : 
 their legs and the whole bone are fine and particularly small in propor- 
 tion to their size ; their pelts thin, and the wool long and fine of it- 
 kind, generally averaging seven pounds to the fleece. They are of a 
 quiet .disposition, fatten early and kindly, and are capable of being 
 brought to a great weight, on a smaller proportion of food than other 
 breeds of the same size, the fat wethers generally weighing (when shear- 
 
94 FAMILY 
 
 ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP. 
 
 hogs) twenty-five pounds per quarter, and the ewes twenty-two pounds : 
 the flesh is fine grained and well flavored, but too fat to please most 
 palates. 
 
 VII. The Lincolnshire Breed so nearly resemble the old Leicester, ■ 
 that they require little further description. They have white faces and 
 legs, the bones large, and the carcass coarse ; the back long and hollow, 
 with flat ribs, but good loins, and a deep belly ; forward loose shoulders, 
 
 a heavy head, with a large neck, and sinking dewlap ; the hind quarter 
 broad, the legs standing wide apart, and a large dock. The pelt is par- 
 ticularly thick, and the fleece consists of very long combing wool, of a 
 rather coarse quality, but weighing generally from twelve to fourteen 
 pounds on the wethers, and from eight to ten pounds on the ewes. 
 
 VIII. The Teeswater Breed, differ from the Lincolnshire in their 
 wool not being so long and heavy ; in standing upon higher, though finer 
 boned legs, supporting a thicker, firmer, heavier carcass, much wider 
 upon their backs and sides ; and in affording a fatter and finer-grained 
 carcass of mutton : the two year old wethers weighing from 25 to 35 
 lbs. per quarter. Some particular ones at four years old have been fed 
 to 55 lbs. and upwards. There is little doubt that the Teeswater sheep 
 were originally bred from the same stock as the Lincolnshire ; but by 
 attending to size rather than wool, and constantly pursuing that object, 
 they have become a different variety of the same original breed. The 
 present fashionable breed is considerably smaller than the original spe- 
 cies ; but they are still considerably larger and fuller of bone than the 
 midland breed. They bear an analogy to the short-horned breed of cat- 
 tle, as those of the midland counties do to the long-horned. They are 
 not so compact, nor so complete in their form, as the Leicestershire 
 sheep ; nevertheless, the excellence of their flesh and fatting quality is 
 not doubted, and their wool still remains of a superior staple. For any 
 rich, fat land, they are singularly excellent. 
 
 IX. The Romney Marsh Sheep have existed immemorially on that 
 rich tract of grazing land, on the southern coast of the counties of Kent 
 and Sussex, from which they take their name. In their pure state, they 
 are distinguished by white faces, a considerable thickness and length of 
 head, and a broad forehead, with a tuft of wool upon it ; a long and thin 
 neck, and flat-sided carcass. They are wide on the loin, but have a sharp 
 chine, and the breast is narrow, and not deep ; the belly large ; a good 
 cleft ; the thigh full and broad, carrying the chief weight in the hind 
 quarter ; the tail thick, long, and coarse ; the legs thick, with large feet, 
 the muscle coarse, and the bone large. The wool is a good combing 
 quality ; the fleece of fattening wethers weighing from eight to nine 
 pounds ; the mutton is equal to that of any of the large polled breeds, and 
 their proof being good, they are favorites with the butchers. When fat, 
 the wethers usually average from ten to twelve stone each, and the ewes 
 from nine to eleven. They are very hardy ; are bred with little care, on 
 wet and exposed land, requiring, after the first year, when they are win- 
 tered on the uplands, no other food in the severest situation, than occa- 
 sionally a little hay, in addition to their pasture ; and are fattened entirely 
 on grass. 
 
 X. The Devonshire polled sheep form two distinct varieties of the 
 same breed: — 
 
 1. The South Devon or Dim-faced Nott, with brown face and legs; a 
 crooked-backed, flat-sided, coarsely-boned and woolled animal, carrying a 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 95 
 
 THE SOUTH-DOWN SHEEP, 
 
 fleece of 10 lbs. average weight, and averaging 22 lbs. per quarter of 
 good mutton, at thirty months old. 
 
 2. The Bampton Nott, with white face and legs, though in other re- 
 spects nearly resembling the former in appearance ; but the wethers will, 
 at twenty months old, average as much weight of carcass as the others 
 at thirty ; and if kept on for another year, will reach, when fat, as much 
 as 28 lbs. per quarter : they are not, however, equally productive of wool ; 
 for at the first period they only yield about 6* lbs., and at the latter 9 lbs. 
 
 Another variety of long-woolled sheep is found on the Cotswold Hills 
 to which most of the remarks already made on the Devon breeds will 
 equally apply. 
 
 The chief of the short-woolled polled breeds, are — 
 
 THE SOUTH-DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 XL The South-down, of which the specific characters are, — Faces 
 and legs gray ; bones fine ; head clean ; neck long and small ; low before ; 
 shoulder wide ; light in the fore quarter ; sides and chest deep ; loin 
 broad ; back bone rather too high ; thigh full, and twist good ; wool very- 
 fine and short, (the staple being from two to three inches in length.) 
 weighing an average of two pounds and a half per fleece, when killed at 
 two years old. Flesh fine grained, and of excellent flavor ; quick feed- 
 ers ; constitution hardy and vigorous. They are round in the general 
 appearance of the barrel ; and, from standing wide on their hind legs, 
 and being shut well in the twist, the leg of down mutton is remarkably 
 round and short, not only cutting handsomely for the table, but weigh- 
 ing heavier than common in proportion to the fore quarter : which are 
 material advantages to the butcher, as they command a ready sale, at an 
 advance of a penny per pound over the other joints. Fat wethers usual- 
 ly average about eighteen pounds per quarter. 
 
 These sheep have been bred for ages past on the chalky soils of the 
 South Downs, in Sussex ; and on such short pasture, and in such expos- 
 ed situations, they are perhaps the most valuable breed in the kingdom : 
 but they are spreading fast, not only into similar districts, but into coun- 
 ties better calculated for long woolled and larger sheep. The figure above 
 delineated, is from a South-down ewe bred by Mr. Ellman, of Glynd^. 
 
 XII. The Can.vock Heath sheep are bred upon an extensive waste. 
 
96 FAMILY 
 
 SOUTH-DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 .so named, in Staffordshire ; they are very generally grey faced ; without 
 horns ; bear fine wool ; and from many points of similitude between them 
 and the South-down breed, it has been thought that they were originally 
 derived from the same stock. The bone, however, is coarser ; nor do 
 they possess the same beauty and compactness as the downs ; but these 
 defects probably arise from inattention on the part of the former breed- 
 ers, which the present flock-masters are making efforts to rectify ; and to 
 counterbalance them, the carcass is heavier, and the mutton equally good. 
 XIII. The Ryeland Breed, is so called from a district in the neigh- 
 borhood of Ross, in Herefordshire. They are small, white faced, and 
 hornless ; the wool growing close to their eyes ; are light in the bone ; 
 have small, clean legs; and, when proper attention has been paid to the 
 breeding stock, possess great compactness and symmetry. The ewes 
 weigh from nine to twelve and fourteen pounds, and the wethers from 
 twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter, when fatted, at three to four years 
 old, and their flesh is equal to any mutton in the kingdom. The fleece 
 does not average more than two pounds ; but the quality of the wool is 
 unrivalled by that of any of our native stock. 
 
 A cross has been made between this breed and the Spanish sheep, the 
 produce of which are termed Merino Ryelands, and the wool Anglo merino. 
 
 In some of the neighboring counties to Herefordshire, both in Eng- 
 land and Wales, there is a breed of sheep very much resembling the 
 Ryelands, known as the 
 
 Shropshire morf. They bear wool of a fine quality : generally have 
 white faces and legs, though sometimes a little freckled ; are tight in the 
 bone, and have small clean limbs. There are two species, which, from 
 inattention to the breeds, are often blended. The one polled, the other 
 having small, light, crooked horns, — a still smaller variety, bred on the 
 mountains, and in high estimation for the table, but which is generally 
 known under the common denomination of Welsh. 
 
 XIV. The Cheviot Sheep were originally bred upon the hilly dis- 
 tricts in the north-west part of Northumberland, but have since spread 
 over many of the mountainous tracts in the neighboring counties, and 
 have even nearly superseded the horned breed of black-faced sheep in 
 some parts of the Highlands of Scotland. They are hornless, and their 
 faces and legs are in general white, though formerly the prevailing color 
 was black. The best breeds have an open countenance, with lively 
 prominent eyes ; long bodies, but wanting depth in the breast, and on the 
 chine; and fine, clean, small-boned limbs. They are seldom slaughtered 
 until they have attained the age of four to four and a half years, when 
 the fat wethers will average from 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, fattening 
 kindly, and producing mutton of excellent quality. The wool is inferior 
 to that of most other of the short-woolled polled breeds, and appears to 
 have been injured by some late attempts to improve the carcass. 
 
 The Sheep known as the Herdwick breed, though smaller than the 
 Cheviot, and only found in one rocky and mountainous district at the 
 head of the Duddon and Esk rivers, in Cumberland, (Eng.) appear to 
 be only a variety of the same race. 
 
 Another variety, termed the Dun-faced breed, is found in the exposed 
 northern districts of England. The faces of the sheep are of a dun, or 
 tawny color ; the animals are smaller in size ; have short tails ; and are 
 not so hardy as the preceding sort. The wool is variously streaked with 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 97 
 
 MERINO, OR SPANISH SHEEP. 
 
 black, red, brown or dun, and partly of a fine texture, weighing about a 
 pound and a half per fleece, when killed at four years and a half. Flesh 
 finely grained, and of excellent flavor. 
 
 The Shetland breed, a nearly similar race, derives its name from the 
 islands on the north coast of Scotland, where these sheep are reared. 
 The wool is very fine and soft, fit for the finest manufactures ; the fleece 
 weighs upon an average from one to three pounds. The Shetland sheep 
 are very hardy, but too wild to be confined. 
 
 MERINO, OR SPANISH SHEEP. 
 
 XV. The Merino, or Spanish sheep, a wether of which breed is hero 
 delineated — have horns of a middle size, of which the ewes are some- 
 times destitute; faces white ; legs of the same hue and rather long ; shape 
 not very perfect, having a piece of loose skin depending from the neck ; 
 bone fine ; pelt fine and clear. 
 
 The wool of the Merino sheep is uncommonly fine, and weighs, upon 
 an average, about three pounds and a halfper fleece. The best Merino 
 fleeces have a dark brown tinge on their surface, almost amounting to 
 black, which is formed by dust adhering to the greasy, yolky properties 
 of its pile ; and there is a surprising contrast between it and the rich 
 white color within, as well as the rosy hue of the skin, which peculiarly 
 denotes high proof. The Merinos are natives of the northern provinces 
 of Spain, and were first introduced into Great Britain in the year 17*7 ; 
 but it was not until 1792 that any effectual measures were adopted to- 
 wards improving the English breeds by a Spanish cross. In the last- 
 mentioned year the late king of England received several rams of the 
 Negretti breed ; but so great was the force of prejudice, that notwith- 
 standing the manufacturers confessed the wool of the Anglo Spanish 
 cross to be of prime quality, yet not one individual bid for it a price at all 
 equal to what they paid for good Spanish wool. From these sheep im- 
 ported by the king, and from the great exertions of the late Lord Somer- 
 ville, (who at an immense expense imported a flock of choice Merinos,) 
 great benefit has been derived to the wool, by crossing this sort with the 
 
98 FAMILY 
 
 MERINO, OR SPANISH SHEEP, 
 
 best British breeds : although the produce of the cross has not been im- 
 proved in shape. The most successful cross has been with the Hereford- 
 shire, the fleece of which is heavier, in proportion to the carcass, than 
 that of any other known breed in Europe ; the average weight of the 
 fleeces of two shear-ewes being estimated at four pounds and a half 
 avoirdupois, in an unwashed state ; and the fleece of a fat wether of the 
 same age will be from five to seven pounds. 
 
 In Spain, the sheep from which these flocks have been obtained, are 
 bred in the northern provinces of the kingdom of Leon, and of Segovia 
 and Soria, in Old Castile, and the district of Buitrago, in New Castile ; 
 from whence after being shorn they are driven southward at the approach 
 of winter, and dispersed over the plains of Estremadura, La Manchaand 
 Andalusia, until the return of summer, when they travel back to their na- 
 tive pastures ; and whether from instinct or habit, they are said to display 
 symptoms of restlessness as the time approaches for their change of pas- 
 ture. They are in consequence termed Trashumante flocks ; and there is 
 a code of regulations, sanctioned by the authority of law, for the govern- 
 ment of the shepherds during these periodical migrations. The ancient 
 pasturages in the south are secured to them at a fixed rate. A strip of 
 land, of considerable width, is left in pasture at each side of the road for 
 their accommodation, without which they could not travel with conven- 
 ience ; and the greatest attention is paid to secure these privileges. By thus 
 removing them at the different seasons from north to south, and backagain, 
 they are kept in a nearly equal temperature, and it probably is to that ad- 
 vantage that the superiority of the wool of the Trashumante flocks is to be 
 attributed ; that from those which remain stationary, being far inferior ; 
 as a proof of which the Caceres, or Estremaduran wool, grown in one of 
 the central provinces, commands little more than half the price of the 
 Leonesa. It must, however, be admitted, that, in Spain, it is a disputed 
 point whether the travelling flocks are really benefited by the equality of 
 climate thus obtained ; some stationary flocks in the province of Segovia 
 being said to produce as fine wool as any of the Trashumante. 
 
 If the supposition that the change of pasture be correct, it must follow 
 that these sheep, when exposed to the variable climate of this country, 
 will necessarily change the quality of their fleece; upon which climate is 
 known to have the greatest influence. It may, indeed, be said, that the 
 change might even then be advantageous ; for a certain degree of cold is 
 rather favorable than otherwise to the growth of fine wool ; and its im- 
 provement in Saxony, into which country the Spanish breeds were intro- 
 duced about half a century ago, might be adduced as an instance in point. 
 But in Germany, these sheep are regularly housed during the winter ; 
 they are also kept, during that season, on dry fodder, w r hich may be sup- 
 posed to have a material effect on the fleece, for the Spanish sheep are 
 kept on bare, and generally burnt-up pasture, without even tasting arti- 
 ficial food ; and our ow T n finest w T oolled flocks are maintained on the scan- 
 ty herbage of the downs. 
 
 In France, — where the royal flock of Rambouillet, picked from the 
 best in Spain, was introduced in 1785, — the sheep suffered greatly by 
 the cold until housed ; and although the Merino breed has been since na- 
 turalized in that country,* and still retains the fineness of the texture of 
 the wool, yet it loses in softness iind in strength of staple. 
 
 * By a treaty made between France and Spain, during the French Revolution, 5000 
 ewes and 500 rams, of the best Spanish breeds, were placed at the disposal of the French 
 Government. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 99 
 
 MERINO, OR SPANISH SHEEP. 
 
 The Trafltramante flocks have existed from a very early period in Spain. 
 There is an ancient tradition that the original stock was obtained from this 
 country; but it has not been traced to any authentic source. In the six- 
 tenth century, they were calculated at seven millions; but their numbers 
 have since much diminished, and they are now supposed not to exceed five. 
 
 The chief flocks are those oFPaular. which belong to a richly endowed 
 monastery of that name in Segovia — of Negrctti, the property of the Mar- 
 quess of Campo d'Alauge — of the Escurial, formerly belonging to the 
 crown; and those owned by the Duke de 1' Infantado, the Marquess d' 
 Iranda, and Perales, and Count San Rafael ; each of which consists of 
 from 40,000 to 60,000, and the average weight of the fleece is estimated 
 at 5 lbs. 
 
 In respect to the sheep at the present day, found in the United States, 
 it cannot be necessary to enlarge, since few probably are unacquainted 
 with the breeds of their native country. 
 
 It may be proper to observe, however, that before the introduction of 
 the merino breed, there were, besides the common and coarse woolled 
 sheep of the country, three kinds of sheep, which, for a time, attracted 
 some attention, viz. the Otter, the Arlington, and the Smith's island sheep. 
 
 The Otter sheep, it is said, were first discovered on some island on our 
 eastern coast. This sheep is distinguished for the extreme shortness of 
 its legs, which are also turned out. in such a manner as to render them 
 ricketty. They appear, observes a writer, as if their legs had been bro- 
 ken, and set by an awkward surgeon. They have not been extensively 
 propagated among us. 
 
 The Arlington long-wootled sheep were derived from the stock kept by 
 Washington at Mount Vernon- They appear to have been derived from 
 a Persian rain, intermixed with the Bake well or New Leicestershire breed. 
 
 The origin of the Smith's island sheep (an island which lies in the 
 Atlantic ocean, immediately at the eastern cape of Virginia) cannot be 
 precisely ascertained ; but they are supposed to be the indiginal race of 
 the country, discovered somewhat less than half a century since, and 
 improved by the hand of nature. The wool of this sheep is said to be 
 soft, white, and silky ; but not so fine as the merino wool. 
 
 The introduction of the merino sheep forms an era in the history of 
 agriculture, and we may add of manufactures in our country. The first 
 merino sheep, ever imported into the United States, were two pairs 
 sent into the country in the spring of 1802, from France, by Robert R. 
 Livingston. 
 
 Shortly after, a much greater number were introduced by the late 
 Col. Humphreys, directly from Spain. 
 
 Since that period, importations of Merinos, Saxony, South Down, 
 &c. &c. have been frequent. 
 
 It cannot be doubted from the experiments alreadv made that the 
 United States of America, particularly the country which lies north of 
 the Chesapeake, is well adapted to the breeding of sheep, not only from 
 the fine herbage which every where crowns our hills, and furnishes that 
 sort of pasture, which is especially adapted to sheep; but also from the 
 singular exemption of our sheep from most of the diseases, which so 
 frequently diminish the flocks of Europe. 
 
 So much has been written on the subject of the breeding, rearing and 
 
100 FAMILY 
 
 REARING SHEEP. 
 
 management of sheep, to which probably most of our readers have access, 
 that we deem it unnecessary to notice this subject otherwise than to se- 
 lect from the best writers the results of their experience touching a few 
 of the most important items, which will naturally claim the attention of 
 the wool grower. 
 
 Essential requisites to a good ram. 
 
 " His head should be fine and small ; his nostrils wide and expanded ; 
 his eyes prominent, and rather bold aud daring; ears thin; his collar full 
 from his breast and shoulders, but tapering gradually all the way to where 
 the neck and head join, which should be very fine and graceful, being 
 perfectly free from any coarse leather hanging down ; the shoulders broad 
 aud full, which must at the same time join so easy to the collar forward, 
 and chine backward, as to leave not the least hollow in either place : the 
 mutton upon his arm, or fore-thigh, must come quite to the knee ; his 
 legs upright, with a clean, fine bone, being equally clear from superflu- 
 ous skin, and coarse hairy wool from the knee and hough downwards ; 
 the breast broad and well forward, which will keep his fore legs at a pro- 
 per wideness; his girth, or chest, full and deep, and, instead of a hollow 
 behind the shoulders, that part, by some called the fore-flank, should be 
 quite full ; the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, from which the 
 ribs must rise with a fine circular arch ; his belly straight ; the quarters 
 long and full, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should nei- 
 ther stand in nor out ; his twist (i. e. the junction of the inside of the thighs) 
 deep, wide, and full, which with the broad breast, will keep his fore-legs 
 open and upright ; the whole body covered with a thin pelt ; and that with 
 fine, bright, soft wool. 
 
 Signs of a healthy sheep. These are a rather wild or lively briskness ; 
 a brilliant clearness in the eye ; a florid ruddy color on the inside of the 
 eyelids, and what are termed the eyestrings as well as in the gums ; a 
 fastness in the teeth ; a sweet fragrance in the breath ; a dryness of the 
 nose and eyes ; breathing easy aud regular ; a coolness in the feet : dung 
 properly formed; coat or fleece firmly attached to the skin, and unbroken; 
 the skin exhibiting a florid red appearance, especially upon the brisket. 
 Where there are discharges from the nose and eyes, it indicates their 
 having taken cold and should be attended to by putting them in dry shel- 
 tered situations. 
 
 Signs of the age of sheep. The age of sheep is determined by the state 
 of their teeth. In their second year they have two broad teeth ; in their 
 third year, four broad teeth ; in their fourth year, six broad teeth ; and in 
 their fifth year, eight broad teeth before. After which none can tell how 
 old a sheep is while their teeth remain, except by their being worn down. 
 About the end of one year, rams, wethers, and all young sheep, lose two 
 fore-teeth of the lower jaw ; and they are known to want the incisive 
 teeth in the upper jaw. At eighteen months, the two teeth joining to 
 the former, also fall out ; and at three years, being ali unplaced, they are 
 even and pretty white. But as these animals advance in age, the teeth 
 become loose, blunt, and afterwards black. The age of the ram, and all 
 horned sheep, may also be known by their horns, which show themselves 
 in their very first year, and often at the birth, and continue to grow a 
 ring annually to the last period of their lives. 
 
 Time of purchasing sheep. With respect to the time, or proper age for 
 purchasing sheep intended for breeding, there is a difference of opinion : 
 put the most experienced breeders recommend them to be procured a 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 101 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 short time previously to shearing, from the farmer, grazier, or owner's 
 house ; because they will then be seen in their natural state, and the real 
 depth of the staple may also be easily ascertained without the possibility 
 of any fraud or imposition being practised on the buyer by the vender. 
 
 Breeding of Ewes. Ewes generally breed at the age of fifteen or eight- 
 een months, though many experienced breeders never admit the ram till 
 they are two years old. Much, however, depends, in this respect on the 
 goodness of the food, as well as on the forward or backward state of the 
 breed. The choice of ewes, therefore, ought to be made with care and 
 discrimination, not only as to the characteristic marks, which ought to be 
 the same as those of the ram, but also with regard to the breed; for, with 
 sheep, as with other cattle stock, no certain degree of excellence can be 
 attained, unless the female possesses an equal degree of blood with the male. In 
 particular, a purchaser should see that the animals be sound ; and, in order 
 to ascertain this point, it will be advisable to examine whether the teeth are 
 white, the gums red, the breath not fetid, the eyes lively, the wool firm, 
 and the feet cool; qualities these which afford a certain criterion of health 
 or disease. 
 
 During the period of gestation, ewes require great attention, lest any 
 accident should occasion them to slip their lambs ; and, if that should take 
 place, it will be proper to separate them instantly from the rest of the flock. 
 It will, therefore, be necessary to keep them in the same manner as cows, 
 while going with calf, namely, upon a moderate or tolerably good shel- 
 tered pasture, where no object can disturb them : though, if this should 
 fail, it will be advisable to give them turnips, or similar green food, under 
 the like precautions, till within the last two or three w r eeks before their 
 yeaning. In the breeding of cattle, indeed, it is a maxim which ought 
 to be steadily kept in mind, that nothing can be more prejudicial to the 
 females than to fatten them during gestation ; and with respect to ewes 
 in particular, this rule should be more carefully observed than with re- 
 gard to any other animal ; for if they be fed too high while they are going 
 with lamb, they will undergo great difficulty and pain in yeaning ; where- 
 as, unless they are put into a little heart before that period arrives, they 
 will not only be deficient in strength at the critical moment, but also be 
 destitute of a sufficient supply of milk for the support of the lamb, and 
 consequently both the dam and her progeny must be greatly weakened, 
 if they do not actually perish from such mismimagement. 
 
 Owning of Lambs. It often happens, says Mr. Grove, that ewes will 
 not own their lambs, particularly the first "they bear ; and in this case I 
 would advise to the sprinkling a little salt on the lamb ; which induces 
 the ewe to lick it after which she will generally allow it to suck. If not, 
 the ewe with her lamb should be placed in a separate enclosure (of which 
 several should be previously prepared) and fed with the most nutritious 
 fodder, particularly with nourishing liquids, that the udder may be un- 
 comfortably distended ; and if this be not sufficient she must be tied by 
 the legs, till the lamb has been once suckled ; after which there will be 
 no farther difficulty. 
 
 Weaning Lambs. This depends upon various circumstances. If the 
 parent ewe is broken mouthed, or so faulty in wool, or in shape, as to 
 render it desirable to get rid of her, the lamb must be weaned early, so 
 as to admit of her being fattened in season ; if she is admitted to the ram 
 as soon as she is disposed to take him, the earlier she will fat. If the ob- 
 ject is to render the lambs as large as possible, and they are of such a 
 
 T ° 
 
 1 <* 
 
102 FAMILY 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 stock, as to make the ewes of comparatively less value, it will be best to 
 let the lambs run with them, till they wean themselves % because they un- 
 doubtedly grow the more rapidly for it. This mode, therefore, I would 
 recommend, when a merino flock is to be engrafted upon a common one, 
 But if the ewes are valuable, it certainly will be best to wean the lambs 
 so early, as to give the ewes some respite, before they take the ram again ; 
 and indeed, if early lambs are preferred, early weaning is absolutely ne- 
 cessary, as the ewe will seldom take the ram when exhausted by nursing. 
 In Spain, they leave the lambs with the ewe till they wean themselves 
 In France, and generally in England, they are weaned at three and four 
 months old. In order to prevent the lambs from falling off, when they 
 are weaned, they should be put into a piece of young tender grass, with 
 an old quiet ewe or wether to direct their movements; they should also 
 be out of sight and hearing of their mothers, that they may the sooner for- 
 get each other. If the keeping them apart be inconvenient, they may 
 be brought together at the end of a fortnight, Some attention should be 
 paid to the ewes for the first week, in order to prevent their suffering by 
 a too great flow of milk, which should be taken from them every day or 
 two ; and perhaps it would be best, till their milk is dried up, to keep 
 them in scanty pastures. 
 
 Winter management. It is recommended to give ewes with lamb, a 
 somewhat more than ordinary quantity of food, for a month or six weeks 
 before they are expected to yean. Not enough, however to make them 
 fat, as dangerous consequences might attend their being in very high 
 condition at that period. Turnips are said to be injurious to ewes with, 
 lamb, but may be well given them after they have yeaned. If your 
 sheep, whether store sheep or ewes with lamb, have good hay, about a 
 quart of potatoes a day to each will, it is said, be very beneficial, and aii 
 ample allowance. Potatoes, besides their use as food for sheep, are said 
 to be very serviceable as an article of diet, which usually supersedes the 
 necessity of medicine. They have, when given raw, an opening or purga- 
 tive quality, which is thought to be of use, and answer a similar purpose 
 with sheep, which is effected with swine by brimstone and antimony. 
 Potatoes, baked, steamed or boiled, will furnish more nutriment than those 
 which are raw. 
 
 Care should be taken to place in the stable small tubs or troughs of water 
 for the sheep to drink in. They will do very well in the summer without 
 water, as they feed when the dew is on; but they need water in winter, es- 
 pecially if fed mostly on dry food. When sheep have colds, and discharge 
 mucus from the nose, good feeding, together with pine boughs, given oc- 
 casionally, will cure them; or tar, spread over a board, over which a little 
 tine salt is strewed, will induce sheep to lick up the tar, and this will cure 
 a cold. Half a gill of Indian corn a day, given to each sheep during winter, 
 is recommended as keeping them in good heart, preventing the wool from 
 falling off, and enabling the ewes to rear their young better, than they 
 would if fed altogether on food of a less substantial.nature. 
 
 Quantity of food. Writers do not agree on the quantity of food, which 
 a given number of sheep will consume to advantage in a given time. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Lawrence, a sheep will eat twenty pounds of turnips in 
 twenty four hours; but that one gallon of potatoes will generally suffice. 
 The size of the sheep he does not give. The same writer also states that 
 the quantity of food required by a sheep, compared with an ox, is as one to 
 eight or nine. Daubenton, a celebrated French agriculturalist, gives the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 103 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 following as the result of an experiment which he made on this subject. 
 u I confined," says he u in a small space, two sheep, about twenty inches 
 high, (the height of most wooiled animals in France . ) By way of experi- 
 ment, I caused the sheep to be fed during eight days, solely on grass new- 
 ly cut, and weighed before placed in their rack. Care was taken to pick 
 up, and place back again, all that the sheep let fall, and to weigh that which 
 they would not eat, in consequence of its being too tough, or because it 
 possessed some bad quality. From this trial, frequently repeated, it ap- 
 peared that a sheep of the middle stature eats about eight pounds of grass 
 in a day. The same experiments, conducted with the same preciseness. 
 in regard to the fodders of hay or straw, have proved that a sheep of 
 middling height likewise eats daily two pounds of hay, or two pounds and 
 a half of straw. 
 
 In order to ascertain how many pounds of grass go to one pound of 
 hay, I caused the grass to be weighed as soon as cut ; it was then spread 
 on cloths exposed to the sun, so that none might be lost, though at the 
 same time well dried. Being thus converted into hay, I found its weight 
 reduced to one fourth ; eight pounds of grass had given only two pounds 
 of hay. 
 
 Manner of feeding. u One thing, (says Mr. Tessier) cannot be too much 
 recommended, which is to place the hay in the racks while the sheep are 
 out of the house ; by this precaution the dust will not fall upon the flee- 
 ces.'' Dr. Draw observes that the rack in which the hay is put should 
 be upright, so that in feeding, the seeds, chaff, &c. should not fall into 
 the wool, about their necks. Under the racks should be a trough for 
 catching the seeds of the hay, and feeding the sheep. 
 
 Salt. With regard to giving salt to sheep writers have disagreed. It 
 is believed to be better not to give them any, than to allow them too great 
 a quantity. M. Tessier says, " sheep have been known to be attended 
 with long and troublesome looseness in consequence of having taken too 
 much salt ; which has induced the belief that sea-water is poisonous to 
 them ; and that his sheep had always been healthy though he had never 
 given them any salt. But he states that it may be indispensably necessa- 
 ry in wet countries." And Dr. Cooper, editor of the last edition of the 
 Domestic Encyclopedia, recommends one fourth of an ounce a day. as a 
 proper quantity for sheep. Mr. Grove likewise says, " salt is required 
 by sheep, at intervals, during the whole year : but it is often given in 
 too great quantities, and almost forced upon the sheep ; which is often 
 injurious, and often injures the digestion, so that the best grain will pass 
 through them unaltered. The best mode, where rock salt is to be had. is 
 to attach pieces here and there in the stable or pasture, and let them lick 
 it as they wish. The usual calculation is from one to two pounds yearly, 
 per head : but I have usually found that something less than one pound 
 was quite sufficient, and more thau this is not given in Saxony to the 
 best managed flocks." 
 
 Folding. Cotting or folding of sheep, is a practice more or less exten- 
 sively followed with particular breeds, and in particular districts : but 
 now generally on the decline. It was formerly thought to be indispen- 
 sably necessary to the success of the farmer in different districts : but of 
 late a different opinion has prevailed, except in particular cases, and it is 
 considered as merely enriching one field at the expense of another. 
 The object is to enrich the arable land ; but as this is done at the expense 
 of the pasture, it is truly as Bakewell expresses it, "robbing Peter to pay 
 Paul." 
 
104 FAMILY 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 
 Marking. An English writer gives the following : — Mark on either 
 side ofthewoseof the sheep, the initials of the owner's name, and on the 
 opposite side any number by which he may choose to designate the par- 
 ticular sheep, by means of a small iron letter or figure about an inch long; 
 which being dipped in common oil colors, mixed with turpentine to dry 
 them more readily, is placed on the part described, and will continue 
 until the next shearing season. The process is easy, and will give the 
 animal no pain ; the marks cannot be readily obliterated, which is not 
 the case with tattooing or cauterizing. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING OF SWINE. 
 
 It is the remark of a writer, that those animals which are mOst essen- 
 tial to the comfort of man, have been most widely diffused, by a kind 
 providence. Among these animals we must certainly rank swine. They 
 are to be found in all latitudes, between the frozen regions, on the north 
 and south. Of domestic stock, few varieties are more profitable to the 
 breeder, than swine. While the number kept on a farm is proportioned 
 to the quantity of offal on the premises, especially as the attendance they 
 require, is, when compared with that of others, very trifling, and the 
 benefit arising from their manure more than counterbalances the expense 
 of such attendance. 
 
 The characteristic marks of a good hog are, a moderate length, as to 
 the carcass in general ; the head and cheek being plump and full; and 
 the neck thick and short; bone fine; quarters full ; the carcass thick and 
 full ; his bristly hide fine and thin; the symmetry or proportion of the 
 whole well adapted to the respective breeds or varieties ; and above all, 
 a kindly disposition to fatten early. 
 
 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 
 Swine differ greatly in different countries, in respect to size, color, 
 &c. &c. In Piedmont they are universally black, and this color obtains 
 so generally throughout Italy, that swine's flesh is often called, in the 
 language of that country, new, or black. In Normandy their color is 
 white, but in the neighboring country of Bavaria, it is reddish brown. 
 In Hungary and Sweden swine are often found with solid hoofs, although 
 in other countries they are universally cloven footed. 
 
 The parent stock of the domestic swine of Europe, is doubtless, the 
 wild boar, which is still found in some of the forests of France, Germany, 
 and other parts of Europe, as well as those of Persian India. 
 
 Wild boars usually live in families and are hunted as an amusement 
 in all parts of the world, in which they are found. The flesh of the wild 
 animals, if they are not old, is said to be much superior to that of our 
 domestic swine. That of the young ones is peculiarly delicate. Of an 
 old wild boar the head only is at all eatable. 
 
 Considerable attention has been paid to swine in England, where al- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 105 
 
 CHINESE BREED. 
 
 most every county has its peculiar breed. These varieties are in part, 
 it is said, the effects of crossing the European variety with the Chinese, 
 some account of which we shall here give. 
 
 CHINESE BREED. 
 
 I. The Chinese Breed, of the general appearance of which the above 
 is a tolerably correct delineation, when fat, were originally obtained, as 
 their name imports, from China. Of these there are two nearly distinct 
 kinds : the white, and the black ; both are small ; and, although of an; 
 extraordinary disposition to fatten, will seldom arrive to a greater weight 
 than sixteen or eighteen stone of fourteen pounds at two years of age. 
 The former are better shaped than the latter ; but they are less hardy, 
 and less prolific. They are both very small limbed; round in the car- 
 cass ; thin skinned, and fine bristled ; and have the head so bedded in the 
 neck, that when quite fat, the end only of the snout is perceptible. They 
 are tender aud difficult to rear, and the sows are bad nurses; yet, from 
 their early aptitude to fatten they are in great esteem with those who 
 only rear young porkers. Their flesh is rather too delicate for bacon ; 
 it is also defioient in lean; and their hind quarters being small, in propor- 
 tion to the body, they cut up to disadvantage : they,however, possess the 
 valuable properties of being very thrifty, and of fattening on a compara- 
 tively small quantity of food. 
 
 There is also amixed breed of this kind, being white variously patched 
 with black; some of which have prick ears, like the true breed, which 
 they otherwise resemble in form, and others have the ears round at the 
 ends, and hanging downwards, 
 
106 FAMILY 
 
 BERKSHIRE DREED, 
 
 BERKSHIRE BREED. 
 
 II. Berkshire Breed, is distinguished by being in general of a tawny, 
 white, or relish color ; spotted with black; large ears, hanging over 
 the eyes ; thick/close, and well made in the body; legs short; small in 
 the bone ; having a disposition to fatten quickly ; and when well fed the 
 flesh is fine. " Berkshire has been long famous for its breed of swine, 
 which, as it now stands, is, in the third class, in point of size, excellent in 
 all respects, but particularly as a cross for heavy, slow feeding sorts. It 
 lias extended itself from the district from which it takes its name, over 
 most parts of England ; it is the sort mostly fatted at the distilleries ; 
 feeds to a great weight ; is good for either pork or bacon ; and is suppo- 
 sed by many to be the most hardy, both in respect to its nature and the 
 food on which it will thrive. 
 
 III. The Essex Half Black pigs, are apparently descended from the 
 Berkshire stock, and may be reckoned among the finest breeds in Eng- 
 land. They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned, smaller 
 heads and ears than the Berkshire ; but the latter are feathered with in- 
 side hair, which is a distinctive mark of both ; short, snubby noses, very 
 fine bone, broad and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light 
 in the bone and offal ; the sows are good breeders, and bring litters from 
 eight to twelve ; but they also have the character of being bad nurses. 
 
 Mr. Western describes them, as feeding remarkably quick, growing 
 fast, and being of an excellent quality of meat; and he considers them 
 at least equal, upon a fair comparison of age, food and weight, to any 
 other sort whatever. 
 
 The Sussex Breed, is either a variety of the Essex, just described, or, 
 as some assert, the original stock. It is smaller than the Berkshire, and 
 of a very handsome form, the general size, when full grown, seldom ex- 
 ceeding eighteen or twenty stone of fourteen pounds. The bone is not 
 particularly small, but it is clean ; the animal is of a kindly disposition 
 to fatten, and arrives at maturity sooner thau any other kind. 
 
 The Dishley Breed, which were at one time as celebrated as all the other 
 kinds of Mr. Bake well's stock, are remarkably fine boned, and delicate, 
 and are supposed to be partly descended from crosses of the Berkshire 
 and Chinese. They are certainly carried to great perfection, and have 
 reached to considerable weight, in a very small compass, being, when 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 10 
 
 WOBURN Oil IIEDFORD BREED. 
 
 fat, nearly equal in height, length, and thickness, their bellies nearly 
 touching the ground, and their eyes scarcely to be >een for fat: 
 whole carcass appearing a solid mass of flesh. 
 
 The form of these pigs possesses considerable beantv. and is well cal- 
 culated to lay on a large quantity of meat compared with their bone and 
 offal. They also keep themselves in good conditio;:. rate 
 
 quantity of ifood, and are easily fattened.^ 
 
 WOBURN, OR BEDFORD BREED. 
 
 IV. The Woburn Breed, of which the animal portrayed above 
 exhibited at Lord Somerville's Cattle Show, in 1806, is a new variety in- 
 troduced by the Duke of Bedford. They are of various color?, well 
 formed, hardy, very prolific, kindly disposed to fatten, and have attained 
 to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs within the same given 
 period of time. 
 
 Besides these, there are : — 
 
 The Hampshire, the specific characters of which are — color chiefly 
 white : neck and carcass long, and the body not so well formed as the 
 Berkshire pigs ; but they fatten kindly to a very great size and weight. 
 and make excellent bacon. 
 
 The Northampton, which are also white, with very short legs, ear? 
 enormously large, often sweeping the ground ; size large, with coarse 
 bone and hair, and many bristles. They fatten to a great size, but not 
 very kindly, and are reared chiefly in the county of Northampton. 
 
 The Shropshire, which appear to be a variety of the Northampton race, 
 to whose characteristics they bear a great resemblance : fattening to a 
 large size, but not so kindly disposed as the Berkshire ; yet they are both 
 favorites with the distillers, who seem to require a coarse, heavy pig to 
 consume their wash and grains with advantage. 
 
 The Yorkshire, which are similar in color to the Berkshire, but with 
 longer ears, and coarser hair. They have long legs, flat sides, and are 
 coarse in the bone : they are also slow feeders ; but for the reasons al- 
 ready assigned they, as well as the Northampton and Shropshire, are in 
 esteem with the distillers. 
 
 The Lincolnshire, w r ith well formed heads and ears of a medium size 
 pointing forward, and curled at the tips ; they are long and straight from 
 
108 FAMILY 
 
 CHESHIRE BREED. 
 
 the head to the tail, and of sufficient breadth ; round in the carcass and 
 deep in the sides ; the skin and hair thin. The true bred pigs of this 
 race are white, and rather tender; but they reach to thirty stone of four* 
 teen pounds, and in point of profit may be ranked next to the Berkshire. 
 This breed is also known (with some occasional variation) as the Norfolk 
 and Suffolk. 
 
 The Cheshire, of various colors, but chiefly marked with broad patches 
 of black, or blue, and white, have lage heads, with long pendant ears ; 
 are of a great length, but proportionably narrow ; curved in the back, 
 and flat sided ; large boned, and long legged, with much loose skin, and 
 are altogether ill-formed ; but they grow to an extraordinary weight, and 
 are the largest kind of pigs in the kingdom, except the Rudgtcick breed, 
 which take their name from a village on the borders of Surry and Sus- 
 sex, and are remarkable for the enormous size to which they reach. 
 
 Each of these breeds has its several advocates ; but as their respective 
 value does not, as in other species of stock, depend on soil and situation, 
 these differences of opinion can only be ascribed to the want of sufficient 
 comparative experiments or to prejudice. A very competent and appa- 
 rently a very candid judge of the merits of the principal kinds, gives it 
 as his decided opinion, that the Berkshire rough-haired, feather-eared, 
 curled pigs, are superior in form and flesh to all others ; even to the best 
 Chinese. 
 
 To the foregoing might be added many other varieties and sub-varie- 
 ties in England ; but it is deemed unnecessary to be more minute. 
 
 The hog is not a native of America, but was brought hither by Euro- 
 peans. Until within a few years, the principal breed of hogs to be found 
 in the United States strongly resembled the old Irish breed — a long- 
 legged, thin-sided, lank, haggard race, which scarcely attain to their full 
 size, short of two or three years, and two or three of which require all 
 the corn commonly raised on a good sized farm, to get into a decent con- 
 dition for the barrel. 
 
 Within a few years, however, more attention has been paid to this 
 important subject; more valuable breeds have been introduced, which 
 have been crossed to advantage in the country. We have crosses from 
 the Chinese, Russian, Dutch, Spanish, and English breeds. Of the latter, 
 we have the Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Suffolk, Sussex, Lincolnshire, 
 Hampshire, tmd other families. In general, however, there is room for 
 extensive improvement, in respect to our swine. Among the breeds 
 deservedly in high repute in New-England, at the present time, is the Bed- 
 ford or Woburn breed. The history of its introduction is both curious and 
 interesting, and for it we are indebted to the Hon. Oliver Fiske, of Wor- 
 cester Mass., as we are to his zeal for its extensive dissemination, in various 
 parts of New-England, and other sections of the United States. 
 
 According to this gentleman, the breed — a boar and a sow — were sent 
 by the Duke of Bedford — after whom they are in this country called — but 
 in England are better known, it is believed, by the name of the M Wobarn 
 breed," as a present to Gen. Washington. They were committed to the 
 care of an English farmer by the name of Parkinson. This man took a 
 farm in the neighborhood of Baltimore; but, instead of sending the swine 
 to Gen. Washington, he sold them. Being highly esteemed by Gen. 
 Ridgely, of Maryland, who became acquainted with their excellence, he 
 sent a pair of them to Col. Pickering, of Massachusetts, in a vessel bound 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 109 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF HOGS." 
 
 to Salem. From Col. P.'s stock. Mr. John Reed of Roxbury, obtained 
 the breed, and of the latter Dr. Fiske obtained parts of several litter-, 
 which he transferred to Worcester. The pure breed is, perhaps, nearly 
 the perfection of the race — judiciously crossed with our native breed, 
 greatly improves the latter. To the excellence of the above breed Gov. 
 Lincoln and several other gentlemen have borne the most ample testi- 
 mony. See New-England^Farmer, Vol. III. p. 2*22. 
 
 The importance of a general introduction of such a breed of swine aa 
 the foregoing, to the farming interest of the land, can scarcely be estima- 
 ted. Although the keeping of a moderate number of even the old breeds, 
 was advantageous to the fanner, and almost essential, inasmuch 'as they 
 would feed upon things, which would otherwise be of no considerable 
 service to him ; yet the fattening of such swine usually proves a serious 
 tax upon the granary, and often before the farmer's pork was in the bar- 
 rel, his stock of corn was exhausted. Too much apathy in respect to the 
 improvement of this part of the farmer's stock, it is believed, still gene- 
 rally prevails. 
 
 Next to the importance of a good breed, is the proper management of 
 them. That management will vary according to their age and other 
 circumstances. The suggestions which we design to make will respect 
 these animals distinguished into the following classes : 1. Sows with 
 Pig; 2. Pigs; 3. Store Pigs; and, 4. Fatting Hogs. 
 
 I. With regard to soics in pig. it is obvious that they should be better 
 fed than either of the two following classes, in order "that they may be 
 enabled to supply their young litter with the necessary supply of milk ; 
 but while care is thus taken to keep them in good condition, equal cau- 
 tion is necessary that they be not too fat. Thus, for such a litter in the 
 spring, tares and cabbages, combined with the waste milk and wash of 
 the house and dairy, may he emploved with advantage : or, if the sup- 
 ply from the dairy be not adequate to the demand, a wash may be pre- 
 pared with oat, barley, or other meal. For those which litter in autumn, 
 lettuces have been found very wholesome and nutritive, in addition to 
 the wash ; and in the winter season, potatoes, Swedish turnips, and oth^r 
 roots, previously prepared by boiling, should be added. 
 
 II. With regard to young pigs, they may be fed, after being weaned, 
 in the same manner as sows ; but it is eminently important that their 
 food should be so nutritious as that they should be continually in a grow- 
 ing state. No food is better for them, it is well known, than milk: and 
 nothing scarcely promotes their growth more rapidly than corn soaked 
 in milk, or milk thickened with corn and oat meal combined. It may be 
 remarked, also, that young pigs seldom do well, when constantly con- 
 fined in the pen. More than at any other period do they need to range 
 abroad. They require also a warm and dry shelter, especially in the lat- 
 ter part of autumn, and during the season of winter. From inattention 
 to these points, the growth of pigs is scarcely a moity of what it would 
 otherwise be, besides, that they require a much greater amount of food. 
 
 III. Store pigs are those which have attained nearly half their growth, 
 and for these, every farmer, who has it in his power, should have a good 
 enclosed pasture, it having been found by experiment, that in a pasture 
 of moderate dimensions and properly managed, the same number of hogs 
 may be kept in better condition, and probably at only a quarter of the ex- 
 pense, than if they were kept in the pen, upon Indian, or even upon roots 
 
 The hog pasture, observes Mr. Dean, in his New England Farmer, 
 
 K. 
 
110 FAMILY 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF HOGS. 
 
 should be so near to the dwelling house that it may not be troublesome 
 to carry the wash to the swine, and yet so far off that the people in the 
 house may not be stunned with their noise. A warm cot must be made 
 m some convenient part of their pasture, for them to lodge in. 
 
 To prepare a pasture for them, let the ground be broken up, tilled and 
 manured, and then laid down with clover. For swine are more fond of 
 this grass than of any other, which our country produces. Let the quan- 
 tity of land be so proportioned to the number of swine that they may keep 
 the grass from running up to seed. For this will prevent waste : and 
 the shorter the grass is, the sweeter it will be, and the more tender and 
 agreeable to their palates. 
 
 I suppose that one acre of rich land in clover, will support twenty or 
 more swine, large and small together, through the summer ; and bring 
 them well forward in their growth ; but they should have rings in their 
 noses, to prevent their rooting out the clover. 
 
 It has been proved, by many trials, that hogs in such a pasture, may 
 be kept in good plight, without any other food. Some say they may be 
 half fattened. 
 
 Arthur Young, Esq. of Great Britain, in the summer of the year 1766. 
 pastured sixty -four swine of various sizes, on two acres of clover ground. 
 And allowing two pence half-penny per week, one with another, their 
 feedings amounted to seventeen pounds, sixteen shillings sterling. Their 
 keeping was set at a low rate, six months feeding for one swine being 
 5s bd. and the profit of the clover put to this use is astonishing. He as- 
 sures the public that all these swine grew very fast. And in his opinion, 
 this use of clover is greatly preferable to making it into hay. I think thi> 
 is not to be doubted, though the crop of hay were supposed to be the 
 greatest that is ever obtained. 
 
 It should be remembered, that the pasturing with swine will enrich 
 the land more than pasturing with other beasts, and hereby the profit of 
 the farmer will be increased. And if a common clover lay will produce 
 a good crop of wheat, much more may be expected of the same kind of 
 ground, after pasturing swine upon it ; as their dung adds much to the 
 fertility of the soil. 
 
 Hogs may be turned into their pasture about the first of May, and 
 kept in it till the last of October. And if in May and October the grass 
 should not be quite sufficient for their support, some potatoes or other 
 roots may be thrown to them. 
 
 The fence about the pasture should be so tight and strong that the 
 swine will not need to be yoked ; because yokes do much towards pre- 
 venting their growth, as I have found by letting yoked and unyoked ones 
 of the same litter run together in a pasture. It will be of great advan- 
 tage to a hog pasture to have plenty of water in it through the summer. 
 Running water is best, as it will afford them the most wholesome drinks 
 and at the same time serve as well as any other for them to wallow in : 
 and it will keep them clean, which is no small advantage. 
 
 The best way of managing swine, is to keep them always in middling 
 plight. Not too fat lest their health should be in danger, especially when 
 the weather is hot; not too lean, lest this should give them a ravenous 
 appetite, and tempt them to eat things that are not wholesome for them. 
 Those that have been long starved, cannot be made fat without great 
 expense — sometimes more than they will repay with their flesh. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. Ill 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF HOGS. 
 
 When it can with convenience be so ordered, it is an excellent piece 
 of husbandry to make a hog pasture of an orchard. Their dung is al- 
 lowed to be the very best manure for the trees. They will keep the 
 ground light and loose, destroy insects that infest the trees, and feed 
 heartily upon the premature apples, which the farmer is too often tempt- 
 ed to grind up for cider. And the shadow of the trees will be very grate- 
 ful and comfortable to them in summer. An orchard may be prepared 
 with clover as well as any other piece of ground. But it should be re- 
 membered that, when the trees in an orchard are young and small, swine 
 should not be permitted to go among them ; for there will be danger of 
 their wounding them, and stripping off some of the bark. 
 
 Afl a substitute for the usual mode of ringing hogs, Mr. Tubb. an 
 English breeder of stock, recommends to shave off with a razor, or sharp 
 knife, the gristle on the tops of the noses of young pigs. The place soon 
 heals over, aud the pigs are thus rendered incapable of rooting. Loudon 
 recommends to cut the two tendons of their snouts with a sharp knife, 
 about an inch and a half from the nose. This may be done with 
 pain and no prejudice to the animal, when about two or three months old. 
 
 IV. The business of fattening hogs is generally performed from the 
 commencement of October. Some farmers, and those who understand 
 their true interests, commence somewhat earlier. According to the 
 opinion of Rev. Mr. Elliot, the best time in the year to shut up hogs to 
 fatten them, is the month of August. The beginning of September, 
 however, is sufficiently early to make them fat. provided they be of a 
 proper breed, before the weather comes to be extremely cold. 
 
 Certain it is, that he that attempts to fatten his hogs in winter will be a 
 loser, for it has been found by long experience, that they do not gain in 
 their flesh near so fast in a frosty, as in a temperate season. 
 
 Whatever system of fattening swine may be adopted, it is of essential 
 consequence that they be kept warm and clean, especially in cold and 
 damp weather, during the period of fattening : and that they also be sup- 
 plied with abundance of litter, the cost of which will be amply repaid by 
 the increased proportion of excellent dung thereby obtained. It has, 
 indeed been frequently asserted, that swine thrive better while fattening. 
 if they be allowed to wallow, at home, in their own tilth, and abroad in 
 mud and wet, because they delight in it ; and thence it is assumed as cer- 
 tain, that it tends to their advantage. Such an assertion, however, is 
 rather the offspring of prejudice, than the result of real experience : we 
 know that animals, when oppressed with heat, will plunge into water in 
 order to cool themselves ; but it cannot be inferred from this circum- 
 stauce. that it will be necessarily beneficial to them, especially when 
 fattening. Besides, as there is an analogy between the disorders of this 
 part of the brute creation, and those of the human race, as well as in the 
 causes whence they originate, we shall here only remark, that swine are 
 liable to be affected by drinking too much cold water, or wallowing in 
 miry or humid places when overheated. 
 
 Not only, however, should these animals be kept warm and dry while 
 fattening, but they should also be confined, if possible, by themselves ; or. 
 at all events, there should be as small a number in the same stye, and as 
 much out of the hearing of the cry or grunt of other hogs as possible ; 
 otherwise upon their first confinement, they will pine and decrease in 
 flesh, notwithstanding they have abundance of food given them. By this 
 means they will be enabled to take more frequent and uninterrupted re- 
 
112 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE. 
 
 pose, which greatly contributes to promote their fattening; besides which, 
 • all those inconveniences will be effectually obviated, which often occur 
 from hogs worrying each other, and from the weaker being deprived by 
 the stronger of their fair proportion of food. 
 
 Regularity of feeding should likewise be especially regarded, as it has 
 great influence in facilitating or retarding the fattening of swine ; hence 
 it will be proper to give them a full allowance of food three or four times, 
 or at certain other stated intervals in the day, as convenience or other 
 circumstances will allow. And if any animal should have surfeited itself, 
 (which is no unusual occurrence, where due regard is not bestowed on 
 the point last stated,) by eating too large a proportion of food, it will be 
 advisable to give about half an ounce of flour of sulphur in some wash, 
 once or twice in the day, for two or three successive days. By this sim- 
 ple remedy their palled appetite will be restored more effectually than by 
 administering antimony, or any other drug that has been recommended 
 to use in fattening swine ; for, however such articles may possibly have 
 succeeded in nfew instances, it is obvious that they cannot be generally 
 employed with advantage, and may not unfrequently be productive of 
 hurtful effects. 
 
 It is recommended by various writers to give to fatting hogs dry rot- 
 ten wood, or the ashes or cinders of the blacksmith's shop ; others re- 
 commend charcoal. Nature, it is thought, points out these, as preventives 
 for several diseases.' to which fatting swine are liable. The precise effect 
 of these articles, it is, perhaps, difficult to ascertain. The rotten wood 
 may act as an absorbent, and the cinders and charcoal serve to correct 
 the superabundant acid in the stomach. Certain it is, that fatting swine 
 will devour these substances with avidity, whenever they require them. 
 I have not lost a fatting hog, says Judge Peters, for more than thirty 
 years, when I used it, (rotten wood) but have suffered by neglecting it. 
 Some of my neighbors met with frequent losses of fatting hogs, till I 
 informed them of my practice ; of which I was told by a woman from 
 East Jersey, before our revolutionary war. She said it was then known 
 and practiced there. 
 
 To the good effects of charcoal, the Editor can bear his own testimony, 
 having made use of this, for his own fatting hogs for several years. He 
 has found similar good effects to result from the use of pounded oyster- 
 shells. When sufficiently softened by exposure to the air, fatting swine 
 will be found to eat them with avidity. 
 
 SECTION VI 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE. 
 1. HORSES. 
 
 The brute creation are, in general, liable to fewer maladies, or com- 
 plaints than mankind ; and as their diseases are, with some exceptions, 
 less complicated, they are of course more easily relieved. Many of the 
 diseases which afflict brute animals, might be prevented by more care, 
 it being certain that these are often the result of the negligence or erro- 
 neous treatment of their owners. " They are either exposed too much 
 u? the rigor and changes of the weather/' observes Mr. Lawrence, " or 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 113 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE. 
 
 they are gorged with food, or denied a sufficient quantity, or supplied 
 with such as is unwholesome. Hence we learn the chief causes of their 
 maladies. Learn to prevent them, instead of undertaking the tedious, 
 unsuitable, and often hopeless task of learning to cure them." Although 
 many diseases incident to our domestic animals might, as the above 
 writer suggests, be prevented by care and vigilance, yet they will some- 
 times get sick, under the most favorable circumstances, and for some of 
 their maladies, no certain cures have as yet been discovered. It would 
 greatly swell the limits of this work, were we to enumerate all the mala- 
 dies incident to the animals which stand at the head of this article. We 
 must therefore confine our attention to a few of those which are of most 
 common occurrence. 
 
 Botts. There are tw T o varieties of the insects which produce the 
 botts, one larger than the other. The larger kind are covered with down 
 of a brownish color, with darker shades. The female deposits her eggs, 
 generally, on those parts of the horse, where he can bite himself, espe- 
 cially on the anterior of the legs ; but never under his throat. When she 
 approaches the horse, she supports her body nearly upright in the air. 
 and with one of her feet bends out a hair, on which she deposits an egg. 
 and thus she continues to do for a short time, and then retires, probably 
 to rest herself, when she returns to her charge. The smaller kind are 
 covered w T ith a darker and thicker down. Wings transparent, and with- 
 out any shades. The female deposits her eggs under the throat, and no 
 where else. As she approaches the horse, she instantly darts up under 
 his throat, and deposits an egg with incredible expedition, and then goes 
 off, but soon returns again and again, to the great disquiet and trouble of 
 the horse, causing him to throw up his head with violence. Each kind 
 varies in size ; but in general, they are about three fourths of an inch in 
 length. 
 
 The larvae produced by the eggs of the above insects, penetrate through 
 the villous, into the muscular coat of the stomach, forming small cavities 
 in the same, and then hang by their hooks, irritating and wounding the 
 animal. If at any time they lose their hold, they immediately catch again. 
 Not any part of the stomach is exempted from them ; but they are most 
 numerous near the passages into and out of the stomach. They are of 
 all insects the most tenacious of life, at this period; and at this time of 
 their existence it is, that they prove so destructive to horses. 
 
 The following experiments were made at different times, and on tha 
 larva* three fourths grown or more. 
 
 
 Rum 
 
 Decoction of tobacco 
 Strong elixir vitriol 
 Essential oil of mint 
 Volatile spirit 
 Spirits of turpentine 
 Decoction pink root 
 Fish oil 
 Linseed oil 
 Tincture of aloes 
 Brine 
 
 Solution of indigo 
 L Elixir camphor 
 
 lived 
 
 h. 
 25 
 11 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 10 
 49 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 minutes. 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 e 5 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 5 <■*■ 
 
 2 = 
 
 — 
 
 k2 
 
114 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, 
 
 Mercury is not so effectual in destroying the insects as is generally be- 
 lieved. September 16, 1806, immersed a number of small botts, with 
 one which was full grown, in a strong solution of corrosive sublimate ; 
 the small botts died in sixty minutes ; but a full grown one was taken out 
 of the solution, six hours after its immersion, apparently unhurt. 
 
 From the preceding experiments, for which we are indebted to an able 
 Essay on the Natural history of the Bott-Fly by Dr. Adams, published by 
 the Medical and Agricultural Register, it is apparent that it must be ex- 
 tremely difficult to destroy the larvas in the stomach of a horse, under any 
 circumstances, by the use of any remedy, which would not be worse than 
 the disease. 
 
 Various applications have indeed been proposed, such as rum, aloes, 
 jalep, brine, linseed oil, pepper, tincture of tobacco, tincture of pink root; 
 but none of them have proved effectual. But, while we are not able to 
 suggest a specific for this most terrible of all evils, which afflict the horse, 
 two points deserve attention — the one by way of preventing the exist- 
 ence of botts in the stomach of the horse, the other by way of palliating 
 the sufferings of the animal, when they do actually exist. 
 
 The best method of preventing the bott is perhaps once in ten or fifteen 
 days to scrape off the eggs deposited by the insect. This should be done 
 through the season of their appearance, July, August, and September. 
 A sharp knife may be used, taking care not to scrape the eggs where the 
 horse will be likely to eat them while he is feeding. 
 
 When botts are found to exist in a horse, the chief object should be to 
 remove irritation and inflammation. This should be done by blood-letting 
 and the free use of mild oils. Blood-letting has a tendency to remove 
 the inflammatory disposition, and should be theirs* resort, and should be 
 frequently repeated ; at the same time that mild oils are administered. 
 Drenches may be used, but the chief dependence should be had upon 
 allaying the irritation and inflammation by the means suggested. 
 
 "Worms. Besides botts, horses are sometimes troubled with other 
 kinds of worms, such as teres taenia and ascarls. 
 
 The teres or large round worm, says Loudon, sometimes occasions 
 mischief, when it exists in great numbers, such as a staring coat, binding 
 of the hide, irregular appetite, and clammy mouth. The best remedy is 
 the spigelia marylandica or Indian pink, in daily doses of half an ounce. 
 Tcenia are not common in the horse, now and then they exist, and are 
 best combated by weekly doses of oil of turpentine, three ounces at a 
 time, mixed by means of the yolk of an egg with half a pint of ale. The 
 ascaris or thread worms, are best removed by mercurial purgatives. The 
 existence of worms may be known by the appearance of a yellow matter 
 under the tail, and by the disposition the horse has to rub his fundament. 
 Blaine recommends the following vermifuge ; powdered arsenic, eight 
 grains; pewter or tin finely scraped; Venice turpentine, half an ounce, make 
 into a ball and give every morning. He also recommends salt to be giv- 
 en daily with the food, which agrees with our own experience as one of 
 the best vermifuges known, it is a fact acknowledged by the residents 
 along the sea-coast, that horses troubled with worms will often volun- 
 tarily drink largely of sea water, and thus cure themselves. 
 
 Colic, flatulent, or spasmodic, called also gripes, fret, or gullion, is an 
 important, because a frequent, disease, and because it frequently de- 
 stroys either quickly by its irritation, or by its degenerating into the red 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 115 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 or inflammatory colic, when improperly treated or long continued. It 
 is usually very sudden in its attack. 
 
 The causes of colic are not always apparent. It is sometimes occasioned 
 by intestinal stones, which accumulate to a great size, remaining for 
 years in the cells of the colon, until some accidental displacement occa- 
 sions an interruption to the peristaltic motion. Cold in various forms 
 is a parent of colic ; but under the form of cold water given when a horse 
 is hot, it is most common. In some horses it is so frequent as to become 
 a constitutional appendage. 
 
 The distinguishing marks between colic and inflammation of the bowels are 
 gained, occording to Blaine, by attending to the following circumstances. 
 In gripes the horse has violent fits of pain but they remit, and he has in- 
 tervals of ease. The pain in red colic is more uniform and less violent. 
 In gripes, the pulse is, in general, natural ; in red colic it is quicker than 
 natural, and commonly small. The extremities are not usually cold in 
 gripes ; in red colic they usually are. In gripes, the horse attempts to 
 roll on his back, which in red colic he seldom does. There are no marks 
 of fever with gripes, as red eyelids, inflamed nostrils, &c. but in red colic 
 they are always present. When the complaint has continued some hours 
 it is always proper to bleed to prevent its ending in inflammation : bleed- 
 ing in the mouth is quite useless. Back-rake, and throw up clysters of 
 warm water, one after another as fast as possible, which often overcomes 
 the irritation. La Fosse recommends a curious remedy, but as it can 
 always be obtained, and has the sanction of long experience, it may be 
 tried. An onion is pounded and mixed up with some powdered savin ; in 
 default of which, use powdered ginger. This is to be introduced up the 
 rectum as high as possible, and the horse is to be then moved briskly 
 about. An onion put up the fundament whole has long been a domestic 
 remedy. The following is recommended by Blaine : spirit of vitriolic 
 eether, an ounce ; powdered opium, one drachm ; oil of turpentine, three ounces ; 
 warm ale, a pint. He also recommends the following more simple reme- 
 dy as always at hand : the expressed juice of two or three large onions; com- 
 mon gin, common oil, of each half a pint; mix and give. White recom- 
 mends a pint of brandy, or of gin, with water, as an excellent carmina- 
 tive. Clark, who has expressly written on gripes, extols the virtues of 
 a mixture thus made ; which, if it have the qualities he attributes to it, 
 and which there is no reason to doubt, no agriculturalist, coach, or post 
 master should be without it : pimento berry, called also allspice, ground fine, 
 lialfapound; spirits of wine, and of water, of each a pint and a half; infuse 
 these together, and keep it for use. Give a quarter of a pint every hour 
 until full relief is obtained ; hand-rubbing, wisping, or fomenting the 
 bowels with hot water at the time. 
 
 Inflammation of the bowels or red colic, is a very distinct disease 
 from the gripes, gullion, or fret, with which it is, however, very apt to 
 be confounded to the destruction of many horses. The peritoneal in- 
 flammation of the bowels, the one here treated on, is an affection of their 
 outer covering. 
 
 The causes are various. It is not unfrequently brought on by a sudden 
 translation of cold after great heats, as swimming during hunting, or 
 from the removal of a horse from grass at once into heated stables, cloth- 
 ing and hard food ; neglected gripes, or long continued costiveness, ex- 
 cessive riding, and the immediate drinking of cold water, have brought 
 it on. It begins by restlessness, loss of appetite, some uneasiness ; the 
 
116 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 mouth is hot and dry, the inner membranes of the mouth, nose and eye- 
 lids are often redder than natural. As the disease advances, the pain, 
 before not violent, now increases, so as to force the horse to lie down 
 and rise again frequently ; and when very violent, he kicks at his belly, 
 or looks round at his sides, pawing his litter very frequently. The pulse 
 is usually small, quick, or hard ; sometimes it is more full and small, but 
 always hard. Breathing is quickened, the extremities are alternately 
 hot and cold, but continue longer cold than hot ; and the animal is cos- 
 tive : sometimes pain may force away a few hardened balls of faeces, but 
 the principal contents are retained. Blaine has given the distinguishing 
 features between this disease and colic, under which head we have stated 
 them. 
 
 The treatment must be active and immediate, or a fatal termination 
 may be expected. Begin by abstracting a considerable quantity of blood ; 
 from a large horse to the amount of seven or eight quarts ; proceed to 
 back-rake, throw up a large clyster of warm gruel. Give by the mouth, 
 a pint of castor oil, mixed by the means of the yolk of two eggs, with 
 half a pint of broth or gruel. Or, give olive oil instead, following it up 
 in half an hour by a gruel drench in which six ounces of Epsom salts 
 have been dissolved. A sheep skin, immediately as it is removed from 
 the sheep, may be applied to the belly, which should first be well rubbed 
 with the strong liquid blister. (Vet. Pha. 13. ) In four hours repeat 
 the bleeding, if considerable improvement have not taken place, and if 
 the bowels be not unloaded, give more oil, and clyster frequently, having 
 first back-raked. Avoid exercise ; first hand-rub, and afterwards wrap 
 up the extremities to the knees. As a clear passage for the dung is 
 found, the symptoms mitigate, and the animal slowly recovers ; but he 
 must be fed at first very sparingly. 
 
 Lampas. All horses, but particularly very young ones, are liable to 
 enlargement of the ruga? or ridges of the palate, dependent not on any 
 local disease confined to the part itself, but occasionally by an affection 
 of the whole passage of the mouth, throat, and stomach. It is usual to 
 attend to the part only, which is scarified or burnt to little purpose, when 
 a mild dose of physic, or gentle alteratives, would prove more certain 
 expedients ; to which may be added rubbing the part with bay salt, or 
 with vinegar. 
 
 Bridle sores. When the bit in colt breaking, or in hard pulling 
 horses, has hurt the bars, care is requisite to prevent the bone becoming 
 carious. Touch daily with segyptiacum, and cover the bit with leather, 
 unless total rest can be allowed. 
 
 Pole evil. This complaint commonly requires the attendance of an 
 experienced practitioner — but the prevention is often in the power of 
 owners and others about horses, and to this point we shall particularly 
 direct their attention. Pole evil is commonly the effect of accident. Re- 
 peated small blows of the manger, or continued pressure from hanging 
 back on the haltre, &c. will, if not remedied, produce swelling at the 
 nape of the neck, with some tenderness. In this early state, if the collar 
 be removed and the part be kept continually wet with vinegar and water, 
 the swelling will often disperse — but if, in spite of this, it proceeds to 
 suppuration, let a vent be made for the matter by a seton [116] so 
 that it may readily flow out. Introduce nothing healing,, but encourage 
 a free discharge, and it may heal at once. When such is not the issue, 
 the disease attacks the ligaments ; sinuses form, and the matter burrows 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 117 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 under the skin and muscles, when a seton must be introduced from the 
 opening above and should be brought out at the bottom ; the seton should 
 be then daily wetted with the liquid blister. (Vet. Pfta. 13.) Should 
 this plan fail, escharotics will be required in the form of scalding mix- 
 ture. (Vet. Pha. 37.) 
 
 Straxguary or suj/prcssion of urine; incontinence of urine ; bloody urine. 
 Stranguary may arise from an injury done to the kidneys, or to the blad- 
 der, by strains, or by the absorption of irritating matters. In these cases, 
 bleed if there be fever, and if not merely give the horse absolute rest : 
 mash him, give gruel, and warm his water for drink. Bloody urine 
 should be treated in the same way ; some horses have such a natural or 
 acquired weakness of the kidneys, as to stale blood with their urine on 
 every occasion of over exertion : the means frequently used for relief, 
 are such as aggravate the complaint, and indeed are often the occasion 
 of it, which are diuretics. Strong diuretics injure horses more than 
 strong physic, and benefit them less than any other of the popular means 
 made use'of. In retention of urine, but particularly in cases of bloody 
 urine, they are absolutely improper. 
 
 Mange. This is a contagious disease, not uncommon among low bred 
 and badly kept horses, but which is seldom generated in those properly 
 managed. ' When it is the effect of impoverished blood, a different course 
 of feeding must be substituded, not heating, but cooling though gene- 
 rous : as carrots, speared oats, malt mashes, stable soiling, &,c. When 
 it arises in full fed horses, bleed twice, lower the feeding, substituting 
 for corn, soiling, carrots, or bran mashes. Give a nightly alterative 
 (Vet. Pha. No. 1 or 2) and dress with either of the mange dressings. 
 (Vet. Pha. 43.') After a cure has been effected, carefully clean all the 
 apartments with soap and water. 
 
 Glanders. This is a disease which is highly infectious, but which 
 according to Loudon is extremely difficult if not impossible to cure. 
 The marks of glanders are a discharge of purulent matter from ulcers 
 situated in one or both nostrils, more often from the left than the right. 
 This discharge soon becomes glairy, thick, and white-of-egg-like : it after- 
 wards shows bloody streaks, and is foetid. The glands of the jaw of the 
 affected side, called the kernels, swell from an absorption of the virus or 
 poison. and as they exist or do not exist, or as they adhere to the bone or 
 are detached from it, so some prognosis is vainly attempted by farriers, 
 with regard to the disease ; for in some few cases these glands are not at 
 all arfected, and in a great many they are not bound down by the affec- 
 tion of the jaw. As there are many diseases which excite a secretion of 
 matter from the nose, and which is kept up a considerable time : so it is 
 not always easy to detect glanders in its early stages. Strangles and 
 violent colds, keep up a discharge from the nostrils for weeks sometimes. 
 In such cases a criterion may be drawn from the existence of ulceration 
 within the nose, whenever "the disease has become confirmed. These 
 glanderous chancres are to be seen on opening the nostril a little way up 
 the cavity, sometimes immediately opposed to the opening of the nostril: 
 but a solitary chancre should not determine the judgment. The health 
 often continues good and sometimes the condition also, until hectic takes 
 place from absorption, and the lungs participate, when death soon closes 
 the scene. 
 
 The treatment of glanders, it has been already stated, is so uncertain 
 that it is hardly worth the attempt ; however, when the extreme value of 
 
IIS FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 the horse or the love of experiment leads to it, it may be regarded as fix- 
 ed by experience, that nothing but a long course of internal remedies, 
 drawn from the mineral acids, can effect it. These have been tried in 
 their endless variety: White recommends the mildest preparations of 
 mercury, as cethiops mineral ; under the conviction that the more acrid 
 preparations disturb the powers of the constitution so much, as to destroy 
 as effectually as the disease. At the veterinary college the sulphate of cop- 
 per (blue vitriol) has been long in use. Others have used the sulphates of 
 iron and zinc. Clark recommends the daily administration of a drink or 
 ball, composed of the following ingredients : sulphate of zinc, 15 grains ; 
 powdered cantharides, 7 grains ; powdered allspice, 15 grains ; of which he 
 gives one or two extraordinary proofs of utility. 
 
 Shoulder Strains. These are very rare, most of the lameness at- 
 tributed to the shoulder belonging to the other parts, and particularly to 
 the feet. Out of one hundred and twenty cases of lameness before, 
 Blaine found that three only arose from ligamentary or muscular exten- 
 sion of the shoulder, or rather of the adductor and sustaining muscles: 
 when shoulder strain does happen, it is commonly the consequence of 
 some slip, by which the arm is forced violently forwards. It is less to be 
 wondered at than at first seems probable, that farriers mistake foot lame- 
 ness for shoulder strains, when we reflect that a contracted foot occasions 
 inaction, and favoring of the limb ; which thus wastes the muscles of the 
 shoulder. Seeing that one shoulder is smaller than the other, the evil is 
 attributed to that, and it is pegged, blistered, swam, and fired, to the tor- 
 ture of the animal and the increase of the foot's contraction by the con- 
 finement. In real shoulder strains, the toe is dragged along the ground 
 while in motion; at rest it is planted forward, but resting on the point of 
 the toe. When the lameness is in the foot, the horse points his foot for- 
 ward also, but he does so with the whole limb unbent, and the foot flat. 
 These differences are highly necessary to be attended to, as well as the 
 peculiar difficulty there is in moving down hill, which he does with reluc- 
 tance, and by swinging his leg round to avoid flexing it. This lameness 
 may be further brought to the test by lifting up the foreleg considerbly, 
 which if the evil be in the shoulder, will give evident pain. The muscles 
 between the fore legs are likewise tumified and tender in these cases. 
 
 The treatment consists, when it is recent, in bleeding in the plate vein, 
 rowelling in the chest, and fomenting with hot water two or three times 
 a day. When the heat and tenderness have subsided, first bathe daily 
 with the astringent wash for strains (Vet. Pha. No. 6,) for a week; and 
 afterwards, if necessary, proceed to blister in the usual manner. 
 
 Galls. When a horse is galled by the saddle or harness, or when he 
 is chafed between the arm and chest, an accident, which frequently hap- 
 pens in travelling through muddy roads, the following lotion will be 
 found servicable : — Sulphate of zinc, one ounce ; superacetate of lead, 
 one ounce; water, one quart. ' 
 
 Wind galls. When wind galls make their first appearance, they are 
 easily cured by a bath and bandage. Boil red oak bark to a strong de- 
 coction, add some sharp vinegar and a little allum, let the parts be fo- 
 mented twice a day, warm as the hand can be held in it ; then take a 
 woollen cloth, dip it in the bath, and bind the ancle up, tight as possible, 
 without giving pain to the horse. 
 
 Should this method not succeed, after a thorough trial, the swelled or 
 
ENCYCLOPEDI A. 1 19 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 puffed parts may be opened with a sharp knife, but blistering with flies 
 is less dangerous, and generally attended with equal success. 
 
 Ring bone. This is a hard and bony substance which generally reach- 
 es halfway round the ancle, and causes a horse to go stiff and lame. 
 When it first makes its appearance an application of corrosive sublimate 
 added to Spanish flies and Venice turpentine mixed with hog's lard may 
 be useful. But, when a ring bone has attained to its full size, we know 
 of no remedy. 
 
 i Broken wind. This when once fastened upon a horse, admits not 
 probably of a perfect cure, but may be relieved in a measure, by a care- 
 ful attention to diet. The food should be compact and nutritious. Corn 
 is better than oats, and old hay, which has been well kept, better than 
 new. During the grass season, the disease often almost disappears, but 
 recurs in the winter, during which, potatoes may be given to advan- 
 tage ; also carrots, parsnips, and beet roots. Molasses in small quantities 
 has been recommended, also tar water ; but more dependence probably. 
 may be placed on lime water. Incase the symptomatic cough be troub- 
 lesome, bleeding will be found highly advantageous. 
 
 Founder. " A horse may be foundered," says Mason, in his excellent 
 work entitled, "Gentlemen's New Pocket Farrier," and which we take 
 the liberty to recommend to our readers, " by excessive hard rides, per- 
 mitting him to plunge deep into cold water, while hot and sweating, and 
 drinking his fill of cold pond water, eating large quantities of new corn 
 and fodder, and then briskly exercised ; over-feeding with bran alone 
 whilst performing hard labor, drinking plentifully at every branch in 
 travelling, feeding with more than a horse can eat after being half starved, 
 violent exercise on a full belly, or not permitting a horse who has travel- 
 led in a hot sun all day, to cool thoroughly before he is given as much as 
 he can eat, driuk, &c. 
 
 Symptoms of a Founder. — The symptoms that indicate an approaching 
 founder, are so few and so common, that the most ignorant persons will 
 rarely be mistaken. Great heat about the legs, pasterns and ears, a sore- 
 ness in the feet, together with a stiffness so great in all his limbs, that the 
 animal frequently refuses to move, unless force is used — his flanks and 
 lower part of his belly draws up, his hide becomes bound or tight, his legs 
 thrown a little more forward than in his usual or natural position; a con- 
 stant thirst, and very often a considerable swelling of the ancles, &c. <fce. 
 
 Remedy for a Founder. — So soon as you are convinced that your horse 
 is foundered, take from his neck vein at least one gallon of blood ; give a 
 drench of one quart strong sassafras tea, one table spoonful of salt petre, 
 and a quarter of an ounce of assafcetida, and do not permit him to drink 
 for five or six hours ; at the expiration of which time, should he not be 
 evidently better, repeat the bleeding, taking half a gallon of blood, and 
 give another drench: at night offer him some bran or oats, scalded with 
 sassafras tea, and if it can be procured, let him have green food, fresh from 
 the field, for it has the happy effect of opening the bowels and cooling the 
 system: his feet should be nicely cleaned out and stuffed with fresh cow 
 manure: his drink should be at least one half sassafras tea, with a small 
 handful of salt thrown therein. 
 
 By the morning should the horse be better, nothing further is necessary, 
 only being careful not to over feed him. But should there be no change 
 for the better, tie a small cord just above his knees, and with a lancet or 
 
120 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 phleme bleed in a vein that runs around the coronet, just above the hoof: 
 take from each leg a pint of blood; give a pound of salts dissolved in three 
 half pints of water, in form of a drench, keep his feet stuffed with fresh 
 cow manure, and bathe his legs with equal parts of sharp vinegar, spirits 
 and sweet oil or lard. By attention to these directions, in two or three 
 days the horse will again be fit for service. 
 
 A horse in this unpleasant situation, requires great attention. Whenever 
 they are foundered, they search for a bank of manure to stand on, which 
 should always be prevented, as its heat increases the fever. 
 
 Horses slightly foundered, have sometimes been cured in a few hours, 
 by standing them in pond water or mud, or by bleeding in the mouth, but 
 those remedies are uncertain, and are not so much to be relied on as those 
 iirst recommended. 
 
 A foundered horse is generally very much reduced in flesh, before a cure 
 is effected; and always more subject to founder afterwards. 
 
 Large ridges on the hoofs, or a turning up of the feet are strong indica- 
 tions of old founders or other injuries. 
 
 2. — CATTLE. 
 
 Colic or Gripes. When afflicted with colic, the diseased animal will 
 rise up and lie down almost incessantly, continually striking its head and 
 horns against any object that occurs. Young cattle are chiefly affected by 
 the colic; which is attended either with a scouring or with costiveness, and 
 which of course must be treated according to those two circumstances. In 
 the former case, a warm draught should be given, consisting of one quart of 
 ale, mixed with a few drops of laudanum, and two or three ounces of oil of 
 sweet almonds; or, which, perhaps, is preferable, with half a pint ofoiive 
 oil, and sweetened with sugar. This draught is to be repeated at the end 
 of twelve hours, or oftener, as the nature of the case may require. When 
 colic is accompanied with costiveness, the following purge should be given, 
 as early as possible. Dissolve from four to six drachms of fine Barbadoea 
 aloes, (according to the size of the beast and the urgency of the case,) in 
 half a pint of brandy, or other ardent spirit; mix the infusion with two 
 ;uarts of water-gruel, and administer the draught in a lukewarm state. 
 In both cases, great and speedy attention is necessary, to prevent inflamma- 
 tions of the intestines, which must otherwise prove fatal ; the beasts should 
 be kept warm and dry in order to promote perspiration. 
 
 Hoven. No distemper is of more frequent occurrence among cattle 
 than that of being swollen, that is, blown or hoven, as it is usually denomi- 
 nated among farmers. It is induced either by exposure to damp situations, 
 by too sudden removal from an inferior to a rich pasture, or by eating too 
 eagerly of turnips, clover, or any other succulent food, especially before 
 the dew is off in the morning; thus the stomach is loaded with food, and the 
 process of rumination, or chewing the cud, being prevented, the animal 
 becomes swollen with confined air, which penetrates into the stomach and 
 intestines. Its preventive is obvious, and consists simply in turning cattle 
 into such rich pastures, only when they are not pressed by hunger, so that 
 their appetite may soon be gratified ; or they should be gently driven about 
 for a few hours, that the dew may not only have time to evaporate, but also 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 121 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 the animals being thus suffered to graze a very short time at once, their 
 stomachs will become gradually accustomed to it. 
 
 Various remedies have been tried and recommended for this malady, 
 which if not opportunely discovered, inevitably proves fatal. Of these, 
 the most common is to make an incision with a pen-knife beneath the 
 short ribs, when a quill, or small tube of ivory or smoothed elder, is intro- 
 duced in order to give vent to the confined air ; the wound is then covered 
 with adhesive plaster, to prevent it from being affected by the external 
 cold, and thus the danger is in general quickly removed. 
 
 The method here noticed appears to be the result rather of absolute ne- 
 cessity than of mature thought, though sanctioned by custom ; and as it is 
 liable to be attended with fatal consequences through the ignorance or in- 
 expertness of the operator, it becomes necessary to resort to more easy 
 remedies. Medicines, indeed, are seldom of any particular service, on 
 account of the distance to which country people are often obliged to go in 
 order to procure them ; but the following recipe, (which we communicate 
 from Mr. Young's "Annals of Agriculture," Vol. xxxiii.) being composed 
 of simple, cheap, and common ingredients, promises to be useful. Let 
 three quarters of a pint of olive oil, and one pint of melted butter, or hog's 
 lard be mixed together, and given to the animal by means of a horn or 
 bottle; if no favorable change be produced in a quarter of an hour, the 
 same quantity may be repeated. This dose is calculated for neat cattle: 
 for sheep, when hoven or blown, a wine glass full and a half, or two glass- 
 es will be sufficient to be given in like manner. And it is asserted in the 
 communication above cited, that this remedy is a specific for the malady 
 inquestion, effecting a cure within the short period of half an hour. Where, 
 however, the pen-knife is resorted to — and necessity alone can justify it — 
 the incision ought to he made icith a small pen-knife, very sharp at the point, 
 tcith a sudden push, four inches from the hip bone, and four inches from the 
 edge of the loin. 
 
 A writer in the American Farmer recommends a spoonful of hartshorn 
 infused in water, which he says completely removes the distention ; others 
 recommend soda and potash, all of which combining with the carbonic acid 
 gas — the cause of the di-tention — will immediately reduce it. For want 
 of these, ley from wood ashes may be employed. 
 
 When the animal has obtained relief one of the following drinks is re- 
 commended by Dr. White; No. 1. powdered ginger, half an ounce ; spirits 
 of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; oil of peppermint, 30 drops ; warm water, one 
 pint. Mix for one dose. 
 
 No. 2. Powdered carraway, 1 ounce ; ginger, 1 drachm ; warm ale or 
 warm water, 1 pint. Mix. 
 
 No. 3. Powdered gentian, 1 ounce; Cascarilla bark, 2 drachms; warm 
 ale, or water, 1 pint. 
 
 Indigestion, or loss of the cud. Mr. Lawrence says, that in this 
 disease, M the beast mourns and has no appetite, or drops its food witliout 
 attempting to swallow it. Probably from defective irritability of the fibres 
 or contracting muscles of the rumn or cud-bag, the animal is unable to 
 throw up or ruminate; of course the bag remains loaded and obstructed. 
 The intention is to remove the obstruction, and invigorate the animal fibres. 
 Let the animal fast sometime, then give a warm bran or pollard mash, 
 with good hay, and warm water with salt. This treatment alone may 
 succeed with patience, even should the maw be obstructed by acorns or 
 
 L 
 
122 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 other hard fruit. An aloes tincture, made with brandy and ginger, or cap- 
 sicum, (red pepper) might be of use in this case. After conquering the 
 obstruction, bitter infusions made of camomile, hoarhound, oak bark, &c, 
 in beer, may be required, as restoratives, although, perhaps, good dry nour- 
 ishing feed will have an equally good effect." 
 
 It is remarked by Mr. White that "the earlier stages of this complaint 
 are not marked by very striking symptoms. The animal has a dull or 
 languid appearance, and generally a rough unhealthy coat and tight skin. 
 The appetite is diminished, and at length he ceases to chew the cud. 
 The eyes and mouth have generally a yellow appearance." 
 
 "To cure this disease, it should be attacked at an early period; for 
 when the liver has become effected in a considerable degree, it terminates 
 fatally. Should there be any appearance of costiveness, the following 
 warm laxative, is first to be given ; more commonly, however, the bowels 
 are in a loose state, and the dung has an unhealthy appearance; in this 
 case let the tonic drench be given morning and evening, and let the animal 
 be kept in a warm sheltered situation. It may be necessary to repeat, that 
 this like most other internal diseases of cattle, may generally be removed 
 by timely attention; but in attempting a cure after they have existed some 
 time a great deal of unnecessary expense is often incurred. 
 
 Warm laxative. Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce ; castile soap, 6 drachms ; 
 ginger, 3 drachms; cascarilla bark, 2 drachms; warm water, 1 pint. Mix. 
 
 After the operation of the laxative, the following tonic drench may be 
 given should it be found necessary : — Of cascarilla bark and ginger, each 
 2 drachms; soda, 2 drachms; to be given in a pint of ale beer, or warm 
 water. 
 
 Jaundice or Yellows. This disease may be known, principally by the 
 yellowness of the eyes and mouth ; a dull or languid appearance and debili- 
 ty; a loss of appetite also, is a common symptom. It may be distinguished 
 from the former disease by the costiveness, which uniformly attends it, and 
 by the animal appearing to be in more pain. At the commencement of 
 the disorder, a cure may generally be accomplished, by giving the warm 
 laxative directed for the foregoing complaint, and repeating it, after an in- 
 terval of five or six days, giving in the intermediate time, the following 
 drink every morning and evening. — Castile soap, half an ounce; Venice 
 turpentine, half an ounce; ginger, 3 drachms; powdered gentian root, 1 
 ounce. Rub the soap and turpentine together in a mortar, until they are 
 incoporated, then add gradually, a pint of water, and afterwards the ginger 
 and gentian. In the more advanced stage of this disorder, the liver is 
 generally so injured as to render a cure impossible. 
 
 Foul in the foot, or hoof-ail. Dr. Peck, an English writer, has given 
 the following account of this disorder and its treatment. 
 
 The first appearance of this disease is a hard crack between the claws 
 or hoofs, attended with considerable inflammation ; afterwards, a fetid and 
 offensive matter is discharged, similar to that of the grease in horse's heels; 
 sometimes it appears in form of a large tumor upon the cornet, between the 
 hair and the hoof, attended with violent pain and inflammation. 
 
 Wash the parts from all dirt, castile soap should be used, and if between 
 the claws, take a rope of proper thickness and chafe the part afflicted, and 
 afterwards dress it with the butter of antimony, or oil of vitriol. Let the 
 animal stand in a dry place for an hour ; repeat the application every day. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 123 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 If the part be much affected, rub it with some stimulating ointment, and 
 if the tumor be likely to suppurate, linseed poultices as often as are ne- 
 cessary should be applied, and repeated, till the inflammation has subsid- 
 ed ; then dress the wound with lint and mild astringent ointment. Due 
 regard must be paid to existing symptoms. A few doses of Glauber's 
 salts will cool the body and accelerate the cure. 
 
 Edward Skellet, Professor of the Veterinary art; an English writer of 
 reputation, says, that this disorder proceeds from two causes ; the one 
 from accidents, and the other from a morbid state of the system. Its sit- 
 uation is betwixt the claws of the cow either in the fore or hind feet, but 
 more frequently m the former. It is always attended with a swelling, 
 the discharge from which, when it breaks or cracks, has a very offensive 
 smell. The accidental foul proceeds from gravel, flint, bones or any other 
 hard substance getting between the claws, which produces great pain 
 and inflammation. The first step to be taken for its cure, is to remove 
 the hard substance, and clean the wound out ; then the following oint- 
 ment is to be applied to the part, spread on tow, and bound on with a 
 cloth and string. — Soft soap, 1 lb. ; common turpentine, 1 lb. Melt over 
 a slow fire, till the two articles are completely united. The dressings 
 may be repeated two or three times, which never fails to complete a cure. 
 
 Another application is recommended in the fourth volume of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Agricultural Repository, viz. From one to three grains of 
 corrosive sublimate, reduced to a fine powder to be applied, as nearly as 
 may be, completely into the slit, to be repeated once in twenty-four hours, 
 until the cure is effected. Care should be taken to put a piece of rag or 
 bit of leather between the claws, lest the animal, by licking the foot, 
 should be injured by the corrosive sublimate. An ox, it is said, may be 
 kept at work, while affected with this disease, without injury, unless his 
 lameness be so great, as to impair his condition. 
 
 Grain Sickness. The first symptoms of this disease are a dull, heavy 
 appearance about the eyes of the animal; she frequently shifts about 
 from one side to the other, or when let loose or driven about, complains 
 very much. On examining her, a fulness may be perceived betwixt the 
 hips and ribs, on the opposite side to the milking one ; if pressed with 
 the hand, this fulness will be felt to consist in the extension of the stom- 
 ach. As the disease advances, a loss of milk ensues, and a total dislike 
 to any food. 
 
 This disease is caused by a surfeit of grain, and its remedies are bleed- 
 ing and purging ; the first to relieve the urgent symptoms, the second to 
 remove the cause of the malady. The quantity of blood, according to 
 Dr. Skellet, should be not less than from two to three quarts, but as he 
 prescribes for large cows in the vicinity of London, perhaps a smaller 
 quantity would be preferable for animals of but a middling size. The 
 purging drink recommended by the same author is as follows. — Sulphur, 
 from 8 to 12 ounces, proportioning it to the strength of the animal ; nitre, 
 2 ounces, turmeric and cummin seeds, of each 1 ounce. 
 
 When this has operated in unloading the stomach, the weakness of 
 that organ, the loss of appetite which ensues, and the deficiency of milk 
 connected with it, will be repaired by medicines of an aromatic and bra- 
 cing nature, such as coriander, ginder, anisseed, &c. Diluent liquor* 
 and mashes, form the proper food for some days. 
 
 A writer in the New England Farmer recommends to give either to 
 
124 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 horses or cattle, which have eaten too much grain, a pint of melted hog's 
 lard, as soon as the fact is ascertained. 
 
 Warts or Horny Excrescences. These are affections of the skin, which 
 in cows do not go deep ; they destroy the roots of the hair, wherever 
 they form, and are of a firm and horny texture, and readily give way 
 when pulled or roughly handled, which occasions them to bleed, and 
 shows their connexion with the vessels of the skin. They readily yield 
 to emollient ointments particularly to goose grease, which should be fre- 
 quently rubbed on them till the excrescences fall off. 
 
 Mange. This is a cutaneous disease which is very contagious, for so 
 many cows as come in contact with one laboring under the disorder will 
 be sure to catch it. Its symptoms are a scurf on the external part of the 
 body, which is always attended with an itching. This the animal shews 
 by having a continual inclination to rub the affected part or parts against 
 any thing she can get at. Some say that it is caused by a kind of animalcu- 
 lae, which burrow in the skin. It generally attacks those animals, which 
 are low in flesh, and have been fed on poor forage. 
 
 The first step to effect a cure of this disease, is to gently curry off the 
 scurf, in order that the medicine may have the better effect. After this, 
 the following application is to be rubbed on the parts affected, which may 
 be repeated every three or four days, till a cure is effected ; and it seldom 
 requires more than two or three applications : — Flours of sulphur, 1 lb. ; 
 spirits of turpentine, half a pint; train oil enough to make it into a thin 
 liquid. 
 
 Horn Distemper. This is a disease w T hich has its seat in the horns. 
 Cows are more subject to it than oxen, and it does not attack bulls ; 
 steers and heifers under three years old, it is said are not subject to it. 
 The distemper causea the pith of the horn to be gradually consumed. 
 It is most commonly confined to one horn only, but sometimes appears 
 in both. It is occasioned by poor keeping, by which the blood becomes 
 thin and reduced, and does not circulate properly in the extremities. It 
 is discovered by the sluggishness of the animal, loss of appetite, coldness 
 of the horn, and a disposition to lie down. 
 
 To cure the disease, the horn should be bored with a nail gimblet in 
 such a manner as to effect a discharge of the matter, which has become 
 purulent. The hollow part should be well cleansed by vinegar, in 
 which a portion of salt has been dissolved, to be injected by a syringe. 
 Dr. Dean recommends the injection of a mixture of rum and honey, 
 with myrrh and aloes. Stimulating medicines, such as ginger, spices, 
 &c, have been given ; but these are injurious, until the bowels have 
 been evacuated. Laxatives, however, such as sulphur, Glauber's salts, 
 &c. prove serviceable, and after the bowels are evacuated, and the horn 
 well cleansed, good keeping will be necessary to effect the cure. 
 
 A writer in the New England Farmer recommends the following mix- 
 ture to be given to cattle affected with this disease, viz. salt and soot, of 
 each half a pint ; black pepper one table spoonful. Soot is frequently 
 administered combined with the yolk of eggs. For this disease spirits of 
 turpentine will be found of essential service applied freely to the top of 
 the head, along the roots of the horn. It will commonly be found, it is 
 believed, that cattle afflicted with the horn distemper have the end of the 
 tail soft and relaxed. In this case a small piece of the tail should be cut 
 off; or which is still better,, it may be slit for an inch or two and pounded 
 
__ ENCYCLOPEDIA. 125 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 garlic inserted, taking care to cover the end of the tail with a rag, to 
 prevent the garlic from falling out. 
 
 Udder-ill. This disease primarily arises from an imperfect digestion, 
 occasioned by a morbid state of the stomach. The chyle from which 
 the milk is formed, consequently becomes depraved, and the disease 
 shows itself in the udder, or rather in one of the quarters of the udder the 
 milk of which will be found to be more or less bloody, according to the 
 extent of the disease. For this, Dr. White recommends the following 
 drench: Babadoes aloes, half an ounce ; common salt, four ounces ; gin- 
 ger, one drachm; water, one quart; anodyne carminative tincture, two 
 ounces, or as a substitute for this last, one table-spoonful of laudanum. 
 This drench having been administered, the animal should be turned to 
 short and sweet grass, where she may have sufficient exercise in getting 
 her food. This will gradually strengthen the stomach, improve the di- 
 gestion and chylification, and purify the blood. The swollen udder, 
 or rather, that quarter of the udder which is affected, (for there is sel- 
 dom more than one affected at a time,) should have the bad milk drawn 
 from it three or four times a day ; for by remaining in the quarter it 
 would irritate and increase the inflammation. The only application ne- 
 cessary, for the swollen udder, is neats' foot oil, or olive oil, and when it 
 is considerable, fomentation may also be made of. 
 
 Sore Teats. Some cows are more subject to sore teats than others; 
 they are liable to this complaint at all seasons of the year, particularly 
 such cows as have newly calved. If the teats be afflicted in the summer, 
 they often become ulcerated ; and the flies plague and teaze them to such 
 a degree as to render it difficult to milk them. It is a great nuisance at 
 the time of milking, as blood and corruption are liable to pass between 
 the fingers into the milk. The following linament ought always to be 
 kept in readiness for purposes of this kind : — Take elder ointment and 
 yellow basilicon ointment, of each four ounces; spirit of turpentine, one 
 ounce ; mix them well together on a slab. 
 
 The cow's teats may be well rubbed with this ointment every night 
 and morning after milking. If in the summer, and the flies plague 
 them, add one ounce of assafostida, or aloes, in powder, and dissolve it 
 along with the ointment and wax. This will prevent the flies from team- 
 ing the animal. 
 
 Lice. Cattle that have been half starved during the winter, by being 
 kept on bad hay or straw, in cold, damp situations, are often covered 
 with lice. These may be killed by dusting common Scotch snuff on to 
 those parts, where the lice are found ; but care should be taken not to 
 apply it where the animal is able to lick it off; or the following lotion 
 may be applied, viz. corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms; muriatic acid, half 
 an ounce ; water one pound. Clater recommends the following wash 
 — Stavesacre, (Larkspur, or louce-w r ort) half a pound; tobacco cut 
 small, two ounces; boil in one gallon of urine down to three quarts. 
 With this wash, sponge such parts as are infested by lice ; repeat if ne- 
 cessary, in five or six dayg. 
 
 l2 
 
126 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 3. SHEEP. 
 
 The diseases to which sheep are liable in other countries are quite nu- 
 merous; but in the United States but two according to Chancellor Living- 
 ston, are found to prevail to anv great extent — the scab and the staggers 
 or dizziness. 
 
 Scab. This is a common disorder among our sheep. It is so well 
 known as not to need a particular description. Mr. Livingston advises, 
 on its first appearance in a flock, to take out the wool from the part af- 
 fected, and to apply spirits of turpentine and lard to the place. Should 
 this application not prove efficacious, he advises to separate such sheep 
 as are infected from the more healthy — to cut off the wool as far as the 
 skin feels hard to the finger, wash with soap suds, and rub hard with a 
 shoe brush, so as to cleanse and break the scab. " I always," says he, 
 ''keep for this use, a decoction of tobacco, to which I add one-third, by 
 measure, of the ley of wood ashes, as much hog's lard as will be dissolv- 
 ed by the ley, a small quantity of tar from the tar bucket, which contains 
 grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of spirits of tur- 
 pentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread at a 
 little distance around it. In three washings, with an interval of three 
 days each, I have never failed, in this way to effect a cure, when the 
 disorder was only partial. 
 
 Clater recommends the following mixture: — Take mercury or quick- 
 silver, 1 lb. ; Venice turpentine half a pound; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz,; 
 work them well together in a marble mortar, until the mercury is tho- 
 roughly incorporated, which may be completed in the course of five or 
 six hours ; then take four pounds of hog's lard, melt it over a slow fire, 
 and when about as warm as new milk, add to it the quicksilver, and 
 keep it constantly stirring until it grows stiff. One pound of the oint- 
 ment is sufficient to dress seven sheep for the scab; and if slightly in- 
 fected it will suffice for from that number to ten. 
 
 The method of using this ointment is as follows: — Divide the wool on 
 the back from the head to the tail, so as to expose the skin, then take a 
 small quantity of the ointment, and rub it w T ell in upon the skin from the 
 head to the tail. Next, divide the wool on each side, and rub the re- 
 maining part of the ointment well in. 
 
 The following preparation has also been found effectual: — Mix one 
 pound of tobacco, one ounce of white arsenic, one pint of oil of turpen- 
 tine, and six quarts of beef brine, with a small quantity of tar, and boil 
 the whole till the ingredients become incorporated so as to form a lini- 
 ment. In applying which, every scab myst be broken, and the sheep 
 be well rubbed, that the liquid may penetrate every part. Another effi- 
 cacious remedy, similar to the one which we have extracted from Clater, 
 was communicated by Sir Joseph Banks to the " Society for the Encour- 
 agement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce," in 1789, from whose 
 transactions for that year we have selected it : — Let one pound of pure 
 quicksilver, Venice turpentine and common oil, of each half a pound, 
 and four pounds of hog's lard, be triturated in a mortar till the quicksil- 
 ver is thoroughly incorporated with the various ingredients. 
 
 In applying this ointment, the head of the sheep must be first rubbed ; 
 after which a furrow is to be drawn with the finger, from the region be- 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 127 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 tween the ears, along the back to the point of the tail, so as to divide the 
 wool, till the skin be exposed to the touch. Then the finger being dip- 
 ped into the unguent, must be drawn along the skin; and similar furrows 
 should be made down the shoulders and thighs, as far as the wool ex- 
 tends; and if the sheep be much infected, two other lines or furrows 
 ought to be drawn parallel to that on the back; and one should also be 
 traced downwards on each side, between the fore and hind legs. 
 
 Another application which has been highly recommended is composed 
 of tobacco, lime water, and oil of vitriol, to which we may add from the 
 same authority, " another excellent remedy," viz. a decoction of helle- 
 bore mixed with vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Staggers or Dizziness. This disorder is found upon dissection to 
 be owing to a bag containing water within the skull, which presses upon 
 the brain. It is generally considered as incurable, though it is said br- 
 others that it may be remedied by trepanning : a soft place on the head 
 indicates the situation of the bag, which if taken out whole will remove 
 the disorder ; others pass a sharp wire up the nostril into the brain and 
 perforate the bag ; the suppuration which this occasions effects the cure ; 
 rive out of six, however, die under this operation, and it may therefore 
 be considered as incurable by the doctor. 
 
 Pinning and Scouring. Lambs, soon after the birth are subject to a 
 disorder called pinning, It consists in the excrements being so glutinous 
 as to fix the tail to the vent, which if neglected will often kill the lamb. 
 The remedy is to wash them clean, and rub the buttocks and tail with 
 dry clay, which will prevent any further adhesion. Lambs are also sub- 
 ject to scouring or purging. This generally arises from being kept too 
 cold; sometimes from the quality of the ewe's milk. They should with 
 the parent ewes, be put in a warm dry sheltered cot; the ewes shouldhave 
 plenty of nutritious food given them; such as oats, old Indian corn, and 
 wheat bread ; care should be taken that they nurse their lambs duly, for 
 it often happens that this conrplaint is aggravated from a penury of 
 milk ; in which case the deficiency should be supplied by cow's milk 
 boiled, or by letting the lamb suck a cow. 
 
 Tick. The remedies applied in England are solutions of arsenic, or 
 corrosive sublimate, and decoctions of tobacco. The first are dangerous 
 to the operator and may occasion fatal accidents ; the last are hurtful to 
 the sheep if not carefully applied. Chancellor Livingston recommends 
 to take a bellows to the nozel of which a pipe must be affixed capable of 
 containing a handful of tobacco ; (the refuse from the tobacconists will 
 answer,) set fire to the tobacco, and while one man holds the sheep be- 
 tween his knees, let another open the wool, while a third blows the 
 smoke into the fleece ; close the wool on the smoke, and open another 
 place a few inches from it, and so go over the whole sheep, blowing also 
 under the belly and between the legs; in twenty four hours every tick 
 will be killed. The whole operation may be performed on a sheep in 
 about two minutes. 
 
 Cold and its consequences. When sheep are very ill kept, or when 
 they lie on damp or wet ground, they are subject to colds, which appear 
 by the discharge of mucus from the nose and eyes, and sometimes by 
 blindness. The cure is warmth, dry litter, and good food. It will, 
 however, happen that some sheep have at all times this discharge from 
 the nose; but upon examination, those will generally be found to be old, 
 
128 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 and should be fatted as soon as possible, as they disfigure a flock, and do 
 not pay for their keeping. 
 
 Foot Rot. This disease is analogous to the grease, the thrush, and 
 the canker of the horse, and the loo or loe, or foul in the foot, in cattle. 
 It is produced by the same cause, and as in the horse and in cattle, it is 
 contagious, so a sheep affected with the foot rot, put into a fold, would 
 be likely to infect the whole flock. This opinion, however, has not been 
 so fully established as to admit of no doubt. The disorder is contagious, 
 but may be produced also by other causes, and especially by feeding on 
 stale grains and bad hay. The only method of curing it is to examine the 
 foot carefully, and pare away every bit of horn, under which the disease 
 may have formed. When this is done, (and it is better to pare away too 
 much than too little,) a saturated solution of blue vitriol will always effect 
 a cure, and is sufficiently strong for the very worst cases. It is necessa- 
 ry also to avoid the cause that produces this disorder by changing the 
 situation of the sheep, and giving them wholesome food. 
 
 Braxy, Dry Braxy, Water Braxy, Bowel sickness. Water Braxy is an 
 inflammatory disorder, which quickly terminates in dropsy of the belly 
 or chest ; dry braxy, is indigestion or obstruction in the first and third 
 stomach, by feeding during winter on dry sapless food, such as the tops 
 of heather, bent and other dry food. The symptoms of the former are 
 quick breathing, hanging the head and ears, loss of appetite and separating 
 from the flock. In the latter there is swelling of the belly, and griping 
 pains, which often become violent. Sometimes the animal stands with 
 his feet almost together ; at other times he is seen lying down and rising 
 up almost every minute. The mouth and tongue are dry and parched, 
 and the white of the eye inflamed. In both diseases bleed freely from 
 the neck vein, and in the latter give one ounce of common salt, in half a 
 pint of water, and a teaspoonful of tincture of opium ; a dram of powder- 
 ed aloes may be added, and a little ginger. 
 
 Catarrhal Affections, Hoose, Cough, Distemper. This disorder in 
 sheep is similar to that in cattle. It exists in various degrees, but the 
 same remedy is always necessary, that is, bleeding to the extent of one 
 pint. If any medicine is required, it is half an ounce of common salt, 
 or one ounce of Epsom salt dissolved in four ounces of thin gruel. Sheep 
 should never be bled in the nose or ears as is commonly done. There is 
 no difficulty whatever in bleeding sheep in the same manner that bullocks 
 are bled, without cutting off a bit of wool. 
 
 Poison. Sheep are often poisoned by eating laurel or ivy, as it is com- 
 monly called (not the magnolium.) The symptoms of which are their 
 foaming at the mouth, then vomiting the half masticated leaves and green 
 juice, by which the mouth of the animal is discolored. Remedy. — Take 
 a gill of sweet oil, hog's lard, or fresh butter ; mix it with a pint of new 
 milk. If taken seasonably it will effect a cure. Or, an egg given to 
 each of the diseased, in the shape of a natural bolus, by simply breaking 
 the egg and slipping the yolk, and as much white as practicable, down 
 the throat of the animal. The sheep, after swallowing the egg, will 
 vomit up the leaves and green juice, but none of the egg. To cows give 
 four times the quantity. 
 
 Wounds. Besides the various casualties above specified, sheep are 
 liable to receive injuries from being wounded by thorns, &c. or worried, 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 129 
 
 DISEASES OF SWINE. 
 
 torn, or bitten by mischievous dogs, or such as are not thoroughly broken 
 in. Although such accidents may in general be prevented by due care 
 and attention, yet in cases of common green wounds, it may be neces- 
 sary to apply some healing or emollient balsam or salve like the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Let one ounce of myrrh, a similar quantity of Socotrine aloes, and four 
 ounces of purified turpentine, be mixed with a quart of good brandy. 
 The vessel should be corked up, and exposed for one or two weeks to a 
 moderate heat, after which it may be strained off, and preserved for future 
 use in a closely stopped bottle. 
 
 Lastly, the shepherd ought frequently to examine his flock, and see that 
 their tails and buttocks be kept perfectly clean, otherwise they will be- 
 come tagged, or belted, i. e. the skin will become excoriated and sore from 
 the dung that adheres to those parts, especially when the animals are 
 affected with the flux, or white scour. Where this is the case, the sheep 
 must be taken into a dry, separate yard, and well washed with soap suds, 
 the wool around the sores being previously removed; after which the 
 wounded parts may be strewed with finely pulverised white lead or chalk, 
 and this may be succeeded by rubbing them with a mixture of brandy 
 and tar : but cleanliness alone will be quite sufficient to effect a cure. 
 
 4. SWINE. 
 
 Measles. This disorder exists chiefly in the throat, which is internal- 
 ly filled with small pustules or tumors that some times appear on the out- 
 ward surface of the neck. It is known by the languor and decline in the 
 flesh of the animal affected, and may be removed by giving small quanti- 
 ties of levigated crude antimony in his food. Another prescription for 
 this disease is, — take half a spoonful of spirit of hartshorn, and two 
 ounces of bole ammoniac ; mix it with meal and wa*er, and give it to the 
 animals affected in the morning, when they are very hungry. Repeat 
 the dose every day, till they are cured, which will be in four or five days. 
 Another mode of treatment recommended is to mix two spoonfuls of mad- 
 der with their food about once a week, which prevents obstructions, act- 
 ing as a diuretic, and at the same time an astringent. Also on some other 
 day of the week give a spoonful or two of an equal quantity of flour of 
 sulphur and saltpeter, well pounded and mixed. 
 
 Mange. This disease, like the scab in sheep , is a cutaneous eruption, 
 occasioned by inattention to cleanliness in hog-styes. It is easily known 
 by the violent rubbing of swine against trees, or any hard substance with 
 such violence as to tear away the head of pustules, and produce a disa- 
 greeable scab. When this disease appears, the animal affected must be 
 separated from the rest of the herd, washed thoroughly with a strong soap 
 ley, and annointed with the following unguent recommended by Dr. 
 Norford in the Annals of Agriculture, viz. — Incorporate one ounce of 
 fine flour of sulphur, two drachms of fresh pulverized white hellebore, 
 three ounces of hog's lard, and half an ounce of the water of kali (as pre- 
 pared in the shops,) so as to form an ointment. This is to be rubbed in 
 
130 FAMILY 
 
 DISEASES OF SWINE. 
 
 at one time, and is said to be sufficient for a beast which weighs six or 
 seven stone. If properly applied, Dr. N. states that no repetition will 
 be necessary, if the hog be kept perfectly clean after the cure is performed. 
 Incase there is a slight cough, he directs from half an ounce to an ounce 
 and a half of crude antimony, according to the size of each animal, to be 
 finely pulverized and mixed with his daily food for ten days or a fortnight, 
 when the swine will be perfectly restored. But if, from neglect, the 
 neck, ears, (especially in the large lop eared hogs) or other parts be- 
 come ulcerated, they should be annointed every third or fourth day with 
 a little tar ointment, prepared by mixing equal parts of mutton suet and 
 tar over a gentle fire, and straining the mixture while hot. 
 
 Murrain or Leprosy. In swine this disease is indicated by shortness 
 and heat of breath, heads hanging down, staggering, and a secretion of 
 viscid matter from the eyes. It occurs chiefly in hot seasons, when the 
 blood becomes inflamed. To cure this disease boil a handful of nettles 
 in a gallon of small beer, then add half a pound of flour of sulphur; a 
 quarter of a pound of pulverized anisseeds ; three ounces of liquorice, 
 and a quarter of a pound of elecampane. Give this liquid in milk at six 
 doses, and keep the animal on wholesome food. The best preventive is 
 to keep swine clean and cool in summer, and allow no carrion or filth 
 whatever to remain near their styes. 
 
 Diseases of the Lungs. These are generally accompanied with a dry 
 husky cough, and wasting of the flesh occasioned by too great exposure 
 to cold and wet. The best remedy is a dry warm stye, with a regular 
 supply of food that is calculated to keep them cool, and allay the irrita- 
 tion attendant on their cough. 
 
 Fever or rising of the Liglits. This disease originates from overfeed- 
 ing, and may be removed by administering a mixture of sulphur and oil. 
 
 Gargut. This is an inflammatory affection of the udder or bag, it 
 being distended with coagulated milk, whence the lacteal ducts are ob- 
 structed. It is chiefly occasioned by not sucking -down in proper time ; 
 though too much keep before the time of farrowing will also produce 
 this malady. In slight cases, the udders may be bathed with campho- 
 rated spirits of wine, but as the young pigs will never suck their dams 
 when the milk becomes vitiated, there is no alternative, but gently to 
 express the corrupted milk, if it can be effected, otherwise it will be best 
 to loll the sow, which must necessarily perish from the inattention above 
 mentioned. 
 
 Issues. If the issues in the forelegs of swine become stopped, every 
 attempt to fatten them will be in vain. These therefore should be 
 watched, and if found to be stopped, they should be rubbed open with a 
 eorn-cob. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 131 
 
 VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA. 
 
 5. VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA 
 
 For the following recipes for veterinary practice we are indebted to 
 Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, in which we are informed, that 
 they were compiled from the works of those eminent veterinary writers, 
 Blaine, Clark, Lawrence, Peel, White, &c. The recipes for oxen, 
 calves, and sheep have been included in the arrangement. It should be 
 noted, that a large ox will bear the proportions of a moderate sized horse ; 
 a moderate sized cow, something less. A calf, about a third of the quan- 
 tity ; and a sheep about a quarter, or at most, a third of the proportions 
 directed for the cow. It is also to be remarked, that the degrees of 
 strength in the different recipes are usually regulated by their numbers, 
 the mildest standing first. 
 
 1. Alteratives. 
 1. 
 Levigated antimony, 2 drachms, 
 Cream of tartar, 
 
 Flour of sulphur, each half an 
 ounce. 
 
 2. 
 Cream of tartar, 
 Nitre, of each half an ounce. 
 
 3. 
 iEthiop's mineral, 
 Levigated antimony, 
 Powdered resin,each three drachms. 
 Give in a mash, or in oats and 
 bran, a little wetted, every night, or 
 make into a ball with honey. 
 
 2. Tonic Alteratives. 
 1. 
 Gentian, 
 Aloes, 
 Ginger, 
 Blue vitriol, in powder, of each one 
 
 drachm, 
 Oak bark in powder, 6 drachms. 
 
 2. 
 Winter's bark in powder, three 
 
 drachms, 
 Green vitriol, do. one and a half 
 
 drachms, 
 Gentian, do. three drachms. 
 
 Make either of these into a ball 
 with honey, and give every morning. 
 
 3. 
 White vitriol, one drachm, 
 Ginger or pimento, ground, two 
 
 drachms, 
 Powdered quassia, half an ounce, 
 
 Ale, 8 ounces. 
 
 Mix and give as drink, 
 4. 
 Arsenic, 10 grains, 
 Oatmeal, 1 ounce. 
 
 Mix and give in a mash, or mois- 
 tened oats nightly. 
 
 3. Astringent Mixtures for Diarrhea, 
 Lax or Scouring. 
 1. 
 Powdered ipecacuanha, 1 drachm. 
 Do. opium, half a drachm, 
 Prepared chalk, 2 ounces, 
 Boiled starch, 1 pint. 
 
 2. 
 Suet, 4 ounces, boiled in 
 Milk, 8 ounces, 
 Boiled starch, 6 ounces, 
 Powdered alum, 1 drachm. 
 
 The following has been very 
 strongly recommended in some ca- 
 ses, for the lax of horses and cattle. 
 
 3. 
 Glauber's salts, 2 ounces, 
 Epsom do. 1 ounce, 
 Green vitriol, 4 grains, 
 Gruel, half a pint. 
 
 When the lax or scouring at all 
 approaches to dysentary or molten 
 grease, the following drink should 
 be first given. 
 
 ,4. 
 Castor oil, 4 ounces, 
 Glauber's salts, dissolved, 2 ounces, 
 Powdered rhulDarb, half a drachm, 
 
132 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA, 
 
 Powdered opium, 4 grains, 
 Gruel, 1 pint. 
 
 4. Astringent balls for Diabetes or 
 
 pissing evil. 
 Catechu [Japan earth] half an 
 
 ounce, 
 Alum powdered, half a drachm, 
 Sugar of lead, 10 grains. 
 
 Conserve of roses, to make a 
 ball. 
 
 5. Astringent paste for thrush, foot- 
 
 rot, foul in the foot, 8fc. 
 Prepared calamine, 
 Verdigris, of each half an ounce, 
 White vitriol, 
 
 Alum, of each half a drachm, 
 Tar, 3 ounces ; mix. 
 
 6. Astringent washes for cracks in 
 
 the Jtecls, wounds, Sfc. 
 1. 
 Sugar of lead, 2 drachms, 
 White vitriol, 1 drachm, 
 Strong infusion of oak or elm bark, 
 1 pint; mix. 
 
 2. 
 Green vitriol, 1 drachm, 
 Infusion of galls, half a pint. 
 
 Mix, and wash the parts three 
 times a day. 
 
 7. Powder for cracks, 8?c. 
 Prepared calamine, 1 ounce, 
 Fuller's earth, powdered, 
 Pipe clay, do. of each 2 ounces. 
 
 Mix and put within gauze, and 
 dab the moist surfaces of the sores 
 frequently. 
 
 8. Astringent Paste for Grease. 
 
 Prepared calamine, 
 
 Tutty, powdered, 
 
 Charcoal do. ofeach2 ounces. 
 
 Yeast enough to make a paste. 
 2. 
 
 To the above, if more strength be 
 required, add of alum and verdigris 
 each a drachm. 
 
 9. Astringent wash for do. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms, 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce, 
 
 Soft water, 10 ounces. 
 
 Rub the sublimate in a mortar 
 with the spirit till dissolved, then 
 add the water. This is a stong 
 preparation, and has often proved 
 successful in very bad cases of 
 grease, which have resisted all the 
 usual remedies. 
 
 10. Blisters. 
 1. 
 
 A general one. 
 Cantharides powdered, 2 ounces, 
 Venice turpentine, do. 
 Resin, do. 
 Palm oil, or lard, 2 lbs. 
 
 Melt the three latter articles to- 
 gether, and when not too hot stir in 
 the Spanish flies. 
 2. 
 
 A strong cheap blister, but not 
 proper to be used in fevers or in- 
 flammations, as of the lungs, bow- 
 els, &c. 
 
 Euphorbium, powdered, 1 ounce, 
 Oil of vitriol, 2 scruples, 
 Spanish flies, 6 ounces, 
 Palm oil or lard, 
 Resin, of each 1 pound, 
 Oil of turpentine, 3 ounces. 
 
 Melt the resin with the lard or 
 palm oil. Having previously mix- 
 ed the oil of vitriol with an ounce 
 of water gradually, as gradually add 
 this mixture to the melted mass ; 
 which again set on a very slow fire 
 for ten minutes more : afterward 
 remove the whole, and when begin- 
 ning to cool, add the powders pre- 
 viously mixed together. 
 3. 
 
 A mercurial blister, for splints, 
 spavins and ring bones. 
 Of either of the above, 4 ounces, 
 Corrosive sublimate, finely powder- 
 ed, half a drachm. 
 4. 
 
 Strong liquid blister. 
 Spanish flies, in gross powder, one 
 
 ounce. 
 Oil of origanum, 2 drachms, 
 Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces, 
 Olive oil, 2 ounces. 
 
 Steep the flies in the turpentine 
 three weeks,strain off & add the oil. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 133 
 
 VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA. 
 
 14. MQd liquid or sweating blister. 
 Of the above, 1 ounce, 
 Olive oil or goose grease, one and 
 a half ounces. 
 
 15. Clysters. 
 I. A laxative one. 
 Thin gruel or broth, 5 quarts, 
 Epsom or common salts 6 ozs. 
 
 16. Clyster for Gripes. 
 
 2. 
 Mash two moderate sized onions, 
 Pour over them oil of turpentine, 
 
 2 ounces, 
 Capsicum or pepper, half an oz. 
 Thin gruel, 4 quarts. 
 
 17. Kutriticms Clyster. 
 
 3. 
 Thick gruel, three quarts, 
 Strong sound ale, one quart, 
 
 Or 4. 
 Strong broth, 2 quarts, 
 Thickened milk, 2 quarts. 
 
 18. Astringent Clyster. 
 5. 
 Tripe liquor or suet boiled in milk, 
 
 three pinta, 
 Thick starch, 2 pints. 
 Laudanum, half an ounce, 
 
 Or 6. 
 Alum whey, one quart, 
 Boiled starch, two quarts. 
 
 19. Cordial Balls. 
 Gentian powdered, 4 ounces, 
 Ginger do. 2 ounces, 
 Coriander seeds do. 4 ounces, 
 Caraway do. 4 ounces, 
 Oil of aniseed, quarter of an oz. 
 Make into a mass with honey, 
 treacle or laid, and give an ounce 
 and a half for a dose. 
 
 Chronic Cough Balls. 
 1. 
 Calomel 1 scruple, 
 Gum ammoniacum, 
 
 M 
 
 Horse radish, of each 2 drachms. 
 Balsam of Tolu, 
 Squills, each one drachm, 
 
 Beat all together, and make into 
 a ball with honey, and give e 
 morning, fasting. 
 
 21. Drink for the same. 
 2. 
 Tar water. 
 
 Lime water, of each half a pint. 
 Tincture of squills, have an oz. 
 
 22. Ponder for the same. 
 3. 
 
 Tartar emetic, 2 drachms, 
 Powdered foxglove, half a drachm. 
 Powdered squill, half a drachm, 
 Calomel one scruple, 
 Nitre 3 drachms. 
 
 Give every night in a malt 
 mash. 
 
 23. Diuretic Balls. 
 Resin, yellow, 1 pound. 
 Nitre, half a pound, 
 Horse turpentine, half a pound. 
 Yellow soap, quarter of a pound. 
 
 Melt the resin, soap and turpen- 
 tine over a slow fire ; when cooling 
 add the nitre. For a strong dose, 
 an ounce and a half, for a mild one. 
 an ounce. Jt should be kept in 
 mind, that mild diuretics are always 
 equal to what is required : and that 
 strong diuretics are alwavs hurt- 
 ful. 
 
 24. Diuretic Pouters. 
 esin. powdered, 4 oz. 
 Nitre, do. 8 ounces. 
 Cream of tartar, do. 4 ounces. 
 
 Dose — C, 8, or 10 drs. nightly, 
 which some horses will readily eat 
 in a mash. 
 
 25. Urine Drink. 
 Glauber's salts, two ounces, 
 Nitre, 6 drachms, 
 
 Dissolve in a pint of warm 
 water. 
 
134 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA. 
 
 30. Fever Drink. 
 3. 
 Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce, 
 Mindererus spirit, six ounces, 
 Water, 4 ounces. 
 
 31. Epidemic Fever Drink. 
 4. 
 Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce, 
 Simple oxymel, 6 ounces, 
 Tartar emetic, 3 drachms. 
 
 32. Malignant Epidemic Fever. 
 5. 
 Simple oxymel, 
 Mindererus spirit, 
 Beer yeast, of each 4 ounces. 
 Sweet spirit of nitre, one ounce. 
 
 33. Fumigations for purifying in- 
 fected stables, sheds, £c. 
 Manganese, 2 ounces, 
 Common salt, do. 
 Oil of vitriol, 3 ounces, 
 Water, I ounce. 
 
 Put the mixed manganese and 
 salt into a basin ; then, having 
 before mixed the vitriol and water 
 very gradually, pour them by means 
 of tongs, or any thing that will 
 enable you to stand at a sufficient 
 distance, on the articles in the 
 basin gradually. As soon as the 
 fumes rise, retire and shut up the 
 door close. 
 
 34. Hoof Liquid. 
 Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces, 
 Tar, 4 ounces, 
 Whale oil, 8 ounces. 
 
 This softens and toughens the 
 hoofs extremely, when brushed over 
 them night and morning. 
 
 35. Purging; Medicines. 
 Balls — very mild. 
 Aloes, powdered, 6 drachms, 
 Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm. 
 
 Mild. 
 Aloes, powdered, 8 drachms, 
 Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm. 
 
 26. Embrocations — cooling for in- 
 flammations. 
 1. 
 Goulard's extract, half an ounce, 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce, 
 Soft water, 1 quart. 
 2. 
 Mindererus spirit, 4 ounces, 
 Water, 12 ounces. 
 
 27. For Strains. 
 
 Bay salt, bruised, half a pound, 
 Crude sal ammoniac, 2 ounces, 
 Sugar of lead, quarter of an oz. 
 Vinegar one pint and a half, 
 Water one pint. 
 
 28. For the Eyes. 
 
 1. 
 Sugar of lead, 1 drachm, 
 White vitriol, 2 scruples, 
 Water, 1 pint. 
 
 2. 
 Brandy, one ounce, 
 Infusion of green tea, 4 ounces, 
 Tincture of opium, 2 drachms, 
 Infusion of red roses, 4 ounces. 
 
 3. 
 Rose water, six ounces, 
 Mindererus spirit, 3 ounces. 
 
 4. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 4 grains. 
 Alkohol, 1 ounce. 
 Lime water, 1 pint. 
 
 5. 
 Alum, powdered, 1 drachm. 
 Calomel, half a drachm. 
 
 Mix and insert a little at one 
 corner of the eye. The custom of 
 blowing it in, alarms the horse. 
 
 29. Fever Powders. 
 
 1. 
 Tartar emetic, 2 drachms, 
 Nitre, 5 drachms. 
 
 2. 
 Antimonial powder, 2 drachms, 
 Cream of tartar, 
 Nitre, of each four drachms. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 135 
 
 VETERINARY PHARMACOPEIA. 
 
 Aloes, powdered, 10 drachms, 
 
 Strong. 
 Oil ofturpentine, I drachm. 
 
 The aloes may be beaten with 
 treacle to a mass, adding, during 
 the beating, the oil ofturpentine. 
 All spices, cream of tartar, oil of 
 tartar, jalap, &c. are useless, and 
 often hurtful additions. 
 
 36. Liquid Purge* 
 Epsom salts, dissolved, 8 ozs. 
 Castor oil, 4 ounces, 
 Watery tincture of aloes, 8 ozs. 
 
 Mix — The watery tincture of 
 aloes is made by beating powder- 
 ed aloes with the yolk of eggs, ad- 
 ding water by degrees ; by these 
 means half an ounce of aloes may 
 be suspended in 8 ounces of water, 
 and such a purge is useful when 
 a ball cannot be got down, as in 
 partial locked jaw. 
 
 37. Scalding Mixture for Poll 
 Evil 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, finely pow- 
 dered, 1 drachm, 
 
 Yellow basilicon, 4 ounces. 
 
 38. Foot Stoppings. 
 Horse and cow dung, each about 
 2 pounds. Tar, half a pound. 
 
 39. Wash for coring out., destroy- 
 ing fungus, or proud flesh, Sec. 
 Sec. 
 Lunar caustic, one drachm. 
 Water, 2 ounces. 
 
 40. Wash for Mange. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms, 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 oz. 
 Decoction of tobacco, 
 Do. of white helebore, of each 1 
 
 pint. 
 
 Dissolve the mercury in the spirit, 
 and then add the decoctions. 
 
 41. Ointments for healing, 
 1. 
 Turner's cerate, 2 ounces, 
 White vitriol powdered, half 
 
 drachm, 
 Lard, 4 ounces. 
 
 42. For Digesting. 
 2. 
 Turner's cerate, 2 ounces, 
 White vitriol, 1 drachm, 
 Yellow basilicon, 5 ounces. 
 
 43. For Mange. 
 Sulphur vivum, 8 ounces, 
 Arsenic in powder, 2 drachms, 
 Mercurial ointment, 2 ounces, 
 Turpentine, 2 ounces, 
 Lard, 8 ounces. 
 
 Mix, and dress with every 
 morning. 
 
 44. For Scab or Shab in Sheep, 
 Mallenders and Sellenders in 
 Horses, and foul blotches and 
 eruptions in cattle in general. 
 Camphor, I drachm, 
 Sugar of lead, half a drachm, 
 Mercurial ointment, 1 ounce. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WEATHER. 
 
 " Innumerable advantages would arise to the husbandman," re- 
 marks Dr. Deane, " from a foreknowledge of the changes of the weath- 
 er ; and even from a foreknowledge of the general characters of the 
 approaching seasons. In the former case, he would be able to order 
 his business from day to day in the best manner, and so prevent much 
 hurry, perlexity and loss ; especially in the seasons of hay making and 
 harvesting ; in the latter, he would be happily directed in his choice of 
 crops, and the best method of cultivating them. But, as this know- 
 ledge is not to be obtained, the ability to make very probable conjec- 
 tures is nextly to be coveted, as it will be found to answer very valua- 
 ble purposes." 
 
136 FAMILY 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WEATHER. 
 
 Among the various phenomena which attentive observers have found 
 to indicate approaching changes in the atmosphere, the following 
 chiefly from the Complete Grazier, are selected as affording the most 
 certain signs : 
 
 I. By animals. Previous to rain and wind, or stormy weather, neat 
 cattle and sheep seem more than usually desirous of feeding in their 
 pastures, and to leave them with reluctance. A similar change is an- 
 nounced by the uneasiness of swine, which grunt loudly, and retire to 
 their styes ; by geese and ducks washing themsehes repeatedly and 
 with little intermission, flying anxiously backwards and forwards ; by 
 swallows flying low and skimming along the surface of the water, 
 twittering with more loudness than usual ; and by poultry rolling much 
 in dust and sand, or gravel. Wet and windy weather is likewise indi- 
 cated by dogs becoming drowsy and stupid, and exhibiting an evident 
 reluctance for food, except grass (particularly the species denominated 
 dog's grass, or couch-grass ;) and by cats losing their vivacity, and re- 
 maining within doors. Continued rain is announced by pigeons re- 
 turning slowly to their cotes ; a change from cloudy or unsettled to 
 greater wet, by flies stinging and swarming more than usual ; and a 
 sudden variation, accompanied with a storm, by wild ducks, plovers, 
 bustards, and other aquatic birds withdrawing to the sea-coast, or to 
 the marshes. 
 
 The contrary circumstances evince the longer or thorter continuance 
 of fine weather ; to which may be added, that bees flying abroad, and 
 laboring with that industry which has become proverbial ; crows croak- 
 ing in the morning ; the robin or red-breast singing early from the 
 more elevated branches of trees ; and gnats flying in a columnar form, 
 within the rays of the setting sun, are all indications of fine or serene 
 weather. 
 
 II. From the appearance of the earth. Thus moist stones and dry 
 soil prognosticate rain ; a continued fall of which may be expected, if 
 the ground seem nearly dry, and the roads almost, if not wholly free 
 from mud ; as the contrary occurrences announce that the evaporation 
 of humidity has ceased, and consequently that fine weather is ap- 
 proaching. 
 
 III. From the atmosphere. If in the evening a white mist be spread 
 over a meadow contiguous to a river, and be evaporated by the sun's 
 rays on the following morning, it is an indication of fine weather 
 throughout the day ; so in the morning, if a mist, which is impending 
 over low lands, draw off towards those which are more elevated, it 
 announces a fine day. The gradual diminution of clouds till they can 
 no longer be seen in the air, is a sign of fine weather; so likewise is 
 the continuance of abundant dew upon the grass after a serene day. 
 The contrary events announce a change of weather, which may be 
 more clearly known by the clouds gathering and lowering ; by the sky, 
 after serene weather, becoming undulated as it were with small clouds. 
 
 The indications of approaching changes of the weather from the 
 form of the clouds have been much insisted upon by some writers. 
 These indications are far from being infallible ; yet experience and ob- 
 servation justify certain deductions in respect to the coming weather, 
 which may be of some value to the farmer. Although the forms of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 137 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WEATHER. 
 
 clouds are greatly diversified, they may all be comprised in seven mod- 
 ifications as follows : 
 
 Cirrus or Curl-ehud. Cumulus or slacken -cloud. 
 
 Cirrocumulus or Sander-cloud. Nimbus or Rain-cloud* 
 
 Cirrostratus or Wane-cloud. Stratus or Fall cloud. 
 
 Cuaiulostratus or Twain-cloud. 
 
 These clouds are represented in the following engraving. 
 
138 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 Obs. 1. The cirrus or curl cloud Fig. 1. derives its name from its 
 curling form, which often assumes the appearance of a bunch of wool 
 drawn out into fine pointed ends. A variety of this cloud is known 
 by farmers under the name of mare's tail, and is an accompaniment of 
 variable weather, and prognosticates wind and rain. 
 
 2. The Cirrocumulus or sonder-cloud Fig. 2. consists of beds of 
 small, well defined masses of clouds which lie in the neighborhood of 
 each other, yet are separated from each other and distinct, as the word 
 sonder or sunder indicates. The prevalence of this cloud in summer 
 forebodes a higher temperature ; in winter, it indicates warm and wet 
 weather. When these clouds are very dense, and quite round in their 
 form, they are a forerunner of storms. 
 
 3. Cirrostratus or wane-cloud. The prevalence of this cloud is almost 
 always followed by rain or snow. It derives its name from the fre- 
 quent change which it undergoes in its appearance. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 represent the varieties of this cloud. 
 
 4. Cumulostratus and Cumulus are represented by Fig. 9, the Cu- 
 mulus naving the appearance of a heap or stack of clouds, and the 
 Cumulostratus being the base or foundation of the Cumulus. It is 
 called twain-clo'ud from the frequent coalescence or juncture of two 
 other modifications of clouds, as the cirrus and the cumulus. The 
 cumulostratus is an indication of rain or snow ; but if it ends in either, 
 it previously assumes the form of Nimbus, as in Fig. II. 
 
 5. Nimbus, Fig. II, is always followed by either snow or rain. 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 ART OF GARDENING OR HORTICULTURE. 
 
 ON THE SITUATION, SOIL, FENCING, AND LAYING OUT OF GARDENS. 
 
 Situation. The ground should be as nearly on a level as possible ; 
 but as it is not always in our power to choose a level spot, the slope 
 in the ground, should, if possible, be towards the South. In a Kitchen 
 Garden all large trees ought to be kept at the distance of thirty or forty 
 feet. For, the shade of them is injurious, and their roots a great deal 
 more injurious to every plant growing within the influence of those 
 roots. Grass, which rnatts the ground over with its roots and does 
 not demand much food from any depth, does not suffer much from the 
 roots of trees ; but every other plant does. A kitchen garden should, 
 therefore, have no large trees near it. If it be practicable, without sa- 
 crificing too much in other respects, to make a garden near to running 
 water, and especially to water that may be turned into the garden, such 
 an advantage ought not to be lost ; but as to watering with a watering 
 pot, it is seldom of much use, and it cannot be practiced upon a large 
 scale. It is better to trust to judicious tillage, and to the dews and 
 rains. A man will raise more moisture, with a hoe or a spade, in a 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 130 
 
 HORTICULTURE, 
 
 day, than he can pour on the earth cut of a watering pot in the same 
 time ; or, at least to greater purpose. 
 
 Soil. The plants which grow in a garden, prefer, like most other 
 plants, the best soil that is to be found. The best is loam of several 
 feet deep, with a bed of lime-stone, sand-stone, or sand below. Oak 
 trees love clay, and the finest and heaviest wheat grows in land with a 
 bottom of clay ; but if there be clay within even six feet of the sur- 
 face there will be a coldness in the land, which will, in spite of all you 
 can do, keep your spring crop a week or ten days behind those upon 
 land, which has not a bottom of clay. 
 
 Having fixed upon the spot for a garden, the next thing is to pre- 
 pare the ground. This may be done by ploughing and harrowing, un- 
 til the ground at top be perfectly clean ; and then by double ploughing ; 
 that is to say, by going with a strong plough, that turns a large furrow, 
 and turns it cleanly, twice in the same place, and thus moving the 
 ground to the depth of fourteen or sixteen inches, for the advantage of 
 deeply moving the ground is very great indeed. When this has been 
 done in one direction it ought to be done across, and then the ground 
 will have been well and deeply moved. 
 
 This is as much as I shall, probably, be able to persuade anybody to 
 do in the way of preparing the ground. But, this is not all that ought 
 to be done ; and it is proper to give directions for the best way of doing 
 this and every thing else. The best way is, then, to trench the ground; 
 which is performed in this manner. At one end of the piece of ground, 
 intended for the garden, you make with a spade, a trench, all along, two 
 feet wide and two feet deep. You throw the earth out on the side away 
 from the garden that is to be. You shovel out the bottom clean, and 
 make the sides of the trench as nearly perpendicular as possible. You 
 then take another piece, all along, two feet wide, and put the earth that 
 this new piece contains into the trench, taking off the top of the new 
 two feet wide, and turning that top down into the bottom of the trench, 
 and then taking the remainder of the earth of the new two feet and 
 place it on the top of the earth just turned into the bottom of the 
 trench. Thus proceed, till the whole of your garden ground be trench- 
 ed ; and it will have been cleanly turned over to the depth of two feet. 
 
 There is no point of greater importance than tliis. Poor gound 
 deeply moved is preferable, in many cases, to rich ground with shallow- 
 tillage ; and when the ground has been deeply moved once, it feels the 
 benefit forever after. It is well known to all who have had experience 
 on the subject, that of two plants of almost any kind that stand for the 
 space of three months in top soil of the same quality, one being on 
 ground deeply moved, and the other on ground moved no deeper than 
 is usual, the former will exceed the latter one half in bulk. And, as 
 to trees of all descriptions, from the pear tree down to the currant bush, 
 a similar difference might be seen. It is a notion with some persons, 
 that it is no use to move the ground deeper than the roots of the plant 
 penetrate. But, in the first place the roots go much deeper than we 
 generally suppose. When we pull up a cabbage, for instance, we see 
 no roots more than a foot long, but if we were carefully to pursue the 
 roots to their utmost point, even as far as the eye would assist us, vre 
 should find the roots a great deal longer, and the extremities of the 
 
140 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 roots are much too fine to be seen with the naked eye. Upon pulling 
 up a common turnip, who would image that the side or horizontal 
 roots extend to several feet? Yet they may be traced to the length of 
 four feet. But, though the roots should not extend nearly to the bottom 
 of the moved ground, the plants are affected by the unmoved ground 
 near at hand. Plants require a communication with, and an assistance 
 from, beneath as well as from above, in order to give them vigor and 
 fecundity. 
 
 Thus w 7 ill the ground be prepared, but it seems necessary to add a 
 few words on the subject of manures* as adapted to a garden. It is 
 generally thought, and truly, that dung of any sort, is not what ought 
 to be used, in the raising of garden vegetables. It is very certain, that 
 they are coarse and gross when produced with the aid of that sort of 
 manure, compared with what they are when raised with the aid of ash- 
 es, lime, rags, and composts. And besides, dung in hot soils and hot 
 climates, adds to the heat : while ashes, lime, rags and composts do not, 
 but on the contrary, they attract and cause the earth to retain moisture. 
 AH the ground in a garden ought always to be good ; and it will be kept 
 in this state if it be well manured once every year. 
 
 Fencing. The fence of a garden is an important, matter ; for we 
 have to view it not only as giving protection against intruders, two- 
 legged as well as four legged, but as affording slitller in cold weather 
 and shade in hot. With regard to shelter ; this is of very great con- 
 sequence, for it is well known that on the south side of a good high 
 fence, you can have peas, lettuce, radishes, and many other things, 
 full ten days earlier in the spring than you could have them in the 
 unsheltered ground. The shade, during the summer, is also valuable. 
 Peas will thrive in the shade long after they will no longer produce in 
 the sun. Currant trees and goosbcrry trees will not do well in this 
 climate, unless they be in the shade. Raspberries also are best in the 
 shade ; and during the heat of summer, lettuce, radishes and many 
 other things thrive best in the shade. It will be presently seen, when 
 I come to speak of the form of a garden, that I have fixed on an oblong 
 square, twice as long as it is w^ide. This gives me a long fence on the 
 north side, and also en the south side. The former gives me a fine, 
 warm extensive border in the spring, and the latter a border equally ex- 
 tensive and as cool as I can get it, in the heat of summer. 
 
 I am aware of the difficulty of overcoming long habit, and of intro- 
 ducing any thing that is new. Yet, amongst a sensible people, such as 
 those for whom this work is intended, one need not be afraid of ulti- 
 mate success ; and I, above all men, ought not to entertain such fear, 
 after what 1 have seen with regard to the ruta baga. Yet I proceed 
 with hesitation to propose, even for a garden, a line fence. In England 
 it is called a quick set Judge. The truth is, however, that it ought rather 
 to be called an everlasting hedge ; for it is not so quickly set, or, at least, 
 so very quickly raised. The plants are those of the white thorn. It 
 bears white flowers in great abundance, of a very fragrant smell, 
 which are succeeded by a little red berry. Within the red pulp is a small 
 stone ; and this stone, being put in the ground, produces a plant or 
 tree in the same manner a cherry stone does. The red berries are called 
 haws, whence this thorn is sometimes called hawthorn. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 141 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 The haws are sown in drills, like peas, and they are taken from that 
 situation and planted very thick in rows, in a nursery, where they stand 
 a year or two, if they are not wanted the first year. Then they are 
 ready to be planted to become a hedge. 
 
 The ground for the Garden being prepared, in the manner described 
 under the head of Soil, take up your plants, prune their roots to within 
 four inches of the part that was at the top of the ground, taking care 
 to cutaway all the fibres. Work the ground well all around the edges 
 of the piece intended for the garden, and make it very fine with a spade. 
 Then place a line along very truly ; for, observe you are planting for 
 generations to come. Take the spade, put the edge of it against the 
 line, drive it down eight or ten inches deep ; pull the eye of the spade 
 towards you, and thus you make all along a little open cut to receive 
 the roots of the plant, which you will then put into the cut, very up- 
 right, and then put the earth against them with your hand ; taking 
 care not to plant them deeper in the ground, than they stood before 
 you took them from the nursery. The distance between the plants is 
 twelve inches. ' When this line is done, plant another line all along by 
 the side of it, and at six inches from it, in exactly the same manner ; 
 taking care, in this second line, to place the plants opposite the middles 
 of the intervals. When both lines are planted, tread gently between 
 them and also on the outside of them. 
 
 This work should be done in theirs/ or second week of October. But 
 if you cannot do it in the fall, do it the moment the ground is fit in the 
 spring. In both cases the plants must be cut down close to the ground. 
 If you plant in the fall, cut them down as soon as the frost is out of 
 the ground in the spring, and before the buds begin to swell : and, if you 
 plant in the spring, cut down as soon as you have planted. This ope- 
 ration is of indispensable necessity ; for, without it, you will have no 
 hedge. Keep the ground between them and all around them very clean y 
 and frequently hoed. Some people cut down again the next spring ; 
 but this is not the best way. Let the plants stand two summers and three 
 winters, and cut them all close down to the ground as you can in the 
 spring, and the shoots will come out so thick and so strong, that you 
 never need cut down any more. But you must this year begin to 
 clip. About the middle of July you must clip off the top a little, and 
 the sides near the top, leaving the bottom not much clipped, so that the 
 sides of the hedge may slope like the sides of a pyramid. The hedge 
 will shoot again immediately and will have shoots, perhaps, six inches 
 long by October. Then, before winter, you must clip it again, not cut- 
 ting down to your last cut, but keeping your side always in a pyramidi- 
 cal slope, so that the hedge may always be wide at bottom and sharp 
 at the top. And thus the hedge will go on getting higher and higher, 
 and wider and wider, till you have it at the height and thickness that 
 you wish, and when it arrives at that point there you may keep it. A 
 hedge five clear feet high may be got in six years from the day of 
 planting. 
 
 Laying out. The laying out of a garden consists in the division of 
 it into several parts, and in the allotting of those several parts to the 
 several purposes for which a garden is made. These parts consist of 
 Walks, Paths, Plats, Borders and a Hot- Bed -Ground. To render the 
 directions more clear, apian of the proposed garden is here given. 
 
142 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 rUrtHM 
 
 Ir«rt§r# 
 
 
 E r»r#r# 
 
 i 
 
 LAYING OUT. 
 
 This is not, strictly speaking a plan, because it exhibits trees in eleva- 
 tion, but it will answer the purpose. The length of the garden is 100 
 yards, the breadth 50 yards. Before, however, I proceed further, let 
 me give my reasons for choosing an oblong square. It will be seen that 
 the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 143 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 length in this direction, than from North to South, three important ad- 
 vantages are secured. First, we get a long and warm border under the 
 North fence for the rearing of things early in the spring. Second, we 
 get a long and cool border under the South fence, for shading 1 during 
 the great heats, things, to which a burning sun is injurious. Third, by 
 this shape of the area of the garden a larger portion of the whole is 
 sheltered during winter and spring, from the bleak winds. 
 
 Having such a spot before us, little difficulty can arise in laying it 
 out. Indeed it is only necessary to state the dimensions. The several 
 parts are distinguished by numbers. The long walk running from 
 East to West is six feet wide, as is also the cross walk, in the middle. 
 All the paths are three feet wide. The borders No. 2 and 3, are nine 
 fut wide. The dimensions of the Plats, Nos. 5, 7, 8. 9. 10 and 11. arc 
 each TO feet from Ea*t to West, and 56 from North to South. Plat No. 
 6, is 56 feet by 50. Plat No. 4, is 60 by 36. The Hot bed ground No. 
 1, is 70 by 36. I leave trifling fractions* unnoticed. It will be seen that 
 about a third part of the ground is appropriated to Fiuit-Trees. The 
 reason for this, and the uses of the other parts of the ground, will be 
 fully stated under the head Cultivation. 
 
 Hot Beds. The materials of which the bed is to be composed, and 
 the manner of preparing those materials, are first to be spoken of. 
 Dung of horses, cattle, sheep, or pigs, is used to make the bed. Either 
 may be made to do, with a greater or less degree of care and trouble ; 
 but, the best possible thing is dung from the stable, taken away before 
 it has been rotted ; short and long promiscuously, but rather long than 
 short. In making the bed you will proceed as directed below, but 
 I must first describe the Frame and the Lights. As there are few 
 American Farmers who are not able to make both with their own 
 hands, it will be necessary for me merely to say. that the frame is of the 
 best shape when it is eighteen inches deep at thebac/ fie inches 
 
 deep at the front. This will give slope enough. The Frame is the 
 wood work on which the Lights, or glass-work, are laid. .And. as it is 
 useless to make a hot-bed without a frame and lights ready. I shall sup- 
 pose them prepared. I suppose a three-light Frame, four feet wide and 
 nine feet long, which will, of course, make every Light three feet aside, 
 and four feet long, because the long way of the light, tits the cross way 
 of the Frame. 
 
 Of making the bed. The front of the bed is. of course ' be full south, 
 so that the noon sun may come right upon the glass. The length and 
 width of the bed must be those oi'the Frame: therefore take the frame 
 and place it upon the spot you mean the bed to stand on. Make a 
 mark in the ground all round the outside of the frame. Then take 
 some sharp pointed straight stakes and drive them in the ground at 
 each corner of the marked out place for the bed, and one or two on the 
 back and front side. Let these be about four feet high. Thus all be- 
 ing ready, begin taking the dung on the side of your heap nearest the 
 spot where you are building the bed. Take long and short fairly, and 
 mix them as you put tiiem in. Shake the stuff in such t way as not to 
 leave any lumps. Let the bed rise in all parts together as nearly as 
 possible. Beat the whole down with a fork as you proceed. When 
 you have shaken on dung to the thickness of four or five inches, beat 
 all over well again ; and so on, till the work be finished. But mind, you 
 
144 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 must be very careful to keep the edges of the bed well beaten, else they 
 will sink more than the rest, and thus the earth on the bed will crack 
 in the middle. At last, shovel and sweep up all the short earthy stuff 
 round the bed wheie your dung-heap was, and lay it very smoothly on 
 the top of the bed ; and make all as smooth and level as a die with the 
 back of your shovel. Thus the bed is made. Then put on the frame, 
 and the lights upon the frame. If you finish your bed by noon, the heat 
 will begin to rise by the next morning, and by noon of the second day, 
 the heat will be up. Poke your finger as deep as you can into the mid- 
 dle of the bed ; if the heat be so great that you cannot endure it, then 
 it is too great to receive the earth ; but if not, put on the earth all over 
 the bed. If the heat be too great, give the bed a little air, and wait till 
 a little of the heat be gone off. The earth should be dry, not like dust, 
 but not wet* I made provision for my bed, by putting earth in my cel- 
 lar in November. The bed is to be covered all over, about six inches 
 deep. When the earth has been on twenty-four hours, take off the 
 lights, and stir the earth well with your hands. When you have stir- 
 red the earth well, and made the earth level and smooth, sow your seed, 
 if you do not find the earth too hot. 
 
 Of the act of sowing. The more handsomely this is done, the better it 
 is done. A handsome dress is better than an ugly one, not because it 
 is warmer or cooler; but, because, liking it better, we take more care of 
 it. Those who have seen two or three women together, crossing dirty 
 streets, or in danger from horses and carriages, cannot have failed to 
 discover, that humanity, like smoke, is very apt to fly to the fairest. 
 
 Seeds are great tell-tales ; for, when they come up, we discover all 
 the carelessness that may have prevailed at the sowing of them. 
 
 Of the management of a hot-bed. Observe that the main principle is, 
 always to give the plants an much air as they will endure. I suppose the 
 hot bed made as above, to be four feet high when just finished. It will 
 sink as it heats, and will, at last, come to about one foot and a half. 
 Its heat will gradually diminish ; but it will give a great heat for about 
 six weeks, and some heat for four months. It is this bottom heat that 
 makes things grow. The sun is often hot in May ; but it is not till the 
 earth is warm, that vegetation advances with rapidity. Having secured 
 the bottom heat, make free with the air. Even before the seeds begin 
 to appear, give air to the bed every day, unless it be very cold weather. 
 When the plants come up, they will soon tell you all about air ; for, if 
 they have not enough, they will draw up long legged, and will have 
 small seed leaves, and, indeed, if too much deprived of air, will droop 
 and die. Take care in time to prevent this. Let them grow strong, 
 rather than tall. Short stems, broad seed leaves, very green, these are 
 the signs of good plants and proper management. It will be necessary 
 to water. Take off a light at a time, and water with a watering pot, 
 that does not pour out heavily. Water just about sun-set, and then 
 shut down the light ; and the heat will then rise, and make the plants 
 grow rapidly. Of the management of the different sorts of plants in a 
 hot-bed, I shall speak under their respective names. 
 
 On Propagation and Cultivation. In order to have good vege- 
 tables, herbs and fruits, we must be careful and diligent in the Propa- 
 gation and Cultivation of the several plants ; for, though nature does 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 146 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 much, she does not do all. The propagation of plants is the bringing 
 of them forth, or the increasing or multiplying of them. This is effected 
 in several different ways ; by seeds, by suckers, by offsets, by layers, by 
 cuttings. Cultivation must of course differ in some respects, to suit 
 itself to certain differences in the plants to be cultivated ; but there are 
 some principles and rules which apply to the cultivation of all plants ; 
 and it is of these only that I propose to speak. 
 
 Sort of Seed. We should make sure here ; for, what a loss to have 
 late cabbages instead of early ones. As to beans, peas, and many other 
 things, there cannot easily be mistake or deception. But as to cabba- 
 ges, cauliflowers, turnips, radishes, lettuces, onions, leeks, and numerous 
 others, the eye is no guide at all. If therefore you do not save your 
 own seed, you ought to be very careful of whom you purchase. 
 
 True seed. But besides the kind, there is the genuineness to be con- 
 sidered. For instance, you want sugar-loaf cabbage. The seed you 
 sow may be cabbage ; it may too, be sugar loaf, or more that than any 
 thing else, but, still, it may not be true to its kind. To insure truth in 
 seed, if you purchase, take the precaution recommended above. But 
 when you find that you have any true seed of any kind, get as much 
 more of it as will last you for the number of years that such seed will 
 keep ; and to know how many years the seeds of vegetables and herbs 
 will keep, see under the head of Saving and Preserving Seed. 
 
 Soundness of Seed. Seed may be of the right sort ; it may be true to 
 its sort ; and, yet, if it be unsound, it will not grow. The way to try 
 seed, is this. Put a small quantity of it into lukewarm water, and let 
 the water be four or five inches deep. Some seeds, such as those of 
 cabbage, radish, and turnip, will, if good, go to the bottom at once. — 
 Cucumber, melon, lettuce, and many others, require a few minutes. — 
 Parsnips, and carrot,, and all the winged seeds, require to be worked by 
 your fingers in a little water, before you put them into the glass ; and 
 the carrot should be rubbed, so as to get off part of the hairs. Though 
 there are other methods, I incline to the opinion that we should try 
 seeds, as our ancestors tried Witches, not by fire but by water. 
 
 Saving and Preserving Seed. This is the most important part of the 
 Gardener's business. There are rules applicable to particular plants ; 
 but it is my business here to speak of such as are applicable to all 
 plants. The truest plants should be selected, that is, such as are of the 
 most perfect shape and quality. In the cabbage, we seek small stem, 
 well formed loaf, few spare, or loose leaves ; in the turnip, large bulb, 
 small neck, slender stalked leaves, solid flesh, or pulp ; in the radish, 
 high color, if red or scarlet, small neck, few and short leaves, and long 
 top. Of plants the early coming of which is a circumstance of impor- 
 tance, the very earliest should be chosen for seed ; for they *vill almost 
 always be found to include the highest degree of perfection in other 
 respects. They should be carefully cultivated, during the time they 
 are carrying on their seed to perfection. But effectual care must be 
 taken to prevent a mixing of the sorts. The plants should stand til] 
 perfectly ripe, if possible. They should be cut, or gathered, when it is 
 dry ; and they should, if possible, be dry as dry can be, before they are 
 threshed out. If, when threshed, any moisture remain about them, 
 they should be placed in the sun ; and when quite dry, should be put 
 N 
 
146 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 into bags, and hung up against a very dry wall, where they will, by no 
 accident, get damp. Thus preserved, kept from the open air, and 
 from damp, the seeds of vegetables will keep sound and good for sow- 
 ing for the number of years stated in the following list. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 4 
 
 Lettuce .... 3 
 
 Balm • 
 
 2 
 
 Mangel Wurzel . . 10 
 
 Bean 
 
 1 
 
 Melon . . . .10 
 
 Bean, Kidney, 
 
 1 
 
 Mint .... 4 
 
 Beet 
 
 10 
 
 Mustard .... 4 
 
 Brocoli .... 
 
 4 
 
 Onion 2 
 
 Cabbage .... 
 
 4 
 
 Parsley . . . . & 
 
 Camomile 
 
 2 
 
 Parsnip .... 1 
 
 Caraway .... 
 
 4 
 
 Pea .... 1 
 
 Carrot .... 
 
 1 
 
 Pennyroyal . . . 2 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 4 
 
 Potato .... 3 
 
 Celery .... 
 
 10 
 
 Pumpkin . . 10 
 
 Corn .... 
 
 3 
 
 Radish .... 2 
 
 Coriander . . 
 
 3 
 
 Rhubarb ... 1 
 
 Cress .... 
 
 2 
 
 Rosemary ... 3 
 
 Cucumber .... 
 
 10 
 
 RutaBaga ... 4 
 
 Fennel .... 
 
 5 
 
 Savory ... 2 
 
 Garlic .... 
 
 3 
 
 Spinach .... 4 
 
 Hop , 
 
 2 
 
 Squash .... 10 
 
 Horse-radish 
 
 4 
 
 Tansy .... 3 
 
 Hyssop .... 
 
 6 
 
 Thyme .... 2 
 
 Lavender .... 
 
 2 
 
 Turnip .... 4 
 
 Leek .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 Solving. The first thing, relating to sowing, is, the preparation of 
 the ground. It may be more or lessjine, according to the sort of seed 
 to be sown ; but still the finer the better for every thing ; for it is best 
 if the seed be actually pressed by the earth in every part. Of course 
 the ground should be good, either in itself, or made good by manure of 
 some sort. But, in all cases, the ground should be fresh ; that is, it 
 should be dug just before the act of sowing, in order that the seeds may 
 have the full benefit of the fermentation, that takes place upon every 
 moving of the earth. Never sow when the ground is wet. If you dig 
 ground in wet weather, you make a sort of mortar of it, it binds when 
 the sun or wind dries it. The fermentation does not take place. Sow 
 therefore, if possible in dry weather, but in freshly moved ground. The 
 season for sowing will, of course, find a place under the name of the 
 respective plants. However, it is necessary to observe, that some, and 
 even many, things, which are usually sown in the spring, would be 
 better sown in the fall. Parsnips, carrots, beets, onions, and many 
 other things, may be safely sown in the fall. The seed will not perish 
 if covered by the earth. But then care must be taken to sow early 
 enough in the fall for the plants to come up before the frost sets in. — 
 Even early peas would be best sown in the fall, could you have an in- 
 surance against mice. 
 
 Transplanting. The weather for transplanting, whether of table 
 vegetables or of trees, is the same as that of sowing. If you do this 
 
ExNCYCLOPEDIA. 147 
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 work in wet weather, or when the gronnd is wet, the work cannot be 
 well done. It has been observed, as to seeds, that they like the earth 
 to touch them in every part, and to lie close about them. It is the same 
 with roots. The earth should be as firm as possible, for, if it be not, 
 part of the roots will remain untouched by the earth. If ground be 
 wet, it cannot bejirm. And, if mixed wet, it will remain in a sort of 
 mortar, and will cling and bind together, and will leave more or less of 
 cracks, when it comes to dry. If possible, therefore, transplant when 
 the ground is not wet ; but, here, as in the case of sowing, let it be 
 deeply moved, and well broken, immediately before you transplant into 
 it 
 
 Cultivation. Here, as under the foregoing head, I propose to 
 speak only of what is of general application, in order to save the room 
 that would be necessary to repeat instructions for cultivation under the 
 names of the several plants. The ground being good, and the sowing 
 or planting having been properly performed, the next thing is the after- 
 management, which is usually called the cultivation. If the subjects be 
 from seed, let them be thinned early, because, if left too close, they can- 
 not come to good. Carrots, parsnips, lettuces, every thing, ought to 
 be thinned in the seed-leaf. Hoe, or weed, immediately, and let me ob- 
 serve here, once for all, that weeds ought never to be suffered to get to 
 any size, either in the field, or garden. But, besides the act of kil- 
 ling weeds, cultivation means moving the earth between the plants 
 while growing. This assists them in their growth ; it feeds them ; It 
 raises food for their roots to live on. A mere^a/-hoeing does nothing 
 but keep down the weeds. The hoeing, when the plants become 
 stout, should be deep ; and, in general, with a hoe that has prongs, in- 
 stead of a mere flat plate. Deep hoeing is enough in some cases ; but, 
 in others, digging is necessary to produce a fine and full crop. If any 
 body will have a piece of cabbages, and will dig between the rows of 
 one half of them, twice during the growth, and let the other have 
 nothing but a flat hoeing, that person will find that the half which has 
 been digged between, will, when the crop is ripe, weigh nearly, if not 
 quite twice as much as the other half. It may appear that, to dig thus 
 amongst growing plants is to cut off their roots, of which the ground is 
 full. This is really the case, and this does great good ; for, the roots 
 thus cut assunder, shoot again from the plant side, find new food, and 
 send, instantly, fresh vigor to the plant. The effect of this tillage is 
 quite surprising. 
 
 Having given some directions as to propagation and cultivation in 
 general, I next proceed to give Alphabetical Lists of the several sorts of 
 plants, and to speak of the proper treatment of each. 
 
 Asparagus. It is propagated from the seed. Gather the seed when 
 it is dead ripe. Sow it thinly in drills a foot asunder, and two inches 
 deep, three weeks, or about, before the frost sets in. Press the earth 
 well down upon the seed, and as soon as the frost sets in cover the 
 ground with muck, or litter, a foot deep. As soon as the frost breaks 
 up in the spring, take off the litter, and you will have the plants quick- 
 ly up. When the plants are fairly up, thin them to four inches asun- 
 der. Keep them clean, and hoe deeply between them all summer ; 
 znd when the haulm is yellow in the fall, cut them off near, or close to 
 
148 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 the ground, but let the haulm be quite dead first, yet do It before the 
 frost actually sets in. When you have eut off the haulm, lay some 
 litter upon the bed until spring, to prevent the frost from being too 
 long coming out of the ground in the spring. When the frost breaks 
 up, throw some wood ashes, or some other manure about an inch deep, 
 over the bed, having first loosened the top of the bed with a fork ; up- 
 on this manure throw earth over the bed, out of the paths, three inches 
 thick, and break it very fine at the time. In the fall, cut down the 
 haulm again as before, repeat the winter operation of littering ; and, 
 in the spring again fork up, put on ashes, or good mould, and dress it 
 with three inches more earth. This year, if your work have all been 
 well done, you may have some asparagus to eat. The next fall, and 
 every succeeding fall, cut down the haulm, and cover with litter, as 
 before, and this spring of the third year, put on ashes again, or fine 
 manure, and throw over the beds the earth that will come out of the 
 paths dug six inches deep. I suppose your beds four feet wide, and 
 your paths two feet. Alter this you are to cut down the haulm in the 
 fall, cover with litter in the winter, fork up, and occasionally manure 
 in the spring. 
 
 Another method to make the beds, is to begin with plants, instead of 
 seed. The plants (raised as above stated) may be planted in , the beds 
 atone year old, or older. Plant them at the same depth pointed out 
 for depositing the seed. And, in all other respects, proceed as in the 
 case of a bed begun with seed. 
 
 Balm is an herb purely medicinal. A very little of it is sufficient in 
 a garden, and it is propagated from seeds or from offsets. When 
 once planted, the only care is to see that it does not extend itself too 
 far. 
 
 Bean (Kidney). Endless is the variety of sorts. Some are dwarfs, 
 some climbers; but the mode of propagating and cultivating is nearly 
 the same in all, except that the dwarfs require smaller distances than 
 the climbers, and that the latter are grown with poles, which the for- 
 mer are not. In this fine country the seed is so good, the soil and cli- 
 mate so favorable to the plant, the use of the vegetable so general, and 
 the propagation and cultivation so easy, and so well understood, that 
 little in detail need be said about them. I prefer sowing the dwarfs in 
 rows, rather than in bunches. It is useless to sow them while the 
 ground is cold, for they will not grow till it be warm. 
 
 Beet. This vegetable, which is little used in England, is here in as 
 common use as the carrots are there. It should be sown in the fall, 
 but, if not, as soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring, and 
 is dry. The rows a foot apart, and the plants eight inches apart in the 
 rows. In order to hasten the seed up in the spring, if sown then, soak 
 it four days and nights in rain water before you sow it. Put it two 
 inches deep, cover it well and press the earth down hard upon it. Sow 
 the seed pretty thick all along in the drill, and when the plants come 
 up, thin them to eight inches apart. Hoe between the plants frequent- 
 ly, but not very deep, because these tap-rooted things are apt to fork 
 if the ground is made loose very low down while they are growing. — 
 There are yellow and white beets, as well as red. But the red are the 
 true kind ; the others are degenerate. There is, however, the round 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 149 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 or turnip-rooted red beet, which is equally good with the tap-rooted 
 beet. The ground should be rich, but not fresh dunged. Ashes of 
 wood or compost mould, is best ; and the digging ought to be very 
 deep, and all the clods ought to be broken into fine earth, because the 
 clod turns the point of the root aside, and makes the top short or fork- 
 ed. Beets may be transplanted and will in that way get to a good 
 size. 
 
 Brocoli. This plant is not much cultivated in America. In Eng- 
 land it is grown in great quantities, especially near London. It is 
 there sown in the spring. It is of the nature of the cauliflower, which 
 see. One sort has a whitish head, and is like a cauliflower, except 
 that the white is a yellow white. It is cultivated, in all respects, like 
 the cabbage, (which see ;) but, as it is large, it must be placed at wi- 
 der distances, not less than two feet and a half each way. If raised 
 very early in the spring, and planted out in June, and in good ground, 
 as cool as can be got, it will have heads in October, and if any of the 
 plants have not then perfected their heads, they may be treated like 
 those of the cauliflowers which have not perfected theirs, (which see.) 
 Fifty of this plant for the fall may be' enough ; and they ought to 
 be planted out in the south, border, in order to be as cool as possible. — 
 The white sort is deemed the handsomest, but the others are more har- 
 
 Cabbage. To raise cabbage plants in the open ground, put your 
 seed rows at six inches distance, and put the seeds thin in the row. — 
 As soon as up, thin the plants to three inches in the row. But to have 
 fine cabbages of any sort, the plants must be twice transplanted. First, 
 they should be taken from the seed bed, (when they have been sown 
 in drills near to each other,) and put out into fresh dug, well broken 
 ground, at six inches apart every way. This is called picking out. — 
 By standing here about fifteen or twenty days, they get straight and 
 strong, stand erect, ^nd have a stout stem. If you do not intend to 
 prick out, leave the plants thinner in the seed bed, and hoe deep be- 
 tween them while they stand there. Besides this you may pass a 
 sharp spade along under the rows, and cut off the tap-roots ; for they 
 must be shortened when transplanted. This if done a week or ten days 
 before transplanting, will give the plants a more bushy root ; and will, 
 in some measure, supply the place of pricking out. Having the plants 
 ready, you proceed to the work of transplanting, observing the direc- 
 tions given under the head Transplanting. Put them in rows, of 
 course. As to distances, they must be proportioned to the size which 
 the cabbages usually come to. For the very small sorts, the Early 
 Dwarf and Early Sea Green, a foot apart in all directions is enough. 
 The next size is the Early York, which must have sixteen inches every 
 way. The Sugar Loaf may have twenty inches. The Battersea and 
 Savoy, two feet and -a half. The large sorts, as the Drum-head and 
 others, three feet at least. 
 
 Now with regard to the tillage, keep the ground clear of weeds. — 
 But, whether there be weeds or not, hoe between the plants in ten days 
 after they are planted. You cannot dig between the plants which 
 stand at the smallest distances, but you may, and ought, to dig once, if 
 not twice, during their growth, between all the rest. To prevent a 
 
 N* 
 
150 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 sudden cheek, by breaking all the roots at once in hot weather, dig- ev- 
 ery other interval, and dig the rest a week later. All the larger sorts 
 of cabbages should, about the time their heads begin to form, be earthed 
 up ; that is, have the earth from the surface drawn up against the 
 stem ; and the later the plants are, the higher should the earth be 
 drawn. After this, dig, or hoe deep, the rest of the ground. As to 
 sort% the earliest is the Early Dwarf; the next is the Early Sea-green ; 
 then comes the Early York. The Sugar-Loaf, sweetest and richest of 
 all cabbages, if sown and transplanted when Early Yorks are, will head 
 nearly a month later. For winter use, then, there really needs nothing 
 but the Dwarf Green Savoy. When good and true to kind it is very 
 much curled, and of a very deep green. It should be sown as soon as 
 the ground is at all warm, and planted out as soon as stout enough. — 
 By November, it will have large and close heads, weighing from five to 
 eight pounds. This is the best of all winter cabbages. If you have 
 Drum -heads, or other large cabbages, the time of sowing, and that of 
 transplanting are the same as those for the Savoy. The Red Cabbage 
 is raised and cultivated in the same season and same maner as the 
 Green Savoy. There are many other sorts of cabbages, early and 
 late, and they may be tried; but those above-mentioned are certainly 
 sorts enough for any family. 
 
 As to saving the Cabbage seed. The cabbage is a biennial. It brings 
 its flower and its seed the second year. To have seed, therefore, you 
 must preserve the cabbage, head, root, and all, throughout the winter ; 
 and this must be done in the cellar, or under cover out of doors ; for 
 the root must be kept in the ground all winter. 
 
 Camomile is a medicinal plant of great use. It is perennial, and 
 though it may be propagated from the seed, it is easiest propagated by 
 parting the roots. One little bit of a root will soon make a bed large 
 enough for a garden. The flowers are used in medicine. They should 
 be gathered before they begin to fade, and be dried in a gentle sun or 
 in the shade ; and then put by in paper bags, in a dry place. 
 
 Caraway. The seeds are used in cakes. The plant is an annual. 
 Sow in the spring, in a fine rich ground, and leave the plants eight 
 inches apart, each way. 
 
 Carrot. Read the Article Beet ; for the same season, same soil, 
 same manure, same preparation for sowing, same distances, same in- 
 tercultivation, same time of taking up, &c, all belong to the carrot. 
 Some fine roots may be carefully preserved to plant out for seed in the 
 spring; and the seed should be taken only from the centre seed-stock 
 of the carrot, for that is the finest. The mark of a good kind of seed 
 is, deep red color of the tap. The paler ones are degenerate ; and the 
 yellow ones are fast going back to the wild carrot. A cow will nearly 
 double her milk, if taken from common pasture in October, and fed on 
 carrot-greens, or tops ; and they may, at this season, be cut off for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Cauliflower. It is not without some difficulty that this plant is 
 brought to perfection in any country where the frost is severe in win- 
 ter, and especially where the summers are as hot as they are in every 
 part of the United States. Still it may be brought to perfection. It is 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 151 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 a cabbage, and the French call it flower -cabbage. Its head is a lump of m 
 rich pulp, instead of being, as a cabbage-head is, a parcel of leaves 
 folding in towards a centre, and lapping over each other. The cauli- 
 flower is an annual plant, and ripens its seed, during the season it is 
 sown ; and, in fact, the part which is eaten is not, as in the cabbage, a 
 lump of leaves, but the seed-stalks, pods, and blossoms, in their em- 
 bryo and compact state, before they expand. It is the same in brocoli. 
 Cauliflowers may be had to eat in the fall or spring. To have cauli- 
 flowers to eat in the fall is much the easiest matter, and then they are 
 more valuable than in the spring. Sow at the same time and in the 
 same manner, as you do early cabbages. Treat the plants in the same 
 way ; put them at two feet and a half distance ; they will begin to 
 come early in October ; and if any of them have not perfected their 
 heads when the sharp frosts come, take them up by the roots, hang 
 them up by the heels in a warm part of the barn ; they will get tolera- 
 bly good heads. The quantity of this plant must depend on the taste 
 for it ; but, it is so much better than the very best of cabbages, that it 
 is worth some trouble to get. 
 
 Celery. There are three or four sorts. The white, the red; the 
 hollow and the solid. The hollow white is the best ; but the propaga- 
 tion and cultivation of all are the same. The whole of that part of 
 the year, during which the frost is out of the ground, is not a bit too 
 long for the getting of fine celery. The seed sown in the cold ground 
 in April, will lie six weeks before it comes up. But a hot bed will bring 
 the seeds up in two weeks. As soon as the plants are three inches high, 
 and it scarcely matters how thick they stand ; make a nice little bed 
 in open air, make the ground rich, and very fine. Then prick out the 
 plants at 4 inches apart. They are so very small, that this must be 
 gently done ; and they should be gently watered once, and shaded two 
 days. In this bed the plants stand till the middle of July, or therea- 
 bouts, when they are to go out into trenches. Make the trenches a foot 
 deep, and a foot wide, and put them not less than five feet asunder. 
 The ground that you make the trenches in should not be fresh dug, but 
 be in a solid state, which may conveniently be, for celery comes on just 
 as peas and early cabbages have gone off. When you have made your 
 trench, put along it some good rich compost manure consisting partly 
 of wood ashes. Not dung : or at least, not dung fresh from the yard, 
 for the Celery will be rank and pipy. Dig this manure in, and break 
 all the earth very fine as you go. Then take up your plants, and trim 
 off the long roots. You will find that every plant has offsets to it, 
 coming up by the side of the main stem. Pull all these off, and have 
 only the single stem. Cut the leaves off, so as to leave the whole plant 
 about six inches long. Plant them six inches apart, and fix them well. 
 Do not water the plants ; and if you plant in fresh dug ground, and 
 fix your plants well, none of the troublesome and cumbrous business 
 of shading is at all necessary ; for the plant is naturally hardy, and, if 
 it has heat to wither it above, it has also that heat below to cause its 
 roots to strike out almost instantly. When the plants begin to grow, 
 which they will quickly do, hoe on each side and between them with a 
 small hoe. As they grow up, earth their stems, that is, put the earth 
 up to them, but not too much at a time, and let that be finely broken, 
 and not at all cloddy. While you do this, keep the stalks of the out- 
 
152 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE, 
 
 side leaves close up to prevent the earth from getting between the 
 stems of the outside leaves and the inner ones ; for, if it gets there, it 
 checks the plant and makes the Celery bad. Earth up very often, and 
 not put much at a time. Every week a little earth to be put up. 
 Thus in* October you will have Celery lit for use. 
 
 Cucumber. To give minute rules for the propagation and cultiva- 
 tion of this plant, in a country like this, would be waste of time. 
 However, if you wish to have them a month earlier, than the natural 
 ground will bring them, do this. Make a hole, and put into it a little 
 hot dung; let the hole be under a warm fence. Put six inches deep of 
 fine earth, and rich, on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in the earth, 
 and cover at night with a bit of carpet, having first fixed some hoops 
 over this little bed. Before the plants show the rough leaf, plant two 
 into a little flower pot, and fill as many pots in this way as you please. 
 Have a large bed ready to put the pots into, and covered with earth so 
 that the pots may be plunged in the earth, up to their tops. Cover 
 this bed like the last. When the plants have got two rough leaves out, 
 they will begin to make a shoot in the middle. Pinch that short off. 
 Let them stand in this bed, till your cucumbers, sown in the natural 
 ground, come up ; then make some holes in good rich land, and taking 
 a pot at a time, turn out a ball and fix it in the holes. These plants 
 will bear a month sooner than those sown in the natural ground ; and, 
 if well managed, will continue bearing till September. Those who 
 have hot-bed frames, will do this matter very easily. The cucumber 
 plant is very tender and juicy ; and, therefore, when the seedlings are 
 put into the pots, they should be watered and shaded for a day or two, 
 so also w r hen the balls are turned out. I have one observation to make 
 on the cultivation of cucumbers, melons, of ail sorts, and of all the 
 pumpkin and squash tribe ; and that is, that it is a great error to sow 
 them too thick. One plant in a hill is enough. One will bring more 
 weight of fruit than two, (if standing near each other) two more than 
 three, and so on till you come to fifty in a square foot. Let any one 
 make the experiment, and he will find it mathematically true. The 
 roots of cucumbers will go ten feet, in fine earth, in every direction. 
 Judge, then, how ten plants, standing close together, will produce mu- 
 tual starvation. If you save a cucumber for seed, let it be the first 
 fine fruit that appears on the plant. 
 
 Coriander is an annual plant that some persons use in soups and 
 salads. It is sown in the spring. The seed is also used as a medi- 
 cine. A small patch, probably two square yards, will be enough. 
 
 Cress, (or Pepper-Grass) is very good in salads, along with lettuces, 
 &c. It should be sown in little drills, very thick, and cut before it 
 comes into rough leaf. A small quantity in the salad season should 
 be sown every six days. 
 
 Fetnnel. This is & perennial plant, propagated from seeds or from 
 offsets ; and sown, or planted, early in spring or fall. The plants 
 should stand about a foot asunder. It is a tall plant with hairy leaves. 
 Its leaves are used in salads, are chopped up fine to put in melted but- 
 ter to eat with fish, they are boiled with fish to give them a flavor, and, 
 they are tied around mackerel, particularly when they are boiled. The 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 153 
 
 HORTICULTURE, 
 
 French, who excel in cooking fish, always do this. In winter, the seeds 
 bruised, give fish the same flavor as the leaves do in summer. It is a 
 very hardy plant. Two yards square will contain enough for any fam- 
 ily ; and, once in the ground, will stand for an age. 
 
 Garlick. Almost all nations except the English, the Americans, 
 and the French, make great and constant use of Garlick ; and even 
 the French use it, frequently to an extent that would drive us from the 
 table. It is propagated from seed, or from offsetts, and is sown, or 
 planted, either in the spring or fall. For winter use the roots are ta- 
 ken up and kept dry, as onions are. 
 
 Hop. Any bit of a root will grow and become a plant. The young 
 plants should be planted in the fall, three or four together in a clump, 
 or hill, and the hills should be seven to ten feet apart. The first year 
 of planting, put four rods, or little poles, to each hill, and let two vines 
 go up each pole, treading the rest of the vines down to creep about the 
 ground. In a month after the vines begin to mount the poles, cut off 
 all the creeping vines, and draw up a hill of earth around the poles a 
 foot high, covering all the crowns of the plant. At the end of another 
 month, draw some more earth up, making the hill higher and higher. 
 When the fall comes, cut off all the vines, that have gone up the poles, 
 afoot from the ground ; take down the poles; dig down the hills, and 
 open the ground all round the crowns of the plants ; and before win- 
 ter sets in, cut all down to the very crowns, and then cover over the 
 crowns with earth three or four inches thick. Through this earth, the 
 hop-shoots will start in the spring. You will want but eight of them 
 to go up your four poles ; and the rest, when three inches long, you 
 may cut, and eat as asparagus. This year you put poles 20 feet long 
 to your hops. Proceed the same as before, only make your hills larger; 
 and this year you will have plenty of hops to gather for use. Be sure 
 to open the ground every fall ; and cut all off close down to the crown 
 of the plants. They are fit to gather when you see, upon opening the 
 leaves of the hop, a good deal of yellow dust, and when the seeds which 
 you will find at the socket of the leaves of the hop, begin to be plump. 
 Gather them nicely, and let no leaves or stalks be among them, and 
 lay them out on a cloth to dry in the sun, taking care that no rain or 
 dew fall on them. When perfectly dry, put them, very hardly and 
 closely pressed into a new bag, made of thick Russia linen ; and in 
 this state they will keep good, and fit for use, for twenty, or perhaps, 
 three times twenty years. 
 
 Horse-Radish. Like every other plant, this bears seed ; but it is 
 best propagated by cutting bits of the root into lengths of two inches, 
 and putting them, spring or fall, into the ground about a foot deep, with 
 a setting stick. They will find their way up the first year, and the 
 second they will be fine large roots, if the ground be trenched deeply, 
 and made pretty good. Though a very valuable and wholesome arti- 
 cle of diet, it is a most pernicious weed. * 
 
 Lavender. A beautiful little well-known shrub, of uses equally 
 well known. Hundreds of acres are cultivated in England, for the 
 flowers to be used in distillation. It may be propagated from seed, 
 but is easiest propagated from slips, taken off in the spring, and plant- 
 
154 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 ed in good moist ground in the shade. When planted out, it should 
 be in rows three feet apart, and two feet apart in the rows. If the 
 flowers are to be preserved, the flower stalks should be cut off before 
 the blossoms begin to fade at all. 
 
 Leek. There are two sorts ; the narrow-leaved, and the flag-leek, 
 the latter of which is much the best. Some people like leeks better 
 than onions ; and they are better in soup. Sow in the fall, or as early 
 in the spring as you can. About four yards square is enough. Put 
 the rows eight inches asunder, and thin the plants to three inches 
 apart in the row. Hoe deeply and frequently between the plants till 
 the middle of July, and then take the plants up, cut their roots off to 
 an inch long, and cut off the leaves a good way down. Make trenches 
 like those for celery, only not more than half as deep and half as wide, 
 and proceed in the same manner as in the case of celery. 
 
 Lettuce. There are, I believe, twenty sorts, two of which only it 
 will be enough to mention, green-coss, white-coss, the former of which 
 is a darker green than the latter, is rather hardier, and not quite so 
 good. These when true to their kind, and in a proper situation, rise up 
 and fold in their leaves to a solid loaf, like the sugar loaf cabbage ; 
 and, in rich ground, with good management, will become nearly as 
 large. When you cut one of these from the stem, and pull off its out- 
 side leaves, you have a large lump enough for a salad for ten people. 
 You must raise them in the spring, in precisely the same manner as the 
 very earliest cabbage plants, (which see.) Put the plants out into the 
 natural ground, about a fortnight before the general corn-planting time. 
 Do not put them in a place full to the sun. Make the ground quite 
 rich, break it well, and, in transplanting, keep as much earth about the 
 roots as you can, and give as little water ; and transplant in the evening. 
 Let one plant, (a very fine one,) stand for seed, and it will give you 
 plenty of seed for a year or two. 
 
 Melons. There are, all the world knows, two distinct tribes : the 
 JSJusk and the Water. Of the former the sorts are endless, and indeed, 
 of the latter also. In this fine country, where they all come to perfec- 
 tion in the natural ground, no distinction is made as to earliness, or late- 
 ness in sorts. Amongst the Musk, the Citron is, according to my taste, 
 the finest by far ; and the finest Water-melons that I have ever tasted, 
 were raised from the seed that came from a melon raised in Georgia. 
 As to the manner of propagating, cultivating, and sowing the seed of 
 melons, see cucumber ; and only observe that all that is there said, ap- 
 plies to melons as well as to cucumbers. The soil should be rich for 
 melons, but it ought not to be freshly dunged. They like a light and 
 rather sandy soil. Melons should be cultivated well. 
 
 Mint. There are two sorts : one is of a darker green than the oth- 
 er ; the former is called pepper-mint, and is generally used for distilling 
 to make mint water; the latter, which is called spear-mint, is used for 
 the table in many ways. The French snip a little into their salads : we 
 boil a bunch amongst green peas, to which it gives a pleasant flavor ; 
 chopped up small, and put, along with sugar, into vinegar, we use it as 
 sauce for roasted lamb ; and a very pleasant sauce it is. Mint may be 
 propagated from seed ; but a few bits of its root will spread into a bed 
 in a year. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 155 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 Mustard. There is a white- seeded sort, and a brown-seeded. The 
 white mustard is used in salads along with cress, and is sown and culti- 
 vated in the same way. The black is that which table mustard is made 
 of. It is sown in rows, two feet apart, early in the spring-. The plants 
 ought to be thinned to four or five inches apart. Good tillage between 
 the rows. The seed will be ripe in July, and then the stalks should be 
 cut off, and when quite dry, the seed should be threshed out, and put 
 by for use. Why should any man who has a garden, want to buy 
 mustard ? Why should he want the English to send him out, in a bot- 
 tle, and sell him for a quarter of a dollar, less and worse mustard, than 
 he can raise in his garden for a penny ? The plants do not occupy the 
 ground more than fourteen weeks, and may be followed by another 
 crop of any plant, and even of mustard, if you like. This, therefore, 
 is a very useful plant, and ought to be cultivated by every farmer, and 
 every man who has a garden. 
 
 Onion. This is one of the main vegetables. Its uses are many, and 
 they are all well known. The modes of cultivation for a crop are vari- 
 ous. Three I shall mention, and by either a good crop may be raised. 
 Sow in the fall or spring ; let the ground be rich, but not from fresh 
 dung. Make the ground very fine ; mark the rows a foot a part and 
 scatter the seed thinly along a drill two inches deep. Then fill the drills ; 
 and press the eartii down upon the seed by treading the ground all over. 
 Then give it a very slight smoothing with the rake. When the plants 
 get to be three inches high, then thin them to four inches. Keep the 
 ground clearof w ? eeds by hoeing, but do not hoe deep, nor raise earth 
 about the plants ; for these make them run to neck and not to bulk. 
 When the tip of the leaves begin to be brown, bend down the necks, 
 so that the leaves lie flat with the ground. When the leaves are nearly 
 dead, pull up the onions, and lay them to dry, in order to put away for 
 winter use. Some persons, instead of sowing the onions all along the 
 drill, drop four or five seeds at every six or seven inches distance, and 
 leave the onions to grow in clumps ; and this is not a bad way ; for 
 they will squeeze each other out. They will not be large ; but they will 
 ripen earlier, and will not run to neck. The third mode of cultivation 
 is as follows : — Sow the onions any time between April and the mid- 
 dle of June, in drills six inches apart, and put the seed very thick along 
 the drills. Let all the plants stand, and they will get to be about as 
 big round as the top of your little finger. Then the leaves will get 
 yellow, and when that is the case, pull up the onions, and lay them on 
 a board till the sun have withered up the leaves. Then put them in 
 a bag, and lay them up in a dry place till spring. As soon as the frost 
 is out, and the ground dry, plant out these onions in good, fine ground, 
 in rows a foot apart. Do not cover them with earth ; but just press 
 them down with your thumb and fore finger. Proceed after this as 
 with sown onions ; only observe, should any be running up to seed, 
 twist down the neck at once. Preserving onions is an easy matter. 
 Any dry, airy place will do, for frosts never hurt them, if not moved 
 while frozen. 
 
 Parsley. This, it is well known, bears its seed the second year, 
 and then dies away. It may be sown at any season, when the frost is 
 out of the ground. The best way is to sow it in the spring, and in very 
 
156 FAMILY 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 clean ground ; because the seed lies long in the ground, and, if the 
 ground be foul, the weeds choak the plants at their coming up. A bed 
 six feet long, and four feet wide, the seed sown in drills at eight inches 
 apart, is enough for any family. 
 
 Parsnip. As to the season for sowing, sort of land, preparation of 
 ground, distance, cultivation and tillage, precisely the same as the 
 Carrot, which see. But as to preservation during winter, and for 
 spring use, the Parsnip stands all frost without injury, and even with 
 benefit. 
 
 Pea. This is one of those vegetables which all men most like. Its 
 culture is universal where people have the means of growing it. The 
 soil should be good, and fresh dung is good manure for them. Ashes, 
 and compost, very good ; but peas, like corn, will bear to be actually 
 sown upon dung. The sorts are numerous, one class is of a. small size, 
 and the other large. The latter grow taller, and are longer in coming 
 to perfection, than the former. The earliest of all is the little white 
 pea, called, in Long Island, the May-pea, in England, the early frame 
 pea. Then come the early Charlton, the Hotspur, the Blue Pea, the 
 Dwarf and Tall Marrowfat : and several others. All the sorts may be 
 grown in America, without sticks, and even better than with. I have, 
 this year, the finest peas I ever saw, and the crop the most abundant. 
 And this is the manner in which I have sown and cultivated them. I 
 ploughed the ground into ridges, the tops of which (for the dwarf) 
 were four feet apart. I then put a good parcel of yard manure into 
 the furrows, and ploughed the earth back upon the dung ; I then 
 levelled the top of the ridge a little, and drew two drills upon it, at six 
 inches distance from each other. In these I sowed the peas. When 
 the peas were about three inches high, I hoed the ground deep and well 
 between the rows, and on each outside of them. I then ploughed the 
 ground from them, and to them again, in the same way as in the 
 case of the Swedish Turnip. In a week or two afterwards they had 
 another ploughing, and soon after this they fell, and lay down the side of 
 the ridges. This was the way in which I managed all the sorts. This 
 was of every sort the finest crop I ever saw in my life. The culture in 
 the garden may be the same, except that the work which was done 
 with theplough, must be done with the spade. 
 
 At to seasons, the early peas may be sown in the fall, but care must 
 be taken to guard against the mice. Sow about four inches deep, 
 and tread the ground well down. When the frost sets in all is 
 safe till winter breaks up. These peas will be earlier by ten or fifteen 
 days than any you can sow in the spring. If you sow in the spring, do 
 it as soon as the ground is dry enough to go upon. Sow the May pea, 
 some CharJtons, some Hotspurs, some Blue Peas, and some Marrow- 
 fats, they will come one after another, till nearly August. In June 
 (about the middle) sow some early peas again, and also some marrow- 
 fats ; these will give you peas until September. Sow some of each 
 sort middle of August, and they will give you green peas till the hard- 
 ish frosts come. But these two last sowings ought to be under the 
 south fence, so as to get as much coolness as possible. 
 
 Pennyroyal. A medicinal herb. It is perennial. A little patch, a 
 foot square, is enough. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 157 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 Peppers, (or Capsicum.) An annual plant, sown early in fine earth, 
 in drills a foot apart, and at six inches apart in the drills. It is hand- 
 some as a flower, and its pods are used as a pickle. 
 
 Pumpkin. See Cucumber. The cultivation is the same, and every 
 body knows the different qualities and the different sorts, and how to 
 preserve and use them. 
 
 Radish. A great variety of sorts. Sown thin in little drills, ill 
 inches asunder. Sown as early as possible in the spring, and a little 
 bed'every three weeks all summer long. The early scarlet is the best. 
 Radishes may be raised early in a hot bed, precisely as cabbage plants 
 are. 
 
 Rhubarb. Thi3 is one of the capital articles of the garden. The 
 Dock is the wild Rhubarb. Rhubarb plant comes forth, like the Dock, 
 verv early in the spring. When its leaves are pretty lar^e. yon cut 
 them off close to the stem, and if the plant be fine, the stalk of the leaf 
 will be from eight inches to a foot long. You peel the outside skin from 
 the stalk, and then cut the stalks up into bits about as large as the first 
 joint of a lady's third finger. You put these into puddings, pies, and 
 tarts, just as you would green currants. This plant is very hardy, and 
 is raised from seed, from roots, and will grow in any ground, and the 
 same plants will last for an age. It is a very valuable plant, and no 
 garden ought to be without it. 
 
 Rosemary is a beautiful little shrub. One of them may be enough in 
 a garden. It is propagated from slips taken off in the spring, and plant- 
 ed in a cool place. 
 
 Sage. Is raised from seed, or from slips. To have it on hand for 
 winter, is necessary to dry it ; and it ought to be cut for this purpose, 
 before it comes into bloom, as indeed is the case with all other herbs. 
 
 Spinach. To have spinach very early in the spring, sow on or about 
 the first week in September, in drills a foot apart, and when the plants 
 are well up, thin them to six inches. They will be fine and stron? by 
 the time the winter sets in ; and, as soon as that comes, cover them 
 over well with straw, and keep it on till the breaking up of frost. 
 more as soon as the frost is out of the ground ; and this will be in per- 
 fection in June. If you save seed, save it from plants that have stood 
 the winter. 
 
 Squash is, in all its varieties, cultivated like the cucumber, which 
 see. 
 
 Tansey, a perennial, culinary, and medicinal herb, propagated from 
 seed, or offsets. One root in a garden is enough. 
 
 Thyme. There are two distinct kinds ; both are perennial, and both 
 may be propagated either from seeds, or by offsets. 
 
 Turnip. The sorts of turnip are numerous, but, for a garden, it is 
 quite sufficient to notice three ; the early white, the flat yellow, and the 
 Swedish or Ruta-baga, which is a very different plantfrom the two. The 
 two former sorts should be sown about the end of July, in rows (in a 
 garden) two feet apart, and thinned out to a foot distance in the rows. 
 
 O 
 
158 FAMILY 
 
 
 HORTICULTURE, 
 
 Good and deep hoeing and one digging should take place while they 
 are growing ; for, a large turnip is better, of the same age, weight for 
 weight, than a small one. The Swedish turnip so generally preferred 
 for table use, ought to be sown early in June, in rows at a foot apart, 
 and thinned to three inches in the rows. About the middle of July they 
 ought to be transplanted (in a garden) upon ridges three feet apart, and 
 during their growth kept clean, and be dug between twice at least, as 
 deep as a good spade can be made to go. 
 
 PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION OF 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 PROPAGATION. 
 
 All the fruits to be treated of here, except the strawberry, are the pro- 
 duce of trees, or of woody plants. All these may be propagated from 
 seed, and some are so propagated. But others are usually propagated 
 by cuttings, slips, layers, or suckers ; or by budding or grafting upon 
 stocks. When the propagation is from seed, the sowing should be in 
 good ground, finely broken, and the seed should by no means be sown 
 too thick. 
 
 Cuttings are short pieces, cut in the spring, from shoots of the last 
 year ; and it is, in most cases, best, if they have a joint or two of the 
 former year's wood at the bottom of them. The cuttings should have, 
 altogether, about six joints or buds; and three of these should be under 
 ground when planted. The cuts should be performed with a sharp 
 knife, so that there be nothing ragged or bruised about the wood or 
 bark. The time of taking off cuttings, is that of the breaking up of 
 the frost. They should be planted in a shady place, and watered with 
 rain water in dry weather, until they have got shoots several inches 
 long. When they have such shoots, they have roots, and no more water- 
 ing is necessary. Besides these occasional waterings, the ground should, 
 especially in hot countries, be covered with leaves of trees, or muck, or 
 eomething that will keep the ground cool during the hot and dry 
 weather. 
 
 Slips differ from cuttings in this, that the former are not cut, but 
 pulled from the tree. You take a shoot of the last year, and pull it 
 downwards, and thus slip it off. You trim the ragged bark off, then 
 shorten the shoot, so that it have six joints left, and then plant it, and 
 manage it in the same manner directed for cuttings. The season for 
 doing this is also the same. 
 
 Layers. You take a limb, or branch of a tree, in the fall, or early 
 in the spring, and pull it down in such a way as to cause its top, or 
 small twigs and shoots to lie on the ground. Then fasten the limb down 
 by a peg or two, so that its own force will not raise it up. Then prune 
 off all its small branches and shoots that stick upright ; and having a 
 parcel of shoots laying horizontally, lay earth upon the whole, all along 
 upon the limb, from the point where it begins to touch the ground, and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 159 
 
 PROPAGATION, &,C. OF FRUIT TREES. 
 
 also upon all the bottoms of all the shoots. Then cut the shoots off 
 at the points, leaving only two or three joints or buds beyond the earth. 
 The earth laid on should be good, and the ground freshly dug. and 
 made very fine and smooth before the branches are laid upon it. The 
 earth laid on should be from six inches to a foot thick. If the limb, or 
 mother branch be very stubborn, a little cut on the lower side of it, will 
 make it the more easy to be held down. The ground should be kept 
 clear from weeds, and as cool as possible in hot weather. These layers 
 will be ready to take up and plant as trees, after they have been laid 
 a year. 
 
 Suckers are, in general, but poor things, whether in the forest, or in 
 the fruit garden. They are shoots that come up from the roots, at a 
 distance from the stem of the tree, or, at least, they do not come out of 
 that stem. They run to wood and suckers more than trees do that are 
 raised in any other way. Fruit trees raised from suckers do not bear 
 so abundantly or as good fruit, as trees raised from cuttings, slips, or 
 layers. A sucker is in fact a little tree, with less of root to it, and is, 
 of course, to be treated as a tree. 
 
 Budding. To have fruit trees by this method, or by that of graftings 
 you must first have stocks, that is to say, a young tree to graft or bud 
 upon. What are the sorts of stocks proper for the sorts of fruit trees 
 respectively, will be mentioned under the names of the latter. The 
 stock is a young tree of some sort or other, and the bud is put into the 
 bark on the side of this young tree during the summer, and not before 
 the bud be full and plump. The work may generally be done all 
 through the months of July and August, and perhaps later. 
 
 Grafting is the joining of a cutting of one to another tree, in such a 
 way, as that the tree on which the cutting is placed, sends up its sap 
 into the cutting, and makes it grow and become a tree. Now as to the 
 way in which this and budding is done, they cannot become matter of 
 written description. To read a full and minute account of the act of 
 budding and grafting would require ten times the space of time to go 
 to a neighbor's, and learn the operation from sight. The season for 
 taking off the cuttings for grafts, is any time between Christmas and 
 March. 
 
 Stocks must be of different ages and sizes in different cases ; and 
 even the propagation of the stocks themselves is not to be overlooked. 
 Stocks are formed out of suckers, or raised from the seed; and the lat- 
 ter is by far the best. If the stocks are to be of crabs or apples, the 
 seeds of these should be collected in the fall, when the fruit is ripe. 
 They are generally got out by mashing the crabs or apples. When 
 the seeds are collected, put them immediately into fine earth ; or sow 
 them at once. If the stocks be to be of stone fruit, the stones, as of 
 cherries, plums, peaches and others, must be got when the fruit is ripe. 
 The best way is to put them into fine earth, and keep there till spring. 
 The earth may be placed in the cellar. When the winter breaks up, 
 dig a piece of ground deep and make it rich ; make it very fine ; form 
 it into beds three feet wide ; draw drills across it at eio'ht inches dis- 
 tance ; make them from two to three inches deep ; put in the seeds 
 pretty thick ; cover them completely ; tread the earth down upon them 
 
160 FAMILY 
 
 PROPAGATION, &,C. OF FRUIT TREES. 
 
 and then smooththe surface. When the plants come up, thin them 
 to about three inches apart, and keep the ground between them perfect- 
 ly clean during the summer. These seedlings, if well managed, will 
 be eight inches high the first summer, and some higher. The next 
 spring they should be taken up ; or this may be done in the fall. They 
 should be planted in rows, four feet apart, and at two feet apart in the 
 rows. They should be kept clean by hoeing, and the ground between 
 them should be dug in the fall, but at no other season. The plants will 
 grow fast or slowly according to the soil and management ; and he who 
 knows how to bud or graft, will know when the stock is arrived at the 
 proper size for each purpose. 
 
 Planting. The tree to be planted, should be as young as circum- 
 stances will allow. The season is just when the leaves become yellow, 
 or, as early as possible in the spring-. The ground being prepared and 
 the tree taken up, prune the roots with a sharp knife, so as to leave 
 none more than afoot long, and leave no bruises or ragged parts. Cut 
 off all the fibres close to the roots, for they never live, but mould, and 
 do injury. Dig the hole to plant in three times as wide, and six inches 
 deeper, than the roots actually need as mere room. And now, besides 
 the fine earth, have some good mould sifted. Lay some of this six 
 inches deep at the bottom of the hole. Place the roots upon this in 
 their natural order, and holding the tree perfectly upright, put more 
 sifted earth upon the roots. Every root should be closely touched by 
 the earth in every part. When you have covered all the roots with, 
 the sifted earth, fill up the rest of the hole with common earth, and 
 when you have half filled it, tread the earth that you have put in, but 
 not very hard. Put on the rest of the earth, and leave the surface per- 
 fectly smooth. Do not water by any means. Water poured on, sinks 
 rapidly down, and makes cavities among the roots — lets in air — mould 
 and canker follow ; and great injury is done. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 The cultivation of fruit trees divides itself into two distinct parts, 
 the management of the tree itself, which consist of pruning and tying ; 
 and the management of the ground where the trees grow, which con- 
 sists of digging, hoeing and manuring. The management of the tree 
 differs with the sort of tree, and will therefore be treated of under its 
 own particular name. But the management of the ground is the same 
 in the case of all the larger trees. 
 
 In th« first place, the ground is always to be kept clear of weeds ; 
 for what they take is just so much taken from the fruit, either in quan- 
 tity or quality, or in both. From the spring to the fall frequent hoeing 
 all the ground over, not only to keep away weeds, but to keep the 
 ground moist in hot and dry weather, taking care never to hoe but when 
 the ground is dry at top. This hoeing should not go deeper than four 
 or five inches ; for there is a great difference between trees and herba- 
 ceous plants, as to the renewal of the roots. The roots of the latter s 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 161 
 
 LIST OF FKUITS. 
 
 when cut off, will come out in 12 hours, and the operation, by multi 
 plying the mouths of the feeders of the plants, gives it additional force. 
 But roots of trees consist of wood, more or less hard ; they do not 
 quickly renew themselves ; and they must not be much mutilated dur- 
 ing the time that the sap is in flow. Therefore the ploughing and dig- 
 ging between trees ought to take place only in the fall, which gives 
 time for a renewal, or new supply of roots before the sap be again in 
 motion. 
 
 LIST OF FRUITS. 
 
 Apple. Apples are usually grafted on crab stocks ; but when you do 
 not want the trees to grow tall and lar^e, it is better to raise stocks from 
 the seed of some apple not much given to produce large wood. Per- 
 haps the Fail Pippin seed may be as good as any. When you have 
 planted the tree, and when the time comes for shortening the head, cut 
 it off so as to leave only five or six joints or buds. These will send out 
 shoots, which will become limbs* The tree will be what they call in 
 England a dwarf standard, and of this description should be all trees 
 in gardens. As to pruning, see Peach. 
 
 Apricot. This is a very delightful fruit. It comes earlier than the 
 peach, and some like it better. It is a hardier tree, and bears as well 
 as the preach ; and the tree when well raised, planted and cultivated, 
 will last a century. Apricots are budded or grafted upon plum stock, 
 or upon stocks raised from Apricot stones. They do not bear as soon 
 as the peach by one year. For the pruning of them, see peach. 
 
 , Cherry. Cherries are budded or grafted upon stocks raised from 
 cherry stones of any sort. If you want the tree tall and large, the 
 stock should come from the small black cherry tree that grows wild in 
 the woods. If you w T ant it dwarf, sow the stones of a Jlore'lo or a May 
 duke. To preserve cherries, gather them without br using ; take off the 
 tails ; lay them in the sun, or on dry, deal boards ; when quite dry, put 
 them by in bag3 in a dry place. They form a variety in the tart-mak- 
 ing way. 
 
 Currant. These are red, white, and black, all well known. The 
 propagation and cultivation of all the sorts are the same. The currant 
 tree is propagated from cuttings, and the cuttings are treated as has 
 been seen in the paragraph headed cuttings. When the tree has stood 
 two years in the nursery, plant it where it is to stand, and take care 
 that it has only one stem. Let no limbs come out to grow nearer than 
 six inches of the ground. Prune the tree every year. Keep it thin of 
 wood. Keep the middle open and the limbs extended, and when these 
 get to about three feet in length, cut off, every winter, all the last yearns 
 shoots. Cultivate and manure the ground as for other fruit trees. In 
 this country the currant requires shade in summer. If exposed to the 
 full sun, the fruit is apt to become too sour. 
 
 Filberd. This is a sort of nut oblong in shape, very thin shell, and 
 superior in flavor. The filberd is a tall tree, and will, under favorable 
 
 o* 
 
162 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 LIST OF FRUITS, 
 
 circumstances, reach to the height of thirty feet. It is propagated from 
 layers, or from suckers. The layers are treated like qther layers, and 
 soon become trees, for which reason they are preferable to suckers. 
 Every farmer should provide himself with some of this sort of tree. 
 
 Gooseberry. Various are the sorts, and no one that it is not good. 
 The shrub is propagated precisely like that of the currant. By cultiva- 
 tion, they may be raised as large as pigeon's eggs, and the crops the 
 trees will bear are prodigious. 
 
 Nectarine. As to propagation, planting and cultivation, the Nec- 
 tarine is, in all respects, the same as the peach, which see. It is cer- 
 tainly a finer fruit, and there is no insurmountable obstacle in the way 
 of its growth in this country. It is grown in England very well, but 
 it is not grown, or but very little, here. It is the most beautiful of 
 fruit, and a great bearer. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 PEACH TREES. 
 
 Peaches. Peaches are propagated by budding. The stock should 
 be of plum, and the tree is to be planted agreeable to the directions 
 given under the head Planting. And now for the pruning and forming 
 the tree. Look at the figures above, Fig. 1 and 2. The first is a peach 
 tree such as it should be at four or five years old ; the last is a peach 
 tree such as we generally see at that age. The practice is to plant the 
 tree and let it grow in its own way. The consequence is, that it runs 
 up to a long naked stem, with two or three long naked limbs, having 
 some weak little boughs at the top : this is Fig. 2. Now to have Fig. 
 1, this is the way. The tree should, in the first place, be budded very 
 near to the ground. After it be planted, cut it down to within a foot 
 and a half of the ground, and always cut sloping close to a bud. In 
 this foot and a half there will be many buds, and they will the first 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 163 
 
 LIST OF FRUIT?. 
 
 summer send out many shoots. Now, when shoots begin to appear rub 
 them all off but three. Leave the top one, and one on each side, at a 
 suitable distance lower down. These will in time become limbs. The 
 next year to top the upright shoot (that came out of the top bud,) again 
 so as to bring out other horizontal limbs, pointing in a different direc- 
 tion from those that came out last year. Thus the tree will get a. spread. 
 After this you must keep down the aspiring shoots, and every winter cut 
 out some of the weak wood, that the tree may not be overburdened 
 with wood. If in time the tree be getting thin of bearing wood towards 
 the trunk, cut some of the limbs back, and they will then send out ma- 
 ny shoots, and fill up the naked places. The lowest limb of the tree 
 should come out of the trunk at not more than nine or ten inches from 
 the ground. By this management, the tree is always in a state of full 
 bearing ; always young. 
 
 Pears. Pears are grafted on pear stocks, on quince stocks, or on 
 those of the white thorn. The last is best, because most durable ; and 
 for dwarf trees, much the best, because they do not throw up wood so 
 big or so lofty. For orchards, pear stocks are the best ; but not from 
 suckers on any account. 
 
 Plums. This tree is grafted upon plum stocks, raised from stones 
 by all means ; for suckers send out a forest of suckers. 
 
 Quince, should grow in a moist place and in very rich ground. It 
 is raised from cuttings, or layers, and these are treated like other cut- 
 tings and layers. 
 
 Raspberry. A sort of uoody herb, but produces fruit that vies, in 
 point of crop, as well as flavor, with that of the proudest tree. They 
 are raised from suckers, though they may be raised from cuttings. 
 The suckers of this year, are planted out in rows, six feet apart, and 
 the plants two feet apart in the rows. This is done in the fall or early 
 in the spring. At the time of planting they should be cut down, to 
 w T ithin afodt of the ground. They will bear a little, and they will 
 send out several suckers which will bear next year. About four is 
 enough to leave, and those of the strongest. These should be cut off 
 in the fall or early in the spring, to within four feet of the ground, and 
 should be tied to a small stake. To have fine, you must dig in the 
 same manner in the autumn. 
 
 Strawberry. This plant is a native of the woods and fields. 
 There are many sorts, and all are improved by cultivation. They are 
 propagated from young plants that grow out of the old ones. In the 
 summer, the plant sends forth runners. When these touch the ground 
 at a certain distance from the plant, come roots, and from these roots, 
 a plant springs up. This plant is put out early in the fall. 
 
 To make a strawberry bed, plant three rows, a foot apart, and at 
 eight inches apart in the rows. Keep the ground clean, and the new 
 plants coming from runners will fill up the whole ground, and will ex- 
 tend the beds on the side. Cut off the runners at six inches distance 
 from the sides, and then you have a bed three feet wide, covering all 
 the ground. In November the leaves should be cut off with a scythe 
 or reap-hook, and there should be a little mouldy manure scattered 
 over them. They will laet in this way for many years. 
 
164 FAMILY 
 
 LIST OF FRUITS. 
 
 
 Culture of Grape Vines. The best mode of raising the plants 
 is by cuttings taken from the vines at the Fall pruning, and preserved 
 in earth till Spring. These may be made either of one eye or bud or 
 of four or five, attached to a small portion of the two years old y wood, 
 forming a cutting in the shape of a small mallet. 
 
 The Ut year. — They may be raised in a small nursery bed, prepared 
 of a good light soil— set in the ground six inches distant from each 
 other, with the rows wide enough apart to permit them to be w T eeded 
 with a narrow hoe ; or, they may be put in the first instance, where 
 they are to be reared, and left to grow, at the distance of five, six, or 
 seven feet, or more, according to the wishes of the cultivator. In this 
 latter case there should be three cuttings put into each spot six inches 
 apart, to insure the setting of one. When this is ascertained with cer- 
 tainty, the two weakest may be withdrawn, leaving the rest of the 
 three to grow. If the cuttings be of one eye each, they should be 
 from the last year's growth, and a small piece of the branch an inch 
 long should be left attached to the bud and extending half an inch on 
 each side of it. These should be planted two inches below the sur- 
 face with the bud uppermost, and a small stake placed by the side of 
 them that they may not be disturbed. If the cuttings are of several 
 eyes, they should be laid in the ground sloping, leaving one eye level 
 with, or only just above the surface. They should be kept moist, but 
 not wet, as this will rot them. A spot which receives the morning 
 sun till eleven o'clock, and not afterwards, is the best for a nursery 
 bed for them, but for permanency they should be planted where they 
 will receive the sun longest, and in this case they should be shaded 
 at noon day until they have entirely put out. One bud only should 
 be allowed to push from the cutting the first year ; the plant should 
 be kept free from weeds ; the earth kept light around it, and as soon as 
 the shoot has attained strength enough to produce laterals, they should 
 be rubbed out, and the shoot tied to a small stake, by w T hich means it 
 will gain firmness, and the admission of the sun and air to the shoot 
 will prepare it to bear the frost of the Fall, and prevent its imbibing 
 the moisture which it would otherwise be subject to, w T hen covered 
 witli earth in the winter. By the first of November, the shoots may be 
 cut down to two eyes, and by the middle of the month, if it be dry 
 weather, they may be covered over with earth, forming a slope to cast 
 off the wet and prevent the rains from penetrating — as the drier the 
 plant is kept during the winter, in the better state it will be in the suc- 
 ceeding spring. 
 
 The 2d year. — The plants should not be uncovered in this climate 
 till the middle of April. Those from the nursery should now be trans- 
 planted to the places where they are to remain ; a shoot from each eye 
 should be permitted to push, but as soon as you have ascertained which 
 of the two will be the strongest and the best situated, you will preserve 
 that, and rub out the other. The shoot preserved, you will be careful 
 to tie up to a small stake as soon as it has length enough for this pur- 
 pose, to prevent its being broken by the wind or other casualty. During 
 the summer, the laterals from the four or five lowest buds must be 
 rubbed out, and the shoot be carefully protected by being kept tied ev- 
 ery eight or ten inches. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 165 
 
 LIST OF FRUITS. 
 
 The next Fall you may cut this shoot down to two buds, (not count- 
 ing the one in the crotch of the plant between the old and new wood) 
 and cover over as before. 
 
 The 3d year. — You will allow shoots to push from both the eyes, 
 and suffer them to grow, taking care of them as recommended above ; 
 but the bud in the crotch must be rubbed out. This year you must 
 rub out the laterals from the five lowest buds, and nip in the other lat- 
 erals to one eye, so that if the plant grows luxuriantly the sap may 
 burst from the buds of the laterals, and not from those of the main 
 branch, as it would do if the vine was dressed too close. Be careful to 
 keep the branches tied up that they may not be broken. In Novem- 
 ber, cut down the two branches as follows : the most feeble of the two, 
 to two buds, to produce wood branches the succeeding season ; and 
 the strongest, to three buds, for fruit branches, and cover them as 
 usual. 
 
 The Ath year. — If you keep your vines properly dressed, you may 
 have your first fruits without injury to your plants. After this the 
 system to be pursued must depend on the strength of your vines, and 
 this will depend on the goodness of the soil and the care you take of 
 your plants. .But as a general rule, the following points must be at- 
 tended to. 
 
 1st. The number and length of your fruit branches must always de- 
 pend on the strength of your plant ; the wood branches are always to 
 be cut down to two eyes. 
 
 2d. No more branches should be left on the vine than it can nourish 
 well, and abundantly ; this will depend on its age, and the soil in which 
 it grows. 
 
 3d. The branches should be cut in alternately for wood and fruit 
 branches, observing to cut for wood branches as low down on the plant 
 as possible, so as to renew your wood near the bottom annually. No 
 shoots should be permitted to grow from the old wood, unless wanted 
 for this purpose. 
 
 4th, No more shoots should be permitted to grow than can be laid 
 in clear, and handsome, and without confusion on the trellis, and so as 
 to admit the sun and air freely among the branches. 
 
 5th. The laterals should be rubbed out of the wood branches six or 
 eight eyes high, and those that are permitted to remain should be 
 pinched into one bud. The laterals on the fruit branches should be 
 rubbed out from the insertions of the shoot to the uppermost fruit in- 
 clusive, and the others pinched in as above. If the shoots are very 
 strong, the upper laterals may be allowed to grow, to take up a greater 
 portion of the sap ; but this should not be done unless there is danger 
 of the eyes bursting in the main shoots. Be careful always to keep 
 the shoots tied up near their top. 
 
 6th. Never leave more than five good eyes on a fruit bearing branch, 
 unless your vine is confined to a narrow space, and you are obliged to 
 preserve only two or three fruit branches ; in this case the length of the 
 branch must correspond to the nourishment it will receive from the 
 
166 Family 
 
 BEES. 
 
 plant. Select the roundest and fairest branches for fruit, and the low- 
 est and most feeble for wood. The closer the buds are together, or the 
 shorter the joints of the branch, the better they are for fruit; these 
 may in general be cut to three, four, or five eyes according to their 
 strength. But in vineries covered with glass, where two fruit bearing 
 branches only are left on strong vines ; — twenty, thirty, and forty buds 
 are sometimes left on fruit branches. 
 
 The foregoing rules will be sufficient for any one to build up a vine- 
 yard sufficiently large to supply himself — his friends, and the market 
 with grapes. But to promote and forward their maturity and size, the 
 following course may be pursued. 
 
 The first of July you will be able to see the state of your fruit which 
 will be just formed. At this time select the highest fruit branches and 
 those which have the finest appearance of fruit upon them, and per- / 
 form the following operation on the two years old wood, from which 
 these branches proceeded, taking care not to cut below any of the 
 wood branches. 
 
 Take a pruning knife with a smooth edge, and hawk's bill, and pass 
 it round the branch where the bark is clear from knots, cutting deep 
 enough to reach the sap wood of the plant ; at a quarter or 3-8ths of 
 an inch below the first cut, make another, running parallel with the 
 first ; then make a perpendicular cut through this section of the bark 
 the same depth, and you may take out the ring of bark clear from the 
 branch. This will not prevent the sap rising into the upper part of 
 the branch, but it will prevent its descending below this cut, by which 
 means it will be retained in, and distributed throughout the upper part 
 of the branch, in a greater portion than it could otherwise be, and the 
 branch and fruit will both increase in size much more than any of those 
 that are not thus treated, and the maturity of the fruit will be advan- 
 ced very much. 
 
 This has been denominated Girdling. If the plant is very vigorous 
 and the 6eason very favorable, the wound will soon be closed, so that 
 it may be necessary to open it a second time. The process does not in- 
 jure the plant, as you only girdle the fruit bearing branches, which you 
 would in any case cut out at the Fall pruning, to make room for the 
 branches which you have been bringing forward to give you fruit the 
 succeeding year. This may be kept up from year to year, and give 
 you a succession of ripe fruit from the 1st of September to the close of 
 the season. The fruit on those branches which are not girdled will 
 ripen the latest of course, but neither these, nor those which have 
 been girdled, should be shortened, as is customary on vines not thus 
 treated. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 
 
 Apiary. By an apiary is meant a place, where bees are kept, which 
 may consist of a stand, shed, or enclosure appropriated for that purpose. 
 This is an important appendage to fctfery farmer's establishment, and 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 167 
 
 BEES, 
 
 a delightful accession to the premises of every horticulturalist. The 
 study of the domestic honey bee is eminently calculated to raise our 
 thoughts of the wisdom of the Great Architect who has infused such 
 " skill divine" into so humble an architect as the bee. " Besides, there 
 is no branch of husbandry," says a writer, M the cultivation of which, 
 furnishes for our table, a more innocent, and grateful luxury, than that 
 of the bee." 
 
 It is not important what be the situation of an apiary, provided it be 
 in a quiet and sheltered place, free from weeds, and within a convenient 
 distance of pasturage, which abounds in trees, shrubs, and flowers. — 
 Some writers recommend to give an apiary a southern, or south-east- 
 ern aspect ; but this is considered by no means essential. 
 
 Bee. The bee has two large round eyes, one on each side of its 
 head ; also two teeth, by which it constructs its cells, and removes 
 from the hive all obnoxious substances. A little below the teeth is sit- 
 uated the proboscis, and within the mouth, a tongue, which is quite 
 long. It has four wings, and six legs. In the third pair of legs is a 
 singular provision for conveying pollen, or the dust of flowers — viz. 
 two triangular cavities, which are rilled, and often more than filled by 
 means of a kind of brush on each of the second pair of legs, which are 
 used by the bee to brush off the pollen, after she has rolled herself in it, 
 and is thus conveyed to the hive. At the extremity of each foot are 
 fangs, by which the bees strongly attach themselves to whatever they 
 chance to light upon. Honey is collected by means of the proboscis. 
 The stomach consists of two parts connected by a kind of tube. In 
 the first, or honey stomach, the nectar of the flowers is elaborated into 
 honey ; in the second, a portion of the honey undergoes the action of 
 the digestive powers, and serves to sustain the bee. Two antennae or 
 feelers project forward from the head, which serve to convey to the 
 bees a knowledge of one another, and enable them to conduct the in- 
 ternal operations of the hive, even in the dark. Each swarrn consists 
 of three kinds of bees, viz. females, males, and workers, each of which 
 will claim a more particular notice. 
 
 FEMALE OR QUEEN BEE. 
 
 Each swarm has one female bee, which takes charge of them, and 
 from this circumstance is usually called the queen bee. She differs 
 from the other bees in that she is about eight lines and a half long, 
 while the males are seven, and the workers only six. Her abdomen 
 is also longer, but her wings are so short, that she flies with difficulty. 
 It is said that she leaves the hive, but on two occasions — one, when she 
 leads forth a swarm ; the other for the purpose of being impregnated. 
 She is the only one that breeds, and in her single personage resides 
 the prerogatives of sovereignty, which are most scrupulously acknow- 
 ledged by all her subjects. She enjoys their uniform affection, and is 
 ever treated by them with the respect due to her exalted station. Some 
 administer honey to her ; others attend upon her, as if to guard her ; 
 while others still, remove from before her any thing which might im- 
 pede her progress. No sooner are cells constructed by a new swarm 
 than the queen commences laying jiex eggs, at the rate of two or three 
 hundred a day ; and probably at e\rn a greater rate, according to the 
 rapidity with which the cells are constructed. The cells designed for 
 
168 FAMILY 
 
 BEES. 
 
 the production of workers are horizontal and hexagonal ; those for 
 the males or drones are more irregular ; the queen, or royal cells are 
 circular, and uniformly perpendicular. Workers arrive to maturity 
 from the egg in twenty days; drones in twenty-four; queens in six- 
 teen. The growth of queens is probably accelerated by the superior 
 attention which they receive, and the richer quality of the food, or 
 jelly administered to them. Eggs of each kind are hatched in three 
 days, from the time they are deposited. The worms are immediately 
 supplied with pollen, or the farina of flowers, and this supply is con- 
 tinued so long as necessary. Royal cells exist in every hive ; but in 
 case of the loss of their queen, workers have the power of effecting a 
 metamorphosis of one of their own species to supply her place. This 
 is done by selecting a worm three days old, and sacrificing three con- 
 tiguous cells for the purpose of constructing one of royal form and di- 
 mensions. The food designed for the royal worm consists of a kind of 
 paste, or jelly of a pungent taste. Although several queen bees are 
 sometimes brought to perfection about the same time, but one only can 
 hold the reins of government, and she that is strongest claims this pre- 
 rogative. No sooner does she mount the throne, than she thirsts for 
 the blood of her royal sisters, and nothing can appease her but their 
 death, which she effects with singular zeal. 
 
 Males or Drones. The number of drones in an average swarm 
 is estimated at about rive hundred. They may be easily distinguished 
 from the common or working bees, being both larger and longer. They 
 are destitute of a sting. They make a much greater nosie when on 
 the wing than other bees. Their proboscis is not adapted to collect 
 honey. The precise office of the drones has been a subject of much 
 dispute ; but it seems to be at length conceded, that they are males, 
 and serve the purpose of impregnating the queen. When this has been 
 effected, they are of no further use, and are destroyed by the neuters, 
 who sting them to death. They make but little resistance ; and, as if 
 they were aware of having accomplished the end of their existence, 
 die without repining. Their destruction is usually accomplished in 
 the months of July and August. In the May following others are 
 hatched to supply their place. 
 
 Working Bees or Neuters. This kind of bee constitutes the 
 great majority in every swarm. " The average number of a swarm or 
 hive," says a writer, " is from fifteen to twenty thousand bees. Nine- 
 teen thousand four hundred and ninety-nine are neuters, or working 
 bees, five hundred are drones, and the remaining one is the queen, or 
 mother. About five thousand bees weigh a pound. Hence it is easy 
 to determine the number of bees in any given swarm by ascertaining 
 the difference in weight between the hive and the bees after they are 
 hived. 
 
 The business of the workers consists chiefly in constructing the cells, 
 and collecting honey. The labor of the hive is apportioned to several 
 classes, though they not unfrequently change work. One class is em- 
 ployed in attending upon the sovereign ; another cleans the hive and 
 prepares it for the comb ; some gather a resinous substance called 
 propolis or bee glue, with which they seal the crevices of the hive ; 
 others construct the cells ; others Still bring home honey, and where 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 169 
 
 BEES, 
 
 necessary, pollen for the young, and a small number act as sentinels, 
 both by day and by night at and around the entrance of the hive. 
 
 The industry of bees is proverbial. They labor from morning's 
 early dawn till evening, and a young swarm may be found working at 
 the cells even in the night. The quantity of honey conveyed by a 
 single bee at a time is but a small drop ; but the aggregate collected by 
 a swarm in a single season, if favorable, is surprisingly great. Of a 
 population of 18,000, it has been ascertained that 3000 return from 
 their collections in a single hour. Swarms not unfrequently accumu- 
 late from 60 to 100 pounds in a single season. 
 
 Swarming. Bees seldom swarm until they become overstocked, 
 when the younger portion are compelled to go forth, and seek a habita- 
 tion for themselves. Yet, as the young queen may be supposed inad- 
 equate to conduct the new colony, she is left to reign over the old 
 stock, and the old queen leads forth the young swarm. Before her de- 
 parture, however, she deposits eggs for queens and drones. 
 
 Bees seldom swarm before May nor after July. The earlier swarms 
 are generally esteemed of greater value. No signs which are infalli- 
 ble precede the departure of the colony. Yet it is said that on the eve- 
 ning, previous the queen is heard to make a peculiar kind of humming, 
 called tolling or calling. The more certain indications, however, are 
 the appearance, for some days, of some thousands of bees on the out- 
 side of the hive in an inactive state, and the sudden ingress of the 
 whole on the morning of some fair day. They may then be supposed 
 to be laying in a stock of provisions from the parent hive preparatory 
 to their journey. 
 
 On the appearance of a swarm, experience has proved the utter in- 
 utility of beating on pans, or the ringing of bells. A law handfulls of 
 sand or earth, or some jets of water, will more effectually settle them 
 than the jargon of a thousand voices, or the deafening clatter of a 
 thousand kettles. Should the swarm rise high and indicate a deter- 
 mination to take a long flight, the experiment of firing a few s:uns 
 loaded with peas or beans at them might well be made. Not unfre- 
 quently the queen, unable to fly, falls to the ground a few rods only 
 from the hive. In such a case, if discovered, she may be carefully 
 taken and placed immediately under the hive, which mast be a little 
 raised, and the swarm will settle about her. If by any means she is 
 seriously disturbed at the time of swarming, she returns with her sub- 
 jects to the parent hive, from which she may be expected to issue in 
 two or three days. Should she be lost, the swarm will return, and 
 generally again come forth in a fortnight, in which time a new queen 
 will have been brought to perfection. 
 
 Hiving. A few hives should always be in readiness and should be 
 made of nice boards and be made perfectly tight. This will save the 
 bees much toil, as every crevice must needs be stopped, and ever}' par- 
 ticle of extraneous matter removed before the comb is commenced. 
 
 It is usual to rub the hive previously to hiving a swarm, with a solu- 
 tion of salt, or with some aromatic herbs : but if otherwise clean, all 
 such practices are unnecessary. A sprinkling of milk and molasses 
 may be accept? le. 
 
 p 
 
170 FAMILY 
 
 BEES. 
 
 Bees may be hived by cutting off the limb on which they have 
 alighted ; or they may be shaken into the hive, if the limb be so small 
 as to admit of sufficient agitation to dislodge the bess at once. Should 
 a swarm settle in some inconvenient place, they may be carefully 
 brushed into the hive. Should the swarm return to the tree, after 
 hiving, it may be again hived ; but after a second experiment, it will be 
 judicious to substitute another hive. 
 
 When a swarm, on issuing, divides, and settles on a tree in two sep- 
 arate clusters, the presumption is that each cluster has its queen. If 
 not large, or the season be advanced, it will be well to put them into 
 one hive and leave the queens, if there be two, to settle which shall 
 occupy the throne. 
 
 Bees are less inclined to sting during swarming, than at other times ; 
 yet prudence will suggest the propriety of a covering for the face and 
 hands of those who may be employed in hiving them. Millinet will 
 answer well for the face and neck, and a pair of woollen or leather 
 gloves for the hands. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to unite swarms, especially if they be small. 
 This may be easily effected by spreading a cloth on the ground in the 
 evening, on which the hive containing one of the swarms is to be pla- 
 ced, taking care to raise it a few inches by means of a stick. In this 
 situation a few smart strokes upon the hive will cause the bees to drop 
 in a cluster. At this moment the hive containing the other swarm 
 should be placed over them ; into this they will readily ascend and 
 take up their permanent abode. 
 
 WAX-WORKER. ^ Jn ofder (Q buj]d ^. ^^ 
 
 combs which every one must have repeat- 
 edly seen and admired, it is indispensable 
 that the architect bees, should be provided 
 with the materials — \^th the wax in short 
 with which they are principally formed. 
 It was formerly the opinion of even emi- 
 nent naturalists, that wax was in some way elaborated from the pollen 
 of flowers. This is now known to be incorrect. The wax having 
 been found to be a secretion from muscular rings, around the second 
 stomach of the bee, which resembles a cask covered with hoops. It is 
 within these rings that the wax is produced, but the secreting vessels 
 for this purpose have hitherto escaped the researches of the acutest 
 naturalists. Huber, however, plausibly enough conjectures that they 
 are contained in the internal lining of the wax pockets, which consist 
 of a cellular substance reticulated with hexagons. The wax pockets 
 themselves which are concealed by the over-lapping of the rings, may 
 be seen by pressing the abdomen of a worker-bee so as to lengthen it, 
 and separate the rings further from each other. When this lias been 
 done, there may be seen on each of the four intermediate hoops of the 
 belly, and separated by what may be called the keel (carina) two whi- 
 tish-colored pouches, of a soft texture and in the form of atrapizium. 
 Within, the little scales or plates of wax are produced as occasion re- 
 quires. We may remark that it is chiefly the wax-workers which pro- 
 duce the wax, for though the nurse-bees are furnished with wax pock- 
 ets, they Becrete it only in very small quantities, while in the queen bee 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 171 
 
 BEES. 
 
 and the males or drones, no pockets are discoverable. It may be sup- 
 posed that if the substance found lying under the rings be really the 
 elements of wax, it undergoes some subsequent preparation after it is 
 detached ; and that the bees, in short, are capable of impregnating it 
 with matter, imparting to it whiteness and ductility, whereas in its un- 
 prepared state it is only fusible.* 
 
 Propolis. Wax is not the only material employed by bees in their' 
 architecture. Besides this, they make use of a brown, oderiferous, 
 resinous substance called propolis, more tenacious and extensible than 
 wax, and well adapted for cementing and varnishing. This it appears 
 from satisfactory experiments made by Huber and others, is obtained 
 from the wild poplar and probably from other trees. The use of this 
 appears to be to fill up such interstices as may happen to exist in the 
 cell, and to serve as a varnish for any place which may require it. 
 But this is not the only use to which bees apply the propolis. In case 
 of the ingress, into the hive, of insects which they are unable to drag 
 out with their teeth, having killed them, to prevent the noxious smell 
 which would arise from their putrefaction, they immediately embalm 
 them by covering every part of their body with propolis, through 
 which no effluvia can escape. When a snail, with a shell, gets entrance, 
 to dispose of it in this way gives much less trouble and expense to the 
 bees. As soon as it receives the first wound from a sting, it naturally 
 retires within its shell. In this case, the bees instead of pasting it all 
 over with propolis, content themselves with glueing all round the mar- 
 gin of the shell, which is sufficient to render the animal forever im- 
 moveably fixed. 
 
 Thk building of the cblls. When bees begin to build the hive, 
 they divide themselves into bands, one of which produces materials for 
 the structure ; another works upon these, and forms. them into a rough 
 sketch of the dimensions and partitions of the cells. All this is com- 
 pleted by the second band, who examine and adjust the angles, remove 
 the superfluous wax, and give the work its necessary perfection, and a 
 third band brings provisions to the laborers, who cannot leave their 
 work. But no distribution of food is made to those whose charge in 
 collecting propolis and pollen, calls them to tfre field, because it is sup- 
 posed they will hardly forget themselves ; neither is any allowance 
 made to those who begin the architecture of the cells. 
 
 The secretion of wax, it would appear, goes on best when the bees 
 are in a state of repose ; and the wax-workers accordingly suspend 
 themselves in the interior in an extended cluster, like a curtain, which 
 is composed of a series of inter-twined festoons or garlands, crossing 
 each other in all directions, — the uppermost bee maintaining its position 
 by laying hold of the roof with its fore-legs and the succeeding one 
 laying hold of the hind legs of the first. Here is a curtain of wax 
 workers secreting wax. 
 
 * Library of Entertaining Knowledge. 
 
172 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 BEES. 
 
 CURTAIN OF WAX WORKERS SECRETING WAX. 
 
 The manner in which the bees hold on to one another may be still 
 more -distinctly apprehended by the following cut : 
 
 As the wax workers secrete only a limited quantity of wax, it is in- 
 dispensably requisite that as little as possible of it should be con- 
 sumed, and that none of it should be wasted. "Bees, therefore, as M. 
 Reaumur well remarks, " have to solve this difficult geometrical 
 problem : — A quantity of wax being given to form of it similar and 
 equal ceils of a determinate capacity, but of the largest size in propor- 
 tion to the quantity of matter employed, and disposed in such a man- 
 ner as to occupy the least possible space in the hive. This problem is 
 solved by bees in all its conditions. The cylindrical form would seem 
 to be best adapted to the shape of the insect, but had the cells been 
 cylindrical, they could not have been applied to each other without 
 leaving a vacant and superfluous space between every three contiguous 
 cells. Had the cells, on the other hand, been square or triangular, they 
 might have been constructed without unnecessary vacancies, but these 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 173 
 
 BEES. 
 
 CURTAIN OF WAX WORKERS. forms would both have re, 
 
 ==r=^ . quired more material and 
 ^. been very unsuitable to the 
 hape of a bee's body. The 
 six-sided form of the cells 
 obviates every objection; 
 and while it fulfils the con- 
 ditions of the problem, it is 
 equally adapted with a cy- 
 linder to the shape of the 
 bee's body." 
 
 Ho.nev is a vegetable se- 
 cretion, which bees gather 
 with their long tongue and 
 proboscis from flowers. It 
 is swallowed into the first 
 or honey stomach, whence 
 it is disgorged by the mouth 
 into the cells on their return 
 to the hive. The best honey 
 is said to be of a whitish 
 color inclining to yellow. 
 " As an article of food,' 
 according to Dr. Thacher, 
 " when immediately used, 
 it is pernicious to weak 
 stomachs, in which it rea- 
 dily ferments and occasions 
 flatulency. It possesses, 
 however, salubrious properties ; as a medicine, it is a very useful ape- 
 rient and expectorant, especially when it has been boiled, m which 
 state it may be used with safety and advantage by asthmatic P at ^ nt ^ 
 to promote expectoration of tough phlegm.' 1 The trees which aitord 
 honey in the greatest abundance are the different species of willow, 
 maple, and chesnut, white mulberry, peach, apple, palm and cherry 
 tree. Of shrubs and plants we may name the strawberry, raspberry. 
 mignonette, thyme, crocus, and white clover. The blossoms ot the 
 red clover and honey suckle yield honey in abundance, but it lies be- 
 yond the reach of the bee. Buck wheat contains more than most 
 plants ; but it is less palatable. It answers well for winter stores tor 
 the bees and of no kind are they more fond. 
 
 Bee Bread, as already noted is the pollen or dust of flowers, col- 
 lected by the bees in the manner before described. Its only use ap- 
 pears to be for feeding the young, to which it is administered by the 
 workers grain by grain. 
 
 Hives. Until within a few years little attention has been paid to the 
 construction of hives. A few boards put together at the moment ot 
 necessity, were all that were deemed essential. They were, perhaps, 
 covered with dirt and full of flaws and cracks, to remedy which incon- 
 veniences would require the industry of the new colony some days, if 
 not weeks. Mjre - .lightened views are now entertained on this sub- 
 
174 FAMILY 
 
 BEES. 
 
 ject, and much ingenuity has been exercised in constructing tenements 
 for bees to render them comfortable — to secure them from the invasion 
 of the bee moth, and to admit of the superabundant honey being re- 
 moved without injuring or disturbing the bees. For a luminous view 
 of this subject we would refer our readers to the excellent practical 
 treatise on Bees by Dr. Thacher, published in Boston. 
 
 It is with pleasure that we introduce the following account from the 
 North American Review, for June 1828, of a hive invented and suc- 
 cessfully employed for a number of years, by Mrs. Mary Griffith, of 
 New Brunswick, N. J. which is likely, according to that Journal, soon 
 to supersede every other now in use. 
 
 " The Charlieshope hive, is thirteen inches square at the top ; but as 
 the sides decrease in width to the bottom the base is narrower, being only 
 seven inches on the flanks, and thirteen inches in front and at the back. 
 The hive is in height about twenty-six inches in front, and twenty be- 
 hind. Of course the floor is an inclined plane. It is fastened behind 
 with hinges, and at the sides with hooks and staples. The roof or 
 cover is, like the rest of the hive, made of common inch board, with 
 cleats screwed on the top, to prevent it from warping ; the top is screw- 
 ed to the hive in two places ; three holes are bored in this cover of one 
 inch diameter, and about a quarter of an inch apart, on a line with each 
 other and parallel with the front of the hive ; three holes are found to 
 be necessary, as the bees would otherwise build in such a manner as to 
 close them and prevent their ascent to the upper box, when that be- 
 comes necessary. 
 
 " The under part of the top or cover is rough, as the propolis, or bee 
 glue, does not at all times adhere sufficiently well to a smooth surface. 
 " Every other part of the hive is as smooth as possible, and the 
 whole hive, box and all, is well made and joined. The upper box is 
 thirteen inches square and the width of a board deep, from eight to ten 
 inches. The box is likewise smoothly planed, excepting the inside of 
 the top board which is rough. 
 
 " The box sits snugly on the top of the hive ; and the cleats are 
 placed in such a manner on the upper surface of the cover as to fix 
 the box firmly. 
 
 " When it is ascertained that the hive is full of honey, the plugs in 
 the three holes are taken out. The bees may then ascend, and if the 
 season be favorable, they will fill the box with comb and honey. , 
 
 "About three 'or four inches from the top of the front and back of 
 the hive, are two cleats which serve to sustain the hive in a moveable 
 frame, made of narrow slats of wood, which enables any one to carry 
 the hive from one place to another, as the hiving and other operations 
 make it necessary. The hives are likewise suspended on permanent 
 joists or scantlings of the apiary. Hives thus suspended, are out of 
 the reach of mice, and they are also better on a variety of accounts. 
 The opening and shutting of the floor allows of daily inspection. 
 The floor can be cleaned often. The inclination of the sides and 
 bottom allows the perspiration of the bees to flow off rapidly. 
 
 " This is a great point gained, as dysenteries are induced by the ab- 
 sorption of such acrid matter. The slope of the floor enables the 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 175 
 
 BEES. 
 
 beei to remove all extraneous matter, and to defend themselves from 
 robbers and intruders. The entrance to the hive is about three inches 
 wide, and half an inch high. A door of wire, the meshes of which 
 are small enough to prevent the entrance of the miller, rests behind 
 two door posts made of needles. These needles are driven into the 
 floor, close to the entrance. The little doors are always put behind the 
 needles as soon as the bees are in for the night, and are removed at day 
 light. About the middle of April the doors are first used, and they are 
 discontinued in about two months. 
 
 " After the middle of June the floors are let down, and are suffered 
 to hang until day light, when they are gently raised and hooked up. 
 The floor of the hive projects in front about three inches, thus forming 
 an apron or platform, on which the bees alight before they enter in at 
 the little door." 
 
 Bee Moth. This is the great foe of the honey bee — one which 
 neither the instinctive powers of self preservation, with which the bee 
 is endued, is able to resist, nor the ingenuity and skill of man are able 
 effectually to provide against. And to the depredations of this single 
 enemy is to be attributed the indifference which obviously prevails as 
 to attempts, on an extended scale, to foster this industrious race. 
 
 We are among those who entertain the belief that no effectual rem- 
 edy will soon be found for the evil here alluded to ; at least none 
 which will admit of so universal and easy application, as to induce any 
 great numbers in our land to turn their attention to the cultivation of 
 bees. Still something may be done. 
 
 Before proceeding to the few suggestions which we design to make, 
 a brief description of the bee moth may be proper. It appears in the 
 form of a small miller, of a grayish color, pale towards the head, of a 
 glossy brown near the outer margin of the wings. It has four wing's. 
 but is little disposed to fly much. It begins to molest bees about the 
 middle or last of April, and continues its persecutions till" September. 
 Its depredations are chiefly committed towards the close of the day, 
 and during the night. Their eggs are deposited either in the hive it- 
 self, or in the crevices around about it. These eggs are hatched in a 
 few weeks, and produce a grub or worm with a reddish head, which 
 finds its way into the hive, where, having fortified itself by means of a 
 web, it feeds upon the wax, comb, eggs, and young brood of bees, and 
 continues to extend its ravages with a Goth and Vandal spirit, until 
 the whole internal establishment becomes one wide-spread desolation. 
 
 To prevent entirely the depredations of these enemies is probably 
 impossible. Their injurious, effects, however, may in a measure be 
 prevented by destroying the millers, Which may be effected in a degree 
 by placing open shallow vessels near the hives containing sweetened 
 water and vinegar. By sipping this liquor, of which they are fond, 
 they become intoxicated and drown. Some recommend to sprinkle 
 spirits of turpentine round the hives; others recommend closincr the 
 entrance of the hive, after the ingress of the bees, and opening it early 
 in the morning. It has been suggested by a respectable writer, to 
 place the hives on the naked ground, or which is thought still better, to 
 cover the floor of the bee-house with earth about two inches in depth. 
 This last method is recommended by way of experiment, by Dr. ThaGh- 
 
176 FAMILY 
 
 LOCOMOTION, 
 
 er, in the work to which we have already alluded, and to which we 
 would refer our readers for other important hints on this particular 
 topic, as well as for numerous suggestions in reference to the general 
 management of bees. 
 
 PART VII. 
 
 ARTS OF LOCOiMOTIOX-OF HEATING, VENTILATION, fee. 
 
 LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Motion of Animals. " The chief obstacles which oppose locomo- 
 tion or change of place," says Dr. Bigelow,* " are gravity and friction, 
 the latter of which is in most cases, the consequence of the former. 
 Friction is obviated by animals that walk, by substituting points of 
 their bodies instead of large surfaces, and upon these points they turn, 
 as upon centres, for the length of each step, raising themselves wholly 
 or partly from the ground in successive arcs, instead of drawing them- 
 selves along the surface. The line of arcs which the centre of gravity- 
 describes, is converted into an easy or undulating line, by the compound 
 action of the different joints. As the feet move in separate lines, the 
 body has also a lateral, vibratory motion. A man, in walking, puts 
 down one foot before the other is raised, but not in running. Quadru- 
 peds in walking have three feet upon the ground for most of the time ; 
 in trotting, only two. Animals which walk against gravity, as the com- 
 mon fly, the tree toad, &c, support themselves by suction, using cavities 
 on the" under side of their feet, which they enlarge at pleasure, till the 
 pressure of the atmosphere causes them to adhere. In other respects 
 their locomotion is effected like that of other walking animals. Birds 
 perform the motion of flying by striking the air with the broad surface 
 of the wings in a downward and backward direction, thus propelling 
 the body upward and* forward. After each stroke the wings are con- 
 tracted, or slightly turned, to lessen their resistance to the atmosphere, 
 then raised and spread anew. The downward stroke also, being more 
 sudden than the upward, is more resisted by the atmosphere. The tail 
 of birds serves as a rudder to direct the course upward or downward. 
 When a bird sails in the air without moving the wings, it is done in 
 some cases by the velocity previously acquired, and an oblique direction 
 of the wings upward ; — in others, by a gradual descent, with the wings 
 slightly turned in an oblique direction downward. Fishes, in swim- 
 ming forward, are propelled chiefly by strokes of the tail, the extremity 
 of which being bent into an oblique position, propels the body forward 
 and laterally at the same time. The lateral motion is corrected by the 
 next stroke, in the opposite direction, while the forward course con- 
 tinues. The fins serve partty to assist in swimming, but chiefly to ba- 
 lance the body, or keep it upright; for the centre of gravity being 
 
 * Elements of Technology, p. 192 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 177 
 
 LOCOMOTION, 
 
 nearest the back, a fish turns over, when it is dead, or disabled.* Some 
 other aquatic animals, as leeches, swim with a sinuous or undulating 
 motion of the body, in which several parts at once are made to act ob- 
 liquely against the water. Serpents in like manner advance by means 
 of the winding or serpentine direction which they give to their bodies, 
 and by which a succession of oblique forces are brought to act against 
 the ground. Sir Everard Home is of opinion that serpents use their 
 ribs in the manner of legs, and propel the body forwards by bringing 
 the plates on the under surface of the body to act successively like feet 
 against the ground. t Some worms and larva? of slow motion, extend 
 a part of their body forwards, and draw up the rest to overtake it, some 
 performing this motion in a direct line, others in curves. 
 
 M When land animals swim in water, they are supported, because 
 their whole weight, with the lungs expanded with air, is less than that 
 of an equal bulk of water. The head, however, or a part of it, must 
 be kept above water to enable the animal to breathe, and to effect this 
 and also to make progress in the water, the limbs are exerted in suc- 
 cessive impulses against the fluid. Quadrupeds and birds swim with 
 less effort than man, because the weight of the head, which is carried 
 above water, is, in them, a smaller proportional part of the whole, than 
 it i3 in man.'* 
 
 Human Strength, or Poicsr. Desaguilliers^ states that the power 
 cf a man, applied in various ways, will produce the following results : 
 
 A man can raise by a good common pump, a hogshead — 63 galls. — 
 of water 10 feet high in a minute, for a whole day. 
 
 A man of ordinary strength can turn a winch with a force of 30 
 pounds, and with a velocity of 3£ feet in a second, for 10 hours a day. 
 
 Two men working at a windlass with handles at right angles, can 
 raise 70 lbs. more easily than one can raise 30. 
 
 According to Mr. Buchanan's comparison, the force exerted in turning 
 a winch being made equal to the unit, or standard, 
 
 lhe force as in pumping will be = .61 
 
 as in ringing, = 1.36 
 
 in rowing. = 1 .43 
 
 Porters are commonly able to carry from 200 to 300 pounds at the 
 rate of 3 miles an hour. 
 
 By a careful adjustment of the weight low upon the hips, it is stated 
 that Porters are able to move forward under a load of from 700 to 900 
 lbs. 
 
 Coulomb observes that the most advantageous weight, for a man of 
 common strength to carry horizontally, is 111 pounds ; or if he re- 
 
 * The swimming bladder which exist in most fishes, though not in all, is 
 supposed to have an agency in adapting the specific gravity of the fish to 
 the particular depth in which it resides. The power of the animal to rise 
 or sink by altering the dimensions of this organ, has been, with some reason, 
 disputed. 
 
 t Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, vol. i. p. 116, &c. Sir E. Home de- 
 duces this fact from the anatomy of the animal, and from the movements 
 which he perceived, in suffering a large coluber to crawl over his hand. The 
 ribs appeared to be raised, spread, carried forward, depressed and pushed 
 backward, successively. 
 
 Bn's Mechanics, p. 150 
 
178 FAMILY 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 turn unladen, 135 pounds. With wheel-barrows men will do half as 
 much more work as with hods, as in the mode previously mentioned. 
 Surprising accounts are given of the strength of men to sustain 
 weights of above 2000 lbs. by means of proper apparatus adjusted to 
 the hips. The weights, however, in the cases stated, do not appear to 
 have been sustained by muscular strength, but merely by placing the 
 legs in the most favorable perpendicular position, whereby the bones 
 receive the whole stress, with but little more muscular exertion than 
 is required for maintaining them in an erect posture. The bones of 
 the legs and the arch of the pelvis, although apparently so frail in 
 form and texture, are constructed with such admirable science that it 
 is supposed by anatomists they might sustain a weight of nearly 4000 
 pounds. 
 
 Aids to Locomotion. Although the bodily strength of man, ac- 
 cording to the preceding article, would enable him to accomplish much, 
 without mechanical contrivance ; yet it is easy to perceive that inde- 
 pendent of that contrivance but little comparatively could be effected 
 either as to moving himself, or conveying the more ponderous articles 
 of commerce, great distances, in any moderate space of time. The 
 aids to locomotion, discovered by the ingenuity of man are quite nu- 
 merous. We shall find room to notice but a few, and those quite 
 briefly. — 
 
 Wheels. Wheels are designed to diminish friction, and also to sur- 
 mount obstacles or inequalities of the road, with more advantage than 
 bodies of any other form in their place could do. The friction being 
 transferred from the surface of the ground to the centre of the wheel, 
 is lessened in the proportion, which the diameter of the axletree bears 
 to the diameter of the wheel. The rubbing surfaces, also, being polish- 
 ed and oiled, are in the best possible condition to resist friction. The 
 best composition for diminishing friction is said to be common soap- 
 stone or steatite reduced to powder and mixed with oil. One part of 
 black lead to three parts of lard forms also a good anti-attrition com- 
 pound. 
 
 The principle upon which a wheel easily surmounts the common ob- 
 stacles found in the road is obvious. It is converted into a lever, by 
 means of which the load is lifted with greater case, and its centre of 
 gravity passes over in the direction of an easy arc, the obstacle furnish- 
 ing the fulcrum, on which the lever acts. f 
 
 From this last remark, it might in truth be inferred that the ease with 
 which wheels surmount stones and similar obstacles, is in proportion to 
 their size. This arises from the well known principle, that the longer 
 the arm of a lever is, on which a given force acts, the greater is the 
 result. It may also be added in favor of large wheels, that they sink 
 less in soft ground than small ones, and are less liable to wear out ; 
 since, in passing over a given space, they turn round a proportionably 
 less number of times. A wheel, which is three feet in diameter will 
 turn round twice, while a wheel, which is six feet in diameter turns but 
 once. Hence, the tire of the former must come in contact with the 
 ground twice as often as that of the latter. It may be mentioned as 
 a diminution of the advantages of large wheels, that in order to pre- 
 serve the requisite strength, they are necessarily cumbersome, and too 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 179 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 heavy for use. But could this objection be obviated, a limit must be 
 assigned for the size of carriage wheels, which is, that the axle should 
 not be above the level of the draught, or breast of the horse. Indeed 
 in practice, it is found expedient to place the point of draught some- 
 what lower than the middle of the horse's breast. According to Dr. 
 Gregory, a power which moves a sliding body along a horizontal plane, 
 acts with the greatest advantage, as far as friction is concerned, when 
 the line of direction makes an angle of about 18J degrees with the 
 plane. M. Deparcieux states from experiments with carriages, that the 
 angle made by the trace with a horizontal line, should be one of 14 or 
 15 degrees. 
 
 Broad Wheels. Much has been written on the comparative utility of 
 wheels which have a broad, or a narrow rim. The advocates for the 
 former kind of wheels urge, that they pass more easily over ruts and 
 holes, and sink to a smaller depth in soft and sandy roads. Hence, while 
 narrow rimmed wheels render a road uneven, by causing deep a;id nar- 
 row ruts, the broad constantly act as rollers upon the surface. The 
 principal objections to broad wheels are, their greater weight, greater ex- 
 pense, and the greater number of obstacles, which they meet in their 
 passage. 
 
 Form of Wheels. Were roads in all cases level and smooth, the pro- 
 per form of wheels would obviously be an exact cylinder, with their 
 spokes set precisely parallel to the same plane. But experience has 
 proved the advantage of wheels, which are somewhat conical or dish- 
 ivg. In this case, when, by reason of an inequality in the road, the 
 weight of the carriage is chiefly thrown on one wheel, the spokes on 
 the under side of that wheel becoming more nearly vertical, are better 
 able to sustain the increased pressure. A further advantage presented 
 by this form of wheels is, that the circumference being farther from the 
 body of the carriage, less mud is thrown upon it, and the passengers 
 are less annoyed. The chief objection to this form of the wheel is 
 presented in an increase of friction, it being found that the degree of 
 lateral motion and friction increases in proportion, as the wheel is coni- 
 cal or dishing. 
 
 Mode of attaching a Horse. In cities, it is the general custom, 
 growing probably out of the circumscribed limits of wharves, which 
 draymen much frequent, and the narrowness of the alleys, through 
 which they pass, to harness draught horses before each other, in a sin- 
 gle line. This is, however, a bad mode of attaching horses, since only 
 the shaft horse has an advantageous line of draft. The other horses 
 draw nearly in a horizontal line, and of course to a disadvantage. Be- 
 sides, the foremost horses, drawing at the ends of the shaft, do not act 
 directly upon the load, but expend a part of their force in a vertical 
 pressure upon the back of the shaft horse. A better mode of attach- 
 ing horses, is to make them work abreast — since thev are then in the 
 same line of traction, and are equally near to the load. 
 
 Rail Roads. By the term rail road is understood a road formed by 
 laying distinct tracks of timber, iron, or stone, for wheel carriages to 
 run upon. They are of modern invention. The earliest rail road3 
 were constructed of wood only. Stone is sometimes employed, but 
 iron only should be used where durability is expected. 
 
180 FAMILY 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION, 
 
 Iron rail roads are of three kinds — the Edge rail — the Tram road — 
 and the Single rail. 
 
 In the edge rail way, the rails, as indicated by the term, are laid with 
 the edge upwards, and the carriage is retained upon them by a flange, 
 or projecting edge, attached to the wheels instead of the rail. Tram 
 roads are flat rails, made usually of cast iron, with an elevated edge or 
 flange on one side, to guide the wheels of carriages in their path. Tram 
 rails are weaker than edge rails, and it is sometimes necessary to 
 strengthen them with ribs underneath. In the single rail way the car- 
 riage consists of two boxes suspended on each side of the rail by an 
 iron frame, and having two wheels placed one before the other. 
 
 Where the amount of travel is very great the rail road is double, one 
 set of tracts being designed for carriages moving in each direction. A 
 single road, however, is generally sufficient if it be provided with dou- 
 ble places, called sidelings, for carriages to pass each other at conveni- 
 ent distances. 
 
 Horses are commonly employed for drawing loads upon rail ways ; 
 and it is estimated that a horse will draw eight times as much upon a 
 rail way, as upon a common road. Within a few years, steam engines 
 have been employed for propelling carriages, especially in England, by 
 means of which the most surprising velocity is with perfect security at- 
 tained. 
 
 Rail Roads in the United States have not been attempted to any con- 
 siderable extent ; yet several are in contemplation, and it can scarcely 
 be doubted, but that in a few years this mode of conveyance will be ex- 
 tensively adopted, and in preference to canals. 
 
 In England, rude tram roads, constructed of wood, were in use nearly 
 two centuries ago ; but the present improved mode of constructing and 
 laying the rails with iron is of very recent date. The first rail road 
 established by act of parliament was the Stockton and Darlington, a 
 distance of twenty five miles. The act was obtained in 1823, and the 
 road was opened in September 1825. It consists of a single line of 
 rails, with sidelings, every quarter of a mile, for carriages to pass each 
 other. It is principally used for the conveyance of coals and tra- 
 vellers. 
 
 Still more recently the important and stupendous undertaking of 
 constructing a rail road from Liverpool to Manchester, a distance of 
 something more than thirty miles, has been completed. The interest 
 excited in this rail way has arisen chiefly from the excavation of a tun- 
 nel, some account of which must be interesting to our readers. 
 
 This tunnel commences at Wapping near the Queen's Dock, and ex~ 
 tends under the town of Liverpool, a distance of 2250 yards, or rather 
 more thaji a mile and a quarter. It was constructed in seven or eight 
 separate lengths, each communicating with the surface by means of 
 perpendicular shafts. The opening at Wapping is by cutting 22 feet 
 deep, and 46 wide. The whole length of the tunnel is white-washed, 
 and lighted by gas, and the effect produced is very singular and pic- 
 turesque ; but the atmosphere is cold and chill, and the vapor is at 
 times so thick, that the mere spectator of this monument of human la- 
 bor and ingenuity will generally be satisfied with one visit, and not be 
 tempted to repeat it. On the sides of the tunnel, at short distances are 
 placed lettered boards, for the purpose of informing the visitor what 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 181 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 part of the town he is then under. The distance from the roof to the 
 surface of the ground above varies from 5 feet to 70 feet. The rails 
 used on this road are made of forged iron, in lengths of five yards 
 each, and weigh 35 lbs. per yard. Every three feet, the rails rest on 
 blocks of stone, let into the ground, containing each nearly four cubic 
 feet. Into each block, two holes six inches deep and one inch in diam- 
 eter are drilled ; into these are driven oak plugs, and the cast iron 
 chairs or pedestals into which the rails are immediately fitted, are firm- 
 ly spiked down to the plugs, forming a structure of great solidity and 
 strength. On the embankments, where the road may be expected to 
 subside a little, the rails are laid on oak sleepers. For eighteen miles 
 of the road the rails are placed on stone blocks, and for the other thir- 
 teen on sleepers. The double line of rails for the carriages are laid 
 down with mathematical correctness, and consist of four equidistant 
 rails, four feet eight inches apart, about two inches in breadth, and ris- 
 ing about an inch above the surface. In the formation of the railway 
 there have been dug out of the different excavations, upwards of three 
 millions of cubic yards of stone, clay, and soil, and the weight of the 
 double lines of rail laid down is more than 4,000 tons. 
 
 For the purpose of giving to our readers some conception of a steam 
 carriage, designed to be used either on a rail road, or on the common 
 high way, our engraver has copied the model of such a carriage, not 
 Jong since exhibited at London. 
 
 A, Water Cistern — B, the Boiler — C, Steering Wheel with the Con- 
 ductor — D, Steel Frame which carries the Boiler — E, the Curved 
 Steam Pipe to supply the Engines — F, Hand Pump and Pipe to fill the 
 Boiler— G, Safety Valve — H, Notice Cocks — I, Eduction Pipe to take 
 the steam from the Engine to the Chimney — K, the Crank — L, the 
 Pan for the Cinders. 
 
 The subject of Rail Roads is exciting much interest at the present 
 time in the United States. Several short ones are already constructed ; 
 one of greater length, extending from Albany to Schenectady is in 
 
 Q 
 
182 FAMILY 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 progress, and others still are in contemplation, and will doubtless in due 
 time be completed. 
 
 Steam Engine. The steam engine, now extensively employed as 
 an aid to locomotion on rail roads, and in steam boats, as well as to 
 assist in the mechanic arts, is generally attributed to the Marquis of 
 Worcester, as the inventor ; but the perfecting of it belongs to James 
 Watt, a native of Greenock, in Scotland. The improvements made in 
 the construction of the steam engine within the last five and twenty 
 years, are too numerous to be here described. We must content our- 
 selves with giving our readers a brief description and a representation 
 of a modern steam engine, which may of course be constructed of any 
 required power, and applied to any purpose. 
 
 In the following representation, A represents a wrought iron boiler, 
 about three parts filled with water ; the bottom is considerably, and 
 the sides a little, concave, that it may receive more fully the force of 
 the flame circulating around it. Boilers are usually of an oblong form, 
 and are furnished with a part that takes off, in order that a person ma} T 
 get in to clean them when needful ; they have also a valve, called the 
 safety-valve, opening upwards, which is loaded so that the steam es- 
 capes when it is stronger than the engine requires, and, if retained, 
 would hazard the bursting of the boiler. It is not uncommon to have 
 two boilers, one of which is a reserve, that the engine may not be stop- 
 ped, when the other requires repair. 
 
 B, is an apparatus for regulating the fire, and giving action to a bell, 
 which regulates the quantity of coals and time of firing. 
 
 C, the steam-pipe from the boiler A to the valve I. 
 
 D, the steam-cylinder, generally called only u the cylinder ;" it is 
 connected at the top and bottom with the valve I. 
 
 E, the piston, which, by its connecting rod e, gives motion to the 
 beam F, the other end of which, by another connecting rod, gives mo- 
 tion to the heavy fly-wheel G, by means of a crank. Thus, after the 
 engine has begun to work, its power is accumulated in the fly-wheel, 
 and may be disposed of at the pleasure of the mechanist. 
 
 H, an eccentric circle on the axle of the fly-wheel G ; it gives mo- 
 tion by its levers, to the valve I. 
 
 I, a coffer-slide valve, which requires no packing to make it steam- 
 tight, as there is always a vacuum under it : it answers the purpose of 
 the four valves used in double-power engines, and from the simplicity 
 of its construction, when well made at first, is not liable to get out of 
 order. 
 
 K, the steam-admission valve and lever, connected with a governor, 
 which regulates the speed of the engine. 
 
 L, the cylinder of the discharging pump, for extracting the water 
 and uncondensed vapor from the condenser M. 
 
 N, a small cistern, filled with water. Into this cistern enters a pipe 
 the condenser M, the top of which pipe is covered with a valve, 
 
 jich is called the blow-valve, sometimes the shifting valve. Through 
 
 lis valve the air contained in the cylinder D, and passages from it, is 
 discharged, previously to the engine being set in motion. 
 
 O, the eduction pipe, which conducts the steam from the valve I to 
 the condenser M. 
 
FACYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 183 
 
 ST E A 31 ENGINE. 
 
184 FAMILY 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 P, the pump which supplies with water the cistern SS, in which the 
 condenser and discharging pump stand. 
 
 QQ, iron columns, of which the engine has four, although only two 
 are shown ; they stand upon one entire plate seen edgeway, on which 
 the principal parts of the engine are fixed ; by this means the beam 
 and its accompaniments are supported without being connected with 
 any part of the building, except the recess below the floor on which they 
 stand. 
 
 RR, the recess below the floor, for containing the cistern of the dis- 
 charging pump, condenser, &c. This arrangement enables those en- 
 gines to be fixed up and tried at the manufactory before they are sent 
 off, which renders the refixing easy and certain. 
 
 Before the engine is set to work, the cylinder D, the condenser M, 
 and the passages between them, are filled with common air, which it is 
 necessary to extract. Te effect this, by opening the valves, a commu- 
 nication is made between the steam-pipe C, the space below the piston 
 in the cylinder D, the eduction-pipe O, and the condenser M. The 
 steam will not at first enter the cylinder D, or will only enter it a little 
 way, because it is resisted by the air ; but the air in the eduction-pipe 
 O, and the condenser M, it forcibly drives before it, and this part of the 
 air makes its exit through the valve and water in the cistern N. The 
 steam-admission valve is now closed, and the steam already admitted 
 is converted into water, partly by the coldness of the condenser M, but 
 principally by a jet of cold water which enters it through a cock open- 
 ing into it from the well SS, in which the condenser is immersed. — 
 When this steam is condensed, all the space it occupied would be a 
 vacuum, did not the air in the cylinder D expand, and fill all the space 
 the original quantity of it filled ; but by the repetition of the means 
 for extracting a part of the air, the remainder is blown out, and the 
 cylinder becomes filled with steam alone. Suppose then the cylinder 
 beneath the piston to be filled with steam, and the further admission of 
 steam to that part of it be cut off, while the communication between it 
 and the condenser remains open, it is obvious that there will soon be a 
 vacuum in the cylinder, because as fast as the steam reaches the con- 
 denser, it is converted into water by the coldness of that vessel and the 
 jet playing within it. At this moment, therefore, the steam is admitted 
 above the piston, which it immediately presses down. As soon as the 
 piston reaches to the bottom of the cylinder, the steam is admitted to 
 the under side of it ; and as the communication from the upper side of 
 the piston to the condenser is opened, while the further admission of 
 steam to that side during the upper stroke, is prevented, the steam 
 which had pressed the piston down passes into the condenser, and is 
 converted into water. 
 
 The motion of the piston E, by this alternate admission and extrac- 
 tion of the steam on each side of it, is thus necessarily continued, and 
 the distance of its upward and downward range is called the length of 
 its stroke. It communicates its reciprocating motion, by the connect- 
 ing rod e, to the great beam F, and thence, by another connecting-rod 
 and a crank, to the fly-wheel G. 
 
 To explain the rapid accumulation of power with an increase of the 
 size of the engine, it must be observed, that the force of the steam gen- 
 erally used, is somewhat greater than the pressure of the atmosphere ; 
 
E \ ( YCLOPEDIA. 185 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. 
 
 but supposing it to be no greater, as the atmospheric pressure is fifteen 
 pounds on each sqare inch, a piston 16 inches in diameter, containing 
 201 square inches of surface, will alternately be raised and depressed 
 by a force equivalent to a weight of JO 15 pounds. Here no allowance is 
 made for friction, but after the requisite deduction on this account, 
 which may be reckoned at one third, the disposable part of the engine, 
 derived from each stroke, will still be very great. 
 
 The condeaser M, and the discharging-pump L, communicate by 
 means of a horizontal pipe containing a valve y opening towards the 
 pump ; the piston, /, of this pump, also contains two valves, and the 
 cistern T, at the top of the pump-cylinder, contains other two valves, 
 which, like those of the piston /, open upwards. When the piston E of 
 the cylinder is depressed, the piston /, of the discharging-pump, it will 
 be obvious to inspection, is depressed likewise, and its valves open, 
 while the valve ij closes ; hence the water from the condensed steam, 
 as well as the injection-water, and any permanent elastic vapor or gas, 
 which may be present, having passed through the valve ?/, passes 
 through the piston I : and when that piston is drawn up, its valves 
 close, and prevent their return, as in ordinary pump-work. The water 
 and gas that have thus got above the piston, as the latter rises, open 
 the valves at the bottom of the cistern T, in which the water remains 
 till it is full, but the gas passes into the atmosphere. As the water in 
 the cistern T is in a very hot state, it is sometimes, for the purpose of 
 economizing fuel, pumped up, and returned to the boiler, the pump-rod 
 being attached to the great beam. The utility of the discharging-pump 
 L, will now be appreciated, and it must be perceived how much more 
 materially it contributes to the perfection of the vacuum in the cyl- 
 inder D, than if the water from the condenser merely ran off by a 
 pipe. 
 
 The steam constantly rushing into the condenser M, has a perpetual 
 tendency to heat that vessel, as well as the water of the cistern SS, in 
 which it stands : the whole of the steam, if this were unchecked, would 
 not be condensed, or the condensation would not be sufficiently rapid, 
 because the injection-water itself flows out of this cistern. A part of 
 the water is therefore allowed to flow from this cistern by a waste 
 pipe, and an equal quantity of cold is constantly suoplied by the pump 
 P. 
 
 In Newcomen's engine, which, as it acted by the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere, is often called an atmospherical engine, the cylinder was 
 open at the top, and therefore, during the descent of the piston, the air 
 exerted a great power in cooling it ; but in the modern engines, where 
 steam is the active power both in raising and depressing the piston, the 
 top of the cylinder is closed with an iron lid, and not an atom of steam 
 can escape, except at the proper time, into the condenser. In order 
 that the connecting rod e, may work freely, and yet possess this de- 
 sirable property of being steam-tight, it passes through what is called a 
 stuffing or packing box. This stuffing consists of some material which 
 the steam will rather adapt to its office than injure ; leather, which is 
 used for the stuffing or collars of machines never to be subjected to 
 heat, will not answer here ; hempen yarn is the material usually em- 
 ployed. The rod of the piston /, passes through a stuffing box of the 
 
186 FAMILY 
 
 AIDS TO LOCOMOTION. CANALS. 
 
 same kind as that of the piston E ; and the pistons themselves are sur- 
 rounded with stuffing. 
 
 The cylinder D is surrounded by a case, to keep it from being cooled 
 by contact with the external air. The extremity, or any given point 
 removed from the centre of the great beam, can describe only the arc 
 of a circle ; but it is necessary that the piston rod e should rise and fall 
 vertically. Newcomen effected this object, by fixing the end of the 
 beam into the arc of a circle, the radius of which was equal to the dis- 
 tance from the centre of the beam : a chain went over this arc, and was 
 fastened on the higher end of it ; this simple contrivance effectually 
 answered his purpose, because in his engine the effective stroke was 
 only downwards ; but here, in a double-power engine, where the 
 stroke is both upwards and downwards, a chain would yield in rising, 
 and be altogether unsuitable. An apparatus is therefore used, called 
 the parallel joint, which is easily understood by inspection. By this 
 means the rod e, not only rises and falls perpendicularly, but is perfect- 
 ly rigid, and communicates all its motion to the great beam in each di- 
 rection of its motion. The connecting rod g does not require the same 
 contrivance, because it does not rise and fall perpendicularly ; its lower 
 end, with the outer end of the crank, describing a circle : it has there- 
 fore only a simple joint, admitting of this deviation. 
 
 Canals. A canal is an artificial channel filled with water from riv- 
 ers, &zc. in order to make a navigable communication from one place to 
 another. The operations necessary for making artificial navigations 
 depend on many circumstances; as the situation of the ground, its vi- 
 cinity or connexion with rivers, the ease or difficulty with which a 
 proper quantity of water can be procured, with a variety of other 
 points, which must be taken into consideration, before such a work 
 can be entered upon. When the ground is naturally level and uncon- 
 nected with rivers, the execution is easy, and the navigation is not li- 
 able to be disturbed by floods ; but when the ground lises and falls, 
 and cannot be reduced to a level, artificial methods of raising and 
 lowering vessels must be used, which vary according to circumstan- 
 ces. 
 
 It cannot be expected in a work of the present kind, that we should 
 find room to describe the various parts of a canal — its embankments — 
 its culverts, aqueducts— tunnels, gates and weirs, locks, &c. For an 
 account of these, we must refer onr readers to the treatises, which par- 
 ticularly relate to them, and which are now common in the country. — 
 The remainder of this article will be devoted to a general account of 
 some of the more considerable works of this sort, which are to be found 
 in various parts of the globe. 
 
 Canals of Egypt. This country has long been celebrated for its ca- 
 nals — the principal of which are, however, the canal of Alexandria, ex- 
 tending from that city to Rosetta and the Nile ; the canal of Jessuf, on 
 the western bank of the Nile, and parallel to it, — and that of the Red 
 Sea and Nile across the isthmus of Suez. 
 
 Canals of China. The empire of China is supposed to have a more 
 extensive inland navigation than any other nation ; if not greater than 
 ail other nations. The course of the Chinese canals is generally in a 
 northerly and southerly direction, between the two principal rivers of 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 187 
 
 CANALS, 
 
 the country — the Yang-tse and Yellow iiver. The summits to be pass- 
 ed over by boats are often very great. This is effected, in that coun- 
 try, chiefly by means of inclined planes and rollers, oyer which they are 
 drawn by men. Some of the most noted of these works have been in 
 operation about 2000 years, having been completed nearly a century 
 before the Christian Era; and, about A. 1). 605, it is stated, there 
 were completed in the empire 1600 leagues of canal. The most cele- 
 brated is the Imperial canal, by which a communication is opened be- 
 tween Pekin and Canton. IVIalte-Brun estimates the length of this to 
 be 1660 miles; but it is stated by others to be considerably less. The 
 navigation of the whole line occupies about three months. None but 
 the emperor's boats, estimated at 1000, of 100 tons burthen each, are 
 permitted to pass upon it. 
 
 Canals of Italy. To the Italians we are indebted for the great im- 
 provements in respect to locks and sluices found in modern canals ; 
 but which were wanting in those of ancient times, and in those of Chi- 
 na, at the present day. These were the invention of two engineers of 
 Yiterbo, brothers, whose names have not been handed down. The ca- 
 nals of Italy are too numerous to be specified here. 
 
 Canals of Russia. Canals in Russia owe their existence to Peter 
 the Great, who had observed their beneficial effects in Holland. He 
 commenced three ; of which we may notice — the canal of Ladoga, be- 
 iiun 1718, and finished by the Empress Anne, 67^ miles long, uniting 
 the Yolk and the Neva; the canal of Vishnei-Volosholk, forming a 
 communication by water, with the assistance of the Wolga and several 
 other rivers, between Astracan and Petersburg, or between the Caspi- 
 an and the Baltic. Through this latter canal, 3485 barques are said to 
 have passed in a single year. By means of the canals and rivers of 
 Russia, goods may be transported from the frontiers of China to Pe- 
 tersburg, a distance of 4472 miles ; and the line of navigation from As- 
 tracan to the capital is 1434 miles. 
 
 Canals of Sweden. Inland navigation has for many years, been a 
 subject of much interest to the government of Sweden. Several of the 
 modern canals are quite long and well constructed. We may specify 
 the canal of Stromsholm, 60 miles long, with 25 locks ; the Kindac ca- 
 nal and the Gotha canal, designed to open a communication between 
 lake Wenner and the Baltic ; and the canal ofTrolhatta, making a nav- 
 igable channel round the rapids of Trolhatta, in the river Gotha. This 
 last canal, which is but two miles in length, is a stupendous work. It 
 has nine lo£ks, which rise and fall 114 feet, mostly hewn from a solid 
 rock. 
 
 Canals of Denmark. The principal canal in Denmark is that of 
 Keil, which unites the Baltic with the German ocean. It was begun in 
 1777, and completed in 1785. It is 100 feet broad at the top, and 57 at 
 the bottom. The least depth of water is 10 feet. 
 
 Canals of Holland. Canals intersect this country, as is well known, 
 in every direction. They serve for navigation in summer, and roads 
 of ice in winter. The most celebrated canal is the great ship canal of 
 Amsterdam, extending from this city to NieweDiep,on the north coast 
 of Holland, a distance of 41 miles, by a circuitous route of 50£ miles. 
 At the top the breadth is 124i English feet ; at the bottom 36 — with a 
 
188 FAMILY 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 depth of 20 feet 9 inches. The canal is sufficiently wide to admit of one 
 frigate passing another. 
 
 Canals of Germany. Canal navigation in Germany is quite limited, 
 considering the extent and resources of the country. This is chiefly 
 attributed to the division of the territory into numerous small and inde- 
 pendent states. The two principal canals are those of Vienna, between 
 that city and Newstadt, 40 miles long ; and Francis, of the same length, 
 between the Danube and the Jeysse. 
 
 Canals of France. There are probably not less than 50 canals in 
 France, which furnish an inland navigation of about 900 miles. The 
 first great canal constructed in France was the canal of Briare, between 
 the Loire and Seine. It is 34^ miles in length, and was 37 years in 
 executing. The bottom of this canal is 25 feet wide ; the number of 
 locks 40 or 42. The estimated cost was $3,700,000. The Languedoc 
 canal, which opens a communication between the Mediterranean and 
 the Atlantic, is also a stupendous work, of 148 miles in length ; 64 feet 
 wide at the surface ; 34 at the bottom, rising at the summit 640 feet, 
 which are passed by means of 114 locks. This canal passes under a 
 mountain at Beziers, by a tunnel 720 feet in length. It is crossed by 92 
 road bridges, and has 55 aqueduct bridges. Its cost was $6,160,000. 
 Besides the above, we may mention, as works of great importance, the 
 canal of Orleans — of Loing — of the Centre — and of St. Quitin. 
 
 Canals of Great Britain. The English were a century after the 
 French in commencing the construction of canals upon a large scale, 
 the act for the first canal being passed by parliament in J 735 ; but 
 since that time, numerous works of this kind have been completed, and 
 every year is adding to the number. In 1823, the total length of canals 
 in the United Kingdom was 2589 miles. One of the principal canals 
 in England is denominated the Grand Trunk, which passes through the 
 centre of the country, and connects the Mersey with the Trent, 99 
 miles ; thence to the Severn, 40 miles. A branch of this canal, called 
 the Oxford canal, extends 90 miles to that city. From the upper part 
 of this latter canal, another branch, of 100 miles in length, extends to 
 the Thames, a short distance above London, called the Grand Junction. 
 In Scotland, the principal canal is the Caledonian canal, which connects 
 the Murray Frith, on the eastern coast, with the Atlantic ocean on the 
 west. It is 59 miles in length (37 of which are in natural waters) and 
 is navigable for frigates of 32 guns. This canal cost $36,500 per mile. 
 In Ireland, the chief canal is called the Grand canal. It extends from 
 the LifFey, at Dublin, 83 miles, to the river Shannon. 
 
 American canals. The first canal of any magnitude constructed in 
 the United States, was the Middlesex canal, uniting the Merrimac with 
 Boston harbor. This canal, which is 22 miles in length, was commen- 
 ced in 1790. Since that date, and indeed within 14 or 15 years, a great 
 extent of inland navigation, by means of canals, has been opened in 
 the country. At the present time, (1831,) there is probably not far 
 from 2500 miles of canal, either constructed, or in progress of execution 
 among us. In the single state of Pennsylvania, the canals constructed, 
 or in contemplation, have been estimated at a length of 900 miles — al- 
 most equal to that of France. Among the principal canals in the United 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 189 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 States, we may briefly mention, besides the Middlesex, the Blackstone, 
 connecting Worcester and Providence, 45 miles ; the Farmington canal, 
 connecting, when fully completed, New Haven and Northampton, 65 
 miles ; the Hudson and Erie Canal, connecting Albany and Lake 
 Erie, 363 ; to which we may more briefly add the Champlain canal, 
 the Hudson and Delaware, Morris and Ohio state canal, besides several 
 others. 
 
 No friend to his country can regard with indifference these numerous 
 channels of internal communication, whether viewed as evidences of 
 a spirit of enterprise, or considered as sources of wealth and con 
 venience. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 Fuel. In a climate like that of the United States, especially that 
 of the middle and northern portion, where fires are essential to comfort, 
 for a considerable part of the year, the subject of fuel is not without 
 its importance to all. Wood is probably annually diminishing in the 
 more populous parts of the country, and is gradually increasing in 
 price, unless it be in those places, the inhabitants of which can avail 
 themselves of coal. But even coal must have its limits ; and, after 
 the lapse of an indefinite period, will itself be enhanced in price. Con- 
 sidered prospectively, every patriot and every benevolent man must 
 perceive the importance of economy in respect to fuel — for even if now 
 there be an abundance, prodigality such as has been practised would, 
 with the increased demand, "arising from an increased population, and 
 the multiplication of machinery in the country, at no distant day, so 
 diminish the quantity of fuel in the country, as to bring distress upon 
 most classes, especially upon the poor. Indeed, as a writer, whom we 
 shall have occasion more particularly to notice presently, remarks, 
 " the savings of a large portion of the poor, during the summer, are 
 now often inadequate to purchase a sufficient supply of fuel for the 
 winter." " Hence," he remarks, " it must obviously be highly impor- 
 tant to ascertain the comparative efficiency of different kinds of fuel ; 
 as without this knowledge, those who are desirous of economizing 
 may be prodigal through ignorance. 
 
 To the writer above alluded — Mr. Marcus Bull, of Philadelphia, we 
 are indebted for a course of experiments upon the combustion of fuel, 
 founded upon the quantity of heat or temperature imparted to the air 
 of a small chamber, and maintained for a certain time. In his experi- 
 ments, a pound of fuel was burned in a small stove, provided with a 
 crooked funnel or pipe, of sufficient length to give out all the heat, be- 
 fore the draught passed it off out of the apartment, leaving the last end 
 of the pipe always cold. Of the memoir published by Mr. Bull, it 
 gives us pleasure to record the opinion of Professor Silliman : u It is 
 replete with interesting information, and is to be regarded as one of the 
 most important contributions of science to the arts, and to domestic 
 economy, which has been made for a long time in this country." 
 
 " The chamber, which Mr. Bull prepared for the purpose of his ex- 
 periments," observes Mr. Allen, in his Mechanics, to which work we 
 are indebted for the following epitome of Mr. Bull's course of experi- 
 ments, " was eight feet square, containing 512 cubic feet of air. It was 
 
190 FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 constructed, within a larger room, of boards grooved together in the 
 most perfect manner for rendering it tight, and cutting off the com- 
 munication with the air of the external room. The fuel, upon which 
 he made his experiments, was consumed in a small cylindrical stove, 
 twelve inches high, and four inches in diameter, made of common sheet 
 iron lined with day. The pipe of the stove, made of extra thin black 
 tin, for radiating as well as communicating heat in the most favorable 
 manner, was two inches diameter, and forty-two feet long, with several 
 elbows. The standard taken by him was shell bark hickory, which is 
 heavier than any other wood in his table, and disengages during its 
 combustion, an equal quantity of heat from any given weight. The 
 comparative numbers express the value of one cord of each of the 
 woods, one ton of the anthracite coals, and one hundred bushels of the 
 bituminous coals, charcoal, and coke. The column of comparative 
 values he found in this manner : " The value of a given quantity of 
 fuel is directly proportioned to the time that a given weight of it main- 
 tained the air of the room, at a given temperature, and also its 
 weight." 
 
 " The comparative value for producing heat, of the different sorts 
 of fuel in the table, may be found, by assuming a price for the hickory, 
 as sold in the market for one cord of 128 cubic feet. Supposing the 
 cord of shell bark hickory to be six dollars, it is required to ascertain 
 by the table the equivalent price for a cord of red heart hickory. The 
 comparative value of the former is 100 and of the latter 81. Then, as 
 100: 600 : : 81 : 4 86= four dollars eighty-six cents ; at which price 
 the red heart hickory would be as cheap as the shell bark hickory. 
 
 " A mere examination of the comparative numbers, will show that a 
 cord of white birch is 52 per cent, less in value than a cord of shell 
 bark hickory, and the difference per cent, may be calculated from the 
 comparative numbers between any two articles sold at the same price." 
 
 " In like manner the comparative value of a ton of Lehigh coal may 
 be found by the rules of proportion. As 100, the standard of a cord 
 of hickory, is to £6 00, the price of it in the market, so is 99 the com- 
 parative value of this coal for emitting heat, to the answer $5 94,. 
 which shows them to be nearly of the same value, supposing each ar- 
 ticle to be consumed under nearly the same circumstances. 
 
 M The comparison of a ton of Lehigh coal, at seven dollars, with 
 one hundred bushels of Newcastle coal at thirty-five dollars, the price 
 of each description of coal at that time in the Philadelphia market, 
 will give the following result, greatly in favor of the American article. 
 As 99 : $7 00 : : 198 : .914 00,— that is, one hundred bushels of New- 
 castle coal, costing thirty-five dollars, will impart twice as much heat 
 to a room when burned in a close stove, as one ton of Lehigh coal, by 
 which a ton of Lehigh coal at seven dollars, appears to be of equal 
 value, for this purpose, to 50 bushels of Newcastle coal, costing seven- 
 teen dollars and fifty cents. The American coal is therefore actually 
 cheaper, when used for heating rooms by close stoves, than the Eng- 
 lish coal by 150 per cent. 
 
 Indeed the value of anthracite coal for heating rooms by means of 
 close stoves, has been found by experience, so evidently superior in 
 point of economy, to that of other sorts of fuel, that it has already 
 come into very general use. 
 
EXTRACT FROM Mr. BULL'S TABLE. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 l 
 
 ; Product 
 
 iBusheli 
 
 ■ Time 10° of Value of srje 
 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Avoirdu 
 
 -of Char 
 
 -;ofchar- 
 
 ! heat were 
 
 ciiiedquanti 
 
 
 Common names of 
 WoocU and Coale. 
 
 | Gravi- 
 
 ; poise lbs 
 
 .icoalfrorr 
 
 1 coal 
 
 maintained 
 
 
 ; Lies of 
 
 i of dry 
 
 J100 part: 
 
 I from 1 
 
 by the com 
 
 - articli 
 
 
 J Dry 
 
 j wood in 
 
 j of dry 
 
 J cord of 
 
 bustkmofll dwitj 
 
 
 
 Wood. 
 
 one cord 
 
 wood bj 
 
 i dry 
 
 | lb. of each 
 
 ; shell-bark 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 weight. 
 
 w.»od. 
 
 article. 
 
 1 Hickory. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. M. 
 
 Cord. 
 
 
 White Ash, 
 
 .772 
 
 3450 
 
 25.74 
 
 31 
 
 6 40 
 
 77 
 
 
 Apple Tree, 
 
 .697 
 
 3115 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 6 40 
 
 
 
 White Beach, 
 
 .7:24 
 
 3236 
 
 19.62 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 
 Black Birch, 
 
 .697 
 
 3115 
 
 19.40 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 
 White Birch, 
 
 .530 
 
 2369 
 
 19. 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 
 Butter-Nut, 
 
 .507 
 
 2534 
 
 20.79 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 51 
 
 
 Red Cedar, 
 
 .565 
 
 2525 
 
 24.72 
 
 30 
 
 6 40 
 
 56 
 
 
 American Chesnat, 
 
 .522 
 
 2333 
 
 25.29 
 
 27 
 
 6 40 
 
 52 
 
 
 W r ild Cherry, 
 
 .597 
 
 2668 
 
 21.70 
 
 26 
 
 6 10 
 
 55 
 
 
 Dog Wood, 
 
 .815 
 
 3643 
 
 | 21. 
 
 34 
 
 6 10 
 
 75 
 
 
 White Elm, 
 
 .580 
 
 2592 
 
 24.85 
 
 36 
 
 6 40 
 
 58 
 
 
 Shell-Bark Hickory, 
 
 1.000 
 
 4469 
 
 I 26.22 
 
 32 
 
 6 40 
 
 100 
 
 
 Pig-Nut Hickory, 
 
 .949 
 
 4241 
 
 ! 25.22 
 
 32 
 
 6 40 
 
 95 
 
 
 Red-Heart Hickory, 
 
 .829 
 
 3705 
 
 | 22.90 
 
 39 
 
 6 30 
 
 81 
 
 
 Witch-Hazel, 
 
 .784 
 
 3505 
 
 i 21.40 
 
 25 
 
 6 10 
 
 72 
 
 
 American Hornbeam, 
 
 .720 
 
 3218 
 
 19. 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 
 Hard Maple, 
 
 .644 
 
 2878 
 
 21.43 
 
 27 
 
 6 10 
 
 60 
 
 
 Soft Maple, 
 
 .597 
 
 2068 
 
 20.64 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 
 Chesnut W T hite Oak, 
 
 
 3955 
 
 22.76 
 
 36 
 
 6 30 
 
 86 
 
 
 White Oak, 
 
 .855 
 
 3821 
 
 21.62 
 
 39 
 
 6 20 
 
 81 
 
 
 Shell-Bark White Oak, 
 
 .775 
 
 3464 
 
 22.50 
 
 32 
 
 6 20 
 
 74 
 
 
 Barren Scrub Oak, 
 
 .747 
 
 3339 
 
 21.27 
 
 38 
 
 6 30 
 
 73 
 
 
 Pin Oak, 
 
 .747 
 
 3339 
 
 22.22 
 
 32 
 
 6 20 
 
 71 
 
 
 Scrub Black Oak, 
 
 .728 
 
 3254 
 
 23.80 
 
 38 
 
 6 30 
 
 71 
 
 
 Red Oak, 
 
 .788 
 
 3254 
 
 22.43 
 
 30 
 
 6 20 
 
 69 
 
 
 Barren Oak, 
 
 .694 
 
 3102 
 
 22.37 
 
 29j 
 
 6 20 
 
 66 
 
 
 Rock Chesnut Oak, 
 
 .678 
 
 3030 
 
 20.86 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 61 
 
 
 Yellow Oak, 
 
 .653 
 
 2919 
 
 21.60 
 
 41 
 
 6 10 
 
 60 
 
 
 Yellow Pine, (Soft,) 
 
 .551 
 
 2463 
 
 23.75 
 
 33 
 
 6 30 
 
 54 
 
 
 Pitch Pine. 
 
 .426 
 
 1904 
 
 26.76 
 
 33 
 
 6 40 
 
 43 
 
 
 White Pine. 
 
 .418 
 
 
 24.35 
 
 30 
 
 6 40 
 
 42 
 
 
 Yellow Poplar, 
 
 .563 
 
 2516 
 
 21.81 
 
 27 
 
 6 10 
 
 52 
 
 
 Lombardy Poplar, 
 
 .397 
 
 1774 
 
 25. 
 
 34 
 
 6 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 Sassafras, 
 
 .618 
 
 2762 
 
 22.58 
 
 28 
 
 6 20 
 
 59 
 
 
 Sycamore, 
 
 .535 
 
 2391 
 
 23.60 
 
 29 
 
 6 30 
 
 52 
 
 
 Black Walnut, 
 
 .681 
 
 3044 
 
 22.56 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 6 20 
 
 65 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Lbs. or' 
 
 
 
 Gravi- 
 
 dry coal 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 ties of 
 
 in one 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 dry coal; 
 
 bushel. 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 Ton. 
 
 
 Lehigh Coal, 
 
 1.494 
 
 78.61 
 
 
 
 13 10 
 
 99 
 
 
 Lacawaxen Coal, 
 
 1.400 
 
 73.67 
 
 
 
 13 10 
 
 99 
 
 
 Rhode-Island Coal, 
 
 1.438 
 
 75.67 
 
 
 
 9 30 
 
 71 
 
 
 Schuylkill Coal, 
 
 1.453 
 
 76.46 
 
 
 
 13 40 
 
 103 
 
 
 Susquehanna Coal, 
 
 1.373 
 
 72.25 
 
 
 j 
 
 13 X0 
 
 99 
 
 
 Swatara Coal, 
 
 1.459 
 
 76.77 
 
 
 
 11 20 
 
 s 
 
 
 Worcester Coal, 
 
 2.104 
 
 110.71 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 50 
 
 59 
 100 bushels, j 
 
 
 "annel Coal, 
 
 1.240 
 
 65.25 
 
 
 
 10 30 
 
 230 
 
 
 Liverpool Coal, 
 
 1.331 j 
 
 70.04 
 
 
 9 10 
 
 215 
 
 
 Newcastle Coal, 
 
 1.204 j 
 
 63.35 
 
 
 9 20 
 
 198 
 
 
 Scotch Coal, 
 
 1.140 
 
 59.99 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 30 
 
 191 
 
 
 tarthaus Coal, 
 
 1.963 
 
 66.46 
 
 
 
 9 20 
 
 208 
 
 
 iichmond Coal, 
 
 1.246 
 
 65.56 
 
 
 
 9 20 
 
 203 
 
 « 
 
 Stony Creek Coal, 
 
 1.396 
 
 73.46 
 
 
 i 
 
 9 50 
 
 243 
 
 : 
 
 Hckory Charcoal, 
 
 .635 
 
 32.89 
 
 
 t 
 
 16 
 
 136 
 
 
 Maple Charcoal, 
 
 .431 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 114 
 
 
 Dak Charcoal, 
 
 .401 
 
 21.10 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 106 
 
 
 Pine Charcoal, 
 
 385 
 
 15. 
 
 
 * 
 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 
 ?oke, 
 
 .:>:>: 
 
 29.31 
 
 
 
 12 50 
 
 198 
 
 
 Composition of two") 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 parts Lehigh Coal, ! 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 13 30 
 
 
 
 one Charcoal, and f 
 one Clay, by weigrht, J | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
192 FAMILY 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 In the preceding table the weight of the mineral coal is given in its 
 dry state. In ordinary calculations the weight of coals is estimated in 
 the damp state, as commonly used from the mines. The anthracite 
 from its peculiarly close glassy texture, imbibes but little moisture. 
 The weight of a bushel of bituminous coals will generally average 
 nearly one-seventh more when damp than when dry, as stated in Mr. 
 Bull's table. 
 
 A bushel of Richmond coal under ordinary circumstances is suppo- 
 sed to weigh ... 76 lbs. 
 Do. New-Castle Coal, . . about 80 do. 
 Do. Anthracite Coal, ... 81 do. 
 
 Mr. Bull also extended his inquiries into the comparative advantages 
 of close stoves and open fire places for heating the air of his little 
 chamber. He considered that when the same stove and pipe was used, 
 as in his preceding experiments, that the whole heat given out by the 
 burning fuel was imparted to the air of the room, and that there was 
 consequently no loss of heat by the flue or otherwise. Assuming then 
 this stove and long funnel as the standard, he has given the following 
 results : 
 
 Each apparatus required, to maintain the room at the tame temperature, 
 
 and for the same time. 
 Sheet Iron Cylinder Stove, as before described, with 42 ™p& h } 
 feet of 2 inch pipe as used in the course of experiments ° ]b ^ e ' 
 on fuel. . . . . . . j # * 
 
 No. 1. Open Chimney Fire Place, of ordinary construction 
 
 for burning wood. . . . 10. 
 
 2. Open Parlor Grate, of ordinary construction, for 
 burning Anthracite coal, . . . 5.55 
 
 3. Open Franklin Stove, with one elbow joint, and 5 
 
 feet of pipe, diameter 6 inches. . . 2.70 
 
 4. Cast Iron Ten Plate Stove, with one elbow joint 
 
 and 5 feet of pipe. .... 2.22 
 
 5. Sheet Iron Cylinder Sto*e, inside coated with 
 clay with one elbow joint, and five feet of pipe, diam- 
 eter 2 inches. . . . . .1.49 
 
 6. Sheet Iron Cylinder Stove, with 3 elbows and 
 
 13J feet of pipe, diameter 2 inches. . . 1.28 
 
 7. Sheet Iron Cylinder Stove, with 3 elbows and 
 
 13£ feet of pipe, all horizontal. . . 1.22 
 
 8. Sheet Iron Cylinder Stove, with 9 elbows and 
 
 13^ feet of pipe. . . . . 1.05 
 
 The preceding table shows that it costs ten times as much to heat 
 rooms by means of ordinary open fire places, as by close stoves with 
 long pipes or funnels ; and that an open parlor grate comparatively re- 
 quires five times the expense for fuel, and an open Franklin stove near- 
 ly three times the expense, to impart an equal degree of heat to the air 
 of an apartment. 
 
 Some sorts of green wood were found by Mr. Bull to contain 42 per 
 cent, of moisture. In burning 100 lbs. of green wood it is therefore 
 necessary to convert into steam 42 lbs. of water, which must absorb a 
 very considerable proportion of all the heat produced. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 193 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION 
 
 But few persons are aware of the great loss attending the use of 
 green wood, for fuel ; — otherwise more attention would certainly be 
 bestowed in procuring perfectly seasoned wood, not only for boilers 
 and furnaces, but also for purposes of domestic economy. Taking Mr. 
 Bull's statement of the quantity of water contained in green wood at 
 42 per cent, the following calculations will demonstrate how little heat 
 will be actually given out during combustion. It has been before sta- 
 ted that one pound of New -Castle coal is required to convert 6 lbs. of 
 water into steam, and that 2\ lbs. of wood will impart as much heat as 
 one pound of coais. To convert 42 pounds of water into steam will 
 therefore require all the heat produced by the combustion of 17J 
 pounds of wood. Deducting 42 pounds of water from the gross 
 weight of 100 lbs. of green wood leaves but 
 58 lbs. of dry wood. 
 1 1± lbs. of do. required to evaporate 42 lbs. of water. 
 
 4Q£ lbs. of wood only remains from which heat is obtainable. 
 
 Sixty per cent, of the weight of green wood is therefore entirely 
 lost, and it is accordingly found, that unless such wood be kept con- 
 stantly piled upon the hearth, there will not be sufficient heat produ- 
 ced to maintain combustion, and the fire will expire among the black- 
 ened brands. 
 
 The principal objection urged against the use of close stoves is the 
 confined dry air produced by them. It is well known that air, which 
 passes over iron or bricks heated red hot, acquires a disagreeable odor, 
 and produces a harsh sensation upon the lungs, accompanied by a ten- 
 dency to cough. The clay or fire bricks, with which anthracite coal 
 *toves are lined, being slow conductors of heat, are peculiarly well 
 adapted for keeping the external parts of the stove at a temperature 
 which will not have the disagreeable effect upon the air above men- 
 tioned. Whenever the heat of a stove does not exceed 300°, the air is 
 not rendered unpleasant for respiration. On this account steam pipes 
 produce a temperature at once mild and agreeable. 
 
 The objection to the confined and unpleasant air, usually proceeding 
 from close stoves in small apartments, may be in a great measure obvi- 
 ated by introducing the hot air from a stove or furnace placed in the 
 basement of the building. The stove in this case is inclosed by brick- 
 work with an interstice around it for the free circulation of the air, 
 which is admitted to come in contact with the heated sides of it. Af- 
 ter becoming heated the air ascends, and is conveyed by means of flues 
 or pipes to the several apartments, into which it is commonly dischar- 
 ged through an aperture in the wall near the floor. A shutter of soap 
 atone, sliding in a groove, serves to exclude the hot air when not re- 
 quired. Much incovenience and danger sometimes attend the attempts 
 to adapt this apparatus to warming houses not originally calculated 
 for it. The same object may be more economically attained by pla- 
 cing the stove in the principal entry or hall of a dwelling-house. The 
 warm air will diffuse itself through every apartment, which communi- 
 cates with the hall or entry, with surprising regularity. The circula- 
 tion of the currents of warm air into each room may be shown by 
 holding the blaze of a candle near the top of the doorway, and placing 
 another directly under it upon the floor. The uppermost flame will 
 
 R 
 
194 FAMILY 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATING 
 
 be drawn into the apartment by the current of warm air entering, while 
 the cold air rushing out will cause the flame of the lower candle to in- 
 cline in an opposite direction. Several rooms and chambers may thus 
 be rendered comfortably warm by one tire. The stove pipe may be 
 safely conducted through the floors or partitions to the nearest chim- 
 ney, by inserting in them blocks of free stone with circular apertures 
 adapted to the size of the pipe. Should the plan of the dwelling house 
 admit of placing the stove in the basement or cellar immediately be- 
 low the entry, the inconveniences arising from the light dust and ashes, 
 usually attendant upon the burning of anthracite coal, may be also 
 avoided. The stove in this case is inclosed in a sort of brick closet, as 
 before described, with proper apertures for the admission of the cold air, 
 and for supplying the necessary fuel. The aperture in the free stone, 
 let into the floor, must be made not only sufficiently large to admit the 
 pipe, but also to allow about two inches space around it, for the ascent 
 of the warm air. 
 
 Chimnies. A common opinion concerning the ascent of smoke is, 
 that it is drawn up ; but the trulh is, the smoke is pressed up by the 
 cold air, which is coming to tb^ fire place from the room. The warm 
 air rises upon the principle of specific gravity, and carries the smoke 
 with it, although at certain times the smoke may be heaviei than the 
 air itself. The great art then in making a chimney carry smoke well, 
 is to produce this current of air in sufficient force to take off* the smoke. 
 To effect this it is obvious that the funnel should be made as smooth as 
 possible, and should be plastered, and kept free from soot. Various 
 causes have been assigned by Dr. Franklin, Count Rumford and others, 
 which prevent chimnies from conducting smoke well, and the remedies 
 have been pointed out by the same gentlemen. We shall avail our- 
 selves of their suggestions in the following article, as collected and 
 abridged by the Editor of the New England Farmer.* 
 
 Chimneys in new buildings frequently smoke for want of air to sup- 
 ply the current, which should constantly ascend the flue. This is the 
 case when the room is tight, and no passage is left open for the air to 
 enter, except the key-hole, and even that, perhaps, closed by a little 
 dropping shutter. No air can then be had to supply what is called the 
 draught of the chimney. The fire will burn but dimly, and the smoke 
 will be diffused through the apartment. Those, therefore, who stop 
 every crevice in a room to prevent the admission of fresh air, and yet 
 would have their chimney carry smoke, require inconsistencies and ex- 
 pect impossibilities. The remedy, in this case, is to admit more air, 
 with as little inconvenience as possible. 
 
 Another cause why chimneys smoke is the improper dimensions of 
 the throat, or the space immediately over the fire. This space should 
 be so contracted, that the whole current of air may be well heated ; 
 in which case the smoke can hardly fail to ascend. But in order to 
 effect this, it may sometimes be necessary to lower the mantel, so that 
 the opening in the chimney may be brought nearer the fire. A piece 
 of sheet iron or tin, fastened on, and extending somewhat lower than 
 the mantel, will commonly answer this purpose. By lowering the 
 mantel, however, we lose the heat in proportion to the increase of the 
 
 * New England Farmer, Vol. iv. No. 17. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 195 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 draught ; and it is an expedient which should not he adopted, if any 
 other remedy can be conveniently applied. 
 
 Chimneys often smoke in consequence of the shortness of their 
 funnels. The difference of the weight of the heated air within, and 
 the cooler air without the funnel, is the cause of the ascent of smoke, 
 If the funnel be short, the difference will be small, and the draught 
 will of course be slight. 
 
 " This defect is often found in low buildings, or the upper story of 
 high ones, and is not easily avoided ; for if the flue be raised high above 
 the roof to strengthen its draught, it is in danger of being blown down, 
 and crushing the roof beneath it. The remedy in this case is to con- 
 tract the opening of the chimney, (which may be done by lowering the 
 mantel) so as to oblige the entering air to pass through or very near 
 the fire, by which means it will be considerably heated, and by its great 
 rarefaction cause a powerful draught, and compensate for the shortness 
 of its column. The case of too short a funnel is more general than 
 would be imagined, and often found where one would not expect it; 
 for it is not uncommon in ill contrived buildings, instead of having a 
 separate funnel for each fire place, to bend and turn the funnel of an 
 upper room so as to make it enter the side of another flue that comes 
 from below. By this means the funnel of the upper room is made 
 short of course, since its length can only be reckoned from the place 
 where it enters the lower funnel, and that flue is also shortened by all 
 the distance between the entrance of the second funnel and the top of 
 the stack ; for all that part being readily supplied with air through the 
 second flue, adds no strength to the draught, especially as that air is 
 cold when there is no fire in the second chimney. The only easy rem- 
 edy here, is to keep the opening shut of that flue in which there is no 
 fire. 
 
 Another very common cause of the smoking of chimneys is, their 
 overpowering one another. For instance, if there be two chimneys in 
 one large room, and you make fires in both of them you will find that 
 the greater and stronger fire will overpower the weaker, and draw air 
 down its funnel to supply its own demand, which air descending in 
 the weaker funnel will drive down its smoke, and force it into the room. 
 If, instead of being in one room, the two chimneys are in two different 
 rooms communicating by a door, the case is the same whenever the 
 door is open. The remedy is, to take care that every room have the 
 means of supplying itself from without, with the air its chimney may 
 require, so that no one of them may be obliged to borrow from anoth- 
 er, nor under the necessity of lending. 
 
 Another cause of smoking is, when the tops of chimneys are com- 
 manded by higher buildings or by a hill, so that the wind blowing over 
 such eminences falls like water over a dam, sometimes almost perpen- 
 dicularly on the tops of chimneys that lie in its way and beats down 
 the smoke contained in them. The remedy commonly applied in this 
 case is, a turn-cap made of tin or plate -iron, covering the chimney 
 above and on three sides, open on one side, turning on a spindle, and 
 which being guided or governed by a vane, always presents its back to 
 the wind. This method will generally be found effectual, but if not, 
 raising the flues where practicable, so as their tops may be on a level 
 
196 FAMILY 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION, 
 
 with or higher than the commanding eminence, is more to be depended 
 on. 
 
 There is another case, in which the eminence is to the leeward of the 
 chimney. Suppose the chimney to be so situated that its top is below 
 the lovel of the ridge of the roof, which, when the wind blows against 
 it, forms a kind of dam against its progress. In this case the wind 
 being obstructed by this dam, will like water, press and search for pas- 
 sages through it, and finding the top of the chimney below the top of 
 the dam or ridge, it will force itself down that funnel and if there be a 
 fire in such chimney its smoke is of course beat down and fills the 
 room. The only remedy for this inconvenience is to raise the funnel 
 higher than the roof, supporting it, if necessary, by iron bars ; for a 
 turn- cap in this, case has no effect, the impeded air passing down 
 through it in whatever position the wind may have placed its opening. 
 
 Chimneys otherwise drawing well sometimes smoke in consequence 
 of the improper situation of a door. When the door and chimney are 
 placed on the same side of a room, if the door is made to open from 
 the chimney, and only partly opened, a current of air is admitted and 
 directed across the opening of the chimney, which is apt to draw out 
 some of the smoke. 
 
 Chimneys, which generally draw well, do nevertheless sometimes 
 give smoke into the room, it being driven down by strong wind pas- 
 sing over the tops of their flues, though not descending from any com- 
 manding eminence. To understand this, it may be considered that the 
 rising light air, to obtain a free issue from the funnel, must push out of 
 its way, or oblige the air that is over it to rise. In a time of calm, or 
 of little wind, this is done visibly ; for we see the smoke that is brought 
 up by that air rise in a column above the chimney. But when a vio- 
 lent current of wind passes over the top of a chimney, its particles 
 have received so much force, which keeps them in a horizontal direc- 
 tion, and follow each other so rapidly, that the rising light air has not 
 strength sufficient to oblige them to quit that direction, and move up- 
 wards to permit its issue. Add to this, that some of the air may im- 
 pinge on that part of the inside of the funnel which is opposed to its 
 progress, and be thence reflected downwards from side to side, driving 
 the smoke before it into the room. The simplest and best remedy in 
 this case is the application of a chimney-pot which is a hollow trunca- 
 ted cone of earthen ware placed upon the top of the flue. The inten- 
 tion of this contrivance is, that the wind and eddies which strike 
 against the oblique surface of these covers may be reflected upwards 
 instead of blowing down the chimney. The remarkable chimneys 
 observed at Venice, in which the top of the flue is larged and rounded 
 in the shape of a funnel, seem also intended as a remedy to this incon- 
 venience, that the wind blowing over one of the edges into the funnel 
 may be slanted out again on the other side by its form." 
 
 Other causes which occasion chimneys to smoke might be added ; 
 but for an account of these we would refer our readers to Rees' Cyclo- 
 pedia, article " Chimney" and also to the philosophical papers of Dr» 
 Franklin and Count Rumford. 
 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 197 
 
 TELEGRAPH. 
 
 COiMxMUNICATION. 
 
 Telegraph, literally means that which writes, or is used for wri- 
 ting, at a distance ; and is the term applied to an apparatus used, for 
 some time past, by several European governments to convey informa- 
 tion to distant places almost instantaneously. Although this invention 
 was only brought into use during the late French Revolution, some sort 
 of telegraphic intelligence was, it is said, known to the Greeks. The 
 Marquis of Worcester, in 1663, mentions a kind of telegraph^in his 
 " Century of Inventions," but it was reserved for our own times to ren- 
 der such a mode of communication at once speedy and correct. The 
 modern telegraph, first used by the French in 1794, by M. Chappe, 
 was thus exercised ; at the first station, which was on the roof of the 
 Louvre, he received in writing, from the committee of public safety, 
 the words to be sent to Lisle, near which the French army at that 
 time was. An upright post was erected at the Louvre ; at the top of 
 this were two transverse arms moveable in all directions with much ra- 
 pidity. The different positions of these arms* stood as signs for tha 
 letters of the alphabet. Having received the sentence to be conveyed, 
 he gave a signal to the second station to prepare. At each station was 
 a watch tower on which telescopes were fixed, and the person on the 
 watch gave the signal of preparation which he had received, which 
 was communicated successively through all the line. The person at 
 the second station then received letter by letter the sentence from the 
 Louvre, which he repeated by his own machine, and thus throughout 
 the whole line of stations it was repeated with almost inconceivable 
 rapidity to the final station at Lisle. 
 
 The most common telegraph in England was, till lately, composed of 
 six moveable boards about three feet square each, turned by means of 
 ropes, so as to exhibit twenty-four different characters, and nine figures; 
 such a telegraph was for many years at the Admiralty, at Whitehall ; 
 but for some time past another telegraphic method has been adopted 
 there ; it consists of a tall pole, or hollow cylinder with projecting 
 arms that can be moved and withdrawn at pleasure. 
 
 The principal line of telegraphs in the United States, it is believed, 
 is in the city of New York, from the Exchange, in Wall street to 
 Sandy-hook. " It consists of a pole," says the author of the picture of 
 New York, " rising from the cupola, with two arms, with which 12 
 different positions can be assumed, the first ten to represent the nine 
 digits and the cypher, the eleventh as a separater of words and senten- 
 ces, and the twelfth to excite attention. 
 
 The marine or ship signals are thirteen in number, the first also 
 standing for the digits and cypher, and the other three denominated 
 first, second, and third repeaters. The object of the repeaters is to 
 obviate the necessity of duplicates and triplicates of the same signal. 
 
 A dictionary of the signals is printed. It is divided into five parte, 
 the first embracing all the questions and replies requisite between ves- 
 sels and telegraphic stations, together with the alphabet and points of 
 the compass, and occupying the numbers from 1 to 1000 ; the second 
 part containing sea phrases ; the third part consists of a vocabulary of 
 all the words in the language essential to be used. The fourth is a list 
 
198 FAMILY 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET. 
 
 of vessel's names ; and the fifth a list of countries, ports, cities, and 
 harbors. 
 
 Much utility has been already derived from the marine signals, by 
 enabling ships to communicate with each other at sea; and on ap- 
 proaching the shore, with the land telegraphs." 
 
 Deaf and Dumb Alphabet. The present is emphatically denom- 
 inated the age of benevolence and improvement ; and perhaps in noth- 
 ing are these features more strikingly manifested, than in the institu- 
 tions which are founding in the various civilized and enlightened coun- 
 tries of the globe, and which are designed to contribute to the welfare, 
 and exalt the condition of mankind — especially the unfortunate portion 
 of it. To this class certainly belong the dumb and deaf, and a more 
 numerous class they are, than perhaps any of our readers are aware, 
 who may not have turned their attention to the subject. In some of 
 the countries of Europe, it is estimated that there is one deaf mute to 
 1500 or 1700 inhabitants. In the United States, the proportion is 
 thought to be one to every 2000 ; or 1000 for every 2,000,000 inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 To pour light into these darkened minds — to form them for useful- 
 ness in society — and especially to guide them in the way of " life eter- 
 nal," must be worthy of the philanthropist and the Christian. This 
 attempt has been made, and with great success. There are not less 
 than 8 1 establishments for deaf mutes in Europe — 62 of which have 
 been established within the last 30 years. Most of these are conduct- 
 ed according to the system of De 1'Epe'e and Sicard, who may be con- 
 sidered as the founders of the modern art. 
 
 Within a few years, the system of these men has been introduced 
 into the United States, by the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, aided by 
 Mr. Laurent Clerc, a distinguished pupil of Sicard. Important im- 
 provements, it is understood, have been made by Mr. Gallaudet, and 
 such results produced as " have excited surprise in Europe, and have 
 even been declared to be utterly improbable from their superiority to 
 those usually produced." Several institutions growing out of that 
 originally established under the auspices of Mr. Gallaudet and others 
 at Hartford, have been projected, and are now in operation in other 
 parts of the United States — all of which have adopted the system of 
 the parent institution. The mode of spelling words is by means of 
 the hand and figures, according to the cuts subjoined : 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 199 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET. 
 
 m 
 
200 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 k 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 201 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 PART VIII. 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 Of GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Society. Men either tacitly, or by consent, have, in all ages, asso- 
 ciated together for their pleasure, or their convenience ; hence it has 
 been laconically but aptly stated, that the origin of society is our wants. 
 Whether in the earlier ages of the world formal contracts were entered 
 into in regard to mutual association, cannot now be known ; but there 
 can be no doubt that a conviction of the weakness of individual effort 
 to promote human happiness first led to the union of the efforts of 
 numbers, for its more complete accomplishment The first and most 
 probable association was that of persons of the same family ; as fami- 
 lies multiplied, their relationship of consanguinity decreased in inten- 
 sity, and social relations, independently of blood, necessarily and 
 naturally grew up. This appears to be in perfect accordance with the 
 revealed accounts of the primitive origin of mankind, where single 
 families formed the first society among themselves, which every day 
 extended its limits ; and when it grew too large to subsist w T ith con- 
 venience in that pastoral state, in which the patriarchs appear to have 
 lived, it necessarily subdivided itself by various migrations. After- 
 wards, as agriculture increased, migrations became less frequent ; and 
 various tribes, which had formerly separated, re-united ; sometimes 
 by compulsion and conquest, sometimes by accident, and sometimes 
 perhaps by compact. But though society had not its formal beginning 
 from any convention of individuals actuated by their wants, yet it is a 
 sense o£ their weakness and imperfection that keeps mankind togeth- 
 er ; that demonstrates the necessity of this union ; and that, therefore, 
 is the solid and natural foundation, as well as the cement of society. 
 This is what is meant by the original contract of society ; which, 
 though perhaps in no instance ever formally expressed at the first in- 
 stitution of a state, yet in nature and reason it must always be under- 
 stood and implied in the very act of associating together, that the 
 whole should protect all its parts, and that every part should pay obedienct 
 to the will of the whole; or, in other words, that the community should 
 guard the rights of each individual member, and that in return for this 
 protection, each individual should submit to the laws of the commu- 
 nity. 
 
 Government. As society arises from our wants, so arises govern- 
 ment from our errors, vices, and crimes. Were man a perfect being he 
 would not need government. Individual security and happiness being 
 the true end and design of government, whatever form insures it with 
 the least expense, consistent also with the general security and happi- 
 ness, is to be preferred. Government being therefore necessary for 
 the preservation of social order, it is obvious that the exercise of it 
 
202 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLICY, 
 
 should be committed to persons in whom those qualities are most likely 
 to be found, the perfection of which is among the attributes of him, 
 who is emphatically styled the Supreme Being ; namely, wisdom, 
 goodness, and power : wisdom, to discern the real interest of the com- 
 munity ; goodness, to endeavor always to pursue that real interest ; 
 and strength, or power, to carry this knowledge and intention into ac- 
 tion. These are the natural foundations of sovereignty ; and these 
 are the requisites that ought to be found in every well-constituted 
 government. 
 
 Different Forms of Government. The political writers of an- 
 tiquity will not allow above three regular forms of government ; the 
 first, where the sovereign power is lodged in an aggregate assembly 
 consisting of all the members of a community, is called democracy ; 
 the second, where it is lodged in a council composed of select members, 
 when it is styled aristocracy ; the last, where it is intrusted to the hands 
 of a single person, and then it takes the name of monarchy. All oth- 
 er species of government, they say, are either corruptions of, or reduci- 
 ble to these three. By sovereign power is meant that which makes and 
 executes, or directs the execution of the laws. Wherever this power 
 resides, all others must conform to, and be directed by it. For it is 
 always at the option of such power to alter the form and administra- 
 tion by new laws, and to put the execution of the laws generally into 
 whatever hands it pleases ; and all the other powers of the state must, 
 of course, obey it in the execution of their several functions, or else 
 the constitution is at an end. 
 
 In a Democracy, where the right of making laws resides in the peo- 
 ple at large, public virtue, or goodness of intention, is more likely to be 
 found than in either of the other forms of government. Popular as- 
 semblies are, however, frequently weak in their plans, and slow in their 
 execution ; though they generally mean to do the thing that is right 
 and just, and have always a certain degree of patriotism or public 
 spirit. 
 
 In Aristocracies there is more coolness and deliberation than in, per- 
 haps, any other form of government ; and from their being composed 
 usually of the richest members of the state, they have opportunities 
 for the acquisition of knowledge, which are denied to the ordinary 
 citizen ; yet, from the absence of motive to excite their intellects, it 
 does not ordinarily follow that the aristocracy constitutes the wisest 
 portion of a state ; the persons composing the aristocracy are, besides 
 generally removed by their situation, from that sympathy necessary to 
 enable them to consult, without prejudice, the interests of the main 
 body of the people ; and hence of all forms of government, aristocra- 
 cy appears to be the worst. 
 
 An absolute monarchy is the most powerful of any ; and, provided 
 it were possible to have a perfect man as a monarch, we could not hes- 
 itate as to the choice between these three kinds of government. As, 
 however, an absolute monarch is very likely to employ his power to the 
 great injury of a state, such a government cannot be approved. 
 
 State Governments. The several state governments included 
 within the United States are representative republics, inasmuch as the 
 people are governed by those whom they choose to represent them. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 2M 
 
 CIVIL POLICY. 
 
 And all these governments have written constitutions, excepting the 
 state of Rhode Island, where the government is still administered 
 according to the provisions of its ancient colonial charter. It is pro- 
 posed to exhibit the prominent features of the respective constitutions 
 of the States, with the more obvious peculiarities of each. 
 
 Maixe. The constitution of this State was formed in 1819; but 
 did not go into operation, until 1820. 
 
 Legislature. This consists of a Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives, the members of which are chosen annually, on the second Mon- 
 day in September. Meeting at Portland, on the first Wednesday in 
 January. The number of Senators cannot be less than twenty, nor 
 more than thirty-one. Number of Representatives, not less than one 
 hundred, nor more than two hundred. The qualifications for repre- 
 sentatives are, citizenship for five years, and residence in the State one 
 year. Senators must possess like qualifications, and be twenty-five 
 years of age. 
 
 Executive. The executive power is vested in a governor, chosen 
 annually by the people, on the second Monday in September. He 
 must have the same qualifications as Senators, and be thirty years of 
 age. A council of seven, chosen annually by joint ballot of the Senate 
 and Representatives. The Executive has the power of appointment 
 and pardon, and a qualified negative on acts of the Legislature, as in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Judiciary. The judicial power resides in a Supreme Judicial Court, 
 and county Courts. Judges appointed by the governor and council — 
 hold their office during good behavior; but are disqualified at the age 
 of seventy. 
 
 Rizht of suffrage. The right of suffrage is nearly universal ; being 
 granted to all male citizens of twenty one years of age and upwards, 
 who have resided in the State for three. months next preceding the 
 election. Paupers, persons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed, 
 are excepted. 
 
 New Hampshire. Constitution established in 1784; altered and 
 amended in 1792. 
 
 Legislature. Consists of two branches — House of Representatives 
 and Senate, styled the General Court of New Hampshire. Representa- 
 tives are chosen by towns, at the rate of one representative to one 
 hundred and fifty polls; three hundred additional polls entitle to an- 
 other representative. Representatives must have been inhabitants two 
 vears ; have an estate of one hundred pounds, half of which must be 
 freehold. The Senate consists of twelve. Persons to be eligible to the 
 Senate must have a freehold of two hundred pounds; be thirty years 
 of age, and have resided in the State seven years. They are chosen 
 by districts. 
 
 Executive. The executive consists of a Governor, who must have 
 resided in the State seven years, and have an estate of five hundred 
 pounds, one half freehold, and a council of five, elected by the people. 
 Powers and duties as in Maine. Annual election, at which the Gover- 
 nor, Council, Senators, and Representatives are chosen, second Tues- 
 
204 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLICY. 
 
 day in March. Meetings of the General Court at Concord first 
 Wednesday in June. 
 
 Judiciary. As in Maine. 
 
 Right of Suffrage. Granted to all males of twenty one years of age 
 and upwards, excepting paupers, and persons excused from paying 
 taxes at their special request. 
 
 Vermont. The first constitution of Vermont was framed in 1777 ; 
 the present constitution was adopted in 1793. 
 
 Legislature. The legislative power is vested in a House of Repre- 
 sentative, styled the General Assembly of Vermont. Each town send)* 
 one Representative. Election annual, on the first Tuesday in Sep- 
 tember. Seat of government at Montptlier. Meeting second Tuesday 
 of October. The qualifications of Representatives are two years resi- 
 dence in the State. 
 
 Executive. Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and a Council of 
 twelve persons, all chosen annually by the people. The Executive 
 commission all officers, try impeachments, revise and propose amend- 
 ments to the laws, and can suspend a proposed law until the next 
 General Assembly. 
 
 Judiciary. A Supreme Court, consisting of three Judges, and a 
 county Court of three Judges for each county. Judges, sheriffs, and 
 justices of the peace, may be elected annually by the General Assembly. 
 
 Council of Censors. Once in seven years a Council of Censors is 
 chosen, consisting of thirteen persons, whose duty it is to examine'the 
 various departments of the government, and to inquire whether they 
 have faithfully discharged their duty, according to the constitution, &c. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This extends to all males of twenty-one years of 
 age and upwards, who have resided one year in the State next preced- 
 ng the election, and are of a " quiet and peaceable behavior." 
 
 Massachusetts. The constitution of this State was formed in 
 1780, and altered and amended in 182L 
 
 Legislature. This consists of a Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives, styled the General Court of Massachusetts* Qualifications of Re- 
 presentatives, residence one year in the town, in which they are chosen, 
 and a freehold of one hundred pounds, or a taxable estate of two hun- 
 dred pounds. Senators must have resided five years in the district in 
 which they are chosen — have a freehold of three hundred pounds, or 
 a taxable estate of six hundred pounds. The Senate consists of forty 
 members, chosen annually. One hundred and fifty ratable polls enti- 
 tles a town to one Representative, and two hundred and twenty-five 
 additional ratable polls to another. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, elected annually by the people, on the first 
 Monday of April, and a Council of nine members, chosen from the 
 Senators, by the joint ballot of the General Court. If any, or all the 
 Council, thus chosen, decline the appointment, the deficiency is sup- 
 plied from the people at large. A Lieutenant Governor is elected at 
 the same time with Governor. Both these must have been seven 
 years resident in the State and have a freehold of one thousand pounds. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 205 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 Judiciary. A Supreme Court, Court of Common Pleas, &c. The 
 Judges are appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice and 
 consent of his council. They hold their offices during good behavior. 
 
 Right of suffrage. Every male citizen twenty-one years of age and 
 upwards, paupers and persons under guardianship excepted, has the 
 right of suffrage, provided he has resided within the Commonwealth 
 one year, and within the town or district in which he may claim a right 
 to vote, six calendar months, next preceding any election, and who has 
 paid a State or county tax assessed upon him within two years, next 
 preceding such election, and also every citizen, who may be by law 
 exempted from taxation, and who may be, in all other respects qualified 
 as above mentioned. 
 
 Connecticut. The colonial charter granted by Charles II. in 1662 
 was the basis of the government till the year 1818, when the present 
 constitution was adopted. 
 
 Legislature. This consists of a Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives,"styled the General Assembly of Connecticut. The Senate must 
 consist of not less than eighteen, nor more than twenty-four members, 
 chosen by districts. Members of the House of Representatives are 
 chosen by towns; old towns elect two ; newly incorporated towns but 
 one. Annual election first Monday in April. Stated annual sef 
 of the General Assembly first Wednesday in May, alternately at Hart- 
 ford and at New Haven. 
 
 Executive. A Governor chosen annually by the people, on the first 
 Monday in April. He must be an elector, and have arrived at the age 
 of thirty years. All commissions issued in the name and by the au- 
 thority of the State, receive his signature. He has a qualified nega- 
 tive upon the acts of the General Assembly. He has power to grant 
 reprieves, but cannot pardon, that power residing in the General As- 
 sembly. The Lieutenant Governor is President of the Senate. 
 
 Judiciary. A Supreme Court of Errors, a Superior Court, and 
 other Courts as the General Assembly may establish. AH Judges are 
 appointed by the General Assembly. Those of the Supreme and Su- 
 perior Courts hold their offices during good behavior, but are disquali- 
 fied at the age of seventy. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This extends to all white males of twenty- one 
 years of age and upwards, who are resident citizens for six months, 
 and have a freehold of seven dollars yearly value, or who shall have 
 perfomed military duty for one year, or paid a tax, provided they sus- 
 tain a gfood moral character. 
 
 Rhode Island. This state is without a written constitution ; and 
 in this respect forms an exception to the other States of the Union. 
 The government of this State is administered according to the charier 
 granted to the colony by Charles II. in 1663. 
 
 Legislature. A General Assembly composed of a Senate and House 
 ofRepresentatives. The latter consists of seventy-two members, six 
 from Newport, four from each of the towns of Providence, Portsmouth, 
 and Warwick, and two from each of the other towns in the State. 
 Election semi-annual, in April and August. The Senate consists of 
 ten members. Election annual in April. 
 
 S 
 
206 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 Executive. A Governor elected annually in April. Powers very 
 limited. In case of his disability, the executive duties devolve on a 
 Lieutenant Governor. 
 
 Judiciary. A Supreme Court and Courts of Common Pleas ; the 
 latter established in the several counties. Judges appointed annually 
 by the General Assembly, which meets four times a year ; first at 
 Newport, in May, and at the same place in June. In October alter- 
 nately at Providence and South Kingston ; and by adjournment in 
 January at East Greenwich, Bristol, or Providence. 
 
 New York. This State adopted a constitution in 1777, which was 
 amended in 1801. A new constitution was framed in 1821. 
 
 Legislature. The legislative rtower is vested in a House of Repre- 
 sentatives and a Senate, the members of the former of which must be 
 citizens resident for a certain time, and cannot exceed one hundred and 
 twenty-eight in number. The members of the Assembly are chosen by 
 the counties, and are apportioned according to the population. The 
 Senate consists of thirty-two members, who are chosen in eight dis- 
 tricts ; one is elected in each district every year. The annual election 
 is held sometime in the month of October or November. Meeting of 
 the Legislature first Tuesday in January, at Albany. 
 
 Executive. The executive power is vested in a Governor, who is 
 chosen every two years. Pie must be a native citizen — a freeholder 
 and resident in the State five years, and must have attained to the age 
 of thirty years. He has the right of nominating judicial and executive 
 officers to the Senate — has a qualified negative upon the acts of the 
 Legislature, and the power of pardoning, except in cases of treason. A 
 Lieutenant Governor is elected at the same time with the Governor, 
 and in case of the impeachment, resignation, death, or absence of the 
 latter, assumes the government. He is President of the Senate. 
 
 Judiciary, This branch of the government comprises too many 
 tribunals to admit of a particular notice of each. The Chancellor and 
 all the Judges of the State receive their appointment from the Gover- 
 nor, with the consent of the Senate. The Chancellor and Justices of 
 the Supreme and Circuit Courts retain their offices during good beha- 
 vior, but are disqualified at sixty years of age. Judges of the county 
 Courts or Courts of Common Plea^, are appointed for five years. 
 Justices of the Peace are chosen by the people in their respective towns, 
 once in four years, but if a Justice becomes an inn-holder, he is thereby 
 disqualified. 
 
 Right of suffrage. In the constitution adopted by this State in 1821, 
 the right of suffrage, in the election of public officers, was granted to 
 every white male citizen of the age of twenty- one years, who should 
 be an inhabitant of the State one year preceding any election, and for 
 the preceding six months a resident in the county, where he should 
 offer his vote ; but in November, 1826, this rule was set aside, and the 
 principle of universal suffrage adopted. Free colored people only must 
 be freeholders to be electors. 
 
 New" Jersey. The constitution of New Jersey was formed in the 
 year 1776, since which it has continued without alteration to the pre- 
 sent time, except that the word Colony has been changed to State ; but 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 207 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 the legislature has at various times explained its provisions in relation 
 to particular parts. 
 
 Legislature. This body in New Jersey comprises the Governor, 
 Legislative Council, and General Assembly. The General Assembly 
 consisted, until 1829, of forty-three members, but in that year seven 
 members were added. All the members of the General Assembly, as 
 well as the members of the Legislative Council, are elected annually, 
 on the second Tuesday of October. The number of this latter body is 
 fourteen, one from each county. These must be worth at least one 
 thousand pounds each. Members of the Assembly must be worth five 
 hundred pounds. Meeting of the Legislature annually, on the fourth 
 Tuesday in October, at Trenton. 
 
 Executive. A Governor is chosen by the Council and Assembly, 
 annually, in joint ballot. The Governor presides in the Council; but 
 a Vice President is chosen from the Council, who presides in the Go- 
 vernor's absence. The Governor exercises the office of Chancellor, of 
 Military Chief, &c. With the Council, he forms a court of appeals, 
 and in them the power of pardoning criminals after condemnation is 
 vested. 
 
 Judiciary. A Supreme Court and the usual Inferior Courts. 
 Judges receive their appointment from the Legislature, those of the 
 supreme court for seven years ; those of the lower courts for five years. 
 
 Right of suffrage. The language of the constitution on this point is 
 " That all persons of full age shall have a right to vote, who are worth 
 fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in the same, and have 
 resided in the county in which they claim to vote for twelve months 
 immediately preceding the election." By a special act of the Legisla- 
 ture every white male inhabitant, of lawful age, and who had paid a 
 tax, is considered worth fifty pounds, and therefore entitled to vote. 
 
 Pennsylvania. The first constitution of Pennsylvania was adopted 
 in 1776 : the present in 1790, and has not since been altered. 
 
 Legislature. Senate and House of Representatives compose the 
 General Assembly, in which the legislative power resides. The an- 
 nual election of representatives is on the second Tuesday in October. 
 Number of Representatives not less than sixty nor more than one 
 hundred, chosen by districts. The qualifications which are necessary 
 to a seat are, twenty-five years of age, citizenship and residence. The 
 number of Senators shall never be less than one quarter, nor greater 
 than one third, the number of Representatives. They are chosen for 
 four years, one quarter being elected annually. Senators must be 
 twenty-five years of age, and have been citizens and inhabitants four 
 years, before they are elected, and the last year inhabitants of the dis- 
 trict in which they are elected. Annual meeting of the General As- 
 sembly, first Tuesday in December. 
 
 Executive. A Governor elected by the people, on the second Tues- 
 day in October ; holds his office three years, and can be chosen only 
 thrice in twelve years. Nearly all officers are appointed_,by him. 
 There is no Lieutenant Governor ; but the President of the Senate 
 succeeds in case a vacancy occurs in the office of Governor. The 
 Governor must be thirty years of age, and have been a citizen and 
 resident of the State seven years next before his election. He may 
 grant reprieves and pardons, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
208 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY 
 
 Judiciary. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, in 
 Courts of Oyer and Terminer^ and general Gaol delivery ; in a Court 
 of Common Pleas, Orphan's Court, Register's Court, and a Court of 
 Quarter Sessions of the Peace, and in such other courts as the Legis- 
 lature may from time to time establish. Judges receive their appoint- 
 ment from the Governor, and hold their office during good behavior. 
 They may, however, be removed on impeachment, or on address to 
 the Governor by two thirds of the legislature. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This pertains to citizens of the age of twenty-one 
 years, who have resided in the State two years next before the election, 
 and within that time paid a State or county tax assessed at least six 
 months before the election. 
 
 Delaware. The constitution of this State was adopted in 1792, 
 since which time it has not been materially altered. 
 
 Legislature. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly, 
 consisting of a Seriate and House of Representatives. The Represen- 
 tatives are chosen annually, and consist of seven from each county, or 
 twenty-one in the whole. Senators are chosen for three years ; three 
 from each county, or nine in the whole. One from each county is 
 chosen annually. Representatives must be twenty-four years of age, 
 have a freehold in the county, and have been citizens and inhabitants 
 of the State for three years next preceding the election. Senators 
 must be of the age of twenty-seven years, with a freehold of two 
 hundred acres of land, or personal property to the amount of one 
 thousand pounds. Annual meeting of the General Assembly, on the 
 first Tuesday in January, at Dover. 
 
 Executive. Governor elected by the people for three years ; but 
 cannot hold the office more than three years in six. He must be at 
 least thirty-six years of age, have been a citizen and inhabitant of the 
 United States twelve years, and the last six an inhabitant of that 
 State. He has the power of appointing all officers, and the power of 
 pardoning, except in impeachments. 
 
 Judiciary. The same as in Pennsylvania, with the addition of a 
 Court of Chancery. The Chancellor and Judges of the Supreme 
 Court and Court of Common Pleas, hold their office during good be- 
 havior, but may be removed, as in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Right of suffrage. The same as in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Maryland. The constitution of this state was adopted in 1776. It 
 has undergone various amendments. It grants the singular power of 
 amending the constitution to the Legislature, independently of the 
 express vote of the people. 
 
 Legislature. This consists of two distinct branches, a Senate of 
 fifteen members, and a house of Delegates of eighty members, which 
 united, are styled the General Assembly of Maryland. Senators are 
 chosen every fifth year by Electors, who are chosen by the people a 
 year before hand. Senators must be twenty-five years of age, and 
 have resided three years next preceding the election in the State. De- 
 legates must be citizens, and have resided in the State one year next 
 preceding the election. The latter are chosen annually by the people. 
 Meeting on the last Monday of December. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 209 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 Executive. Governor elected annually on the first Monday of Jan- 
 uary, by a joint ballot of both houses of the General Assembly. He 
 may be chosen successively for three years, and is then ineligible for 
 four years. He must be of the age of twenty-five years, and have 
 been a resident citizen for five years. He is assisted by a Council of 
 five members, chosen annually by joint ballot of the Senate and House 
 of Delegates. The Governor nominates to office, and the Council 
 appoints. 
 
 Judiciary. The Chancellor and Judges are appointed by the Go- 
 vernor and Council, and may be removed by address of two thirds of 
 the Legislature, and by conviction on an indictment in a court of justice. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This pertains to every free white male citizen of 
 the State above twenty-one years of age, who has resided twelve 
 months in the State, and six months in the county, or in the city of 
 Baltimore or Annapolis, next preceding the election at which he offers 
 to vote. 
 
 Virginia. The first constitution of this State was formed in 1776. 
 An amended constitution was adopted by a Convention on the four- 
 teenth of January, 1B30, and has gone into operation the present year, 
 1831. 
 
 Legislature. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly, 
 composed of a Senate and House of Delegates. The number of the 
 former is thirty-two, chosen from two districts, into which the State is 
 divided. They are elected for four years. One fourth are annually 
 renewed by popular election. The House of Delegates consists of 
 one hundred and thirty-four members, apportioned in four districts — 
 chosen annually by the people. Members of both Houses must be 
 freeholders. Their meeting is annual, but the time is to be fixed by 
 the General Assembly. After the year 1841, the number of Delegates 
 may be one hundred and fifty and the Senators thirty- six. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, elected by a joint vote of the two Houses 
 of the General Assembly — holds his office for three years, can be 
 elected but once in six years, must be of the age of thirty, &c. He is 
 assisted by a Council of three, chosen as the Governor is, the senior of 
 whom is Lieutenant Governor. 
 
 Judiciary. The Judges of the Supreme Court of Appeals, and of the 
 Superior Courts are elected as is the Governor — hold their offices dur- 
 ing good behavior, but may be removed on address, or impeachment. 
 
 Right of suffrage. The law on this subject is so constructed as to 
 make this right nearly universal. " Every white male citizen of the 
 Commonwealth, of the age of twenty-one, resident therein, has the 
 right, who is qualified according to the former constitution and laws ; 
 or who owns a freehold of the value of tw T enty-five dollars ; or who has 
 a joint interest to the amount of twenty- five dollars in a freehold ; or 
 who has a life estate in, or a reversionary title to, land of the value 
 of fifty dollars, having been so possessed for six months ; or who 
 shall own and be in actual occupation of a lease-hold estate, having 
 the title recorded two months before he shall offer to vote — of a term 
 originally not less than five years, and of the annual value or rent of 
 two hundred dollars, or who for twelve months before offering to vote, 
 
 s* 
 
210 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 has been a house-keeper and head of a family, and shall have been 
 assessed with a part of the revenue of the Commonwealth, within the 
 preceding year, and actually paid the same." 
 
 North Carolina. The constitution of North Carolina was framed 
 in 1776, and has never been amended, and is silent as to any provi- 
 sions for amendment. 
 
 Legislature. A General Assembly composed of a Senate and House 
 of Commons, both elected annually by the people. Each of the sixty- 
 two counties in the State sends one Senator, and two Delegates, and 
 the towns of Edenton, Newbern, Wilmington, Salisbury, Hillsbo- 
 rough, and Halifax, send one. Senators and Representatives must be 
 freeholders, and been residents one year. 
 
 Executive. Governor chosen annually by a joint vote of the two 
 Houses — is eligible for three years only in six — must be a freeholder, 
 thirty years of age, and a resident five years. He is assisted by a 
 Council of seven, chosen annually by the General Assembly. The 
 executive have the power of pardon. They may be removed by im- 
 peachment, and what may be considered singular, by presentment of a 
 grand jury. 
 
 Judiciary. The Judges of the higher Courts are appointed by the 
 General Assembly, and hold their office during good behavior. They 
 may be removed on impeachment, or indictment. 
 
 Right of suffrage. To vote for a member of the House of Commons, 
 a freeman must be of the age of twenty-one years, and have resided in 
 the State twelve months immediately preceding the election. To vote 
 for Senator, he must in addition, possess a freehold of 50 acres of land. 
 
 South Carolina. A constitution was adopted by this state in 1775 ; 
 the present constitution was adopted in 1790. This latter has been 
 twice amended, first in 1808, and again in 1816. 
 
 Legislature. A general assembly consisting of a Senate and House 
 of Representatives. The former consists of 45 members, chosen in 
 election districts for four years, one half renewed biennially. The lat- 
 ter consists of 124 members, elected for two years, and are chosen by 
 districts. Senators must be resident citizens for five years, 30 years 
 of age and freeholders ; Representatives must be resident citizens for 
 three years. Meeting of the general assembly annually at Columbia, 
 fourth Monday in November. 
 
 Executive. Governor, elected by the general assembly for two years 
 — re eligible after four years — must be a freeholder — a citizen resident 
 for ten years — 30 years of age. He has the power of pardoning. A 
 Lieutenant Governor of like qualifications is chosen in the same man- 
 ner, and for the same period ; but has no power, or duty, unless a va- 
 cancy happens in the office of Governor. 
 
 Judiciary. The Judicial power is vested in superior and inferior 
 courts of law and equity. The Chancellor and Judges are chosen by 
 the general assembly in joint ballot, and hold their office during good 
 behavior. 
 
 Right of Suffrage. This is granted to every free, white male citi- 
 zen, of the age of 21 years, resident two years, a freeholder of fifty 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 211 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 acres of land, or has paid a tax the preceding year of thrae shillings 
 sterling towards the support of government. 
 
 Georgia. Georgia first formed a constitution in 1777 ; a second in 
 1735 ; and a third, which is now in operation, in 1793. This last has 
 been amended in respect to one judicial provision. 
 
 Legislature. A General Assembly, consisting of a Senate and 
 House of Representatives. The annual election is on the first Monday 
 in Oct. Each county elects one senator. The representatives are in 
 proportion to population, adding three to three-fifths of the colored po- 
 pulation. Each county has, however, the privilege of sending one, 
 and no county more than four. The meeting of the general assembly 
 takes place on the first Monday of November. 
 
 Executive. The executive power is vested in a Governor, elected 
 by the people on the first Monday in Oct. — holds his office for two years. 
 He must have been a citizen of the United States twelve years — inha- 
 bitant six years — 30 years of age — a freeholder of 500 acres of land or 
 other property to the amount of £4,000. He has the power of granting 
 reprieves for offences against the state, except in cases of impeachment, 
 and to respite execution for treason or murder, till the next general as- 
 sembly. 
 
 Judiciary. Superior court, and in inferior jurisdictions. Judges of 
 the superior court appointed by the General Assembly for three years — 
 removable by address and impeachment. 
 
 Rigid of Suffrage. The right of suffrage extends to all citizens and 
 inhabitants, who have attained the age of 21 years, and have paid all 
 the taxes which may have been required of them, and which they may 
 have had opportunity of paying, agreeably to law. for the year prece- 
 ding the election, and shall have resided six months within the county. 
 
 Kentucky. The constitution of Kentucky was first formed in 1790; 
 a new one was framed in 1799. 
 
 Legislature. A Senate and House of Representatives, styled The 
 General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. The senators are 
 38 in number— cannot fall short of 24 — must be resident citizens six 
 years, and 35 years of age — are chosen for four years — one quarter 
 renewed annually. The number of representatives is 100 — cannot 
 be lower than 58 — must be resident citizens two years — 24 years of 
 age — are elected annually by the people, by districts. Meeting of the 
 general assembly annually at Frankfort, on the first Monday of Nov. 
 
 Executive. Governor, elected by the people for four years, then in- 
 eligible for seven. His qualifications are citizensip — residence six 
 years — age 35 years. He has the power of nominating to the Senate 
 all judicial, and other important officers ; also, the power of pardoning, 
 except in cas.es of impeachment, and of reprieving in treason, until the 
 next meeting of the General Assembly. A lieutenant Governor is al- 
 so chosen, who is president of the Senate, and who acts as Governor, 
 in case of a vacancy in that office. 
 
 Judiciary. The fudges hold their office, and may be removed as in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
212 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY 
 
 Right of suffrage. This extends to every free, male, white citizen of 
 the age of 21 years, who has resided in the state two years, or in the 
 county where he votes one year next preceding. 
 
 Tennessee. The constitution of Tennessee was adopted in 1796, 
 since which time it has not been amended. 
 
 Legislature. A General Assembly, consisting of a Senate and 
 House of Representatives, both elected biennially, on the first Thursday 
 and Friday in August. Number of representatives never to exceed 
 40, apportioned among the different counties, according to the taxable 
 inhabitants. The number of senators, who are similarly apportioned, 
 can never be more than half, nor less than one third, of the House. 
 The meeting of the General Assembly is biennial, on the third Monday 
 in September, at Nashville. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, elected by the people, at the same time 
 with the senators and representatives, by a plurality of votes — holds his 
 office for two years — may be elected only three times in eight years — 
 must be a freeholder — a resident citizen for four years, and 35 years of 
 age. He has the power of pardoning, except in impeachment. A lieu- 
 tenant Governor, with the same qualifications, is chosen at the same 
 time. The executive has the power of appointing to office only in ca- 
 ses of vacancy. 
 
 Judiciary. The Judges of the several courts of law and equity, are 
 appointed by joint ballot of both houses of the Assembly. They hold 
 their office during good behavior. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This right belongs to every freeman of the age of 
 21 years, and upwards, possessing a freehold in the county, wherein he 
 may vote, and being an inhabitant of the state, and to every freeman 
 being an inhabitant of the county in which he shall vote, six months 
 immediately preceding the day of election. 
 
 Ohio. The constitution of this state was adopted in 1802. It may be 
 amended by a convention, but, as yet, has experienced no change. 
 
 Legislature. A Senate and House of Representatives, styled, the 
 General Assembly of Ohio. The Senators cannot be less than one 
 third, nor more than one half, the number of Representatives. They 
 are chosen for two years ; one half being renewed annually. Qualifi- 
 cations the same as for representatives, viz. residence one year — age 25 
 years, and payment of taxes. The number of representatives can nev- 
 er be less than 36, nor more than 72. They are elected annually, on 
 the second Tuesday in October, by counties, according to the number 
 of white male inhabitants, of 21 years of age. Meeting of the Gen- 
 eral Assembly annually at Columbus, on the first Monday in Decem- 
 ber. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, who is elected by the people for two years 
 
 eligible six years in eight — must be 30 years of age, and be a resident 
 
 citizen four years. He has the power of pardoning, except in im- 
 peachments. The president of the Senate is his successor, in case of 
 his disability. 
 
 Judiciary. A superior court, courts of common pieas for each coun- 
 ty, &c. Judges are chosen by the General Assembly, in joint ballot, 
 for seven years, — may be removed by impeachment. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 213 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This privilege extends to white male inhabitants, 
 above 21, who have resided in the state one year immediately prece- 
 ding the election, and who have paid a state or county tax. 
 
 Indiana. The constitution of Indiana was adopted in 1816 — may 
 be amended by convention ; but has not yet been altered. 
 
 Legislature. A General Assembly, consisting of a Senate elected 
 for three years — one third renewable annually ; and a House of Rep- 
 resentatives, elected annually. Qualifications of senators and dele- 
 gates, viz. residence, and payment of taxes ; they are chosen in coun- 
 ties and districts, and apportioned to the numbers of white male in- 
 habitants, above 21. Delegates can never be less than 36, nor more 
 than 100 — Senators not less than one third, nor more than one half the 
 number of Representatives. Annual general election, first Monday in 
 August. Annual meeting of the General Assembly, at Indianapolis, 
 first Monday in December. 
 
 Executive. Governor, elected by the people, for three years — eligi- 
 ble six years in nine — must be 30 years of age, and have been a resident 
 citizen five years. He nas the power of pardon as in Ohio,and a quali- 
 fied negative on the acts of the assembly, as in Massachusetts. It be- 
 longs to him to nominate most of the officers of the state to the Sen- 
 ate. A lieutenant Governor is chosen by the people, who presides in 
 the senate, and succeeds to the powers and duties of governor, in case 
 of the disability of the latter. 
 
 Judiciary. A supreme court, circuit courts, Sec. The supreme 
 court has three judges ; and each of the circuit courts a president, and 
 two associate judges. The judges hold their offices for seven years — 
 those of the supreme court are appointed by the Governor and Senate ; 
 the presidents of the circuit courts by the assembly in joint ballot ; and 
 the associate judges are chosen by the people. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This is granted to all male citizens, of the age of 
 21, and upwards, who have resided in the state a year, immediately 
 preceding an election. 
 
 Louisiana. The constitution of this state was formed in 1812 ; pro- 
 vision is made for its amendment by a convention, chosen by the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 Legislature. House and Senate, styled General Assembly. Repre- 
 sentatives are elected for two years — cannot be less than 25, nor more 
 than 50, and are chosen on the basis of the qualified electors, as ascer- 
 tained by enumeration every four years. They must be citizens, and 
 residents two years, and freeholders. The Senators are 16 in num- 
 ber, chosen by districts, for four years — half to be renewed every two 
 years. They must have been resident citizens four years — 27 years of 
 age, and possess a freehold worth $1000. Annual meeting of the As- 
 sembly, first Monday in January. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, who is elected for four years, and is ineli- 
 gible the next four years. He is chosen by the General Assembly in 
 joint ballot, who elect one of the two candidates, who have had the 
 greatest number of votes from the qualified electors. Qualifications 
 — residence six years — 30 years of age — and a freehold of >5000 val- 
 ue. With the assent of the Senate, he has the power ef pardoning ; 
 
214 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 but not in cases of impeachment. The president of the senate is his 
 successor, in case of vacancy. 
 
 Judiciary, Supreme court, and such inferior courts as the Legis- 
 lature may establish. The judges are appointed by the Governor, with 
 the advice and consent of the senate — they hold their offices during 
 good behavior. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This is practically universal. 
 
 Mississippi. Constitution adopted 1817, with provisions for its be- 
 ing amended by convention. 
 
 Legislature. House of Representatives and Senate, styled General 
 Assembly. The number of Representatives can never be less than 36, 
 nor more than 100. They must be resident citizens two years — 22 
 years of age, and possess a freehold to the value of $500. Senators 
 are elected for three years — one third renewable annually — are chosen 
 in districts, being apportioned on the taxable inhabitants — can never 
 be more than one third, nor less than one fourth, of the delegates — 
 must be resident citizens four years — 26 years of age — freehold or 
 other estate of 1000 dollars. Annual session, first Monday in Novem- 
 ber. 
 
 Executive. A Governor, elected by the people, for two years — must 
 be 30 years of age — a citizen 20 years — a resident five years — and 
 have a freehold of the value of $2000. He has no power of appoint- 
 ment, but can pardon, except in cases of treason, or impeachment. A 
 lieutenant Governor is appointed, who acts in case of the death, resig- 
 nation, or absence of the Governor. He is president of the Sen- 
 ate. 
 
 Judiciary. One supreme court, and such superior and inferior 
 courts of law and equity, as the Legislature may from time to time es- 
 tablish. Number of the supreme and superior courts not less than 
 four, nor more than eight. All judges are appointed by the General 
 Assembly — hold their office during good behavior — are disqualified at 
 the age of 65. 
 
 Right of suffrage. This extends to every free white male person, 21 
 years of age, or upwards — who is a citizen of the United States, and 
 shall have resided in this state one year next preceding the election — 
 and the last six months within the county, city, or town, in which he 
 offers to vote, and shall be enrolled in the militia thereof, unless ex- 
 empted by law from military service ; or having the aforesaid qualifi- 
 cations of citizenship, and residence, shall have paid a state or county 
 tax. 
 
 Illinois. Alabama. Missouri. The constitutions of these states 
 were established in the years 1818, 1819, and 1820. Their provisions 
 are, in general, so strikingly similar to those of the constitution of Mis- 
 sissippi, that it is deemed unnecessary to enter into particulars. In Il- 
 linois, the number of representatives cannot be less than 27, nor more 
 than 36, until the number of inhabitants within the state shall amount 
 to 100,000 ; and the number of senators shall never be less than one 
 third, nor more than one half the number of representatrves. In this 
 state, also, the Governor, with the judges of the supreme court, con- 
 stitute a council to revise all legislative acts ; upon which they have a 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 215 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 qualified negative. Session of the Assembly, first Monday of Decem- 
 ber, every second year. In Alabama, annual session, fourth Monday 
 of October. In Missouri, meeting of the Assembly,first Monday in No- 
 vember, every second year. 
 
 Constitution of the United States. The United States were 
 originally colonies of Great Britain. At several different times, a un- 
 ion between these colonies was contemplated, and attempted. In the 
 year 1643, a union was formed between the New-England colonies, for 
 certain purposes. In 1754, a more general union was attempted, ac- 
 cording to a plan, which, in several of its features, resembled the pres- 
 ent constitution of the United States ; and, although adopted by a 
 convention of delegates for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, with the lieutenant gov- 
 ernor and council of New York, it failed, receiving the approbation of 
 neither of the provincial assemblies, nor of the King's Council. 
 
 In the summer of 1775, after the troubles with the mother country 
 had commenced, Dr. Franklin submitted to Congress articles of con- 
 federation, and perpetual union between the colonies, but which were 
 not then acted upon. In June 1776, Congress being about to declare 
 America independent, the subject of a compact was again brought for- 
 ward. A committee was appointed to prepare, and digest the form of 
 a confederation. This committee, on the 12th of July following, re- 
 ported a plan, consisting of twenty articles. The gloomy aspect of 
 American affairs at that period, however, prevented Congress from re- 
 suming the subject, until April, 1777 ; nor was it finally aodpted, until 
 the 15th of November, the same year. The outlines of the system 
 were, that the thirteen states formed a confederacy, under the style and 
 name of " The United States of America;" by which they entered 
 "into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their defence, 
 the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, 
 binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or 
 attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, boy- 
 reignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever." 
 
 This plan of union, after much difficulty and delay, was adopted by 
 the then thirteen colonies ; and, although defective in many respects, 
 the American people were held together, by means of it, through their 
 long struggle for peace and independence. 
 
 At length, it was obvious, that a more effective plan of union must 
 be adopted, or the glorious objects of the Revolutionary struggle 
 would be entirely lost. To trace the progress of measures, which led 
 to the adoption of the Federal Constitution, would greatly exceed our 
 limits. It is sufficient for our purpose to say, that in the year 1737, a 
 convention of delegates from all the states, except Rhode Island, met 
 in the city of Philadelphia, and on the 17th of September, the present 
 federal constitution was presented to congress, which body shortly af- 
 ter sent it to the several states, by which it was, at different periods, 
 adopted, and with some subsequent amendments, has formed the ba- 
 sis of our government until the present time. 
 
 Legislative Power. The legislative power is vested by the constitu- 
 tion in a Congress, which consists of a House of Representatives, and a 
 Senate, the concurrence of both of which is necessary to the making of 
 
216 FAMILY 
 
 CIVIL POLITY. 
 
 a law. A bill which has passed both branches, must be signed by the 
 presiding officers, which being done, it is sent to the President for his 
 signature. If he signs it, it is established as law — should he refuse, he 
 returns it with objections. Should two thirds of both branches concur, 
 it becomes a law notwithstanding the want of the President's signature. 
 
 The House of Representatives is composed of members from the 
 several states, chosen by the people, for the term of two years, in such 
 manner as each state, by law, determines. They are apportioned 
 among the different states, according to the population — each state, at 
 the present time, according to an act of Congress, of the 3d of March, 
 1823, sending one representative for every 40,000 persons computed 
 according to the constitution. No person can be a representative who 
 is not 25 years old, and who has not been a citizen seven years, and 
 who does not reside in the state in which he is elected. The present 
 number of representatives is 216, including three delegates. 
 
 The Senate is composed of two members from each State. The 
 present number is forty-eight. They are chosen by the State Legisla- 
 tures for six years, one third being elected biennially. To be eligible 
 to a scat in the Senate, a person must be thirty years of age, a resident 
 citizen nine years, an inhabitant of the State in which he is chosen. 
 
 The House of Representatives has a presiding officer called a 
 Speaker, who is elected from their own body. The President of the 
 Senate is the Vice President of the United States. 
 
 Besides the legislative power, which the Senate has in common with 
 the House of Representatives, it belongs to that body to approve or 
 disapprove of appointments made by the President. Treaties, also, 
 with foreign powers, are submitted to them by the President ; two 
 thirds are essential to the ratification of a treaty. The Senate also acts 
 as a judicial court for the trial of impeachments, the House of Represen- 
 tatives being the prosecutor. 
 
 It belongs to Congress to make such laws, compatible with the con- 
 stitution, as in their opinion will advance the general welfare of the 
 country. " They are to lay and collect taxes, imposts and excises ; bor- 
 row money, regulate commerce, establish uniform rules of naturaliza- 
 tion, coin money, establish post roads and post offices, promote the 
 arts and sciences, institute tribunals inferior to the supreme court, 
 define and punish piracy, declare war, and make reprisals, raise and 
 support armies, provide a navy, regulate the militia, and make all 
 laws necessary to carry these powers into effect." 
 
 Executive power. The executive power of the United States is vested 
 in a President, who holds his office for four years. He is chosen by 
 electors, who are themselves chosen in each State, in such manner as 
 the legislature may direct, and are in number equal to the number of 
 Senators and Representatives in each State. 
 
 The importance of the mode in which the election of President is 
 made, induces us to insert the provisions of the constitution, on this 
 subject as amended: "The electors shall meet in their respective 
 States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of 
 whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
 themselves. They shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
 President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President : 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 217 
 
 EXECUTIVE POWER. 
 
 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, 
 and of all persons voted for as vice president, and of the number of votes 
 for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to 
 the seat of government of the United States, directed to the president of 
 the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives, open all certificates, and the votes 
 <hall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
 for president, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majori- 
 ty, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding 
 three, on the list of those voted for as president, the House of Represen- 
 tatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in choos- 
 ing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the represent;;' 
 from each state having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall con- 
 sist of a member, or members, from two thirds of the states; and a ma- 
 jority from all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the H< 
 of Representatives shall not choose a president, whenever the right of 
 choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next fol- 
 lowing, then the vice president shall act as president, as in the case of 
 the death or other constitutional disability of the president. 
 
 "(2) The person having the greatest number of votes as vice pres- 
 cient, shall be the vice president, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, 
 then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose 
 the vice president. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. 
 
 " (3) But no person constitutionally inelligible to the office of presi- 
 dent shall be eligible to that of vice president of the United States." The 
 qualifications and duties of the president will be noticed in another page. 
 
 Judiciary. The judicial power of the United States is at present ves- 
 ted in a Supreme Court, thirty-one District Courts, and seven Circuit 
 Courts. The Supreme Court is composed of a chief justice and six 
 associate justices who hold a court in the city of Washington annually. 
 The Circuit Courts, comprising two or more Districts are attended by 
 these justices, to each of whom one is appropriated. He is assisted by 
 the judge of the district in which the court is held. The District Courts- 
 are held by the district judge. Appeals lie from the District to the Cir- 
 cuit Courts, and from the Circuit Courts to the Supreme Courts. Each 
 court has a clerk, a public attorney, and a marshal, all of whom receive 
 their appointment from the President of the United States with the ex- 
 ception of the clerks, who are appointed by the courts. The judges hold 
 their offices during good behavior, and their salaries cannot be diminished 
 during their continuance in office. The power of these courts extends 
 to all cases in law and equity, arising under the constitution, or laws of 
 the United States, and under treaties ; to cases of public ministers and 
 consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maratime jurisdiction; to con- 
 troversies between the states in which the United States are a party ; 
 between a state aud a citizen of another state ; and between citizen- 
 different states ; between citizens of the same state, claiming under grants 
 of different states ; to causes between one of the states or an American 
 citizen and a foreign state or citizen. 
 
21S 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 PART IX. 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 By statistics is meant a collection of facts respecting the state of socie* 
 ty, the condition of the people in a nation or country, their health, loii" 
 gevity, domestic economy, arts, property, and political strength, the state 
 of the country, &c. 
 
 Although the ancients appear to have had some practical knowledge 
 of this subject, yet it was extremely limited, and doubtless very imper- 
 fect. As a science, statistics is of very recent origin, having for its foun~ 
 der Achenwall, a professor of Gottingen University. In 1748, he pub- 
 lished a valuable work on statistics, the plan of which has served as the 
 basis of several other, still more valuable and later treatises. 
 
 Hitherto, individuals have paid more attention to statistical information 
 than governments ; yet it would obviously be for the advantage of every 
 regular government to provide for detailed reports, on those subjects, 
 which would elicit a view of the statistical condition of the countries 
 where they are established. Most governments provide for an enume- 
 ration of their inhabitants and the revenue ; but, in respect to a periodical 
 census, extending to all the important branches of statistical knowl- 
 edge, it is believed that England and the United States are the only two 
 governments which have made legal provision. In the former country, 
 the first census of the above kind was made in 1811. In the latter in 
 1790. In both countries, the census is repeated every ten years. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES IN 1701. 
 
 SOULS 
 
 Massachusetts . . 70,000 
 Connecticut . . . 30,000 
 Rhode Island . . 10,000 
 New Hampshire . . 10,000 
 
 New York . 
 
 East and West Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia . . 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 : colonies in 1749. 
 
 Pennsylvania > 
 Delaware J 
 Maryland 
 Virginia 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina 
 Georgia . 
 
 SOULS. 
 
 30,000 
 . 15,000 
 
 20,000 
 . 25,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 . 5,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 New England . . 120,000 
 Middle and So. Colonies 142,000 
 
 Total 262,000 
 
 POPULATION OP THI 
 
 New Hampshire , . 30,000 
 Massachusetts . . 220,000 
 Rhode Island . . 35,000 
 Connecticut . . . 100,000 
 New York . . 100,000 
 East and West Jersey . 60,000 
 
 142,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 . 85,000 
 85,000 
 
 . 45,000 
 30,000 
 
 . 6,000 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 219 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 DATES OF THE 
 
 FIRST SETTLEMENT OF THE SEVERAL COLONIES. 
 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 1607 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1633 
 
 New York . 
 
 . 1614 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 1635 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 1620 
 
 Rhode Island . 
 
 1636 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 . 1623 North Carolina . 
 
 1650 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1624 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 1670 
 
 Delaware 
 
 . 162? 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1682 
 
 Maine 
 
 1630 
 
 Georgia .... 
 
 1733 
 
 EXPENSE OF THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 During the war of the revolution, commerce being interrupted, no revenue 
 was raised from this branch of industry, nor had the Continental Congress 
 the power to lay a general tax on commerce, this being the exclusive pre- 
 rogative of the several States. Resort was therefore necessarily had to 
 loans and paper money. Owing to various causes the precise amount of 
 expenditures for the war cannot be ascertained. The following estimate is 
 supposed to approximate to the expense incurred. 
 
 Estimated expenditures Doll's. 90ths. 
 
 of 1775 and 1776, in specie, . . . 20,064,666 66 
 
 1777 24,986,646 85 
 
 1778 24,289,438 26 
 
 1779 10,794,620 65 
 
 1780 3,000,000 00 
 
 1781 1,942,465 30 
 
 1782 3,632,745 85 
 
 1783 . - . . . . 3,226,583 45 
 
 To Nov. 1st, 1784 548,525 63 
 
 Forming an amount total of 
 To which should be added — 
 Army debt upon Commissioners certificates, 
 Supplies furnished by citizens of the several States, 
 Supplies furnished from the quarter-master's depart- 
 ment, commissary, &c 
 
 Other supplies, certificates for which were issued by 
 
 Register, 
 
 The foreign expenditures, civil, military, &c. ' . 
 Estimated expenditures of the several States, . 
 
 Estimated expense of the war in Specie, 
 
 $92,485,693 15 
 Doll's. 90ths. 
 11,080,576 1 
 3,723,625 21 
 
 . 1,159,170 5 
 
 744,638 49 
 
 5,000,000 00 
 
 . 21,000,000 00 
 
 $135,193,703 00 
 
 EMISSIONS OF CONTINENTAL MONEY. 
 
 Old Emission. 
 
 Doll's. 90ths. 
 In 1776 20,064,666 66 
 
 1777 26,426,333 1 
 
 1778 66,965,269 34 
 
 1779 149,703,856 77 
 
 1780 82,908,320 47 
 
 1781 11,408,095 00 
 
 $357,476,541 45 
 
 New Emission. 
 Doll's. 90ths, 
 
 891,236 80 
 1,179,249 00 
 
 $2,070,485 80 
 
220 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 LOANS AND GRANTS OF MONEY FROM FRANCE. 
 
 Livres. Dollars. 
 1778. February 6 — Cash received from sundry indi- 
 viduals up to this day, including a loan from 
 
 the Farmers General, . . . 3,000,000 555,555 
 
 Loan by the Court of France for this year, 3,000,000 555,555 
 
 1779.— Loan for this year, 1,000,000 185,185 
 
 1780.— Loan, 4,000,000 740,740 
 
 1781.— Loan, . . . . . . . 4,000,000 740,740 
 
 . " Subsidy from the Court of France . 6,000,000 1,111,111 
 
 Loan granted by the Court in Holland 10,000,000 1,851,851 
 
 1782.— Loan, 6,000,000 1,111,111 
 
 1783— Loan, 6,000,000 1,111,111 
 
 43,000,000 7,962,959 
 
 TROOPS EMPLOYED DURING THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 [From Dr. Holmes's Annals.] 
 Land Forces employed by Great Britain in America, 1774-1780. 
 1774 6,884 
 
 1775 11,319 
 
 1776 45,865 
 
 1777 48,616 
 
 Died and deserted 19,381 
 Prisoners . 5,336 
 
 24,7L 
 
 Lost of the army 24,717 
 Lost of the navy 4,314 
 
 29,031 
 
 Naval Force for the above Four Years. 
 
 Men of war and armed vessels, 83 
 
 Complement of men, 22,337 
 
 Of which were lost by death, 4,314 
 
 Men and Marines employed by Great Britain during the American War. 
 
 Raised for his Majesty's navy, marines included, from September 29 1774> 
 
 to September 29, 1780. 175,990 
 
 Of whom in 5 years, beginning with 1776 and ending with 1780, 
 
 w Gd ,-n a ' ' ^Hl\ 1W88 total. 
 Were killed . . 1,243 $ 
 
 Deserted . . 42,069 
 
 Troops raised in Great Britain and Ireland for his Majesty's Land Service 
 (Militia and Fencible Men m North Britain not included) from Septem- 
 ber 29, 1774, to September 29, 1780. .... 76,885 
 Of which died in North America and the West Indies 10,012 
 Taken prisoners, including those under the Convention 
 
 of Saratoga 8,629 
 
 Deserted 3,801 
 
 Discharged the service ...... 3,885 
 
 26,32? 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 221 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 BHtisk Corps and Recruits sent from Great Britain or Ireland to North 
 America or the West Indies. 
 
 1778 
 1779 
 1780 
 
 3774 
 
 6871 
 
 10,237 
 
 Total 20,882. 
 
 Account of the Ships of the Line and Frigates, taken or destroyed during the 
 War of the Revolution. 
 
 French ships of the line taken by the British . 13 
 
 Do. lost .... 13 
 
 Spanish ships of the line taken by do. . . 7 
 
 Do. lost .... 5 
 
 Dutch ships of the line taken by do. . .3 
 
 Do. lost .... 4 
 
 American ship of the line taken by do. . 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 Taken 23, lost 23. Total 46 
 French frigates taken 27, American 12, Spanish 11, and Dutch 2 ; — beside 
 
 which, 5 Spanish and 4 American frigates were lost. Total 61. 
 British, one 64 and two fifties taken by the French . . 3 > -, 
 
 Do. ships of the line lost 15 J 
 
 British frigates taken by the French 6, by the Americans 1, and 17 lost. 
 
 Total 24. 
 
 NAVAL FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Names and Rate. 
 
 When built. 
 
 Names and Rate. When built 
 
 Ships of the Line. 
 
 Guns, 
 
 
 Sloops of War. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 
 Independence 
 
 74 
 
 1814 
 
 Erie 
 
 18 
 
 1813 
 
 Franklin 
 
 74 
 
 1815 
 
 Ontario 
 
 18 
 
 1813 
 
 Washington 
 
 74 
 
 1816 
 
 Peacock 
 
 18 
 
 1813 
 
 Columbus 
 
 74 
 
 1819 
 
 Boston 
 
 18 
 
 1825 
 
 Ohio . 
 
 74 
 
 1820 
 
 Lexington 
 
 18 
 
 1825 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 74 
 
 1820 
 
 Vincennes 
 
 18 
 
 1826 
 
 Delaware 
 
 74 
 
 1820 
 
 Warren 
 
 18 
 
 1826 
 
 Frigates of 1st class. 
 
 
 
 Natches 
 
 18 
 
 1827 
 
 United States . 
 
 44 
 
 1797 
 
 Falmouth 
 
 18 
 
 1827 
 
 Constitution 
 
 44 
 
 1797 
 
 Fairfield 
 
 18 
 
 1828 
 
 Guerrier 
 
 44 
 
 1814 
 
 Vandalia 
 
 18 
 
 1828 
 
 Java 
 
 44 
 
 1814 
 
 St. Louis , 
 
 18 
 
 1828 
 
 Potomac 
 
 44 
 
 1821 
 
 Concord 
 
 18 
 
 1828 
 
 Brandywine 
 
 44 
 
 1825 
 
 Schooners, 8?c. 
 
 
 
 Hudson 
 
 44 
 
 1826 
 
 Dolphin 
 
 12 
 
 1821 
 
 Frigates of 2d class. 
 
 
 
 Grampus 
 
 12 
 
 1821 
 
 Congress 
 
 36 
 
 1799 
 
 Porpoise 
 
 12 
 
 1820 
 
 Constellation 
 
 36 
 
 1797 
 
 Shark . 
 
 12 
 
 1821 
 
 Macedonian 
 
 36 
 
 1812t 
 
 Fox 
 
 3 
 
 1823* 
 
 Sloops of War. 
 
 
 
 Alert (store shij 
 
 S) 
 
 1812 1 
 
 John Adams 
 
 24 
 
 1799 
 
 Sea Gull (gaUiot 
 
 .) 
 
 1823* 
 
 Cyane 
 
 24 
 
 1815 t | 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 * Purchased in. t Captured. 
 
 t2 
 
222 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 ADOPTION OF TIIE FIRST STATE CONSTITUTIONS. 
 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1777 
 1780 
 1786 
 1789 
 
 2. Amount of Money expended in each State and Territory, by the United 
 States, upon Works of Internal Improvement, from the Adoption of the 
 Federal Constitution to the 1st day of October, 1828. 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 South Carolina, 
 
 January 5, 
 March 24, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 June 29, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 Maryland, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware, 
 
 July 2, 
 August 14, 
 September, 
 September. 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 December, 
 
 New York, 
 
 April, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 March, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 July 4, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 May, 
 
 Maine 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 New York 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 $11,724 
 
 104,042 
 
 2,069 
 
 . 195 
 
 68,138 
 
 39,728 
 307,104 
 
 10,000 
 150,000 
 . 1,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 22 
 
 46 
 97 
 19 
 45 
 32 
 01 
 00 
 00 
 00 
 00 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Florida . 
 
 Total 
 
 Road from Cumberland to the Ohio . . . 1,662,246 75 
 Continuation of the Cumberland Road . . . 453,547 86 
 Repairs of the Cumberland Road . . . 55,501 00 
 
 Road from Nashville to Natchez .... 8,000 00 
 
 Road from Wheeling to the Mississippi river . . 10,000 00 
 
 Road from Missouri to New Mexico . . . 30,000 00 
 
 Road from Mississippi to the State of Ohio . . . 5,539 35 
 Road from Georgia to New Orleans . . . 5,500 00 
 
 Roads in Tennessee, Louisiana, and Georgia . . 15,000 00 
 
 Road from Nashville to New Orleans . . ; 7,920 00 
 
 Surveys of Roads and Canals .... 166,68149 
 
 Surveys of Maps and C harts of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers 4, 185 24 
 Improving the Navigation of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers 103,409 72 
 
 Military Roads 10,218 43 
 
 Surveys of the water courses of the Mississippi river . 11,122 04 
 Road through the Creek Nation . . . 3,621 01 
 
 Opening the old Natchez road .... 5,000 00 
 
 Breakwater at the mouth of Delaware Bay . . . 5,000 00 
 
 . 4,200 00 
 
 . 390,159 03 
 
 108,623 88 
 
 . 49,385 52 
 
 . 8,000 00 
 
 . 81,762 78 
 
 22,702 24 
 
 44,690 00 
 
 . 48,607 95 
 
 799,002 01 
 
 $2,341,136 03 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 $4,903,637 92 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 •223 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 rUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 Amount of the Pullic Debt of (lie United States, at several periods, from 1791 
 to 1830, reckoned on the first of January of the different years. 
 
 Debt increased during these six years ex- 
 cept 1794, when it was reduced. 
 Debt increased by reason of military pre- 
 parations against France, previous to the 
 year 1801. 
 Debt increased by the purchase of Louisi- 
 ana in 1803. 
 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 In 
 
 1791 
 1796 
 1799 
 1801 
 1803 
 1804 
 1809 
 1810 
 1812 
 1813 
 1816 
 1817 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 18-23 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 18-28 
 18-29 
 1831 
 
 $75,169,974 
 81,642,272 
 
 85,353,643 
 
 56,73-2,379 
 
 53,156,53-2 
 
 45,035,133 
 
 55,907,452 
 123,016,375 
 115,807,805 
 
 91,015,566 i 
 
 89,987,427^ 
 
 93,546,676 
 
 90,375,877 } 
 
 90,269,777 
 
 83,788,432 J 
 
 81,054,059^| 
 
 73,987,357 I 
 
 67,475,622 
 
 58,362,135 
 
 48.595.405 | Jackson's adm'n. 
 
 Debt at its minimum in 1812. 
 
 Debt increased by the war, — maximum, 
 1816. 
 
 Debt much reduced since 1816. 
 
 Debt increased by the purchase of Florid?, 
 and a diminution of the ordinary reve- 
 nue. 
 
 Adams' administration from 1825 to 1829. 
 
 began March 4th 1829. 
 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The charter of the Bank of the United States was granted 10th of 
 April 1816 for 20 years. Original capital $35,000,000. Stock belong- 
 ing to the United States government $7,000,000. Parent Bank at Phil- 
 adelphia. Offices of discount are established at the following places viz. 
 Portland, Portsmouth, Boston, Providence, Hartford, Burlington. New 
 York, Utica, Buffalo, Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, Norfolk. Fay- 
 etteville, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, Natchez, New Orleans, St. 
 Louis, Nashville, Louisville, 
 
 Lexington, Cincinnati, 
 
 Pittsburg] 
 
 State of the Bank 
 
 Investments. 
 Capital paid in $35,000,000 00 
 Circulation . 22,399,447 52 
 Public Deposits 7,252,249 42 
 
 Private Deposits 9,115,836,47 
 
 Due to individuals in 
 
 Europe . 168,372,72 
 
 Unclaimed dividends 251,766 3 
 Contingent Fund 5,613,173,15 
 
 Discount, Exchange 
 
 and Interest . 614,685 7 
 Profit and Loss 1,750,048 51 
 
 $82,165,578 89 
 
 September I, 1831. 
 
 Distribution. 
 Funded debt $3,517 381 6 
 
 Loans . . 56,895,451 9 
 Mortgages . . 140,956 63 
 Chargeable to Contin- 
 gent Fund . 3,452.976 10 
 Real Estate . 2,491,892 99 
 
 Due from Offices and 
 
 Banks . . 621.523 8 
 Expences &c. . 259,383 50 
 Banking Houses 1,160.455 54 
 
 Notes of State Banks 2,080,442 33 
 Specie . . 11,545,116 51 
 
 $82,165,578 89 
 
224 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Value of Imports and Exports of the United States, during the year ending 
 September 30, 1829 /rom and to each Foreign Country. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Prussia ..... 
 Sweden and Norway 
 Swedish West Indies 
 Denmark .... 
 Danish West Indies 
 Netherlands . . . 
 Dutch East Indies . . 
 Dutch West Indies . 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar .... 
 British East Indies 
 British West Indies . 
 British Amer. Colonies 
 Hanse Towns, &c. . 
 
 France 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Spain 
 
 TenerifTe &other Can's 
 Manilla& Philippine Is 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Other Spanish W. Ind's 
 Portugal .... 
 Madeira .... 
 Italy and Malta . 
 Trieste & other Ad'c p'ts 
 Turkey, Levant, Egypt 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Rep. of Amer 
 Honduras, Campeachy 
 Colombia .... 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Argentine Republic . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 China 
 
 Other Countries . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Value of 
 Imports. 
 
 $2,218,995 
 
 22,935 
 
 1.020,910 
 
 283,049 
 
 32,911 
 
 2,053,266 
 
 1,057,854 
 
 121,348 
 
 438,132 
 
 23,892,763 
 
 1,024,215 
 
 362.511 
 
 247,471 
 
 1,229,569 
 
 240,224 
 
 577,542 
 
 2,274.375 
 
 8,838,978 
 
 777,992 
 
 1,799,809 
 
 803,529 
 
 25,283 
 
 209,206 
 
 4,866,524 
 898,832 ' 
 237.351 
 403,056 
 
 1,409,588 
 191,896 
 293,237 
 
 5,026,761 
 
 311,931 
 
 64,847 
 
 1,255,310 
 
 2,534,467 
 912,114 
 416,118 
 
 1,004,458 
 
 4,680,847 
 433,623 
 
 Value of Exports. 
 
 74,492,527 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 $51,684 
 14,411 
 122,663 
 684,523 
 73,597 
 1,942,010 
 3,095,857 
 62,074 
 379,874 
 21,281,334 
 895,315 
 327.728 
 301,132 
 69,070 
 1,463 
 2,724,104 
 1,99-J76 
 8,895,045 
 1,056,639 
 10,502 
 814,987 
 731,605 
 42,839 
 10,802 
 3,719.263 
 209,780 
 42,088 
 175,074 
 289,755 
 409,288 
 27,600 
 495,626 
 123,631 
 12,693 
 525,783 
 1,510,260 
 444,716 
 890.356 
 91,542 
 260,759 
 884,445 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce. 
 
 $334,542 
 
 126,971 
 23,791 
 13,166 
 
 282,401 
 
 889,330 
 
 176,318 
 
 18,667 
 
 1,767,457 
 
 19.493 
 
 366 
 
 160,130 
 
 477.629 
 
 5,058 
 
 40,805 
 
 1,278,984 
 
 2,854,350 
 
 15,768 
 
 160,171 
 
 185,432 
 
 22,317 
 
 66,430 
 
 1,859,626 
 
 38,900 
 
 628 
 
 15.089 
 
 611.257 
 
 2-0,200 
 
 47.384 
 
 1,835,525 
 
 116,223 
 
 8,229 
 
 241,565 
 
 419,767 
 
 181,336 
 
 530,778 
 
 119,615 
 
 1,(94,103 
 
 337,777 
 
 Total 
 
 55,700,193116,658,478 72,358,671 
 
 $386,226 
 14,411 
 249,634 
 708,314 
 86,763 
 2,224,411 
 3,985,187 
 238,392 
 398,541 
 23,048,791 
 914,808 
 328,094 
 461,262 
 546,699 
 6,521 
 2,764,909 
 3,277,160 
 11,749,395 
 1,072,40/ 
 10,502 
 975,158 
 917,137 
 66,156 
 77,232 
 5,578,889 
 248,680 
 42,716 
 190,163 
 901,012 
 689,488 
 74,984 
 2,331,151 
 239,854 
 20,922 
 767,348 
 1,929,927 
 626,052 
 1,421,134 
 211,157 
 1,354,862 
 1,222,222 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 225 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
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•226 
 
 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS, 
 
 Statement of the Value of Domestic Exports of the United States in the year 
 ending September 30f/i, 1829. 
 
 The Sea. 
 Fisheries. — 
 
 Dried fish, or cod fisheries $747,541 
 
 Pickled fish, or river fisheries, her- 
 ring, shad, salmon, mackerel 220,527 
 Whale, (common) oil, whalebone 495J63 
 Spermaceti oil and candles 353,869 
 
 The Forest. 
 Skins and furs 
 Ginseng 
 
 Product of Wood. — 
 Staves, shingles, boards . $1,680,403 
 
 Oak bark, and other dye . 165,406 
 
 Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin and 
 
 turpentine . . . 377,613 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl . . 817,434 
 
 Agriculture. 
 Product of Animals. — 
 
 Beef, tallow, hides, and h'd. cattle 
 
 Butter and cheese 
 
 Pork (pkPd.) bacon, lard, live hogs 
 
 Horses and mules 
 
 Sheep 
 Vegetable food. — 
 
 Wheat, flour, and biscuit 
 
 Indian corn and meal . 
 
 Rye meal 
 
 Rye, oats, and other small grain and 
 pulse 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Rice .... 
 
 Tobacco .... 
 
 Cotton . . . . 
 
 All other agricultural products. — 
 
 Flaxseed .... 
 
 Hops .... 
 
 Brown sugar 
 
 Manufactures. 
 Soap and tallow candles 
 Leather, boots and shoes 
 Saddlery 
 
 Hats .... 
 
 Wax .... 
 Sp'ts. from grain, beer, ale, & porter 
 Wood (including coaches and other 
 
 674,955 
 
 176,205 
 
 1,493,629 
 
 207,858 
 10,644 
 
 5,972,920 
 974,535 
 127,004 
 
 74,896 
 
 30,079 
 
 15,958 
 
 2,514,370 
 
 526,507 
 114,396 
 
 0,430,856 
 
 $1,817,100 
 
 carriages) 
 
 2,563,291 
 
 3,681,759 
 
 9,709,762 
 
 113,040 
 6,917 
 3,289 
 
 12,273,053 
 
 4,982,974 
 
 26,575,311 
 
 123,246 
 
 692,691 
 356,658 
 35,765! 
 270,780 
 132,939 
 215,494 
 
 501,946 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 227 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Snuff and tobacco 
 
 Lead 
 
 Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine 
 Cordage .... 
 
 Iron 
 
 Spirits from molasses 
 
 Sugar refined .... 
 
 Chocolate .... 
 
 Gunpowder .... 
 
 Copper and brass 
 
 Medicinal drugs 
 
 Cotton and piece goods.— 
 
 Printed and colored 
 
 White 
 
 Nankeens 
 
 Twist, yarn, and thread 
 
 All other manufactures of 
 Flax and hemp. — 
 
 Cloth and thread . 
 
 Bags, and all manufactures of 
 Wearing apparel 
 Combs, and buttons 
 Brushes .... 
 Billiard tables and apparatus 
 Umbrellas and parasols 
 Leather and morocco skins, not sold, 
 
 per pound 
 Fire engines and apparatus 
 Printing presses and types 
 Musical instruments 
 Books and maps 
 Paper, and other stationary 
 Paints and varnish . 
 Vinegar .... 
 Earthen and stone ware 
 Manufactures of glass 
 Do. tin . 
 
 Do. pewter and lead 
 
 Do. marble and stone 
 
 Do. gold and silver and 
 
 gold leaf 
 Hold and silver coin 
 Artificial flowers and jewelry 
 Molasses .... 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Brick and lime 
 
 Salt . . 
 
 Articles not distinguished in returns.— 
 
 Manufactured 
 
 Raw produce 
 
 145,0-24 
 
 981,370 
 
 1,878 
 
 3,849 
 
 127,336 
 
 $202,396 
 
 8,417 
 
 30,442 
 
 7,984 
 
 223,705 
 
 166,740 
 
 50,739 
 
 1,759 
 
 171,924 
 
 129,647 
 
 101,524 
 
 $3,301,550 
 
 1,259,457 
 
 2,166 
 
 14,954 
 
 91,108 
 
 76,250 
 
 3,150 
 
 3,443 
 
 22,067 
 
 80,173 
 
 2,832 
 
 12,908 
 
 8,868 
 
 29,010 
 
 25,629 
 
 21,133 
 
 5,953 
 
 5,592 
 
 49,900 
 
 1,757 
 
 5.185 
 
 2,647 
 
 11,250 
 
 612,886 
 
 21,627 
 
 1,992 
 
 11,248 
 
 3,717 
 
 26,648 
 
 309,100 
 221,544 
 
 Total 
 
 2,414,550 
 
 530,650 
 55,700,193 
 

 228 FAMILY 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 TOTAL POPULATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 The Population of the Earth, together with the geographical square 
 miles, by the most recent and respectable authorities is as follows : 
 
 Surface. Inhabitants. 
 
 Europe . 2,793,000 227,700,000 
 
 \sia 12,118,000 390,000,000 
 
 Africa .... 8,516,000 60,000,000 
 
 \merica .... 11,046,000 39,000,000 
 
 \ustralasia . . . 3,100,000 20,300,000 
 
 Total 27,573,000 737,000,000 
 
 INHABITANTS OF THE EARTH DIVIDED ACCORDING TO THEIR RELIGIOUS 
 
 BELIEF. 
 
 The two following estimates are according to the geographers Make- 
 B run, and Hassel. 
 
 Malte-Brun. Hassel. 
 
 Catholics .... J 16,000,000 134,000,000 
 Greek Church . . . 70,000,000 62,000,000 
 
 Prostestants . . . 42.000,000 55,000,000 
 
 Total of Christians 228,000,000 251,000,000 
 
 Jews 4,000,000 3,000,000 
 
 Mahometans . . . 100,000,000 120,000,000 
 
 Pagans . 310,000,000 550,000,000 
 
 Total of inhabitants of the Globe 642,000,000 924,000,000 
 
 First part contains - 240 Page-, 
 
 Second part " 228 do. 
 
 Whole number 468 do. 
 
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