New Bork State Qullege of Agriculture At Gornell University Sthaca, N. Y. Hibrary Cornell University Library SB 191.M2B7 Corn feedin | A i in: fii ih 3 1924 000 361 { mann os ee ¢ * 1 & a os rl a ‘a ce ee Osh get SS hae ae i ‘eo ie [2 eee os ar 1 . oe § Ret ie {& eS Loa oe je. ma Soak ’ E32: Ey tye: = yoy "eT ap Gee : “at i Se A ba ale 5, Soe as e abe. Fae % ye Rn fi py a) ae Ce ES So ‘Be Fo A es papas SOF irae zn yi ~ a Teal pet em Z : agen Spl toe 8 Fame PoaerindllLN op te EP Se, a some a Ree ae i it, Free Syke [on Pesce FD ASI wal BE ee ae nil as BN pes ra Fig. 1 THE EAR AS IT IS TODAY AND AS IT WAS ORIGINALLY Dent), Champion of America in 1907, on the left. Pod Corn on the right, and the ‘Pascal Ear” (Reid’s Yellow This ear sold for $150 at the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers’ Association. GROWING JUDGING BREEDING FEEDING MARKETING For The FARMER, STUDENT and TEACHER of AGRICULTURE A TEXT-BOOK for AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES and HIGH SCHOOLS A By M. L. BOWMAN Formerly Professor of Farm Crops at lowa’ State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts; Head of the Farm Crops Section of the Jowa Experiment Station ‘ PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR Copyright applied for in the United States, Canada, Argentine Republic and British Dependencies of South Africa by M. L. Bowman November, 1915 SOLD BY 7 WATERLOO PUBLISHING CO. WATERLOO, IOWA PRICE, $3.00 HIS book is dedicated to one of God’s noble men; a kind hearted whole-souled, untiring laborer for better agriculture; your friend, my friend, Professor P. G. Holden. PREFACE This work is a completely revised edition of the well known Bowman and Crossley book on Corn which is in such wide use throughout the Corn Belt. It has been the purpose of the Author to cover more completely with the latest and best available information from the different states, the various phases of corn growing, judging, breeding, feeding and marketing, making it of the greatest possible value to the farmer, to the student, to the teacher and to every one interested in America’s Greatest Cereal. Crop—Corn. I am very much indebted to Professor P. G. Holden, who for many years‘has been my close friend and advisor; to the late Pro- fessor B. W. Crossley, who with me put out the first edition of the Corn Book, and to Professor S. A. Forbes, Illinois State Entomologist, who has kindly permitted my using the illustrations of the corn insect pests. To Professor Murl McDonald of the Extension Department of the lowa-State College I am especially indebted for his very able as- sistance in the preparation of data throughout the book. a —THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT. Corn, a native of the Western Hemisphere; thought to have been developed from teosinte; cultivated by the Indians......... 0. cc cesses cece ees e tee e een eeeeeeeeenes 1 CHAPTER II. ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION AND VALUATION. ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING, In the United States, in each of the states. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION, In the world, in the United States, in each of the states. VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP. In the United States, in each of the states. THE PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES. The production of corn in Mexico, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Austria Hungary, Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, Russia, Asia and ERICA 9 eggs csiaigusine ds ahaa are praised ba eae glenioie aan seta owe eaRARa Rey Onig < yoe S adele eeecte rae 4 CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. CLASSIFICATION—The pod, pop, flint, dent, soft, sweet, and starchy sweet corns. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN—Plant structure, nature of growth, primary and secondary roots, root structure, conditions affecting root growth, stalk, figuring leaf surface, drouth resisting characters, the flower, male or staminate flower, female or pistillate flower, development of ear, development of kernel.............0.eeees 36 CHAPTER IV. GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. GERMINATION—Conditions of germination, vitality, moisture, proper temperature, oxygen. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS—Essentials of growth for green plants, constitution, water, proper temperature, light, plant food........... cc cece cece e eect eect eens 55 II CONTENTS CHAPTER V. CLIMATE AND SOIL IN ITS RELATION TO CORN. CORN AND CLIMATE—Effect of climate on distribution; effect of climate on character of growth; climate and varieties; effect of climate on composition; relation of corn growing to precipitation; relation of temperature to corn growing. CORN AND SOIL FERTILITY—Soil adapted to corn; influence of soil on composition of corn; continuous growing of corn; humus; necessity of rotation; manures; fertilizers; a rotation for the corn belt........ 2... cece cece eee ee teen eee ete e ee eeneee 72 CHAPTER VI. SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED CORN FOR PLANTING. Buying foreign seed; harvesting seed corn; the effect of moisture and freezing on the vitality of corn; the need of testing seed corn; making the germination test; shelling and grading; calibrating the planter; the corn grower’s reminder.............--++5- 97 CHAPTER VII. CARE OF THE CORN CROP. PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. PLOWING THE GROUND—Objects of plowing; points of merit in plowing; depth of plow- ing; fall plowing; spring plowing; plowing sod. TREATMENT OF PLOWED GROUND BEFORE PLANTING—With a disc, special harrows, smooth- ing harrows, roller. PLANTING WITH CHECK ROWER—TJTime of planting; depth of planting; distance between rows; number of stalks per hill; what is a perfect stand; replanting of corn. DRILLING CORN. LISTING—Preparing the ground; use of the lister............. ese ce eee eee ee eeee 138 CHAPTER VIII. CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP. CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN—Objects of tillage; harrowing corn; depth of cultivation; frequency of cultivation; kinds of cultivators. CULTIVATION OF EXISTED ‘CORN visiicts.a sve $i viele area tow adicvadngiedlaiaun alee giana g Oalavdnlend gy Danaea 178 CHAPTER IX. THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP. HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN. HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR—Stage of maturity; time of harvesting; methods of har- vesting; cost of harvesting; methods of unloading. STORING CORN—Principles involved; cribs, shrinkage of corn............eeeeeeeeee 192 CONTENTS III CHAPTER X. THE COST OF GROWING CORN. American Agriculturist and Orange Judd Farmer Estimates—What is cost; labor and wages; teams and maintenance; horse power and machinery; taxation; rent, im- plements, interest; seed; fertilizer; overhead expense; labor and its statistical treat- ment; removing stalks; plowing; harrowing; listing; fertilizing; planting; cultivation; gathering and cribbing; fodder; cost with allowance for interest on investment; con- clusion. Other Estimates—In Iowa, Missouri and Illinois......... siviedepie vee e as a ore oe 201 CHAPTER XI. DISEASES AND INSECTS ATTACKING CORN. DISEASES OF CORN PLANT Corn smut; the Burrill Bacterial disease; corn wilt; leaf blight; maize rust; cob rot; corn stalk disease and ear rots. INSECT ENEMIES. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROWING CrRop—The black headed grass maggot; the seed corn maggot; wire worms; cut worms; the sod web worm or root web worm; white grub; corn bill bug; corn root aphis; chinch bug; army worm; stalk borer; northern corn root worm; grasshopper; ear worm. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED CORN—Angumois grain moth; the grain weevil...... . 216 CHAPTER XII. THE MARKETING OF CORN. HOME MARKETS, COMMERCIAL MARKETS, HOME MARKETS—Line elevator systems; independent elevators; farmers’ co-operative ele- vators; corn enroute to market. PRIMARY MARKETS—Receipts of corn at the principal markets; Chicago as a primary market; corn values; steps in the inspection of corn in the primary market; handling of grain on the cash floor; commercial grades of corn; grain storage; federal in- spection; moisture test; registration of grain. TERMINAL MARKETS—Chicago as a termina] market; other terminal markets. TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS—Enumeration of principal terminal-export markets. EXPORT MARKETS—Amount of corn exported; countries purchasing export corn; prices of export corn; export freight rates; American grain trade certificates...........250 IV CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII. BOARDS OF TRADE. THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS. The Board of Trade of the City of Chicago; organization of Board of Trade; pur- pose of Board of Trade analyzed; Omaha Grain Exchange; speculation in the grain trade; futures, why and how futures are settled without delivery, when delivery is un- necessary, how deliveries are made, settlements and settlement and delivery prices, de- livery price; bucket shops.......... 0.0. cece eee e ene e eee ene ett e etn nnees 304 CHAPTER XIV. THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL—By mechanical and milling methods; by mechanical and chemical processes; by fermentation. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF—From the stalk; from the leaves; from the BUSS i cds needa hie bit Skee d Glacenaianans ad eee GH Madd jotnds eg Oe SON aE alg aa 332 CHAPTER XV. COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF CORN. THE GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE—Tip cap; hull; horny glutenous part; horny starchy part; white starchy part; germ. PHYSICAL ANALYSES, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS—Protein; carbohydrates and fats, crude fiber. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS—Ash, water. THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN—Percentage composition; digestibility; palatability and mastication; cost of production and preparation for feeding; corn vs. other cereals; corn as a feed for horses, hogs, sheep, milch cows, young cattle. FEEDING VALUE OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN—Gluten meal, corn bran, gluten feed, corn meal, corn oil meal, corn oil cake, starch feeds, hominy chops, distillers’ grains, the New CORN product ..ii2oans. piasacsiodstiasawinumata ease vip bememewees wieA 345 CHAPTER XVI. CORN FODDER Manner of planting; varieties; time of harvesting; method of harvesting; shocking of fodder corn; methods of feeding corn fodder; losses in corn fodder; feeding value of corn fodder; the value of stalk fields; turning stock in the unhusked fields.......... 366 CONTENTS v CHAPTER XVII. CORN SILAGE AND CORN SILAGE PRODUCTION. Historical, in Europe, in United States; principles of preservation; time to plant; manner of planting; thickness of planting; varieties to plant; time of harvesting; in- vestigation of the growth of corn for silage; method of harvesting; size of silos; filling the silo; cost of silage; cost of filling silos; losses of silage in the silo; value of silage; composition and feeding value of corn silage.......... 00. e eee cece eee eee eee eees 383 CHAPTER XVIII. JUDGING CORN. Why judge corn; introduction of the corn score card; score cards used by the Farm Crops and Extension Departments, of the Iowa State College, the Corn Growers’ Association; the use of a score card; practical hints in judging corn; selecting a sample of corn. for showswissssses dense vessdismieeee ees toads veeeee Et et ees Fe edaenan 402 CHAPTER XIX THE VARIETIES OF DENT CORN NOW PRINCIPALLY GROWN IN THE CORN BELT. HISTORY, BREED CHARACTERISTICS, CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS OF—Leaming, Reid’s Yellow Dent, Iowa Silver Mine, Boone County White. HISTORY AND BREED CHARACTERISTICS OF—Legal Tender, White Superior, Shenandoah Yellow, Farmers’ Reliance, Pride of the North, Silver King, Chase’s White Dent, Wisconsin No. 7, Nebraska White Prize, Iowa Ideal, Willhoit, Cattle King, Kansas Sunflower, Minnesota No. 13, Hildreth Yellow Dent, Bloody Butcher, Calico, Golden Glow, Jchnson County White, Golden Eagle, Golden Row, Early Mastodon cs )soe an an ntiewle td b5du- coaia wees! Ueda J aeemeeis Beet tea eras 420 CHAPTER XX. CORN BREEDING. THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER. Securing the seed for planting a selection bed~ selecting seed for selection bed; size and location of seed bed; planting and care of selection bed; causes of barren stalks; causes of suckers, selecting seed ears from selection bed; selection bed, second year. .443 CHAPTER XXI. CORN BREEDING. FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PERMANENTLY IN THE BUSINESS. THE CORN BREEDER’ PLAN—First year, trial crop; second year, mating individual ears in the breeding block; third year, increase bed; continuing individual ear test and mating in breeding blocks; pure bred and high grade seed; some points to be con- sidered by the seed corn breeder....... 1-1. e sees rere rene n ence eens ¥ Sherewintes 454 CHAPTER XXII. CORN BREEDING. Mechanical Methods of Selecting Seed Corn for Improved Chemical Composi- ‘emoy ‘1adoo9 ‘1a [2Z PIF Aq UMOIL) “pI6T ‘BMOT ‘samy ‘moyg UI0D eBMO] }e UIC Jo Jaysnq UordweYyD CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT The word “Corn” has been in use from earliest times. At first it signified a grain as we use the term today when speaking of a single kernel, seed or particle. Later the name was applied to all cereal crops in general, and in Europe this custom still prevails. It was not until during the early colonization of America that the name “Corn” was legally accepted in its present application. In one of the counties of Pennsylvania a man had been indicted for stealing so many bushels of corn, and in course of the conflict his counsel took exception to the word as it was used, on the ground that this was not the perfect description of Indian corn. The exception, however, was overruled by court, who thus decided that corn was the established name for Indian corn. The old name Maize is still used to some extent. It is a later construction from ma-hiz, a Haytian word. We also find the term “Indian Corn” used considerably even in the present day. Some authorities claim that corn is of Eastern origin, and to sub- stantiate this statement they have attempted to show that the cereal was mentioned in ancient Chinese literature before Columbus dis- covered America. Some of our most eminent botanists, however, such as Humboldt and Sturtevant, have very successfully refuted this argu- ment, and they have been able to show conclusively that America is the original home of corn. Traditions have it that as early as the year 1002 A. D. Karlsefn, and again in 1006, Thorfin, both Norsemen, each saw and brought in their ships ears of corn from what is now Massa- chusetts. But stronger evidence is presented in the ears of corn which have been found with mummies of Mexico and Peru. We know, too, that Columbus discovered corn when he first landed on American soil. As to the distribution of corn in Europe, it is claimed by good authority that Columbus took it back to Spain with him, on the return from his great voyage. From Spain it was taken into France and Italy, although we know that its spread must have been very slow, for it was nearly a hundred years after the discovery of America before we find any mention made of corn in France. From Italy corn was taken into 2 CORN Switzerland and Hungary, and from Hungary to Austria and eastern Europe. From Switzerland it was taken into the valley of the Rhine, and from Portugal corn was introduced into Asia. Indian corn entered into the mythological and religious ceremonies of the Indians, both of South and North America, long before they were disturbed by civilization. When the white man came to live among them they told him how to select the best ears for seed and how and when to plant it. To be sure, their methods were very crude. Since the land was covered by a dense forest it was necessary first that this should be cleared away. This the Indians did by burning a ring around the base of the trunk of the tree and by scraping away the charred bits until the tree could be blown over. Often, however, they would first girdle the tree with a rough stone axe and allow it to die before burning was attempted. When spring came, the squaw, who did the most of this work, proceeded to plant the corn. With a sharp stick she made holes in the ground about four feet apart, and after putting a fish or several crawfish into each hole she planted the seed on top of this and covered it over with soil. The fish were used as fertilizer. In the fall the corn was picked and stored away in pits dug in the ground. Such then, we are led to believe, were the methods adopted by our forefathers when they began farming on our native soil. The first successful attempt of the English to cultivate corn in North America was in 1608, along the James river in Virginia. A year _ or two later it is said that as much as thirty acres of corn were culti- vated there. It is recorded that as early as 1650 corn to the extent of 600 bushels was exported from Savannah, and by 1770 the amount exported from this same place had reached 13,598 bushels. However, during the period intervening numerous exportations are recordéd ranging from 10,000 to 250,000 bushels, so we know that even at this early date more corn was raised than was needed for home consump- tion. In 1770 the total amount exported from the colonies was 578,349 bushels, and in 1800, 2,032,435 bushels were exported. By this we see that the development during this period was very rapid, at least considering the fact that agricultural implements were little known, and that there were no transportation facilities to speak of. The main increase in production was the result of increased acreage. As to the origin of the corn plant itself, some botanists have en- deavored to show that Teosinte, a rank-growing forage plant, is its progenitor. Teosinte is a native Mexican plant and is called by Watson “Zea canina.” Recently Montgomery has expressed a similar HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT 3 theory. He states that corn and Teosinte may have had a common origin, and he intimates that in the process of evolution it is probable that the pistillate spikes in Teosinte were developed from the lateral branches of a tassel-like structure, while corn was developed from the central spike. Further, he suggests that the progenitor of these plants was a large, much branched grass, each branch being terminated by a tassel-like structure. Bailey also expresses an opinion that 7ea canina may not be a dis- tinct species from our common corn. He mentions the tendency of some varieties of sweet corn to occasionally produce multiple rudimen- tary ears, and of the canina to lose them under cultivation, as a point in favor of the theory of the relation. The tendency of cultivation in ali plants is to develop some parts and organs rather than all parts and all organs. The tendency to sucker, to produce tassels on the ends of the ears, the profuse drooping tassels of the flint corn and kindred varieties, or pointed kernels, and the occurrence of these peculiarities in the aboriginal corn in the Aztec region tends to emphasize the relation that exists between the varieties. From the natural characteristics of the corn plant we may safely conclude that the distribution of the species was necessarily of an artificial nature, for the seed has no wing or appendage which would permit it to be blown about by the wind. Furthermore, the perishable nature of the seed was directly opposed to Nature’s methods of scat- tering the species. It seems safe to assume that the species that exist today have either been developed by man and perpetuated by this same agency, or that man came upon the plant soon after its useful development and at once began to cultivate it. There are at present eight species of the genus Zeas. In 1814 there were only five varieties of corn (Zea Mays) known, i.e. Big Yellow, Big White, Little Yellow, Little White and Gourd- seed. Both the large and small varieties were flinty, corresponding to the old type of flint corn. The gourd-seed corn represents perhaps the first step in the development of the dent corn of today. It was characterized by a deep, pointed, soft kernel of either white or yellow color. By 1840 nearly forty varieties were known. These were based primarily upon color, size of ear, and density of kernel. At least one of our present standard breeds had its origin previous to that time and others soon followed. CHAPTER II. ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION AND VALUATION ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING The world’s corn crop at present occupies annually 170 million acres. The total area of land devoted to corn growing in the United States in 1914 amounted to *103,435,000 acres. If combined into a single field it would cover the entire land surface of the three states, Iowa, Illinois and Mis- souri. Since 1870 an acreage equal to nearly 12 per cent of all land classed as farm land and over 20 per cent of all improved farm land has been planted with corn each year. This would be equivalent to an 80 acre field in every section of farm land, or a 130 acre field in every section of improved farm land. The increase in acreage of corn has been for the past fifty years uniformly parallel to the increase in the area of farm land. The following chart illus- trates this increase from 1866 to 1914 inclusive. CHART NO. 1 Acreage in Corn in the United States from 1866 to 1914. Millions of Acres. Per cent Increase 20 40 60 80 100 1914 9.4% 1901-1910 B 27.2% 1891-1900 B 7.3% 1881-1890 5 55.1% 1871-1880 [gaa 29.9% 1866-1870 NOTE—The acreage designated in the above chart represent th acreage for the periods indicated in the margin to the lett. PAT eo Grea From the foregoing it is seen that the period of greatest increase was from 1881 to 1890, inclusive, being 55.1 per cent, and the period of slightest variation was from 1891 to 1900, being only 7.3 per cent. Climatic con- ditions and the state of the general market have been, perhaps, the most important factors in this increase, *1914 Year Book ACREAGE 5 For the past fifty years the acreage devoted to corn growing has been slightly greater than that of all other cereals combined. In fact, 52 per cent of the entire area devoted to cereal crops, including corn itself, has been devoted to this crop. So constant has been this proportion that it has not varied more than 1| per cent either way during the past fifty years. The following chart will show the relative acreage of the cereal crops of the United States, taking an average for the five years 1910 to 1914 inclusive. CHART NO. 2. Comparative Acreage of all Cereals in the United States Five-Year Average, 1910-1914 Inclusive. MILLIONS OF ACRES 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Per cent of Total Corn 52.2 Wheat 24.2 Oats - 18.8 Barley : 3:7 Rye - - 11 Rice - 0 In considering briefly the acreage devoted to corn growing in each state during the past five years, note the following table, which also shows the acre- age devoted to other cereal crops, with the percentage of all improved farm land given to the production of corn and other cereals. It will be seen that the relative acreage devoted to the growing of corn and the other cereal crops varies widely in the different states. However in those states where the conditions are most favorable to corn growing the per- cent of improved farm land occupied by the crop is very high. Taking into consideration the entire United States, over one-fifth of all improved farm land is given annually to corn, and a little less than one-fifth is given to all other cereals combined. 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Since 1900 the total acreage in corn in this country has increased about 35 per cent. ‘The total acreage of the ten states leading in the production of corn shows an increase of 30 per cent over the total acreage in the ten states leading in 1900. In Illinois we find the highest per cent of land devoted to the production of corn, also the highest total acreage in corn. No doubt the increase in acreage the past ten years has been brought about through improved methods in farming, since we find the greatest increase right in the corn belt. Vast areas which were unfit for cultivation a few years ago have been reclaimed through drainage, and much of this land is today the most productive. As we adopt more careful methods of farming, such as systematic rotation ot crops, however, acreage will play a minor role in the increased production of corn, and we must then depend upon a higher average yield. In other words, conditions will demand more bushels of sound corn on each acre devoted to corn production. WORLD’S PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION The world’s corn crop in 1912, which is the year of the highest total production up to the present time, amounted to 4,369,742,000 bushels. In one year there was produced enough corn to fill a single crib eight feet wide to a uniform depth of eight feet for a length of 32,300 miles. This crib would extend from New York City around the world, and across the United States again to San Francisco, or, if all of this corn were to be piled upon a square mile of ground the pile would form a pyramid over one thousand feet high. There were concerned in this production five continents, including twenty- two different nations. A careful study of the following table will show the amount of corn produced by each country from 1910 to 1914; also which countries have been the heaviest producers. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 9 TABLE NO. 2. (000 omitted) WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF CORN BY COUNTRIES. 1910-1914 Inclusive. 1910 1911 - “i ips Country Bushels Buchale Bushels Bushels Bushels deton ain 1910-14 inc. North America United States ...| 2,886,260] 2,531,488 | 3,124,746 | 2,446,988 | 2,672,804] 70.60 *~ Canada: Ontario ..:..... 17,853 18,001 16,466 16,182 13,410 42 Quebec ......... 860 766 476 586 514 .02 Other: sc0cacd oaen 5 6 8 5 id Mexico .......... 190,766 190,000 190,000 190,000 190,000 4.91 Total .......... 3,095,744 | 2,740,261| 3,331,950] 2,653,761) 2,876,728 South America Argentina ...... 175,187 27,675 295,849 196,642 204,562 4.70— Chile sssdaceses 1,378 1,221 1,527 1,647 (3) 04 Uruguay ....... 6,514 3,643 7,963 5,343 (3) 15 Total. 2cniwsdoace 183,079 32,539 305,339 203,632 Europe Austria-Hungary: Austria ........ 16,823 11,856 15,058 13,286 (3) 40 Hungary proper 187,733 | 137,421| 176,694] 182,069 (3) 441 Crotia-Slavonia 25,589 24,005 24,066 28,955 (3) 70 Bosnia-Herzegov. 10,051 8,416 8,555 7,559 (3) 22 Total’ seuss sn 240,196} 181,698) 224,373] 231,869| (3) Bulgaria ......... 28,360 30,500 28,475 32,000 31,000 ae Peance «i aenie-a cnx 23,399 16,860 23,733 21,455 22,000 55 Ttally? cise iasiausers aang 101,722 93,680 98,668 108,388 105,006 2.62 Portugal ......... 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 «a9 Roumania ........ 103,665 110,712 103,921 114,662 110,230 2.83 Russia: Russia proper ... 63,089 67,842 62,904 (a) 1.66 N. Caucasia .... 14,093 14,087 16,704 (a) 39 Total Russia ... 77,182 81,929 | (b) 79,608 72,793 80,608 Servia .......-0ee, 33,204 26,531 22,833 23,621 20,000 65 Spain eis ewes 27,366 28,730 25,069 25,140: 30,325 71 Total Europe ... 650,094 585,630 621,680 644,928 Asia British India (3) (3) (3) (3) Japan .......... 3,550 3,802 3,559 3,753 .09 Philippine Islands 5,293 7,810 10,224 (3) 20 Africa Algeria ........ 556 554 374 394 (3) .00 Egypt: <224 ssiens 70,294 67,903 60,859 57,044 66,744 1.66 Union of §, Africa 20,000 20,000 | (4) 30,830 | (4) 30,830/ (4) 30,830 70 Total c.cwkicces 90,850 88,457 92,061 88,268 97,574 Australasia Australia: Queensland ..... 2,588 4,601 3,752 2,604. 4,039 09 New South Wales 7,322 7,833 4,649 5,273 4,496 -10 Victoria ........ 1,195 1,013 818 738 826 04 West. Australia . 1 1 1 (3) ee South Australia . 7 7 2 4 (3) ee Total ........05 11,113 13,455 9,222 8,619 9,461 New Zealand ..... 750 478 278 222 312 * Total Australasia 11,863 13,933 9,500 8,841 9,773 Grand Total ...| 4,031,630] 3,460,820 | 4,371,888 | 3,613,213 (3) ¢ (a) No official data received. (b) Includes Asiatic Russia. (3) No official report. (4) Figures from 1911 census, 10 CORN At a glance it is seen from the foregoing table that North America and particularly the United States has been far in the lead in corn production. Europe follows in second place, but there is a very wide margin between the two continents. Basing our conclusions on the crop of 1914 we find that 16 countries show an increase in production during the past ten years, two countries show neither an increase nor a decrease, and four show an actual decrease. The only country which has made any phenomenal increase in the pro- duction of corn during the past fifteen years is Argentine Republic. ‘This country has multiplied its production nearly five times since 1899. During the same period the United States shows an increase of 50 per cent. In 1899 Argentina’s production amounted to only 3.1 per cent of that of the United States, while in 1914 it reached nearly 6 per cent. A more comprehensive view of the relative production and distribution of corn may be found by studying the following table: TABLE NO. 3. PERCENTAGE OF WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CORN BY CONTINENTS. FROM 1900 TO 1914. Continent 1900 | 1901 ) 1902 | 1903 | 1904| 1905 | 1906|1907 | 1908 | 1909 | Av. | 1914 N. America. | 79.7 | 67.7 | 82.5 | 77.4 | 83.0 | 81.5 | 77.8 | 81.2 | 79.3 | 78.8 | 78.9 | 76.4 Europe ....| 16.7 | 23.8 | 13.3 | 16.2 | 9.7 | 12.8 | 15.9 | 14.8 | 15.1 ) 14.5 | 15.3 | 16.3 S. America..| 2.1 | 4.5 | 2.8] 5.0 | 5.7 | 4.2 5.1} 2.4 | 41 5.1 4.1 4.8 Africa ..... aa 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 0 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.1 2:3 Australia .. Be 4 2 wl «a 2 2 Ps | ae 19 25 ie New Zealand | iis 5. |! wesc: | cose | sees | wows 01 a ated] bs Saabavnstl axerauss Ip eeuaeies 0 Figures taken from the Report of the United States Department of Agriculture. In table No. 3, showing relative production by continents, it is seen that North America produced nearly four times as much corn as all other conti- nents combined. Foremost of the remaining countries stand Austria Hungary, Argentina, Mexico, Italy, Roumania and Russia, but the production of these six countries together is only about one-fifth of the production of the United States. PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES It has been stated previously that the United States produce annually three-fourths of the world’s corn crop. In 1912, which was the year of our greatest production, this amounted to 3,124,746,000 bushels.* The production of this great cereal has from the earliest times kept pace with the widespread of civilization and agriculture. The progress made during the past half century is best illustrated by the following chart. CHART NO. 3. INCREASE IN THE PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1866 TO 1914. Millions of Bushels 500 1000 «=«1500 ©2000» 2800 -«««3,000 Tnaeenene 1911-1914 6.4 1901-1910 33.4 1891-1900 12.8 1881-1890 pete 1871-1880 38.2 1866-1870 NOTE—The percentage of increase is figured on the average production desig- nated on the chart for the periods indicated in the left margin. The period of greatest increase was from 1871-1880 and the period from 1891 to 1900, shows the least increase of any decade recorded. The increase for the last five years recorded, however, has been even less, being only 6.4 per cent. The following table shows the annual increase in acreage and production, the average yield per acre, total value of the corn crop and price per bushel. A little study will show the relation that exists between acreage and production, and the relation between average yield per acre and price per bushel. *1914 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 12 a CORN TABLE NO. 4*, PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1866 TO 1914. Venn ‘Aeréage Yield Bushels Value Total [Per Acre Total Bu. Cts L866" uisess eee 34,307,000 867,946,000 25,3 411,451,000 47.4 V867 ssweead copes 32,520,000 768,320,000 23.6 437,770,000 57.0 TSOB. sc duciate tua 34,887,000 906,527,000 26.0 424,057,000 46.8 TBGO* ssecea 23 wie 37,103,000 874,320,000 23.6 522,551,000 59.8 UST: «ais seas 38,647,000 1,094,255,000 28.3 540,520,000 49.4 DSTI): scxsee ace east 34,091,000 991,898,000 29.1 430,356,000 43.4 872) see eva hey 35,527,000 1,092,719,000 30.8 385,736,000 35.3 TS PD.: cetaaceccemaciuas 39,197,000 932,274,000 23.8 411,961,000 44.2 MSTA cca ya cages 41,037,000 850,148,000 20.7 496,271,000 58.4 1875: sages ec ae 44 841,000 1,321,069,000 29.5 484,675,000 36.7 IBTG! arisretascae:s 49,033,000 1,283,828,000 26.2 436,109,000 34.0 BIT eas maxes 50,369,000 1,342,558,000 | 26.7 467,635,000 34.8 WS EST ch sentinag goats 51,585,000 1,388,219,000 26.9 440,281,000 31.7 DBT9 scsie cy ae sere 53,085,000 1,547,902,000 29.2 580,486,000 37.5 18800 snes cuawes 62,318,000 1,717,435,000 27.6 679,714,000 39.6 D88I-) cajoacdse ore 64,262,000 1,194,916,000 18.6 759,482,000 63.6 882.) aaisiea-nog 65,660,000 1,617,025,000 24.6 783,867,000 48.5 1883): siaiotine teas 68,302,000 1,551,067,000 22.7 658,051,000 42.4 E884 ees se sies 69,684,000 1,795,528,000 25.8 640,736,000 35.7 1885) saws eg enes 73,130,000 1,936,176,000 26.5 635,675,000 32.8 VB B6: ainsi cgue wsace 75,694,000 1,665,441,000 22.0 610,311,000 36.6 1837 gsiese gases 72,393,000 1,456,161,000 20.1 646,107,000 44.4 T8838: sshacrk eae 75,673,000 1,987,790,000 26.3 677,562,000 34.1 1889) ead odanes 78,320,000 2,112,892,000 27.0 597,919,000 28.3 1890 sedge ciems 71,971,000 1,489,970,000 20.7 754,433,000 50.6 MEGM ) i acusseones 76,205,000 2,060,154,000 27.0 836,439,000 40.6 1892) a neeoca ten 70,627,000 1,628,464,000 23.1 642,147,000 39.4 18938) swceveases 72,036,000 1,619,496,000 22.5 591,626,000 36.5 SOS: | icons ied lan stein 62,582,000 1,212,770,000 19.4 554,719,000 45.7 ES95 a sissies ourssisus 82,076,000 2,151,139,000 26.2 544,986,000 25.3 W896) ssitieig-cameenes 81,027,000 2,283,875,000 28.2 491,007,000 21.5 W897 shitting ses 80,095,000 1,902,968,000 23.8 501,073,000 26.3 1898 sskeesewes 77,722,000 1,924,185,000 24.8 552,023,000 28.7 E899 So cia eins tyre 82,109,000 2,078,144,000 25.3 629,210,000 30.3 TIOO” s saarusoeisheaey = 83,321,000 2,105,103,000 25.3 751,220,000 35.7 TOOT. os sista ecto 91,350,000 1,522,520,000 16.7 921,556,000 60.5 NOOBS «ce caeitscch eae 94,044,000 2,523,648,000 26.8 1,017,017,000 40.3 1903: es dkaewamen 88,092,000 2,244,177,000 25.5 952,869,000 42.5 HOO) csingos tase sens 92,232,000 2,467,481,000 26.8 1,087 ,461,000 44.1 1905- entices 94,011,000 2,707,994,000 28.8 1,116,697,000 41.2 41906) ducisawe aed 96,738,000 2,927,416,000 30.3 1,166,626,000 39.9 TOOT waist a eee's 99,931,000 2,592,320,000 25.9 1,336,901,000 51.6 1908 4 sew geaes 101,788,000. 2,668 ,651,000 26.2 1,616,145,000 60.6 OOO.) casey ah. ons 108,771,000 2,772,376,000 25.5 1,652,822,000 59.6 19100 aeenerecsss 104,035,000 2,886,260,000 27.7 1,384,817,000 48.0 1911 vicaseaassa 105,825,000 2,531,488,000 23.9 1,565,258,000 61.8 LOL cases wa racniee 107,083,000 3,124,746,000 29.2 1,520,454,000 48.7 1013: orien vay 105,820,000 2,446,988,000 23.1 1,692,092,000 69.1 ee ree 103,435,000 2,672,804,000 25.8 1,722,070,000 64.4 *Taken from Year Book U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. PRODUCTION OF CEREALS 13 TABLE NO. 5 PRODUCTION OF CORN AND SMALL GRAIN BY STATES. Average for Five Years, 1910-1914 inclusive. (Bushels) State Corn Wheat Oats Barley Rye (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) New England Maine ...... 711,600 75,800 5,338,600 151,000 N. Hampshire 977,000 444,200 32,800 Vermont ..... 1,871,400 27,000 3,112,800 416,800 23,000 Massachusetts 2,086,200 296,800 60,400 Rhode Island 443,000 58,400 Connecticut 2,809,600 351,200 147,600 Middle Atlantic New York ... 19,569,200 7,080,400 40,754,600 2,099,000 2,409,600 New Jersey .. 10,251,200 1,461,600 2,103,400 1,305,200 Pennsylvania 60,661,000| 21,726,200| 35,258,800 196.600] 5,127,800 East N. Central OD10% s60-55 aai 151,691,000 30,412,600 63,675,800 776,600 1,190,600 Indiana ..... 180,464,200 32,528,400 53,521,400 229,400 1,195,400 Illinois ...... 348,845,800 35,323,400] 139,745,400 1,453,600 890,400 Michigan ....| 56,848,000] 14,478,000| 48,397,600| 2,122,400) —5,482,800 Wisconsin 60,485,800 3,485,400 72,796,800 20,947,000 6,278,200 West N. Central Minnesota 81,205,000 57,197,600 94,670,000 32,704,400 4,682,800 Towa .......- 361,771,200 13,221,400 174,03 6,600 11,985,000 802,000 Missouri... 194,253,200| 33,747,400 29,501,000 "110,600 227,200 2 7 7 North Dakota 8,589,600| 83,193,400] 56,866,800| 22,968,000 1,126,000 South Dakota 64,997,400 35,849,200 37,147,200 16,708,000 543,400 Nebraska 163,641,200| $3,165,400| 58,076,200} 2,144,000| —_—+1,289,600 Kansas ...... 120,414,800 94,210,200 46,819,600 3,797,000 567,400 South Atlantic Be | ieee] see] 28) isan] ie arylan ; Virginia ..... 47,176,000; 9,809,400} 3,848,600 228,000 $77,800 West Virginia 21,251,800 3,144,400 2,632,000 207,800 North Carolina 52,581,600 6,637,000 4,058,000 392,600 South Carolina 34,697,200 882,400 7,404,000 32,800 ¥ Georgia ..... 56,807,000 1,570,000 Sa 121,200 Florida ...... 9,463,200 760,00! East S. Central Kentucky 94,123,000 9,796,800 3,676,200 82,000 256,000 ‘Tennessee 83,310,600 8,647,200 6,79 1,400 68,800 200,000 Alabama 54,065,600 355,200 6,222,400 16,600 Mississippi... | 57,072,000 60,200| 2,628,400 West S. Central Arkansas 49,317,400 5,174,800 13,200 Louisiana .... 37,649,000 1,219,000 984,200 Oklahoma 66,555,200 30,017,800 21,195,800 291,600 57,000 TEXAS. ce sceseneee 130,146,000 11,164,200 25,743,800 156,800 31,800 - ? 2 Mountain Montana 758,400 15,674,800 19,826,600 Ente oe Idaho ....... 416,200 13,908,000 14,716,600 4923, ; Wyoming .... 338,200| 1,983,000| 7,302,200 358,400 55,200 Colorado ....- 7,553,800 9,845,600 en ee 303,600 New Mexico . 2,120,400 1,274,600 1,665,600 85,40 14 CORN TABLE NO. 5—Continued PRODUCTION OF CORN AND SMALL GRAIN BY STATES. Average for Five Years, 1910-1914 inclusive. (Bushels) St aie Corn Wheat Oats Barley Rye (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels) Mountain—Cont. Arizona ..... 512,600 781,200 271,400 1,336,800 Utah ........ 304,400 5,829,800 4,131,200 1,044,000 131,200 Nevada ..... 32,000 1,072,600 444,400 487,000 Pacific Washington 881,800} 47,020,000) 13,639,200 6,832,600 161,000 Oregon ...... 583,400| 17,183,600! 13,277,400 3,620,800 323,200 California 1,922,000 7,166,000 7,335,200| 40,194,000 303,800 United States .. | 2,732,457,200 | 728,224,600 | 1,157,960,800| 183,886,600 37,196,400 By referring to Table No. 4 we find that the average yield per acre has remained practically constant since the early history of our country. Indeed, back as early as 1790, an average yield of thirty bushels was recorded. It was possible to raise 100 bushels per acre before 1830, and old Agricul- tural Society Reports show that such yields were about as common then as they are today. Table No. 5 shows an annual production of 2,732,457,000 bushels of corn, taking an average for the past five years, 1910 to 1914 inclusive, as com- pared with 728,224,600 bushels of wheat, 1,157,960,800 bushels of oats, 183,886,600 bushels of barley, and 37,196,400 bushels of rye, or a total annual production of 2,107,268,400 bushels for all cereals other than corn. The census report, together with the report from the United States De- partment of Agriculture, shows that the corn grown per capita has been stead- ily increasing since 1850. However there was a slight decline in the per capita production during the last decade. Note the following table: TABLE NO. 6 SHOWING POPULATION—TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CORN AND PER CAPITA PRODUCTION. 1850 TO 1910. Year Population | Sao a Per Capita T8560) vis. esavtongin nen analy n 23,191,876 592,071,104 25.5 L860: scat ico sineersren sieres 31,443,321 838,792,742 26.6 1870) coach nGedemesed2 38,558,471 760,944,549 19.7 1880) sega as tera 50,155,783 1,754,591,676 34.9 1890) sacs saaiaa'es eee’ 62,622,190 2,122 327,547 33.8 TQ00 see wy oad pach ebeceles 75,997,873 2,666,440,279 35.0 1910: sccavinedeswemags 93,471,648 2,886,260,000 30.8 PRODUCTION 15 ‘The highest yield per acre ever recorded was produced by Z. J. Drake, of Marlboro County, South Carolina, in 1889. On a single acre he grew 255 bushels of corn, shelled. However, much fertilizer, previous care and subsequent cultivation were found to be necessary. Nevertheless, Mr. Drake has shown what can be done. The average yield in the United States for the past fifty years has been 25.5 bushels per acre. The lowest average yield, for a single year, occurred in 1901. It amounted to 16.1 bushels. It will be remembered that that year was ex- tremely unfavorable for corn growing from nearly every standpoint. The spring was cold and wet and the summer exceedingly warm with little rainfall. The highest average yield was produced in 1872. In that year 30.8 bushels of corn were produced for every acre of ground planted. The climatological report shows only an average season. The spring was back- ward but July showers and sunshine gave the needed encouragement. The following chart shows the average yield from 1866 to 1914. CHART NO. 4. AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1866-1914Bushels 5 10 15 20 25 Bus. per acre 1911-1914 A 25.8 1901-1910 26.2 1891-1900 24.6 1881-1890 23.4 1871-1880 27.0 1866-1870 25.2 NOTE—The yields designated represent the average yield for the periods indicated to the left of the chart. 16 CORN TABLE NO. 7 SHOWING BY STATES THE AVERAGE YIELD OF CORN PER ACRE—1866-1910 (45 year average) Rank Bushels || Rank Baelitis 1 Verniont: os2-2-<--s-s-=5 35.8 26 Indian Territory -------- 26.0 2 New Hampshire ~_--__-_ 35.3 27 Tdahor SocssssouS Je s-he5 25.5 3 Massachusetts -_-------- 35.3 28 Montana ~-~~----------- 25.3 4 Mainé. 22222 sec2.ceses 33.8 29 Névada, 2.2222 4222-5 25.2 3 New Jersey --------~---~ 33.8 30 Wyoming ~-~----------- 24.0 6 Pennsylvania ~-_.-_----- 33.6 31 Oklahoma ~------------- 23.4 7 Connecticut =s:---s<-=<= 33.3 32 Delaware --------------- 23.3 8 Qhion cess sebesecesee2=. 33:2 33 Washington 2:-.s_-ss= 23.0 9 Towa < = 7 04 5u7Y FON OF ¥* _. ey px Z. —> or oF aig GE ra = et i "2 = é BUTOL ae a”. aN yaa oe 72 @ Bag Tiae ty MOF ue iP x att ae : = Z O2/x Bb) AO wob2/O | 9 ar LZ oe Le . Ts 9L QI SOL OD YOR Fe ai Z SO PE S P pe FE STP eSIYVIDSS OLY BIa4tOSI/ OD | FL aa Pe Pio Z7/o0 «7 10 +7 ~~ ee OPolO/OD ofos auth || FE wA7 (Za > 0 NA ro Tl ro +7iy LS £ AL OLAAGI erguUayoDs? FFIG| Ze wd 7 Zo zo“ KY 0 -Tl Nov s ze PLOYED YbLOR o2/xabJ MAW TC To Kk ZO _* zo Pre 1 0 47 \| or = Ze LAA PHPITUOD Pus, *PO4Y | Oo fo 7 pe Z'O [P20 So of y™ re LL. cas ° BAOMO/LIT PLY SUM«Y LY MAK | C2 co 7 zo) 20 4/0 | rw TOV YD = ee OPIIOTF aura) oz fo = |X 0 #7 IN £0 zo zoe XK 7 = @ Asse Mar FAAP PIUUOD LZ £0 Yo 4 hye 20 Pozo Mw Lo ror | Zz PLe[hiepy UNS UOISIAA| IZ £04 Le £0 ae ye OF 79 O 90 NIV ae 92 CLUB A AS 2M OPI7e/ 4 || sa £0 xy + co ro Pogo < | #90 KV Sz BLOKE, fYolusaprlre £o #7 SO ror AN 4-240 go X¥KYYS Ss be BU//OLED Y4IN0S FPL ASNGIAOS SOU OF $O 7 NA 20-4 ov Va 20 > 90 #7 C7 rr. ce UWGUOIS/M 3412M0/2q0| 27 FSO Seo = 4 7 Seo _ (LL _ zo wz \S F Zales) PFOYEdW Y400S woblqathy 12 ov a2! <7 77 if \(_* €o P20 ¥ \F ey 4% iP 72 |e OIL OTA SOX PLN OO Or Nn TA sy ST Fel RITA e774 LA eT me - Oe BLOS BULLS eMos| es sv 4 eof Zev pel iw el Ly _ £7 TX 6 BUY OIOD Yd Aassep Mi | 8) ST XT BT AIX eT 47 a4 fr _ 27 VJ ey Ss a/ DUOlsIN07 SOSTO¥IE || ZT ST NYS OF aN SY Ze ANN re KK PET Loe sy ~ Lf BUsOqele oUoIStnro7|| ot if AR fe WV Vr fe AVEO Ss IAG eT SST RYT o7 OSU OM ASUULIS PuojAs2 bf || $7 a7 7% vz _<\ z@ LP a7 _ 7 oe tL We 27 RR ev 01109 BUYIOD HAO FT Ge 7 Vo oe Yee <7 (ip Ll_ *® Soe _ 27 S oF LIDISSTIE STS ytd Mahl | LI OF Le PE ASK oe 4/7 Zv_ 99 VOo_ * or al i 7> g SONAL sassaut/al lS Ba DIL Lg Ze? Sw _ £6 Hs OL OY > £ CUO, oUe Pu |e GE) $5 é PTF 7 Sz O7 ez e BYSOLTON Soop € Zé 827|_ * 28 68 7 [Se Sees FE ~ £ (ADO FSI Ayoniuay |e 6G g Sf 6 = a ZE/ oe z omor 240 ITT oo;e | * LE Ls 91 | GR | 6 o/s / SIOOMMT 2108S OSS 0987 OLE/ ose os B/ oo6/ eee) 2f OLS As we leave the table on production we are prepared for a closer study of the progress made by each state during a corresponding period. The following diagram shows the rank of each state by consecutive decades from 1850 to 1910. by each state for the same period. 18 PO YIOT 404 UOLINPOIG [OfO, JO fUa21Aad OSj0 BUIMOYS OlE/ -OGB/ 4IOD f9 HOLfINPOM Hl B4OLG GYIOF fO YHOU PRODUCTION 19 Taking the states ranking from one to five, inclusive, in 1910 we find Illinois first. Following the darts to the right we disclose the fact that only in 1890 and 1850 did this state fall, below first place in production. In 1850, at which time it ranked third, it produced 9.7 per cent of the total production of the United States, and in 1910, 13.2 per cent. Iowa stood seventeenth place in rank in 1850, first in 1890, and first in 1913. Missouri ranked sixth in 1850, and third in 1910. Nebraska, when first reported in 1860, ranked thirty-first, and in 1910, ranked fourth. Indiana fell from fourth place in 1850 to fifth place in 1910. Considering now just the ten states leading in production in 1913 let us note first the following chart: CHART NO. 5 PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE TEN LEADING STATES 1910-1914 IN- CLUSIVE—MILLIONS OF BUSHELS Per cent of 100 200 300 Total Production Towa 13.2 Illinois 12.7 Missouri 7.1 Indiana 6.2 ~ Nebraska 5.1 Ohio 5.0 Texas 4.7 Kansas 4.4 Kentucky - 3.4 Tennessee 3.0 Total cceseee sescsvare eee 64.8 Together these ten states produced 64.8 per cent or nearly two-thirds of the entire crop. Iowa, which was the heaviest producer, furnished 13.2 per. cent of the entire crop, or 361,771,000 bushels. Illinois stood second with 12.7 per cent of the entire crop, or 348,846,000 bushels. Missouri ranked third with 7.1 per cent of the entire production or 194,253,000 bushels. Indiana followed in fourth place with 6.2 per cent, or 180,464,000 bushels. Nebraska in fifth place produced 5.1 per cent of the entire crop, or 163,641,000 bushels. Ohio ranked sixth with 5.0 per cent of the entire crop, or 151,691,000 bushels. 20 CORN Texas ranked seventh with 4.7 per cent of the entire crop or 130,146,000 bushels. Kansas stood eighth with 4.4 per cent, or 120,415,000 bushels. Ken- tucky stood ninth with 3.4 per cent, or 94,123,000 bushels. And tenth Ten- nessee with 3.0 per cent, or 83,311,000 bushels. The standing of the other states may be taken from the preceding charts. As has already been intimated, the future increase in the production of corn in this country depends upon something more than increased acreage. We must now look to our seed selection, cultivation and crop rotation. VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP The proceeds from a single year’s production of corn in the United States, considering only the raw product, would pay off our national debt. If the entire annual crop were to be moved at one time the transaction would take over one-third of all the money in circulation in this country. In 1914 the crop was valued at $1,722,070,000. If this crop were to be paid for in silver it would require twenty-two trains of 100 cars, each of 40,000 pounds capacity, to haul the silver. Or if these silver dollars were placed face to face as one would arrange them in a pile, it would form a solid silver rope over 2,000 miles long. i CHART NO. 6. i THE VALUE OF THE CORN CROP AS COMPARED WITH THE ENTIRE VALUE OF ALL CEREAL CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1866-1914. Millions of Dollars Per cent of value 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 All Cereals 1911-1914 ] 56.9 1901-1910 55.1 1891-1900 7 51.9 1881-1890 izes 52.2 1871-1880 49.7 1866-1870 54.1 Black portion of bar represents value of corn. Entire length of bar represents value of all cereals. NOTE—The valuations designated in the above chart represent an av- erage for periods indicated to left of chart. From the preceding chart we find that the value of the corn crop is greater than that of all other cereals combined. For the past fifty years it has aggre- gated, approximately, 54 per cent of the entire value of all cereals, including corn itself. gf VALUE OF CORN CROP 21 The value of the annual corn crop from 1866 to 1914 may be ascertained by referring to Table No. 4, on page 12. It is governed largely by produc- tion, varying slightly with the demand. The highest average price paid for corn in this country is recorded for 1901, and corresponds to the year of lowest average yield. An average taken over any number of years for yields per acre and price per bushel shows a marked co-relation between the two. Yet this statement must be qualified to meet the changing conditions of the times. For instance, the average price during the last ten years has been higher than for any previous de- cade following 1870. The average yield per acre for the past fifty years has been 25.5 bushels, and the average price for the same period has been 41.6 cents. This means only $10.60 total income from each acre de- voted to corn as an average for fifty years. By referring to the annual report of the Department of Agriculture, the average price in the different states varies greatly. The highest aver- age price for the past year (1914) is recorded for Arizona and it amounted to $1.20 per bushel, while the lowest price of 50 cents per bushel is found in South Dakota. A close study of this table covering a term of years, shows that the prices increase as you move away from the center of production and vice versa, depending considerably, too, upon density of population and shipping facilities. In comparing the value of the corn crop of the United States with that of each of the other cereal crops for the period 1910 to 1914 inclusive note the following chart: CHART NO. 7. VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP AS COMPARED WITH OTHER CEREAL CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES 1910-1914 inclusive. Millions of Dollars. er cent 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 of Total Corn 56.8 Wheat - 22.3 Oats 16.0 Barley 3.9 Rye - Bs 1.0 Let us now consider from a similar standpoint each of the states con- cerned in the production of corn, taking an average of five years, 1910-1914 inclusive. We will note first the comparative value of this crop as related to that of all other cereal crops. The states will be considered separately. Throughout the corn belt the annual value of the corn crop approximates about 25 per cent of -the total value of all farm products including livestock, dairy products, etc. (2) CORN 22 VET 69L 000‘E8T 000°ES€'T 008‘0Ez'¢ 009‘9S8'ST | BYUTsIrA 4sa Ay L9G gEL 008‘r6+ 00r‘Z91 002'6z0‘7 009'862'6 008'Z8E'bE pcreee ss BIUISITA Zeb 8S 008‘6rs 008'69 000'sT9 00+'T8S‘6 008‘9¢S ‘tT porns puepsreyy cre 8°s9 008‘ZI 000°LS 000's98‘T 000‘SEL‘s PE ee SAB AB [AGL IHUDELP Yyinos 079 O°8E 008°8cr 00b‘8Z2‘T | 007Z8E'8T 00F‘9+0‘T8 OORLzHZ9 "+ sesuey St bes 009'T bs 000°F10'L | 008'88e‘0z 009'bz8'tb OOP9EL‘LL “ae SENSE IgaNy 0°79 O'8E 000‘0S€ 009‘0Es‘8 | 006'096TT 002‘026'8z 00b‘'9Z5‘0E “* Bx0¥eC, YINOS $56 ob 009°9ZZ 000‘bCE'TT | 007F8L°LT 00z‘T08‘Z9 OOP TIL'b BI0xeq YON 0°82 OL 009‘281 008°ZZ O00'E ETT 009‘06z'‘0E OOs‘OSe'ZOE Tnosstyqy OTE 0°69 000‘Sbs 009'99¢°Z 00z‘T0S‘Zs 00z‘SST‘TT O00'C6L'0LE =| BAAOT Cel 8°LZ 008°E£0'E 008b9L'SI 009'9S7'LE 009‘Z10'6+ 009‘Z87'6E 7077 BjosauutyAy [94}UID YIAON 159 ff S8S St 00z‘ESs‘t i 000°bO7‘FI ' 900‘E0S‘Zz | O08‘ZIT'E OOO'TSI'SE eS UISUODST AA 6s T'8b 009‘SOT'+ | 008*be+'t | 009‘0S0°6T OOP TEP EL 008‘tz'S€ Scott UeSTYSIAy SE SL9 00+‘099 000‘E£6 | 00bPE0‘OS 009'€0z‘zE OOroTebzE Ft srour[| ISE +9 000°E28 009'T+I 007'SPT‘6T 00z'1Z0‘0E 00+*L08'06 o * BueIpUy 6°6E T09 000906 00708+ | 009'FSS “bz 000'969'8z o0z‘s6c'78 fo oryo \ | [D44UID YI4ONT ISD] Tos 66+ 009'ES6'¢ _ 00z'ZET 000‘Z£0‘9T 007‘L+9'0Z 009'959‘0+ eyuvalAsuuad LUE £19 009‘Fr0'T 008‘000°T 00r‘eSt'T 007°961'L [itt Aaszaf many 899 Z'Es 00z‘ZE6'T ' 900'69S'T 008'296'81 00+696'9 0076 19‘FT orrtss YIOX Man es : ‘ | ‘ j HMDUE 2IPPHIL ect | LL8 00z‘S EI | | 008‘08T 000'8+z'Z pote 7 qnoneuU0| 69 | 1'£6 » 00b'0E 008‘0I+ (0+ pue[sy apouy STL 5°88 0006s | | 009°ZST 008699'T | 1 SHasnypesse Ay $°8S Sit 002‘0z | OOF 6TE | 008'959'T 000°4z OOF TZ+'T ports s + JUOULI3 A, (£9 “el | 009°9¢ | 00F Zz | OOr'ssZ arysduey Man 6° ES “VIL 00801 $ , o0oc%es'z ¢ | 00+ LL 000s 8s Soper mares eure | PuDIBUT whan Het) MEUUS | seo) (sie][oqd) ' (ste[joq) (sre[[ocy) | sie [jo Sie [[O sdo1) [ea1a5 50 aay | Ree | Hod Gesisee ( ia ' ALLY LS | ane [BIOL Jo yuan J9g s1eO | “HAISNTONI +161-016l ‘SUWAA AAIA YO AOVUAAV Or ‘ON ATHVL ‘NIVYD TIVWS AGNV NYOO AO ANTVA VALUE OF CORN CROP BV tr W6o'9S 00zrs9'Lz $ OU9TES‘6OL $ 00F606'7tb $ 00z‘6£9'6c9 $ | OOb6ItS6s‘T¢ | °°°* SAIeIS pauy 6°S6 Vt 00+'6SZ | 008'€66'9Z 00zES0'r 002929 009°zs9'T str s BYUTOFT] eS) 0°86 0% 002'LL2 | 009'zbr'z 002'929's 009‘E+6'ET OOO'TSh ft 403210 9°86 +1 00F‘0Z1 o0z‘TEs‘¢ o0r's+s's 008'661'9¢ 00z°Z29 “7+ uolduryse AA IY¥1IV 0°86 0 008‘T8E 00r'19z 008‘rz0'T 007c'Es epeaan 8°96 ze 009‘z8 002'96S 008°698'T 00z'sEs‘t COO CEE” MEP HOE eS qein +'6L £02 000‘T90‘T 008‘08T 009‘E28 000‘zss euoziiy 9°SS tr 009‘z9 006828 008‘s0z‘T 008°8TZ‘T “77 OOIKaTAT Many LSL £+Z 008981 00+'96b'T 008‘840'S 000‘S+6‘Z OOF6OL fe opelojoD $86 91 00+ s+ 009‘E8t's 00F's9b's 008'S73'6 oorzoe oyepl 1°56 er 00z'T+ O0r'bEz 000‘TEZ‘s 000'r89'T 008‘EEz sores Buru0d A z'L6 82 000'STT, 002'Z88 008'b6r'Z 00z'F9Z‘TT 000'68S Pee ee BuRWUOAL MIDIUNO IT 6°61 108 003‘zE 00r‘9Z1 Oor‘bTr‘zI 008‘SZZ‘0T 009‘E09‘E6 sotstes ss SBxaT tt 9°SS 008'TS 00r‘09T 000‘0z+'8 008‘208'0z 000'708'9E = ft BWOYe YO ce 8°16 008°ZLS 008'€£6'SZ "ress BuBIsMoT 16 6°06 008‘ZI 000°¢+9‘Z 009‘E+1'T | 000'FE9"rs Pee sesueyiy 19.4uay y4nog 183,44 Be Z96 009‘T£9'T i 00z‘z9 | 000692‘ ‘+++ ddississiyy 9°6 +06 =| = o0z‘0z 008‘€60'+ 0028+ + 000‘T00‘E+ eweqely Lt £18 008‘S6T 00+'9S 00z'S8E‘s ~ 008'Sz9'8 | 00z‘z9z‘Es assouua J, LO £°E8 o0c'T Ez 009‘z9 00908Z'T | 009°E8+"6 Oorth9'sS fe * Ayonquayy | 10.44ua) YINOY Isvz $°9 S°£6 o00'rEs | 000‘929‘Z Soettsss BpLopy ott 0°98 002‘OLT 000‘8S9‘s | 00c/8F6'r © 00Z'8LZ0°8F " e1d103H O'LT 0°€8 0048+ | 00991 T'S ' 008°8Er'T | 000‘OET‘TE Buljoled yNog Host BWvTs 008°66 $ oorrzs‘z $ | coz tszz $$ | OorIsZsr $¢ BuljoIed WON i I ‘JUOV—INUDIIP *S uledy [Jews | ul07y i Sd0Iy [B2I9D jo ag (sxetlod) (ste[1oc]) \ (s1e][0q) (sze]]0q ) ; Jail oT ao aa) ez aAy Aapieg S180 Jeay AA wi07 ALVIS “HAISOTONI FI6T-O16T ‘SUVAA FAIA YOA TOVUAAV penunuo)—ot ‘ON ATHVL ‘NIVHO TIVWS GNV NYOO JO ANIVA 24 CORN THE PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES MEXICO The Awakening In Agriculture In Mexico Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer was commissioned in 1906 to investigate Mexican Agricultural conditions. In his report (spring of 1908), he recommended the establishment of a Department of Agriculture for the nation. The Mexican National Railroad, in the summer of 1908, made plans to put on special corn trains, such as has been done over. the corn belt of the United States. A great many ranchers in Chihuahua and Durango have for some time employed improved methods and selected their seed corn. Presi- dent Diaz was always interested in the farmers. A leader in the greater movement is Mr. Zeferino Dominguez, a Mexican owner of large haciendas in the Northeast Mexico. His trips to the United States have resulted in the introduction of better seed. A great many students from the northern states of Mexico have graduated from the Agricultural Colleges of the United States. The greatest good will come with increased facilities for irrigation. The Peonage System All work of an agricultural nature is done by the peon or native. The landlords own very large tracts of land. Many ranches contain one million acres. Ten thousand acre haciendas are common. These owners furnish each peon family with an adobe house, a yoke of oxen, seed, and such rude agricultural implements as are considered necessary. The peon is charged with one-half the seed, and the rent- ing price of the oxen. Any food bought is charged against him at the store which appears on the larger ranches. At the end of the year settlements are made after the landlord has deducted all advances made to the peon during the season. Farm laborers who are paid ‘lirectly receive certain daily rations and ten dollars Mexican (five 4llars gold), a total of fifteen dollars Mexican, per year. PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. 25 The Tortilla, the Bread of the Natives of Mexico The “tortilla” or “corn cake” of Mexico is the “staff of life’ of go per cent of the native Mexican people. The total annual consump- tion of tortillas is valued at $76,560,000 gold. The tortilla is made from shelled corn which has been put in an earthenware jar and covered with rather strong lime water and allowed to soak over night. The swollen grains are then ground be- tween mill stones. The hull, being very tender because of soaking, is ground with the kernel. Every town of one thousand inhabitants has a mill of this kind. The ground mass comes out:as a doughy “massa.” During the grinding, cold water is slowly poured on the meal through the mill. Hence the ground material is about three-fourths greater in bulk than the original swelled kernels. The regulation size of the tortillas is from four to five inches in diameter. They are served with strips of mutton or beef and seasoned with salt and “salsa,” or “sauce.” The baking which requires but three minutcs is done over charcoal burners. The Production of Corn in Mexico Mexico is second among all corn growing countries from the stand- point of acreage, yet the production is insufficient for domestic needs and several million bushels are imported annually from the United States. Some sections, such as Chihuahua and Colima, seem well suited naturally to corn production, while in other localities irrigation is essential. The temperature may fall below the freezing point in December, but the mean annual temperature ranges from 60 to 75 degrees, Fahr- enheit. The rainfall varies from about 10 inches in Lower California to 50 or 55 inches in Colima. The average yield of corn is given at 15 to 40 bushels per acre. The flint types are grown mostly, but in some sections a soft starchy variety is produced. The price per bushel ranges from 56 cents to $1.40, or even higher. The method followed by the Indians in corn production is very primitive. First, the land is burned over to get rid of trees, brush and weeds. The corn is then planted without further preparation of the land. A pointed stick serves to make the hole into which the seed is dropped and covered over with a little dirt, either by hand or foot. Perhaps the weeds are cut once during the season with a hoe. Aside from this, no cultivation is given. 26 CORN In other places, wooden plows, or even disc plows are used on large farms and ranches. One man plows the soil, then makes a fur- row in which a boy alternately drops three grains of corn and two of beans. When the corn is a few inches high, it is banked up and two or three cultivations are given with the plow. The corn, when ripe, is topped over the ear, and the toppings used for fodder. After the -frst frost, the ears are stripped by hand and thrown into a basket car- ried upon the back of a peon. Cattle are then turned into the field to pick what is left. In addition to the flint and dent varieties, some pod corn is grown. “Mais de Riego,” or:irrigated corn is planted after the frost when the soil is warm, during the month of March. The growing period is of seven months, and produces, as a rule, from 300 to 500 bushels of corn for each bushel planted. The “mais poblano,” planted during the early rains in May, needs four months to grow and produces as much as 200 bushels of corn for each bushel planted. The “mais temporal,” or “pepitills” is seeded during the regular rains of June and July and is harvested three months afterward, producing from 50 to 100 bushels tor each bushel planted. CORN PRODUCTION IN SOUTH AMERICA Aside from Argentine Republic and Brazil, very little data is available on corn production. In 1912 Chile reported one and a half million bushels, and Uruguay eight million bushels. However, some corn is grown in practically all of the South American countries, mostly of the flint type on account of the weevil which causes consid- erable damage in the grain when stored. Argentine Republic Argentine Republic extends over 2,300 miles of latitude. Of the four provinces, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, and Entre Rios, the first two are the largest corn producers. These areas lie within the limits of 35 and 30 degrees south latitude. [Towever, some good corn is grown as far north as 24 degrees south latitude. The average annual temperature at Buenos Aires from 1886 to 1875 was 62.9 degrees, from 1876 to 1895, 61.5 degrees, and from 1897 to 1g00, 63.1 degrecs. These represent quite fairly the averages of the principal corn regions. The temperature in this part of the corn belt ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 27 seldom rises above 95 degrees, but seems much higher because of the excessive humidity of the atmosphere. The corn district of Argentine has an average annual rainfall of 31.52 to 39.40 inches, which is quite evenly divided between the two seasons, I The corn land, being owned by wealthy landlords, is farmed by renters or “colonists” who have no serious ideas of home-building. The different ranches are specialized in different crops. Alfalfa or wheat may be grown entirely for a series of years. Rents range from $1.25 to $4.50 per acre. Usually one-half of this must be paid in advance. : Corn planting begins August 15th and may continue as late as January 15th. The safest time, however, is September 15th to De- cember 31st. The early planted corn usually yields more heavily. The rows range from 10 to 36 inches apart. During the last few years a number of American corn planters are being introduced, but all of them are used simply for drilling, no checking being done. When the plants are two or three inches in height the land is harrowed. Nothing more is done until the corn is 12 inches high, wh2n an implement with a double mold-board like a lister is run through and the rows hilled up. No fear of frost presses the farmers in regard to selecting the seed corn early, and the ears often remain on the stalk for two months after matured. However, the farmers are very anxious to get the corn gathered and shelled in order to reach the seaboard before the wet season begins. Hence, some years a great deal of immature corn is shipped out. In 1902 Argentina exported 55.75 per cent of the corn produced. With development in the packing and slaughtering meth- ods more corn will be fed at home. In Argentina corn culture has in recent years made great strides. From three million acres in 1900, plantings have been rapidly ex- tended, and a recent estimate of the Argentine Department of Agri- culture puts the land seeded for the crop maturing in the spring of 1914 at 10,250,000 acres. A distinctive feature of corn growing in Argentina is that the bulk of the crop is raised for export. Preemi- nently a pastoral country, the vast fields of alfalfa, and a mild climate that permits grazing in a great part of the pastoral zone practically the year round, minimize the demand for corn as an animal food; consid- erably less than 100 million bushels meets the annual domestic re- quirements for all purposes. As during the past two years the pro- duction has amounted respectively, to 296. million and 197 million 28 CORN bushels, Argentina has figured as the most important single source of supply for the great importing nations of Europe. Exports to all countries out of the banner crop of 1912 amounted to 190 million bushels. If the present rate of increase in culture be maintained, the Republic would doubtless be in a situation eventually to supply single handed the entire import demand of all European states. Within the last few years increasing quantities of corn have been imported into the United States from the Argentine, most of which has been consigned to the Corn Products Refining Co., of New York, for manufacturing purposes. The importations, however of the 1913 crop have exceeded those of former years, the total importations from July 1, 1913, to February 13, 1914, as reported by Bradstreet’s being 7,132,980 bushels, approximately 85 per cent of which was discharged at Atlantic ports, and the remainder at Gulf ports. Argentine being the corn belt of the Southern Hemisphere, the crop matures approximately six months in advance of corn in the United States, so that export shipments begin during the early part of June. The duration of the voyage from the Argentine to the United States under favorable conditions is approximately 30 days. While the total production of corn in the Argentine under the most favorable conditions is considerably below the production in the state of Illinois, less than half of the Argentine crop is consumed within the Republic, so that the Argentine exports have greatly ex- ceeded those of the United States during the past few years. The Argentine corn is handled in burlap bags containing from 130 to 135 pounds, in direct contrast to the corn from the United States, which is exported mainly in bulk. The most common method of discharging cargoes at United States ports is to hoist with crane and tackle from 12 to 15 bags at a time and shift them to barges or lighters alongside the vessel, where the corn is inspected as the bags are opened. From seven to fifteen days are usually required to unload a cargo, depending largely on the condition and quality of corn and the weather. Corn as grown in Argentina consists almost exclusively of the hard, flinty varieties with medium to small kernels, mostly yellow in color. North American varieties like the Hickory King, a white corn, and Queen, a yellow variety, have been tried with success. The char- acter of the corn, having both small cobs and small kernels, results in a much lower moisture content in the Argentina shelled corn than is normally contained in the large dent varieties of the United States. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 29 As a result of the small size of the kernels, the Argentina corn can not carry, without increased danger of deterioration, as high a percentage of water as the larger dent corns of the United States. On the other hand, the hard and firm texture of the Argentina corn is such that it can be “conditioned” to much better advantage than our dent corns. During the summer of 1912, through the courtesies of the Corn Products Refining Company and the grain inspection department of the New York Produce Exchange, several cargoes of corn from Ar- gentina were examined at the time of discharge at the port of New York. The average results of mechanical analyses on 157 samples from four of the cargoes, representing a total of 638,000 bushels, are contained in Table 11. The data shown in this table represents new corn of the crop of 1912. * TABLE NO. 11 *SHOWING AMOUNT OF MOISTUREIN ARGENTINA CORN. we ge Hy 2g 2a “3 4 § 3 Aaz Ae | 2éé as 38 Baa a6 | Baod y, oe, Oct. 19 | 35 55 180,000 14.55 | 60.87 | 93.84 | 0.10 htt ee July 8 | 27 | 48 | 260,000 | 14.80 | 60.10 | 95.28 17 Gees ke, Aug. 4 | 45 28 66,000 17.02 | 57.75 | 63.74 .28 De2eses Aug. 5 34 | 26 132,000 15.43 | 60.01 90.02 17 Total_____ | 157 | 638,000 60.05 | 90.50 16 Average moisture content of four cargoes, 15.10 per cent. From Table 11 it will be seen that the average moisture content of the total 638,000 bushels was 15.1 per cent, the weight per bushel more than 60 pounds, the percentage of sound corn 90.5 and the dirt, chaff, cob, etc., approximately one-sixth of one per cent. During the months of December, 1913 and January, 1914, samples to the number of 591 were secured from 16 different cargoes, of Ar- gentina corn as discharged at New York and at Gulf ports. The aver- age moisture content of these samples (old corn of the 1913 crop) was 13.7 per cent, or 6.6 per cent less than the average moisture content of corn shipped from country stations in central Illinois during Decem- ber, 1913, and January, 1914, the latter being new corn of the 1913 crop. From the standpoint of moisture content alone this represents a difference in value of approximately 52 cents per bushel, based on a New York price of about 70 cents per bushel, not giving consideration to the increased danger of deterioration of high moisture corn. While the average moisture content of the Argentina corn is low, a consider- *Agricultural Outlook, March 18, 1914. 30 CORN able quantity is damaged, musty, sour and heating when discharged. This is evidenced by the fact that of the 591 samples previously re- ferred to, the maximum moisture content was 41.6 per cent, the mini- mum being Y.2 per cent. \ considerable quantity of Argentina corn is likewise infested with weevil. Samples of screenings from practically all of the cargoes have been submitted -to Dr. F. H. Chittenden, in charge of Truck- Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations of the Bureau of En- tomology, but no new species have been found. A wide diversity of opinion exists as to the chemical composition of Argentina corn as compared with the dent varieties of the United States. While the data available are not sufficient to justify the draw- ing of any definite conclusions, the results of the chemical analyses of a limited number of samples ‘of Argentina corn is superior, from the standpoint of chemical composition, to our dent corn as loaded for export at our Atlantic and Gulf ports as shown in Table 12. Table 12 shows the average results of the chemical analyses of 98 samples of Argentina corn, representing four cargoes with a total of 638,000 bushels of the crop of 1912, as discharged at New York, to- gether with the average of the analyses of 129 samples of North Amer- ican corn, representing two cargoes of the 1910 crop and two cargoes of the 1911 crop with a total of 910,146 bushels as loaded for export. . *TABLE NO. 12 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FOUR CARGOES OF ARGEN- TINA FLINT CORN AS DISCHARGED AT NEW YURK AND FOUR CARGOES OF NORTH AMERICAN DENT CORN AS LOADED FOR EXPORT, CALCULATED TO \ WATER FREE BASIS. | .\RGENTINE ‘ NortH AMERICA Irem | CornCrop of 1912 as Im- | Corn Crops of 1910 and 1911 _ ported at New York | as Loaded for Export Peli gee eee ee i L72 1.43 Ether extract (oil)_------------ 5.52 4.07 PrOteit asec 2 ee ee ease 11.01 9.81 Ciude nbér ee ee | 1.99 2.18 PSntOSAnSy await a a 6.02 6.19 Invert sugar eo eae 30 38 SUCTOSEY (See ee oes eee | 1.08 1.13 Acid calculated as acetic.~_-_____ 33 | 28 Undetermined _~_~-------_____ | 72.03 | 74.53 Chemical analyses of the individual sample made by Cattle Banilaand Gran TAbordlany isl the Bureau of Chemistry. From Table 12 it will be scen that the ether extraet or oil was *NXgricultural Outlook, Mareh 18, 1914, BRAZIL 31 approximately 1.5 per cent greater in the Argentina corn than in the United States corn, while the protein was 1.2 per cent greater. In the consideration of these analyses it is necessary to note that they represent commercial corn and are therefore not comparable with the analyses shown in text books, which are based on selected, hand shelled samples.* Brazil Brazil is a republic of South America. The southeastern portion. is mountainous. The central northeastern and western parts are oc- cupied by a great plateau with the low plains of the Amazon to the north and those of Paraguay to the west. This country is awakening to the need of diversified agriculture, and it is certain that more corn will be grown there in the future. In many parts of Brazil two crops can be grown and high yields are easily obtained. The average yield of corn grown per acre is larger than that of the United States. The average price is about seventy-five cents per bushel. The flint type is almost universally grown. The temperature and rainfall is quite variable and cultivation practices rather crude. There are several ex- perimental farms in operation, however, and it is certain that corn growing will receive a stimulating impetus in the future. : CORN PRODUCTION IN EUROPE In the Eastern hemisphere the principal maize growing regions are southern Europe, Asia, the Mediterranean countries of Africa and the Union of South Africa. In southern Europe the crop is grown for the grain on an expanse of territory extending from west to east across the entire continent and reaching northward from the Mediterranean and Black Seas to latitudes including Switzerland and a small part of southern Ger- many. The value of the luxuriant semi-tropical foliage of the plant has, moreover, extended its cultivation for fodder into countries where the seasons of warm sunshine are too short for the grain to mature, and hence maize is grown for forage to a greater or less extent in many countries of northern Europe even as far north as Scotland. In southern Europe the crop is cultivated for grain on an aggre- gate of about 30 million acres, the total annual production usually rang- ing between 600 million and 700 million bushels. The variety raised *By J. W. T. Duvel, Crop Technologist, in Agricultural Outlook Mar. 18, 1914. 32 CORN is for the most part the small grained yellow flint, designated by English-speaking people as “round maize” in distinction from the “flat” or large-grained dent variety, consisting of white and yellow mixed, which reaches European markets from the United States. In Portugal, corn, known in the vernacular as ‘“‘milho,” is cultivated on a much larger scale than any other cereal and constitutes, among other uses, the chief food of the peasant class. Spain and France have each over a million acres under maize. Concentrated in the northern part of the former country and southern part of the latter there are extensive districts where it is the chief grain cultivated and the principal reliance of the peasants for human food. “Granoturco,” the Italian name for corn, is grown annually in Italy on an extent of about four million acres, and in two provinces, Lom- bardy and Ventia, on a somewhat more extensive scale than is wheat; polenta, a dish prepared from corn, is in parts of the kingdom the staff of life of the masses. Upward of a million bushels are raised annually in Greece, and in 1910 the annual output of European Turkey was officially returned as 22 million bushels. Corn culture in Europe, however, is largely centralized in a group of countries comprising Austria Hungary, Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, and in the southern governments of Russia. In this terri- tory upward of 20 million acres are planted annually and the normal yield is approximately 50 million bushels, The important position the crop occupies in the agriculture of these countries is indicated by the fact that in Hungary proper, the principal corn-growing country of Europe, and in Bulgaria, the acre- age is second only to that of wheat, while in Roumania, where the grain is known as “porumb,” and in Servia, where it is called “cu- curaz,” it is more extensive than that of any other cereal. Excepting Austria-Hungary, whose annual production is a few million bushels short of domestic requirements, corn is grown in the rest of this territory in surplus quantities. Aggregate exports usually ranging between 50 million and 80 million bushels a year, are made from Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia and Russia to Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain and chiefly to the non-producing states of north Europe.* The total production of corn in Austria-Hungary in 1910 exceeded that of 1890 by 50 per cent. Hungary produces the greater part of the total crop, the soil in the western part of this latter country being ex- ceedingly fertile. The climate is typically continental: cold in winter *Chas. M. Daugherty in Agricultural Outlook March 18, 1914, ASIA 33 and hot in summer. The mean annual temperature at Budapest varies from 0.7 degrees C. in January to 20.4 degrees C. in July. In Hungary 75.1 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture, while in Austria the percentage is 55. In Austria proper 34.45 per cent of the land is arable. CORN PRODUCTION IN ASIA Outside of America and Europe the most extensive corn-growing area in the world is in Asia, notably in Turkey, southern Asiatic Rus- sia, British India, French Indo-China, the Philippines, China and Japan. Although the crop in none of these countries attains the pro- portions of a principal one, there are localities in most of them where its culture is of great local importance. In Asiatic Turkey an official report indicated over 900,000 acres under cultivation in 1911, and in 1911 a small area of 150,000 acres was returned in Asiatic Russia—in Ferghana, Samarkand and Syr-Daria. In British India, where in some districts food made from corn is the chief article of native diet, over six million acres are planted yearly. An annual area of over one million acres is grown in the Philip- pines and upward of 130,000 acres in Japan. Statistical record of the area and yield in China and Indo-China is non-existant. It is known, however, that the grain is grown to a con- siderable extent in parts of China, and in the northern part its value as a human and animal food is supplemented by the general use of the stalks as fuel. In the French colony, Indo-China, the growing popu- larity of the culture is indicated by the fact that the annual imports into the mother country from this possession increased from 571,000 to 3,710,000 bushels during the period 1906 to 1911. CORN PRODUCTION IN AFRICA Corn is grown quite generally on the Continent of Africa, but, ex- cepting that it is an important article of food among the native tribes of the central colonies, definite information respecting the extent of its culture is limited to the countries along the Mediterranean and to the Union of South Africa. In Egypt, the principal producing country, the area (about 1,900,- 000 acres) is more extensive than that of cotton; the grain constitutes the chief food of the Egyptian fellah and enters almost wholly into domestic consumption. 34 CORN Small areas are also cultivated in Tunis, Algeria, Tripoli and Morocco. In the Union of South Africa the raising of “mealies”, the local name for corn, has in late years been attracting much attention; the acreage, notably in Natal, has been much extended and, at the taking of the census of 1911, the total South African production was found to have increased to over 30 million bushels. In normal years a few mil- lion bushels are now available for export. Corn, it may be added, is grown on a small scale in the northern latitudes of Australia and New Zealand, and in many islands through- out the world for which few statistics are extant. COLLATERAL READING In extending the research relative to the history and past produc- tion of corn, most excellent references may be found in the old files of the Iowa State Library at Des Moines, in the Historical Building. A complete file of old Agricultural Reports and farm journals, with a splendid botanical library, furnish an abundance of material for further work. Anyone who is not located within range of this library, how- ever, may do well in other state or national libraries or in any private library where special efforts have been made in securing and cata- loging data bearing on farm problems. 35 CULTIVATION CTING < DIRI PIAA eYW puesnoyy e fo UuOTIBATI[N) 9d Bunoaaitc] “LAINOSSITA ‘Oryse jo ulyuey Pplavqd 7k, IY 4 CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL CHAR- ACTERISTICS CLASSIFICATION The Polymorphic species (Zea mays) is divided into six distinct sub-groups by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant.* His classification is based upon an extended examination of almost 800 varieties. This grouping is founded on the internal structure of the kernels of the cultivated varieties and the presence of a husk on each kernel in the so-called aboriginal form. The following species-groups are established: I. ZEA TUNICATA—The Pod Corn. This is also known as primitive corn. In this group each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk, and the ear thus formed is also enclosed in husks. The seed is sup- plied by our seedsmen for growing as a curiosity. Instances are on record where seemingly the dent corn has reverted to this type. The kernel itself is rather hard and flinty. II. ZEA EVERTA.—The Pop Corns. This species-group is characterized by the excessive proportion of the corneous endosperm and the small size of the germs, kernels and ears. The best varieties have a corneous endosperm throughout. This gives the property of popping, which is the complete eversion or turning inside out of the kernel, through the explosion of the contained moisture on the appli- cation of heat. This type is very hardy and the embryo has wonder- ful germinative vitanty. Its culture is an important industry in cer- tain districts near the larger cities. Tl. ZEA INDURATA—The Flint Corns. A species-group readily recognized by the occurrence of a starchy endosperm enclosed in a corneous endosperm, as shown in a split seed. This corneous endosperm varies in thickness with varieties. It is grown farther north than any of the other types. The kernel is therefore usually *Bulletin No. 57 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION 37 very shallow, containing very little white starch and maturing in a short time. There are generally eight rows to the cob, though some varieties have twelve. The stover is more valuable than that of dent corn because it lacks woodiness. IV. ZEA INDENTATA.—The Dent Corns. A species-group recognized by the presence of corneous endosperm at the sides of the kernel, the starchy endosperm reaching to the summit. By the drying and shrinkage of the starchy matter, the summit of the kernel is drawn in, or together, and indented in various forms. The ears are much larger and have more rows than flint corn. The kernels are deeper, less glassy, with sharper corners, and more angular in shape. The dent corn is the corn of the corn belt, and the corn of commerce. V. ZEA AMYLACEA.—The Soft Corns. This species-group is at once recognized by the absence of corneous endosperm. Through the uniformity of the shrinkage in ripening there is usually no inden- tation, although this occasionally occurs. In the southern regions this corn is grown almost exclusively. This is the mummy corn of Chile and Peru. VI. ZEA SACCHARATA.—The Sweet Corns. A well defined species-group characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of the kernels and their more crinkled, wrinkled, or shriveled condition. The first sweet corn cultivated in America was secured’ from the Sus- quehanna Indians in 1779, by Captain Richard Begnall, who accom- panied General Sullivan on his trip to subdue the Six Nations. VII. ZEA AMYLEA SACCHARATA.—The Starchy Sweet Corns. The upper half of kernel is horny and transparent, the lower part, starchy. It is of little importance. Zea canina (Watson) sometimes known as Maiz de Coyoto, or a wild corn, is a hybrid form from fourth or fifth generation of a cross between Teosinte and Black Mexican Corn. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN Indian Corn is an annual, herbaceous plant, belonging to the fam- ily of grasses (Gramineae). The botanical name (Zea mays) is derived from the Greek word, “Zao,” meaning “to live,” while “mays” is believed to come from the Livonic word “Mayse,” meaning “bread, staff of life.” PLANT STRUCTURE. Many minute cells compose the body of a plant. These cells vary in shape and size in different parts of the 38 CORN same plant and in different plants. The cell is filled with a living material called protoplasm. The greater part of protoplasm is cyto- plasm, a colorless material of granular character. In addition to the cytoplasm, the nucleus, or governing portion of the protoplasm, is generally located in the center of the cell. Nucleoplasm forms the major part of the nucleus, although the vital principle contained therein is the chromatin. Cells multiply, that 1s, development takes place at the growing point, by the process of cell division. A corre- sponding segmentation of the nucleus takes place simultaneously, whereby the new cell has all the essential cell elements. Cellulose, a firmer material, constitutes the cell wall, which is usually very thin. NATURE OF ROOT GROWTH. Root growth takes place at a point just back of the cap, known as the growing point. The tin, which is pushed through the soil by the constant addition of cells at the growing point is made up of harder cells and acts as a protection to that portion. As it wears away, new cells are supplied from behind by the growing point. THE FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM OF CORN. Miarny of the ner cross roots were lost in removing the plant from the soil. Note how the roots extend outward and downward, ROOT GROWTH 39 Corn, which is merely a giant form of grass, has a fine, fibrous root system, like all members of the grass family. The root system is not characterized by any tap root such as is found in clover. In the early stages the roots develop laterally. The North Dakota Experiment Station found that *30 days after planting the roots from adjacent stalks had met and interlaced, and that most of the roots were within the first eight inches of the surface of the soil and that few had penetrated to a depth of 12 inches. Six inches from the hill the main roots lay 24 inches below the surface, while midway be- tween the hills, they were 4% inches below the surface. The latter point should be especially noted, for it is a strong argument in favor of shallow cultivation. An examination 55 days after planting, at the last cultivation, when the plants were 4% feet high, showed that the main roots had reached a depth of 244 feet. Many of the lateral roots extended the entire distance from hill to hill (three feet eight inches), inclining most of the way, and when about 3 to 34 feet from the hill dropping almost vertically downward. The lateral and vertical roots gave off numerous branches which rebranched again and again, filling the soil to a depth of two feet with a perfect network of roots. The lateral roots sent up numerous vertical feeders to within two inches of the surface. At go days from planting, or soon after the frost had killed the corn, another sample showed that the ground to a depth of 3% feet was fully occupied by roots. The conclusions were that after corn is ten inches high, it should not be cultivated deeply because of injury to surface roots. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS. The roots which arise from the base of the stalk are called “primary” roots. Often in this same class are also placed those springing from the first two or three nodes. The “secondary” root system appears in checked corn during the time of “laying by;” that is, when the winds of summer begin to “jostle” the corn plants. In trying to support themselves these roots are sent out. They may appear on nodes as high up as the seventh, and in listed corn, even higher. These roots do not usu- ally appear on more than two nodes above the ground. They act both as guys and stays. Before entering the soil a small enlargement forms at the end. On entering a moist soil this thickened portion becomes mucileginous and may be an aid in holding the root in the soil until it forms a little bunch of roots of its own. The brace roots aid in the support of the plant and absorb small quantities of plant *Bulletin 43, N. D. Experiment Station. 40 CORN food. From 22 to 28 brace roots usually appear at each node. If the weather is stormy and the corn has a tendency to blow over, these brace roots grow very rapidly. BRACE ROOTS Stalk showing brace roots at nodes above the ground. Note also the rudimentary roots just appearing at the two upper nodes. STRUCTURE. The outermost layer of a young root is a single cylinder of cells termed the “piliferous layer.” This layer, when near the newly formed tip of the root, is the absorbing surface for soil moisture and plant food. The root hairs are merely projecting por- tions of the individual cells of this layer. The fact that this layer is absorptive differentiates it from the epidermis of the stem. Immediately beneath the piliferous layer is the “cortex” which is thick and consists chiefly of parenchymatous or thin-walled cells. The STRUCTURE OF ROOT 41 office of these cells is merely to give the root strength and form, while through them and between them the moisture absorbed by the outer layer reaches the central cylinder within. he innermost layer of cells of the cortex forms a very complete and very rigid cylinder, enclosing the central cylinder. This endodermis consists of regularly formed, closely- fitting cells which prevent the escape of plant food on its course upward through the central cylinder of older roots. In younger plants, however, the passage of moisture from the surface to the cylinder is not hindered. A longitudinal section through the root The pericycle, though not very tip of shepherd’s purse, showing the central vascular axis (pl), surrounded distinct in many roots, is the outer by the cortex (p), outside of the cor- tex the epidermis (e) which disap- cell layer of the central cylinder. pears in the older parts of the root, 2 Marans Se . and the prominent root-cap (c). From single cells within it, arise all secondary roots. By pushing their way outward through the cortex and surface layer, and by repeated cell divisions they soon elongate and become tributary feeders. This internal origin of the branch roots can be readily seen by peeling off the cortex, which lays bare the attachment. The central cylinder consists for the most part of tubes which are of use in carrying the plant food upward into the stem and leaves. CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROOT GROWTH. The factors affecting root growth are the factors which affect the yield of the crop. (1) In order that the younger and more tender rootlets may push through the soil, its *structure must be quite fine. A root will not cross a large interspace between lumps of earth. (2) Corn roots draw almost entirely upon the capillary water of the soil. In case of extreme drought they may possibly use some of the hygroscopic moisture. Very little, if any of the gravity water, that which is drained from the soil in tiling, is utilized by the plant. (3) Roots avoid a cold soil and if the ground is of a low tem- perature will feed near the surface. (4) The entrance of oxygen into the soil is necessary to insure the spread of root growth. (5) Roots seek and require the presence of plant food in the soil. *The words structure and texture are often used synonymously. The structural peculiarities are those which interest the geologist, the textural belong more properly to the mineralogist. But the usages of geologists differ in the employment of terms of this kind, and there can be no precise limit drawn, separating structures from textures. (Century E neyclopedia. ) 42 CORN 1. Young root of a pea. h Root-hairs of the piliferous layer; ec root-cap. (Twice natural size.) Transverse section through a young root of a pea near h in 1. h Root hairs; ¢ cortex; p piliferous layer; e endodermis; n pericycle; w wood strand; x its protoxylem; b bast strand. (Enlarged 48 diameters.) 9 a. ~ STALK.—Structure of Stem. The stem varies in height from i8 inches to 24 feet, according to variety and conditions influencing growth, as climate and soil. It is made up of a series of sections knewn as mternodes, which vary in length from a few inches at the base to more than a foot at the top. They are separated from each other by short, thick joints or nodes. The length of internodes is less at the base for the purpose of strengthening the stalk. Being longer at the upper end, the stalk has more chance to flex in the breeze with- out breaking. The average circumference of the nodes measured on ten stalks was about as follows: Second internode above root crown, 3.7 inches; first internode helow the ear, 3.3 inches; first internode above the ear, 2.875 inches. The stem of the corn plant consists structurally of (1) A very thin layer, the epidermis, on the outside. This con- sists of a one layered cylinder of cells. The surface is very smooth and glossy, being impervious to mojsture. The idea that a corn stalk “drinks in” the showers is erroneous, as shown by this impenetrable coat. On the other hand, this covering lessens the evaporation of GROWTH OF STEMS 43 moisture from within. Being smooth, it affords no place for the lodgment of smut spores. Insects find difficulty in inserting their sucking mouth into these parts. (2) The woody wall, which is really a layer consisting of a close union of a great number of fibro-vascular bundles. In the small grains and grasses, this woody wall is the only supporting structure in the stem. From each node, where a leaf grows out, a number of these bundles leave the wall to extend into the leaf to feed it. The more rank the growth, the greater is the number of these bundles in the wall. (3) The pith 1s composed of parenchyma cells and fills the center of a corn stem. With a given weight of material, a hollow column 1s stronger than a solid one in withstanding pressure, as heavy winds in summer, although when exces- sive weight is borne by such a column the sides are liable to collapse. To meet the former condition. the stems of cereals are hollow, while in the latter case the stalk of corn has a light filler. The cells of the pith are very large and loosely arranged, and although they do not transport moisture, they do act as reservoirs in time of drought. During the final stages of maturity, after frost has killed the leaves and _ the Section of corn-stalk showing pith, fibro- A : vascular bundles, and epidermis. stalk loses its color, the ker- nels on the ear are fed for some time from the plant food stored here. The pith has one other func- tion, to hold in place the fibro-vascular bundles. (4) The fibro-vascular bundles are the circulatory ducts for the 44 CORN raw plant food drawn from the roots, and the distributing canals for the cell sap which has been manufactured therefrom in the leaves. These bundles are quite woody and fibrous and can be seen in an old corn stalk, appearing very much like threads. These tubes, of which Fibro Vascular Bundle. Cross-section of a closed collateral bundle from the stem of corn, showing the xylem with annular (r), spiral (s), and pitted (g) vessels; the phloem containing sieve vessels (v), and separated from the xylem by no intervening cambium; both xylem and phloem surrounded by a mass of sclerenchyma (fibers); and investing vessels and fibers the paren- chyma (p) of the pith-like tissue through which the bundles are distributed.— After Sachs. ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES 45 these bundles are composed, are large and numerous. This helps to account for the rapidity of growth of corn under favorable conditions. Growth of Stems. An examination of a longitudinal section of a growing corn stem will show that above each node the pith and fibro- vascular bundles are of a darker green color. The pith in the upper part of the internodes shows a pure white color and is often rather dry, while at the base of the internodes the cells are full of sap. These cells, as well as the extreme tip of the stem, constitute the growing points of the cornstalk. The possession of 14 to 20 such points enables a corn stalk to lengthen rapidly during the growing season. As the stems come out of the.ground, their upward course is like the unfolding of a telescope. Such rapid extension gives corn a chance to outdo its competitors, the weeds, in the race for supremacy in the field. Corn has an endogenous stem. Growth in diameter takes place on the inside, rather than by adding layers on the outside, as in the case of exogenous plants, such as the oak. LEAVES.—Arrangement. The leaves arise from the nodes and for some distance from one node, almost to the next above, surround the stem in the form of a sheath. The edges of this sheath meet on the side opposite the blade, which spreads out from the stem above the next node in the same manner, but exactly on the opposite side. The leaves are arranged alternately and arise on, and conceal, the grooved side of the stem. The leaf sheath is movable on the internode. This allows the leaf to swing back and forth upon the stem without break- ing loose at its base. The leaves appearing at the lower nodes are usually abortive, hence there is not a full leaf for each node on the stem. There are, however, usually 12 to 18 leaves upon a stalk, the number varying with the variety, the season, and the soil. Corn which is thinly planted will have a greater number of leaves than that which is closely planted. Structure. At the point where the leaf blade spreads away from the leaf sheath and changes its vertical course for one more horizontal, there appears a hinge. At this point, the fibro-vascular bundles in the blade are closer together and a light colored triangular spot appears. The blade is especially full near its base for several inches along the edge. This waviness is due to the edge growing more rapidly than the midrib. This extra amount of surface allows flexibility, both in lateral and vertical movements. This ligule is very prominent in corn and its need is demonstrated especially well in the western part of the corn belt. 46 CORN Just inside and springing from the ligule is a short, thin, yet rigid prolongation or fringe which clasps the internode of the stem very closely. This is the rainguard, which, contrary to common opinion, instead of catching the rainfall and collecting it inside the leaf sheath, transfers it to the opposite side of the stalk and allows it to drip on the rainguard and ligule below. This rainguard in turn does the same thing. The water is carried in a zigzag manner until it reaches the ground. The fact that, after a light shower in August, a wet spot is noted at the base of each hill of corn can be accounted for because of this process. The midrib and the veins, which are only larger gatherings o2f fibro-vascular bundles, serve to hold the green surface spread out to the sunlight. They are also circulatory ducts. The epidermis of the leaf is not very thick or tough. This is shown by the tendency of the point of the blade to split in a heavy, whipping wind. The green, cellular structure between the veins of the leaf of corn is, in the plant’s early growth, very turgid and of a dark color. The curious openings on the surfaces of the leaf, known as stomata, are very active in the corn plant. Guarding each opening will be found two crescent-shaped cells known as guard cells. The stomata act as passage ways for the transpiration of moisture and for the inlet and outlet of. carbon dioxide and oxygen. They cannot properly be spoken of simply as breathing pores. FIGURING THE LEAF SURFACE OF A CORN STALK. As the corn plant requires over 500 tons of water for the formation of one ton of dry matter, the leaf surface must necessarily be large to accom. modate this enormous transpiration. In figuring the surface area of a leaf, measure the width three inches from the ligule, also at a point six inches from the tip of the leaf. Add these two widths, divide by two to get the average. Multiply this average width by the length of the leaf from the ligule to that point, six inches from the tip. To the area of this rectangle, add the area of the isosceles triangle at the tip of the leaf, which is six inches in altitude and as wide as the leaf is at that point. The sum of the two areas gives the leaf surface on one _,side of a single leaf. Multiply this sum by two and the entire surface of leaf will be ascertained. For approximate calculations, the surface area of one leaf multiplied by the number of leaves on the stem will give the entire leaf surface of the stalk. An Example. Leaf 36 inches in total length, 4 inches wide at lower measurement (3 inches from ligule), 3 inches wide at upper measurement (6 inches from tip of blade), 3% inches average width. Three and one-half inches multiplied by 30 inches (36-6 inches) equals 105 square inches, area of rectangle. DROUGHT RESISTING CHARACTERS 47 The isosceles triangle with 3 in. base and 6 in. altitude has an area of 9 square inches. 105 sq. in. plus 9 sq. in. equals 114 sq. in., one surface. 114 sq. in. multiplied by 2 equals 228 sq. in., the area of both sides of the leaf. With 12 leaves on the stem, there would be a total of 2,736 square inches, or 19 square feet of leaf surface for that one stalk. DROUGHT RESISTING CHARACTERS. While necessary for the transpiration of so much moisture, the larger surface area of the leaves of a corn stalk, must, of course, be equipped with means of preventing undue loss. Nature is not extravagant. This is especially true in the case of corn. As the water level slowly settles, when the summer season advances, the roots of the corn plant begin going down, following the strata of moisture. When the spring season has been, very wet and the summer turns dry suddenly, causing the surface soil to bake and evaporation to go on very rapidly, the water table often sinks so quickly that the plant, which had before fed near the surface, cannot change its root system in time to prevent its being stunted from want of moisture. When the root system fails in its attempt to keep in contact with the water table, the foliage exhibits certain adaptations for reducing evaporation. The leaves of a very young corn plant are always tubular, partly because of their being wrapped about each other and partly because if their surface were open moisture would be lost by transpiration faster than it could be supplied by the small root system. The leaves are built up of many cells of delicate nature, hence they depend upon moisture for the maintenance of rigidity. As excessive evaporation from the surface continues and the supply from below slackens, the leaves fold in halves on the mid rib. The edges also curl in on each other. This “curling” of corn in July is a bad omen to corn growers in the drier districts. Through July and August, dur- ing the formation of the ear, is the critical period in the life of a corn plant. A lack of moisture at this time means curtailment of yield. THE FLOWER. The corn plant is monecious; that is, the stam- inate and pistillate flowers are borne on the same plant, but at differ- ent places. They will be spoken of here as male and female flowers, respectively, as they are commonly known as such, but from a strict botanical point of view the terms male and female are incorrect when so applied. The time of blossoming depends upon: (1) The time of planting. Early corn usually comes out in bloom and ripens before the late planted corn. (2) Varieties, whether early or late. > an CORN (3) Seasonal influences. Often in a growing season of plenty rainfall, the early corn will remain green and continue growing late in the summer before blossoming. A sudden drouth at the time of rapid growth forces the date of blossoming upon the corn. (4) Soil conditions. A soil which is Jacking in plant food and not retentive of moisture, dwarfs the plants and they prematurely put out flowers. MALE OR STAMINATE FLOWERS.—Tassels. The male or staminate flowers are found in the tassel. arranged in the form of a panicle, the branches of which are shorter nearer the base. There are two single flowers in each spikelet. Each single flower has its own set of inner bracts, and the two together are enclosed by thicker, darker green, outer bracts. Each flow- er has three stamens, mounted at first upon short, stock fla- ments, but which as the pollen matures, lengthen and push the pollen sacks or anthers out to be caught in the breezes. The anthers are two-celled and in- stead of opening at the tip end. split just above and along one side. This allows the pollen grain to be wafted to greater distances. At the base of each set of these filaments, there is present a greenish, glandular, turgid body, called the lodicuie, which swells as maturity ad- vances, thus spreading open the bracts to allow the stamens to be pushed out. Each pollen grain is very small, having in Section of branch of tassel showing pollen ] ‘ : " sacs suspended on the elongated fila- its center a nucleus, while the ments. Note the openings of the cells ° « 3 f +} ollen sues (anthers). remainder of the cell is light, pier operetta and serves as a buoy in its course through the air. It has been estimated that each anther or pollen sac produces about 2,700 pollen grains. A single tassel con- DEVELOPMENT OF EAR 49 tains 7,500 pollen sacs, making a total of 20,250,000 pollen grains per plant in the corn field. This excess of pollen is necessary because of the loss of so many grains which are lodged about the stalk and which fall to the ground. If every grain were to reach a silk there would be 20,250 grains for each ovary, if each stalk produced but one ear, or 10,125 in case of two ears, counting 1,000 ovaries per ear. FEMALE OR PISTILLATE FLOW- ERS. The female flowers are borne on a hardened spike (cob), which is produced on a branch or shank coming from a node on the main stem. At first, the leaf sheath covers and protects this outgrowth, but it soon appears above the sheath and the A spikelet from the tassel cut COM is said to be “shooting.” Ina short lengthwise: to show its two'flow: time, the husks, which are modified leaves, ers, the one on the right fully open, the other not yet mature, Open at the tip end and silks appear. The BE Salktess OC, (router beasts: Outer end OL each silk, 3 ‘portion of the D, E, inner bracts of the open flower; G, lodicules, which by Stigma, is often split, and is covered with swelling fered’ jhe bracts’ very short hairs which, topether with a apart; I*’, F’’, filaments cut nts : _ - across; F, filament bearing ripe Sticky or mucilaginous secretion present, anther (RA) shedding pollen (P,; YA, young anthers, the left hand one cut to show. the The remainder of the silk to its attach- pollen. Enlarged. (Original. ) , 2 ‘ i ment is the style, which is slightly angu- lar and is tubular. The style is attached to the summit of the ovary (kernel), which is held in two sets of bracts and encloses within its walls a single ovule. There is but one silk for each ovary and there are 800 or more ovaries on the spike. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR. Corn is a_ cross-pollinated plant. Nature, in her effort to accomplish this, sends out the tassel as many as seven days before the silks appear on the shoot below. This character is taken advantage of in mating ears in the breeding block. When a pollen grain falls upon the stigma of a silk, the moisture there present, and the heat of the summer causes it to germinate. The external evidence of germination of a pollen grain is the produc tion of a long pollen tube which penetrates the stigmatic surface and passes down through the hollow style to the tip of the ovule within the kernel. The internal evidence of germination consists in several divisions of the pollen grain nucleus. Two of the resultant nuclei pass down through the pollen tube, out through its ruptured tip and one aid in collecting pollen grains. CORN 50 EAR IN SILK. (intire Tassel.) FER'TILIZA'VION 5] Maize. 1. A young ear cut through the middle lengthwise. Sk, Sk, the main stalk; Sk’, the branch. stall which bears the ear; Sh, sheath of the leaf enfolding the whole ear; RG, rain guard; B, blade of the same leaf; H, husks; Sg, stigmas (“Silk’’) protruding beyond the husks. II. A single spikelet of the ear, showing the bracts (OC, OC’, D, E, D’, E’) and the ovary (O) and the lower part of the style (Sy) of the single pistil. Enlarged. III. Upper part of stigma, showing the delicate hairs that cover it. Enlarged. (Original. ) unites with the egg cell, which has been formed within the ovule. ‘This constitutes the act of fertilization. But one grain is required for the fertilization of each ovule. The fertilized ovule immediately begins to grow and together with the surrounding ovary, forms the kernel of corn. The silks at the butt of the ear are the first to appear and the first, as a rule, to be pollinated. The mid- dle kernels are next. The com- plete fertilization of the tip kernels of the ear depends upon the continuance of good weather and the late tasseling of other nearby stalks in the same field. Warm, balmy weather, with a slight breeze, is ideal for the transfer of corn pollen. Dashing rains at this season of tne year wash the pollen from the tassel, and a moist atmosphere pre- vents the grains from floating about. The developing kernel is fed from within the cob by a single fibra-vascular bundle which ex- tends directly to the stalk. This duct, in its course through the cob, passes between the soft white cellular pith and the woody portion and enters a passage-way through this woody portion to the base of the kernels. The bracts about the base of the ovary become the colored chaff of the ma- tured cob. CORN WN bo Each ear is borne upon a shank which at first holds the shoot upright along the side of the stalk, but, which, as a rule, later allows the matured ear to droop and even to hang, because of increased weight of the ear and lack of rigidity in the shank itself. The shank EAR IN NATURAL POSITION ON STALK. Note That Its Shank Lies in the Groove. The Outer Hnsks are Shorter Than the Jnner Ones. fits in the groove of the internode and appears jointed just as does the stalk itself. As many as ten or more internodes are present. At each node a husk is produced, those from the lower nodes overlapping those above. The number of husks and their coarseness depends upon the season, the soil and the variety. The place of appearance of DEVELOPMENT OF KERNEL 53 this shank varies. In rank growing corn it will be higher than on plants produced on poor soil. Ina wet season, when the fibro-vascular bundles are constantly supplying plant food from below, “shoots,” so-called, may appear at seven or more nodes, beginning quite near the ground. The position of the shoot which finally matures is an inherited character and it has been shown that it may be largely con- trolled by selection. As a rule, it develops at a point between four and six feet from the base of the stalk. Some varieties produce two or more ears on each stalk. In favorable years, two ears per stalk are not uncommon in many fields. THE KERNEL, DEVELOPMENT OF. In the study of the development of the kernel, the first period of growth includes what is commonly referred to as the milk stage. Kernels in the milk are very sweet, due to the presence of sugar which has not yet been transformed into storage starch. The protein, ash, and oil are depos- ited in the *embryo (germ) before the endosperm or the body of the kernel is filled out. Later, the cellular structure (endosperm) sur- rounding the embryo is packed full of starch. Much of this material has been held in readiness in the stalk and is now deposited in the grain. A seed such as corn in which the reserve food is stored outside of the embryo is said to be endospermous; one in which the food is stored entirely within the embryo is said to be exendospermous. The stor- age of all this readily available food material takes place during the development of the seed. Man has taken advantage of these facts and developed in certain grains an increased storage of one or all these constituents. The matured grain-fruit (kernel) is called cary- opsis. It is the ripened ovule surrounded by the ovary walls. Immediately covering the food supply of the seed and enveloping the entire caryopsis, is a thin membranous layer called the tegmen (seed coat), overlain by a tough coat or testa (ovary wall). The integument formed by the union of these two constituents is the bran of wheat and the hull of corn. It may be removed after soaking the kernel in warm water for about twenty minutes. Germination is'‘the resumption of growth of the young plant which lies within the seed. This young plant is the embryo or germ.* It is made up, first, of a large shield-shaped portion (scutellum) which ties next the endosperm and which does not appear above ground, and second, a portion which develops into the roots, stem, and leaves of the *This term embryo is sometimes loosely applied to that portion of the embryo which produces the roots, stems and leaves, This is incorrect, the terms germ and embryo are strictly synonymous. (3) 54 CORN corn plant. The portion which is to produce the stem and leaves lies toward the crown of the kernel and is called the plumule. The portion which is the first root hes toward the tip of the kernel, and is called the radicle. At the time of germination the radicle becomes the root sprout. It appears enveloped for a time in a sheath, the “coleorhiza.” This root sprout is usually temporary. The permanent roots spring from the first node of the stem sometimes before it has pushed its way out from under the hull of the kernel. The “stem sprout” is the awakened plumule. It is believed by some good authorities that the scutellum corresponds to the single seed leaf or cotyledon in such plants as the lily. The corn is therefore said to be “monocotyledonous.” A representation of the “dicotyle- dons” is the bean which has two such seed leaves. The first leaves are tightly rolled together, the younger ones being enclosed within the older. Just as soon as the stem sprout reaches the light, it turns green owing to the formation of chlorophyll. COLLATERAL READING. Flint Varieties of Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 225. Varieties of Corn, by Sturtevant, U. S. Department No. 57. Pop Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 202. A Study of Corn, Maine No. 139. Sweet Corn, Maryland No. 96. Corn, Roots of, Kansas No. 127 CHAPTER IV. GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH OF PLANTS GERMINATION Germination is the awakening of the dormant embryo. Its imme- diate subsequent continuation is dependent upon available nutrimem contained in the seed., THE CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION ARE A. VITALITY. B. MOISTURE. C. PROPER TEMPERATURE. : D. OXYGEN. Take away any one of these first four factors and life will not awaken from its slumber. The successful storage of grains is depend- ent upon the elimination of as many of these favorable conditions as possible. The exclusion of oxygen is a physical impossibility, while the regulation of temperature is limited, but by preventing the access of moisture to stored seeds, germination is prevented. VITALITY. The vital principle in a live seed is known only by its effects. The organic life evidenced by germination is a phenom- enon due to the presence of living cells in the embryo of the matured seed. Kernels which have been subjected to continued freezing or to excessively high temperatures have this life extinguished. Embryos which are not full of water are not so suddenly or injuriously affected by these extremes. The cells of a swollen plumule or radicle are de- stroyed when the temperature is lowered below freezing. By experimentation, De Candolle was able to germinate seeds of a few species after a storage of fifteen years. Other plants require immediate favorable environment or the vitality of the seeds is weak- ened or lost. Seeds of Mountain Potentilla were known to germinate at Meriden, New Hampshire, when 60 years old. 56 CORN “Well matured corn two years old is very slightly weakened if kept in cool dry storage. Corn four years old shows very weak germina- tion, much of it failing to grow at all.”* MOISTURE. A dry seed is usually hardy. It withstands the extremes of heat and cold. The structure of a matured corn kernel is conducive to the absorption of water, the first process in the awaken- ing of the embryo. Water has four distinct functions in germination. (1) It softens the covering of the seed. It penetrates the minute cells of the seed coat, enters the larger cells within, and by swelling them causes the entire seed to increase in size and ruptures the softened covering. Kernels of corn placed in water at a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit will absorb 15 per cent of their original weight in 52 hours. The rapidity of absorption depends upon the maturity of the corn and temperature of water. Kernels with a large amount of flinty starch and covered with a thick coating of horny gluten, which acts as a sealing wax, require considerable time and a higher temperature to induce penetration of moisture. Starchy kernels of an open cellular structure admit the soil moisture very readily. This accounts for the rotting of immature kernels when placed in the ground early in the spring, ac which time it is cold and wet. (2) It dissolves the plant food. The parent bequeaths to the ripened ovule a store of starch, fat, sugar, and protein before the seed is cast off. Of these substances the sugar and allied compounds are soluble in water; before the remainder can be utilized they must be digested or rendered soluble. This digestion takes place, how- ever, only in the presence of water. This fact is well illustrated by the rapid germination of immature kernels of corn. The sugar which would later have been changed to starch and stored in the kernel, is readily soluble in the water which first enters. Tests have shown that corn which was picked early, germinated in a shorter time than that gathered in the husking season. However, it must be borne in mind that there is a smaller reserve of plant food in such a kernel ta continue the germination. Therefore, the soil must be warm and rich in order that the young rootlets may begin immediately to draw from outside sources. (3) It carries the plant food to the growing embryo. A con- tinual supply of available nutriment is demanded by the young plant. The presence of water insures its transportation to every growing point. The scutellum acts as an absorbing organ for the plant food *Classbook of Botany. Wood. GERMINATION 57 stored in the endosperm. The food so absorbed, together with that stored in the scutellum, passes over a sort of bridge to the sprouting plumule and radicle. (4) It aids in the chemical and biological changes. The two classes of food materials present in the largest amounts in the mature seeds are the albuminoids and carbohydrates. The albuminoids in cereals appear in aleurone grains. Starch represents the larger part of the carbohydrates. The aleurone cells are thought to secrete diastatic ferments. These ferments or “enzymes” begin immediately to corrode the starch cells lying beneath. The epithelium of the scut- ellum has similar secretive cells which become active very early. The resultant product after the diastatic action on the starch is an invert sugar which is readily soluble in water and is quickly absorbed by the growing plant. Some soluble cane sugar enters the embryo as food also. In the spoiling of stored grain the same process occurs. Bacteria, yeasts, and moulds, which are universally present, change the sugars to alcohol and acids, making the grain sour. In the case of the ger- minating plant in the field, the sugar is used before the latter steps have time to take place. PROPER TEMPERATURE. Many experiments have been made with the seeds of cereals and grasses to determine the effect of heat upon germination. The highest temperature at which a certain kind of seed will germinate is termed the “maximum.” The “minimum” temperature refers to the lowest point at which the seed will ger- minate. The most favorable temperature—the degree of heat which produces the most rapid substantial growth—is the “optimum” tem- perature. The following are the maximum, optimum, and minimum temper- atures as given by Sachs for some of our most common farm seeds: Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. Wheat ccc iaeese ly 41 84 104 Barley: sisswwe cae ve «oats 4I 84 104 Maize wissaseedeeess 48 93 115 Professor Gerald McCarthy, of the North Carolina Experiment Station, gives: Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. Oat® keds tssakay 2.55 70 go Rye sinesduverewese ee 55 75 90 58 CORN The Department of Agriculture in seed investigations has tried to imitate nature in the germination of seeds. A temperature of 64 degrees to 68 degrees F. was maintained, but during six hours out of each twenty-four, the temperature was raised to 86 degrees F. *Pam- mel gives the minimum degree for the germination of corn as 49.9 degrees F., the optimum 91.4 degrees F., and the maximum as 134.8 degrees F. The lowest temperature at which maize will germinate, according to Sturtevant, is 43.7 degrees F. for all varieties. Corn seems to do much better under a constant, rather than a changing temperature, wkich is not the case with more northern native plants. Some heat ic generated in the process of germination, but where the seeds are planted in hills by themselves this radiates so rapidly as to be unnoticeable. Low temperature at the time of germination retards growth. Cold, wet, mucky soil which excludes the warmer surface air, produces a weak plant and feeble advancement. Seed beds in the best tilth are conducive to increased activity of the roots and a higher coloring of the stem sprout, showing greater strength and vigor. OXYGEN. Oxygen is present in the seed, both in a free and a combined state, but this supply is insufficient for germination. Ger- mination will not take place in water which has been boiled to drive off oxygen. The inhalation of this vital element is followed by the oxidation of the constituents stored in the seed and a consequent evo- lution of energy. With the intaking of oxygen, there is a comparable outgoing of carbon dioxide gas. This process, which is slow and imperceptible, except by direct and careful experimentation, is called respiration. The principle upon which the tilling of the soil lies, is in the assist- ance of nature. A soil impenetrable to the air, resists the processes which bring about rapid and substantial growth. It is not alone to eliminate weeds that the seed bed is prepared so carefully. The more delicate operations of vegetation are facilitated. The unhealthy appearance of corn on poorly drained soil is usually considered to be due to too much water, when it is really the lack of oxygen. When corn, which has been planted very deeply, is slow in germinating in the spring, especially when continual rains come on, it is due largely to a reduction of temperature and an exclusion of oxygen. TIME REQUIRED FOR GERMINATION. The time required for germination depends upon the presence of the conditions just men- *Grasses of Iowa. Vol. 1, Page 91. PLANT GROWTH 59 tioned. In germination box tests in the green house, at a temperature of 80 degrees I°., corn has sprouted distinctly in four days. Early planted corn on ground which has been well prepared, in order to admit the surface air, will appear in 10 to 12 days or sooner. Listed corn on low ground sometimes requires two weeks or more before it can be seen in the furrow. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS The growth. of plants is a natural process. It is a cellular develop- ment which usually results in increase of volume and weight. This activity is the expression of life. During the early period of existence of a plant, this development takes place in all the parts at the same time. Later, centers of growth are formed, usually near the tips of roots, stalks and branches. In cereals and grasses, growth takes place at the base of each internode and also at the tip of the stem. THE ESSENTIALS FOR THE GROWTH OF GREEN PLANTS ARE: 1. Constitution. 2. Water. A. The absorption of water B. Its uses. (1) An essential constituent of the plant. (2) Regulates temperature of plant. (3) Maintains turgidity. (4) Aids in the physical changes in plant food. (5) Enters into the chemical processes within the plant. (6) Transports plant food. 3. Proper temperature. 4. Light. 5, Plant Food. A. From the air. (1) Oxygen. (2) Nitrogen. (3) Carbon. B. From the soil. (1) Nitrogen. (2) Phosphorus. (3) Potassium (4) Calcium. (5) Others. 60 CORN CONSTITUTION. This term is often confused with vitality. A plant or animal may have vitality, that is, there may be life present, but it may lack strength and vigor. Many corn plants that come through the ground in the spring never attain any size. In-breeding in corn tends, as in live stock, to weaken the constitu- tion of the plants. The blades become narrow and of a light green color, the root system shallower and the stalk itself more slender. The weakness is often inherited, although it may result from improper care of the seed. The offspring of an ear of corn or spike of wheat may, from germination to maturity, show certain characters of strength which stand out distinctly. The breeder takes advantage of this fact, especially in the production of plants of economic impor- tance. New varieties are evolved in this manner. The importance of knowing the ancestry of one of these plants with marked constitu- tion cannot be overestimated. The environment has much to do with the highest development of virile characters. WATER. The presence of water in a plant is necessary for the activity of its cells. The protoplasm, which is the most important part of the cell, is a more or less slimy or jelly-like substance contain- ing a considerable proportion of water. The peculiar phenomenon which is called “life,” is associated with this watery substance. The amount present is influenced by the kind of plant and the environ- ment. Fresh red clover hay contains 70 per cent of water; green tim- othy hay, 62 per cent; mangel beet roots, 91 per cent; potatoes, 79 per cent; corn silage, 79 per cent; corn from the crib, 11 per cent. THE ABSORPTION OF WATER. The adequate absorption of water goes on only when the following conditions are present: (1) A degree of temperature suitable to the nature of the plant. The oat plant will absorb moisture from a much colder soil than will the corn plant. The millets require an even higher temperature. A corn plant is slow to use moisture early in the spring, although requiring a great deal for the most rapid growth during the summer months. Well water poured into pots of tropical plants in a green- house often checks their growth. (2) A supply of fresh air. Imperfect respiration occurs in the roots of plants which are growing in soil which is so full of moisture as to exclude oxygen. Undrained portions of corn fields, where the water stands on the surface or very near it, always grow weakly stalks. Even in July, when this water is warmed, the plant cannot use it because of the exclusion of air. ABSORPTION OF WATER 61 (3) The condition of the water. Plants differ in their demands for water. Plants with a very fine, fibrous root system, draw almost entirely upon the slight films of moisture surrounding each soil par- ticle. Plants with few roots require that the moisture be present more abundantly. Corn seems to take a place rather between these ex- tremes. The root system is not fine enough to absorb moisture from a dry soil, and yet the plant will not thrive in a saturated stratum. FUNCTION OF WATER. In Plant Growth, Water has six distinct functions. (1) Water is an essential constituent of the plant. The most abundant constituent of growing farm crops is water. In chemical combination with carbon, it enters into almost every com- pound stored or used by the plant. (2) Water regulates the temperature of the plant. When there is danger of excessive heat injuring the plant, the rapid evaporation of water from the leaves reduces the temperature. This is proved in the corn field in July. The temperature may rise very rapidly to extreme heat, but the moisture which is taken up by the roots is continually evaporating from the leaves; this keeps the whole plant cool. If the moisture supply be deficient, evaporation 1s diminished and the temperature of the plant rises. (3) Water maintains turgidity. A cell which has absorbed water until it is exerting considerable stretching force upon the cell walls is said to be turgid. The moisture necessary to maintain the turgidity of the plant is obtained from the soil by the root hairs. These hairs draw upon the capillary and “hygroscopic” water within their reach. The root system receives this moisture and passes it from cell to cell into the tubes of the central cylinder. The moisture continues its upward course as sap. Just why sap rises has never been entirely satisfactorily explained. It is probably due to a combination of physical phenomena; among them root pres- sure, capillarity, the “pumping” action of certain cells of the stem and the higher concentration of the cell sap where transpiration is rapid. The passage of moisture from these tubes to the cells is affected by osmosis. This is the diffusion of liquids through a membrane in which no openings are visible. Vapor is transpired, or evaporated through minute openings on the surfaces of the leaves of a plant. These pores or stomata are sur- rounded by guard cells which open or close according to the amount of water stored in the plant. They help to regulate the degree of 62 CORN turgidity of the entire plant. When every cell is full of water these guard cells dilate the stomata and evaporation is increased. In con- trast, if the roots fail to furnish a sufficient supply of moisture, the wilting of the leaves relaxes the guard cells and the opening of the stomata closes and transpiration is diminished. The curling of corn leaves in July indicates that the roots are securing insufficient mois- ture. When the atmosphere is clear, dry and hot, and the wind is blowing briskly, transpiration is increased even though the stomata are practically closed. Coolness and dampness of the air tends to reduce the passage of moisture from the stomata. *The following was found to be true regarding the amount in tons of water per ton of dry matter lost by transpiration through the plant and evaporation of the soil: Dent corn used 309.8 tons of water per ton of dry matter. “ce cog ee cag “cc “ ce “ “ Flint corn 239.9 Red clover “ce 452.8 ce “ce “ a9 ce is3 “ “ce Barley “ 392.9 ce “cc ce “ ce “ “cc “ “ec “ce “ os cc “ce ee “ee “e Oats 522.4 Field peas “cr 477.4 “cr “er ia “cc ce a9 cc “cc Potatoes “ 422 7 “cc “ce “ “ce ce “ce “ce “ (4) Aids in the physical change of plant food. The nitrates, the form in which all nitrogen enters the plant, are soluble in water. This compound is drawn in with the soil moisture by the root hairs. Other soil constituents are also soluble in water. “The weight of evidence supports the conclusion that water is capable of dissolving from the soil all the substances that it contains which serve as the food of plants.”** A few analists assert that phosphoric acid is not soluble in water alone. Yet experiments have proved its presence in water solutions of ten days standing. It must be kept in mind, however, that only weak solutions of plant food are readily absorbed and assimilated. Care should be taken then that manure containing a large amount of available and soluble elements is not applied heavily to the corn crop. Incase of excess, the plant is injured. The presence of carbon dioxide in water renders it more effective in dissolving the food materials in the soil. (5) Water enters into the chemical processes within the plant. In all probability, carbonic acid and water are decomposed at the same time by the action of the sun’s rays through the chlorophyll, in **'The Soil,’’ King, Page 155. **Johnson’s ‘‘How Plants Feed,’’ Page 316. “**Warrington’ s ‘‘Ohemistry of the Farm,’’ Page 6. PROPER TEMPERATURE 63 the leaves of the plant.*** “It is probable that formaldehyde is first produced according to the following equation. COz plus H2O equals CHz2O plus O2. Cane sugar (C12H22011) and starch (C6H100s) are among the earliest products. These are converted respectiveiy into glucose (C6H1206) and maltose (C12H22011.H20) for the nourishment of distant parts of the plant, to which they are conveyed by the movement of the sap. In parts where growth is taking place and new cells are being formed, the sugar of the sap is converted into ‘cellulose,’ the substance which forms the cell walls, and of which the skeleton of the plant primarily consists.” The fatty matter of the plant is thought to come from the carbo- hydrates. Albuminoids are probably formed from the carbohydrates and the nitrates and then changed to proteids. (6) Transports plant food. The activity of water in plant growth is incessant and vital. The growing regions depend upon this carrier of plant food in physical solution for their maintenance and continued development. This 1s a very important function of water in plant life. Water acts as a carrier of waste materials. PROPER TEMPERATURE. The average temperature of the native habitat of a plant is an important factor in determining its maximum growth. Yet adaptability to environment has enabled many plants to move far away from their original abode. Corn now grows north of the Minnesota-Canadian line. South Dakote is yearly increasing its production of this cereal. The optimum temperature for the development for different plants varies greatly. A cool month of May is detrimental to growth of corn, but small griin thrives lux- uriantly. A hot, wet July is ideal for corn, but means destruction to spring wheat. The following table shows the growth of 25 stalks of corn from June 21 until August 20, 1907. The measurements were in most cases taken every three days. The highest point of the stalk was used as the basis. When the corn was small the highest point was in the crotch where the upper leaves spread away from the central stem. 64 CORN TABLE NO. 13 RATE OF GROWTH OF CORN PLANT 1 ul No. Hitts ane | use | dane | iy | ee | ae | ed eb da Lee Sie ae eaen ae 3.5 5.0 7.0 9.2; 13.5] 18.0| 24.0) 27.5} 35.0 2 lave raha eed veut, 8 Sov ae 3.5 4.0 6.2 oF 12.0} 16.0} 24.0) 26.0] 35.0 3 xsceag erate eee an 3.7 4.5 6.0 9.2! 14.0) 18.0] 24.0) 29.0] 35.5 We aca sted Sesensane bara bone 2.5 3.5 4.5 8.5} 11.2] 24.0) 20.5) 27.0] 35.5 Din watasin.e wasn sa hana 3.7 3.5 5.5 9.0] 11.5] 17.0] 20.0) 26.5] 34.0 Ge eascqnn es encase eeecerets 4.0 4.2 7.0 9.5| 12.5) 16.0] 21.5) 27.5) 33.5 EU" asligahe: engreanoas ane Oat 3.2 4.5 7.5 9.5] 12.5] 17.5] 22.5) 26.0} 36.0 Osea mie res weer eens 4.0 5.5 8.5] 10.7] 15.0] 19.0} 22.5) 30.0) 40.0 Urea e eee 3.7 5.0 7.0] 10.0] 14.5] 18.0] 21.5] 28.0) 35.0 NO ong saab gcdseheuapacseavesendte 4.5 6.5 8.5{ 10.5] 16.0} 19.0] 24.0} 26.5) 32.0 Do syn wi lenkae eons 5.0 6.0 8.5] 11.0) 20.0] 21.5) 26.0} 36.0) 39.0 DD eciiieg Seta irene aaeents 3.0 5.5 6.7 8.0] 14.5} 19.0] 22.0) 27.0) 36.0 US eaaae amarmaalce aloes 3.5 5.0 7.0 9.5| 17.0) 18.5] 25.0) 32.0] 37.0 14 .aeor ars sewed a4 owe 6.0 7.0] 11.0] 13.5] 19.5] 23.0) 28.5) 38.0| 44.0 DD x etree aes naerhes.s ares 6.5 8.5] 12.0] 14.0] 20.5] 26.0) 34.0) 45.0] 50.0 MiGs nstaciecn gece eal Wiemann 5.5 8.0 9.0] 12.5] 18.0} 19.0} 28.0} 39.0] 47.0 1: ecGnwiew ttonex eetan 4.5 5.5 9.0] 11.0] 17.0} 20.0] 27.0) 33.0] 44.0 LS) sciessstt xa ee snd pasa 5.0 5.5 9.3] 11.0] 15.0} 20.5! 25.0) 28.5] 36.0 DS oS shanelieg ia decides odeeeatecs 4.5 5.5 9.5] 11.5] 16.0] 22.0) 27.0; 36.0} 47.0 20 os ces uae mwas ewes 4.2 6.0 9.0} 11.5} 18.5) 23.0) 26.0) 40.0) 47.0 OL. sssadanaed sac an 5.5 7.0 8.0} 10.0] 15.5) 22.0) 26.0] 31.0] 37.5 Oe Sa bcdan decay geidee 4-4 Duties 5.7 6.0 8.2} 10.5} 15.5) 20.0) 25.5) 33.0) 42.0 Os each Soden ssid Sassoes shana es auers 4.5 5.5 7.5] 10.5] 15.0] 19.0] 24.5) 31.0] 37.0 DAL, a siabthen st btuaiaas Betset seen 6.2 8.3} 10.5/ 14.0} 20.5] 25.5) 34.5) 48.0) 49.5 OD ha Kune ecat nine e oes 6.4 8.0] 10.5] 14.5] 19.5] 26.0) 35.5} 36.0] 51.0 AVCPAZe: .a5 vee ead ges 4.5 5.7 8.1] 10.7] 15.5] 20.3] 24.8) 32.1) 39.8 Increase ............ 1.2 2.3 2.6 4.8 4.8 4.5 1.3 UT Wo Hens | PE) | det dae | oe | ee |e | ae | See | ae | ae Te Aces 48.0] 52.0] 64.0] 72.0] 85.0] 95.0) 104.0) 109.0] 115.0) 114.0 DF etnaselnimmnia wee 46.0) 49.5) 59.5) 68.0) 75.5) 76.5) 96.0] 106.0] 113.5] 114.0 So Scents 48.5] 48.5] 57.5} 70.0) 83.5) 92.0] 101.0] 101.0} 101.5} 101.0 toa caceare ss 46.0] 49.0} 60.0] 68.0} 80.5} 90.0) 111.0} 119.5] 125.0] 124.0 5) we asa ee aie 52.0] 57.0] 62.0 73.5} 85.5) 96.0) 112.5) 116.0] 117.0] 115.0 6 bo iakinaeiead 48.0; 52.0] 64.0} 75.5} 81.0} 95.0) 109.0] 115.0] 120.0] 121.5 Te enwaies en es 49.0) 54.0] 64.0} 66.0) 79.0] 90.0} 111.5] 118.5) 129.0] 131.5 Bos Soa aes Ga ae 46.5] 55.5] 67.5) 80.0} 84.0) 105.0] 113.5] 128.0] 133.0] 135.5 Ota id avduereleieeiate 46.0] 50.0} 62.5] 72.0} 82.0} 92.0] 115.0] 121.0] 128.0] 128.0 10. csc a stents mt 44.5] 50.0] 60.0] 71.0} 79.0} 86.0} 102.0] 105.5] 111.0] 111.0 VW csewing esse 54.0] 48.0] 69.0! 75.0} 89.0] 102.0] 106.0} 110.0} 106.0] 106.5 12: ces elaine ies 50.0] 49.0} 61.0] 77.5} 98.0) 106.5} 109.5] 116.0] 124.0] 1255 VS 2, esieeea eae are 50.0} 55.0} 60.5) 77.5) 93.0) 102.0] 109.5) 113.5; 113.5] 115.0 14 rises exes 58.0; 62.0] 72.0] 81.0} 94.5! 104.5) 115.0] 119.0] 120.5] 118.0 TG cece hha, 62.0} 65.0! 77.0) 82.0] 98.0] 105.0) 113.0} 113.5] 114.5] 114.5 VG ss scien yale 64.0} 68.0] 78.0) 91.0} 110.0] 116.5] 119.0] 122.0] 120.0} 122.0 1? a saies ves nae 57.5] 58.0] 65.0] 74.0} 89.0] 97.0] 106.0} 106.0] 106.5; 106.5 V8 a arses Fe esoee 47.0} 56.0) 68.0] 86.5} 101.0] 103.0] 103.5] 103.5] 104.0} 103.5 EOF seein ate mete 61.5] 64.0! 72.0) 87.0] 106.0] 116.0] 130.5) 131.0] 180.0} 131.5 208.5 sina ec Ree 58.0} 60.0! 69.5] 77.5] 96.0] 114.0] 116.5] 123.0] 127.0] 118.0 OL cadicteitesteien 51.5} 52.0] 64.5] 71.5} 84.0) 93.5] 117.5} 123.0) 129.0] 124.0 22 awinate eon alae 54.0| 57.0; 68.0] 81.0} 97.0] 107.0} 116.5} 120.0] 122.0] 121.5 23) saat eater 48.0} 51.5] 62.0] 75.5] 88.5] 97.0) 106.5} 114.5] 120.0] 119.0 DAS. tee go eee ates 54.0} 70.0} 80.0] 95.0} 112.0] 119.5] 127.5} 130.0] 130.5) 130.0 DOR mee GraalenGan nee 58.0] 65.0} 79.0) 94.0} 112.0] 116.0] 131.0] 130.5] 131.5! 131.5 Average ..... 52.1| 55.9] 66.7] 77.8] 91.1] 101.1) 112.0) 116.6] 119.7! 119.6 Increase ......| 12.3 3.8] 10.8] 11.1] 13.3] 10.0] 10.9 4.6 3.1 J RATE OF GROWTH 65 TABLE NO. 14 TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION COINCIDENT WITH THE RATE OF GROWTH AS SHOWN IN THE FOREGOING TABLE. 2 ‘Lime Maximum Minimum Rainfall MUNG 21 VO esas seve erent 82 50 June 22, 1907............06 82 57 10 June 23, 1907.........eeeeee 85 65 5 June 24, 1907......... ae eats 88 1 54 23 June 25, 1907............065 74 55 01 June 26, 1907............00 72 43 JUNE 27, 190T 6s vice vccceiavae 15 38 01 June 28, 1907............... 81 42 June 29, 1907...........-06 85 43 June 30, 1907............... 85 53 .04 July 1, 1907............... 82 47 04 July’ 2, 190 Ton. ed aecss 47 05 July 18). P90 ieee ewarecscnwss is 52 Trace July 4, WOT ssc cs sees cs wees 62 Trace July 8; W907 sess acs dynes es 96 64 JULY G6, WOT occa eects ce ve 85 54 41 July 7, 1907...........04-. 87 56 04 July S$, 1907.06 ova wcngeen 86 69 July 9, 1907............06. 84 57 1.0 July 10; WOT sc occ ias ces as ve 81 57 .28 UY VE, VIO TG oraigcc canes doen ts 79 61 Trace July 12, 1907........... ern 82 47 JULY 13 W9OT ioe. sie sects ee 84 51 July 14, 120? sins scans sees 88 62 Trace July 15, 1907.............6- 82 57 76 July 16, 1907..... isi sanese 85 57 31 July 17, 1907.............46. 83 49 July 18, 1907............... 88 55 53 July” 19; VOT eos seers are 88 55 02 July 20, 1907.......... aisha 84 58 46 July 21, 1907 woe oc cccsesc seed os 90 65 July 22, 1907............85. 86 57 July 23, 1907 0.6 ieee cees el 89 50 July 24, 1907..:........045. 86 59 1.05 July 25, 1907...........-... 90 60 37 July 26, 1907...........685- V7 49 July 27, WOT ai. cieiace. cscs lace oe 76 44 July 28, W907 6:0 eevee ve aes 85 55 July 295 WOT sks ies aww ve 82 50 July 380, 1907...........008. 86 47 July 31, 1907............055 84 54 Aug.- 1, 1907..... aol Was es V7 54 Aug. 2, 1907.......,.--0 eee 73 41 Aug. 8, 1907s 6550 s60c8sa0%- 2 15 37 66 CORN TABLE NO. 14—Continued Time Maximum Minimum Rainfall __ Aug. 4, 1907. .cseeves ae ctus 16 40 .33 Alig. | By P90 eiacs cx cad tas s 87 51 01 AUR 1G. W908. sic dered tun nes 89 51 08 Ave. Te WOT: cctoaacawe ss ae 86 53 36 Aug. (8) 90 To aie siete ease tiaca gee 84 58 67 Aug. 9, 190%. <4 aumseaadcarde 86 61 Auge: 10, 1907 soa cacceacioaiccas ‘ 92 62 AU UL, T9OT ea ies eS hue Sie 85 60 Trace AUS. 12, 1907s cs eases ins tue 83 44 Auge 135 1908 cc cmc aeraieny os 83 49 Age Tb 1908 ec eiee eens ise ee 82 50 Aug, 15; 1908. esses ou saws oe 86 50 01 Awe. U6) 1907 os dancesesaanstee 86 46 Trace AN TG AD 9OE f54. soeunse Boo scmniant 84 58 AVE. U8; W9OT ccs cada oe 89 58 Aves 19, T90 Taco pas isis gnats 83 54 Trace Aves 20 V90T sacs eres salina | 71 38 A close study of the two tables will reveal several very striking points. In the increase of growth there is a gradual rise in the number of inches per day as the plants near forty inches in height. That is. when the plants are smaller the root system has not developed suf- ficiently to secure an abundance of plant food which will push the plant along. It will be seen that this rapidity of growth is kept up until the tassel begins to appear in August; then a decided slackening occurs. A relative study of the second table with the first shows more rapid growth during the days of the highest temperature. However, the greater factor is the amount of precipitation during these warmer days. The period from July 15th to 25th inclusive, the amount of rainfall was 3.5 inches. With the high temperature plants at that age utilized this excessive moisture and rapid increase in height ensued. LIGHT. In 1779, Ingenhouss discovered that oxygen gas is given off from foliage and carbon deposited in the structure and tissues of plant due to the influence of light upon the absorbed carbon dioxide. Partial darkness decreases to a certain..extent the assimilation of carbon dioxide, besides eliminating the*§reen chlorophyll entirely. Absolute darkness even causes the plant to lose in weight and deter- iorate in structure. The yellow corn plant growing in a shaded place or under a clod is a practical example of a lack of sunlight. This is often seen also in the listed furrow. Corn which is drilled thickly for fodder purposes, shows long, slender internodes, and very often has short narrow leaves. The cells of the plant are elongated and require a large amount of moisture to maintain their turgidity. In cold, cloudy seasons, crops are always late in maturing. PLANT FOOD 67 PLANT FOOD FROM THE AIR. The term plant food is com- monly used to designate all of the crude materials which are taken into the plant, and which are utilized by it. Strictly speaking, the term “plant food” is not analogous to the same term used in connec- tion with animals. Plant foods are rather the raw materials used in the manufacture of food. These materials are built into carbo- hvdrates, fat, and proteids, and in this form are used as food by the plant. However, as we are here concerned with the source rather than with the finished product, the term plant food will be used in its more commonly accepted serise—that is, as meaning the crude mater- ials, Disregarding the other constituents, which are present only in very limited amounts, the atmosphere contains in one hundred parts :* By Weight. By Volume. Oxygen ........ eee eee eee 2317 20.95 Nitrogen occ. ieee caw 76.83 79.05 (1) Oxygen. Free oxygen is utilized by plants in exactly the same way as in the body of an.animal. Foods are required for the purpose of building up new tissues and to furnish energy by their decomposition for the growth and movement of a plant and its parts. Oxygen is necessary for the latter process, the evolution of energy from the food material being a process of oxidation. Carbon dioxide is given off as a result and may again be utilized in photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The liberation of energy from the food or tissue substance is known as respiration. (2) Nitrogen. Free nitrogen as such cannot be assimilated by any green plant. Small quantities of ammonia and nitric acid are washed down by rains into the soil and are taken up by the roots. Certain bacteria, how- ever, some living free in the soil and others in nodules of legumes fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert it into a form which can be utilized directly or indirectly by the plant. (3) Carbon, Just what is the source of the large amount of carbon used by the plants was at one time a subject of extensive investigation, Experi- ments show that plants flourish and increase in carbon content when their roots feed in a nutrient solution containing no carbon. This carbon must then, in such cases, be drawn from the air. But carbon, *Air also contains between .03 and .05 per cent of carbon dioxide. 68 CORN as a free element, well illustrated by pure charcoal, does not exist in the atmosphere. The compound carbon dioxide COz2, however, is present to the extent of 3 parts in 10,000 parts of air. Experiments have further proved that the carbon dioxide gas is absorbed directly by the foliage in solar light. The stomata aid in this absorption. It has also been found that plants die in an atmosphere free from carbon dioxide. The carbon after entering the cells of the plant undergoes a chemical change by combining with water, as just previously de- scribed. This conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbo- FIELD WHICH HAS BEEN DROWNED OUT EARLY IN THE SPRING, Notice the corn is in patches. The water logged soil prevented the permeation of air. hydrates is known as “photosynthesis.” The resulting solution of soluble carbohydrates accumulate rapidly in the tissues of the plant and oxygen is given off. The corn plant, which is so dark green in color and bears a large foliage area, is a gross feeder upon carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. PLANT FOOD FROM THE SOIL. Not all plants require the soil as a medium of growth, but those which do, call upon the soil for organic and inorganic substances. The principal elements neces- sary for plant growth required from the soil are: PLANT FOOD 69 (1) Nitrogen. Nitrogen is made available by the decay of organic matter in the soil. The ammoniacal form is changed by micro- scopic organisms present in the soil, into nitrous acid; other organ- isms in turn change this to nitric acid, which when in union with the mineral bases forms the nitrates which are the directly available forms of nitrogen. As the nitrogenous organic compounds, such as dung, urine, and green manure, as well as ammonium salts, are finally changed to nitrates, it is evident that the corn plant growing on a field which has been treated with manures of this character draws its nitrogen supply from the nitrates of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, formed by the union of their decomposition products with the bases in the soil. Nitrogen gathering bacteria living in symbiotic relation with certain plants, namely, the legumes, draw upon the abundant supply of nitrogen in the air, transforming it into nitric acid, thus making it available for the plant. The element nitro- gen enters largely into the formation of the grain. Sixteen per cent of the elementary composition of protein is nitrogen. Experiments have shown that corn grown on soils rich in nitrogen are higher in protein content. (2) Phosphorus. Phosphorus constitutes a large proportion of the ash of seeds. The amount of phosphorus (calculated as phus- phoric acid) in the ash of the wheat kernel is 45 to 50 per cent, while in the straw it is only 5 per cent.* Phosphorus is absorbed in the form of phosphates of calcium and potassium. It enters into the formation of the proteins and is also present in the inorganic compounds. In live stock farming phosphorus is more largely sold from the farm than any other of the principal. soil constituents necessary for plant growth. Being used in the formation of bone and muscle the per cent of phosphorus in a feed is of significance in feeding young animals. In many sections of the corn belt it has already been found profitable to add phosphorus to the soil in the form of some commer- cial fertilizer. (3) Potassium. Potassium, usually spoken of as potash, K2O, the oxidized form, requires less serious consideration from the standpoint of its ultimate depletion in the soil than either nitrogen or phos- phorus. In the first place, there is already in all soils, except some peaty-swamp soils, a large supply. Furthermore, the fact that it is present in the straw rather than the grain of plants, guarantees, under more modern methods of farming, its return to the soil each year. *“Agricultural Botany,” Perciv-l. 70 CORN Potassium is taken in largely as a nitrate, chloride, carbonate, sul- phate and phosphate. In the assimilation of carbon dioxide the pro- cess is facilitated by the presence of potassium. Any plant containing a large percentage of carbohydrates usually shows a considerable amount of potassium in the ash. The fact that wheat straw loses its stiffness upon a soil which is so rich in nitrogen as to force the plant along without sufficient potash, proves this. The glazed surface and woody wall of the corn stalk are due to the strengthening power of potash. (4) Calcium. Calcium, usually known as CaO, or lime, is neces- sary to correct the acidity of soils which have been farmed continu- ously, and whose humus content has been almost exhausted. Al- though of less importance in the actual development of plants, the amount of lime in the ash of barley, oat, and wheat straw is generally about seven per cent.* (5) Other Plant Foods. Sulphur enters into the composition of the protein. Magnesia is found in the ash of seeds, especially in small grains. lron is an essential element of chlorophyll. Plants grown in nutrient solutions, free from iron, have no green color. Although sili- con, sodium, and chlorine are present in the ash of plants, some author- ities claim that they are unessential to the growth of plants. The following table gives the amount of the three chief elements of plant food found in the principal farm crops by analyses. TABLE NO. 15 SHOWING AMOUNT OF PLANT FOOD IN PRINCIPAL FARM CROPS, Amount __ Nitrogen 3 Phosphorus Potassium _ Corn; erain seesss den nce eae | 100 bushels| 100 pounds! 17 pounds| 19 pounds Corn, stover .............. | 6 tons 48 7 6 i 52 a Entire crop ...........004- | 148 ys 23 "| 41 ' O8ta, STAIN .s.ceescdavuna 75 bushels} 45 ms + ~ 9 me Oat Straw catego eaten’ 62.2 72.2 76.6 73.7 71.2 AVETA SC ves wavered 59.9 69.5 | 73.9 71.9 68.6 _ Of equal or greater importance than the total amount of rainfall is its distribution during the growing season. Corn makes its most PRECIPITATION 77 rapid growth during the months of July and August, and, therefore, it is during these months, while the corn is tasseling and forming ears, that the greatest amount of rain is needed for the best growth of this crop. The so-called small grains require their moisture earlier in the season, since they make their growth and mature early. April is the critical month for winter wheat, from the standpoint of precipitation, and May and June are the important ones for oats. For these reasons, the small grains are to quite an extent dependent upon the early precipitation for their moisture, while it is the later rains which bene- fit corn. While heavy May and June rains are needed for oats, they may be detrimental to corn, in that they favor development of a shal- low root system which is ill-fitted to withstand the frequent dry weather of July and August. A very wet May or June means also a poorer stand, vigorous growth of weeds, ineffective and insufficient cultivation, anda puddling of the soils, which means baked and cloddy ground when a dry spell arrives. The plants also tend to grow on too large a scale, producing too great a proportion of stalks to roots. The’ resulting condition of both plant and soil are such as to unfit them for a dry summer. The accompanying charts show concretely the importance of pre- cipitation and illustrate the foregoing discussion. They are based upon the average yields of corn in Iowa for eighteen years and the mean monthly temperatures and precipitations for the same period. In each case, the heavy lines represent the normal yield, tem- perature, and rainfall. Chart No. 12 shows the relation of yield to the total rainfall of the growing season, for the months of May to August inclusive. With a few explainable exceptions, the yield and rainfall agree very closely. The years 1892, 1902 and 1903, show high precipitation, with yields not correspondingly large, but the other charts show that in each of these seasons there was an excessively wet May or June, or both, accompanied by a low average temperature. . In 1893, the yield was higher than the rainfall for these months would account for, but it follows a very wet season and the April (1893) had an unusually large amount of rain, which is not included in the total which is plotted. In 1906, the largest average yield is shown with a rainfall slightly below normal. The May, June and July conditions of that year were nearly normal, while the critical month of August was exceptionally favorable. The low yield of 1907 is accounted for on the grounds of the very cold Mav and June, early frosts in the fall and erratic distribution ot the rainfall. Charts 8 and 9 do not show close correlations between yields and precipitations for May and June. The explanations for these discrep- ancies have already been given. CORN 78 CHoday Jaye, CMO wor uayeyz) “E06 Ul ons] sem atues ay] ‘[eUWlIoU MoTaq seM }e]s DY} 10J UI09 JO ppat€ ay} teak yey} Ul ‘ainjzesadutey MOT YUM C68 Ul UoHeydI901d YsIY 20N ‘sayour ppp sem Uorjeydioaid aseraae ay} jlayuayey .9'6S SEM s1edd u9a}ysta 94} JO} AB JO oinjesadurs} oBessae PUL “PAISNSUL £06] OF 0681 ‘AW JO UONeydrd01d Burmoys g ‘ON LYVHD , oF =f" BNOIdUY You01 2 = f voynpOiary Ing/=/ PINK 220 —_—_—--— ~ainjatadus/2y_ Se BMYOIPUM SY, YOWMOpLP IBN $06/ WO06/ £06 7206/ 106/ 0061 569 G60 LEG GER! SEB1 tb SEQ 6G 160/ Obor 79 PRECIPITATION Codey stayyeaA PMOT wo.y udyey) ‘UIOD JO pja'A MOT A[Burpuodsaiios e parueduosse I06T UI s¥ sainzeraduiay Moy] YM ouNf ut uoTeYdID01d YBIFT ‘W109 Jo pyars MO] paiuedwosoe p6Q] UI SB sinjeradurs} ysry qu ounf ur uoreydiosid MOT ‘aatsnTIUT ZOG] 0} NSRT ‘aun[ JO} ainjsiom pue uoteydioaid Buimoys 6 ‘ON LUVHD sha.) aryowadiiey “//OfLio4 2 =p “Uoyopdaary ingy= 7 Pak © BDI ——— ns amoldug = £ — woody £ PK LHAk a S 8 q < a < g £06 906/ = S06/ = #06 E0GL 081 106 006/560 = BERL LEGS 96 OF $60 #60/ £60! 268/ 166/ 06H CORN 80 Cyoday soyzeeAy BMOT Wor Udyxe) ; UIOD JO PJaA aBe1aAe MOT & VdUadY ‘plod puke jam seM UOS¥IS 94 JT ‘MOT SEM din} -eisduray ay} Inq Ysry sem uorjezdiooid ay} ZQ6] Ul “ead yey IOJ UIOD Jo ParA MOT pue ainjesodurs} YSIY YUM PHB FO woneydisaid MOT AJA 9}0N “DAISNJOUT /OGT O} OGRI ‘A[N[ 10} aanyesadwia} pue uoredisaid Surmoys OL ‘ON LUVHD P= amnjossdiig,, Y/Opiibd 22s" UOlOpdizasy °19/=1 PIFIK BOIS —-—- CanjaQisdux, & — uolopaia4y - PLA, » a a g . QUYOMIMMY, £06 906/ $06 = #061 = O65 206/106 Ob =660l 869 L6H 968/ S68 BEG! = €6Gl — PER/ 180/ 06B/ 81 PRECIPITATION Cyoday jJayzeaAy, BMOT Woy UdyeT) "dinjeisdw3a} ysiy Airey pue sinjstow pnjryusld Aq paruedurosse aie ONG PUL OD6I JO PIAA YSty oy J, “dors uso ay} 0} [nJWIeY AJA SI jsnsny Ul oimjsiour jo asejyioys YW ‘zesA yey} JOF uO. FO Pyaré dy} UO ainjzesodwo} YSIYy YUM uOMeydIV2e1d MO] ay} JO yaya ay} r}0u PET UT “OAISNIIUT ZO6T ©} O68I “sNSny OF 91nj}e1AadUI9} pue UOIjye}dIDa1d SurmMOYS IT ‘ON LYVHD e-f amorduy Yyofuind 7 =f UOYDIIPI244 “NG /=1 YA, A < YOO [—---amnolsdug ‘—— — UOYOpINIALS DOK L06/ 906/ = S06/ —B06/ —E0E/ 06h WEL O06 — GER = EBL LOGE = 6G SF EGH 26Gl E69 2601 1601 080! CORN 82 ‘UOSedS SUIMOIS oy} Sulinp osevjIOYs ay} 10} dn ayeuw 0} padjoy yoiym [peyurer Aavoy Ajyensnun ue Aq paxieur sem Suipaseid jludy jo yyuou ay} ynq ‘uoNeydIDe1d Mo] & YUM UIOD JO pal aseiaae ysiy AysUey & SMOYS C68T “MOT Sm sivaA asay} 10} UIOD Jo pyaté aBeroae oy} pur ‘ainyesadura} mor ; BAD METHOD OF STORING SEED CORN 3 1 The ears oS too close Ua SCS for ee —— lation of air, consequently there is danger o GOOD AND BAD STALKS moulding and that it will not be sniiclenily No. 1 is an illustration of a good dried out to prevent freezing. It is much stalk, well balanced, the ear easier to tie with a string, as shown on page about four feet from the 104. If the string method of tying is fol- ground, well set and drooped lowed, a good circulation of air is afforded sufficiently to shed the rain. and the ears dry out properly. What must No. 2 shows a rather weak be avoided is freezing of the corn before it stalk with long joints and the is dried out. The above is a common ear set too high and much too method, but often results in mouldiness, es- near the top. pecially if stored in this way during a damp or wet fall. SHOWING EFFECT OF PLANT SELECTION. With this thought in view, the Ohio Station conducted a test in 1906 in which ears selected from plants growing in the field under normal conditions of stand, and as nearly normal in other environment as it was possible to judge, were compared with other ears of the same variety and selected from the same field, but selected from the wagon, no attention being given to the stand in the latter instance. The ears selected from the wagon were superior in size and in general appear- ance, as might be expected. Eight tenth-acre plots were planted from the two selections, four 102 CORN plots of the plant selected seed and four of the seed selected in the ordinary way. These plots yielded as follows: TABLE NO. 22 PLANT VS. ORDINARY SELECTION* Yield per acre Plot No. Method of selection Bushels 49 Ordinary | 68.64 40 Plant 76.57 51 Plant | 70.56 5 Ordinary | 68.53 55 Ordinary | 69.07 56 Plant | 71.43 57 Plant 71.43 58 Ordinary 70.82 Average of Plant selection plots 72.49 Average of Ordinary selection plots 69.26 Gain for Plant Selection 3.23 bu. STORING SEED CORN—The Method. ‘The early pioneers in corn culture generally tied two ears together by the supple husks Kars tied too closely together on string for best results. A common error in storing seed corn when single string method is employed. *Ohio Circular No. 71 STORING SEED CORN 103 and hung them over a wire or rail. Others stripped all the husks off, tied two or more ears together and hung them up. With the increased interest in seed corn, many dealers thought that they had hit upon an ideal plan when the light wooden racks were built and the ears laid in tiers horizontally. But, because of the moisture and the subsequent heating, the kernels were either molded or sprouted. Seed corn which has just been husked requires just one thing. It must have a very free circulation of air at ordinary temperatures. That is to say, each ear must have access to a complete circulation of air in order that its excess of contained mois- ture may evaporate rapidly enough to prevent fungus growths and chemical changes in the kernels. Different Experiment Stations recommend several devices and methods which accomplish the desired results with varying degrees of satisfaction. Wire racks with both horizontal and vertical strands, thus separating each ear into a sort of pigeonhole, are made by some manufacturers and. sold on the market. Some farmers drive spikes at an angle through a two-by-four and simply slip an ear over each spike. The method which has proved of the highest efficiency at the lowa Experiment Station and which is being rapidly adopt- ed by the farmers ot the state, is suspend- ing from the ceiling or rafters ten or moreears,each looped at about the middle on a single or double strand of binding twine. For corn which is meant for show, suspension from both ends of the ear is more satis- factory because then each ear holds its straight form. The circulation of air is unhindered, and the method is very practical. Moreover, the damage by mice is slight because the corn cannot be easily reached. Especially is this so if the binding twine be tied to a wire which may be suspended from rafter to rafter. More recently several types of wire hangers have been put on the market employing practically the same principle as the above. A METHOD OF STORING SEED CORN WHICH ADMITS THE FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR ABOUT THE EARS. 104 CORN LAYING IN THE FIRST EAR This method, known as the double string method of tying up seed corn, is rapid and efficient. Note that the strings held in the left hand are longer than those in the right. Also that the strings in the right hand are held wider apart. As the strings pass around the ear they are about equally distant from butt and tip. STORING SEED CORN 105 LAYING IN THE SECOND EAR The first ear is held securely between the feet. The right hand and strings are passed through between those held in the left, leaving a place in which to lay the second ear. Notice that the second ear is reversed, butt for tip. Care should be exercised to keep the strings equally distant from the tip and butt of each ear. Always hold the string tight. 106 CORN LAYING IN THE LAST EAR The left hand strings are still a little longer than those of the right. The first ear is still securely held between the feet. The string is tight and plenty of air space is present between the ears. The ears axe woven in by the strings. No knots have been tied. The weight of the ears bind the strings closely to the ears. STORING SEED CORN 107 READY FOR HANGING The longer string is looped through the shorter. No knot is ne- cessary if the corn is to be hung up immediately. If, however, the ten ears are to be laid down on the floor again, a second hitch of the longer string through the shorter will be necessary to prevent the ears from slipping out of their places. In case it is desired to suspend twenty ears from one point, the second string is looped through the longer string of the first ten, and the process of weaving is continued. 1108 CORN TAKING OUT THE EARS The hitch and loop which were made in the string previous to hanging, are unloosed. The lower ear of the ten is grasped, thus in- verting all the ears. The weaving process is reversed. One by one the ears drop from their places by their own weight. STORING SEED CORN 109 _Seed may be left hanging until spring, but if the mice are not in evidence it is better to take the ears down and store them in racks after the fall winds have thoroughly dried out the excess moisture. The first four weeks is the critical period of storage. Seed corn selected in the field in the fall of 1906 on the following dates, showed a very high percentage of moisture. : TABLE NO. 23 SHOWING PER CENT OF MOISTURE IN KERNELS AND COB Date Kernels Cob September 4s esr ae a cvs iene ces dive | 41.78 Per cent| 58.58 Per cen September 21. :0:4004c2cc-nsao0sas bs | 37.35 sf 57.17 : September 28. 05 oats acdsee wherewn teatane 33.04 55.86 October 3: weeks bas Geko Sead Soe | 28.52 ss 52.28 ; October 12 Sai ceria een eee hea ee | 25.97 es 49.05 , October vader weak es seastectseud eanerteaslad 20.15 oe 40.99 { October 26: 6 wwe. ccvcie canes cea ees | 22.09 . | 37.24 : NO VCO ST 2S iscoratelscoueuara wie lan aceiavancers aoerane | 17.83 Hs | 26.82 The above table taken from the thesis of E. L. Morris and O. A Cohagan (1907), of the Iowa State College, shows the large amount of water present in early gathered seed corn. It shows that the cob con- tains the greater percent of the moisture and that the cob is also much slower in losing this water. Up to November 2d the cob was very heavy and damp, the pith cells being quite turgid. The Place. Unless the small grain has been threshed early in the season and has had time to cool off after the sweating pro- cess, do not hang the seed corn over the oat bin in the granary. Furthermore, the ordinary gran- ary has hardly enough direct ven- tilation to dry out the newly gath- ered corn before colder weather. A double corn crib, with a sort of garret fixed over the drive, is almost an ideal place for the dry- ing of early picked corn, as the wind has free access to the ears and a thorough drying is soon effected. The attic over the living room is often advocated as the best place for seed corn storage. Early in the season, when the ears are sappy and require the circulation of air, the ordinary attic has too SEED EARS ON WIRE HANGERS 110 CORN few windows and the temperature is usually so high that mold or germination often results. Corn which has been dried thoroughly need not be moved from the granary or loft because of cold weather. But to be safe, seed so stored is better placed in the attic when the lower temperature of winter comes on. On the ordinary farm, the seed corn store room or separate building has not come to be a permanent fixture. When much seed is sold, such a building is almost necessary. THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE VITALITY OF CORN The purpose of this experiment was to determine just what effect freezing would have upon corn which was air dry and that containing different percentages of moisture. Ears 1-5 were soaked in water at ordinary temperatures for five hours. Bars? G21 sgh5 sia aig nae wie ae SO 6 hours Hans; T0215. aaa Ged wate ntatien oa ee Re eke al 7 hours Bars 102205 w aye de ee EE ora Waa eee ees 8 hours Ears: 21625 2 sec caiwsa dus eean eee sadly oe an ee es 5 hours ElaTS 220230 s.csiscalate panna ig Site ai Ba lala casa ee ana aR 6 hours Fars: BIRQS ite hte hae Homa timat dea eadeee Bens 7 hours Hears 36-4@iy.2 goss wcuee con MSR mea ae ees 8 hours Immediately after being taken from the water, the ears numbering 1 to 20 were placed in a refrigerator plant where the temperature varied from 12 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit above zero. Here they were left for 76 hours. Ears 21-30 were left under ordinary room tempera- tures for 52 hours and were then frozen for 24 hours. Ears 31-40 were not frozen at all, but were left in a room at 70 degrees Fahren- heit. *The kernels were afterward taken from each ear and analyzed for moisture as well as given a germination test. The following table shows the average percentage of moisture and the percentage of germination before and after the treatment, with the consequent loss in vitality. " *Research by W. F. Schnaidt. VITALITY 1 TABLE NO. 24 SHOWING EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON VITALITY es a eee ace Number of ear Bet cent es Heese eatin sera selie aimountse! ie moisture before treating after treating loss vitality Ve Do ougas heen eeed | 22.3 | 88.3 28.3 | 60.0 | 69.0 6-10) ceavwee sales | 23.5 | 91.7 | 46.6 | 45.1 | 49.2 MoD S By aeicetteea sa ene mea cacensth 29.8 | 68.2 | 26.4 | 41.8 | 61.3 16-200 cu cacgecacuwes 30.0 84.7 | 44.9 39.8 47.0 ZBVe3 Oi. sates ear asanay ooo 31.2 97.4 61.6 35.8 35.7 DEH4 Oe Wi ol aug.cthates a ohaiiesers | 27.3 | 89.9 82.3 07.6 08.4 THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE VITALITY OF CORN. The numbers above untreated correspond to those below which were treated. Conclusions: 1. When very full of moisture, even freezing for a short time is detrimental. 2. Excessive moisture when not attended with low tempera- tures, also weakens vitality. 112 CORN Mr. L. C. Burnett, in his thesis for Master’s Degree in Agriculture at the Iowa State College, found the following results in germination tests with seed corn stored in the places herein named. Percent Kernels Germinating Strong Weak Bad 1. Seedroom ............. 95.0 233 1.7 2. Garret (kitchen) ...... 92.5 7.5 -—— 3. Tool Shed (closed) ....91.7 6.6 1.7 4. Tool Shed (open) ...... 91.7 8.3 — 5. Hung outdoors ........ 85.4 8.2 6.3 6. Dry garret, sassaweersee 83.3 16.7 -—- 7. Furnace room ......... 79.0 18.5 1.9 8. Cellar (not dry) ....... 75.0 23.3 1:7 g. Hay mow ...........-- 58.3 41.7 -— to. Shock (outside) ....... 57-3 20.0 22.7 11. Hanging on stalk ...... 55.0 15.0 30.0 12. Lying on ground ...... 46.7 25.0 28.3 13. Shock (center) ........ 43.0 20.0 37.0 14. Cellar (very wet) ...... 40.0 51.7 8.3 Early and rapid drying of seed increases its ability to withstand freezing. . THE NEED OF TESTING SEED CORN. Corn which has been stored properly through the winter season is often thought to need no testing. But the high price of land and the incumbent risk in planting untested seed, demands a more definite knowledge of its germinating ability. The following table shows the results of extensive tests conducted by Experiment Station of Iowa State College in 1910. Each ear of corn represented in the experiment was given several germination tests, using different kinds of seed corn testers, and the table shows the average results of all tests made. In each test six kernels were taken from each ear. After being graded according to the strength of germ- ination, each lot was planted in the field under uniform conditions and in different parts of the field. The record of stand was taken in the fall, and the product of each plot was carefully weighed -and recorded. Check plots were planted to verify the records taken. The evidence given herein was further corroborated by a similar test con- ducted during the following year. GERMINATION TEST 113 TABLE NO. 25 SHOWING DECREASE IN PER CENT STAND AND YIELD WITH DECREASE OF VITALITY AS MEASURED BY THE GERMINATION TEST* Per cent Per cent “Gar Tees | -SeyntSS SiGe 28 | ae here | eee | ed Bh 769 6—0—0 72.3 79.1 472 5—0—1 58.5 65.4 13.8 9.7 425 4—0—2 52.4 58.6 19.9 16.5 347 3—0—3 41.5 50.1 31.8 25.0 340 2—0—4 34.1 42.1 38.2 33.0 297 1—0O-—-5 27.7 39.4 44.6 35.7 259 0—0—6 26.6 34.7 45.7 40.4 S=Strong W=Weak D=Dead From the seed ears showing all six strong sprouts, the average yield was 75.1 bushels per acre. From the seed ears with one kernel out of the six kernels tested, failing to sprout in the test, the yield in the field was reduced 9.7 bushels per acre. Seed ears from which two of the six kernels tested failed to sprout yielded 16.5 bushels per acre less than the strong ears. Where three out of the six kernels failed to sprout the average yield from the seed ears shows a decrease of 25 bushels per acre. With four of the six kernels failing to sprout the yield from these seed ears was reduced 33 bushels per acre. From seed ears where five of the kernels failed to sprout in the test the average yield was reduced 35.7 bushels per acre, and where all six kernels failed to grow a decrease in yield of 40.3 bushels per acre was found. The yield recorded from ears which failed to germinate when tested is explained by the presence of kernels scattered through the ears which have escaped injury. However one would not wish to plant such ears which so greatly reduce the yield. Covering a period of seven years the results of the farmer’s var- iety tests in Iowa in twenty-eight counties and covering 55 tests show the condition of the seed corn being planted each year, and serve further to demonstrate the relation of the germination test to the yield of corn in the field. In these tests the seed corn used was taken from the planter boxes of farmers right in their fields while planting. The seed was planted by hand, three kernels per hill, with exactly the same preparation of seed bed, uniform soil, and same cultivation. Each sample was planted in different parts of the field in order and careful records were kept of stand and yield. Furthermore, several germination tests were made of each sample and the average test recorded. The following table gives a summary of the data: *Towa Bulletin No. 135 114 CORN TABLE NO. 26 *SHOWING RELATION OF GERMINATION TEST TO STAND IN THE FIELD AND YIELD Namber of Sales Senbain,| startet) |_acetlin All 3550 samples tested___-__-____ 88 69 57 Best one-tenth (358) _------------- 92 77 68 Poorest one-tenth (358)___------_- 79 56 43 The above table shows conclusively that the germination test properly conducted is a safe indication of the power of the seed to produce in the field. Another test including 4000 individual ears tested and planted as in the above experiment, serves further to prove the relation between the germination, stand in the field and actual yield. TABLE NO. 27 *SHOWING VALUE OF INDIVIDUAL EAR TEST | Germination | % Stand in Yield per Number of Ears __s Strong | Field (fall) | Acre (Bus.) All 4000 ears tested___----_-------- 86 69 56 Best one-fourth (1000 ears)----___ 91 77 68 Poorest one-fourth (1000 ears) __~- 77 57 42 The above test covers five years, 109 experiments in twenty-seven counties. The value of the germination test has been already emphasized, but further data relating to the relation of stand in the field to actual yield is given in the following table: TABLE NO. 28 *SHOWING RELATION OF STAND TO YIELD. (Result of eight years test in Iowa) Number of Samples | Per cent Stand Yield per Acre (Bushels) 28 20 to 30 28 86 30 to 40 34 184 40 to 50 42 548 50 to 60 48 1001 60 to 70 54 1581 70 to 80 58 1158 80 to 90 62 190 90 to 100 64 Average | 71.7 56 It is of special significance to note that in the above tests only 28.2 per cent of the seed actually planted by the 4776 farmers represented, gave a stand of 80 per cent or better. The average stand of all tests being only 71.7 per cent. While definite data could not be secured from all states, a poor stand of corn in the field is given universally as the greatest cause of a low average yield, and the germination test has been everywhere urged as the only practical means of detecting and eliminating the weak and dead unproductive seed ears. *County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. TIME OF TESTING 115 Through the influence of the agricultural press, the short courses, corn trains, and a general movement in advance in farming methods, corn growers are recognizing the importance of seed testing. Yet the awakening seems slow. Out of 182 representative farmers throughout the state answering inquiries from the Farm Crops De- partment, 79 tested every ear of their seed corn, 85 tested in a general way, and 18 did not test at all. The Time to Test. Some corn growers make a practice of run- ning a preliminary test during the month of January. This is done in order to find out whether or not all the seed is badly damaged. Should such be the case, other seed could be procured and tested be- _ fore planting time. The method has a sound basis and should be followed more closely. One of the serious difficulties in the way is the liability of freezing during the test. The method is especially applicable to seedsmen who should know how much reliable seed they have on hand before the advertising season opens. The regular and final test should be made during the month of March. There is less danger of the young sprouts freezing from ex- posure, and by this time the granary or barn has been emptied to such an extent that floor space is available. The planting season is near at hand and the tested seed has less chance to change in vitality from the time of testing until it is in the ground. The work can be completed, and the corn shelled, sorted, and sacked ready to plant, leaving the seed room free. MAKING THE TEST.—Fitting Up the Testing Box. The num- ber of ears to be tested determines to a certain extent the size of the testing box. A convenient size for the practical corn grower is a box sufficiently large to hold kernels from 200 ears. This will re- quire a box 24 by 48 inches. Six inches in depth is not objectionable should fencing lumber be the only thing available. This box should have a layer of two inches of wet sawdust packed tightly over the bottom. It will be found convenient to wet the sawdust in an old sack, letting sack and sawdust soak in warm water for 20 or 30 minutes, that the sawdust may have equal moisture throughout. While the soil is Nature’s seedbed, yet young plants in sprouting feed entirely upon the plant food stored up within the kernel. 116 CORN PACKING THE SAWDUST IN THE GERMINATION BOX ‘The brick is used because the corners can be filled uniformly. MARKING THE CLO'TH MARKING OFF AND NUMBERING THE SQUARES. Note that the cloth is fastened down to a smooth surface with tacks. Only the outside rows need be numbered. (5) 118 CORN Take a piece of new white muslin, which should be a little larger than the box, and mark off two hundred squares, each 2x2 inches, Corn having especially broad kernels may require squares 2x3 inches. This may be done with black or blue crayon. The squares may he numbered from 1 to 200, beginning in the upper left-hand corner and following consecutively from the left to right for each row or the outside rows only need be numbered. Tack the cloth in place stretching it uniformly tight over the sawdust. Take six kernels from each ear, two from opposite sides of the tip, two from opposite sides of the middle, and two from opposite sides of the butt. See that no two kernels are taken from the same row. This will be a good representation of the germinating power of each ear. It is not well to take the kernels from one side only, for fre- quently an ear is found in which the kernels on one side germinate strong, while those from the other side fail to grow. By placing the blade of a pocket knife between two rows of ker- nels, and prying slightly, a kernel will readily come out into the hand holding the ear. The six kernels should be laid on the floor just opposite the butt of the ear. Continue this process until six kernels have been removed from all the ears. Now take the germina- tion box and, beginning on the first row, follow right down, placing the six kernels from the butt of each ear into a square in the box, the number of the square corresponding to the number of the ear. Thus, the kernels from ear No. I in square No. 1; kernels from ear No. 2 in square No. 2, and so on until the 200 groups of six kernels each are all in their respective places. Another piece of plain muslin should be cut just the exact size of the box. This covers the corn kernels when laid in place. Next a third strip of muslin larger than the bex by twelve inches should be placed over the second. The remainder of the box above should then be filled level with damp sawdust. Fold the edges of the upper strip of muslin over on the sawdust and the germination box is complete. A great many patent frames are being put on the market. Some have points of value, others are not so practical. In time, a device more easily manipulated than the one described may be manufac- tured. As eccnomy is a factor, the best corn tester must be a labor saver. Laying Out the Ears and Filling the Box. If the seed is hanging in the attic or loft or stored in a seed room it should be laid out in rows on the floor or improvised tables. During this process, a keen eye will detect some ears which from their outward appearance indi- REMOVING KERNELS 119 REMOVING THE KERNELS WITH A KNIFE. The strip in front of the ears shows how the kernels from each ear may be deposited. 120 CORN cate low vitality; as for example, a moldy cob or dark colored germ, giving evidence of having been injured, probably by freezing. These should be cast aside at once. Ears which show a lack of breeding may ‘be discarded immediately, also. Having laid the ears out in rows on the floor, where they are held in place by two nails at each end of the rows, each tenth ear should be numbered, after which the kernels may be taken out. It will be found convenient to handle corn which is to be tested in trays of ten ears each. A small strip with holes bored in it large enough to hold six kernels each, may be set in front of the tray. After the kernels from each of the ten ears have been transferred to this strip, they can be carried to the germination box and emptied on the squares corresponding to their respective numbers: For convenience in counting the test afterward, it is best to place the kernels in two tiers of three kernels each, and as evenly as pos- sible. Always lay the kernels side by side with the germ side up. The tips of all the kernels should point toward that end of the box having the squares with the highest numbers. Dampen the loose piece of muslin and lay it over the kernels, taking care not to displace any of them. On top of this place the larger cloth filled with wet sawdust. Pack the corners down and press the entire mass firmly against the corn. The box is now ready to be set away for six to seven days, just as the temperature dictates. A furnace room fur- nishes a convenient place for the germinating box. It should be left in a suitable place where the temperature will be favorable for germi- nation, from 50 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit being very desirable. Do not let the temperature fall below freezing. The Result of the Test. By the time the stem sprouts have grown two inches in length a careful study of the results can be made. Be- ginning at one end of the box roll up the cloth containing the sawdust, pressing down hard as it is rolled back. If the mass is lifted bodily from the box, the kernels are likely to be dislodged. The second piece of muslin can then be peeled back slowly, and carefully re moved. Some rootlets may have’ penetrated it, hence there is a liability of displacing the kernels. When this has been done, place the box at the head of row No. 1. Begin with ear No. 1. Examine the result of square No. 1. There should be two separate sprouts appearing—the stem sprout and the root sprout, the former protruding from the upper or crown end of the kernel, the latter extending from the tip end of the germ. The root sprout is smaller in diameter and longer. It will often appear one PLACING KERNELS IN BOX TRANSFERRING THE KERNELS TO THE TEST BO s method is rapid and deposits the kernels in the right squares according to the numbers. Kernels should then be arranged in regular order. 122 CORN FOLDING OVER THE EDGES OF THE UPPER AND LARGER CLOTH. Be sure to keep the corners square and the sawdust well packed into them. READY ‘TO READ TEST 123 ROLLING BACK THE TOP COVERING OF SAWDUST PREPARATORY TO READING THE TEST. Note that the single cloth immediately over the kernels is not displaced. 124 CORN or two days before the stem sprout may be seen. At the time of exam- ination there will be several smaller rootlets besides the primary sprout. Not infrequently the root sprout will grow while the stem sprout, because of weakness or some injury, will fail to appear. The opposite is also true, but to a less degree. Both the root and stem sprouts should come stocky and vigorous to insure strong vitality. EARS LAYING OUT AFTER THE KERNELS HAVE BEEN TRANSFERRED TO THE GERMINATION BOX. Every tenth ear is numbered. We will assume that the six kernels from ear No. 1 all showed strong root and stem sprouts. That is, the stem sprout was of good length and large in diameter. .\ long, slender sickly stem sprout in- dicates weakness. In other words, ear No. 1 is a vital seed ear. Move to ear No. 2. The kernels in square No. 2 show five healthy sprouts, but the sixth is small and has quit growing. This is not a first-class ear for seed. If you have much more seed than you will use, then push this ear back until one-half or three-quarters of its length extends back of the line of ears. By this action, you mean to throw this ear out entirely and not plant a single kernel from such an unreliable source. But do not take the ear out immediately because the arrangement of the row of ears would be altered and confusion would result. On the other hand, should the supply of seed READING THE TEST 125 corn be a little short this ear will be pushed back but a quarter length. This means that you will save all such ears and give them another test to eliminate the very weakest, and plant the best if necessary. Pass to ear No. 3. You are surprised to find an apparently sound ear has three kernels which failed to germinate. The other three are weak and growth has already ceased. You pronounce this a bad ear and push it back three-fourths of its length in the row. Ear No. 4 shows six strong. Ear No. 5 shows six germinated, but they are all weak and one died soon after the sprout came out. This is bad and is pushed back. This process is continued, studying the out- come of each ear carefully. It is an interesting study and requires good judgment. as “sl AN EXTENSIVE TEST More uniform temperature can be obtained when the boxes are elevated. After the two hundred ears lave been classified as to condition of vitality, they should be piled up in their respective classes. The bad ears had better be fed to the stock at once to prevent any chance of their becoming mixed with the good seed through carelessness or the mistake of helpers. The weak ears should be rearranged on the floor in another room, or any place out of the way, and another test run for them. Mr. Burnett found that it cost $1.20 to test one hundred ears by the sawdust-box method, allowing 20 cents per hour for two hours’ labor in testing, and 80 cents for the cost of buying the material and making the box. This refers to the cost of the first one hundred, subsequent tests cost less. 126 CORN THE WRONG WAY TO PLACE KERNELS IN A GERMINATION BOX. The result of test is dificult to ascertain. (See page 121.) AFTER READING THE TEST COST OF TESTING 127 COST OF TESTING—The cost of testing seed corn involves the following factors :* ; Time required to prepare the tester to receive the corn. Time required in placing the corn in the tester. Attention required by the tester after the test is begun. me Nore Time required to read the test. 5. Possibility of seeing all parts of the roots and shoots as an aid in determining relative vigor. 6. Amount of corn which may be tested at one time. 7. Comparative cost of tester. 8. Durability of tester. | 9. Compactness and lightness in moving tester from one place to another. The following statement taken from a personal letter from a seed corn grower who tested every ear of seed shows the approximate cost of testing seed corn with the sawdust box. Remember though that the germination boxes, cloths, etc., used in these tests and figured in the cost of testing may be used over several times. “Yours at hand and contents noted. It cost me to test my corn last winter, as nearly as I can figure, about 28 cents per bushel. “T used boxes 34x4 feet that held 4 1-2 bushels or 358 ears. There were eight of these boxes, with four and one-half yards of muslin to the box. Sawdust free. Muslin, 35 yards at g cents ......... ee cece e cence nee $ 3.15 Time to get boxes ready, 4 hours at 15 cents .............. .60 Cost of filling box with kernels, 3 hours per box, and 8 boxes 24 hours at 15 centS ....... 0. cece cee eee ee eens 3.60 Oil to furnish heat, one gallon per day at 12 cents (Time to germinate, 10 dayS) ........ ee eee eee eee eee 1.20 Time to take off test, 10 hours at 15 centS................ 1.50 Total (ova s5 dich gees eerie eee sie eo eda ow $10.05 Thirty-six bushels ....... 0... c eee e cece eee eee $10.05 One bushel, almost .......... 0.00 cece eee eens 28” *Towa Bulletin No, 135 THE “RAG DOLL” METHOD OF TESTING SEED CORN The “Rag Doll” test commends itself for convenience, simplicity, economy* and accuracy. With reference to the accompanying illus- trations, it may be explained as follows: (1) Using bleached muslin one yard wide, tear into strips (cross- wise) about nine inches in width. Each strip (9x36 inches) will serve for testing twenty ears of corn. Mark off the strip with heavy crayon, 1—The “Rag Doll” filled and ready to roll. first lengthwise in the middle and then crosswise in squares of about two and one-half inches each. Squares may be numbered as shown “In No. 6 of the illustrations there are twenty-five dolls or approximately five bushels of seed in test. This required only six yards of muslin which may be used time after time. With the “Rag Doll” there is no dirt or litter, and comparatively little room is required THE RAG DOLL TEST 129 2—The “Rag Doll” filled, rolled and ready to soak. in illustration. This will leave about six inches of extra space at each end of the doll. Moisten the cloth and spread out on a board or table in front of the ears to be tested. Take six kernels from each ear as directed for the “sawdust box test.” Arrange kernels in order with tips all pointing the same direction and crosswise of the doll, 3—Soaking the ‘“Dolls’’. 4—Draining. 5—Bucket prepared for packing ‘‘Dolls’’. 6—Dolls” packed. (2) When the squares corresponding to the numbered ears have all been filled, take some moist sawdust, strip of burlap, blotting paper or other material and roll in one end of the doll for a central core to provide freer circulation of the air and better moisture facili- ties. Complete the rolling of the doll. Roll fairly compact. The ker- nels will be held in place within the doll by the moist muslin. 7—Sprinkle the ‘Dolls’ 8—Unrolling the “Doll”. Showing sprouts curled because occasionally. kernels were placed wrong. 130 CORN On the outside of the doll, mark the number of ears it includes as 1-20, 21-40, etc. Tie the doll in the middle, not too tightly. A rubber band is best. Bands may also be placed about each end of the doll until after soaking as an extra precaution against loss of any of the kernels. (3) Soak the dolls in water over night. (8 to 10 hours, prefer- ably.) (4) Drain the dolls for a short time after soaking (5) Pack the dolls in a bucket, tub or box. Place some bricks or other material in the bottom to provide free circulation of air and to insure proper drainage. Then line with wet cloth or burlap. (6) Pack dolls on end (with crowns of the kernels to the top), and fold wet cloth used in lining the bucket or box over the top. (7) Set the bucket in a warm place. It is well to moisten the dolls by sprinkling occasionally with warm water in order to keep them from getting too dry. (8) The test should be ready to read in from five to six days. If the doll is unrolled with ordinary care the sprouted kernels will all remain in place. The last illustration (No. 8) shows a doll being un- rolled in which the kernels have been placed wrong, being parallel with the cloth strip. Notice that the sprouts are curled. This could have been avoided by arranging the kernels crosswise of the doll and then packing the doll with the crowns of the kernels to the top. The cloths may be used many times, but should be scalded each time after being used, to kill mold, ete. SHELLING AND GRADING. Butts and tips had better be shelled off by hand, because the number of irregular kernels and the extent of crooked rows can best be ascertained by the eye. The practice of cutting off the butts and tips with an ax, produces many split kernels and wastes some corn by shelling. Shelling all the seed by hand, where a limited amount is used, is a method not to be criti- cised. A small hand sheller, however, accomplishes the same end much more rapidly. One man can turn and feed one ear at a time very conveniently. In front of the hand sheller have, for example, three boxes labeled large, medium, and small kernels. Besides the man who turns the sheller, another man will be needed to look after the grading. He should be provided with two pans, one to catch the shelled corn while he is emptying the other. The kernels of each ear thus being caught separately in a pan, can be graded to the size very accurately. If, for example, No. 1 has large kernels, empty these into the box marked “large kernels.” Should ear No. 2 have medium sized ker- GRADING SEED 131 nels, empty them into the box marked “medium sized kernels,” while the small kernels from ear No. 3 should be emptied into the box marked “small kernels.” You will now have three sizes of seed— large, medium and small. In case some of the ears have especially long kernels, it is well to make another grade or two, as may seem necessary. The man who grades can rapidly empty the pans into the proper boxes. So far as this operation is concerned, the corn has been graded without the use of the corn sorter. The corn sorter will, however, take out the small, excessively thick, and also the large irregular ker- nels. The three different lots which you have graded—large, med- ium, and small kernels, may each respectively be run through a corn sorter and in this way the ill-shaped, small, and excessively large kernels which were left on the ears after shelling off the butts and tips will be removed. The sorter will do it more rapidly than it could be done by hand. Many patent graders are appearing on the market. The principle of sorting by gravity is the best one so far evolved. With the in- creased volume of business to be done by seed houses and large growers, the commercial grader will come into use very generally. The chief objection to them is the fact that they take little or no consideration of the length of kernel, the very factor which causes difficulty in planting. HAND SHAKE CORN SORTER Very rapid and efficient sorting can be done in a small way with this device. In letters to the Farm Crops Department from 1860 representative farmers over the State of Iowa, 86 stated that they tried to grade their seed corn either by hand or by a small grader. Nearly all of them followed the practice of shelling off the tip and butt kernels. Corn with a few years careful selection back of it will be found to produce kernels much more uniform as to size and shape ‘than that which is produced from the common run of seed. The Experiment Station of Indiana conducted a test showing the 132 CORN importance of grading the seed, the results of which are recorded in the following table: TABLE NO. 29 EFFECT OF GRADING SEED CORN. (Records made in 100 drops) eo eee Whole Ear oe Deep Kernels Pome Dropped only Kernels Mixed omy only Ly | time | | 2 times z Stimes | Otimes | Stimes | 4 times 2 times 3 | 92 times O6times | 7Stimes | 92times | 95 times 4 25 times I8times | 4times | 1 time ori | ltime | 2times | | Geli] | ltime | | “In each case it was desired to drop three kernels per hill, and several plates were tried. A satisfactory stand with the butt and tip kernels mixed in the seed was found impossible. The same was true when deep and shallow kernels were mixed. When the butt and tip kernels were removed and the ears with the deep and shallow kernels shelled separately, the drop was about perfect. \ PATENT TESTER WHICH HAS THE GOOD QUALITY OF SEPARATING THE KERNELS OF EACH EAR INTO LITTLE CUPS, WHICH MAY BE SET OUT IN FRONT OF THE. IGA: Indiana Bulletin No. 110 (Revised Edition) CALIBRATING PLAN’TER 133 Hand Sorting the Graded Shelled Corn. ‘here may be present a limited number of immature and even blackened kernels which were pollinated later than the others. The germination test, of course, did not prove their presence. There will be more or less mice eaten grains and kernels cracked by the sheller. Hence it will pay the smaller grower to have the children sort these out and the larger farmer can economically afford to hire it done. To facilitate this process, a convenient method is to pour the shelled corn on the table in a pile. At a little distance below the edge of the table, a drawer may be opened or a bench built. Place two pans at this point. The operator should be seated and can handily ‘ sort the discarded kernels into one pan and the desirable ones into the other. This process is more rapid than usually con- sidered. Allowing — the shelled corn to roll down an incline to the operator will save time. CALIBRATING THE PLANTER. The corn planter should now be set up in good order, ready for calibration. This may be done on the barn floor or, if the weather permits, out- side on the dry earth, A separate pair of planter plates must be selected for the planting of each grade of corn. Prop the planter up so that it will be free from the floor. It is nec- essary to use but one side in calibrating, unless it be- comes necessary to file the plates. This is not to be advised, as it may take con- siderable time, and other : plates can be purchased. Pe ee een The wheel can now be turned by hand with lit- tle effort and at the same time a record taken of the rate olf STANDARD SEED CORN TESTER 134 CORN dropping. It is well to have two working at this—one to turn the wheel and the other to keep record. The first set of plates may not drop more than 65 per cent of a perfect drop. That is, if three kernels be taken as the required number, the plates may only plant three kernels 65 times out of 100. THREE TYPES OF KERNELS WHICH WHEN SHELLED TOGETHER CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO BE DROPPED ACCURATELY BY THE ORDINARY PLANTER. Another set of plates may have to be tried. This should be con- tinued until a drop of over 90 per cent is secured. Planter boxes with hinges are very convenient for the trans.tion in these tests. The edge CORN GROWER’S RULES 135 drop planter has come into very general use. It takes into ac- count the thickness of the kernel anu drops one at a time until the re quired number have accumulated, then the check wires free them to gether. For the farmer who grades his corn thoroughly and tests his planter each year, the edge drop will do more accurate work. On the other hand, where the undesirable practice is followed of planting all sizes of kernels with the same plate, the round hole plate will come nearer planting uniformly under all conditions. By calibrating the planter, the accuracy of drop has been increased in some cases as much as 19 per cent, by simply filing the holes until the kernels dropped through more uniformly. Tests of 72 per cent have been raised to 85 per cent; 42 to 61; 74.6 to 89.8. Of 178 correspondents replying to inquiries of the Farm Crops Department, 153 replied af- ‘firmatively in regard to calibrating and testing the drop of cheir planters. The planter should be calibrated for each of the three grades. The corn should then be sacked and the planter plates tied with the sack. Where different varieties are to be planted by the same machine, oftentimes the medium plates for one variety will plant the large kernels of another. THE CORN GROWERS REMINDER Remember. 1. That home-grown seed is the surest. 2. To harvest the seed corn before the first killing frost. 3. To hang it up in a well ventilated place. 4. That corn full of moisture is liable to freeze and thus lose its vitality. To store seed in warm place during extremely cold weather. To make a germination box during the winter. To test each ear of seed corn during the month of March. To grade the tested seed. To calibrate the corn planter to drop the graded seed. SO Ge TS ONG 10. That poor seed is the chief cause of poor stand. 11. That a poor stand means a small yield. 136 136 CORN COLLATERAL READING Selection of Seed Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 193. Corn Improvement, Indiana Bulletin No. 110. Seed Selection According to Specific Gravity, New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 256. Seed Grain, Minnesota Bulletin No. 24 (Press). Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 65. Increasing the Yield of Corn, Tennessee Bulletin No. 2. Seed Corn Buying and Judging, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 225. Seed Corn, Selection and Preparation, Iowa Bulletin No. 77. The Improvement of Corn, Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 133. Corn Improvement for Missouri, Missouri Bulletin No. 59. Selection of Seed Corn, Iowa Bulletin No. 68. Handling Seed Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 244. A Study of Delaware Seed Corn, Delaware Bulletin No. 77. Seed Corn, Better Grades of, Page 34 of U.S. Report No. 83 The Testing of Corn for Seed, Illinois Bulletin No. 96. A Test of the Vitality of Seed Corn, Illinois Circular No. 49. Selecting Seed Corn, Florida Bulletin No. 46. A. B. C. of Corn Culture, Professor P. G. Holden. Corn Experiments, Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. Corn Experiments, Kentucky Bulletin No. 33. COLLATERAL READING 137 Indian Corn, Kansas Bulletin No. 147. Seed Corn, Testing of for Vitality, Kansas Bulletin No. 136. Selection of Seed Corn, Method and Time, Idaho Bulletin No. 57. Seed Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 272. Testing Seed Corn. Towa Bulletin No. 135. Nebraska Bulletin No. 126. Indiana Circular No. 2. Ohio Circular No. 71. Indiana Bulletin No. 110, (Revised Edition) County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. CHAPTER VII. CARE OF THE CORN CROP PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING 1. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 2. PLOWING THE GROUND. A. Objects of Plowing. B. Points of Merit in Plowing. C. Depth of Plowing. (1) Deep Plowing. (2) Shallow Plowing. D. Fall Plowing. E. Spring Plowing. F. Plowing Sod. 3. TREATMENT OF PLOWED GROUND BEFCRE PLANT- ING. A. Disc. B. Special Harrows. C. Smoothing Harrow. D. Rolling. 4. PLANTING WITH CHECK ROWER. Time of Planting. Depth of Planting. Distance Between Rows. Number of Stalks Per Hill. What is a Perfect Stand? Replanting of Corn. DRILLING CORN. 6. LISTING. A. Preparing the Ground. B. Use of the Lister. AMOOw > RAKING STALKS 139 PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. Small grain stubble lana which is to be plowed in the fall should be disced thoroughly immediately after the grain shocks are re- moved. The surface will dry out Iess and the weeds will receive quite a setback. The moisture which would have been evaporated from the surface will be stopped in its upward passage just beneath the sub surface strata. The soil will remain loose and when plowed later will not turn up in lumps. [ HEAVY CORN STALK RAKE. Stirs the ground more and will work where the hay rake is too light. Where the ground is low and subject to overflow, often weeds grow so rank after harvest as to necessitate their being mowed before any plowing 1s done. In localities which practice the short rotation of corn and oats or corn and wheat the stubble is often covered with barnyard manure before plowing. Vhe heat and moisture of autumn and the freezing of winter disintegrate the soil and decompose the straw and other material to such an extent that by planting time the following spring the humus thus added is thoroughly mixed wih the soil.* The rolling uplands in southern Iowa lack very much in humus, hence the stalks should always be incorporated in the already sticky silty soil. Corn planted the first vear following sod, may produce such an excessive growth of stalks as to make raking necessary. Where corn is cut for silage the stubble may be split up and the rows leveled to advantage by discing before plowing. Land upon which fodder shocks have stood all winter is better treated thus also. But the greater number of fields in the corn belt are stocked with cattle "In case of a heavy growth or application of coarse organic material to be plowed under, it is generally recognized that the practice of discing is advisable 140 CORN during the winter and when spring comes the bare stalks remain standing. A railroad iron or heavy harrow is usually used to drag them down. The practice of raking them up with a hay rake or heavy corn-stalk rake is less in vogue at present because the soil requires the humus and fertilizing materials, which are largely lost through the process of burning the stalks before planting. The SINGLE ROW STALK CUTTER. The stalk cutter can be used early in the spring before the field is dry enough to disc. The hooks in front straight- en out the stalks lengthwise with the row. chief arguments advanced in favor of burning corn stalks are: Arst, the freeing of the surface soil of trash which would otherwise pre- vent the planter from running at a uniform depth, and may even at times cause the deposition of kernels on the surface; and second, the partly covered stalks catch in the shovels of the cultivator the first time over and dislodge whole hills of corn. The single-row stalk cutter is little used at present because, except for cutting the stalks, it does very little toward loosening the surface of the soil. Its only claims of practical value are: first, the fact that being of light draft, it can be used early when the ground is not yet dry enough for heavier tools; and second, a boy can operate it. DISCS 141 Since the implement companies have put out double-row cutters, drawn by three horses, the single-row cutters have largely fallen into disuse. FULL DISC HARROW. The most commonly used in Iowa. Stalk fields are now usually disced in the spring before plowing. By so doing, the surface soil is loosened and a dust mulch thereby se- cured which accomplishes three things: First, the surface openings of the capillary tubes are broken. This not only prevents the loss SPADING DISC HARROW. When set at an angle it will cut stalks completely. In sod the pieces of turf are thrown about, but not cut up. 142 CORN of moisture, but that moisture which does rise is held just below the surface; Second, this moisture being present keeps the soil from dry- ing out, and when turned over by the mold board the soil crumbles and falls into the furrow loosely. Third, the surface which has been previously fined now becomes the bottom of the furrow slice, which because of its structure reunites with the several capillary tubes, thus re-establishing the course of the moisture upward. BREAKING PLOW. Used in plowing sod. Notice that the moldboard is very sloping. Weeds and grass allowed to grow up in corn-stalk land in the spring, before plowing, are first injurious to the physical condition of the soil because they compact and harden the surface, which in turn allows the rapid evaporation of moisture. When this green mat is turned under later, it acts as a partition between the furrow shee and the bottom of the furrow, thus interfering with the capillary moisture. Second, weeds also utilize a large amount of available plant food, and at the same time the decaying green material renders the soil more or less acid. Rotting green manure requires a great deal of moisture which must necessarily be drawn from the sur- face soil. Often the furrow slice becomes very dry within a few days. Two methods of discing are practiced. By one, the field is disced with the stalks standing. In such cases, the disc is driven at an angle to the rows across the field. The ridges are leveled and the stalks cut to pieces. The other plan, the one usually practiced, is to harrow or drag the stalks down and then disc them crosswise of the row; that is, crosswise of the way the stalks are laying. In case of heavy stalks, the discs, even if very heavy and sharp, will often ride over if they are piled deeply between the rows. The advantage of the first method is becoming apparent to many. METHODS OF PLOWING 143 Discing sod land in the fall, when it is to be plowed immediately, is of little service. At that time the disc will not cut deeply because the ground is so dry. The freezing and thawing of winter and spring have time to disintegrate the layers. Experience has shown that the rougher such sod turns up, the greater will be this erosion because of the lodgment of snow and the openness which admits the entrance of rain. In plowing sod in a short rotation, where a large crop of le- SULKY PLOW. Used in plowing both sod and stubble. Being heavy and having a rolling coulter in front, this plow will operate even where con- siderable trash is on the ground. gumes or grass is on the surface, a “weed-hook” should be used in order to drag everything into the furrow to insure complete covering. This is essential for proper decomposition. Where sod is to be plowed in the spring, a thorough discing just when the frost is out two or three inches, will tear up the surface layer and allow the furrow slice to break over like stubble ground. When such a short time remains in which to rot the surface turf and reconnect the capillary tubes, it is essential that the underside of the surface slice not only lay closely to the bottom of the furrow, but that such surface be of fine structure. ‘The disc also disturbs and destroys many hibernating injurious insects. PLOWING THE GROUND.—The Objects of Plowing Are: To alter the structure of the soil to a considerable depth, and to bury com- pletely any vegetation or other organic matter on the surface of the ground. It is essential that any legume, grass or stubble on the sur- 144 CORN face be turned completely under. Live stock farmers usually apply manure to land just before plowing for ccrn, in order to get the most out of it in the “money crop.” The complete burial of this material is desirable. GANG PLOW IN OPERATION. Plows two furrows at a time. There are also plows with three or more mold boards. First, such organic matter, if present in large quantities, may be in the way of cultivation. Second, partial covering of easily or partly decomposed material, especially in loose and sandy soils, causes a loss of plant food. The extreme porosity of the seed bed also makes it difficult for the roots to spread. The Points of Merit in Plowing. A straight furrow of uniform width and depth. The farmers of England and Scotland encourage their sons to take pride in a clean furrow. To many western Amer- icans, such intelligent interest seems foolish, the real point of merit with them being to get over the ground as rapidly as possible. A number of localities in Indiana and Ohio have within the last few GOOD PLOWING 145 years held plowing matches which have shown the skill of the younger lads of the community. At Wick and Cherokee, Iowa, similar con- tests are carried on each year, at which time speakers from a distance are invited to speak and a day is set aside for a local picnic and edu- cational outing. A clean-cut slice both on its land side and floor. Besides indicating pride and interest in plowing, a clean land side and a consistent floor of even width and depth insures a complete alteration of structure. In- BeACALACAA Ae ; AA ZO AAZ2 AK A \ WO S \ Co = ZZ WW \\ X w x \ NN ALA \\\ \ \N AN \ WN \ \\ \ LEZ T cy AN AG.AA gZ A. AG Zs A AN DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIRECTION OF THE CAP- ILLARY TUBES AND STRUCTURE OF THE SOIL EARLY IN THE SPRING AFTER THE SURFACE HAS DRIED OUT AND NO CULTIVATION HAS BEEN DONE. The tubes extend to the surface and convey the moisture from below to their upper extremities, where it is discharged and carried away by evaporation due to the sun and the velocity of the wind. stead of the furrow slice being completely inverted it should be left more or less on edge in order to permit the most effective action of weathering agencies and of implements in the preparation of the seed bed. Uniformly plowed ridges. Where a small plow follows a larger one, often the ridges are very uneven. More surface is exposed for drying out, and, as a rule, the trash is not well covered. Fully twice as much work is required to get such a field in shape for the corn planter. This uneven ridging sometimes occurs on hillsides, in which case it cannot be prevented. Complete burial of the grass or stubble is also important. Depth of Plowing. This is a question that cannot be answered definitely, but must be considered in connection with the character of the soil, the time of the season, the climate, and the purpose to which the ground is to be put. 146 CORN Deep plowing. For a deep, rich soil, deep plowing is very gen- erally considered best if done in the fall. Fred McCulloch, of Hart- wick, Iowa, reports that fewer weeds appeared in the corn field which was plowed in the spring five inches deep than in the one plowed three inches in depth. For thin clay soils, sub-soiling is bet- ter than very deep plowing, because it does not turn the compact clay to the surface, yet at the same time it loosens the soil to a consider- TS KCK AN ae? Ze 4 A Z Z I WY PIM ON: A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SURFACE SOIL STIRRED SLIGHTLY AND A MULCH ESTABLISHED, This is brought about by discing corn stalk ground early in the spring. The moisture rising from below is not allowed to escape, but is checked in its upward course, just below this mulch. able depth. Plowing should not be of the same depth from year to year, for by so doing the soil is not mixed well and a hard surface is left at the bottom of the furrow where the horses walk and the plow drags. A little sub-soil turned to the surface occasionally will be acted upon by the atmospheric elements and plant food liberated. As it becomes mixed with the surface soil and vegetable growth, the depth of surface soil will be increased. A compact soil is less per- vious to air and moisture, and if organic matter is covered too deeply it will not decay for some time on that account. In general, to accom- plish the most desirable results, it is advisable to plow a little deeper each season for several successive seasons, and then for one season give a plowing at about half of the depth of the deepest plowing. It is well to have the farm mapped, the various fields numbered and records kept of the annual treatment and production of each field. Shallow plowing. Shallow plowing is not practiced in the fall in the corn belt, but is customary in the spring because the deeper the plowing the greater is the amount of labor required to re-establish the capillary connection with the sub-soil. This labor is performed by Nature when plowing is done in the fall, while much discing, harrow- ing, and even rolling is often necessary to rectify the severing of capillary connection in the spring. This capillarity is not re-estab FALL PLOWING 147 lished so readily with deep plowing as when the plowing is shallow. Plowing breaks up the capillary connection with the sub-soil, which must in turn be re-established or vigorous plant growth is im- possible. Deep spring plowing and spring sub-soiling are likely to result in diminished crops, especially if done after the spring rains. The loosening of the soil to great depths admits air and facilitates the loss of soil moisture. It also interrupts capillarity so that the moisture is not readily drawn from greater depths. z vs ! DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE MOLD BOARD UPON THE CAPILLARY TUBES IN THE SOIL. The layers of soil by gliding over each other break off the tubes. The more abrupt the mold board the greater the amount of crumbling of the furrow-slice. Fall Plowing. [all plowing is not considered advisable in the south, where the winters are very mild, accompanied with little or no cold weather. In Illinois, lowa, Minnesota and Nebraska, the temper- ature becomes low and the weather is so variable as to cause con- siderable heaving of the surface. [Freezing disintegrates the soil, and the mellowing of the furrow slice allows the nitrifying bacteria to begin action early in the spring. Weedy areas are plowed in the fall to check the growth and bury the immature seeds. In fact, many consider this the only object of fall plowing. Wherever a crop, whether a crop of weeds or of fall forage, grows late in the fall, the following corn crop is slow in starting. That is, the available plant food was drawn upon until cold weather set in, thus not allowing the formation of soluble compounds during the warm weather of the autumn months. In the rougher corn sections, fall plowed fields wash so badly and ditches form so quickly that the practice should be discontinued. This is especially true of soils which have been depleted of their humus. There being no organic matter present ta retzin the moisture and hold the particles of soil, the whole mass 148 CORN slumps away and is carried to lower levels. Such conditions have compelled corn growers in these localities to rotate, and in some cases to even sow the fields to grass permanently. oh \ AN \\ \Y y rt NV Sn BP WW \\ : B y Z A, WY WW A \ WH A MMMM NNW AN AN A A NY DOC A \\\ \\ A WM A IN \\ A A A Gz WQS AN \ \\ AN AA ANN \ A ALZACZE ZA Z ZAGA DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE CAPIL LARY TUBES AFTER A FIELD HAS BEEN PLOWED TO A DEPTH OF 4 TO 6 INCHES. As the furrow-slice is turned they are broken. Hence the moisture from below is checked in its upward current just below the bottom of the furrow. Hence plants ger- minating near the surface are cut off from all supply beneath. This is why corn on spring plowed ground starts slowly in the early part of the season. Fall plowing cannot be recommended for all climates and local- ities, but should be more generally practiced than at present. If a cover crop or sod be turned under in the fall, decomposition will DIAGRAM SHOWING WHAT EFFECT DISCING, HAR- ROWING AND ROLLING HAS UPON THE PLOWED IIELD. Of course the surface is made much finer. But the dise reaches down to greater depths and begins to settle the loose earth upon the furrow-bottom. The packing grad- ually re-establishes the capillary connection. The fact that spring plowing requires some time during the early part of the season to accomplish this process tends vw hold the moisture of the soil until later in the summer when it is most needed. increase the amount of plant food available for the crop the next sum- mer. This is true to some extent even though the crop is not turned DO NOT NEGLECT FALL PLOWING 149 under, inasmuch as the simple loosening of the sod admits atmos- pheric oxygen and increases chemical action upon vegetable and min- eral matter. Fall plowing is one of the methods of combatting grub worms, cut worms and wire worms, which are often destructive to corn. Because the surface of soil plowed in the fall is dryer at plant- ing time in the spring than that of the ground not so treated, it does not necessarily follow that there is less moisture in fall plowed land. TWO SECTION, 60 TOOTH, 10 FOOT SMOOTHING HARROW The teeth are adjustable by the use of the levers. In fact, fall plowed ground should contain more moisture for the growing crop the following season than that land plowed in the spring. With fall plowing the rain and moisture may better penetrate the sub-soil. Because of the rough surface much moisture is held which might otherwise be lost. Not infrequently poor management of fall plowed ground causes in the spring a very serious loss of moisture. Ground plowed in the fall should be thoroughly disced early the following spring to prevent heavy loss of moisture by evaporation When the ground is left in a rough condition not only will the stirred portion of the soil be readily acted upon and dried out by the winds and sun of early spring, but there is ready access to the sub-soil as CURVED KNIFE HARROW. Although not in general use, this harrow has the advantage of the running cut, which is especially valuable in pulverizing sod. well. Fall plowed land which has been thus neglected may be ex- pected to contain less moisture than had the ground been plowed in the spring. By the use of the disc and harrow in early spring (6) 150 CORN on fall plowed ground, a surface mulch can be established which will prevent this excess evaporation and insure to the farmer a greater amount of moisture in the soil for the following crop than had the land been plowed in the spring. Fall plowed ground properly cared for in the spring may be expected to mature a crop of corn a little earlier than will the spring plowing, and in case of a dry season there will be much less damage from drought. Spring Plowing. Fields which have been in corn the previous year, must, according to the common practice of husking in the field DISO PLOW. Used in low wet ground where a mold board plow would not scour. and allowing stock to forage among the stalks during the winter, be plowed in the spring. Just how early this can be done depends to a large extent upon, first, the weather during April and May. Exces- sive rainfall and a lack of sunshine will prevent plowing even on well drained fields. As long as the bottom of the furrow slice turns up slick and the particles of soil run together rather than crumble, plow- ing had better be postponed. Such a surface will bake immediately in the sun and the ciods thus formed will sometimes remain un- changed during the entire season. Second, the lay of the land. Fields sloping to the north are sometimes 10 to 14 days later in drying out in the spring than are similar areas facing the south. Low areas underlaid with an impervious clay often require the warm winds of May to evaporate the surface moisture sufficiently to admit of plow- ing. Third, the amount of available labor. Where large areas are to be plowed, although the teams are started early in the season it is PLOWING SOD 151 sometimes late before all the furrows are turned. The sowing of large areas of small grain also often prevents early plowing. Not many years since, it was a common idea to allow fields to grow up to weeds which were turned under, with the supposition that so many enemies had been destroyed for the crop of the season. Think- ing farmers have found that it is the weed seeds which are turned up from the bottom of the furrow slice which do the most damage. These should be brought to the surface early in the spring in order that they may be destroyed before planting time. Early plowing also admits of more thorough preparation of the seed bed just before planting. GENERAL PURPOSE PLOW. Mold board is set at sufficient angle to allow the use of this plow in sod or stubble. Plowing Sod. The virgin sod land of the corn belt is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. A study of statistics of wild hay mead- ow shows a steady decrease in acreage. In such land the breaking plow is used to some extent in peeling back a shallow furrow in the fall, a deeper plowing to follow in the spring. Little alteration of structure can be brought about in turning the virgin prairie sod. First, the heavy draft due to the obstinate turf produced by the roots of prairie grasses, and second, the fact that considerable 152 CORN time is needed to decompose such turf, requires that it be plowed in the fall, thus allowing the freezing to break up the furrow slice. The closer the furrow slices are laid together, the greater the retention of moisture and consequent heaving. Because the roots fill the sur- face layer of soil so full of humus and undecayed organic matter that cultivation of the crop is difficult the first year, the mat of grasses on the surface is usually burned before plowing, because the sod is slow in reconnecting the capillary tubes and “firing” of the corn often results during the summer because of this condition. Because of the newness of this soil and the large amount of plant food which is available early in the season, flax is largely used for the first year’s crop, especially in the appar: STEEL JOINTER. northern districts. In the southern Used to tear up stiff sod just in front of 1 part of Iowa, the northern part of — ‘® mold board. Missouri, and over a large part of Kansas, winter wheat is often sownthe first year. Rotation of crops has now come to be a perma- nent factor in improved farming. Clover and tim- othy meadow, because of a short rotation in which corn is the heavy yielder and money crop, hardly ever becomes really sod- ded. Furthermore, be- cause corn follows them s directly and is expected to TYPES OF ROLLING COULTERS, produce heavily the first season, a greater amount of alteration in structure in the sod is desired. Hence a plow with steeper mold board is used. Plowing pasture lands and meadows in the fall has five distinct advantages. In the first place, the work can be done at a more slack time. Second, the freezing and PREPARATION PREVIOUS TO PLANTING 153 thawing of the winter months alters the physical structure of the soil. Third, the decomposition of the turned under organic matter renders plenty of plant food available for the use of the young corn plant in early spring. Fourth, capillary connection is re-established not only because of the changed structure of the soil, but also because the turf rots away. Fifth the hibernating quarters of many injurious insects are disturbed and destroyed. Some, such as the army worm, are turned under so deeply as to bury the pupa completely. If sod is plowed in the spring, it should be done early. First, the rush of farm work requires it. There will be plenty of corn-stalk land which canot be plowed until later because of being so wet. Wet sod, al- though it turn up slick on the bottom of the furrow slice, will not bake and become cloddy because of the presence of such an abundance of humus. Second, there is but a short time at best in which to re-establish the capil- lary connection. This is best accom- ROLLING COULTER WITH SHOY : : IN FRONT WHICH PREVENTS ' plished by early plowing, for when the EXCESSIVE TRASH FROM : j : LODGING ABOVE THE coun. ~ Sod is full of moisture it breaks up as ITHO EING CUT. . ; TaN eee it falls over and the turf has time to decay. Third, the sod has lost no moisture because of the growth of spring grasses. Such grass, if allowed to grow until later, not only uses moisture and available plant food, but in itself is a menace, because it lays in the bottom of the furrow and prevents the rise of moisture from below. The time of plowing sod in the spring varies widely. Throughout the Corn Belt this time ranges from the fore part of March to the fifth of April. However most of the sod, especially blue grass, is plowed in the fall, and then disced and harrowed before planting. TREATMENT OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLANTING. Much stress has been laid upon the question of having a proper secd bed for corn. There is no question but that corn well put in is already 154 CORN half tended. The definition of the ideal conditions which can some years almost be reached are, first, soil of such physical condition that the smaller particles are compacted closely around the seed. This in- ROTARY DISC ATTACHED TO PLOW. Because it pulverizes the soil right off the mold board there is no chance for the formation of clods. sures perfect germination of viable seeds. Second. There should also be plenty of available plant food. This is dependent upon air and SMOOTH STEEL ROLLER. moisture as well as bacteria. Third. Freedom from weed seeds. With the Disc. Experience and experiments have proved the val- DISCS 155 ue of the disc. The agricultural press has been urging the corn grow: ers to use it freely. Because the blades cut deeply into the newly turned-up mold, the spaces between the larger lumps of earth are reduced and the whole mass settles down more closely to the sub- soil. The full-bladed disc harrow for the general purpose of pulverizing and loosening the ground is the best tool yet devised. It has the ad vantage of being suitable for use on either sod, stubble or corn stalk lands. The cutaway and spading discs are also used in a more limited way, the former being adapted for cultivating hay lands, the latter more especially for corn stalk ground. PLANKER. Used in smoothing and packing. Discing spring plowing is a common practice-among the farmers of the corn belt. Often heavy rains run the surface particles to- gether to such an extent that a tooth harrow is incapable of loosening them. Grain stubble which has been plowed the previous fall re- quires at least two discings before it is in shape to plant. The disc may be set deeper the first time than the second. Disc- ing both lengthwise and crosswise leaves no surface unturned. Fall- plowed sod should be disced very early in the spring because, First, the loosening of the surface admits air into the sod to de- compose the organic matter, which lies next to the bottom of the furrow. Because of this action, plant food is rendered available. Second. The physical condition of the soil being finer, the whole mass settles more closely upon .the sub-soil, reuniting the capillary tubes and conducting moisture from the greater depths to the surface. Third. Weeds which have started to grow are destroyed. 156 CORN Fourth. The numerous weed seeds present in the surface soil are induced to germinate because of the admittance of warm air. They can be destroyed later by vigorous harrowing. Fifth. Helps to form a mulch and thus conserves moisture. Sod which is not plowed until spring, even though it is turned over as early as the weather permits, depends chiefly upon the disc for preparation. The firing of sod corn in July can usually be traced directly to spring plowing or an insufficient discing of fall plowing. Large pieces of turf admit the air and allow moisture to be taken di- rectly from the sub-soil. COMBINED PULVERIZER AND PACKER. Best adapted to grip clods and crush them. Special Harrows. For stony land, or in timbered sections where the teeth are liable to catch on roots, the spring-tooth harrow has a decided value. The teeth can be set to gouge forward and hence tear up sod more than the fixed tooth harrow. The later manufac- turers mount the frame on runners, which does away with bouncing effect common in spring-tooth harrows when set too deep. Some are also mounted on low trucks with the same end in view. Curved knife harrows and drag pulverizers are used to some extent, but where corn stalks are present in any number they ride over them too easily. For fining the surface of a field which has already been well worked, the pulverizer is especially well suited. Smoothing Harrow. The rigid, straight-toothed harrow does effi- cient work on ground free from trash. Because of an excess of stalks the slant tooth and lever harrows are more practical and popular. HARROWING 157 Large, four-section harrows covering 18 to 22 feet of surface are now largely used even on smaller farms, because of the high price of farm labor. One man and four horses can harrow between 30 and 40 acres in a single day. Because the harrow covers territory so rapidly and leaves the ground in such a good state of tilth, it should be used much more generally. Harrowing produces a finer tilth of the sur- face and thereby conserves the moisture already in the soil. Large lumps massed together have between them much air space. Such space allows the rain water to percolate to lower depths so rapidly that the growing plant cannot use it. At the same time, the lower- ing of the water level admits the surface air, which in turn dries out the individual lumps and robs them of their moisture. Roots will not develop in these open spaces, and not finding finer earth through which to extend themselves, soon die from lack of moisture and plant food. When plowing in the spring, the newly upturned furrow should never be allowed to remain unharrowed over half 2 day. By harrowing the ridges will Ibe levelled, clods prevented from forming, and evapora- tion reduced. To do this, the plowman will have to unhitch from the plow and hitch to the harrow just before the close of each half day. A small section drag drawn by an extra horse at the time of plowing also answers the purpose. A rotary disc in section just wide enough to cover the newly turned furrow, and working auto- matically, does the pulverizing more thoroughly than any other meth- od. To the farmer in the corn districts of less than 24 inches of rainfall, this matter is important. To the grower in the low, wet districts, where the soil contains a large per cent of humus, the evap- oration of excess moisture is desirable. If the ground be plowed too wet and turns over slick, then a day’s drying may be necessary before any harrowing is done. A tooth harrow is of very little use on fall plowing, because the soil has cemented together too firmly. After sod plowing has been thor- oughly disced, the use of the harrow produces a finer and more uni- form surface. When desiring to tear up pieces of sod or loosen deeply the sur- face of a fall plowed field, the harrow teeth should be set straight, or almost so. Where a field is harrowed twice before planting, the teeth should be set at an acute angle. If the surface is of fine tilth, but a little uneven, allowing the harrow to drag over completely flat will do much toward producing an ideal seedbed. In all events, to se- 158 CORN cure an even depth of planting the land should be free from ridges. In order to facilitate planting and to better see the line of the marker, the field should be harrowed crosswise just previous to planting. In sections of little rainfall during the summer months, and in areas where the soil 1s of a fine, silty nature, it will always pay to again harrow fields which have been previously put in good shape, but have been rained upon heavily before the corn was planted. The harrow is of especial value as a weed killer. Newly germi- nated weeds have few roots and are easily torn loose. Furthermore, weeds killed when very young do not draw out the moisture in the soil nor render the available plant food insoluble. The harrow nos only destroys weeds sprouting in the ground before the corn is planted, but causes the germination of other seeds which have been dormant because of lack of heat and moisture FIELD NOT READY FOR PLANTING. The surface has been allowed to dry out too much before the harrowing was done. The rounded shape of the clods shows that the jostling of the harrow was ineffective in breaking them up because of their dryness. Rolling. The smooth iron or wood roller is used to produce an even surface and to settle the surface soil upon the sub-soil. Corn ground which has been plowed in the fall, or ground of a silty nature which is spring plowed, does not need rolling before planting. It is usually very compact. But in loose soils of a sandy nature, or porous PLANTING 159 soils which have just been freshly spring plowed, the roller, if heavy, is valuable in se-establishing the capillarity of the surface soil. In the hands of one who looks upon the roller as an implement for smoothing only, it is often a very unprofitable tool, because, if the surface is left without a light harrowing the evaporation of moisture soon dries out the soil. Corrugated rollers which leave the surface slightly ridged prevent rapid evaporation of the soil moisture. First. The uneven surface reduces the velocity of the wind near the ground. Second. The dust mulch thus formed breaks off the upward dis- charge of the capillary tubes. Furthermore, this type of roller also grasps and crushes the larger clods instead of simply burying them unbroken. The sub-surface packer invented by H. W. Campbell to meet the demands of the more arid districts, settles by excessive weight the sub-strata of soil, but leaves the surface loose to conserve the moisture which is present at greater depths. In districts of con- stant winds of high velocity, this point is essential. PLANTING WITH CHECK-ROWER. With the growing in- terest in the selection and breeding of seed corn, together with the en- deavor for higher yields, the farmer demands of the corn planter more accuracy of dropping. When tested seed fails to appear and a poor stand results, the planter is usually to blame. For many years the round hole plate has been almost exclusively used. The opening was large enough to hold the total number of kernels for an entire hill. The check wire caused the drop, turning the plate to the next opening with each click of the machine. The one advantage of this planter was the fact that this hole being so large, kernels of varying sizes could be accommodated. Little attention has been paid to the grading of corn until within the last few years. In seeking to secure accuracy, this larger hole was reduced until it admitted but one kernel. More holes were made in the plate, which was continuously turned by the main axle of the planter. This formed a cumulative drop which, when sufficient kernels had been counted out, were checked off by the wire. For growers who produce corn of a uniform type and who grade the seed closely, the edge drop plate has proved of greater accuracy. How- ever, in planting kernels of different lengths the plates must be cali- brated closely. Every farme: knows the tendency of planters to carry the kernels 160 CORN before dropping, which results in a zigzag appearance of the corn crossways of the field. In purchasing a planter, this factor should be looked into. The valves should work quickly. The runner turrow-openers which have always been used on cern planters, sometimes fail to give satisfaction on sod land, or in fields which are crowded with trash. The planter will often ride out, leav- ing the corn uncovered. In an effort to prevent this disc furrow-open- CORN PLANTER. Showing the long curved runner furrow-openers and concave wheels. ers are sometimes attached. The disc also pulverizes the soil in which the kernel 1s to rest. Except under the conditions mentioned these attachments are unnecessary. Both single and double-disc fur- row-openers tend to make the planter harder to guide. On the rougher and move rolling corn lands, the concave planter wheel is used because the fields are harrowed immediately after planting. This practice does away with two disadvantages, features of the concave wheel; the tendency to leave a furrow for washing, and the smooth surface which dries out badly. The open wheel is better for level lands not subject to washing. It has a littie more TIME OF PLANTING 161 draft, but leaves no flat surface to bake in the sun. The double wheel tends to cover the hill more surely. Improved methods of culture together with the increasing preval- ence of weeds have caused the practice of checking corn to grow in popularity. Of 200 representative farmers from different parts of Lowa, 92 per cent check their corn. The reasons given for so doing were the more effective eradication of the weeds, and in some cases in- creased yield. On ground which has been well prepared and which is not too hilly, it is possible for one man to plant 12 to I5 acres per day. The objections raised to checked corn are a greater tendency to blow down in heavy summer winds and the fact that the roots are not so equally distributed throughout the soil. There is practically no difference in the yield per acre between drilled and checked corn, providing there are the same number of plants per acre. Time of Planting. The best yields and most mature corn are pro- duced by planting corn early. Years of experience has proved this fact conclusively. The length of season in a given locality determines the date of planting. In Iowa, corn must be planted as soon as the ground is properly prepared and suffi- ciently warm, not colder than 55 degrees Fahrenheit. Very little seed is in the ground before May Ist, and the northern counties are even later. On sod land, where the cut worm is quite prevalent, late planting must be practised. As better seed corn is used from ROUND iluLE- Year to year, earlier planting will come more into DRILL-DROP_| = = vogue. Corn of strong vitality can be placed in cold Panter ulate chow. ground with less risk than that of weak germinating aA a costo power. Soil conditions have as much to do in de- ber of holes: “termining the date of planting as does the weather. For example, farmers on the Missouri loess soil in northwestern Iowa, can plant as much as 14 days earlier than farmers in the central part of the state in the same latitude, but located on the undrained, low soil of the Wisconsin glacial deposit. Hunt, in his “Cereals of America,” gives the following summary of the work of all the Experiment Stations. TABLE NO. 30 TIME OF PLANTING STATE SEASONS EARLIEST BEST LATEST Towa ..--.eeeeee |General|Apr. 25-28 ....... |May 5-15 ........ |June 1 .......... Illinois .......... 8 April 22-26....... May 11-18 ....... |June 17-22 ...... Indiana ......... 7 |May 1-2 ......... May 1-8 ......... |May 28-30 ...... Kansas .......... 2 April 18-20....... May 1s cs aciica May 29-30 .. wees North Dakota .... 1 May 18-25 ....... June 1-8 ......... June 15-July 2... Ohio. dtecet <4 sane 7 {April 26 ......... May 14-24 ....... |June eV 2 eis iln a 5 Oklahoma ........ 2 |March 21-28 ..... March 28 ....... April 25 ........ South Dakota .... 3 May 1 sacetax dees May 15-25 ...... June 10 .......... *Minnesota ....... General|May 1........... May 10-22 ...... June 1-10 ....... *Wisconsin ......+ General}April 28 ......... May 8-20 ....... June 1-5 ........ *Farmer’s estimates. 162 CORN The effect of early and late planting is well illustrated in the fol- lowing tables No. 31 and 32, taken from a report of the Ohio Experi- ment Station.* The highest yield of corn was secured with early planting, May 4to 10. (See Table No. 31.) TABLE NO. 31 YIELD FROM EARLY AND LATE PLANTING Date of planting and bushels shelled corn per acre Year April 24-29 May 4-10 May 14-17 May 25-28 June 2-6 Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. 1908 __-_ 30.16 56.02 61.68 50.66 40.88 T909! sees 100.19 ~ 98.94 91.08 81.34 62.88 1910 ____ 42.45 37.14 37.27 27.67 20.19 1911 ___- 67.04 75.96 73.76 | 54.83 43.95 1912) 2. 65.87 64.12 61.99 49,38 44.95 1913) es 77 A3 78.75 76.64 65.36 53.04 6-yr. Av.-| 6385 | 6949 | 6737 | 5487 | 44.32 A moisture determination made at husking time with a Brown- Duval tester showed the corn from the early planting to be much bet- ter matured. (See Table No. 32.) Throughout the corn belt early planting means an increased yield, and better matured corn. This is not necessarily true however with extremely early planting. TABLE NO. 32 MOISTURE—EARLY AND LATE PLANTING (Date of planting and per cent of moisture in fall.) Year April 24-29 May 4-10 May 14-17 May 25-28 June 2-6 Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 1908 __-------- 17.0 16.5 18.6 23.9 30.0 OOD hissteis aee e 26.5 27.4 28.1 29.9 37.8 T9104 ee 223) 28.7 27.3 30.0 33.7 IOV) coe etd 22.8 23.0 25.6 28.6 31.6 1912s ice ecenes 25.6 28.8 30.0 33.4 35.4 1913) ) ees eeeS 23.3 26.1 26.0 29.0 32.6 G-year average _| 23.73 | 25.08 | 25.93 | 29.13 | 33.52 Depth of Planting. The depth of planting corn is controlled by first, the physical properties of the soil and its fertility. A stiff, sticky clay, retentive of moisture and lacking in humus, should be planted *Ohio Bulletin No. 282. DEPTH OF PLANTING 163 shallow. Kernels covered more than two inches in such a soil will, if the surface receives a beating rain, remain dormant a long time because of lack of oxygen. The plant food is not in available form except near the surface. A loose, sandy soil requires deeper planting because of a lower water level. Although the moisture level of sod land is usually very low, as a rule it is difficult to plant corn very deep in such soil. Second. The position of the water level. Farmers of north cen- tral lowa cannot plant deeply because the water level is near the sur- face. This excess of moisture removes two essentials for germination —warmth and oxygen. The western edge of the corn belt is lacking in moisture, consequently the planter must be set more deeply. It is seldom advisable to plant deeper than 2 1-2 inches. It will be re- membered that the young plant depends entirely upon being nourished from the endosperm of the seed, or the food supply within the kernel, until such time as it is able to draw its food directly from the soil. Should this kernel of corn be placed four or five inches beneath the surface of the ground, it is often found that while the seed will germinate, there is not enough plant food to maintain the growth of the sprout until it can reach the surface. Naturally, in this case the plant dies, while if it had been planted shallow, so that the young plant could have come to the surface before the plant food in the kernel had been exhausted, it would have grown to maturity. Third. The time of planting. In the spring the atmosphere warms early and by penetrating the seed bed gradually raises its tempera- ture. Therefore, in early planting, only the surface soil is warm enough to germinate the kernels. The sub-surface strata is cold and wet. Later when the surface soil has become warmer, the seed may be covered to greater depth. TABLE NO. 33 YIELD OF CORN FROM PLANTINGS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS (Average for three years) Depth Bushels per acre Average eerie 5ilehan dw evtetler ous eule 109.7 83.0 W718 90.2 , aces edna Sa Londeelsh Vor silat oy BS toot 88.4 83.0 72.8 81.4 Die PO Barcerereyeuauardil ocean « {100.8 51.0 70.3 74.0 Ge OE sii enh Sea waa vn ora ON 88.0 87.0 58.4 77.8 Dr oe cdandis-Sieielee magi'ew ane 73.1 81.0 62.3 72.1 i acca secdice Sapien ara eR a ene 60.3 92.0 60.3 70.9 The above figures taken from Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, show from an-average of three years, with corn planted at different depths, 164 CORN a few bushels in favor of the shallow planting. Of course, Illinois conditions are different from those of some of the other states, and must be interpreted accordingly. The Texas Station recommends about three inches as the proper depth for most sods, and three years tests in Iowa show an increased yield from the shallower planting, say 1 to 3 inches over the deeper planting 4 to 6 inches. Distance B2tween the Rows. The distance be- tween the rows of corn varies from three feet in the north and west to more than six feet in the southeast. The factors which decide how far apart the rows should be are: SO First, the fertility of the soil. A thin soil, low cm ane in organic matter and especially lacking in ni- PLANTER PLATE. trogen, produces very little growth of foliage. The This plate takes into consideration the roots must feed over a large area; consequently the thick f th : kernel, which is rows are set further apart. A piece of sod land which thoracter, “o™stant tends to force the corn along and produce excessive tillering, may be planted in rows closer together. Extensive tests in Illinois* to determine the proper distance be- tween rows resulted in the following conclusions: 1. On all ordinary Corn Belt land of the northern part of Illinois, plant corn hills not more than 36 inches apart and plant at least three kernels per hill. 2. In central Illinois on the common brown silt loam prairie land, of a productive capacity greater than 50 bushels per acre, plant corn 39.6 inches between hills and drop three kernels per hill (with 39.6 inches between rows there are exactly five rows per rod). 3. In central Illinois on the common prairie land, of lower pro- ductive capacity than 50 bushels per acre, as for instance average Corn Belt land, plant the hills 36 inches apart and drop two kernels per hill. TABLE NO. 34 SHOWING YIELD PER ACRE AS AFFECTED BY DISTANCE BETWEEN ROWS wo. of | No. of ‘| Site “Marre. |iesrnels Distance between rows, (inches) in Test |Iper Hill ]44x44 44x39.€ 44x36 44x33 36x36 33x36 33x33 Wlinois (Northern) ___- 4 3 54.1 | 55.7 | 56.7 | 57.7 | 58.9 | 59.9 | 61.0 Ilinois (Central) ~~... | 4 2 47.7 | 50.0 | 51.9 | 52.8 | 54.5 | 55.0 | 54.0 Illinois (Central) 2____- | 4 | 3 51.6 | 51.9 | 52.3 | 51.4 | 49.1 | 49.1 | 46.8 An Ohio test covering a three-year average shows that the number of plants per acre being the same, there is a gain of 4 1-2 bushels per *Tilinois Bulletin No. 126 *I]linois (Northern) = 4 | 2 44.1 | 47.1 | 48.7 | 50.9 | 54.2 | 54.3 | 52.0 STALKS PER HILL 165 acre in favor of one plant every 12 inches, as compared with three plants every 36 inches. The gain in stover was 659 pounds per acre. However, the question of cultivation and harvesting of the crop is to be considered. Corn planted in hills is more easily harvested, and gives a better opportunity in cultivating or keeping the weeds in check. Second. The custom of the locality or even the section of the Corn Belt affects thickness of planting. The Georgia Experiment Station found that better results could be obtained by having the rows four feet apart with one stalk every three feet in each row. The same station found that on ground which could produce around 30 bushels of corn per acre, the best results could be had with the rows four feet apart with «ne plant every two feet in the row. The Indiana Ex- periment Station, in carrying on investigations for a period of eight years, secured the best yields with planting in rows three feet eight inches apart and one plant every 10 3-4 inches in the row. Under lowa conditions, the majority of growers usually check three feet six inches both ways, making 3,556 hills per acre, By such a plan, each hill has 1764 square inches of surface. The cultivators as usually used on the farm are set for this width, and there is no line of weeds left in the center between the rows. On the poorer soils of the state a three-foot eight inch planter is used, which plants 3,240 hills per acre. Sometimes the corn is planted three feet eight inches one way, and a three foot six inch check wire is used. Third. The nature of growth of variety is another factor influenc- ing the closeness of planting. Large, rank growing varieties require greater distance between the rows, because of over-shading. Low growing kinds requiring short seasons may be planted more closely. The occasional planting of other crops with corn may make a great- er distance between hills and rows desirable. Number of Stalks Per Hill. There is more or less difference of opinion upon this particular point. In the early years of corn grow- ing in the central West, the number of kernels per hill was con- trolled by such an adage as “Always plant five kernels, one for the blackbird, one for the crow, one for the cut worm and two to grow.” However, it may be said that the amount of corn that can be pro, duced on a given area of land is determined by the soil, seed, and management, together with the climatic conditions. Naturally, land rich in fertility can maintain a greater number of stalks per acre than can poorer land. While in the former case four or five kernels to the hill may not be too many, in the latter two kernels to the hill 166 CORN would be sufficient. Three kernels to the hill is generally considered as the standard, and it may be said that there is very little good corn- producing land that can not maintain three good stalks to the hill. If corn is planted thick on land of poor fertility, the result is stover and not ears. On the other hand, two or three kernels are often planted to the hill on land so rich in fertility that much greater yields would have been secured by planting four and possibly five kernels. In the latter case, with two and three kernels a great many suckers are produced, sometimes as many as two to three per hill. Had there been four or five kernels to the hill in this case, the fertility of the ground would have been utilized in producing stalks of corn bearing ears, rather than suckers. On average good corn land, the yield per acre in shelled corn in- creases with the number of stalks per hill up to four or five. After this the amount of stover increases and the amount of grain decreases. As the number of stalks increases to the hill, the number of. good, strong seed ears will decrease after two and three stalks to the hill, and there will be found more inferior ears and nubbins. TABLE NO. 35 SHOWING RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO YIELD Distance No of eg Showing Average Yield per acre (bu.) State between | Experi- me Number of Kernels planted per hill ills ments [28 1 2 3 4 5 Iowa (Entire state)_-_| 3 ft.6in. | 127 | 7 | 33.5 51.5 59.5 61.5 61.0 Iowa (Northern sect)| 3 ft. 6 in. 38 7) 31.5 48.5 58.0 60.0 59.0 Iowa (Central sect.)| 3 ft. 6 in. 44 171 35.0 54.5 64.5 69.0 69.5 fowa (Southern sect.)| 3 ft. 6 in. 45 |7] 34.5 51.5 57.0 57.0 56.5 *Nebraska _-_------- 6 | 48.3 67.7 75.5 76.7 76.3 ~ **Ohio ___--------- 10 | 31.7 | 508 | 60.8 | 649 | 63.0 #**Kentucky ____-__ | 3 ft. 6 in. 2 51.6 58.1 60.4 The foregoing table gives a summary of the tests conducted in various states of the Corn Belt for a period of years. The foregoing statements have been well substantiated by these tests. In the most favorable seasons and on the more fertile soil, the thicker planting has produced the higher yields, but in less favorable years and on thinner soil, the lower rate of seeding has given the better yield. Take the results from Oklahoma for instance. The year 1910 was an es- pecially good corn season. The respective yields from 2, 3 and 4 stalks per hill were 72, 90.4 and 98.4 bushels per acre. The following year, 1911, was very dry. The respective yields were 31.1, 25.8 and *Nebraska Bulletin No. 112 *“*Qhio Bulletin No. 282. «“**Kentucky Bulletin No. 163. For Nebraska, Ohio and Kentucky, the results given represent number of plants per hill, Ohio yields are figured on basis of shelled corn. STALKS PER HILL 167 22.4 bushels per acre. The amount of corn produced decreased with the heavier rate of seeding in the dry year. The data from Iowa shows the effect of season, climate and soil on rate of seeding. Comparing the three zones of the state, namely, northern, central and southern, it is seen that the yield varies with the same rates of seeding. In the north, the heavier seeding produced the higher yield. With a smaller ear, and lighter stalk more stalks can succeed in a hill. Going south however to the larger ears, and heavier stalks (and in some cases older soil) the number of stalks per hill must be slightly reduced. In the southern part of the state it is generally aimed to have from two to three stalks per hill, and in the northern part of the state, from three to four. The average for the entire state of lowa shows the best results from three to four kernels planted per hill. In these tests it should be added too that the yield of stover as a rule was heavier with the thicker planting. In Nebraska the yield of stover increased over 16 per cent between two and five stalks per hill. The Ohio test shows a corresponding increase in yield of stover amounting to 100 per cent, however, between the one stalk and 5 stalk stand. This was for an average of ten years. CORN PLANTER Showing disc furrow opener. 168 CORN RELATION OF THICKNESS OF STAND TO PER CENT OF BARREN STALKS It has been found that the thickness of planting affects the per cent of barren stalks. In a five year’s test in Iowa, the results have been as follows: TABLE NO. 36 **SHOWING PER CENT OF BARREN STALKS AS AFFECTED BY THICKNESS OF PLANTING. (This table shows the number of barren stalks per 100 plants) ao | Number : No. of kernels per hill State | of Years 1 2 3 5 Vawa, eevee ee | 5 | 4.2 | 3.4 | 5.6 | 8.8 | 10.7 As the rate of seeding increases the per cent of barren stalks rises. This has been found to be particularly true in dry years. The effect of barren stalks on yield is well shown in the following table giving the results of an experiment conducted in Ohio* in 1906. SINGLE ROW COMBINED LISTER AND DRILL. Used in very dry soils in order to get the corn deep into the ground so as to obtain moisture. TABLE NO. 37 SHOWING RELATION OF BARREN STALKS TO YIELD Fer cent of Barren Stalks Yield per acre, bushels Per cent of Stand 1.6 75.70 75 32 74.76 76 3.0 69.25 74 Tes 67.21... 74 10.8 65.20 71 19.7 65.9 74 From the above table it is seen that as the per cent of barren stalks increase the average yield of corn decreases. It should be stated how- ever, that planting too thick on a thin soil, or in a dry season, tends to increase the per cent of barren stalks. *Ohio Bulletin No. 140. **County Demonstration Station Reports, Towa. SUCKERS AND NUBBINS 169 RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO AMOUNT OF SUCKERS. The effect of thickness of planting on tillering or suckering is also of importance. A tiller or sucker is simply a lateral branch arising from one of the lower nodes or joints of the corn plant. Through selection and cultivation this habit of corn has been largely overcome in the effort to produce one strong stalk from each kernel planted, capable of supporting a productive sized ear. While there is some difference in the amount of tillering between different varieties of corn this habit is affected more by the thickness of stand, fertility of the soil and amount of moisture. See the following table. TABLE NO. 38 SHOWING PER CENT OF SUCKERS AS AFFECTED BY THICKNESS OF PLANTING (This table shows the number of suckers per 100 plants) Number No. of kernels per hill f Y¥ State ot Aaerls 1 2 3 4 5 *Nebraska ___-_-- 2 138 - 60. 25 10 3 a 7 52.8 712 * 10.2 7.1 6.5 RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO SIZE AND QUALITY OF EARS. Another thing to be considered under thickness of planting pre- viously mentioned in the quality of corn. The per cent of nubbins and worthless ears increases with the thicker planting. Aside from a poorer quality of corn from too thick planting it will be remembered also that a large per cent of the nubbins would be left in the field by the average corn picker, thus reducing the actual yield. See the following table. TABLE NO. 39 SHOWING PER CENT OF NUBBINS AND POOR EARS AS AFFECTED BY THICKNESS OF PLANTING Number No. of kernels per hill State of Years : ‘i in test **Towa —------- 7 11.8 17.6 23.1 31.9 41.5 Ohio 225-2225 10 16.1 16.7 21.9 31.1 42.6 *Nebraska Bulletin No. 112. **County Demonstration Reports, Iowa. NOTES 1. The results of the foregoing tests with reference to thickness of planting shows that in the northern section of the corn belt where the ears are smaller, as well as in other sections of the corn belt where the. soil is abnormally fortile, the highest yields have been secured by planting four kernels per hill. The average stand in the fall was about 3.3 stalks per hill. In the central portion of the corn belt where a little larger eared variety can be grown, and where the soil is newer, the highest yields came from a little thicker planting, or five kernels per hill. However, the average stand from the tests where five kernels were planted was only 3.6 stalks per hill in the fall. In the southern section, where the largest varieties are grown and where the soil is older the best results came from planting about three kernels per hill, giving an average stand of 2.5 to 3 stalks per hill. 2. The largest proportion of good ears as shown by most of the tests, come from a two to three stalk stand in the northern and cen- tral districts, while in the southern district the best results seemed to be obtained from about two kernels per hill, with reference to the proportion of good ears. Beyond that rate of planting the per cent of good ears rapidly decreased. 3. In studying the results of these experiments, it should be re- membered that there were only about 80 to 85 per cent as many stalks left at harvest time as there were kernels planted or stalks left at the time of the second cultivation. In estimating the number of kernels to be planted per hill, it should be remembered that where strong seed is planted under good condi- tions, there will ordinarily be a loss of from five to ten per cent in the stand. 4. The study of the results of these experiments would lead to the conclusion that for ordinarily good conditions a farmer in the northern and central section of the corn belt would do well to plant so as to have three good strong stalks in every hill; that is, where the proper variety is used, which will mature under normal conditions. In the southern district the results indicate that under ordinary conditions an average of about 2.5 good stalks per hill would give better results than thicker planting. Just what number would give the best result from any one farm must be decided by the farmer himself. In general the thickness can be increased on rich soil, or with a smaller variety of corn and de- creased with thinner soils and larger varieties. WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? 171 5: Notice that the proportion of stalks having suckers decreased rapidly and regularly with the increase in thickness of planting. 6. The average of all the experiments shows that the proportion of barren stalks increased with the increase in thickness of planting from 4.2 per cent where there was only one stalk per hill, to 10.7 per cent where there were five stalks. 7. The proportion of stalks affected by smut was greatest where the thinnest planting was practiced. 8. The proportion of seed ears decreased rapidly and regularly with the increase in thickness of planting. 9. In the summary of all the experiments the proportion of nubbins and worthless ears was lowest where there was an average of one stalks per hill. The proportion of nubbins and worthless ears where the thin planting was practiced was probably due to the fact that many of the stalks produced a second small ear and that some of the many suckers had small ears on them. The increase in the proportion of nubbins and worthless ears with the increase in the thickness of planting was greater in the southern section than in the central and northern. The increase in the proportion of barren stalks was also greater. These results show that thick planting decreases the productiveness of the stalks more in the southern part of the state than it does in the northern section. WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? This question is so often asked that it is here partially answered. On Rich River Valley Soil. It is only during a season of compara- tively little rainfall that the farmers on the river lowlands are able to grow a crop at all. At least three to four stalks per hill should be the standard on such land. (See foot note.) Upland Thin Soil. At Institutes and Short Courses one quite often hears the remark that as many stalks cannot be grown to the hill now as 20 or even 10 years ago. The fact that the virgin fer- SOUTHERN IOWA ROUGH LANDS. . These are underlaid with hardpan, and in a dry year two stalks per hill would be suffi- cient. A lack of plant food and the fact that the corn roots cannot penetrate tne sub-soil to secure moisture, requires a smaller number of stalks per hill. NORTHERN IOWA, GOW: ONDRAINED ao ; : of shortage in early spring precipitation are a bvon to the corn growers 0 ane A aioe ater of the Wisconsin Drift. Three stalks or even more should here he the standard, because the soil is well stocked with potential and available plant food. 3 172 CORN tility of the soil has been drawn upon heavily for a series of years by continuous cropping, has begun to make itself evident in diminished yields. A year of heavy precipitation is the only time when a farmer whose soil is thin can think of growing three stalks per hill with suc- cess. Growing for Show Purposes. The spirit of professionalism has to some extent entered the field of corn exhibiting. Breeders who grow samples to win for advertising purposes prefer from two to 2.5 stalks per hill, even on strong land. This discussion has been taken up with the idea of getting at the reason for the various views upon the subject. The standard of three kernels per hill has served well up to date, but its practicability is going to be questioned in many sections before long. In order to continue its use a system of farming must be adopted which will maintain the fertility of the soil. Replanting Corn. The stand of corn is frequently found to be poor, with a great many one-stalk and missing hills. This is due chiefly to poor seed, toa lack of preparation of the seed bed, to insect enemies, and to climatic conditions. A missing hill means a decrease in yield. Not infrequently a great deal of replanting is carried on, which, it may be said, is not very profitable. In the first place, the plants from the seed that was replanted will not be found to be so far advanced as those about them at the time of the first cultivation. They will not shed their pollen at the same time, and they often will not send their shoots out until so late that the greater portion of the pollen from the other stalks has fallen. This accounts for the nubbin ears which are always found to a great extent on replanted corn. When replanting is done, it is more desirable to plant with an earlier maturing variety of corn. This, of course, cannot be carried out where it is desired that the corn be kept pure, and in this case it could be done with profit only when there is from 10 to 20 per cent of the hills miss- ing. By replanting an earlier variety than was formerly planted, the silks and tassels will come out more nearly the time the rest of the plants of the field send forth their shoots. When the missing hills are less than 10 per cent, it is not deemed advisable to replant, and should the misses be more than 20 per cent the best results will be secured if the entire field is replanted. DRILLING CORN. Sod land is frequently put into corn in this manner. On very fertile soil which contains sufficient moisture, the hills may be 9 inches apart. Twelve inches is more desirable, and even LISTING CORN 173 a distance of 14 or 16 inches produce heavy yields. Suckers are pro- duced quite abundantly on sod land. Thicker drilling will have a ten- dency to eliminate this evil. At the Illinois Station, corn checked three feet eight inches apart and plowed but one way, produced 71.7 bushels per acre, compared with 60.8 bushels where the field was drilled in rows three feet eight inches apart, with the stalks 11 inches apart in the row. This differ- ence is accounted for by the fact that although the checked piece was cultivated but one way, it was much freer from weeds. The number of stalks per acre in a field of corn drilled in rows three feet six inches, with stalks ten inches apart in the row, will be 14,934. If 14 inches in the row, 10,667. In figuring the per cent stand in drilled corn, step off a distance equal to 100 hills 10 or 14 inches apart, or any other number of inches, depending upon thickness of drilling. If the kernels were drilled 10 inches apart, the 100 hills would be 1,000 inches, or 83 1-3 feet. Count the stalks in this meas. ured length. If there prove to be but 80 stalks, then the percentage of stand is 80. LISTING CORN. The lister is not a familiar implement to the farmer of central Iowa and Illinois. The western corn states, Kansas and Nebraska, and parts of Iowa and Missouri, use the lister almost to the exclusion of the planter. The lister was introduced into Kansas in 1882. In 1902 it was estimated that three-fifths of the area in corn in Kansas was listed. In these sections the soil is so loose as to allow the water level to settle very low. The winds of summer carry off much of the moisture and the storms of August and September blow down the checked or surface planted corn. Because of washing, the lister is not adapted to hilly land. On the low, tiled fields of the central states listing has proved a failure. Tests at the Illinois Sta- tion indicate lower yields and later maturity in listed than in checked corn. After many trials on plots at the Experiment Station of Kansas, it was found that listing gave an average increase of 3.57 bushels, or 4.16 per cent per acre over surface planted corn. In 1888, during a dry season, an increase of 15 per cent was noted. The following tables* are taken from the records of J. W. Robin- son, of Towanda, Kansas. They cover a period of 22 years and take into account a crop of from 1,000 to 2,000 acres annually. In com- paring the cost of handling an acre of clean ground by the two meth- *Address by Theo. W. Morse, before the Thirty-first Annual Meeting of the Board of Agricul- ture of Kansas. 174 CORN ods, listing vs. check-rowed, the figures show 75 cents in favor of the former. LISTED. Listing’ syolerwaeesbuoienaerale cet ee Roo $ .35 Twice harrowint iss aes ese bowie cents Sele .20 Once with “Go-Devil” ..............0.0 0000s .15 Three cultivations: .......cce eee nee cee 75 Cutting weeds .......... 0. cece cece ee ees 10 Total asciniswecswdg ase ioaius seeds $1.55 CHECK-ROWING. Plowing and harrowing ............. eevee $1.10 Check-rowind icc iias dda wt Hen eee .25 Harrowing OnGe os sessed casey ee alee aie eiews -10 Three cultivations . 0.02.2. 008eciseeenes esses 75 Cutting Wes: sic c5 ic yah ass seas hace wien oe dp aoects sans .10 Dota sousucineutbieaeewete. bees $2.30 Preparing the Ground. As listing is not done until the time comes for the corn to be in the ground, the land usually lies idle until the first of May. Therefore, some kind of surface treatment must be given the soil. Discing early in the spring loosens the surface layer and tends to conserve the moisture. If weeds come on rapidly and grow rank another vigorous discing may be applied. Furthermore, the disc levels the last year’s corn rows and splits the stubs so they are less bother in cultivating. Where listing is to follow small grain, discing the stubble in the fall conserves the moisture and prevents the weeds from seeding. The partial failures of listed corn may often be ‘traced to the wasteful loss of moisture in the early part of the season, because of allowing the surface soil to bake and grow up to grass. The Use of the Lister. The lister is simply a double mold-board plow. By arrangement of the whiffletree the distance between the rows is the same as in checked corn, although in the southwest the rows are often but 40 inches apart. The weed seeds and foul earth are thrown onto the ridges away from the rows of sprouting corn. Hence, the corn has a chance to start in a clean furrow. Many farmers recognize this when they find the corn more difficult to keep clean in a year when their lister failed to scour. The listers which were first invented had an incomplete turn of the mold-board which left an edge of the surface of the ground sticking out instead of forming a rounded ridge of fresh earth which was less pregnant with weed seeds. Even with the best listers, ground USE OF LISTER 175 which has not been previously disced and loosened, but rolls up in lumps, will also do the same thing. On many large areas a combined riding lister is used; that is, a drill attachment at the rear of the lister drops the corn and two smal! shovels or discs cover the kernels. For doing very uniform work, through all kinds of soils, this lister is the best implement, especially on level land. A walking lister may also have this combined attach- ment. Often the lister is drawn alone and the drilling is done with a one-horse drill, or a two-row planter is used. A planter does not follow the listed furrows uniformly unless they have been turned with a two-row lister. The kernels are often dropped on the edge of the furrow, which gives the young plants insufficient root hold, besides making them hard to cultivate. Checking can be efficiently done in listed furrows, but the corn is usually not large enough to cultivate crosswise at the second plow- ing. Corn may be listed in ground already prepared for surface check- ing, but in such a case the soil is usually so loose that the lister will not scour satisfactorily. Stubble land is often listed with good re- sults. In listing ground which has been in corn the previous year, either the old row may be listed out or the furrow may be made between the rows. Double listing—listing once early and then relist- ing the ridge later in the season—is a more effective way of loosen. ing up the soil. The furrow-opener attachment is rapidly gaining recognition, espe- cially in those districts where the corn must be planted deep in order to better resist the drouth and wind. In many localities it is gradu- ally replacing the lister. The ground is plowed and the seed bed put in proper condition by use of the disc and the harrow. An ordinary corn planter is then used with the furrow opener attachment. The corn is thus planted at a sufficient depth and may be either drilled or checked. This permits of a much more thorough preparation of the seed bed, giving the corn plant the advantage of an earlier start. With the use of the furrow opener attachment, the Kansas Experiment Sta- tion has been receiving very satisfactory results. COLLATERAL READING: Corn, ; South Carolina Bulletin No. 44. Corn, South Carolina Bulletin No. 61. Field Experiments with Corn, Indiana Bulletin No. 77. 176 CORN Experiments on Corn, West Virginia Bulletin No. 29. Experiments with Corn and Oats, Indiana Bulletin No. 55. Corn Culture in North Carolina, North Carolina Bulletin No. 171. Experiments with Corn, Kansas Bulletin No. 64. Corn Experiments, Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. Corn Experiments, Kentucky Bulletin No. 17. Results Obtained from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field Roots and Potatoes, Ottawa Bulletins Nos. 29, 32, 34, 36, 39, 44. Experiments with Corn. Kansas Bulletin No. 45. Field Experiments with Corn, Illinois Bulletin No. 13. Experiments with Wheat, Corn and Potatoes, Maryland Bulletin No. 62. Corn, Alabama Bulletin No. 7. Experiments with Oats and Corn, Indiana Bulletin No. 14. Methods of Corn Culture, Illinois Bulletin No. 82. Planting and Replanting Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 92. Effects of Certain Methods of Treatment upon Corn Crop, Nebraska Bulletin No. 54. Field Experiments with Corn, Illinois Bulletin No. 25. Field Experiments with Corn, Illinois Bulletin No. 4. Field Experiments with Corn, Illinois Bulletin No. 20. Number of Kernels Per Hill, Illinois Bulletin No. 126, 127. Field Experiments with Corn, Illinois Circular No. 66. Influence of Early and Late Spring Plowing. Ohio Bulletin No. 1. , Corn Culture, North Dakota Bulletin No. 51. COLLATERAL READING 177 Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 62. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 34. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 51. Corn, Alabama Bulletin No. 3. Corn Culture in South, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 81. Co-operative Field Tests During 1888, North Carolina Bulletin No. 6s. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 46. Corn Culture. Georgia Bulletin No. 58. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 55. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 30. Corn Culture, Georgia Bulletin No. 41. Corn Growing, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 199. Corn, Kentucky Bulletin No. 122. Experiments with Corn, Ohio Circular No. 53. Corn, Field Tests with, Kentucky Bulletin No. 118. Corn Experiments, Maryland Bulletin No. 46. Corn Experiments, Kansas Bulletin No. 56. Corn, Field Experiments with, Iowa Bulletin No. 55. Field Experiments with Corn, Minnesota Bulletin No. 31. Experiments with Corn, North Dakota Bulletin No. 7A, Nebraska Bulletin No. 112. Ohio Bulletin No. 140. Kentucky Bulletin No. 163. Tennessee Bulletin No. 2. Ohio Bulletin No, 282. Illinois Bulletin No. 126. County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. CHAPTER VIII. CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN. A. Object of Tillage. B. Harrowing Corn. C. Depth of Cultivation. D. Frequency of Cultivation. E. Kinds of Cultivators. 2. CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. bo CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN Thorough cultivation when the corn is young means less care thereafter. By destroying the first sprouting weed seeds, the corn is given a better chance and less moisture is lost. Furthermore, it is very essential that the corn plant never gets a setback. That is, there should be no perceptible cessation of growth between the time the TONGUELESS FOUR-SHOVEL CULTIVATOR Used in compact soils, and on rough lands. plant ceases to feed upon the endosperm and the time it begins to draw its plant food from the soil. The maintenance of a healthy, dark green color and a thick, though often short stem, indicates vigor in a growing corn plant. HARROWING CORN 179 The Objects of Tillage. The chief objects of tillage are: (1) To stir and loosen the entire soil to a sufficient depth for the roots of the plants to freely extend themselves. (2) To pulverize the soil and mix thoroughly its constituent parts. (3) To develop various degrees of openness of structure and uni- fermity of soil conditions suitable to the planting of seeds and the setting of plants. (4) To place beneath the surface manure, stubble, stalks and other organic matter, where it will not be in the way, and where it may be converted rapidly into humus. (3) To destroy or prevent the growth of weeds. (6) To start other weed seeds which have been dormant in the soil. (7) To modify the movements of soil moisture and soil air. (8) To assist in controlling soil temperature. Harrowing Corn. The reasons for using a harrow or weeder before tke first cultivation of corn are to kill newly germinated weed seeds; to start other weed seeds by warming the soil and admitting the air; to prevent the formation o1 a crust; to produce a loose surface mulch; and to get over a large area in a short time. When and how often to harrow depends upon: first, the physical condition of the soil and seedbed. A soil which has been plowed early and is naturally of a close grained structure, and which cements together because of beating rains, will bear a harrow without having its surface loosened at all. The harrow teeth will not move enough dirt to cover the weeds. Soil of a loose, sandy formation, the surface of which seems to break open rather than bake, can be harrowed to good advantage. The roots of the small grass around the hills of corn are soon freed so that the sun dries them out. A seed bed covered with clods or trash cannot be properly harrowed because the teeth either roll the clods on the hills or dig up lumps which tear up young plants. Old root stubs which have not been well buried in plowing, often catch in the harrow teeth and drag hills of corn out with them. The surface of sod corn land cannot be harrowed because of the loose lying pieces of turf. As a rule, however, corn on new land is comparatively free from grass the first year. In the second place, when harrowing, the amount of rainfall and sunshine during the germination and early growing period must be considered. 180 CORN During a wet time, when the sun shines but little, a harrow culti- vates young grass rather than kills it. Sunlight is required to dry out the roots which are turned up to the air. Harrowing wet ground puddles the surface, instead of producing a dust mulch. On the other hand, a dry soil requires deeper tillage than that secured by the har- row. Care should be taken to note that the plants are not turgid and full of moisture when harrowed, because they snap off easily when in such condition. In the sunshine they usually bend easily and allow the harrow to pass over them without injury. DISC CULTIVATOR Used especially in damp, weedy ground. The third consideration is the size of the corn. Wallaces’ Farmer advocates the following as the ideal method of planting: Thoroughly prepare the seed bed as has been previously described. Plant the corn and instead of following the planter with a harrow and harrowing it lightly crosswise, cultivate each row with the ordinary shovel plow. Set the shovels to throw considerable dirt, but not enough to ridge the rows very much. If the land is level, wait two or three days, then harrow crossways of the field. Two things are accomplished by this practice. Practically all of the corn has been cultivated once. The ground has been loosened to considerable depth. The harrow has pulverized the surface and turned to the sun many sprouting weed seeds. The whole process is more rapid and less tedious than care- iully plowing weedy corn the first time. On hilly iand, subject to WEEDING 181 washing, harrowing will necessarily follow immediately after culti- vating the newly planted field. When the plants are three inches in height they can be safely harrowed. Farmers on a loamy soil report harrowing corn six and eight inches high without apparent damage. The kind of harrow is important. The teeth of the harrow should be set to slant slightly backwards. Rigid teeth tear too deeply. When raised above the surface, the harrow frame does not drag trash. A light harrow is preferable to the heavier type. WEEDER. This is used when the weeds are small and the ground is in good condition. The weeder, though little used in the corn belt, destroys fine grass in corn where the ground is mellow and the surface free from trash. Much younger corn can be cultivated with a weeder than with the harrow or cultivator. As the weeder is of light weight, a boy with two horses can weed a large area in a short time. @ 182 CORN Depth of Cultivation. Corn should be cultivated, not plowed. The depth of cultivating corn depends first upon the size of the corn. Corn which is being cultivated for the first time has not long since begun feeding on the soil. When germinating and pushing to the surface, the sprout drew the nourishment from the endosperm of the kernel. Therefore, the roots have not spread very far horizontally or ver- tically. At this time the rows should be cultivated deeply and closely because it can be done without injuring the roots. There is no ques- tion but that a few may be disturbed and even cut off, but as the plant is young and the ground is moist, growth is not seriously checked. Deep cultivation should not be practiced after the first time over. If the cultivator is kept from the hill and set to throw dirt to cover the weeds, rather than to uproot them, there is left in the.row a compact ridge which is unfit for the corn roots to penetrate. Fur- thermore, the ridge is so high that by the time of the second cultivat- ing, the weeds then growing cannot be properly covered. When a cultivator shovel passes close to a hill of corn, the loosened soil be- comes warmer because of the admitting of the air. Early in the spring, the roots of corn wait especially for the soil to rise in temperature before pushing out. This loosened soil, if it dries out, will tend also to direct root growth downward, because of more moisture at lower depths. This is particularly valuable, because a shallow rooted corn plant cannot so well withstand the drying winds and lowering water level of July and August. Deep cultivation cannot be done at any other time than the first time over. According to investigations in North Dakota, the roots of rows of corn three feet apart were interlaced at the end of 30 days after planting. The bulk of the roots were within the first eight inches of soil. Six inches from the hill the main roots were within 2% to three inches of the surface. The depth of cultivation depends also upon the texture and forma- tion of the soil. Some types of soil contain a large amount of humus and are of a loose structure. These may be cutivated the first time with a surface cultivator. The corn soils of central Iowa and central Ilh- nois require but one deep loosening, and produce the highest yields when tilled thereafter with surface tools. There are, however, soils of a compact, less friable nature; for example, the loess soils of south- ern Jowa and Illinois, which require deeper cultivation. If a beating rain follows the first cultivation, this soil will become so compact that the ordinary surface cultivator simply scrapes the ground, leaving DEPTH OF CULTIVATION 183 an almost impervious sub-surface strata. As more humus is intro- duced into these soils, the surface cultivator may come into more practical usefulness for laying by corn. From the results of an experiment conducted in Indiana for five years, the average yield of corn was 42.3 bushels per acre for the shal- low cultivation, (1 to 3 inches) and 37.9 bushels where cultivated four inches deep. This experiment extended over a period of eight years with the one, two and three-inch cultivations, and five years with the four- inch cultivation. It will be seen that there was a decrease in the yield when the cultivation exceeded the depth of three inches. This exper- iment has been corroborated by the Iowa Experiment Station and in some parts of this state by farmers who have paid special attention to this investigation. A similar experiment was conducted at the Ohio Station* and the results of a ten-year test showed an average yield of 56.4 bushels per acre and 2661 pounds of stover from deep cultivation, as compared with 60.4 bushels of grain and 2874 pounds of stover per acre from the shallow cultivation. The double shovel was used in the deep cul- tivation, and the spring tooth cultivator in the shallow cultivation. SURFACE CULTIVATOR These shovels are made to pulverize the surface rather than stir to any considerable depth *Ohio Bulletin No. 282. en Ei Sf HA ey 184 CORN According to Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, the average of three plots for three years, 1888, 1889, 1890, at that Station, was 81.8 bushels per acre, when cultivated shallow. Three other plots cultivated deeply for the same time averaged 74.1, or an increase of 7.7 bushels in favor of shallow cultivation. Frequency of Cultivation. The number of cultivations which a field of corn should receive during a season depends primarily upon the conditions of climate and soil. The growth of both corn and weeds is governed by the amount of rainfall and sunshine. Often in the fore part of the growing season, rainy weather will keep the teams out of the field until the grass has almost choked the corn. Clear days follow which push the corn forward so rapidly that not more than two cultivations are given to the field. A cold summer may hold the corn back so much that it is laid by after four cultivations and is yet under size. The key to the successful solution of this proposition is keen observation. There can be no set rule as to the number of times, other than that the corn should be kept free from weeds and grass, and that the surface of the ground should have the best possible mulch to conserve the moisture. Many fields suffer greatly from a lack of cultivation, either because a heavy carpet of weeds has been permitted to grow up, or because a great deal of moisture has been lost. There are, however, instances where cultivation is so frequent as to be detri- mental. For example, in dry seasons when the rainfall is slight, there is nothing gained by continually cultivating the fields that already have a good dust mulch on their surface. There is such a thing pos- sible as the surface becoming somewhat compact by lying for some time without being stirred, even though there is not much rainfall, but to keep continually cultivating corn in a dry season when there is a dust mulch already established, is only a means of stirring up the surface soil and permitting the air to penetrate deeper; thus drying it out to a greater extent than would have been the case had there been no cultivating at this time. There is no question but that many crops are cut short because of a lack of cultivation when the corn becomes too tall for the ordinary two-horse cultivator. The corn draws hardest upon the soil at the time when it is putting forth its silk and tassels and maturing the ear. When there is a tendency for the season to be dry, with an occasional shower, it would be very profitable to run a single-horse cultivator between the rows to keep the dust mulch established after the corn has become too high to use the two-horse cultivator. FREQUENCY OF CULTIVATION 185 At the Kansas Agricultural College, experiments were carried on to determine the advisability of frequent cultivation with the following results: (Note the variation in yield in different seasons, which was probably due to climatic conditions. No profitable returns resulted from excessive cultivation.) TABLE NO. 40 FREQUENCY OF CULTIVATION . 3 7 Rate of Yield per Acre in Times Siutisatee During Bushels 1891 1895 1896 Once ~----------------------------------- | 23.42 37.62 MLWICES 28 sethantes. Beco | 68.03 - 30.88 44.42 Three: times 2222222225022 22eccceeco he | 26.45 43.77 Fourtimes! 22..-2.-5-3222.466-seeescuaces ; 76.06 20.77 48.94 Rive times: x22 boo at ee | 20.51 48.27 Six: times -...--------s-ese2cesesineosees | 70.08 17.08 49.34 TWO-ROW RIDING CULTIVATOR- Besides having four shovels to loosen up the soil, the front shanks are equipped with a short knife blade which cuts off the weeds next to the hill. After investigating the frequency of cultivating corn for the years 1888, 1889, 1890, the Illinois Experiment Station concluded that no appreciable benefit was derived from frequent cultivation nor from cultivating after the ordinary season for cultivating was past. The soil on which this trial was made was a black, friable loam. (Bulletin No. 13, Illinois.) Kinds of Cultivators. This is governed largely by the kind of soil, character of the land, and very often by the help which may be secured. 186 CORN CULTIVATING CHECKED CORN THE FIRST TIME Note that considerable dirt is being stirred and the shovels run close to the corn. The shields keep the large pieces from falling on the hills, KINDS OF CULTIVATOR SHOVELS 187 In some of the more southwestern corn producing states, the double- row cultivators are frequently used and are found to be very prac- ticable, being equipped with four gangs of four shovels each, and drawn by three horses. As one of these completes the cultivation of two rows each time it crosses the field, one man can cultivate about 15 acres a day. In many sections it is often difficult to obtain labor- ers when they are needed. With one of these two-row cultivators one man can practically do the work of two with single-row culti- vators. The quality of the work may suffer some, however. Not- withstanding this, their use is likely to increase, especially in the com. paratively level sections that are free from stumps and rocks. Most forms of these two-row cultivators are mounted on two wheels like two-horse, single-row cultivators. Very stumpy land or tall corn may necessitate the use of a one-horse cultivator. The best kind of shovel with which to equip either single or double cultivators must be determined by the character of the soils, size of the corn, and size and nature of the growth of the weeds to be destroyed. Without exception, any shovel found to do good work on a one-horse cultivator can be attached to a double or two-row cultivator. For light, sandy land, sweeps are in favor. They are of various width, from six to 30 inches. The sweeps scrape along the soil at a depth of two inches, cutting off the weeds and allowing the surface soil to pass over them and fall level and flat behind the culti- vator. The same result is accomplished with the double cultivator in New England where it is known as a horse-hoe or hoeing machine. This implement was originally made for tobacco cultivation, the long, horizontal blades or shears which extend toward the row from the uprights which fasten to the beam, serve well to reach under the tobacco plant and cut weeds and loosen the soil without breaking the leaves. In general the four-shovel cultivator. goes too deep for cultivating corn after the first time over. This is especially true if the weeds were destroyed with the first cultivation. The four shovel cultivator in fact plows the corn instead of cultivating it. Such treatment is often necessary to destroy the weeds, after which shallow cultivation should be practiced. This may be done by using small shovels, four to six on a side, or with the surface cultivator. All forms of shovels should be so adjusted that the loosened soil will make a fine and even covering for the firmer soil beneath. Ridges left by the shovels make a larger surface for evaporation, and allow CORN 188 ‘aOBFINS 4} 0} SJOOI ay} Fo Ajtutxo1d asojo ay} JO asnedaq daap os jas JOU S{aAoys «AD ONIAVI aprsuy sau} }se] 94} UIOD ay} Buyean[ng CULTIVATING LISTED CORN 189 a deeper entrance of drying atmosphere into the soil. Some surface cultivators bear attachments for smoothing the ground as the machine passes along. CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. It is an idea with many farmers of the districts where corn is checked entirely, that listing is a slack method of corn culture. In the past listing has been practiced most generally by farmers who grow large areas. Hence the methods of cultivation adopted have been those which accomplished most in the least time. This was often carried {0 excess, even to the detri- ment of the crop. Some growers harrow the ridges before the corn comes up, especially if the weeds start early. Others wait until the corn is two or three inches high and then harrow. By both of these systems, clods and corn stubs (if the old row has been listed out) are rolled into the furrow. In the former case these obstructions hold the sprout beneath the surface, and in the latter bury the little plant. In either case the weed seeds which were thrown out on the ridges away from the corn, are now returned to the furrow before the corn has had time to get ahead of their growth. Rolling with a heavy roller has some advantages in that instead of hurling the clods into the furrow, it simply pushes them down, crushing a great many. The idea of these last two methods is to level the ridge for the horses. NGLE ROW DISC CULTIVATOR WITH SLED AND KNIVES le FOR LISTED CORN. This type of cultivator with varying attachments is commonly known as the ‘‘Go-Devil.’’ 190 CORN The “go-devil,” as it is usually called in listed corn districts, has two heavy two-inch runners about eight inches high and 4o inches long which fit into the furrow. To the rear of these is a set of discs, two or three on each side, which may be set by a small lever placed near the seat. These discs throw dirt out of the furrow, or may simply loosen it. Two long fenders keep the corn from being cov- ered. Such an implement, when set correctly, does very efficient work. There are a great many types of listed corn cultivators. Some have discs, some long knives. Two-row cultivators for listed corn are put up after these plans also. Some of these implements may also be used for the second time over the corn. Otherwise, the corn is often harrowed in the course of three or four days. This is a very efficient method because the first cultivation has loosened the soil. TWO ROW LISTED CORN CULTIVATOR. In certain sections the land is so very rolling that the two-row riding cultivators or one-row riding cultivators are too heavy. The four or six-shovel walking cultivator is used, either with very long shields or with a wooden or sheet iron trough dragging in the furrow. The second time over, the trough is replaced by smaller shields. With listed corn machinery, as with all other corn implements, manufacturers have endeavored to reach perfection. The work of the two-row cultivators in northern Missouri bespeaks efficiency in ease of operation and in area covered for a given time. CULTIVATING LISTED CORN 191 In cultivating listed corn, especially where the field was only single- listed, a larger amount of dirt is moved and the shovels are set deeper in the ground. Deep cultivation when the corn is ready to lay by is less detrimental to listed corn, because the root system is much further down than in case of planted corn. Listed corn is slow in starting in the spring because its seed bed is lower down and not so warm. Many farmers become discouraged with the field of listed corn, because it looks yellow and spindling. But just as soon as it has been cultivated once, and especially after the second cultivation, the stalks begin to grow rapidly. The warm, dry weather of late summer pushes listed corn so much faster because its roots are drawing from a lower water table. This supply is most needed just when the ears are forming. CHAPTER IX. THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN t. HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR. A. Stage of Maturity. B. Time of Harvesting. C. Methods of Harvesting. D. Cost of Harvesting. E. Methods of Unloading. z. STORING CORN. A. Principles Involved. B. Cribs. C. Shrinkage of Corn. HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR.—Stage of Maturity. it is a generally accepted theory that in plants of the grass family the percentage of fat increases and that of protein remains constant or decreases slightly with the advancement of maturity. Tests made at the Iowa State College show that the kernels increased in the per- centage of fat from 2.18 per cent on September 14th to 4.93 per cent on November 2d. *The protein content decreased from 10.75 to 10.40 per cent between the same dates. Mature corn has a much larger percentage of carbohydrates stored in the kernel. The drying of the lower leaves and the turning of the husks from green to whitish in color, indicate the ripening of the ears. But the pith inside of the stalk holds its moisture a long time and keeps feeding the kernels. The kernels should be of a horny texture and husks well dried before being gathered. *Bachelor’s Thesis, Morris and Oohagen, 1907 TIME AID METHOD OF HARVESTING 193 Time of Harvesting. The season has much to do in pro- longing the ripening period. A damp, cold autumn keeps the foliage green and sappy. Early drought hastens the curing of the stalk and leaves, and matures the ears. The effect of frosts is marked when the freezing is severe. Early varieties which are intended for immed- iate feeding may be husked before October rst in most sections of the corn belt. Immature, sappy corn will mold because of the large amount of moisture present. Corn husked in damp weather requires more aera- tion than when the atmosphere is dry and windy. To insure safe storage, October 2oth to 25th is early enough. THE COMMON METHOD OF HUSKING CORN FROM THE FIELD. One man with team and wagon gathers two rows each trip through the field. Method of Harvesting. Husking by hand is the chief means of gathering the bulk of the corn crop. One man, with wagon and team, will average 70 bushels per day in corn yielding 50 bushels per acre. Larger averages are made by many farmers in high-yielding fields. When no snow is on the ground and the husker is careful, very few ears are left in the field. Corn that has blown down badly can be gathered only by this method. From time to time different patented machines have been manu- factured for the purpose of harvesting corn in the ear. Most of them have proved very impracticable and wasteful. Where corn stands up well and the rows are of sufficient length to justify the use, the present cornhusker is a decided success. Besides the man to operate 194 CORN the machine and to drive the horses, (from four to six in number) two men and teams are required to haul the corn to the crib. There are some ears left, but where cattle and hogs are turned into the field during the winter and spring, little waste occurs. CORN PICKER AND HUSKER. Used in larger fields, and drawn by six horses. Cost of Harvesting. Not many years ago, corn growers of the central states hired men to husk their corn at two cents per bushel. Since then, the price has steadily raised until at the present time the prevailing price ranges from four to five cents, some even paying more. Owners of corn-gathering machinery report the cost per bushel between three to five cents. This depends upon the yield of the corn per acre as only from eight to ten acres can be picked daily. The use of a picker is not so much of a money saver as a time saver. Men can be hired to run a wagon by the side of the loader, who would be of little use as huskers themselves. Methods of Unloading. The scoop shovel delivers most of the corn crop into cribs. To aid the shoveler, cribs are built with a series of doors in order that all of the corn need not be lifted so high. In some cases, where a double crib is used, an elevated drive- way does away with considerable hard manual labor. Where a corn grower has any considerable acreage to gather and store, the automatic unloaders are now almost indispensable. The STORING CORN 195 power used is a gasoline engine, or more commonly the team off the husking wagon. After the wagon end gate is removed and the corn begins to fall into the hopper behind, the front end of the wagon gradually rises at the same time the corn is being elevated into the crib. A single crib may be filled from the side by moving several times. An overhead carrier is usually hung in the gable of a double crib, and chutes are arranged at intervals to transfer the corn to the cribs on each side. The time required depends upon the size of the load, the power at hand, and the pitch of the carrier. Forty to fifty bushels can be unloaded in four to five minutes. The fact that the CORN PICKER AT WORK. Used in large fields where little turning is necessary. husker does not have to shovel when arriving at the crib allows time to gather more corn. Ten bushels extra on an average can be so picked. STORING CORN.—Principles Involved. The principles of stor- ing corn are: (1) The admittance of as much air as possible from the out- side to come in contact with the corn. (2) The escape of the heated air in the crib rapidly and without interruption. (3) The exclusion of moisture from the crib. 196 CORN Cribs. In the western states, where lumber is high in price and the elevators not within immediate reach, much corn is piled on the ground. As soon as the husking season is over, it is shelled and hauled to the elevators. Stave fencing has become so cheap and yet serviceable, that round cribs have been made from it which hold from 500 to 1,000 bushels. Two heavy posts are usually set in the ground about four feet apart. The fencing is then fastened to one post ex- tended in a convenient circle, with a diameter of 12 to 20 feet and then securely stapled to the other post. A short piece as a sort of gate is left between the posts. This is easily opened at the time of shelling. The frozen ground, if cleared off well before the corn is thrown in, makes a comparatively smooth surface upon which to shovel. Of late, woven wire fencing is most commonly used for tem- porary cribbing of corn. HORIZONTAL AND SLANTING BOARDS ON CORN CRIB. In the east central states in the timbered sections, the familiar rail crib is no longer so often seen. The profits accruing from large fields all over the corn belt both east and west, have enabled the corn grower to build substantial structures in which to store his product. Then, too, as the farmer feeds his own crop very largely, he must be in position to keep it in good condition. Even the renter has capital enough to be able to hold back for a rising market. Well ventilated frame structures built on foundations of solid masonry and painted to prevent rotting have proved themselves to be of value. Different methods have been adopted to facilitate the circulation of air through the newly husked corn. Shafts at intervals through the center of the crib accomplish the required result. Tight boarding on the sides will never do. But for the best preservation of the corn, the floor should be far enough from the ground to allow free circulation of air. If the siding be put on vertically, or at an SHRINKAGE OF CORN 197 angle, there is less rotting of the studding and the rain water 1s carried off directly instead of being allowed to run down inside on the corn. The crib should not be over eight feet wide for proper ventilation. Hollow Tile Corn Crib. A crib which has been growing in favor recently is the hollow tile structure. Special tile is being manu- factured, which, when laid by the mason, has the hollow channel ex- tending downward to the outside of the crib so as to prevent rain or snow getting into the crib. The objection to the cement floor is fast disappearing, and its decided advantage in keeping out rats and mice is being recognized. The hollow tile crib as a rule is built circular, with an open core running up through the center. It represents a permanent structure at a reasonable cost. SHRINKAGE OF CORN. Because of the varying amount of moisture contained in corn at storing time, definite figures of the per- cent of shrinkage are not always reliable. The state of maturity and the condition of the weather at the time of gathering determine to a large extent, the water content. Tests at Illinois. ** In tests at the Illinois Station with corn stored from November 11, 1905to November 3, 1906, the total shrinkage was 12.9 per cent. Variations of from 9.0 to 20.7 per cent were found in trials for two years. Tests at the Iowa Station. ***According to tests at the Iowa State College, kernels of corn harvested September 14th, contained 41.78 per cent of water, while those gathered November 2d showed 17.83 per cent of moisture. These figures show the large amount of water stored in a crib of newly husked corn. In another test, corn gathered September 20, 1904, shrank 53.8 per cent by February 1, 1905, while ears gathered November 7th lost but 21.4 per cent in weight at the same time. A small crib holding about one hundred bushels was built on a truck wagon. This was filled with ear corn during the husking sea- son and careful weights taken at the dates indicated. The following table shows the results obtained: **Bulletin No, 50, Illinois. ***Thesis Cohagan and Morris, 1907. (Represents only laboratory tests) 198 CORN TABLE NO. 41 *SHRINKAGE OF CORN BY YEARS AND MONTHS GIVEN IN PERCENTAGE. Iowa Experiment Station. 1906 Mo. = = = = = = Month we | 1900 | iso. | 1903 | 1904 | i908 | to0s | iso7 | Av- | Rate November ....... 8.1 4.0 2.6 1.8 8.2 8.3 7.2 1.4 5.2 5.2 December ....... 8.9 2.6 3.6 3.6 | 10.9 9.5 9.2 6.9 1.7 January ......... 9.0 2.3 4.6 5.7 } 11.7 | 10.2 9.0 7.5 6 February ........ 10.1 2.7 5.9 6.0 | 12.6 | 10.5 | 11.6 3.1 7.8 3 March enesuiintes tc. 10.8 4.4 6.8 9.2 | 14.9 | 15.3 | 12.0 4.5 9.7 1.9 April ceseniaceaus 14.6 6.6 8.6 | 15.3 | 19.3 | 15.4 | 15.1 7.1 | 12.8 3.1 May. sisin oe 15.0 7.4 111.4 | 15.1 | 24.3 | 19.0 | 17.5 8.2 | 14.7 1.9 DUH C:c aonaten oa ccs 16.0 8.0 | 12.4 | 21.4 | 26.0 | 19.8 | 19.1 7.6 | 16.3 1.6 DULY. ced cnweg eee 17.7 7.41 15.9 | 22.5 | 26.7 | 20.2 | 19.5 8.2 | 17.3 1.0 AUSUSE: socees 18.0 7.1 | 15.0 | 22.6 } 29.5 | 21.2 | 18.7 8.6 | 17.8 5 September ....... 19.9 7.6 | 14.0 | 24.8 | 30.5 | 20.6 | 19.3 8.9 | 18.2 4 October ......... 19.7 7.9 | 13.6 | 24.9 | 30.0 | 20.8 | 19.3 9.5 | 18.2 0 As shown by above, with the exception of November, the most rapid shrinkage is during the months of April and May. 1906 will be remembered as the year of the greatest corn crop ever grown in Iowa. The yield was heavy and the corn was well matured before freezing weather. The corn contained very little moisture, as shown by the test. PORTABLE GRAIN ELEVATOR. Easily moved from one crib to another. *Shrinkage begins the last of October each year and percentage was taken each month. TESTS IN OTHER STATES 199 The crops of 1899 and 1906 will be noted as very well matured. The crop of 1903 will always be remembered as the “year of the soit corn.” Tests in Other States. *“Three joint owners of a tract compris. ing 6,000 acres of land, decided to make a careful test and determine exactly how much corn does actually shrink in weight when husked and cribbed under such conditions as are usually found on the ordi- nary farm. To this end, they erected, in the center of the tract men-* tioned, a double crib, 26 feet wide by 250 feet long and 10 feet high at the eaves, with a driveway 8 feet wide through the center, and a good, tight roof over all. Near one end of this crib a small office was built and a set of standard scales put in. Husking began October 22d and ended De- cember 17th. Every day while it was going on, every pound of corn that went into the crib was weighed and recorded. The quantity put in footed exactly 16,155 bushels of 70 pounds each. From November to March, the price offered for corn by local dealers was 38 cents per bushel of 70 pounds. June Ist, the price went up to 52 cents and the corn was sold, to be delivered at the elevator, three and one-half miles distant, early in July. When the time for delivery arrived, the corn was weighed as it came out of the crib, and it was again weighed at the elevator, the total weight at the two places varying but a few pounds. The corn weighed 14,896 bushels and 40 pounds when taken out, showing a total shrinkage of 1,259 bushels or a small fraction less than 7 3-4 per cent. It will be seen that if these men had sold the corn immediately after husking, it would have netted them $6,138.90. By holding it until it was sufficiently cured to be handled safely in great bulk, and the lakes and other waterways were open to traffic, they realized $7,746.12 or $1,606.22 more than if they had allowed themselves to be frightened by the great “shrinkage bugaboo.” In 1893, a Farmers’ Club in Pennsylvania adopted a resolution ask- ing the members to make a test and find out by actual weight how much corn would shrink or lose weight from husking time until the next June Ist. In accordance with that resolution, ten farmers re- ported the shrinkage from November Ist to February Ist as 8 2-3 per cent; the shrinkage from February Ist to June Ist as 2 2-3 per cent, or from husking time to June Ist next, 162-3 per cent. The follow- ing year a similar test showed a shrinkage of 16.5 per cent. *F, D. Coburn, Report Kansas State Boardof Agriculture, 1896 200 CORN Shrinkage of Old Corn. Tests at Illinois showed but .9 per cent shrinkage in the second year of storage of ear corn. Will it pay to hold corn for May prices in view of shrinkage? Figuring on the basis of the average price No. 2 (cash) corn at Chi- cago for a period of years from 1873 to 1906 inclusive, the following results are brought out: The highest average price in May for this period was 47.5 cents; the lowest average 40.6 cents, or average of averages, 44.05 cents. For December for the same period the figures are 46.2 cents highest, 40.4 cents lowest, 43.4 cents average. In December a bushel of 70 pounds would be worth, on this basis, 43.4 cents. By May, according to the figures of the Iowa Station for 1904, which are representative, that bushel would have shrunk 18.2 per cent, or 12.74 pounds, leav- ing to be sold at that time 57.26 pounds. The May price is 44.05 cents per bushel or .63 cents per pound. .63 cents per pound for 57.26 pounds would be 36.07 cents for the bushel, which could have been sold in December for 43.4 cents. This would be a net loss of 7.33 cents on the bushel. Figuring the same shrinkage on corn in December, 80 pounds per bushel, a loss of 2.14 cents per bushel would result. By taking a shorter, more recent period, it is found that the margin is not very much in favor of May corn, not enough, in fact, to counter- balance the shrinkage. The average price in December between 1901 and 1907 inclusive, was 50.3 cents per bushel at Chicago, that of May for the same period was 51.9 cents. COLLATERAL READING Corn Harvesting Machinery, U.S. Department Bulletin No. 173. The Shrinkage of Ear Corn in Cribs, Illinois Buletin No. 113. Moisture in Corn, Iowa (Press). Shrinkage of Corn, Farmers ’Bulletin No. 210, Shrinkage of Corn, U.S. Department Bulletin No. 317. Kansas Bulletin No. 147. Bachelor Thesis of Morris and Cohagan, Iowa State College, 1907. CHAPTER X THE COST OF GROWING CORN In the past, corn growers as a class have not kept accurate figures regarding the cost of production. Profits have accrued because of the margin between the cost of production and the selling price. The fertility of the soil, the cheapness of labor, and the access to larger areas, were factors which tended toward profits, no matter how small the crop. The reverse of these conditions has driven men to thinking and figuring. No such large areas are now available for de- spoilation in extensive slipshod methods. Labor demands almost ex- cessive payment for the number of hours actually employed. The virgin soil no longer yields abundantly year after year without re- turn of manure and rotation of crops. The solution of the problem is increased yield and economy of production. Conservation of the soil fertility by feeding the crops on the farm, thus returning nearly all of the elements of plant food in an available form, better cultural methods, eradication of weeds, the use of labor-saving machinery and the breeding of the best corn adapt- ed to the locality, will accomplish these results. Some estimates are here given regarding the cost of producing corn in different parts of the corn belt. COST OF PRODUCTION DEFINED According to the Farm Management investigators of the United States Department of Agriculture a farm can not properly be called successful unless: First—It pays a fair rate of interest on the investment. Second—lIt returns fair wages for the farmer’s labor. Third—It maintains at the same time the fertility of the soil. In other words, three factors are always involved in crop produc- tion, namely, the capital, the man and the soil. These must necessarily be considered in figuring the cost of production, and in determining profit and loss. 202 CORN At the suggestion of the United States Department of Agriculture “cost of production” for the corn crop may be analyzed as follows: (1) Labor cost. (2) Seed. (3) Fertilizer. (4) Equipment. (5) Interest, taxes and upkeep on land. (6) Overhead Expenses, etc. LABOR COST. One of the main items in producing the corn crop is labor which may be classified as follows: (1) Man labor. (2) Horse labor. (3) Power labor. Man Labor. It is customary to get along with as little extra paid help as possible, but all labor spent on a crop should be charged in the cost of production. Usually the prevailing wage rate is used in figur- ing cost of man labor. This varies of course in different localities. By common custom in each community, there is a wage rate with board furnished and another where the laborer boards himself. In a report of the United States Department of Agriculture, March 20, 1915, the average wage per month without board, all of the states being included, was $29.88 during the previous year. Individual state averages ranged from $16.50 in South Carolina to $56.00 in Nevada. Including board, the wages per month averaged $21.05 for the United States, ranging from $12.00 per month in South Carolina to $39.00 per month in Nevada. Day labor other than harvest, without board, averaged $1.45 per day, ranging from $0.82 in South Carolina to $2.54 in Montana. The same with board furnished averaged $1.13, ranging from $0.64 in South Carolina to $1.80 in Montana. Day labor at harvest time, without board, averaged $1.91, ranging from $1.06 in Mississippi to $3.25 in North Dakota. With board fur- nished, the average was $1.55, ranging from $0.82 in Mississippi to $2.68 in North Dakota. While the wage rate fluctuates between dif- ferent years, there has been an increase of approximately 50 per cent in farm wages during the past fifteen years. LABOR 203 In case of hired labor the labor cost is easily figured. With the total amount paid out divided by the number of hours work employed, or simpler still, by dividing the daily wage by the average number of hours worked per day, the cost per “Man Hour” is given. With a record of the time spent on a given crop it will then be easy to determine the cost of “Man Labor” for that crop. All unpaid labor, such as work done by the farmer himself, and by members of the family to whom no regular wages are paid, should be included in figuring total labor cost. Horse Labor. The term “Horse Labor” applies of course to the use of the farm horses. The cost per “horse hour” is determined by dividing the total cost of keeping the horses by the number of hours worked. Knowing the number of hours devoted to each field it re- mains easy to figure the cost of horse labor for the various crops. In determining the cost of keep for the horses, three items are involved: feed, labor in caring for the horses and interest on investment, in- cluding taxes, veterinary expenses, shoeing, etc. In the live stock account the horses have been credited with the amount of work done, etc. The sum of all these credits subtracted from the sum of the debits, or charges, gives the cost of horse labor for the year. Another method of determining the cost of horse labor, sometimes used, has been to charge the maintenance of all the horses used on the farm to the cultivated area, and to apportion the different crops ac- cording to the relative acreage and amount of work done. Power Labor. This refers to tractors, engines, etc., used on the farm in place of horses, usually. The cost per hour may be figured in the same manner as for the horses. This would involve all costs in running and maintaining the power machine. By knowing the amount of time given to each crop the proper charge can be entered in the cost of production. Amount and Character of Labor. The amount and character of the labor required to produce the corn crop varies necessarily in dif- ferent sections of the corn belt, and with different corn growers. The following table taken from Farmer’s Bulletin No. 661 of the United States Department of Agriculture gives the approximate number of hours needed in the production of corn, including both man and horse: 204 CORN TABLE NO. 43 SHOWING NUMBER OF WORK UNITS REQUIRED FOR EACH ACRE OF CORN PRODUCED. (A working unit is defined as a 10-hour day of man or horse labor) WORK UNITS PER A. (10-hr. days) Man | Horse Corn husked from standing stalks Corn, Belt states_..--22 2 to 3 5 Corn husked from shock_-_--_--------------- 6 6 CoP: 16r 6ilocsos eee. Sorc See oe ee 4 to 6 5 to 7 Corn husked, Southern States_____-_-_-_----- 3 to 4 3 to 4 Treating labor more in detail the necessary operations in corn production are classified as follows: (1) Breaking or removing stalks. (2) Discing or dragging. (3) Plowing. (4) Harrowing. (5) Listing. (6) Applying manure or fertilizer. (7) Planting. (8) Cultivation. (9) Gathering and cribbing. (10) Cutting or binding. (11) Shocking. (12) Shelling and marketing. A few years ago the American Agriculturist and the Orange Judd Farmer made an extensive investigation of the cost of growing the corn crop. The reports covered in a very complete manner 4,051 acres, located in 156 counties in 21 states. In considering the differ- ent operations necessary in corn production, data will be given from the results of this investigation. This is of value mainly in that it represents an average over a wide range of territory under a variety of conditions. In the itemized records of cost given later, as reported by extensive growers in the corn belt, the amount of work accom- plished per day’s labor will be seen to be considerably greater than is represented in these averages. Removing Stalks. When corn is grown two years in succession, the first work of preparation is the removal of old stalks. Cutting up and carrying off was practiced on 784 acres, requiring 91 1-2 days of labor and 76 days of team service. The actual accomplishment was LABOR OPERATIONS 205 8.6 acres per day of labor. Breaking, raking and burning was prac- ticed on 889 acres, requiring 92 days of labor and 79 3-4 days of team service, the average accomplishment being 9.7 acres per day’s labor. Plowing. Of the 4,051 acres, 3,491 were plowed, the remaining 560 acres being listed in. To plow 725 acres in the fall required 293 days of labor with 382 days of team service, or an accomplishment of 2.47 acres per day’s labor. The discrepancy between days of labor and days of team service is of course due to the fact that more than two horses were frequently used to the plow, and in all such cases team work is stated in the equivalent of two horses. The spring plowing of 2,760 acres required 1,154 3-4 days of labor and 1,479 days of team service, an accomplishment of 2.4 acres per day’s labor. Harrowing. The amount of work done in the way of harrowing, discing, rolling, dragging and otherwise preparing the seedbed varies greatly in local practice. Instances appear in the schedule where the field was worked seven times, while in other cases only one working was given. Of the 4,051 acres, harrowing or other similar prepara- tion was practiced on 3,280. As only 560 acres were listed this leaves 211 acres on which planting followed plowing with no effort to pre- pare the seedbed. It required 496 3-4 days of labor and 668 1-4 days of team service to accomplish the harrowing, or an average of 6.6 acres per day’s labor. Listing. This method of planting is little practiced except in Kan- sas and Nebraska. Under the proper soil and climatic conditions it is desirable, and so far as the amount of labor required is concerned it is far cheaper than the usual practice. In this investigation 560 acres were listed, requiring 92 1-2 days of labor and 119 1-4 days of team service, the accomplishment per day’s labor being 6.1 acres. Fertilizing. The percentage of the total corn acreage which in any year is fertilized by the direct application of fertilizing material is so small as to hardly merit consideration. Where this is done at all it is usually thus treated once in a series of years, so that the full cost of such treatment cannot properly be charged to a single crop following. In the schedules fertilizing was reported on some parts of 1,639 acres, requiring 634 1-4 days of labor and 483 1-4 days of team service. Planting. Planting methods included the whole range from hand dropping and hoe covering to the use of hand planters, and up through machines of varying efficiency to the best modern horse planters. As a result the efficiency of a day’s labor varies widely, from .71 of an 206 CORN acre in New Hampshire to 12.44 acres in Nebraska. The acreage regularly planted was 3,491 acres, requiring 442 1-4 days of labor and 375 3-4 days of team service—an average accomplishment of 7.89 acres per day’s labor. Cultivation. The cost of cultivation differs more than any other operation, owing to the differences in implements used, and to differ- ent degrees of care and labor given the crop. The whole area, 4,051 acres, was cultivated twice; 3,991 acres were cultivated three times; 2,515 acres received a fourth cultivation, while 442 acres were given additional cultivation. To perform the total amount of cultivation given to the crop, for the record required 2,296 1-2 days of labor and 2,297 1-2 days of team service. The average performance per day’s 'abor was 1.76 acres; this, of course, representing the total cultivation given to this breadth during the whole season. A day’s labor sufficed to cultivate about 6.6 acres. Gathering and Cribbing. Two methods were followed; first, cutting up and shocking, then husking from the shock; second, husking from the standing stalks, the stalks left standing in the field to be pastured down. In this investigation 2,976 acres were husked standing, requiring 2,438 days of labor and 2,264 days of team service, the ac- complishment being 1.22 acres per day’s labor, this including cribbing as well as husking. Of the crop cut up, 659 acres were done by hand, requiring 595 3-4 days of labor, or 1.11 acres per day. Husking from the shock was. practiced on 651 acres, excluding 212 acres by con- tract, requiring 1,223 3-4 days of labor and 382 1-2 days of team ser- vice, or an accomplishment in husking and cribbing of .53 acres per day’s labor. SEED COST. Up to the present time we have been concerned with the labor cost. Going now to the cost of seed it is but a simple matter to compute this, especially where seed is purchased from some dealer and the cost is known. In case the seed has been home grown the cost should be figured to include actual labor in selecting, storing and preparation for planting. In the reports given this cost varies from $1.00 to $8.00 per bushel, the average being around $3.50. In most of the accounts, however, the seed is charged at only the prevail- ing seed corn price, not including cost of storing, preparation for planting, etc. A bushel should plant approximately seven acres. FERTILIZER. The method of figuring the cost of fertilizer ap- plied to the land for each crop varies, but the government charges 50 per cent of this cost to the crop for that year, apportioning the balance to the succeeding crops, that is where manure is used. According to SEED, FERTILIZER AND EQUIPMENT 207 the Indiana Experiment Station the value given to a ton of manure is approximately $2.25, which represents the amount of fertility con- tained in the manure at the prevailing market prices. At any rate all fertilizer used should be charged to the succeeding crops. EQUIPMENT. This includes first of all the machinery used in the production of the crop. In considering the depreciation in the value of machinery much depends upon the care given and the extent to which it is used. The rate of depreciation will vary from 5 to 20 per cent. Probably from 7 to 12 per cent would be approximately correct for most farms. This can be figured from the inventory taken in the spring. Any new machinery purchased is charged to “Improvements” and only the interest and depreciation charged to cost of production. Adding to the depreciation, the interest on the average value of the machinery for the year gives the total cost of machinery use. In order to distribute this cost, it may be assumed that for every hour horses were worked machinery was used. Knowing then the number of hours spent in the care of each crop and the total cost of machinery use the cost per “machinery hour” may be figured. Multiplying this by the number of hours given to any crop gives the amount to be charged against that crop for machinery use. Any labor in repairing and keeping up the machinery is also charged to this account and ap- portioned among the various crops. This account also includes har- ness, etc. INTEREST, TAXES AND UPKEEP ON LAND. This may be called the “Real Estate Account,” which includes the value of land, buildings, fences and water supply. Normal farm values should be used. It includes also the upkeep of the land and improvements, in- terest, taxes, depreciation of buildings, etc. The proportion of this to be charged to each crop may be determined according to the acreage devoted to the same, and buildings used, as barns, cribs, etc. In case the land is rented, the rental charge is considered instead of interest on land. OVERHEAD EXPENSES. In addition to the interest on land the interest on the cash required to run the farm should be charged. This may be apportioned among the various crops, live stock, etc. It should represent the average amount of money the farmer is obliged to have on hand at all times during the year for the purpose of paying current expenses. There is still left a great variety of items which plainly come under the head of expense. Taxes on personal property, current expenses, telephone, insurance, etc., must be apportioned among the different crops, live stock, etc. 208 CORN FODDER. The value of fodder as a by-product must be taken from the gross cost of growing the corn crop. Where the crop is cut and shocked, the value of the fodder is an important item, but where the crop is husked standing the value of the stalks for pasturage is slight. In the following statement is given an account of the actual cost of producing corn in 1912, by Mr. Fred McCulloch of Hartwick, Iowa. This record was taken under the direction of the United States De- partment of Agriculture and it represents a summary of the daily records which were made by Mr. McCulloch. TABLE NO. 44 SHOWING ACCOUNT WITH CORN IN FIELD “D” 2 (38.91 acres valued at $5,658.70) TOTALLABOR TOTAL COST LABOR PER ACRE COST Man Hors for entir M H : : Wecs Hous fel)” Hogs ‘Hours BERACRE Labor costs¥** .......... 9183 1888 $495.54 23.6 48.52 $12.74 Tractor 38$ hours ....... 46.70 1.20 Manure charge* 20% of 1910 application 64.15 50% of 1912 application 8.61 1.87 Seed, 6.05 bus. at $8.00... 48.40 1.24 Machinery use cost....... 85.20 2.19 Interest on 1911 costs** Brought forward ...... 3.20 -08 Interest on land value.... 282.94 7.27 Overhead expense ....... 60.17 1.55 Total cost. nase ceases ae $1,094.91 $28.14 "‘Lotal ‘yield? : csi saves an ccnes 2,685 bus. Cost per bushel.................. 40.8 cents INCOME 2,545 bu. corn at $ 40........0.eee eens $1,018.00 (65.4 bu. per acre) $35.66 140 bu. (seed) corn at $2.50............. 350.00 ( 3.6 bu. per acre) 7 Stalks at $ .50 per acre..........-...... 19.46 TRCOMIE soe os sawanns een ai ae boils $1,387.46 $35.66 Sota COsts) jaadd cape eneue ker bag ed und boule $1,094.91 $28.14 Profit’: scctinacadea aennneen a eaegae oa memes $ 292.55 $ 7.52 _ Without figuring the extra value of the seed corn in the total in- come, it will be seen in the foregoing statements that there would have been practically no profit. Of special consequence in the foregoing table is the cost of pro- duction which amounts to $28.14 per acre or 40.8 cents per bushel. *In the manure charge 20 per cent of the 1910 application and 50 per cent of the 1912 applica- ery tion wes eertece to is crop for 1912. nterest on 1 costs refers to work and material employed on this field the fall previous. ***Mr. McCulloch found that his cost for labor was as follows: Per man hour. 14.9 ae per horse hour, 10 cents and per tractor hour, $1.22. COST OF PRODUCTION 209 An investigation conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion of Missouri* found the cost per acre of producing corn to be $13.52. This represents accurate costs taken from 357 acres. TABLE NO. 45 SHOWING COST OF PRODUCING CORN. (Missouri) Cost Per cent Items per acre of total cost Maia labor 32.2 bose Soe i oe el $3.074 22,7 Horse abot 2.62) es ea 3.596 26.9 CCU) pee eee, Sara ac aaa 275 2.0 FQUIpMent. 2250.0 ee ao 1,021 7.6 Use of land—taxes, interest and upkeep__-__-- 5.164 38.2 Maribel a a8 ea eS 392 2.9 “) Otall! secs. vee soes Sees So Se eS $13.522 100 Of the total cost of producing the crop ($13.52 per acre) 49.6 per cent, or practically one-half, is charged to labor; and 38 per cent of the total is taxes, and upkeep usually termed ‘use of land.” As a result of this same investigation, covering a large acreage, the labor requirement of the different field operations in caring for the corn crop was computed. This is given in the following table: TABLE NO. 46 SHOWING LABOR REQUIREMENT OF FIELD OPERATIONS Total Man-hours Horse-hours Operation acres per acre per acre Discing cas s2es4 senses 1187.0 1.48 5.33 Plowing’ ..2-222522s2ss-<- 1227.8 3.76 9.51 Harrowing ~-------------- 1423.4 1.12 3.12 Planting corn ~----------- 1082.3 1.40 2.21 Cultivating --------------- 1750.7 2.36 4.32 Harvesting corn ~---.--_-- 412.0 5.29 7.10 Pillitie 60sec eget 56.0 8.78 8.43 Storing grain ~----------- 173.0 2.68 3.59b The foregoing table gives the number of hours labor for both man and horse for each operation. In the following table the labor re- quirement is classified and recorded in three divisions: preparation and planting, cultivating and harvesting. *Missouri Bulletin No. 125. b—Hauling corn from field to barn. 210 CORN *TABLE NO. 47 SHOWING LABOR REQUIREMENT PER ACRE—CLASSIFIED. (Missouri) Per ct. Total Per ct. Total Crops Man-hours Horse hours Man-hours Horse-hours Corn (679.7 acres) Preparation and planting_~-_-7.67 19.72 32.07 46.60 Cultivating ~_---___-----_-- 7.90 13.44 33.03 31.76 Harvesting ~~ _-----_----- 8.35 9.16 34.90 21.64 Votal, s2s2cscsescesse5 23.92 42.32 100.00 100.00 Approximately 32 per cent of the necessary man labor and 46.6 per cent of the horse labor is required for preparation of land and planting. Cultivation takes 33 per cent of the man labor and 31.7 per cent of the horse labor. For harvesting, approximately 35 per cent of the man labor and 21.6 per cent of the horse labor is required. These figures should apply to average conditions in the determination of labor cost for the corn crop. INDIVIDUAL ESTIMATES OF COST Several reports received from prominent corn growers and large farms are given to show cost of production in various localities of the corn belt. Of course in these following estimates some items have been omitted, which should be included in the total cost of production. Sibley Estate. There are many methodical farmers who realize the importance of knowing what it costs them to produce their crops, and such men possess data which answer the question of cost of growing so far as their own well managed farms are concerned. The Hiram Sibley estate at Sibley, Illinois, a notable example of large and well managed farming operations, has accurate records of cost of production of its crops. The manager, Mr. F. A. Warner, has sub- mitted the following figures showing the cost of growing a crop of sixty acres of corn upon the estate for the year 1914. The following is figured on a sixty bushel yield. It will be noted that a five per cent interest charge on the land valued at $150.00 per acre has been made. This would be equivalent to a rental of $7.50 per acre. *Missouri Bulletin No. 125. COST OF PRODUCTION 211 TABLE NO. 48 COST PER BUSHEL OF RAISING CORN ON 60 ACRES (Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois, 1914) 1—Fall plowing 45 acres at $1.50____-._.-----__------------ $67.50 2—Breaking 15 acres corn stalks_______-__--__--_--------- 4.00 3—Spring plowing 15 acres at $1.25_______---_------------- 18.75 4—Discing 45 acres fall plowing 44 days at $4,50__-_________ 20.25 5—Harrowing before planting, 4 horses, 1 man, 2 days____-_- 9.00 6—Seed corn, 9 bushels at $1.00__-----_---_--------------- 9.00 7—Planting 60 acres, 34 days, $4.00 per day_--------------- 14.00 8—Harrowing after planting ----------------------------- 9,00 9—Cultivating first time, 2 men, 2 teams, 4 days at $3.50____- 28.00 10—Cultivating second time, 2 men, 2 teams, 3$ days at $3.50-_ 24.50 11—Cultivating third time, 2 men, 2 teams, 3 days at $3.50____- 21.00 12—Extra work thinning and weeding____---__-------------- 10.00 13—Husking 2400 bushels at 3$c _--_----------------------- 84.00 14—Shelling and marketing at 3c____-_--------------------- 72.00 15—Value land, $150.00 per acre on 60 acres 5%___------------ 450.00 l6—T axes: on" 60) acres. 2255. i Ae ee 20.00 17—-Repairs and upkeep____-------__--_-_---_---------------- 15.00 $876.00 Cost per bushel of corn to produce and deliver to market, 36 cents. Mr. John Sundberg, a prominent corn grower of Monona County in western Iowa gives the following estimate on the cost of producing the 1914 crop. TABLE NO. 49 COST OF PRODUCING ONE BUSHEL OF CORN ON $250.00 LAND (Monona County, Iowa) Interest at 5% on valuation, and $1.25 per acre taxes_______- 200 mills Cutting, raking and burning of stalks_________-_-_-_______ 12 Diséine ground 2220 2csscsecen ck ses eee a eee eee 16 Plowing for Offi. <2 24 vesseees ccs eesees ee asada 20 Planting, 24.55 cess s Sees dee Sheet ea eeteteesed 6 Hatrowine twit: 2- ry ° = 2 FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOR THE THIRD YEAR. Number of corn root worms in each hill, numbered from left to right, 65 70, 31 and 83 worms respectively. corn-root worms in ground that is in corn for the first year. The one corn-root worm can only be accounted for by the fact that this field was but a short distance from one that had been in corn for 4 years, a beetle having strayed to the nearby field before she had de- posited all her eggs. It should be noted that the number of the corn-root worms is in- creasing very rapidly as the number of years increase that the ground has been in corn; also, the plants are getting much smaller and the extent of root system is being very noticeably and seriously reduced. CORN ROOT WORM 243 On page 246 the curvature of the stalks will be noted, the root system having been sufficient up to the present time to maintain a fairly vigorous growth in stalk, but not sufficient to maintain the weight of the stalk, which is therefore bending over. The roots were FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOURTH YEAR. Number of corn root worms taken from each hill, as numbered from left to right is 161, 150, 125 and 161, respectively. Note the stubby roots and the large number of corn root worms found in each hill. (Ground in alfalfa five years before.) found to be badly lacerated, many of them having rotted off entirely. The plants were very backward in sending forth shoots, resulting in the production of ears of inferior size. The plants are seen to be very much dwarfed, the corn-root worm heving almost completely destroyed the root system; so much so 244 CORN that the plants have made a very weak growth. It could not be expected that they would produce more than nubbins. The amount of nourishment which the roots have furnished these plants has been necessarily so small that even a fair sized plant has not been pro- duced. Some of the plants present an erect appearance, because there was not sufficient weight in the stalk to cause them to topple over. This shows that the best results cannot be had by continual crop- ping with corn. They may be obtained only by practicing a proper system of rotation. After the ground has been in corn for the second year it is subject to serious ravages by the corn-root worms, which result in a very noticeable weakening in the corn plants and a very material decrease in the yield of corn per acre, due to the lacerating and decaying of the root system. The injury done by the corn-root worm becomes very apparent after a wind or heavy rain, especially in fields which have been in corn for 3 and 4 years or more. Cuts on pages 245 and 246 represent ground in corn for the first, second, third, and fourth years, respectively, and also the fields from which the representative hills were taken, as shown in preceding pages. From 125 to 161 corn-root worms were found to the hill. The roots were badly lacerated and decayed, causing the whole plant to fall. The stubby ends of the roots could be seen protruding from the dirt about them. Yield. It is to be expected that the yield of corn per acre would necessarily vary in fields where continuous cropping of corn had been practiced. The following contrast will be noted in the yield of corn per acre on ground in corn for the first and fourth years, respectively: First year, from clover sod,.............--. 72.4 bushels Fourth year, from alfalfa sod* ............ 45.1 bushels From the above it will be seen that the difference in the yield of corn on ground in corn for the first year from that of ground in corr for the fourth year, was 27.3 bushels per acre, or 60 per cent more corn in favor of the former. Remedy.—Rotation of Crops. Nothing can be done to help corn that is attacked by the corn-root worm, but due to the fact that this worm lives entirely upon the roots of the corn plant, it is simple to combat them, a rotation of crops being sufficient. The ground which is infested with the corn-root worms which hatch out next spring will die—simply starve to death. The best results will *Alfalfa, a legume, enriches the soil the same as clcver. PLATE. IX, The Corn Worm: light and dark individuals, pupa, moth, and egy, with Injured ear of corn. ; COURTESY OF PROFESSOR 8 A FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST CORN ROOT WORM 245 The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the first year. Note how straight the plants are. (Ground was in clover the previous year.) The above cut.shows the field representing ground in corn for the second year. Effect of wind and rain is a little more noticeable, but only in a comparatively few plants. (9) 246 CORN The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the fourth year. (Ground in alfalfa five years before.) PLATE xX. The Angoumois Grain Moth: larva, pupa, moth, and egg, with injurcd kernel and ear of corn. COURTESY OF PROFESSOR 8 A FORBES ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST WORK OF CORN ROOT WORM 247 be had by keeping the ground in corn but for two years in succession and then rotating with small grains and legumes. By practicing a proper system of crop rotation, the ground will be more productive. This is also the very best method of combating all insect pests so injurious to our farm crops. THE GRASSHOPPER (Acrididae). The injury to corn due to hoppers is usually confined to the border rows near a pasture or meadow. The grasshoppers devour the silks and eat away the husks, thus preventing pollination. The lower leaves may be consumed in some cases. The seriousness of this pest is more marked in certain years. The “grasshopper dozer” has proved a very effective means of eradication. This consists of a shallow pan filled with kerosene placed upon a sled or low wheels and protected in the rear by an up- right canvas. The molested grasshoppers jumping against this can- vas drop immediately into the kerosene and are killed. *“The Criddle Mixture has proved effective for poisoning grass- hoppers in Illinois and in Canada. This mixture is composed of one part, by measurement, of paris green to 120 parts of horse droppings, preferably fresh; or about a pound of paris green to half a kerosene barrel of the droppings, with a pound of salt in addition if the material is not fresh.” THE EAR WORM (Heliothis armiger). The ear worm is also known as the corn worm, cotton boll-worm, tomato worm, and to- bacco bud worm. It varies in color from a light green to a brown with light and dark stripes running lengthwise of the body. Its legs are dark, head yellow, body slender and nearly hairless. It is noticed most especially when feeding on the corn ear just beneath the husks. This worm may feed on the leaves by making small holes here and there. Early in the season it feeds on garden truck. The furrow made on the ear of corn begins at a round hole in the husk and extends spirally in a longitudinal direction, often reaching half way down the ear. Decay usually sets in at once and the damage is accelerated in this manner. Sweet corn is most commonly infested. There are 3 generations in a single season. They hibernate in the pupa stage. The moth comes forth in early April and soon begins to lay eggs. Each female may produce from 200 to 300. The eggs soon hatch and the caterpillars reach their maturity in 3 weeks, after passing through six moults. Then they pupate. Three generations go through this cycle in one season, The larvae of the *Page 395 of Bulletin 95 of Illinois. 248 CORN rst generation live chiefly on the leaves and young shoots of the corn plant; the larvae of the second generation live in the tassels, silks, and young ears; while the larvae of the third generation will attack the maturing ears. Prevention and Remedy. This pest has not as yet been success- fully combated. Fall plowing destroys a great many of the pupae, in which stage hibernation occurs. Where corn follows corn such a practice cannot be followed except in a limited way. The Kentucky Experiment Station has conducted experiments with poisons in com- bating the ear worm, but the result of their work does not justify the use of such a treatment. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED CORN THE ANGUMOIS GRAIN MOTH = (Sitotroga cerealella). The adult is a small, light-gray moth, with a wing expanse of one- half inch. The eggs are of a pale red color. The larva which has a brown head, tapers gradually, being covered with numerous hairs. The pupa is of a darker brown color. The moth deposits the egg on the grains of corn or wheat, either in the field or in the granary, usually the latter. The eggs are laid between the rows of corn. In 4 or 5 days the larva hatches out and lives upon the germ and starchy part of the kernel. In 5 weeks it has attained its growth. It then burrows to the crown of the kernel, makes an opening, seals it over, and pupates for a few days. The adult comes out through this opening and the life cycle is complete, requiring less than 6 weeks. The length of time depends upon the temperature. Warm spring days bring out the imagos very rapidly. Prevention and Remedy. The careful removal of all refuse and old corn each year during the summer will prevent the moths from having anything upon which to deposit their eggs. Carbon-bisulphide (CS2), a colorless, very volatile liquid, is the most effective means of destruction of the moths. This should never be breathed by man or other animals, and a lighted match should never be brought in contact with the gas. In a moderately tight bin one pound of the bisulphide will effectively fumigate one hundred bushels of grain. The compound vaporizes rapidly, and being heavier than air, it soon sinks and becomes thoroughly diffused throughout the bin. If the sulphide is simply placed in shallow pans on top of the grain the results will be accomplished. Where seed is racked or hung up, the pans must be elevated above the grain which is to be fumigated. Several ap- plications may be necessary to destroy all the moths as they appear PLATE NI, The common grain Weevils and larvee, GRAIN WEEVIL 249 from time to time. Grain which has been fumigated is not injurious for feeding or seeding purposes. THE GRAIN WEEVIL (Calandra granaria). The grain weevil has a hard body of a uniform chestnut brown color. The beetle is short, stout-bodied, and about one-seventh of an inch long. The thorax is marked with punctures arranged longitudinally. The eggs are deposited singly in the grain. The female punctures the grain with its snout and in this cavity places its egg. The larva comes forth in a few days, develops in the grain, and emerges as an adult. The life cycle requires about 40 days. Treatment similar to that for the grain moth will eradicate the grain weevil. However, such treatment must be much more thor- ough. COLLATERAL READING. Corn Bill Bugs and Root Louse, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 259. Corn Smut, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 69. Corn Root Worms, U.S. Department (Bureau of Entomology) Circular 59. Sweet Corn (Bacterial Disease of), New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 130. Corn Smut, Kansas Bulletin No. 62. Indian Corn, The More Important Insect Injuries to, Illinois Bulletin No. 95. Smut of Indian Corn, Ohio Bulletin No. ro. The Corn Bill Bugs in Illinois, Illinois Bulletin No. 79. Field Experiments and Observations on Insects Injurious to Indian Corn, ; Illinois Bulletin No. 104. The Slender Seed Corn Ground Beetle, U. S. Department of Entomology, Circular No. 78. Insect Injuries to the Seed and Roots of Corn, fllinois Bulletin No. 44. Iowa Circular No. 21. Illinois Bulletin No. 133. CHAPTER XII THE MARKETING OF CORN 1. HOME MARKETS With the increase of dairying and stock feeding will come a corresponding increase in home consumption of corn. Tenants in general do not feed their crops on the farm. Farmers who recognize that the fertility of the soil can be maintained by keeping live stock and returning the crops to the land in the form of manure, are now raising a sufficient number of hogs along with a few cattle to consume everything which is produced. Large returns in pork and beef usually accompany this practice. Furthermore, it has the advantage of being permanent and insures crops for the future. On the other hand, the commercial market has quoted corn at such high figures for the past few years that the cattle feeders who depend upon buying their corn have been forced to discontinue opera- tions. This has been augmented by a prevailing state of affairs whereby the feeder usually has to pay two or three cents more than the market price in order to purchase any corn whatever. In dis- tricts where cattle and sheep feeding are carried on, the corn grower has a better market for his crop than in sections where every bushel is shipped out. Often where growers live within a few miles of the cattle feeder, the corn is hauled directly from the field to the buyers’ cribs. A max- im of feeders is “buy when it is for sale.” Renters who have little capital and must pay their rent at the first of the year, usually sell during the month of December. The man who can hold his corn, if it is of good quality, in general makes more money. *A factor of at least 18 per cent shrinkage must be considered however. The demand for corn in the towns near the grower is only a small factor. Some farmers have a regular trade with liverymen, teamsters, and feed stores. A good quality is usually desired by these buyers. Small mills which grind “chop” for consumption in the city buy a limited amount. Cornmeal mills, though located in a corn growing *18.2 per cent shrinkage result of tests at Towa Experiment Station. COMMERCIAL MARKETING 251 section, usually buy of the elevators, because the grain is more uni- formly graded and cleaned. Local markets are quoted in the county papers. Prices are con- trolled by the commercial market quotations, by the people and by the supply and demand on a particular day or during a week. Dur- ing the busy planting or cultivating season, when the farmers cannot leave their fields, the local corn markets often rise as much as five cents per bushel. Saturday is usually a day of low prices, because the farmers, during the slack season especially, bring in a load of corn when coming after groceries. Il. COMMERCIAL MARKETING Any discussion of the subject of corn would be incomplete which did not also give some attention to the distribution of this crop. Of the total amount of corn produced in the United States in 1914 (2,672,804,000 bushels), nearly 20 per cent (498,285,000 bushels) was shipped out of the county where grown. The amount of corn handled each year by the elevators varies with the surplus and the demand for corn as a raw material for factories. The surprisingly large per- centage of the crop which is shipped out of the counties where grown, indicates the growing demand of the glucose factories and distilleries. The practice of shipping corn off the farm is to be severely criticized, considered from the standpoint of permanent maintenance of agricul- tural prosperity. SHIPMENT OF CORN OUT OF COUNTY WHERE GROWN The following figures show what per cent of the corn crop of the United States was shipped out of the county where grown for the years 1900 to 1914, inclusive: TABLE NO. 54 CORN SHIPPED OUT OF COUNTY WHERE GROWN—1900-1914 INCLUSIVE. 1900: 35. ese sos 22.7 per cent 1908 See eu eee: 21.3 per cent 190 [ioe Sa 10.0 per cent 1900 eee vee ees 24.9 per cent LOOZ sine aad 22.1 per cent 1910222 oe eeseau22.9 per cent 19032 ao see ee ss 18.7 per cent DON toe ee etn seed 20.4 per cent 1904____-___-_.---22.3 per cent 19122 seco 21.8 per cent W005 3 i SoS 25.0 per cent 11S eee eh eee lL 17.2 per cent 1906 se se eee 2 a 23.2 per cent 1 OTA Se a skins 18.7 per cent W907 2 eek Pe, 18.0 per cent *Very dry year. 252 CORN The following table shows the average per cent of corn shipped out of the county where grown for a ten-year period. TABLE NO. 55 SHOWING PER CENT OF CORN CROP SHIPPED OUT OF COUNTIES WHERE GROWN, BY STATES State 10-year Average State 10-year Average Maiti eras ee oe Sie es 0 Missouri ~_-_--_--___-_______ 12 New Hampshire __--_--__-_-- 0 North Dakota _____________- 2 Wennont- .ocesenesc ce Sees 0 South Dakota ___-_-________ 26 Massachusetts _____________ 1 Nebraska, oc3 02 seg oo a 37 Rhode Island ___-_-_________ i Wansds* 4 Gos ne eee 22 . Kentucky 222.-.-2-2ssse2225 11 Connecticut ~_-_________ 1 New York: ccocessceoceeceus 2 Tennessee ~_____-__________ 16 New Jersey _-_--__--____-__- 15 aba as cose ee 3 Pennsylvania ____-_________ 6 Mississippi ------------___-- 3 Delaware _~_________________ 38 Louisiana _____.____________ 6 SRe@XaS:. c222coonse Soo cs 9 Maryland ~__-___-_____--_-__ 29 Mirginia 22sec c ee on oe 10 Oklahoma ___-------------- 23 West Virginia ~-____._-_____ 5 ATKANSYS: a Sesyol ooo 4 North Carolina _-___-_______ 4 Montana ee ee Vek ea 2 2 South Carolina ___-_________ 3 Wyoming: ~.- = oe ene anaes 0 . Colorado _-_-__-__-_-_ eee 9 Geor fia e2ceese sn 2sosuee ee 3 PlOTida: foe ote ee 3 New Mexico _____-_________ 5 OIG 2 cereals ihe hss 24 ATIZONA. cee eee ek 5 Tridiana: se. 22 32 Witahtwecce ee nooo ese. 3 Illinois ~~~ ~~~ 45 Nevada soc ckeceeeeeteeues 0 Michi@an: 252-052. 2 lec 6 Idaho; ss2eeseee see se se se 23 2 Wisconsin ____.__._-_______ 3 Washington __------------- 4 Minnesota ....- 2.0 a 14 Opesom 2. ee 2 TOWd. cece es See ee tence ek 24 Galitoriia oo san eee 19 United States___.__-__-_____-___-_-- ee 21.9 TABLE NO. 56 PERCENTAGE OF CORN IN THE HANDS OF FARMERS March 1, 1901 to 1915, inclusive HOO Ween eenssa22 =. 36.9 per cent IW0B as soca eeonee 37.1 per cent NQO 22a era Soaes 29.1 per cent 10D cee -39.3 per cent OU G Ss oetss 41.6 per cent 1910-------------- 38.3 per cent 1904 37.4 1 Eerie ceees 40.4 per cent ee ee percent = 1919. 849 per cenit LD cee 38.7 per cent TOV 3 5 nen ny oft 41.3 per cent 1906__------------ ADO perce IOI a0 1 net cent LQO fee oe on 8.9 44.3 per cent LOS eerie A 34.1 per cent CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS 253 It is seen that in Illinois and South Dakota the greatest movement of the corn crop occurs. The average for the entire United States was 21.9 per cent. The United States Department of Agriculture has made inquiries concerning the shipment of corn out of counties where grown for the past thirty years. They report that there has been a gradual increase in the portion of the corn crop so handled. Considering the past three decades it is stated that in the eighties 16.9 per cent of the corn crop was shipped out of the counties where grown; in the nineties 19.2 per cent; and in the last decade 21.9 per cent of the crop. CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS. The markets which distribute the surplus corn of the United States may be classified as (1) primary, (2) terminal, (3) terminal-export, and (4) export. A primary market is defined as the first nearby market to which grain can be shipped and which serves as the first market to which grain can come. This does not properly include the country town ele- vators which first receive the grain from the surrounding territory. In the annual report of the Chicago Board of Trade, the following are given as “primary markets”: Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Duluth, St. Louis, Toledo, Detroit, Kansas City, Peoria, Omaha, Cin- cinnati and Indianapolis. Grain is inspected at these points. Several of these markets are also terminal markets. A terminal market is one which serves as a transfer point for grain which has been received and inspected previously in a primary market. In the Price Current Grain Reporter, a large number of the principal cities are included in the list of terminal markets. Boston is clearly a terminal market because New England shippers send no grain to Boston for inspection. However, Boston is also considered a terminal- export market, for considerable grain is exported from that point. Since very little corn from this country is exported, we are more especially concerned with the initial, primary and terminal markets. Grain Elevators. Considering first the small shipping points it was estimated in June, 1914* that there were 16,033 regular grain elevators in the United States. Of this number 6,459 were operated by line companies, 2,033 were operated by farmers and 7,505 by independent companies. *Grain Dealer’s Journal. 254 CORN Other states than those given below do not operate extensively through grain elevators. They handle grain in bags, warehouses and cribs. TABLE NO. 57 DISTRIBUTION OF GRAIN ELEVATORS Line Companies Elevators Farmers Independents MGI Na 2 ee ee 299 53 763 Wtti@is: Skee oe a ae 522 269 1400 OWA Stes2c2 525. b one 452 337 969 Wea nisi: fae O Se 2a as Seen 417 146 773 ONMO eke ssi e i oe ea 206 41 842 Missouri s222-2-ce2senceeecene 130 10 503 WaSCGNSIN: so ussee ues 273 38 499 Miehigan, 222-525 bose tee 224 25 445 Minnes@ta. 2-2 1040 304 326 North Dakota: 222523225252 1264 390 310 South Dakota __---_----_--__-- 651 201 350 Montatias 222 et 167 55 79 Nebraska 22s sea! 850 164 246 6495 2033 7505 COST OF HANDLING GRAIN THROUGH ELEVATORS. An accurate account of the cost of handling grain through a mod- ern elevator is given by Mr. G. J. Railsback of Ashland, Nebraska, in the. Price Current Grain Reporter, April 7, 1915. This shows the average yearly expense taken from a seven-year record. TABLE NO. 58 SHOWING COST OF HANDLING GRAIN THROUGH ELEVATORS. Average Average Yearly Purchases Shrinkage Bushels Value Bushels Cost Comm: Subegs Soa 90,743 $50,949.00 619 $327.72 Oats eccesescsce 4,171 1,432.00 33 12.80 Wied 36,932 31,121.00 437 380.13 ‘etl 2s $137,846 $83,502.00 1,089 $720.65 Table continued next page. MANAGER OF LOCAL ELEVATOR 255 TABLE NO. 58—Continued AVERAGE YEARLY EXPENSE Salary and incidental expense__-____----__---------------- $1,157.70 Gre niet OCR ENS Cea Lian ee LN Guat Ne 432.16 SD ey A aces Ree nits LULL Die ae ee aga A ee cease aaa e 64.45 InSupance? ql 28 Or ns ee BE Bi Ree ee 60.00 Shrinkage, average 1,089 bushels______--____----_---_----- 720.65 1-12 of average paid grain, $6,958 at 6%--____-----_.------- 417.51 Interest on investment, elevator, at 6%—--=.--.-------4++- 480.00 GUO Eas ra a OE ot Sn en eS $3,332.47 Cost of handling 137,846 bushels of grain, $3,332.47 or 2.4c per bushel. At another elevator owned by the same people the average cost was 2.57 cents per bushel for handling the grain. In Grain Dealers Journal dated August 25, 1914, Mr. H. C. Roberts, manager of the Farmer’s Elevator Co., Illiopolis, Ill, estimates the cost of handling grain at 2.89 cents per bushel. Mr. E. B. Conover, _manager of a grain company at Springfield, Ill., in an itemized state- ment gives the cost at 4.65 cents per bushel. The average cost of handling grain may be roughly estimated at about three cents per bushel. Qualifications of Manager of Local Elevator. (1) The manager should be a good judge of commercial grades. Experience and ob- servation will teach him the grading of corn as indicated by its color, moisture content, and amount of dirt present. (2) An understanding of the meaning of market quotations is nec- essary for an intelligent interpretation of market reports. Familiarity with steps in the shipment of consignments will enable him to better appreciate the need of lining cars before loading. A knowledge of railroad rates and the details of car ordering will often do away, with shortage of shipping facilities at the time of a good market. (3) Some education in regard to bookkeeping and banking will stand the manager in hand as his business grows. The margin at present on shipments of grain demands close figuring to insure profits. -(4) The manager should be the progressive man of the locality. His opinion upon the market should be respected by the shippers and farmers. His interest in the farming.community should be. substan- tial in the way of promoting corn and small grain exhibits, besides in- troducing new seed and advocating improved varieties. ee 256 CORN Line Elevator Systems. A line elevator system consists of coun- try elevators at various stations frequently along one railroad line. The number of elevators owned by a single company has been known to be as great as six hundred. Almost every town along the lines of railroad in the western part of the corn belt has a line elevator. For example: Nye, Schneider, Fowler Company have built along the Elkhorn division of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway in Nebraska, while Van Dusen holds the branch lines of the same road in South Dakota. The Updyke Grain Company owns a line of elevators parallel with the Union Pacific. On the B. & M. Ferguson buys in the principal districts. These companies usually build quite large elevators to facilitate ex- tensive storing. Cribs for ear corn are often erected near the eleva- tor. During the husking season, farmers within'a radius of several miles haul direct from the field to these cribs. In the early winter, shelled corn taken from open cribs and piles on the ground begins to come into the elevator. Corn from good cribs appears a little later, depending upon the prices and the financial condition of the grower. This corn, if it be dry and of good quality, is held in storage. Then the representative of the company, knowing how much corn they have on hand throughout the state or states, and knowing, too, how much the corn has cost, goes to the Chicago Board of Trade. Here he deals in futures, making a practice of selling on a high market and buying at a price below the original cost of the corn on hand. Independent Elevators. Independent elevators are individuals, partnerships or corporations owning one or at most only a few ele- vators. The growth of the independent or private elevator company has been marked within recent years, especially in the western corn- growing states. Men of means in the different localities have entered into this field. Being acquainted with the growers in a given com- munity, lumber merchants and coal dealers have erected elevators and begun buying grain. Competitive bidding with the older elevator companies places these companies in a favorable light with the farmers. *Farmers’ Co-operative Elevators. A farmers’ co-operative ele- vator means a corporation made up of stockholders who are chiefly farmers. Each society is incorporated under the laws of the state and is governed by a constitution and by-laws, enforced by the officers of the organization. *Account taken from American Co-operative Journal, on History of the Farmers’ Elevator. FARMERS’ CO-OPERATIVE ELEVATORS 257 The origin and growth of the farmers’ elevator movement repre- sents one of the most hotly contested battles of modern grain market- ing. It has withstood triumphantly and today is a great factor in the marketing of the annual corn crop. Back in the early eighties and previous to that time a growing dis- satisfaction was fomented among the grain producers on account of the apparent depression of prices, frequent “short weights” in selling and shipping, “leakage” and “shrinkage” in transportation and dishon- est treatment on the part of some grain buyers. At that time the “line elevators” held practically a monopoly on the grain trade. Then it was that “scoopers” originated. A scooper was a grain buyer who went from place to place buying and shipping grain. He did not have an elevator, but had the grain scooped into the cars from the farmer’s wagons. About this same time a large syndicate arose which was headed by large exporters and commission. firms with capital. Other syndicates followed. These operated along the various railroad lines. The “scoopers” were then forced out of business. In many cases it was discovered that members of these grain buying syndicates were also stockholders of the railroads, and were owners of large storage ware- houses. They were able to dictate prices. Besides this they became favored shippers through their influence with the railroad companies ; and by owning their warehouses in addition to doing their own buying and selling through the Exchanges, they could influence practically every department of marketing. At this same time independent elevators were increasing in num- ber. However these were very largely dominated by the syndicates. Those who refused to be controlled by the syndicate were soon forced out of business. Grain Dealers’ Associations represent the next step in the history of grain buying. These associations brought about many improve- ments in the marketing of grain but in many cases they increased the suspicion on the part of the producer that prices were being “fixed”. Out of the discontent which was growing among the farmers, at- tempts were made to ship grain directly to the principal markets. This proved impracticable on account of the failure to get cars from the railroads. The only escape seemed to be through organization, so late in the eighties we find records of the Farmers’ Elevators. 258 CORN The first Farmers’ Elevator to be organized in Iowa was at Rock- well in 1899, Up to that time such organizations had not proved very successful. One of the first difficulties was to secure elevator sites from the railroad companies. Then, trouble was found in securing cars and equable shipping rates. For several years it was almost im- possible to induce commission merchants in the central markets to handle their grain. The Farmers’ Elevators were practically boy- cotted. Until the penalty clause was inserted in the by-laws of the organization, progress was very slow. The penalty clause simply provided that in case the farmers of the organization sold corn to other elevators they should pay a certain amount to their own elevator. This was for the purpose of protection against some of the methods which had been employed by other grain dealers to cripple the Farmers’ Elevator. The fact that the organization has endured against all adversities is the best proof of its value to the producer. In recent years the movement has become of such strength as to win the solicitation and support of a large number of the commission firms. State and National organizations are being formed. It might be added that a growing harmony is being felt among all grain deal- ers. The growth is best shown in the following table. TABLE NO. 59 SHOWING THE NUMBER OF FARMERS’ ELEVATORS IN DIFFERENT STATES—1903-1913. State 03 04 705 06 07 * 708 09 10 "11 "12 13 Illinois .-_--_ 15 90 125 125 150 170 170 225 300 300 300 lows .-- 7 30 78 175 200 209 250 300 324 347 347 Minnesota __ 150 168 178 205 224 240 277 307 N. Dakota __ 85 85 85 85) «685 6300 300 350 S. Dakota —- 100 100 100 150 200 200 220 220 Nebraska ___ 140 160 200 200 200 200 Kansas______ 32 22. 120 203 635 703 882 1020 1234 1564 1644 1756 Farmers’ Elevator—How Organized. Organized under the laws of their respective states the corporations elect the usual officials, namely, president, vice president, secretary, treasurer, and board of directors, varying in number but usually consisting of from five to nine men. The capital of the company is ordinarily about $10,000. Shares of stock are issued and sold. The par value of a share is usually $25.00, FARMERS’ ELEVATOR—HOW ORGANIZED 259 or $50.00. The number of shares which may be issued to one person is frequently limited, so that the total investment of any one individual may not be more than $200 or $500, varying in different companies. Frequently each share owned by a stockholder entitles him to one vote at a meeting of stockholders, but the number of votes that may be cast by any individual is usually limited regardless of the number of shares he may possess. In some companies the transfer of stock is subject to the approval of the board of directors. In distributing the profits several plans are followed. In some cases the profits are divided among the stockholders according to the amount of stock held. In some states the companies are permitted by law to distribute profits on the co-operative basis. A definite return is granted to each stockholder which is merely interest on the capital invested. This rate of interest is determined by law. The profits are then distributed among the stockholders according to the amount of business each has done with the company. This may be according to the number of bushels of grain each has sold to the elevator. _ The penalty clause already referred to provides that any stock- holder in the Farmers’ Elevator Company who sells grain to another elevator shall pay a certain amount to his own elevator (usually from 1-2 to 1 cent per bushel). From eighty to ninety per cent of the com- panies have this clause included in their by-laws. In some cases the legality of this clause has been questioned and others feel that it is no longer necessary, although it is felt that without this provision in the past the movement would have been greatly crippled. Representatives of local cooperative organizations can be as well posted each day as managers of the “line elevators.” Market quota- tions by wire are received from all of the leading distributing and storing points. No knowledge, however, of the movement of grain enroute to market can be ascertained. A larger cooperation of all the societies in a given district is the solution of this difficulty. With the ‘increase in the influence of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and ae that of the State Railroad Commissioners, a more amiable relation between farmers’ organizations and transportation companies will exist. This is already manifested by a number of the railroads in their kindly attitude. CORN \ SMALL COUNTRY ELEVATOR CAR SHORTAGE 261 Corn Enroute to Market. At a certain time of year, especially in seasons of corn of low keeping quality, a car shortage occurs in the growing districts. In consideration of this point, the following para- graph is taken from the American Elevator and Grain Trade of Janu- ary 15, 1907. “The Iowa Railroad Commission recommended in January, 1907, that elevators in grain growing communities be of more reasonable capacity, sufficient to care for the products of the surrounding dis- tricts. Such increase in storage capacity would, it is believed, solve the car shortage problem. But, as George A. Wells truly says: “There is no reason why the farmers shouldn’t build bins sufficient to hold their grain and ship it when the market is the highest. They can pick that time as well as anyone else. Corn left in the field will not grade and the farmer suffers the loss. Even if additional elevators were CAR BEFORE IT HAS BEEN PROPERLY LINED FOR GRAIN 262 CORN provided, the farmers would be compelled to pay high storage charges, which would eat up their profits. But, by building bins and watching the market, they would also relieve the car shortage, which comes only because every one wants to get his corn to market at once.’” How to Prepare Cars for Grain. Cars should be _ prepared for grain in such a way as to prevent, if possible, any leakage in transit, and to prevent rain or snow from reaching the grain. There are three causes for the leakage of grain in transit, as follows: (1) Defective car equipment. (2) Rough handling of equipment by railroads. (3) Carelessness on the part of the loader. The first two causes are beyond the control of the individual ship- per, but the last named cause can be practically eliminated if the proper effort is made by the loader. Shortage due to leakage in transit, causes all interested much con- cern. Shipper, receiver, line of transportation, and terminal weigh- master all suffer directly or indirectly. Therefore, all should do their part towards eliminating this constant source of contention, The points to be inspected in a car, arranged in order of their greatest important, as determined by leakage statistics, are as follows: lows: (1) The grain doors; (2) The sheathings; (3) Door posts and end posts; (4) End doors and windows; (5) Linings; (6) Floors. Be sure that your grain doors are strong enough. A safe plan is to make them stronger than you deem necessary. They should be well braced, and all braces should be nailed to each and every board. It is poor economy to scant this bracing. Where a vertical center brace is used, put a cleat on the floor at the bottom, if possible. The best and safest door of which we know, is made by placing two ordi- nary grain doors with the flat sides together. The object in placing the flat sides together is to prevent grain from lodging between them. Under no circumstances should a door be used which is too short for the opening. Spliced grain doors are most unsatisfactory and un- certain. Patent doors, having effective lugs at the bottom, and other propet LINING CARS 263 ‘fastenings, should not be nailed to the door posts. When nailing is necessary, never use spikes, as spikes cause the mutilation of the door, when opened at the unloading point. Single boards should be used for the top of the grain door in order that one or more boards may be knocked off by the grain inspector without loosening others and causing leakage. The jarring and jolt- ing of cars in switching will level the grain in them; therefore, the doors and windows should be boarded above the leveling point. CAR AFTER IT HAS BEEN PROPERLY LINED FOR GRAIN Next in importance are the sheathings. Both the side and end sheathings should be examined after the cars are loaded, and any that are loose or bulged should be securely nailed. The rocking of 264 CORN the car in rounding curves will surely spring weak sheathings and allow the escape of grain, which the linings will not prevent. Leak- age at sheathings is not readily detected unless the cars are in motion. Leaks due to defective door and end posts are liable to be serious. Therefore, a careful examination of them should be made before loading. When there is any evidence of weakness in these posts, the inside of the car at these points should be lined with burlap or cloth in such a manner as to prevent leakage should they give away. End doors which extend to the floor are a source of many leaks and should therefore receive a careful examination, and if cooperage be necessary, it should be on the inside of the car. A grain door set on end will afford good protection. Always lock or cleat the end windows on the inside and do not neglect to board them high enough. In referring to end windows when preparing cars for grain, Mr. R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern Com- pany, writes: “When you load cars, fasten the end doors inside with a cleat, since it is through these doors that robberies occur. That is the reason we want them cleated before loading with grain.” The lining of cars should also receive careful attention on the part of the loader, as grain lodging behind them frequently amounts to several hundred pounds; and where it lodges in pockets is often lost to the shipper. A careful cooper will pay particular attention to this point. In addition to the above, special attention is directed to the floors. more particularly when small grains such as flaxseed, rye and wheat are to be loaded. a Aside from repairing large defects in a car to be loaded with bulk grain, any shipper can secure the best insurance against leakage at the least expense by lining the cars to be loaded as they are frequently and most successfully lined for flaxseed. The cost of preparing a car in this manner varies from fifteen to thirty cents for the material, according to its condition. Size of Cars. Box cars for the shipment of grain have capacities varying from 30,000 to 100,000 pounds. Their dimensions range from 27 feet 6 inches in length and 7 feet, 10 1-2 inches in width, to 4o feet in length and 8 feet 6 inches in width. The grain line which is placed in cars for the purpose of preventing overloading and underloading. varies in height in the case of corn from 3 feet to 6 feet 7 inches. It is not expected that corn will weigh out according to the meas- urement or grain line in car. According to the Chicago Shippers’ Manual. corn testing 55 pounds occupies approximately 2,090 cubic CAPACITY OF CARS 265 inches per bushel; settled, approximately 2,020 cubic inches per bush- el. Corn testing 54 pounds, 2,130 cubic inches; settled, 2,065 cubic inches. A car 33 feet long by 8 1-2 feet wide and filled to a height of three feet with shelled corn, would contain 693 bushels. These figures are only approximate. The specific gravity of grain is con- stantly varying because of moisture, pressure and quality. CAR DOOR COVERED WITH CHEESE CLOTH TO PREVENT LEAKAGE The rules of the different railroads governing the quantities of grain to be loaded into cars of various capacities vary to a limited extent in minor details. The maximum amount of grain allowed to be loaded is 10 per cent over the marked capacity of the car, on prac- tically all roads. The Burlington Railroad makes the following stipulation in re- gard to shipping ear corn: 266 CORN Ear corn will be subject to the following minima, but not to ex- ceed the marked capacity of the car. In cars not over 28 feet in length (inside measurement), 4,000 pounds less than marked capacity of car, but not less than 30,000 pounds. In cars not over 34 feet in length (inside measurement), 46,000 pounds. In cars not over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 56,000 * pounds. In cars over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 66,000 pounds Corn Shelled in Transit. Shipments of ear corn to be shelled in transit must be loaded to full visible capacity, but not to exceed car- rying capacity of car. If the weight of the shelled corn from a car so loaded is less than the minimum weight on shelled corn for the car in which the same is loaded, actual weight of the shelled corn may be accepted, if the ear corn is not loaded to visible capacity of car, the minimum weight on the out-turned shelled corn will be 30,000 pounds. Agents will carefully examine all shipments of ear corn to see if cars are loaded to their full visible capacity, but not above carrying capacity of car, and make notation on way-bills, whether or not cars are so loaded. Shortages and claims as viewed by the Claim Agent of a large western railroad. “It has been my observation that most of the losses of grain are due to carelessness and insufficient coopering of cars by the shipper. When grain begins to move, a shortage of equipment usually follows. The roads are therefore obliged to furnish any kind of a car that will pass a mechanical inspection. The result is that old cars with bad doors, sides and floors are set in for the elevators, and it requires something more than ordinary coopering to make these cars safe against leakage. The shippers apparently do not realize this. They feel that if they put in the grain doors they are doing everything nec- essary. The fact of the matter is that a great deal of the leakage is around the center pins and over the draft rigging of the cars, and particular attention should be given to coopering such portions of the car. The railroad companies furnish grain doors and grain door lumber in abundance, and the shipper should be willing to place his labor in recoopering the car against the company’s expense in fur- nishing the material. MAKING CLAIMS 267 “A great many of the leakages are caused by the weight of the grain bulging the grain doors out. These are instances where the shipper is anxious to get into the car every pound of grain he possibly can—another result of the scarcity of equipment. In such instances the shipper should take into consideration the extraordinary weight of the grain and should use enough lumber at the doors to prevent the grain doors bulging or breaking. “A great many of the claims for grain shortages do not represent shortages at all, but merely errors in weight, which are brought about by lack of system or carelessness on the part of the shipper. Possi- bly he loads his car on a team track, or he may be loading two or more cars of different grades; he will frequently get a wagon load of one grade into the wrong car, and, as a consequence, one of the cars will check short—say, 2,000 pounds, while the other car will over-weigh 2,000 pounds. He puts in a claim for the shortage, but the railroad company never hears of the overage. It would be sur- prising to know how many cases of this kind the railroad companies actually bring to light, and it would be still more surprising if we could find out how many cases we never succeed in bringing to light.” Suggestions As To Making Claims. In presenting claims for the loss of grain in transit, claimants who desire prompt attention should furnish the railroad companies against whom the claim is made, with the following documents and information: First, with copy of bill of lading. Second, with an affidavit made by the person who loaded the grain, showing the amount, date, place and number of the car into which the grain was loaded; how it was weighed and the condition of the car when loaded. Third, the account of sales for the grain when it reached desti- nation. Fourth, certificate of the weighmaster at destination. If he is not the official Board of Trade Weighmaster, an affidavit from the person who unloaded the grain, showing when and where it was unloaded, seals of the car, condition of the car, and the number of pounds or bushels unloaded. Fifth, a complete record of any investigations which have been made prior to making claim for loss, with reference to the loading, un- loading and weighing of the grain. Sixth, a statement of the number of bushels lost and value of same. CORN to an ow Seventh, if the claims cover damage to grain from leaky roof or other causes, they should be accompanied with all information bear- ing on the subject. “The mere statement of ‘leaky roof’ by some one at a destination is not sufficient, by any means,’ writes Mr. A. Kirkland, Claim Agent for the Illinois Central Railroad. “We should have more than this, and furthermore, inspectors or others should call the attention of the railroad company at destination to the discovery of a leaky roof, so that proper investigation may be made by the railroad company. The great trouble and reason for delay in the adjustment of some claims is want of information.” Mr. R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company, writing in the same vein, states that “if, in the presentation of claims, the claimants would furnish complete infor- mation, their losses could be promptly investigated and adjusted.” STOPPING LEAKAGE ON THE SIDE OF A GRAIN CAR TERMINAL MARKETS. Strictly terminal markets are points of exchange, specu- lation, storage, and distribution. Such markets are necessary to facilitate the handling of large quantities of grain. Their growth has been due not only to increased production, but to the development of complexity in systems of distribution. Many of the so-called terminal markets are also primary markets where grain is inspected. DESIGN OF ELEVATOR has” ps 6H 14-0". a \ fea ee aerares Aeaes acts ; Oe " 7 of 3! Ons Kalo™ —— F 0" — nao —<—<—— 73.0 DESIGN OF RIGHT ELEVATION OF SMALL COUNTRY ELEVATOR. Follow the course of the grain from its delivery frem the wagon until loaded into car. 269 270 CORN Approximately one-half billion bushels of corn was shipped out of the county where grown in the United States in 1914. Of this amount one-half was handled through the principal markets, and it will be of interest to note that Chicago alone received nearly as much as all of the other markets combined. The greatest daily receipt.of corn recorded for the Chicago market was 2,055,000 bushels, Febru- ary 13, 1913. TABLE NO. 60* SHOWING RECEIPT OF CORN AT PRINCIPAL MARKETS—1914 CinGaSo°. 227 ee le ee ee 106,600,000 bushels Minneapolis ___--------------- 12,260,999 bushels Duluth ~____-__-_-___-_--- 1,377,000 bushels Ste WuOuls .S2tca3 ese on cenaeas 17,106,000 bushels Milwaukee __________________- 18,338,000 bushels Wamisas Cy eee ee 23,173,000 bushels Omaha *- 22. av oton ea eee 30,005,000 bushels RGOtia; 22s5c2 0552 oo. See 14,520,000 bushels POlEd On. See oe Se a ea +,310,000 bushels IDGER Oty Seek ep heen 3,349,000 bushels Total_--_-_--------------~-231,038,000 bushels The following table will give some idea of the movement of the corn crop by months, in 1914. This shows the receipts and shipments of corn for the Chicago market alone. TABLE NO. 61* SHOWING RECEIPT AND SHIPMENT OF CORN BY MONTHS FOR THE CHICAGO MARKET—1914 Received—Bushels Shipped—DBushels JAMUEt yo. 2s ea ee 8,774,000 4,773,000 Petal y:.20sae osen oe an oe 8,401,000 3,327,000 MagChive aa Sao Sean ea eae 7,644,000 4,249,000 (DTA, Resse SSD hae 2,139,000 6,705,000 Maye iin ok se bts teed 2 eer hd ta 2,492,000 4,423,000 Jee ae ee ee EN oe So 9,741,000 6,727 ,000 NUL eae otter ees ee SS 5,131,000 4,188,000 ICRI fis ee he ra ee 9,925,000 6,132,000 Septein ber woe eee De gus 8,146,000 5,794,000 OCLC Ts sak os Te cs ss 5,914,000 3,706,000 November 1. sce ceceneucetesecsy 12,458,000 6,001,000 December ac esu es = 86 ee oe ee 25,835,000 9,234,000 Wotals22<22s2 s2Staen oS 106,600,000 65,259,000 *Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade. CORN VALUE 271 During the year 1914, over sixty per cent of the corn received in Chicago was shipped out again: Mr. J. C. F. Merrill of the Chicago Board of Trade states that the Corn Products Refining Company alone uses approximately 100,000 bushels of corn daily, besides other large milling concerns use enormous quantities. In 1914 the principal markets including Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Duluth, St. Louis, Toledo, Detroit, Kansas City, Peoria, Omaha, Cincinnati and Indianapolis, received 244,383,000 bushels of corn and shipped out 161,450,000 bushels. Most of the corn reshipped from the above markets was of course used in other cities, and the balance exported. Corn Values. The following table exhibits the highest and lowest prices for Contract Corn (Spot) at Chicago during each month. TABLE NO. 62* SHOWING HIGHEST AND LOWEST PRICES FOR CORN 1905 to 1914 inclusive. (Ten-year average.) Price per bushel Lowest Highest Jantaly: eerie 2 coe ees ae omac. 51.9 55.3 Bebriaty cas ese ee 52.4 52.3 INT ar Ciao ote Scart Ser hear nel babe 53.0 58.2 Anil ea che obo 28s So 56.0 61.1 Willy: 926mm ae Son oars Seances 59.2 66.2 Vine? ito ee ee ea 60.2 64.9 UU yee eas ee rer he na Pe dy Lo 61.0 67.1 GE eda Nata ees ede! 63.7 69.9 September 2 sscers case cscs 62.8 69.0 GOD Gre oo Seer oe ee 58.9 65.4 November ___-__--_------------ 56.9 63.0 December ______---_----------- 54.0 60.5 Entire. Year 22202 sacceeceeceed 57.5 63.0 Between the highest and lowest average annual prices for the past decade there was a range of 5.5 cents per bushel. From May until October inclusive we find prices above the average, and November to April shows the prices below the average. During the ten years the August prices were the highest. Taking an average of the thirty-five years previous to the past decade we find practically the same range between the highest and lowest average prices. (5.8 cents.) Jor the same period the market of August, September and October was the highest. *Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade. 272 CORN In the ten year record given above the lowest average price (51.9 cents) was recorded in January, and the highest average price (69.9 cents) was reached in August. The average range then between the highest and lowest prices for the year was 18 cents per bushel. A study of the markets for the past fifty years shows that during the months of December, January and February the lowest market price for corn was recorded forty-two times, and the highest market price was recorded only eight times. For the months of March, April and May the lowest market price was recorded three times and the highest price fifteen times. For the months of June, July and August the lowest market price was recorded once and the highest market price thirteen times. For September, October and November the lowest market price was recorded four times and the highest market price fourteen times, See following table. TABLE NO. 63 SHOWING TIME OF HIGH AND LOW PRICES FOR CORN (Fifty-year average) Number of times recorded Month Lowest price Highest Price January Setece a -oe ee Sscceeeseosas 16 4 PeDPuaty ee S2aS oases 8 0 Mate, sect shea inde lee Z 1 Api ies er oe ee Ee a 1 2 Rays at as oe) enn as ae ee eae 0 12 JING) Q2ee 22 Sees 2 se Se ae oe J 2 Je ei ee Boas 3 eos aaa ee te et 1) 4 AUSISE oy ooo eh a a 0 7 September 222.8 sse oo Se eee 1 2 October MODERN TERMINAL I MODERN TERMINAL ELEVATOR. 296 CORN The man who stored grain in the warehouse is furnished with a storage receipt which is negotiable. In case he sells the grain he simply transfers this receipt. When this receipt is surrendered to the warehouse officials the grain may be removed according to the regular method. In removing grain from the warehouse, the super- intendent must secure a certificate from the registrar’s office of the State Inspection Department, stating the grade and amount to be taken, This serves a two-fold purpose. It makes it impossible for the superintendent or employee of any public elevator or warehouse to ship out any grain without the proper state official being present to inspect the grain, and further secures the banks which have perhaps loaned money on the grain stored. PUBLIC WAREHOUSES. There are three classes of public warehouses for storing grain. Class “A” includes all warehouses, elevators and granaries in which grain is stored in bulk in such manner that the identity of different lots can not be accurately preserved, such warehouses, elevators or granaries being located in cities having not less than 100,000 inhab- itants. Class “B” includes all other warehouses, granaries or elevators in which grain is stored in bulk, and in which the grain of different owners is mixed together, Class “C” includes all other warehouses or places where property of any kind is stored for a consideration. Chicago alone has storage capacity for approximately 50,000,000 bushels of grain. The regular warehouses are licensed by the Chicago Board of Trade, and the grain handled by them is subject to inspectign by the State Grain Inspection Department. All grains handled by _ them are represented by negotiable warehouse certificates which form a collateral upon which most banks will give loans at low rates of in- terest. The irregular warehouses are not operated under the rules of the Board of Trade, but are subject to inspection by the State Grain Inspection Department. EXPORTS OF CORN 297 REGULAR WAREHOUSES—CHICAGO. (July 1, 1915.) Name of warehouse Operated by Capacity bushels Armour Elevator, comprising houses A, B and B Annex_______________ Armour Grain Co.___ 5,000,000 Armour Elevator Co...--_-__-_______- Armour Grain Co,___ 1,000,000 Calumet Elevator Co.___.-___________ Central Elevator Co._ 1,200,000 Chicago & St. Louis Elev. & Annex__J. Rosenbaum ______ 2,000,000 National Elevator ~___-_-___-________ Central Elevator Co. 830,000 J. Rosenbaum, Elevator A___________ J. Rosenbaum _____- 400,000 J. Rosenbaum, Elevator B__________- J. Rosenbaum _____- 1,550,000 Rock Island Elevator A______________ J. Rosenbaum ____-- 1,250,000 South Chicago Elevator Co. & Annex Chicago Elevator Co. 3,000,000 Wabash Elevator ___________________ E. R. Bacon ________ 1,500,000 Total Capacity: salt sags 2d a eae ee 17,730,000 Total Capacity Irregular Warehouses (54)_-------------- 32,645,000 Grain storage has not expanded with the increased production. The total storage capacity of the fourteen principal markets is ap- proximately 200,000,000 bushels. Of this more than 150,000,000 bush- els capacity is the old wooden style construction with high rates of interest and insurance. This leaves only about 50,000,000 capacity being of steel or iron. Seaboard capacities are very limited and de- creasing. EXPORTS OF CORN. It is not necessary to say much concerning our corn exports from the United States. We export annually less than one per cent of our crop, while Argentina exports approximately fifty per cent of her crop. In 1914 this country exported 7,296,000 bushels. Table No. 68 shows the destination of this grain. In the same year, we imported 903,062 bushels. Our corn exports represented only little more than one per cent of the amount of corn shipped outside of the county where grown in 1914. Most of the export corn from all countries goes to the European markets. The principal distributing points are Liver- pool, London, Glasgow, Hull, Manchester, Hamburg, Bremen, Chris- tiana, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Havre, Marseilles, Genoa and Naples. 298 CORN Terminal Export Markets. The principal terminal-export markets are New York, New Orleans, Baltimore, Galveston, Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia and the Canadian ports on the St. Lawrence. About fifty per cent of the corn exported goes through New York, New Orleans and Galveston. The exportation from southern ports accounts for much of the corn being spoiled when it reaches the European markets. The cli- mate is warmer and the degree of humidity much higher on the Gulf coast; corn stored and shipped from these ports enters the vessel in condition favorable to heating. The inspection of corn at present be- fore loading is doing much to insure against shipment of grain that is damaged. The following tables show the amount of corn exported and imported by different countries for a term of years. TABLE NO. 66 EXPORTS OF CORN FROM THE UNITED STATES, 1867 TO 1914 INCLUSIVE Year Bushels Year Bushels (ep eee 16,026,947 oO), -Boae ae 32,041,529 GR eens ce 12,493,522 SRO nc Fe 76,602,285 1. ee eee ee 8,286,665 a 47,121,894 1B pat ees 2,140,487 [ne ee ae 66,489,529 Os ae ale ears 10,676,873 HOG os ae es 28,585,405 1 As et ei 35,727,010 1606, eee 101,100,375 O78 eae ee 40,154,374 1007 cacnc canoe 178,817,417 TAN Sia be teens 35,985,834 OBS eee ar 212,055,543 eos eee 30,025,036 oo a 177,255,046 Oe eo es 50,910,532 0 eae ee 213,123,412 1 er Oe 72,652,611 OG! cases ore ems 181,405,473 $e eo eae 87,192,110 TOE pe 28,028,688 1 Oo eeeecace 87,884,892 O08 en Saletan 76,639,261 Oe cee 99,572,329 POA ett ees 58,222,061 fel aes ee ee 93,648,147 WOOG cece pena mn 90,293,483 1682 ws este 44,340,683 TOU. 3 2creerro ads 119,893,833 TS ae oe ee 41,655,653 100? (eget 86,368,228 NBGA: spas a ats See 46,258,606 TOS false ee eaten 39,013,000 Ty caine aaa wares 52,876,456 OOS a ole 38,114,100 Tween 64,829,456 DOO cee we a ae 44,072,200 i ae ro 41,368,584 TOA tech gece 63,533,000 TOSS se rece 25,360,869 ON eee a Ge eT 32,627,000 OS eset 70,841,673 DONA * ee ede yo oos 46,923,000 TBO as weet 103,418,709 TOY caress 7,296,000 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF CORN 299 TABLE NO. 67 *EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF CORN BY COUNTRIES. (1913) (Including Corn Meal) EXPORTS Bushels IMPORTS Bushels Argentina __-_____ 189,240,000 Canada, 222-2 ees 9,041,000 Austria-Hungary __ 30,000 Austria-Hungary ~~-25,844,000 Belgium ~__--_____ 6,134,000 Belgium ___-_____-- 25,036,000 British S. Africa___ 741,000 British S. Africa____ 818,000 Bulgaria __.-______ 11,362,000 Cuba: on eee ess 3,198,000 Netherlands ______ 11,846,000 Netherlands _______ 39,467,000 Roumania ________ 36,617,000 Denmark _________- 15,938,000 Russia ~-_--______ 22,898,000 Russia ~__-________ 609,000 S@rVvVia: ss eee ee, 4,627,000 Fey pt asses 1,184,000 United States** ___ 46,923,000 France ~___------__ 23,276,000 Uruguay ~_---_-__ 14,000 Germany __-----___ 36,165,000 Other Countries ____ 6,191,000 Wita ly: Gece ao eis 13,849,000 Mexico _--.-__----- 1,548,000 Norway ~---------- 1,130,000 Portugal __----_--_ 952,000 Spaiis eee 22,400,000 Sweden ___-___-___ 3,975,000 Switzerland ________ 4,785,000 United Kingdom ___97,721,000 Other Countries ____ 8,866,000 WOtal: Sake eee 336,623,000 ubOtall 28s aes 335,802,000 TABLE NO. 68 *DESTINATION OF CORN EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES (1914) Germany 2-2 2seseeee ee eee Meéxi¢o <2scscencsosh =e = es Netherlands ___----------------- United Kingdom ____------------- Bushels SCR Le Osos ee 60,227 voteeoees --------------2,410,156 SSSSSSeb aso asee sets 118 esas a netgear 303,303 Soe een oe a et ee 467,424 Bm SESS CEE SSeS ae 373,770 ahr a eA 540,515 *United States Year Book, 1914. **In 1914 only 7,296,000 bushels. 300 CORN TABLE NO. 69 *PER CENT OF CORN CROP OF UNITED STATES EXPORTED 1900-1914 INCLUSIVE Year Per cent Year Per cent LOO Ob ea SS eee 10.3 NOOR eee thea ted 1.5 FOOT he ne es 8.6 1900) 22 pena ses ee 14 1902 352 6 so eta 1.8 WOW O oas 22 oo Se eee 1.6 WOO Sic ee pa ee 3.0 MON ee Sa Se 2.5 19042 = 2 Fes = eee ee 2G TOW Ps set ee ele es 1.0 WOO Bese ee le eo 3.6 TOU Girt esd eee 1.9 1906232 oa see 4.4 LON A os SS stun 27 WOO Fis a cee, LD Prices of Export Corn. From 1896 to 1900 the average price of export corn was 36.9 cents per bushel. During the same time the average price of corn sold on the domestic markets was 28.5 cents per bushel. Taking a twenty-six year average, from 1881 to 1907, the average price was 52.9 cents per bushel on corn for export, and 40.1 cents per bushel for domestic markets. The current price of corn at the export terminal markets, however, would naturally be greater than the average domestic price, owing to added shipping charges, etc. American grain destined for foreign markets is sold C. I. F. (cost, insurance, freight), the marine insurance and ocean freight being in- cluded in the cost. Drying Export Corn. *‘'For several years, complaints were made as to the conditions in which our export grain, especially corn, ar- rives in European ports. A representative of this Bureau (Plant Industry) visited the principal grain-holding ports of Europe and made careful inquiries to determine how far these reports were founded on fact and how far they were colored in the interest of the purchaser on the other side. “It is to be regretted that many cargoes of corn from the United States have arrived in European ports in damaged condition. In Rotterdam, nearly 10 per cent of our corn received in 1904 was damaged. The same condition exists in other ports and has seriously injured the reputation of corn from the United States. The result has been an increased European trade in corn from the Argentine Repub- lic, our only important competitor. “The trade in Argentine corn has grown, both because it is sold in London by tons, and because it stands shipment better than corn from this country on account of its hard, flinty character. "Year Book United States Department of Agriculture. AMERICAN TRADE CERTIFICATE 301 “Our softer dent corn is nevertheless preferred in all the European markets, and the maintenance and increase of our export trade are de- pendent only upon its being shipped so that it will arrive in uniformly good condition. As deterioration of corn during ocean transit is di- rectly dependent upon the amount of moisture it contains, there is an easy and practicable remedy for the present condition in artificial dry- ing. This has been successfully tried at New Orleans and the neces- sary machinery is now being installed in Baltimore and Boston. American Trade Certificate in Export Trade. During the last few years American grain has been discriminated against rather se- verely. This discrimination has been a united action of the grain-hand- ling interests in Europe, which from their letters seems justifiable. They have taken a very fair view of the situation and seem willing to co-operate with the American exporter in removing the trouble. The following letter was read by Hon. Alse J. Gronna, Represen- tative from the State of North Dakota, before House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce: “London Corn Trade Association, Exchange Chambers, 28 St. Mary Ave., London, January 20, 1908. “Mr. President,— “T am instructed by the European International Committee on American Grain Certificates to communicate to you the following facts: “There has been for some years past a general consensus of opinion among European buyers of grain that the operation of the present system of certificating grain for export is increasingly unsatisfactory and that whatever may be its merits for the purposes of domestic trad- ing, it no longer gives to European buyers the confidence and protec- tion which is necessary in a trade where the only guaranty for re- liable quality and condition in exchange for buyer’s money is a paper certificate. Formerly, buyers in buying from the United States of America were able, as they still are in their dealings in grain with other exporting countries, to recover from shippers any damage they sustain owing to defects in quality or condition; but since the intro- duction of the certificating system, this is no longer possible. Even after its introduction, indeed, until comparatively recent times, it was seldom found that any serious abuses arose and, trusting to their be- lief in the reliability of the grading system, buyers were willing to continue trading with America on less favorable terms than they de- manded elsewhere; but, whether from increase of individual competi- 302 CORN tion, or what is probably more important, the rivalry between the old- er ports and their smaller and more recently established competitors, there seems little doubt that the standard of grading has been low- ered, either temporarily, or in some cases permanently, in order to at- tract business from interior points. We in Europe feel that the bur- den of such departure from the more reliable and stricter method in force formerly, has been borne chiefly by European importers who, be- ing far away, have no power of protecting themselves against errors or worse in the grading methods of recent years. The result is that American grain suffers as regards price when in competition with grain from other countries. Robert A. Patterson. Chairman European International Committee on American Grain Certificates. “President United States of America, White House, Washington, U.S. A.” A Criticism from Another Source. “Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te Rotterdam, Rotterdam, February 20, 1907. “Representative J. A. Gronna, Esq., Washington, D.'C. “During the last Berlin Grain Conference held January 29th and 30th of this year, by delegates of the German, Holland and Scandi- navian grain trade, the McCumber bill and the other bills of similar character introduced into Congress, were one of the chief subjects on the program. During many years, already, the American Grain In- spection certificates have been very unsatisfactory and immense losses were caused to the buyers on this side by the careless inspection of American grain shipped for export. It has been said by American op- ponents of the bills mentioned above that the fixing of grades on bet- ter and higher standards would injure the export trade, and that the European buyers will not buy anything but the grades which have al- ways been shipped and to which they are accustomed. “Many important firms in the importing centers on this side have absolutely given up importing American corn, taught by the experi- ence of several years, when a single parcel of this article, certified No. 2 mixed, sail mixed, etc., and still showing 30 to 90 per cent damage on arrival, caused a loss greater than the small gain made on many ship- ments together. They prefer to buy from Argentina, Russia and the Danube. A better inspection, however, and certificates which give suf- a COLLATERAL READING 303 ficient guaranty that the grade has really been given in accordance with the grain’s quality and condition, will induce these firms to take up the importation of American corn again. “We don’t object to the export of inferior grain, but to the fact that the grades are not given according to the condition of the grain, so that the certificates are entirely unreliable. Perhaps some buyers on this side want the inferior grain, but those who deal in the better quali- ties want to be sure that when they pay a better price for the higher grade, the certificate gives them the guaranty to get this grade. “As soon as grades all over the United: States are uniform, and as soon as certificates of inspection will be reliable, the importation of American grain will certainly increase after the sharp decline which it has experienced. “Uniform Government inspection will bring a higher standard of export grain, induce the European importer to buy American grain more freely again, and consequently benefit the honest American ex- porter at the cost of his dishonest competitor. It will greatly purify the trade and make an end to an unbearable situation. Yours truly, Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te Rotterdam, Rotterdam Corn Trade Association, A. Coan; Sr., President, H. Van Randeryk, Secretary.” COLLATERAL READING. The Annual Reports of the Boards of Trade of the principal terminal and terminal-export markets. These may be secured by application to the secretaries of the respective boards. Shippers’ Manual, issued by the Chicago Board of Trade. The Book of Corn, by Herbert Myrick. Examining and Grading Grains, by Lyons and Montgomery. Year Books of the Department of Agriculture. Reports of the Bureau of Commerce and Navigation. Board of Trade Book, 1910. Annual Reports of Chicago Board of Trade. Farmer’s Bulletin No. 168. Farmer’s Bulletin No. 584. American ‘Co-operative Journal. Grain Dealer’s Journal. Annual Report of Illinois Inspection Department. Farming Business, May 1 and May 8, 1915. Price Current Grain Reporter. CHAPTER XIII BOARDS OF TRADE THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS The large grain and provision markets have established Boards of Trade. Their purpose and operation are here outlined, taking the facts from the Chicago Board of Trade, which is the largest and most important in the United States. THE BOARD OF TRADE OF THE CITY OF CHICAGO. On the 13th of March, 1848, thirteen men, representing the commercial interests of Chicago, organized the Board of Trade of the City of Chicago and laid down the fundamental principles and policies which have made this Exchange the greatest of its kind in the world, as well. as a model for all similar exchanges since formed here and elsewhere, and have given this city premiership among the world’s grain and provision markets. What the founders of this institution aimed to accomplish and what it has stood for during nearly two-thirds of a century of its cor- porate life, was thus enunciated in the Preamble of the Rules and By-laws: “To maintain a Commercial Exchange to promote uniformity in the customs and usages of merchants; to inculcate principles of jus- tice and equity in trade; to facilitate the speedy adjustment of busi- ness disputes; to acquire and disseminate valuable commercial and economic information; and generally, to secure to its members the benefits of co-operation in the furtherance of their legitimate pursuits.” So comprehensive and satisfactory is this expression of commer- cial, ethical and civic ideals, that it has never been found necessary to modify it in any particular, and it stands today as when it was first voiced, the fundamental article of the organic law of the Chicago Board of Trade. The charter members of this commercial exchange had been engaged in the infant trade of the city from the time of its incorpora- tion. They were enthusiastic believers in the future, full of courage, hope, and determination to live up to the opportunities which they saw around them on every hand awaiting development. These men HISTORY CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE 305 had deep and abiding faith in the city which they had helped to found. They were men of sagacity and their foresight had in it the quality of intuition. They perceived that this city, situated on the peerless waterways of the Great Lakes and adjacent to the limitless fertile plains of the Mississippi Valley, was destined to be not only a com- mercial metropolis, but also a dominant force in the markets of the world. At that time, Chicago had a population of less than 30,000, the state of Illinois had only 157,000 people, and the United States had not yet attained a total of 13,000,000 population. Today, the pop- ulation of Chicago is, in round numbers, 2,500,000; of Illinois, 6,500,- 000; of the United States approximately 100,000,000. Chicago was further removed from New York than we are now distant from the antipodes. Her transportation facilities were of the most meager sort and communication was by the slow-going stage, the infrequent sail- ing vessel or the laboring post-rider. li the “manifest destiny” of Chicago was to be worked out, it was necessary that there should be an organized effort to attract trade, to facilitate the transaction of business, and to reduce the hazards of commerce by building up a body of principles which should have the force of law, insuring righteous dealings between the buyer and the seller and banishing chicanery and deceit from the code of trading. Such was the mission of the Board of Trade of the City of Chicago. But the objects of these founders of Chicago’s greatness were broader than mere self-interest. They grappled with large public problems from the very outset, striving in all possible ways to facili- tate profitable dealings with the farms of the Central Valley and the mills of the East, seeking to connect Chicago by telegraph with the eastern markets, and in many other ways fostering commercial ad- vancement. There is the best possible evidence of the energy with which the little voluntary organization prosecuted its work for the benefit of the city and its citizens; for, in the year after the first meeting in South Water street, the General Assembly of the State of Illinois enacted fostering laws relating to Boards of Trade. In 1850, the Leg- islature enacted a special charter for “The Board of Trade of the City of Chicago;” and nine years later, when events had proved that the grants thus conferred were inadequate for the proper working out of the mission of the institution, the General Assembly enacted a new charter law, giving the corporation the right of perpetual existence and clothing it with very broad power and authority to regulate the trading practices and commercial conduct of the affairs of this market. 306 CORN Directly in line with the policy expressed, the Chicago Board of Trade introduced in 1858 the system of grain inspection which, as much as any other one thing, has contributed to the prestige of Chi- cago. This inspection system is still in force substantially as it was when devised by the administration of 1858, and it has been accepted as the model for virtually all the grain markets of the country, if not of the world. Prior to the enactment of the special charter of 1859, the Board had been restricted in its powers and limited in its resources, despite the financial assistance afforded by the city council; but when the new charter was granted, the membership quickly increased to 725 and the treasury soon showed a comfortable surplus. Outgrowing rented quarters, the Board determined to erect an exchange building at La Salle and Washington streets. This first fixed abode of the Board was occupied in 1865 and remained until the fire of 1871 laid it in ashes. Within a year, the structure was rebuilt and was the center of the country’s grain trade until 1885, when the present Board of Trade building was dedicated. *Today, with a membership of 1,625, the Chicago Board of Trade is recognized as the dominant factor in the determination of the prices of grain and provisions. More than that, it is universally recognized as the most potent force extant for the maintenance of those principles of business morality and justice which its founders embodied in the preamble of sixty years ago. Its quotations are unquestioned, its sta- tistics unimpugned; its certificates of inspection, weights, and grading unchallenged ; and the word of its members as good as gold anywhere and at any time. “ORGANIZATION OF BOARD OF TRADE. The Board of Trade Organization consists of president, first vice-president, second vice-president, secretary, treasurer, board of directors, and twenty- four standing committees besides the special committees. We have been prone to consider the Board of Trade simply as an organization for speculating in grain. As a matter of fact, the Board deals in practically all marketable products and securities. A closer acquaintance with such an organization should reveal some vital re- lationships with the gigantic machinery of marketing, which not only are interested in the buying and selling of products for profit, but which are giving assistance toward solving the great problems of mar- keting. *Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade and “Board of Trade Book,” 1910. BOARD OF TRADE DEPARTMENTS 307 In the organization of the Chicago Board of Trade, we find at least four agencies or departments which are of invaluable consequence to the growers and shippers of grain as well as to the buyers and sellers in the speculative market. Legal Department. The first of these agencies is the legal depart- ment. While such a department is necessary in the interpretation and enforcement of the rules of the Board of Trade among its mem- bers, and between members of the Board of Trade and parties with whom they are constantly dealing, its functions would not be fulfilled in the broader sense unless it went further than that. This department has done more than that. Among the legal problems which it has sought to solve during the last decade, none stands out so prominently, or has redounded more to the benefit of all concerned, than the fight against the bucket shops. When this contest began, this nefarious and parasitical business was fast sucking the very life-blood out of the legitimate produce exchanges of the country. Alone and at first un- aided, the Chicago Board of Trade began its fight, and now the once defiant and flourishing business has been swept away. The Transportation Department. The work of the Transportation Department is under the general administration of the Transporta- tion Committee of the Board of Trade. The purpose of this depart- ment is: First—To secure the removal of discriminative rates, or unjust rules or regulations against the Chicago market. Second—To prevent, in the making of new rates, rules and regula- tions, the adoption of any that place the Chicago market at a disad- vantage with other markets. The transportation rates of any community are of such tremendous importance that some organized and efficient method of protecting its interests are absolutely necessary. It is important to every shipper to have such rates as will enable him to place his products into the central market in competition with all shippers. The Transportation Department of the Board of Trade devote their energies in the investi- gation and regulation of these shipping rates. The Weighing Department. One of the chief complaints of the average producer and shipper is unjust weights. The Weighing De- partment of the Board of Trade sends out scale inspectors to shipping points over the country with complete outfit for testing scales. All 308 CORN public scales in Chicago are tested at least twice a year, and oftener if conditions require. Besides serving as a disinterested party in settling disputes in weighing and in testing scales, this department employs a force of deputy weighmen, deputy trackmen, supervisors, a policing or de- tective force and car tracers and office clerks, whose services are con- tributed to the grain trade. The deputy weighmen conduct the weighing at the various ele- vators, industries and transfer points. The deputy trackmen are stationed on the track floors of the large grain elevators to record the seals and condition of cars, and to super- vise the unloading and loading of grain. These weighmen and trackmen are under the direction of the super- visors, who are constantly visiting the elevators, and other points where weighing is done with a view to maintaining the best of con- ditions and service at all times. The policing and detective force looks after conditions existing in the various railroad and storage yards. This branch of the service also attends to the prosecution of.those caught stealing grain from cars, or buying the stolen grain. The protection of this department is of immense value to the shippers for the railroad yards are situated in remote parts of the city where pilferers are naturally attracted. The car tracers follow the movements of cars when shortages trans- pire. This department is of inyaluable service in securing evidence for the collection of claims, etc. The office clerks issue the certificates of weight, attend to the in- dexing of each car in the ledgers, and perform the general office work. A complete history of the treatment accorded each car of grain is kept in systematic files in the main office. This office is opened at 6:30 each morning in order that the consignees may secure the certificates of weight for their cars promptly. The weighing department is constantly sending out material to aid the producers and shippers in eliminating all conditions conducive to carelessness, waste and error. During the past year (1914) this department has supervised the weighing of 361,735 cars of produce, 108,623,667 bushels of grain to and from boats, 602,771,764 bushels of seed at freight and warehouses, and has attended to the investigation of weights, especially requested, for 1,289 cars. OBJECTS OF BOARD OF TRADE 309 This department found and reported in the same year 26,011 cars, or 11.5 per cent of the total in-bound cars weighed, with leakage. Besides this their deputies went over each shipped car at the time of loading to see that it did not show any evidence of leakage before it left the loading elevator. The number of people detected and arrested for pilfering cars in the railroad yards was 254. At interior or country loading stations, this department tested 74 scales of which 46, or 62.2 per cent, were weighing incorrectly. In the Chicago district, 716 scales were tested of which 105, or 14.7 per cent, were in need of adjustment. Department of Grain Sampling and Seed Inspection. This depart- ment works in conjunction with the Illinois State Grain Inspection Department. A staff of about thirty men is maintained. These men sample and inspect shipments of grain and seed coming into the cen- tral market. Often they send their men to other points to give help in settling disputes or other difficulties. They have men in the railroad yards and at all of the public warehouses to inspect grain, coming in and being shipped out. Much that has been accomplished in estab- lishing uniform grades for grain might be credited either directly or indirectly to this department. During the year 1914, the inspection department sampled 123,537 cars of grain, and sampled 29,000,543 bushels for lake shipment. OBJECTS OF THE BOARD OF TRADE ANALYZED.* The purpose of the Board of Trade has already been stated. Whatever objections have existed with reference to the Board of Trade in the past, or may exist at present time, it remains to be seen whether or not it is living up to the objects set forth. They are considered briefly in the following: First—To promote uniformity in customs and usages of merchants. The value of some uniform means of marketing all products is at once grasped. The buyer wishes at all times to have the advantage of the most favorable market, and the producer is constantly on the lookout for the highest price for his product. It would not be possible for either to keep posted in regard to the various markets if there were not some uniformity in customs and usages. The average person could not interpret intelligently the market quotations. The Boards of ap 310 CORN Trade, especially the Exchange at Chicago, has probably done more than any other agency in establishing the customs now prevailing throughout the world in marketing. The rules and regulations originated and enforced by the large grain exchanges today perhaps have more influence on marketing than any other factor. Second—To inculcate the principles of justice and equity in trade. In the accomplishment of this purpose a code of rules and regulations has been established to govern all selling and buying through the ex- change. The Board of Trade through its legal department devotes much time to legislation affecting marketing. This department was most active in combating the “bucket shop” evil. Through its trans- portation department unjust and discriminatory freight rates are in- vestigated and adjusted. Through its weighing department the ques- tion of weights and measures is given constant attention. Through its inspection department the proper grading of grain is watched to prevent unscrupulous practices. Thus are inculcated the principles of justice and equity. Third—To facilitate speedy adjustment of business disputes. With- in the Board of Trade a special committee is provided to settle dis- putes between members. The decision of this Board of Arbitration must be respected. Matters of great consequence are settled quickly. Questions of proper sampling and grading of grain, accurate weighing, leakage and stealage in shipping, impartial transportation charges and the like are constantly arising, and the Board of Trade through its various departments contributes the best of expert service in settling such disputes. Fourth—To acquire and disseminate valuable and economic in- formation. Statistical information secured by the Board of Trade re- lates not only to the trade of Chicago or other local markets in grain, provisions, live stock, hay, flour, lumber, cured meats, dressed beef, butter, cheese, hides, grass seeds, etc., but also has reference to such commodities in other principal markets both domestic and foreign. This information, daily, hourly, and in many instances, instantaneous- ly, is at the service of the Board, which in turn transmit it to pro- ducers to aid them in marketing their produce intelligently, and to give instructions to their commission merchants as to the conduct of their consignment. HOURS FOR TRADING 311 : Telegraphic facilities are provided for the unhindered and prompt communication with shippers, customers, purchasers and consumers. Representatives of the press have constant and ready access to this information. All prices are posted in the Exchange on the bulletin board and this information is sent broadcast. Besides all this an annual report is published, giving in the greatest possible complete- ness all information relating to the production and distribution of the various crops and other marketable products of the world. This great service bureau has become a necessity to the business world. Fifth. To secure for its members the benefits of co-operation in the furtherance of legitimate pursuits. Modern marketing has be- come as much of a specialized business as the question of production. Men who have devoted their time and energy in acquainting them- selves with the problems of marketing are today a necessity in the disposal of most of our farm products. Any advantage to be found in co-operation then should be available when these men, including com- mission merchants, brokers, etc., are working together. This does not necessarily affect competition. It has already been pointed out that the success and profit of these men is determined by the degree of their ability to give satisfaction to the producer and shipper. They are all working for the business and competition between them is very keen. Hours for Regular Trading. ‘“No trade or contract for the future delivery of grain or provisions shall be made, or offered to be made, by any member or members of this Association, in the exchange room of the Board or in any of the public streets, courts or passages in the immediate vicinity thereof, or in any hall, or exchange hall, or cor- ridor in any building located or fronting on such streets, courts or passages on any business day, except from 9:30 o’clock A. M. to 1:15 o’clock P. M., or upon any Saturday except from 9:30 o’clock to 12 o’clock M. or on any day or that part of a day on which the Board shall hold no business session; it being the object and intent of this rule that all such trading which may tend to the maintenance of a public market shall be confined within the hours above specified.” 312 CORN Terms Used in Trading.* “There are many terms of the Board of Trade of which the public has little understanding. Probably the ones most frequently used with the grain markets are ‘Bulls’ and ‘Bears’. A ‘Bull’ is one who believes in higher prices and who buys for an advance. A ‘Bear’ is one who looks for lower prices and who sells property which he does not possess but which he hopes to buy at a lower figure than he previously sold at. “This is called short selling and the party making the sale is termed a ‘Short’. In other words the short seller is one who contracts to supply another with a certain amount of grain at a specified price at a future date and who believes that before the date of delivery has ar- rived he will be able to purchase this grain at a lower figure than he contracted to sell it for. When a ‘Long’ sells his property for more than he paid for it, the operation is called ‘Realizing’ or ‘Profit Taking.’ When he is forced to sell at a loss, it is termed ‘Liquida- tion’, ‘Stop Loss Selling’, or ‘Unloading’. When a ‘Short’ buys at a lower price than he previously sold his property at, it is said that he is taking profits. When he is obliged to pay more than he sold for, or buy in at a loss, it is generally termed ‘Covering’. “A ‘Scalper’ is a person, who, after he has made a profit on the grain he has bought or sold, closes out the trade and pockets his gains, repeating the operation several times. ““FHledging’ is an expression frequently used in the grain trade and refers to the operation whereby a ‘cash grain’ dealer lessens his risk by buying or selling ‘futures’. For example, if a man or concern buys a certain amount of ‘cash grain’ that he or they have not an immedi- ate market for, an equal quantity will be sold in the speculative market, thus protecting the holder of the grain from a decline in prices. After a buyer for the ‘cash grain’ is found the speculative sale is disposed of by buying in the pit and the trade balanced up. This is called re- moving ‘hedges’. “On the other hand, if a dealer in ‘cash grain’ makes a sale before he has the grain in his possession he buys an equal amount in the future market. Thus, if he is forced to pay more for his ‘cash grain’ than he contracted to sell it for, his loss is offset by his purchases in the pit. Naturally there are times when even these methods fail to pro- tect ‘cash grain’ dealers from losses, but it eliminates the possibility of heavy loss and enables the ‘cash grain’ man to work on a much smaller margin of profit than he could under other circumstances. “Taken from article by Mr. R. A. Meinke in “Farming Business”, May 1, 1915. TERMS USED IN TRADING 313 “A ‘Margin’ is a certain amount of money deposited with a broker or commission house to protect trades made or to be made. Thus a man trading on a margin need advance only a small part of the value of the property he is buying or selling. For instance you may in normal times buy or sell 5,000 bushels of wheat on a 5-cent margin for $250 when perhaps the actual value of 5,000 bushels of wheat at that time is $5,000. However, if the market goes against you to the extent of your margin you must deposit additional money with the broker or commission concern to protect them, or close out your trade. “A ‘Stop Order’ is an order to close a trade at a specified price in order to limit losses. Such an order is automatically acted upon when the price stated thereon is reached, but in wild markets, such as have at times been witnessed, it is impossible to close the trade at a certain price and perhaps the ‘Stop Order’ will be executed at a price 2 or 3 cents away from the desired figure. “Among members of the Board of Trade and in market reports you hear much of the ‘cables’, This refers to the foreign markets, particu- larly that at Liverpool. “Another expression much used on the Board of Trade is ‘Visible Supply’ and by this is meant the stocks of grain in public elevators in large cities and afloat on the canals, lakes and rivers. “There are many more expressions identified only with the grain trade, but we have dealt with the more important ones here, particu- larly as used in connection with the speculative branch of the business. “We often hear of the market being ‘cornered’. By this is meant that a party or combination of parties have purchased more grain than the sellers or ‘Shorts’ will be able to deliver. They have created an artificial scarcity. The ‘Shorts’ finding themselves unable to get suf- ficient grain from the public elevators or from the country are forced to buy in the pit and pay what the ‘Longs’ demand. In the days of ‘Old Dutch’, Pardridge and Leiter there was much of this done and it was then that the Board of Trade earned the notorious reputation that the general public is disposed to give it. However, in recent years there has been a determined effort to ‘clean house’ and under the present rules of the association it is impossible to ‘corner’ a market. 314 CORN Now if a ‘Short’ believes that the market has been manipulated and the price has been forced unnaturally high he may default on his con- tract and a committee is appointed to determine the market value of the grain or product in question, and settlement is made between the seller and his buyer on that basis. “Another rule making it difficult to artificially raise prices is a re- cent amendment to the rules of the association whereby it is impos- sible to deliver grain in cars on the last few days of the contract month. Under the old rules the grain had to be in regular elevators to apply on contracts. Members of the Board of Trade recognize the fact that they have faults the same as in any other business and an element will always be found that will take advantage of and abuse liberties, but they are active in trying to correct evils and members whose acts have proved dishonorable and uncommercial have been expelled.” “Futures” are commodities bought on contract for delivery, which may or may not actually be made at a later date. “Settlement” price is a convenient price made upon a given date (usually about the same as the price on the market on that date), by which settlements of contracts which are not delivered are made. “Delivery” price is a price fixed upon a given date (usually about the same as the price on the market on that day), by which the finan. cial settlements in regard to contracts actually delivered are made. The Sign Language of the Pit Traders. The visitor sitting in the gallery of Exchange Hall during a flurry in the grain pits on the floor rarely fails to express wonder that there can be any orderly and certain transaction of business in such a hurly-burly. But the trader in the middle of the excited throng sees in the turmoil, only the fierce deter- mination of his fellows to buy at the cheapest or to sell at the highest possible price. As to the intentness of any man in the pit at that moment, the practiced trader has no doubt whatever. Articulate speech is not only impossible, under such circumstances, but useless. The eye is quicker than the ear; and the signals given with the hand or by a gesture of the head mean as much as a telegram to the per- son addressed. Rarely does a mistake occur in this sign language trading. SIGN LANGUAGE OF THE PIT The sign-manual of the pit trader is simplicity itself, and with a very little practice anyone can become adept at it; but it calls for natural apti- tude to be a master of the strategy and general- ship demanded of a good broker. Corn having sold at 48 cents, for instance, a trader catches the eye of some one opposite in the pit who has 50,000 bushels to sell, and partly by telepathy, partly by a motion of the clenched fist, signals that he will take the “50 corn” at 48. The seller, in reply, holds up his right hand with the index finger extended horizontally, indicating that he wants 484 cents. The buyer motions acceptance and signals back 4. The two traders note on their cards “Sold 50 at 4, Jones” and “Bot 50 at 4, | smith.” After they leave the pit they meet and check the operation. The hand being held horizontally, the clenched fist indicates the price in even cents. Each finger represents an added eighth of a cent up to five-eighths; the extended hand with the ' fingers close together means three-quarters and the thumb only, signals seven-eigths; but the whole hand displayed vertically means 25,000 bushels, each finger counting 5,000 bushels; whether offered or being bid for, is shown by a slight motion of the hand to or from the trader making the signal. The official reporter stationed in the pit sees all the signaling, and party by ob- servation and partly on information given him by the traders, notes the latest price and gives it to a telegraph operator at his side to be “put on the » ticker.” Thus the price of grain is made every moment of the session and transmitted to all the markets of the world. When understood, the chaos of the pit becomes an intelligible language even to the nonparticipant. 316 CORN OTHER EXCHANGES. Aside from the Exchange at Chicago, there are others of prominence located at Minneapolis, Duluth, Winni- peg, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha and Toledo. Almost every city of any size has a grain exchange, but they are chiefly of local importance. These markets named are termed “Outside Markets” by the Chicago trade and their price movements are received by telegraph throughout the session and posted on blackboards. SPECULATION.* “The German Economist Cohn, defines spec- ulation as ‘the struggle of well equipped intelligence with the blind power of chance.’ Or, as Justice Holmes puts it, ‘It is the self-ad- justment of society to the probable.’ In simpler English, it is an act or series of acts based upon calculation, whereas gambling is simply an act based upon blind chance.” It is a fundamental economic principle that all productive industry at the present time involves a certain amount of risk. By the leaders of the modern system of marketing, speculation is declared to be a necessity for the following reasons: (1) Production imposes ownership and ownership is inseparable from risk. This is true of live stock, grain, real estate or articles of almost any kind. Risks are innumerable and ever present. (2) No one knows the future. With all merchantable products the thought of possession is usually the increase in value. In dealing with the future needs of mankind one cannot foretell with absolute certainty all conditions affecting demand and supply. (3) In the case of grain crops, harvesting is confined within rather narrow limits with respect to time, while the demand for these prod- ucts is continuous. One can not harvest the crops simply as needed. At the time of harvesting there must be a surplus to meet the demand until the next harvest. This surplus must then be adapted to the future demand. In addition to this a large per cent of the farmers, including tenants and those who have heavy obligations coming due at a certain time are forced to sell promptly after harvest. (4) Shippers cannot ship grain at once. For instance the country grain buyer pays cash for grain. He is not able to ship this at once so he must depend upon a future market. Without a definite future “Board of Trade Book, 1910. BENEFITS OF SPECULATION 317 market he could afford to handle grain only by allowing a wide mar- gin for profit. (5) At certain times of the year the farmer has food supplies in excess of the needs of his local community, while in districts where farming is replaced by other industries as manufacturing, etc., not enough food is produced to meet the demand. The problem of get- ting this surplus to the places where needed involves time and risk. (6) Through the central markets grain is bought and sold in large quantities. Without our present system of marketing it would be necessary to secure this grain from a considerable number of in- dividual farmers or producers. In either case the element of time in getting such quantities of grain together must be considered. The Benefits of Speculation. This has reference especially to the practice of dealing in futures. (1) It creates a continuous and open market and gives a daily cash sale for grain. As long as there are men who in their study of supply and demand think they can make a profit in buying grain and dis- posing of it later we have a steady sale for the grain. The value of this continuous market can hardly be overestimated. (2) More stable prices are created. Under present conditions the entire surplus crops are not immediately upon harvest thrown upon the market, thereby depressing prices, nor just preceding harvest are prices raised to exorbitant level on account of vanishing supply. (3) Discounts changes in supply and demand. If the price of grain for the future market is high it can indicate but one thing, under normal conditions, that the supply will be small. It therefore serves to adjust the demand to the probable supply. Wastefulness and extravagance in the face of such a shortage is averted, and one is not led to horde grain in the face of a large supply when it would have to be sold on a declining market. The future prices are an indication of existing supply. (4) Grain can be handled with a minimum of expense to the producer. The margin of profit in handling grain is lower than is exacted in the handling of any other business. Under the conditions of the past it was necessary to allow a margin of about ten cents on the bushel in handling grain, but at present it is handled on an average probably not to exceed one per cent of present values. 318 CORN IN THE PIT (Picture taken by Robert H. Moulton) FUTURES. It is difficult to realize the vast volume of business transacted on the Board of Trade and Produce Exchanges of this country. To one who hears only of speculation and manipulation, the Exchanges seem to be founded for no other purpose than to provide facilities for speculation. Speculation is the sensational feature of the trade, and the newspapers devote the most space to that class of news, for the reason that it is sensational. But speculation is a mere incident of the grain and cotton trade, and grew up after the exchange had been established for the purpose of bringing buyers and sellers of cash property together at one common point. As the volume of cash transactions increased and facilities were provided for storage of products at market centers, contracting for future delivery developed gradually. At first these contracts were irregular as to quantity, time of delivery and grade of goods, but they slowly assumed uniformity and the Exchanges, recognizing their validity and value, regulated them by rules. It was not until early in the 60’s that these “future-delivery” contracts became general in the grain trade and the Chicago Board of Trade dignified them by adopt- FUTURES 319 ing rules to govern and enforce them. The system gradually devel- oped and brought about wonderful changes in the methods of mer- chants and millers. Prior to the establishment of trading for future delivery, as now practiced on the Chicago Board of Trade, every grain dealer was a speculator in cask grain, with all the uncertainties of the markets to contend with. Today he is a merchant working on an assured margin of profit, by reason of his ability to protect himself by sales for future delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade. This is illustrated in a simple manner. The grain dealer at ——————_, Iowa, buys 10,000 bushels of ear corn in January of the farmers and stores it in his corn crib. It will not be fit to shell and ship until the following May. He orders his commission merchant on the Chicago Board of Trade to sell 10,000 bushels of corn for May delivery. The commission mer- chant makes the sale and reports back the prices. The dealer has thus secured his profit, although it is five months before he can de- liver the corn in Chicago, that length of time being required for the corn to cure. He in turn pays the farmer cash for his corn, who can then pay rent on his land and buy machinery for the spring work. Now, the dealer has made what the public call a speculative transac- tion, viz., a trade for future delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade, and yet he is the very opposite of the speculator. Suppose he had not sold the corn for May delivery, but had taken all the risk of chances ‘in the market for five months, no one would think of calling him a speculator, and yet that is exactly what he would be. Millers and grain dealers throughout the world trade in “futures” in Chicago, in order to avoid speculating in their business, on exactly the same theory as the dealer at ——————,, Iowa, sells May corn in Chicago, against the ear corn in the crib at home. If you can find a miller with 1,000 or 10,000 barrels of flour on hand that had not been sold, you will find that he has wheat “futures” sold (usually in Chi- cago) to the extent of about five bushels a barrel. As soon as he can sell the flour he will buy back the “future.” He may sell the flour at 50 cents a barrel less than it cost to grind it and yet he will not lose acent. On the contrary, he will save his manufacturing profit at 10 to 25 cents a barrel, for his sale of the wheat “future” has protected him. Wheat and flour prices move together, and when he sells his flour at 50 cents a barrel loss, he at the same time buys back the wheat “future” at 10 to 12 cents a bushel profit—the wheat has declined in the same proportion as the flour. Or, the miller may reverse this operation and buy wheat “futures” and sell flour which he has not on 320 CORN hand, to be shipped sixty or ninety days hence. He either receives the cash wheat on the “future” when the contract matures, and grinds it into flour to fill his sale, or he buys other wheat better suited to his requirements and sells out the “future” as fast as he acquires the necessary “spot” wheat. In the meantime, wheat prices may change 25 cents a bushel without disturbing the miller, who, when he pur- chased the wheat “future” and sold the flour, had secured his margin of profit. Ask any miller why he trades in “futures” and he will tell you it is done to avoid speculating in his business. The grain dealers and exporters who carry stocks of grain or make sales of grain to be shipped in the future, are in the same position as the miller. You will find them constantly buying and selling “fu- tures” in order to avoid speculation in their business. The packer and provision merchant resort to contracts for future delivery for the same purpose. All of these transactions in “futures” made by millers, grain deal- ers, and packers are the same as the transactions ordinarily known as “speculative transactions,” and at the same time they are made in the matter of their execution and settlement they are in every way iden- tical. If a speculator desires to buy 5,000 bushels of wheat for May delivery, he buys it at the same place and in the same manner as does the miller who wants the wheat to grind. Both transactions are subject to the same rules and customs. Both parties must be pre- pared to receive and pay for the property at the maturity of the con- tract and, in the eyes of the law, the contract of the speculator is as legitimate as that of the miller. The trading in futures has been criticised by those ignorant of its great aid to agriculture and commerce from the day when the increase of yield of farm products in the West and South made it necessary to buy and sell for delivery at a future time, in order to facilitate the carrying and distributing of the farmers’ surplus crops at a minimum of cost and risk for the months intervening between harvests. Why and How Futures are Settled Without Delivery. The strong- est weapon in the hands of those opposed to futures has been the argument that every purchase and sale for future delivery is not finally consummated or settled by the actual delivery of the property on the contract at maturity. All contracts for future delivery on the Board are made in the same manner and are exactly similar as to quantity or unit. Except in wheat and flaxseed, where there is a small volume of trade in 1,000-bushel lots. the unit is 5,000 bushels. Thus, if the broker “A" FUTURES 321 buys from broker “B” 25,000 bushels of corn for May delivery, he has really bought five 5,000-bushel lots, and both parties would so enter the transaction on their books. Delivery must be made in lots of 5,000 bushels and settlement can be effected for 5,000 bushels or any number of 5,000 bushel lots up to the total amount of the contract. The same holds true in all transactions. When a trade of 100,000 bushels is reported, it means twenty lots of 5,000 bushels each. A broker may receive orders from five clients at the same time to buy May corn. Clients “A” and “B” and “C” order 10,000 bushels each; client “D” 15,000 bushels and client “E” 5,000 bushels, aggregating 50,000 bushels. The broker steps into the corn pit and bids for 50,000 bushels, buying it all of one party. He then divides the purchase among his clients; “A,” “B” and “C” each get two 5,000-bushel lots. “D” gets three 5,000-bushel lots and “E” one 5,000-bushel lot. The party of whom the broker bought has really sold him ten 5,000-bushel lots and so enters it on his books; although at the time the trade was made, it was spoken of as a 50,000-bushel trade. This is a feature of the trading which must be clearly under- stood by the student before he can grasp the system of settlements. All contracts being uniform as to quantity, they are substituted one for the other, and members of the Board acting as commission mer- chants do not try to preserve the identity of the contracts made for any particular clients. In place of doing so, and for the privilege of substituting similar contracts, they guarantee to their clients the ful- fillment of the contracts, a course not usually adopted by agents when acting for principals. The right to substitute contracts is the consid- eration for the guarantee. We will now take five imaginary commission merchants, Brown, Jones, Smith, Day and Lee. They all receive and execute orders for the purchase and sale of grain for future delivery on the Board of Trade. Their clients are millers, exporters, eastern dealers, buyers of grain at western points, speculators, and investors. The clients send orders from day to day as their business requirements or desire to speculate may dictate. Some of these orders are to buy, some to sell. We shall assume that they are all in corn for May delivery and that the contracts are entered into in January. Brown receives an order to buy 5,000 bushels of May corn. Stepping into the corn market or pit, he buys the quantity ordered of Jones, one of the other commis- sion merchants. If either Brown or Jones elects, there is but one way to settle this contract; that is, by actual delivery by Jones to Brown some time in the month of May. Or, if Brown does not sell 5,000 322 CORN bushels of May corn, settlement would be impossible, except by Jones procuring the actual corn and delivering it to Brown in the month of May. In other words, both parties to the contracts must first have a purchase and a sale of May corn, and secondly, must consent to a settlement before any contracts can be closed, except by delivery. But there is a third and more essential condition which must exist before the first two are of consequence, and they are not sought or considered until it is discovered that this third condition exists. It is the all important reason for settlement without delivery and is the mere fact that delivery would be idle and unnecessary. Therefore only such contracts for future delivery are settled without delivery of the actual grain, as the parties to the contracts may agree to settle after having discovered that delivery would be an idle form. When Delivery is Unnecessary. When a purchase and sale (there must be both a buyer and seller) for future delivery is made on the Chicago Board of Trade, it must be made with the intention on the part of the purchaser to receive and on the part of the seller to deliver the commodity. Subsequent events may render delivery unnecessary and settlement before the maturity of the contract desirable without jeopardizing the legality of the contract. But this cannot be foreseen and the buyer and seller must calculate to be prepared to receive and deliver the cash commodity at maturity of the contract. Brown, having bought in January 5,000 bushels of May corn of Jones, as previously stated, enters the transaction on his books, and in the usual course of business Jones would deliver him the actual corn some time in the month of May. But a week later Brown re- ceived an order to sell 5,000 bushels of May corn, and stepping into the corn pit offers the grain for sale, and Jones buys it from him. Now, we have Brown and Jones in the position of having bought of and sold each other 5,000 bushels of May corn. Brown, who origin- ally bought of Jones, has now sold to Jones, and Jones, who originally sold to Brown, has now bought of Brown. Supnose it were illegal to settle future contracts, except by the delivery of the actual grain, where would Brown and Jones be? Which one would make the in- itial delivery of the grain? Each would say to the other when May arrived, “Deliver me that 5,000 bushels of corn I have bought of you, so that I can deliver it back to you and thus settle your sale to and purchase from me and my sale to and purchase from you,” and each would answer the other, “When you deliver me the corn you have sold me, I will deliver it to you.” Could a more absurd condition exist in FUTURES 323 the business? Yet this is exactly the kind of a transaction that gives rise to the criticism that “futures” are settled without delivery. Brown and Jones have no trouble in settling this contract. If Jones sold the corn to Brown at 45 cents a bushel and subsequently bought it of him at 46 cents a bushel, he has a loss in the transaction of 1 cent a bushel, or $50.00, which he pays to Brown immediately and the con- tracts involved are settled. We will now go one step further and note a more complicated settlement, which will involve more than two brokers. In the month of January, Brown buys of Jones 5,000 bushels of May corn; on the following day, Jones buys 5,000 bushels of May ccrn of Smith. The purpose of these transactions is that in the month of May, Smith will deliver 5,000 bushels of corn to Jones, who in turn will deliver it to Brown, thus fulfilling the contracts. But, if in the course of business extending over the period between January (when the contracts above mentioned were made) and May (when the con- tracts mature), it should so happen that Smith should buy 5,000 bushels of May corn from Brown, the three brokers would be in the same position that Brown and Jones were in on the first transaction referred to, where each had the corn bought and sold to the other. To make this more clear: Brown has bought of Jones. Jones has bought of Smith. Smith has bought of Brown. Putting it another way: Brown has sold to Smith. Smith has sold to Jones. Jones has sold to Biown. It will be noticed that, no matter how you put these transactions, they begin and end with the same party, and it would be the same in case any of the brokers delivered corn, for it would come back to him who delivered it, after passing through the hands of the other two. Assuming, for example, that Smith delivered the 5,000 bushels ot corn, it would pass from one to another as follows: Smith delivered to Jones. Jones delivered to Brown. Brown delivered to Smith, So that Smith would get back the corn and the delivery would have accomplished only the settlement of the contracts as among the three parties. If each of the three parties received and paid for the corn and in turn delivered it out and received a check for it, as they 324 CORN would have to do in this case, and assuming the average price to be 45 cents, each party would collect and pay out $2,250; in other words, they would handle $4,500. So that the aggregate received and paid out would be $13,500 to settle these three transactions in which the difference might be a very small sum. But the delivery spoken of would not occur for the simple reason that Smith would wait for Brown to deliver the corn to him so that he (Smith) could deliver it to Jones, while Brown would wait for Jones to deliver the corn to him so that he (Brown) could deliver it to Smith. It will be seen that delivery on these contracts is not only unneces- sary, but also impossible, except by borrowing the cash corn for the purpose of going through an idle form. Before showing how these trades are finally settled, we will carry the illustration a little further. The case of Brown, Jones and Smith can be extended so as to involve a large number of brokers. It is frequently discovered that as many as twenty brokers are in the same position in one transaction as Brown, Jones and Smith were; that is, they must settle without actual delivery, as every one of them has it bought and sold and each is waiting for the party he has bought it from to deliver it to him. If they should fail to investigate and discover the true state of the trades, every one of the twenty brokers would default on his contract by reason of their all waiting for an impossible or at least, improbable delivery. To escape the possibility of becoming involved in trades that would result in default, to facilitate their business by discovering and settling these tnnecessary contracts, and to collect and pay all differ- ences on these closed contracts, every broker in Chicago who trades in futures, employs a clerk whose duty it is to watch the transactions closely and see that they are settled immediately, in case it develops that delivery on the contract is unnecessary for the reasons just described. Every trade for future delivery made on the Chicago Board of Trade (unless the seller defaults on the contract, and defaults are very rare), is finally settled by the delivery of the commodity con- tracted for, except such trades as get into a position that renders deliv- ery unnecessary, as in the cases already set forth. Having noted “when delivery is unnecessary” and settlements are effected by the payment of the differences between the contract prices, we will now give a short explanation of how deliveries are made; for on all contracts for future delivery, there is an actual delivery (de- FUTURES 325 faults, which are rare, excepted), unless it develops that delivery is unnecessary. How Deliveries are Made. Deliveries on contracts for future delivery of grain, flaxseed and provisions entered into on the Chicago Board of Trade, are made by warehouse receipts for the commodities in warehouses declared “regular” by the Board. Deliveries of grain and flaxseed are made in lots of 5,000 bushels (except a few in wheat and flax in 1,000-bushel lots), provisions in lots of 250 packages and 50,000 pounds. All contracts upon which delivery is unnecessary are eliminated as fast as they are discovered, so that when the month of delivery arrives, it finds only the contracts open upon which delivery must be made. Sellers begin to deliver the commodities on the first business day of the month at 8:30 A. M., and oftentimes deliveries are very frequent throughout the month. Warehouse receipts deliverable on the contracts are negotiable and great care is necessary to prevent their loss. If it were not for the manner in which the deliveries are made, the parties to the contracts would be subjected to great loss and annoyance by reason of lost or misplaced warehouse receipts and unnecessary clerical expense. Experience and necessity have developed an almost perfect system of delivery, which eliminates all danger of loss of warehouse receipts and simplifies the work. At 8:30 A. M. on the first business day of each month, deliveries are made by notice on the Exchange Hall of the Board of Trade. Every party having grain, provision, or flaxseed contracts open for that month must be represented. Those traders having commodities to deliver hold the receipts in their offices, but they hand notices to the parties to whom they have made sales, noti- fying them to call and pay for the property and get the warehouse receipts. The party receiving the notice either holds the notice and -sends a certified check to the party making the delivery, who then turns over the warehouse receipts to him, or if he has a contract of sale with some other member, he passes the notice by endorsement to the third party, who can, in turn, do the same thing; so that a notice of delivery may go through twenty-five or thirty hands, until it finally reaches a party who, for some reason, desires possession of the com- modity. This last party then pays for it and all the intermediate par- ties settle by receiving or paying the differences between the con- tract prices—in other words, the profits and losses in the trades. This system of delivery saves the paying out and collecting by each party of the full value of the commodity delivered, as well as the AdVAaL AO GuVOd OOVOIHO AO TIVH AONV FUTURES 327 passing of the warehouse receipt from office to office. Thus, deliveries that would involve immense sums of money and two or three days time are consummated in forty-five minutes by paying for the property once. After the first delivery day, deliveries can be made by warehouse receipts from office to office each morning, but in the afternoon of each business day, deliveries are made by notice in the Exchange Hall, the same as on the morning of the first business day of the month. The delivery notice is a complete description of the receipts and the contract on which they are to be delivered. Any person to whom the notice is delivered can procure the receipts by holding the notice and sendiiig a check for the value of the commodity to the party issuing the notice. Every notice is back to the office of the issuer within an hour after deliveries cluse, accompanied by a certified check, and the warehouse receipts are surrendered to the party thus paying for them. The volume of these deliveries is at times beyond comprehension. In-making an investigation of one lot of 1,200,000 bushels of wheat, sent out by a firm on notice, it was found that the 240 notices of 5,000 bushels each had passed through an average of twenty hands before they finally lodged and were paid. Thus, contracts for 24,000,- 000 bushels of wheat were settled by delivery of this lot of wheat in forty-five minutes (the delivery runs from 8:30 to 9:15 A. M.). As there were between five and ten millions of bushels of grain delivered that morning, the contracts settled by delivery were evi- dently between one hundred and two hundred million bushels. If that volume of business had been carried from office to office, it would have involved much time, labor, expense and delay, all unneces- sary. Every person receiving the notice had absolute control of the disposition of the warehouse receipts during the time the notice was in his hands; for it passes from hand to hand and can be stopped by any party who receives it. Settlements, and Settlement and Delivery Prices. Contracts set- tled for the reason that delivery is unnecessary, must be uniform in all respects. If only two parties are involved, the settlement is very simple; the one having a loss in the transaction, pays it to the other who has a profit. But when more than two parties are involved, the collecting of profits and payment of losses are more complicated and difficult of explanation, although differing not the least in principle. The parties having losses pay, and the parties having profits collect 328 CORN them, and in every settlement, whether it involves two or twenty parties, the losses equal the profits. To illustrate this, let us use an imaginary settlement involving five brokers. The settlement is of 5,000 bushels of May corn and might occur any time after trading in that “future” becomes general. Brown has sold to Jones at 46 cents. Jones has sold to Smith at 44 cents. Smith has sold to Day at 47 cents. Day has sold to Lee at 43 cents. Lee has sold to Brown at 48 cents. A little figuring shows that Jones, Day and Brown have respec- tively 2 cents, 4 cents, and 2 cents a bushel loss, aggregating 8 cents a bushel, in their transactions; while Smith and Lee each have a profit —Smith of 3 cents and Lee of 5 cents a bushel, a total of 8 cents a bushel, equal to $400 on 5,000 bushels. When it is discovered that the trades are in the position indicated and delivery is unnecessary, and all the parties agree to settle the transactions, the next step is to transfer the $400 owed by Jones, Day and Brown, to Smith and Lee. An extremely simple method in doing this has been in vogue for twenty years. Each day a “settlement price,” or more properly a “fig- uring” price is fixed. It has nothing to do with the real settlement of the contracts, being a mere convenience. In settling this 5,000 bushels of May corn, as among the five brokers, the settlement or figuring price for the day on which the settlement is made will be used as a figuring basis. Taking 45 cents as the settlement price, we get the following result: SETTLEMENT 5,000 BUSHELS MAY CORN. SETTLEMENT PRICE 45 CENTS. Sales Loss | Profit Brown to Jones at 46 cents |Jones 2 cents per bushel to Smith at 44 cents Smith 3 cents per bushel to Day at 47 cents |Day 4 cents per bushel to Lee at 43 cents Lee 5 cents per bushel to Brown at 48 cents |Brown 2 cents per bushel Total 8 cents per bushel | 8 cents per bushel ($400.00) { ($400.00 You will notice that in the case of Day, who has a loss of 4 cents a bushel ($200.00) to pay, he has the corn bought of Smith, who has a profit of 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) to collect; and he (Day) has sold it to Lee, who has a profit of 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) to collect, and FUTURES 329 the question would arise immediately as to which of these parties Day should pay his $200.co loss to, if it were not for the figuring price. Day’s clerk figures that having bought the corn of Smith at 47 cents and sold it to Lee at 43 cents, he must settle on a basis of 45 cents with each, which he does by paying Smith down to 45 cents, which would be 2 cents a bushel ($100.00), and paying Lee up to 45 cents, or 2 cents a bushel ($100.00). Thus Day has paid his loss direct to the parties to the contracts with whom he had the trades. All the other parties to the contracts pay and collect to this common price, so that each pays his whole loss or collects his whole profit in a sys- tematic and simple manner. ‘Jones, who has bought of Brown at 46 cents and sold to Smith at 44 cents, pays each to 45 cents, 1 cent a bushel in both instances. Brown, who has sold at 46 cents to Jones and bought at 48 cents of Lee, pays Lee 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and collects 1 cent ($50.00) of Jones. So that each party settles with the parties with whom he originally made the transactions, on the basis of an imaginary figure which is every day fixed at about the average price for the day. The using of the “settlement” or “figuring” price has the effect of enabling each party to the settlement to settle direct with the two parties with whom he has made the transactions, on the same basis that he would settle with them in case of a settlement wherein only two parties were involved. It simply reduces the transactions to the same basis as a trade wherein the purchaser had sold back to the seller, at the “settlement” price and the seller has bought back of the purchaser at the “settlement” price. In other words, it works out the same as if Jones, who had bought it of Brown at 46 cents sold it back to him at 45 cents and paid his loss of 1 cent a bushel ($50) to Brown, and then having sold it to Smith at 44 cents bought it back of him (Smith) at 46 cents, another loss to Jones of 1 cent a bushel ($50), which he pays to Smith, and so through the whole list of persons in- terested in the settlement as follows: Fee es 1 en '* Brown collects 1 cent of Jones. ised ae ba oe a ie ay * Smith collects 1 cent of Jones. Sk pre eeets - a ee ‘7""" Smith collects 2 cents of Day. Day sold tote 3643 CONS Le collects 2 cent of Day. Lee sold to Brown at 48 cents...... Pes eeideae dene Si ieee: Brown sold to Lee at 45 cents...... 330 CORN Loss So that Brown, whose loss is 2 cents a bushel, has paid Lee 3 cents loss and collected of Jones I cent.......+..-+-- Net 2c Jones, whose loss is 2 cents a bushel, pays I cent to Brown and I cent tO Smith 1.1... cc cee ee ee eee ee enter eens Net 2c Day, whose loss is 4 cents, pays 2 cents to Smith and 2 Céits: too Le6: sce ciacesap via rees Soka aceeaAReae ee Net 4c TOtali ida wd chan daciee weaves bE ae Geek ee 8c per bu It will be noticed that Smith and Lee have collected respectively 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) direct from the parties with whom they had the trades, although in no case is the loss of any one of the debtors the same as the profit of either Smith or Lee. In every case in which a settlement is made in place of an unnecessary delivery—and no agrcement can be made except on that basis—the result will always be the same, the losses equalizing the gains. Delivery Price. Deliveries on contracts, when the warehouse re- ceipts are passed from office to office, are paid for at the price of the contract as originally made between the brokers. When delivery is effected by the “delivery” notice, as explained heretofore, it is made at a “delivery” price fixed each day, as in the case of the “settlement” price, and the commodity is figured, for the purpose of delivery, at that price. The party receiving the commodity pays for it, not at the price at which he bought it, but at the “delivery” price. If the “deliv- ery” price is less than the price of the contract on which he received it, he pays the difference to the party from whom he bought, but if it (the delivery price) is in excess of the purchase price, he collects the excess or difference from the party from whom he has bought it. This plan is followed by each party who received and delivered out the “delivery” notice; they use the delivery price as a figuring price and pay the difference in exactly the same manner as they would when using the “settlement” price in case of settlement without delivery. Even the party sending out the notice receives payment at the delivery price and he collects of or pays to the person to whom his sale was made and who first received the “delivery” notice from him, the difference between this contract price and the “delivery” price. The “delivery” notice may be passed through any number of brokers and the contracts settled at the delivery price. The following morning, the brokers pay and collect the differences between the price at which they originally made the purchase and sale and the “delivery” price. The “delivery” price is like the “settlement” price, a mere figuring BUCKET SHOPS 331 basis for the convenience of the traders. Neither has the slightest rela- tion to the real transaction, or its settlement or delivery; but after settlement is agreed to, or delivery made, they furnish a simple, sys- tematic, economic and uniform basis for the payment of balances due to or payable by the brokers, without changing the result one iota. If there were neither “settlement” nor “delivery” prices fixed, the busi- ness would be handled exactly the same as it now is, with the excep- tion that the payments of balances would have to be made in a cum- bersome and unsatisfactory manner. BUCKET SHOPS. A bucket shop is an establishment nominally and ostensibly for the transaction of grain, cotton, or stock exchange business. This trans- action is a mere pretense. The bucket shop exercises no commercial function and is devoid of every commercial feature. The proprietor with or without the consent of the patron, takes one side of every deal that is made in his place, the patron taking the other. No article is bought or sold in the public market and charges or commissions are exacted for no services rendered. The market quotations posted in an up-to-date bucket shop are similar to those posted in a legitimate broker’s office. The broker posts them for the purpose of showing what the market has been on the exchange, as a matter of information. The bucket-shop keeper posts them as the terms upon which its patrons place their bets. The margins deposited with bucket shop proprietors by the patrons, are nothing but the patrons’ stakes to the wager, and are appropriated by the proprietor when the fluctuations of the price on the exchange, whose quotations are the basis of the bet, reach the limit of the deposit. COLLATERAL READING: Speculation Not a Fine Art, By E. W. Wagner. Reports of the Boards of Trade of the several principal markets. “Board of Trade Book”, 1910. The Farming Business, May 8, 1915. “Gold Bricks of Speculation,” by John Hill, Jr. CHAPTER XIV THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN The Commercial Products of Corn May Be Classified as Follows: 1. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL. A. By mechanical and milling methods. B. By mechanical and chemical processes. C. By fermentation. 2. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. 3. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF. A. From the stalk. B. From the leaves. C. From the husks. PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL* BY MECHANICAL AND MILLING MEANS.—Corn Meal. The early American mill stone produced a coarse meal from corn. This form of meal contained hull, endosperm and germ. Rancidity often resulted from the presence of an excess of oil. Hence, as soon as the milling of corn meal for commercial purposes was developed, the elimination of the germ was found necessary to facilitate storing and shipping. In this process, heavy rollers are used which are set far enough apart to allow a kernel to pass through flatwise. Very sharp, but slight steel projections neatly peel the germ from the kernel, which has previously been softened and hulled. From the rollers, the entire mass is passed into water. The germs rise and are taken off and thoroughly dried. The remainder of the kernel is ground into different grades of corn meal. The classification of corn meal is made according to color, white or yellow; and graded by its structure into coarse, medium and fine. Some companies at the present time, put out a “whole meal” during the winter months for a select trade and where it is to be consumed shortly after being manufactured. Very few people understand the “Corn Products Company of Chicago. CORN MEAL 333 real value of this form of meal as compared with the commercial form commonly found upon the market. Whole corn meal includes the germ, which contains 82 per cent of the entire oil content of the ker- nel, thus adding considerably to the food value. Corn Meal as a Food. Corn or maize meal is prepared as food in many different ways. In Ireland, it is made into a sort of porridge called “stirabout,” or in the more expressive phraseology of America, “mush.” In Northern Italy and South Tyrol it is prepared in a sim- ilar way, but with the addition of cheese and other ingredients. Maize meal or corn meal is made as above stated, by removing the hull and germ. A white and yellow meal is prepared, the former in greater quantities because its color is more attractive to the purchaser. In food value, however, there is no difference. Fine maize meal is more gritty than wheat flour, but when mixed with the latter, its presence can hardly be detected. The comparative cheapness of maize flour is an inducement to millers to adulterate wheat flour with it, and this is already being done to some extent in America and France. Flour so adulterated yields fewer loaves than an equal quantity of pure wheat flour, and the bread produced is more moist than wheat bread and has a tendency to be sodden. An addition of 10 per cent of maize flour is calculated to mean a reduction of five loaves on the sack. Owing to the absence of gluten, this meal cannot be used to make ordinary bread, but it is often baked into cakes of various sorts. The “johnny” (corruption of journey) cakes of North America are unleavened and are made of a rather coarse maize meal. Similar cakes constitute the “tortilla” of South America and Mexico. The following is the com- position of the “johnny” cakes, analysis by Atwater and Wood: Water iaiiuicnek chart saan 38.0 per cent. Proteid, 2 «cass csewvande die eeeedeeris 85° “ Fat: snes Whetnde wes wee ose. ewe ey 27 Carbohydrates ..........6 cece eee 47a Mineral Matter .......... cee cece eee 35.“ Comparing this with white bread, we find the nutritive value to be greater in the case of the “johnny” cake. An analysis of wheat bread by Dr. Robert Hutchinson, of the Lon- don Hospital, is as follows: Wratel cnceveneaae die anes eeeauuas 40.0 per cent. Protéid eessaewaeives. Giese enaieey 65 “ Pat: wanna eee Se Rhye ie ductaceath 100 C“ Starch, Sugar and Dextrine ......... cia CelUO86. wesc eee not otek Ate 3 8 Mineral Matter ................0005. 1.0 334 CORN Sometimes the maize meal is leavened with yeast and subsequently baked in iron vessels. In this form, it is known as “pone.” In Ire- land, baking powder is used or the maize meal is mixed with flour and so converted into loaves. One-third of its weight of good flour is sufficient to enable fine maize meal to form good loaves. The color of the bread is always rather dark, however, even if the proportion of wheat flour be increased to one-half. Exportation. Our export trade in corn meal amounts to a great deal at the present time. During the seventeen years from 1898 to and including 1914, the following amounts with values appended, were shipped to foreign markets: Year Barrels of Meal Value 1900) 52 Sess esa ce ceed 943,782 $2,148,410 OOM eee eS dl Te eo 896,877 2,065,432 BOO Disa rocks Maar aiat Aura 348,034 1,046,643 T9038 33 3 See oto ees 451,506 1,382,127 M904) 3 ea ea ae 590,774 1,691,669 OO Brera fat 9 oP nan 8 ath I 371,565 1,113,295 MOOG: sxe AE he ete rae 543,794 1,623,397 TOQZ sete of Salis es ee 766,880 2,313,410 1908) cee 2 eo to Eee) 654,515 2,053,447 100912 a ase ee eon ae Soe 452,907 1,549,010 VOLO ee Stee edge Sr 331,531 1,147,568 POST) sores Rosa A ea eo ie ce 463.266 1,456,683 Tee eee UA en 439,624 1,519,792 OWS) So pao pee ne ons 428,794 1,444,539 AA 52th 336,241 1,185,891 The following countries have been the chief importers of corn meal manufactured in the United States according to the Government Statistical Report on Commerce and Navigation, The total number of barrels exported to all foreign countries for 1914 was 336,241. British Africa, West Indies, Porto Rico, the United Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada, including Labrador and New Foundland have been the principal importers. The above figures give an idea of the countries using most of the export corn meal. It may seem strange that so much goes to South Africa. It may be interesting to know, in this connection, that plain corn cake constitutes the chief food of the South African Kafirs em- ployed in the African mines. Milling By-Products. The by-products from this system of milling, consist of the germs and hulls. The larger manufacturers press the oil out of the germ and then sell the “germ-oil meal” for stock feed. Rut, as the majority of corn meal mills are in the smaller towns in HOMINY—CEREALINE—SAMP 335 the western part of the corn belt, this process is little practiced. A mixture of the unpressed germ meal with one-third its weight in whole oats, is fast becoming a popular horse feed with draymen and breed- ers. The combination of the corn hulls with the germs makes an inexpensive stock food. During the year 1914, 59,030,623 pounds of corn-oil cake in the form of large pressed slabs were exported to European markets, the total value of which amounted to $909,407. Of the total amount ex- ported, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, United Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada (British Columbia) are the chief importers. Hominy, Cerealine and Samp.* The first of these, or whole lye hominy, is generally put out as the whole kernels minus the hull. 11 is treated with a solution of alkali, which serves to loosen the coat of the kernel. When the hull or coat has been removed, the remainder of the kernel, including the endosperm and germ, fs thoronghly washed to rid it of the alkali which was used to loosen the hull! and to take out a large per cent of the oil. In the preparation of whole lye hominy, a choice white variety of corn is demanded because the white corn makes an attractive and more desirable dish. Hominy mills often pay from one to three cents per bushel more for choice white corn of a hard, flinty texture. Soit, immature, starchy, or discolored corn is not used by hominy mills. Cerealine and samp, which are preparations of corn to be classed as hominy, are made from the hard, horny portions of the kernel. For the manufacture of these products, the manufacturers demand a hard, flinty, long-kerneled white corn, as this gives the desired color, and the large kernel will usually yield a larger percentage of the horny portion. Starchy, immature, or soft corn is not desired at any price. Hominy mills are willing to pay a premium of from three to five cents for the most desirable corn. Mixed colors in corn are not wanted. The process ot manufacturing consists, first, in running the shelled corn between rollers so that it is cracked open. It is then rolled and rubbed by means of machinery in order to remove the germs and the white, starchy portions. In the whole-lye hominy, the germ is not removed, but the treatment with the alkali and the heating to a high temperature prevents the oil which remains in the kernel from becom- ing rancid. Since the cerealine and samp receive no alkaline treat- ment, the germ must be removed mechanically. *Van Camp Packing Co., Indianapolis, 336 CORN The chemical composition of hominy and cerealine as given by Dr. Robert Hutchinson, is as follows: | Hominy Cerealine Water sec caken a oo den eteagae ends 11.9 Per cent 10.6 Per cent Proteid: casxasadexk ae saee easy oo 8.2 ne 9. ae Pat iccadteass sete ec narncn nena ts 06- “ 1.0 - Carbohydrates ..............0005 78.9 ° 78.6 ‘ Mineral Matter ................. 0.4 es 0.4 ef Both of the preparations above discussed are of a high nutritive value and admirably adapted for making puddings, etc. In this capac- ity, it is used considerably in the Orient. In our own country, it is usually served by cooking in milk, much the same as sweet corn. Corn Flour, Maizena, Oswego. Corn flour, maizena and oswego are prepared from maize by washing away the proteid and fat by means of dilute alkaline solutions, so that little but starch is left. Church states that corn flour contains only 18 grains of proteid in every pound, and a sample of “Brown and Ralston’s” corn flour, ac- cording to Dr. Robert Hutchinson, contained but a mere trace of nitrogen in the form of proteid. The following is an analysis of maizena, as given by Klemperer in Leyden’s “Handbuch der Ernahrung Sterapie,” page 208: Wa tet este sec saneusW aw em nolan y cusgass 14.3 per cent. Proteid. scsece . es hy! ae ~ ae CORN PS Re rt “en . aU bt) ope T= mat . PAIS SW..: pat . Paty 2 aad oa , Sep: eat a ah te ae PE f og a OEY Site Bons a ee aie Se ee he TWO TYPES OF TIPS IN EARS OF REID’S YELLOW DENT. The ear to the left has the abruptly rounded, very full tip. This is the D. L. The ear on the right has the gently Pascal ear, champion of the world. tapering tip which goes with an earlier maturing type of corn. of Iowa in 1908, shown by J. A. Mason. Champion REID’S YELLOW DENT 425 was cut off squarely. This peculiar though very showy character was found to reproduce a late maturing ear. Hence, at present a gently rounding tip is preferred, with, however, depth of kernel over the entire cob. A Reid ear hangs on a very small shank and often because of too close selection on this point, is even too fine. The ear is me- dium in length, measuring 8 to 10% inches. Kernels. The distinct pairing of the rows of kernels, the extreme triangular outline of the edges of the kernels which dovetail together. and the large open-faced germ extending almost to the crown and covering the face of the wedge-shaped outline, are all characteristics of the Reid corn. Usually the germ has a marked seam down its center, The kernels, which are firm and upright on the cob, are of varying shades of yellow, usually being light, though not of a weak, starchy appearance. Often a tinge of copper color shows on the sur- face, due to the early breeding of the “Gordon Hopkins” corn. The dentation of the kernels is very noticeable when grown in the central part of Illinois or southern Iowa. On strong ground a pinched appearance may occur. As it is acclimated to more northern lati- tudes the kernels become shallow and flinty with a dimpled surface. This was the original Reid type, but the best breeders today select a - bridge-crease dent. Adaptability. Reid’s Yellow Dent matures in 110 to 120 days, being a medium late maturing variety. Many farmers in Iowa and Nebraska have had very poor success with it the first year, because it keeps on growing on rich soils until caught by frost. It has, however, become a very versatile variety, and by changing its type adapts itself to new environments. Being highly bred, rigid seed selection must be continually practiced or the prolificacy and trueness to type of the variety is rapidly lost. CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. It has been said that there are as many types of Reid’s Yellow Dent as there are men who grow this variety. There are, however, a few breeders who have developed such strength of blood lines that each has a group of amateurs follow- ing in his footsteps. The Funk Brothers, of Bloomington, Illinois, have evolved the Funk’s Yellow Dent by selection and mating from the original Reid stock. W. E. Johnson, of Athens, has been a pioneer in a very substantial way, not only distributing seed in other states, but following it up and encouraging the purchasers by putting up premiums for them. W. H. Young, also of Athens, has been a con- sistent winner in the Reid classes. His corn shows a wonderful true- 426 CORN ness to type. W.H. Dunseth, of Waveily, Illinois, though a grower of several other varieties, has developed a heavy yielding, rough-dent Reid, which has been an annual sweepstakes winner at the Illinois State Fair. In Iowa, D. L. Pascal, of DeWitt, who purchased his own grown ear at $150 at the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers’ Association in January, 1907, has through rigid selection established a Pascal type. Mr. Pascal is himself a lover of good corn, and studies the growth of the trial plots in the field. Eastern Iowa has profited much by his influence. J. F. Summers, of Malvern, being on the rich soil of the Nishna- botna River, has by careful selection and , i PY Serv pe TROT R Ree A eh PORE Sa 419999330 Wee 90 J oLdata Te fat betataae TSTy EUR we ‘ ‘i RCA Ou CM REED MCABE ULES PE RNASE care in removing weak and barren stalks from REID'S YELLOW DENT his breeding blocks, brought out a heavy yielding type with a very deep kernel. I. S. Bone, of Grand River, has carried the theory of experimental breeding into actual operation on the farm. The results of his efforts are showing in local and state contests. W. A. Hook, of Packwood, though starting in a small way, may be said to be keeping the closest records of his breeding work of any breeder in the state. Among other men who are producing a consistent type of Reid corn in Iowa are John Sundberg, of Whiting; Bennett Brothers, of Ames; M. S. Nelson, of Goldfield; Fred McCulloch, of Hartwick; L. C. Hutcheson, of West Branch; Neal Brothers, of Mt. Vernon; George M. Allee, of Newell; W. P. Coon, of Ames; Charles O. Gar- rett, of Mitchellville, C. R. Bishop, of Altoona and Willard Zeller, of Cooper. IOWA SILVER MINE HISTORY. The Iowa Silver Mine originated with J. H. Beagley, of Sibley, Illinois, from seed of a white corn which won a prize at the Ford County Farmers’ Institute in 1890. After several years of care- ful breeding, enough seed was secured to plant 20 acres. The result- ing entire crop was bought by the lowa Seed Company, of Des Moines, in 1895, for $1,000. They named it the Iowa Silver Mine. SILVER MINE 427 BREED CHARACTERISTICS.—Stalk. Silver Mine is not a SILVER MINE. rank growing variety; even on rich ground it does not produce such an abundance of foliage as other vari- eties. The stem itself is short and of a finer texture with little coarse- ness about the joints. Even under adverse conditions the hills seem comparatively free from barren stalks. Ear. The type of ear sought in the Silver Mine corn is only me- dium in size, with a full middle, be- ing cylindrical part of the way from butt to tip, and then slowly taper- ing off at the tip. The length runs from 8 to 9% inches and the circum- ference is large in proportion. The shank is medium small in size, but the butt does not have the smoothly rounded cup-shape that is found in the Reid. The cob is pure white, with a very fine texture and weighs light when dry. Kernel. The rows, which aver- age about 18, are paired, though less distinctly than in the Reid. There is considerable space between the crowns because of the depth of the kernels. However, the grains are firm on the cob and no chaffiness is present. The kernel itself is a slowly tapering wedge, with a plain open-faced germ which graduallly widens from crown to tip, until it almost covers the endosperm on either side. The tip of the ker- nel lacks prominent shoulders, but rounds off plumply. The kernei has very little thickness compared 428 CORN with its width and often the germ extends almost to the back side. Silver Mine is properly of a creamy white color, with a medium pinched dent. However, some breeders select a shallow kernel with a heavy crease dent. The deep grain and small cob in Silver Mine, to- gether give it a high shelling percentage, averaging 88 to 89 per cent. This deep kernel is, however, very seldom starchy, being horny almost to the crown. Starchy crowns are pale white and lose the strength of appearance found in the cream color. Adaptability. It is claimed by its distributors that the Sil- ver Mine is adapted to a wider range of climate and soil than any other corn offered on the market. This claim seems very true because it is capable of growing on especially poor soils. As it has a tendency toward grain rather than fodder production, the plant food in the soil goes directly to feeding the ear. The fact that this corn matures in from 100 to 105 days accounts for its forging northward on the richer soils where previously only very early shallow grained varieties were grown. CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. F. A. Warner, manager of the Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois, has bred the Silver Mine corn for a number of years. His type is somewhat larger than that of Iowa and is coarser in the cob and later in maturing. In Iowa, M. S. Nelson, of Goldfield, has grown this variety in the northern section of the state. J. H. Petty, of Elliott, and W. A. Hook, of Packwood, have grown a large type quite extensively in the south- ern counties. The latter has tried a few ears in the test plots. BOONE COUNTY WHITE HISTORY. This variety was originated by Mr. James Riley, of Boone County, Indiana, in 1876. In that year he selected what he considered a desirable type from a large, coarse corn grown in his county, known as the White Mastodon. He planted the selected seed in an isolated field and developed it by selection without crossing with any other varieties. The barren stalks were removed before they pro- duced pollen. After several years of such careful work he developed a new type of corn which he named after his home county. BREED CHARACTERISTICS.—Stalk. Boone County White is a vigorous grower and requires a strong soil. The stalk is rank, with - heavy joints and short internodes. Although not suckering extremely. the leaf expanse is large. BOONE COUNTY WHITE 429 Ear. The ear of this variety of white corn is longer in proportion to its circumference than is the Silver Mine. The shape is quite cylindri- cal, with a slow taper the entire length of the ear. Both butt and tip are cut off squarely. The shank is very large and when broken off leaves a flat, rather open butt, around which the kernels do not fill in. The cob is rather open and porous and usually quite heavy. The length of ear varies between 9 and 1034 inches. BOONE COUNTY WHITE. Kernel. The Boone County corn is a pearly, clear white, due to the fact that the crown starch is such a very thin layer that the horny endosperm below shows on the surface of the ear. The kernels are me- dium to shallow in depth, but because there is no excess of dent the percentage of corn to cob is surprising though not high. The rows have some space at the crown due to the fact that the sides touch all the way down to the tips. That is, the kernel is almost a perfect oblong with little narrowing at the tip. The thickness of the kernel is greater than any other of the principal varieties. The germ extends almost to the crown, but is not so wide at the tip as in the Reid or Silver Mine. In other words, the horny endosperm lies prominently on each side of the germ, forming near the attachment at the cob a pronounced shoulder. The dent in earlier years was sometimes su smooth as to resemble the dimple. It later became the crease, and some breeders have deepened the kernel and shortened the ear, until a slight pinch is noticed. Although bred pure, unless the care is taken in selecting seed each year, there is a tendency for the ears to become shallow and flinty over the tip. Often the furrows become too decp also. Adaptability. Boone County White makes demands on_ the soil which can not be supplied except in alluvial districts. Being a medium to late maturing corn, requiring a season of 120 to 125 days, it will never move northward very far. At present, it is found prin- cipally in the southern half of Indiana and Illinois, and in a few counties near the south line of Iowa. Missouri is a Boone County corn state. 430 CORN CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. In Illinois, O. C. Black, of Champaign, has developed a rougher type with a deeper kernel. A number of other breeders in the state have done the same thing. In Iowa, Lenus Hagglund, of Essex, on the rich soil of the Nish- nabotna, has kept very pure and raised to high standard of product- iveness and quality, a type of Boone County which, although of a rough dent, shows the original form. Because of the quality of this seed a considerable locality near Essex has taken up the variety. F. S. Bone, of Grand River, breeds the Riley type strictly. LEGAL TENDER HISTORY. In 1876, Nims Brothers, of Emerson, Jowa, crossed two distinct types of corn, one a short ear with deep grains and from 20 to 24 rows of kernels; the other a long ear with good shaped ker- nels and from 12 to 16 rows. The resulting cross was developed into a variety that has been carefully selected for 30 years. Their first winnings were made at the corn exhibit held in connection with the Chicago Fat Stock Show in 1886. The late D. B. Nims, deceased November 1906, was an inveterate worker and did much to dissemi- nate this breed of corn by exhibiting at the Iowa State Fair and at the annual contests of the Iowa Corn Growers’ Asociation. In all his breeding he strove for yield, even sometimes losing sight of uniformi- ty of kernels and shapeliness of the ear. J. W. and Henry L. Nims are continuing the work of the brother and father. BREED CHARACTERISTICS.—Stalk. A field of Legal Tender can almost be distinguished from that of any other variety even under similar conditions. From the time of germination to maturity the plant is a very vigorous grower and shows an abundance of foliage even on poor ground. In fact, it can be severely criticised for this tendency. The nodes are thick and prominent and the internodes stocky. Because it does draw heavily upon the soil and because this character has not been discriminated against in its early development, the Legal Tender throws out a large number of suckers. Ear. The ear of Legal Tender when judged by the standards of other breeds seems to lack proportion. That is, its extreme length, 94 to 11 inches, is not proportioned by like circumference. The ear is almost cylindrical and the tip rounds off abruptly. There is a ten- dency about the butt to be poorly filled, but the shank is none too large for the weight of the ear. The cob does not have quite the cherry-red color found in the Reid corn. LEGAL TENDER 431 SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN EAR OF LEGAL TENDER. Note the deep kernels with large germs. Kernel. The original type of Legal Tender was a kernel of me- dium depth. But a few breeders have developed a very deep grain which soon became shoe-pegged and lacking in fullness at the tip. This type was also very chafly and became late in maturing and rather starchy. However, the kernel is the deepest of the varieties of Iowa and is rather narrow with straight sides, and quite prominent shoul- ders at the tip. The germ, which extends in depth almost to the back of the thin grain, is very broad and covers the entire face of the kernel, reaching near the crown as well. Although very deep and shelling 90 per cent of corn, the kernels are firm on the cob. Adaptability. Having originated on the rich, warm soils of southwestern Iowa, the Legal Tender is really a special purpose va- riety. When tried farther north the only outcome has been a shorten- 432 CORN ing of the kernel and a lessening of the size of ear. In northern Mis- souri and eastern Kansas it has proved to be a very heavy yielder. When pushed farther westward into Kansas, however, it did not se- cure sufficient rainfall. CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. The immediate locality of Emerson has developed a number of Legal Tender enthusiasts. Mont- gomery and Page Counties have several men who produce a winning type. As yet all are amateurs and could not be spoken of as breeders JOHNSON COUNTY WHITE *The Johnson County White variety was originated in Johnson County, Indiana about twenty-two years ago. It is a cross between Boone County White and Forsythe’s Favorite. The first work done in producing this variety was in 1890, when Mr. J. D. Whitesides crossed a white variety which he had been calling Dungan’s White Prolific (afterwards found to be Boone County White) with Forsythe’s Favorite. Somewhat later Mr. L. B. Clore, who was also living in Johnson County, made the cross between Boone County White and Forsythe’s Favorite, independently of Mr. Whitesides. At about this same time Mr. J. R. Overstreet began breeding this corn from seed received from Mr. Whitesides. Each man gave a different name to the corn, Whitesides calling it White- side’s Imperial White Dent, Clore calling it Farmer’s Interest, and Overstreet naming it Overstreet’s Peerless. In 1899 the three men decided to combine and to call the corn the Johnson County White Dent by which name it is now generally known. Excellent work has been done in breeding up this variety and it won the grand sweepstakes prize for three years at the National Corn Show. The corn does not differ materially from Boone County White in size, but it is rougher and the tips have a sharper taper. In Missouri the length is ten and one-half inches to eleven inches, and the circum- ference seven and one-half to seven and three-quarters inches. The kernels are somewhat narrower and are nearly square at the summit, having straight instead of curved sides. They also average deeper than do those of Boone County White and are more starchy in com- position, which gives them a rather starchy white color. The rows are straight and kernels uniform. The indentation is properly a deep crinkled crease to a short pinch. *Missouri Experiment Station. WHITE SUPERIOR 433 Johnson County White is a medium late maturing variety requir- ing a growing season of from 120 to 125 days; in which respect it is similar to the Boone County White. In stalk character also it is very similar to the Boone County, being plentifully supplied with foliage, and naturally requiring a fertile soil to produce a good quality of corn. GOLDEN EAGLE. This variety of corn was originated by Mr. H. B. Perry, of Toulon, in Stark County, Illinois, in 1871. He began his selection from a variety known as the “Mason County Yellow,” which was a small eared corn with small, bright yellow kernels and red cob. This corn has never been crossed with other varieties and selection has been especially for a large proportion of corn to cob, which fact is evidenced in the deep kernels and well filled ends. The ear should be slowly tapering and of medium length; kernels deep, bright yellow in color, loose and upright on cob, with straight edges and sharp, rough dent; number of rows 16 to 20, with medium to wide spacing between the rows; butt moderately rounded and com- pressed, cob small and red with small shank. This variety is of me- dium maturity, ripening in from 100 to 115 days, and is adapted to the latitude of central Illinois, where it is grown to a considerable extent. GOLDEN ROW. Golden Row originally came from Scioto Coun- ty, Ohio, 41 years ago, but has been grown by Lee Smith & Son, of DeSoto, Nebraska, as a distinct variety for over thirty years. Golden Row is of a bright yellow color, with deep grains. The ears grow from 9 to 11 inches in length, with a circumference of 74 to 84 inches. Although having a strong tendency to sucker it matures in from 110 to 120 days. WHITE SUPERIOR. The history of the White Superior variety, as nearly as can be learned from the account of Mr. P. R. Sperry, of Warren County, Illinois, a breeder of this corn, is as follows: Mr. Shaffer, a seed specialist, in 1880 brought from Pennsylvania to War- ren County, Illinois, a variety of corn called White Elephant. In 1895, Mr. Sperry began selecting seed from this variety for a different type than the White Elephant. He selected one bushel of seed of the type desired and planted this seed by itself, so that it would not be mixed with any other variety. In changing the type of corn Mr. Sperry changed the name to the White Superior. It is a medium to late ma- turing variety, ripening in 105 to 120 days. His selection was as follows: Kernels one-half inch in length and one-fourth inch in width; ears 11 inches long, 74 inches circumference, with little space between rows. The White Superior is adapted to central and north central sections of the state of Illinois. 434 CORN This white corn as it is bred today is of medium size, the length not exceeding 9 and the circumference 7 inches. There are usually about 18 to 20 distinct rows of tapering, dented kernels, with slightly curved edges. The shank is medium to large, with a medium white cob. SHENANDOAH YELLOW. *History. The Shenandoah Yellow has been a distinct variety or rather type, in the vicinity of Shenandoah, Iowa, for twenty years. It is the result of improving and selecting good strains of yellow corn brought there from Illinois by the early settlers. It represents the southwestern Iowa idea of a big, rough, yellow corn of good form, high feeding quality, and extra heavy yielding ability. S. E. Field and others of Page County, Iowa, were the early growers of this corn. It was not offered for sale and distribution until 1901, when it was entered in the seed catalog of Henry Field. It has proved a great success in loose, warm, fertile soils; but as it is a heavy feeder, it has proved a failure on hard-pan land in light soils. It is especially popular in northwestern Missouri. ‘ Breed Characteristics. The stalk is very coarse, with abundant foliage. This corn is a very rank grower. The ear is a large one, measuring about 10 inches. The kernel is very deep and is broader than most of the high shelling varieties. It has a very sharp, pinched dent. The type is not as yet very uniform, but the predominating color is a dark orange yellow, and the shape of the ear is almost cylindrical. FARMERS’ RELIANCE. H. H. Connell, of Deep River, Iowa, is the breeder of this corn, which is the result of a cross, his object being an extra early corn, yet as large as it could be made. As Pride of the North has been improved, he has allowed Farmers’ Reliance to become somewhat larger and also later. It is now medium early, a strong, rapid grower, and a sure cropping variety. The ears are medium in size, tapering, with firm, rather smooth grain. PRIDE OF THE NORTH.—History. Pride of the North was originated and developed by H. J. Goddard of Fort Atkinson, Iowa, Mr. Goddard began breeding this corn in 1870, Forty bushels of this seed were sold to the Adams Seed Company, of Decorah, Iowa, in 1875. The next year Mr. Savage, special agent for the Hiram Sibley Seed Company of Chicago, came out to Mr. Goddard’s farm and con- *The real development of this variety has been brought about by the efforts of Frank Keenan of Shenandoah. SILVER KING 435 PRIDE OF THE NORTH. distribute it over that state. tracted his entire crop. The publicity given the new variety by this large company, together with its record in the corn show soon made the Pride of the North the most widely grown corn in the northern part of Iowa and IIli- nois. In 1886 a sample of Mr. God- dard’s own breeding was awarded first premium at the Chicago Exposition. Breed Characteristics. Pride of the North is a yellow corn with rather shallow kernel, slightly tapering ear, and having 12 to 16 rows of kernels, is therefore small in circumference. Its strongest points are early maturity and strength of breeding. SILVER KING.—History. Silver King Early Dent corn was originated and developed by H. J. Goddard, of Fort Atkinson, Iowa. Of the truly great breeders of corn which have car- ried on their work in Iowa, Mr. God- dard is the foremost. In 1869 he pur- chased half a bushel of seed corn from a man living in Eldorado, Fayette county, Iowa. The seed originally came from Indiana. Mr. Goddard has persistently kept the large yet early maturing type in mind. Selection in the field each year has tended to pro- duce uniformity and fixity of breed characteristics. Silver King dent corn was successfully shown at the World’s lair in New Orleans in 1884 and again in Chicago in 1886. Its value as a heavy yielder for the northern locali- ties has led Professor R. A. Moore, of the Wisconsin Agricultural College, to Results show its adaptability. Breed Characteristics. It is a pure white corn, very large ears for 436 | CORN northern sections. The butts and tips have been bred to complete filling. The grain is very deep for such an early corn. Its maturity is assured every year. SILVER KING. EARLY MASTODON. The Early Mastodon corn originated with C. 5. Clark, of Huron County, Ohio, to meet the demand for a large eared yet early maturing variety. It is reckoned as a 100-day corn and has a very wide field of tested adaptability. CHASE’S WHITE DENT. History. *“The original stock of Chase’s White Dent corn has been grown in southeastern Nebraska for 30 years or more, and was known as the Tucker corn. This old strain of corn is quite popular today in some localities. It has a long slender ear, a universally white cob, and is an easy picking, hardy corn. In 1894, the dryest season probably ever seen in this section, this Tucker corn gave an average yield of 25 bushels or thereabouts. Noticing the hardiness of this corn we obtained some for seed for the next season. In 1894, O. E. Hall, while visiting in Arkansas, chanced to find a white corn with a very deep grain and short cob well filled at both ends. He brought a few ears home with him and planted them. We obtained a few ears of this seed, and planted it with our corn in a fertile portion of the field—a rude, but effective cross. Since that the improvement has been by ear selection entirely, until the last two years, when the row selection system of breeding has been prac- ticed. No pedigree seed for sale however. A son in the agricultural school, believing the corn a good corn for show, selected 30 ears for the corn show at Lincoln in the winter of ’03-’04. This exhibit at- tracted such favorable comment as to cause a representative of the Nebraska Commission at St. Louis to come to our farm cribs and examine the corn and purchase 100 bushels of it for that show, to represent the state.” Breed Characteristics. Owing to the fact that this corn had no name, and as the Nebraska Corn Improvers’ Association required a standard, the corn was named Chase’s White Dent and given a standard. The standard was adopted by the Association and is as follows: *P. W. Chase, Pawnee City, Nebraska. GOLDEN GLOW 437 Shape, slowly tapering. Length, 9 inches. Circumference, 7 inches. Kernel, upright. Translucent in color, and rough. Kernel shape, broad wedge. Cob, white and carries from 14 to 18 rows of grains. Per cent of corn to cob, 86. This corn has won its own place in the corn world, and has shown itself to be one of the fittest. It matures about two weeks later than Reid’s Yellow Dent. WISCONSIN NO. 7.—(Originally Silver King.) *“The foundation stock of this corn I received from Mr. William Banks, Burt, lowa. My attention was called to this corn at a corn contest held at Algona, where I assisted Professor Holden in judging corn. We awarded first prize to this type of corn and I was so satisfied with the corn that on my return to Wisconsin I corresponded with Mr. Banks, the exhibitor, and secured 30 bushels of this corn for our use. We car- ried on breeding work at our station farm in accordance with the ear- to-the-row method and improved the corn considerable in leaf and stalk development; also in yield of perfect ears. In 1907 something like 17 or 18 per cent of all ears gathered from the field classed as seed ears. We have bred to produce as far as possible one ear to the stalk, because where it produces only one ear the seed is likely to be better than where two or three are produced. Since the corn was perfected we began a rapid dissemination of it through our Experiment Association. We established some 1500 corn centers in Wisconsin, and had members of our Association growing corn for seed purposes at these centers. We feel that the equivalent of no less than 12,000,- ooo bushels of this corn was grown in Wisconsin last year (1907). One breeding acre at the station farm produced 98.6 bushels in 1907. This is the largest yield ever secured from this or any other variety.” GOLDEN GLOW. **Golden Glow corn, Wisconsin No. 12, is a cross between Wiscon- sin No. 8, a selection from the Minnesota No. 13 grown at this Station, and North Star, Wisconsin No. 11. The Wisconsin No. 8 was used as the male parent and the No. 11 as the female. The No. 8 is a rather small, very early-maturing corn, while the No. 11 is considerably *Prof. R. A. Moore, University of Wisconsin. ; : **B, L. Leith, Instructor in Agronomy, University of Wisconsin, (15) 438 CORN larger and later maturing. The object of the cross was to obtain the early quality of the No. 8 combined with the size of the No. 11. The No. 8 and No. 11 were planted in alternate rows in 1905. The tassels of all of the No. 11 were removed, thus all the corn produced on the No. 11 stalks were of hybrid nature. Selection was made from this cross for earliness and size. The first few years showed consider- able variation in type, but after rigorous selection for ten years a very uniform corn has been produced. As soon as the corn showed con- stancy of type it was distributed to the members of the Wisconsin Experiment Association and tested out in a large way throughout the state. From reports from hundreds of members each year, the Station was assured that we had a variety of corn of superior quality. It proved to be a good yielder and vigorous grower and was found es- pecially adapted to the central part of the state. Characteristics. The plant grows to a height of eight to twelve feet, is well leaved and vigorous. The ear is a deep yellow, or golden in color, length 8} to 9} inches, circumference 64 to 7 inches. The shape of the ear is nearly cylindrical, with a moderately rounded butt and tip. The cob is cherry red, from 14 to 14 inches in diameter. The number of rows on the ear varies from fourteen to eighteen. The kernel is a medium wedge in shape, medium deep and crumpled in- dentation. NEBRASKA WHITE PRIZE. Nebraska White Prize is a very strong heavy rooted variety, stands drouth well, and is extra free from suckers. The crop matures in 110 to 120 days and produces an ear 9 to 11 inches in length by 7$ to 8 inches in circumference. This variety has been bred pure for 38 years. It has been selected to a definite type by Lee Smith & Son, of DeSoto, Nebraska, for the last 32 years. *BLOODY BUTCHER.* Bloody Butcher is a variety that takes its name from its color, which is a mixture of red and yellow, and like all varieties which take their name from one characteristic, its other characteristics may show a wide variation. It is medium early and has a very deep grain. It has local names in some sections. CALICO CORN.* Calico corn is another variety which takes its name from its peculiar color. It is a mixture of white and blue grains, although mixtures of red and white or red and yellow are also called Calico. The latter are, however, of the Bloody Butcher type. Calico is grown in many localities and it has no fixed characteristics. *Ohio Circular No. 117. IOWA IDEAL 439 IOWA IDEAL. **Jn 1883 Mr. W. D. Kaylon, of Strahan, Iowa, purchased several bushels of white corn of a neighbor. The variety was known as St. Charles White. In 1894 H. Hilton, of Malvern, Iowa, secured some of this corn. At that time it was a good corn, but there were two different types; one a very thick ear with a large shank; the other a well proportioned ear with a medium shank and IOWA IDEAL thinner kernel. The best ears of the latter were selected and by close breeding the type has become unusually well fixed. In changing the type of this corn it was named the “Iowa Ideal.” This corn was first shown in 1904 by the originator, and won at every place exhibit- ed. It has been shown at all of-the leading corn shows since and has always “been in the money.” In shape of ear, trueness to type, uni- formity in size, and shape of kernel, this corn is not excelled by any other variety. The shape of ear is partly cylindrical, tapering at tip; kernels creamy white, rather thicker than Silver Mine, having no thin-grained chaffy ears. The grain is well dented, a pinched crease dent, with plump, rounding tips; 20 rows distinctly paired; cob me- dium size, white, shank medium, well filled butts and tips; length of ear 9 to 10% inches; circumference 774 to 734 inches; matures in TIO to 115 days. This corn does not come from the Silver Mine, as is often thought. **From letter of H. Hilton, of Malvern. 440 CORN “WILLHOIT.” *“We began to breed the Willhoit corn forty years ago by using corn that my father brought from Kentucky in the year 1848. I used the best ears that I could find in the field in the fall, by going through and selecting the earliest and best shaped ears, free from mixed grains, and at the same time being careful to get ears that grew out and down from the stalk so as to turn the water out of the ears. As you will know, all ears that grow straight up with the stalk are filled at the butt in the fall with water and spoiled, and also very hard to shuck and never grow even on the stalk. “TI will say it took me ten years to get the corn to send out ears at an even height and to grow on a small shank with just enough husk to cover the corn and no more. I was 15 years getting rid of the red ears and somewhat longer getting rid of white cobs. We make our selection of seed in the fall as we gather, so that we can get the best ears from the stoutest stalks, the proper height from the ground, and also those not having too much shuck.” CATTLE KING. Cattle King originated with W. W. Van Sant in Mercer County, Illinois, in 1868. iu 1877 this corn was brought by the originator to Fremont County, Iowa, in the great Nishnabotna Valley, three miles northwest of Farragut. Here on a farm of two sections Mr. Van Sant and his sons have developed a very large yel- low variety which isa heavy yielder. The ears are from 9 to 12 inches long and from 7% to 9 inches in circumference, containing from 16 to 24 rows and weighing 10 to 18 ounces. The kernel is very deep, rather broad, closely packed on the cob, with little space between the rows. The stalk grows rank, producing in many cases two ears. KANSAS SUNFLOWER. The Kansas Sunflower variety origi- nated with John Moody, Eudora, Kansas. Although the ears are somewhat small in circumference, the length allows a very heavy yield. This variety is especially adapted to rather dry soil. The rich yellow color and deep kernel make it a good feeding corn, very much desired by the farmers. MINNESOTA NO. 13. Minnesota No. 13, a very early maturing, yet heavy yielding variety, has been developed and brought before the farmers of Minnesota by the Minnesota Experiment Station. The ears, though but of medium size, show a wonderful uniformity of rows, and evidence breeding and selection. The dent is that of the dimple and the endosperm is largely horny, showing little of the cloudy, white starch at the crown. Nevertheless, there is no sign of *Written by the originator, Willis J. Willhoit, after forty years of experience. MINNESOTA NO. 13 441 the flinty, round tendency of the kernels, although the tips of ears are not so well covered as in the varieties farther south. The Gurney Seed Company, of Yankton, South Dakota, introduced Minnesota No. 13 into their state in 1906. The success of the variety has been amazing. By August 2oth of that year the ears in the field were safe from frost, and husking began October 8th. Yields in general have run from 50 to 75 bushels per acre. HILDRETH CORN GROWN IN KANSAS HILDRETH YELLOW DENT. Hildreth Yellow Dent may be called a native variety, so to speak, of Labette County, Kansas. The originator C. E. Hildreth, of Altamount, Kansas, began selecting and breeding this corn after 1901, because of the sturdy way in which it withstood the drought of that year. It is a large, rank growing, late variety, maturing in 125 to 130 days; ears large; length 9 to 11 inches; circumference 7 to 8 1-2 inches; slightly tapering; medium large shank and cob; red cob with 18 to 24 rows of well formed deep, yellow grains; well filled out at butt and tip. Grains wedge shape, medium in width and indentation; large germ; deep and firm on cob, giving large percentage of shelled corn. COLLATERAL READING: Co-operative Variety Tests of Corn in 1902 and 1923, Nebraska Bulletin No. 83. Seed Corn and Some Standard Varieties for Illinois, Illinois Bulletin No. 63. Test of Varieties, Iowa Bulletin No. 55. Varieties for Minnesota, Minnesota Bulletin No. 4o. 442 442 CORN New Strains of Corn, U.S. Report No. 83. Variety Tests of Corn, North Dakota Bulletin No. 75. Variety Tests of Corn, Virginia Bulletin No. 16s. Variety Tests of Corn, Indiana Bulletin No. 124. Johnson County White, Missouri Bulletin. Ohio Circular No. 117. CHAPTER XxX. CORN BREEDING THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER Every farmer should grow the greater part of his own seed corn. The idea that corn will run out if grown for a long period in a given locality is a fallacy. There is no corn so well adapted to a given lo- cality as that which has been grown there and given intelligent selec- tion for a period of years. Therefore, every farmer should have his “Selection Bed” each year, from which he selects his seed corn for the planting of his larger fields the following year. SECURING THE SEED FOR PLANTING THE SELECTION BED. In starting the “Selection Bed,’ seed may be secured from three sources: 1. From your own corn. 2. From someone in your locality. 3. From someone not in your locality. These will be discussed separately under their respective headings From Your Own Corn. As suggested above, this should be the best source to secure the seed for starting the selection bed. Your own corn may naturally be expected, after having been home grown for a period of years, to be the best adapted to your own peculiar climate and soil conditions. From Someone In Your Locality. If your own corn is badly mixed, with no type, seed having been saved each year without any special attention being paid to maturity and type, then, it is very prob- able that a neighbor in the immediate locality, who has been careful regarding these particulars, will be able to furnish seed which is much more desirable than your own. This should be given a germi- nation test, that all weak and worthless ears may be discarded. From Someone Not In Your Locality. It is to be hoped that this will not be necessary. It is the least desirable source of the three. When going outside your locality for seed, it is best to keep 444 CORN within your own latitude and at very moderate distances, that there may be less chance for contrast in soil and climatic conditions. It is dangerous to go south, owing to the longer growing season. Such seed is likely to produce a crop, which, under normal conditions, will not mature satisfactorily, while an early fall would prove disas- trous, resulting in a quantity of “soft corn.” It is better to go north for seed than to go south. Seed secured from the north is accustomed to a shorter growing season, producing a smaller stalk and ear than that grown further south. Should seed corn be secured from a dis- tance, especially southward, it should be only for the planting of a small patch and not for planting the general fields. By means of proper selection, it will be found to more closely adapt itself to its environment, so that in a few years it will have become thoroughly acclimated. The length of time depends upon the contrast in the soil and climatic conditions between the two localities. SELECTING SEED FOR SELECTION BED. As it takes but from 12 to 14 average sized ears of corn for the planting of an acre where a 3 foot 6 inch planter is used, with 3 kernels to the hill; 40 to 50 ears will be a desirable number to select. In the first place, it is to be expected that a quantity of seed corn has been previously selected and stored. In the process of giving this seed corn the germi- nation test, it will be noticed that some of it comes with much more strength and vigor than the rest. In fact, by careful examination it will be found that 40 to 50 ears may be selected in the germination box, which have pushed forward during the process of germination more rapidly than have the rest. These ears may be laid aside and used for planting the selection bed. They should be shelled and graded. In choosing these ears for the selection bed, it is preferable that they be of one type. The best type of ear and kernel is not the same for all conditions of environment. In localities where the soil is rich and the season long, a large ear with deep, narrow kernels will ma- ture, while in the more northern districts, where the seasons are com- paratively shorter, a smaller ear with shallower grains, less of the pinch dent, and more of the flinty characteristics, must necessarily be a more desirable type. SIZE AND LOCATION OF SELECTION BED. For the average lowa farm of 160 acres, a three-acre selection bed is of sufficient size. This should be preferably an isolated field or in the south or southwest corner of the general field. Should there CARE OF SELECTION BED 445 be another field of corn near the south line of your own, then the selection bed may be placed either to the north side of your general field or in the center of it. The seed planted by a neighbor just to the south of your general field may not have been selected as carefully as your own and also might be of a different variety. Therefore, it would be preferable for the pollen from your own general field to fall on your selection bed than to have the pollen from the field adjoining. The prevailing winds in summer are from the south and southwest. This is the reason for locating the selection bed as above. The selection bed should, if possible, be on fall plowed ground, which, if properly cared for in early spring, matures the corn earlier. PLANTING THE SELECTION BED. The selection bed should be planted with the specially selected seed as soon as the ground has sufficiently warmed up in the spring and the seed bed has been put in proper condition. The corn planter should be used, planting the same number of kernels per hill as in the general field. A good seed bed always pays well for the time taken in its preparation. CARE OF SELECTION BED. The selection bed should be cared for in the same way as the general field; cultivating at least 3 times and 4 if possible. It will demand no special attention until the corn begins to put forth its tassels. The tassel is the staminate (male flower) ; the silk is the pistillate (female flower.) There is one silk for every kernel. Only one pollen grain is necessary for the fertiliza- tion of a silk. In the selection bed there will naturally be found num- erous weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, which, whether or not an ear is produced, will, with few exceptions, produce tassels which will shed their pollen over the field. In order that this pollen may be eliminated from the selection bed, take a sharp knife of good size and go into this patch just at the time when the first tassels begin to appear, cut down all weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, cut ting them close to the ground. This will not only eliminate the spreading of this pollen, but will be of further benefit to the field by not permitting these worthless stalks to draw nourishment from the soil to the sacrifice of stalks which are producing ears. It is very properly assumed that a strong appearing, mature ear, may be great- ly injured for seed purposes by being fertilized by the pollen from weak and unproductive stalks. While the ear that season may not show the influence, yet when used for seed the following year, it may be expected that “the sins of the fathers will be visited on the children to the third and fourth generations.” If the pollen from these 446 CORN weak and unproductive stalks is permitted to be shed it will undoubt- edly be the father of many of the kernels produced on the strong, vigorous looking ears. Weak parentage in the line of our livestock has long been considered undesirable for satisfactory results. It should likewise be eliminated in corn by means of the selection bed. CAUSES OF BARREN STALKS. Stalks that bear no ears are called barren stalks. With very few exceptions, they will have a tassel and shed pollen the same as other stalks. Barren stalks are not espe- cially the weak stalks in the field, but very much to the contrary. They may be attributed to several causes, weak seed, insect injuries and diseases, unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, and too thick plant- ing. Weak Seed. While many of the barren stalks are of strong and vigorous growth, a few are also found much smaller and weaker in appearance. More than anything else, poor seed is responsible for the weak stalks that appear in the field. A large number of the weak stalks are barren. The following table is given in illustration of this: Ear STRONG SEED | Ear No WEAK SEED No. Germination | Stand | Barren . Germination | Stand |Barren | S.W.B. Il | Ss. WB. 49 | 6—0—0 74.3 1.9 50 4—0—2 74.8 3.2 25 | 6—0—0 75.2 6 9 2—4—0 75.7 6.3 28 | 6—0—0 771 0 40 4—2—-0 77.6 4.9 34 | 6—0—0 78.1 1.8 37 4—2—0 79.1 4.8 The ears used in this table are taken from results at 3 county stations in different parts of Iowa. Weak seed produces weak stalks with poor root development, which are seldom able to yield grain. Insect Injuries and Diseases. The plant draws the hardest upon the soil at the time of putting forth its shoots and tassels. A corn plant may not have its root system so injured during its early growth, but that the stalk can be very well supplied, and in case of rich ground, a strong, vigorous looking plant may often be produced. Yet at the time when the plant is ready to put forth its shoot and tassel, it is unable to do both because of its roots having been lacerat- ed by insect pests. In such cases, the ear is sacrificed, while with few exceptions the tassel will be present. The foregoing is especially applicable to the corn root worm and the white grub. The corn root aphis will accomplish the same re- sults. It does not lacerate the roots, but sucks the nourishment. Chinch bugs coming on to corn just before shooting time, often suck BARRENNESS CAUSED BY DISEASE 447 the sap away to such an extent as to leave the stalk weakened anil consequently barren. CORN PLANT AFFECTED BY SMUT IN VARIOUS PLACES. 448 CORN A smut spore may alight and develop on the ear. Instead of the plant food being used for the kernels, the mycelium of the smut withdraws it for use in the formation of the smutted mass. Unfavorable Soil and Climatic Conditions. In light soils not suit- able for corn production, a large percentage of barren stalks are pro- duced. The plants in general, under such conditions show a lack oi strength. Should this unsuitable condition be accompanied by un- favorable climatic conditions, such as an especially wet spring with cool days and nights so unfavorable for the growth of the young corn plants, the amount of barrenness will be increased. Too Thick Planting. When corn is planted so thick that the soil is unable to supply enough plant food to maintain the stalks and at the same time produce ears, a large number of barren stalks result. From a given area of land, the largest yield of corn will be secured if the amount of seed planted is just within the limit of the ability of the soil to support the resulting plants. Beyond this limit, the ear is sacrificed and the stalks become smaller. The following table will show the gradual tendency toward an increasing amount of barrenness as the number of kernels (or stalks) per hill increases. This is the result of 39 experiments in 12 counties in Iowa, cover- ing in some a period of 3 years (1905, 1906 and 1907)—years of quite varying climatic conditions. EFFECT OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING ON PER CENT BARREN STALKS. Kernels or stalks per hill...... 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 4.0 4.5 5.0 Per cent barren stalks........ 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.8 | 4.6 | 5.6 | 81 | 9.7 | 11.6 | 14.5 Hereditary Influences. These influences are clearly brought out in the great variation in the amount of barrenness noted from individual ears within a given variety of corn, making it possible to materially decrease the percentage of barren stalks by selection. The following table will illustrate the above heading. In arrang- ing this data the germination test and the per cent stands were selected as nearly alike as possible. STORY COUNTY 1907. Ear No. | Test | Per cent Stand Per _ cent Barren S. W. B. 31 6—0—0 61.9 4.6 33 6—0—0 62.4 14.5 S—Strong. W—Weak. B—Bad or Dead. CAUSE OF SUCKERS 449 HENRY COUNTY 1907. Ear _ No. | Test | Per cent Stand | Per cent Barren | Ss. W. B. \ 41 | 5—1—0 83.8 | 10.8 49 4—2—0 82.9 | 6 44 0—6—0 85.7 | 17 36 | 1—5—0 | 85.2 | 26.3 37 i o—6é—vU 80.5 10.7 47 | 0—6—0 | 80.5 41 MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. Ear No. | Test | Per cent Stand | Per cent Barren | S. W. B. 42 | 6—0—0 74.3 4.5 43 I 6—0—0 75.2 7.0 46 i 6—0—0 81.0 3.5 32 | 6—0—0 82.4 1.7 62 | 6—0—0 71.4 3.3 64 I 6—0—0 71.4 6.0 CAUSES OF SUCKERS.—How Detected. Corn generally sends up but one stalk or culm. Occasionally one or more in addition may appear, branching from the lower nodes, near or below the surface of the ground. These are termed suckers. They may have no root system whatever, drawing their nourishment entirely from the mother stalk. Again, they are found with a few roots leading off from near the place where the sucker is attached to the mother plant. A sucker may or may not produce an ear. It seldom does. However, a tassel is gen- erally present. The presence of suckers may be attributed chiefly to two causes. Thin Planting. Suckering is not so common on light soil. On such land, thin planting is desirable. Considerable suckering is fre- quently found where thin planting has been done on rich, heavy land. This is due to the amount of available plant food being greater than that needed to nourish the single stalk produced from the planted seeds. The plant thus in its endeavor to utilize this abundance of plant food, sends forth these additional stalks or suckers. Suckering is greater in seasons most favorable to the growth of the corn. On rich, heavy soils it is better to plant four kernels to the hill, which produce stalks bearing ears, than to plant from two to three kernels and have in addition a large number of suckers which take consider- able nourishment from the soil and return no grain. The following table will illustrate this point: RESULT OF THIRTY-NINE EXPERIMENTS IN TWELVE COUNTIES IN IOWA Kernels or stalks per hill....| 1.0 1.5 a 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 4.0 | 4.5 | 5.0 Per cent suckers........---- 55.0 | 30.6 | 19.7 | 14.3 | 8.9 | 6.7 | 5.7 | 4.9 | 4.0 450 CORN A steady decrease is shown in the per cent of suckers as the thick- ness of planting increases. Where only one kernel was planted, 55 per cent of suckers developed. Hereditary Influences. All varieties or strains of corn within a variety do not sucker to the same degree. For example, the Legal Tender corn, a good producer and very popular in southwestern Iowa. is inclined to sucker more than the majority of our dent varieties, while on the other hand, the Silver Mine is freer from this tendency. Individual ears within a variety differ greatly as to the number of suckers produced. This will be clearly shown in the following table: STORY COUNTY 1907. Ear No. | Test | Per cent Stand | Per cent Suckers | Ss. W. B. 31 6—0—0 61.9 0.8 33 | 6—0—0 62.4 2.3 MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. Ear No. | Test Per cent Stand Per cent Suckers | Ss. W. B. 42 | 6—0—0 74.3 13.5 43 6—0—0 75.2 21.7 46 | 6—0—0 81.0 18.8 32 | 6—0—0 82.4 28.3 62 6—0—0 71.4 18.7 64 | 6—0—0 71.4 22.7 SELECTING SEED EARS FROM SELECTION BED. The latter part of September or the first part of October is, in general throughout the corn belt, the proper time for selecting the early matur- ing seed ears. Having the selection bed in which the best seed has been planted, it will be known just where to go in search of the best seed ears for next year’s planting. It will then be unnecessary to walk over the large fields in search of the seed. When selecting the early maturing ears, the stalk on which they are found should be examined likewise. Examining Ear and Stalk. A study of the growing ear on the stalk is very important. The contrast in height will be found to be reproduced in a marked degree from year to year; likewise the regu- larity of rows and uniformity of kernels together with the early ma- turing qualities. Four feet from the ground to the ear is a desirable height. A lower position is unhandy in husking. If set higher, there is an increased tendency to falling because of wind. A short, thick shank bespeaks vigor and security of the ear from breaking off. Too large shank shows a lack of breeding and is usually accompanied by EAR TOO HIGH ON STALK 45] a large cob. An upright ear is to be criticised because rain enters the husks and rotting ensues. A moderately drooping ear is to be chosen rather than one in a loosely hanging position. The parent stalk, if weak and very slender, is undesirable. The best ears are not formed on stalks of this character. This inherited weak- ness will appear in the next generation. Stockiness at the base, with a gradual decrease in size upward, indicates strength and vigor, sta- bility in storm, and in general more natural strength than a stalk of similar height the same size throughout its length. Excessive foliage may indicate a tendency to produce fodder rather than grain, but usually a heavier yielder is a gross feeder. Only the well ma- tured ears should be selected for seed. An examination of the ears at this period is difficult, because the husks have to be largely re- moved or pulled back in order to ascertain the type and regularity of the kernel. At this time, ker- nels need not be taken out to ex- amine their depth or to determine the shelling percentage. Later on, during the process of germination, this feature can be more clearly observed. Yet the shape and type of the ears selected can be noted with definite characters in view, even in the field. Size and ma- turity are essential points of value. The largest possible ear EAR TOO HIGH ON STALK. that will mature is the best for any locality. However, maturity should never be sacrificed for size. A smaller, well matured ear is more desirable for seed than a larger immature ear. From this selec- tion bed may be selected the seed needed the following year for planting the large field; likewise the choicest ears kept for the next year’s selection bed. 452 CORN STALKS SHOWING EARS AT PROPER HEIGHT SELECTION BED—SECOND YEAR 453 SELECTION BED.—(Second Year).—In the spring of the second year, greater care and better judgment will be required in order to advance. The 50 ears now selected should possess a uniformity of type and show strong powers of germination. A repetition of the steps of the first year should be carried on the second. Some criticism of this method for continued use has been made. The argument set forth is fear of inbreeding and consequently a loss in productiveness. In a block of three acres properly handled, inbreeding to a harmful extent will not take place for many years, if at all. If the selection bed, as outlined, were carried on by every farmer in the corn belt, it would add millions of dollars to the annual income of the corn- producing states. er PAN TN 13 Paice OITA CTT Covenoanagadtia CED sf fy MEST Ee eee GEE CHAPTER XXI. CORN BREEDING FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PERMA- NENTLY IN THE BUSINESS There are some farmers and even large growers of corn who recog- nize the value of good seed corn, but would rather purchase it each year than endeavor to breed a small patch of their own. This is especially true of men who have a number of tenants. Such men are willing to pay three dollars per bushel for seed of good quality and vitality. The price of marketable corn and that of beef and pork enables them to do this economically. In other words, breeders of pure bred corn will come to be a part of American agricultural de- velopment. The opportunity for advancement in this line of work 1s limited only by the capabilities of the man. Experiment Stations have tried for a number of years a number of different methods in the breeding of corn. The prevention of in- breeding and at the same time fixing type and desirable characteristics without curtailing the yield, are problems which the corn breeder must solve. Because of higher prices received for pure bred corn, the corn breeder can afford to spend more time and money in turn- ing out his product. A plan is here outlined which is brief and yet covers the main points in question. It is the combination of the desirable methods advocated by practical breedérs and theorists. The figures used are merely for illustration and comparison. The scale upon which a breed- er caries on operations will necessarily determine the details of the work at hand. The plan is presented as the most successful so far as present knowledge of corn breeding is concerned. Improvements will come and are hopefully looked for. THE CORN BREEDER’S PLAN. Outside of the work at the various Experiment Stations, there has been little done along the line of corn breeding; or in fact, in grain breeding in general, including improvement by selection. FIRST YEAR TRIAL PLOT 455 The number who may be called “Corn Breeders” in the sense that we speak of our various breeders of live stock, are surprisingly few when we consider the great importance of this crop in its relation to the total annual production of the farms of the United States. It is to be expected of the corn breeder that he take greater care in the selection of his first or foundation stock. Fifty ears is a de- sirable number with which to start. These may be selected in the same manner as with those discussed under “Farmers’ Selection Bed.” When the 50 ears are determined upon, they should, of course, be the very best that could be secured for the purpose. FIRST YEAR.—Trial Plot. The entire ear will not be planted as in the former case, but merely a portion of each in accordance with the following outline. PLANTING INDIVIDUAL EARS BY HAND. Select a piece of ground located as per the directions under “Farm- ers’ Selection Bed.” Mark off a piece 50 hills square, the rows having same width as the planter, that it may be cultivated with the rest of the field. This will then, give a piece of land of 50 rows in width, each row containing 50 hills. Number the rows from one to 50; likewise the ears. One hundred and fifty kernels may now be taken from one side of each ear. The rest of the ear must be very carefully put away where nothing will bother it. Some of them are to be mated the following year; everything depends upon their being safely kept. The 150 kernels from each ear will just be sufficient for the planting of three kernels in each of the 50 hills to the row. The planting 456 CORN should be done by hand. It is to be remembered that the kernels from ear No. 1 are to be planted in row No. 1; ear No. 2 in row No. 2, etc., until each ear will be represented in a row whose number corresponds to the number of the ear. The summer care need be no different from that given to the remainder of the field. The barren stalks, weak stalks, and suckers should be eliminated in like manner as described under “Farmers’ Selection Bed.” Keep a Record. Each row should be carefully studied. A count of the stand should be made. Note the comparative strength of the stalks produced in each row, the percentage of barren stalks, weak stalks, and suckers; also the presence of smut, the height of the ear on the stalk, together with the early maturing qualities. The great contrast in the individuality of different ears of corn as shown in their production will be clearly seen. Complete notes should be made on each row, embodying in detail all the foregoing points men- tioned. These notes will be of assistance when it comes to mating the ears the following season. In the fall, the produce of each ear should be harvested separately, and carefully weighed. For general seed purposes this seed may be very properly saved, especially if chosen from the highest yielding rows which show early maturity. Contrast in Yield. It will be found that there is a decided difference in the productivity of ears of corn, even though from all outward appearances they are very similar, and test equally strong in the germination box. The yield per acre may be easily computed, remembering that there are 3,556 hills made by a 3 foot 6 inch plant- er and 3,240 made by a 3 foot 8 inch planter, the two widths most commonly used in the corn belt. Ears may vary in production as much as from 15 to 100 bushels per acre on similar ground under the same cultivation. Close examination of the original ears will never reveal these facts of yield. The individuality of each ear is unlocked only upon trial under field conditions. The value of this individuality then stands in results per acre. Individuality of Ears. The productive power is now definitely known. For example, ears Nos. 1 and 50 may have yielded 90 bushels and 100 bushels respective- ly, while Nos. 30 and 40 may have produced in turn 20 and 35 bush- els. The locality and fertility of the soil will determine the standard from which to base selections. Some breeders choose all the ears which yield above 70 bushels. Some set the basis lower. Assuming that, from the original 50 ears, 30 have all kept in good shape and 457 CORN REGISTRY SNOILLVUAdO ONIGAAAA NUOO do daoora ABPIBsG 458 CORN yielded well, and have proved after a test the second spring that their vitality is unimpaired, the real breeding of corn begins. SECOND YEAR.—Mating Individual Ears in the Breeding Block. Because of their high yield, 90 and 100 bushels respectively, ears Nos. 1 and s0 will be planted together in a breeding block 20 hills square. In the odd numbered rows, I-3-7-9-1I-13-15-17-19, plant kernels from ear No. 1; in the even numbered rows, 2-4-6-8-10-12-14-16-18-20, plant those from ear No. 50. Three kernels per hill is again prefer- able. These should be planted by hand though some breeders practice planting with a planter. These rows will not usually tassel at the same time. Should they do so, there is little difference which row is detasseled. If any preference is made, the strongest row of plants should be detasseled, thus making them the mother stalks. When the stalks from ear No. 1, that is, the odd numbered rows, begin to tas- sel before those of ear No. 50, the even numbered rows, then detassel the rows representing ear No. 1, and vice versa. All weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers should be removed, as in “Farmers’ Selec- tion Bed.” Silking usually occurs a few days later than tasseling. Hence, the silks of the detasseled rows will be in a receptive state when the pollen of the later tasseling rows is ripened. EFFECT OF INBREEDING The two rows in the center are dwarfed because of inbreeding. It will be seen that these two rows have now been mated. The ears from the detasseled stalks should be saved for seed and the ears from the other rows discarded from further breeding operations, be- cause they are inbred. This covers the care for one block 20 hills square. Where extensive breeding operations are carried on, a number of such isolated plots will be necessary. Advantages of the Breeding Block. 1. Inbreeding is prevented. DETASSELING CORN 459 2. Definite knowledge of the yielding powers of each ear is as- certained. 3. Systematic mating is established, whereby the most desirable characteristics of two ears can be combined and intensified. The sire is known, DETASSELING CORN. Pull out the tassel; do not cut it. How to Detassel. Tasseling time usually comes during the har- vest season. The farmer has plenty of work on hand. But just then the most important step in the process ol advancement in corn breed- ing must be made. Every day for from seven to ten days new tassels will appear. Detasseling is a process which requires time and pa- 460 CORN tience. The tassels should always be pulled and never cut. Some farmers go through the patch on foot, bending the stalk over and hold- ing it with one hand near the top joint, pulling the tassel from its place without injuring the plant. In rank growing corn, a man astride a horse that is muzzled to prevent destroying the corn, can pass between the rows and very rapidly detassel. The number of times that the block must be gone over depends upon the rapidity of the appearance of the tassels. When simply detasseling to eliminate the barren stalks, it will be found profitable to cut such stalks off at the surface of the ground. THIRD YEAR.—The Increase Bed. The “Increase Bed” is the next step. This will be started the third year. In the breeding blocks mentioned above, which were 20 hills square, there will be 200 hills in each which have been detasseled. Three kernels being planted by hand in each hill, it is safe to assume that from the detasseled stalks in each breeding block, as many as 400 ears will be secured, or at least 4 bushels of ears entirely free for the pollen shed from the tas- sels borne on their own stalks. This amount of seed will generally be secured from each breeding block. In studying these breeding blocks, very complete data should be taken of both the tasseled and detasseled rows. While the seed from the tasseled rows is not saved “STALKS A-FOOLIN’ ’ROUND ALL SUMMER, DOIN’ NOTHIN’.” No. 1 has a fairly good ear, weighing 16 ounces; one stalk per hill on one acre of ground, each producing an ear of this weight would yield 50 bushels and 56 pounds at the rate of 70 pounds per bushel. No. 2 weighs 10 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 31 bushels and 52 pounds. No. 38 weighs 9 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 28 bushels and 40 pounds. No. 4 weighs 6 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 19 bushels 1nd 3 pounds. No. 5 weighs 3 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 9 bushels and 36 pounds. No. 6 weighs one ounce; one stalk per hill would yield 3 bushels and 12 pounds. No. 7 produced the ear that is not there. Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7 are worse than worthless in the field, on account of their producing pollen, which is distributed over the field, LOCATION OF BREEDING BLOCK 461 to plant in “increase bed,” being very largely inbred, yet it is desirable to keep a detailed record of their performances as they are the sire rows in the breeding blocks. It will be found that some of the breeding blocks are yielding much higher than others, and in general the detasseled rows yield- ing higher than the tasseled rows. From the ears produced on —say two of the highest yielding breeding blocks (breeding blocks Nos. 1 and 5, for example), select 25 to 30 of each. It is very likely HAND POLLINATED EAR. that not more than 30 out of the 400 ears will be especially suitable. The two sets of ears must not be mixed, but should be given a germi- nation test, the strong ones then shelled and graded; in fact, prepared in accordance with “Selection and Preparation of Seed Corn for Planting.” It will thus be seen that we now have two lots of—say 25 ears each; one lot, the best of the 4oo from the detasseled rows in breeding block No. 1 (from ear No. 1, with ear No. 50 as sire); the second lot, the best 25 ears from the detasseled rows in breeding block No. 5 (from ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire). The “increase bed” will now be planted, the following or third year, as follows: Location, Planting and Care. Select if possible another isolated plot of three acres. The seed from one lot (taken from breeding block No. 1, selected from detasseled ear No. 1. with ear No. 50 as sire), should be put in the planter box on one side only; the seed from the second lot (taken from breeding block No. 5, selected from detasseled ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire), should be put in the other planter box. The three-acre plot should now be planted so that the ears representing seed from lot No. 1 and Lot No. 2, respectively, shall be placed in alternate rows. This will be the increase bed and should be cared for in respect to detasseling, in exactly the same way as outlined under the heading “Mating Indi- vidual Ears.” In addition to this, all the weak stalks, barren stalks. and suckers, should be cut out. While the increase bed is not a mat- ing of individual ears, it is, however, mating the progeny of high 462 CORN yielding individual ears. The rows in the “increase bed” should be numbered. We will then have the odd and even numbered rows as discussed under “Mating Ears in Breeding Block,” and will be handled in the same way. The seed planted in the even numbered rows is all the progeny of ear No. 1 (with ear No. 50 as sire) ; then the seed planted in the odd numbered rows is all the progeny of ear No. 10 (with ear No. 25 as sire). The alternate rows thus representing seed tracing back to the same parentage. Either the odd numbered rows or even numbered rows should be detasseled in accordance with the directions under heading “Mating Individual Ears in Breeding Block.” The increase bed is thus a means of continuing the breeding along a definite line, whereby a record of the parent may be had, together with data regarding their performances. This is a method which may be followed in the production of pure bred seed corn with which a pedi- gree of performance may be given. This is an outline of but one increase bed. As many more may be had as the breeder desires. The increase bed furnishes the very best place for securing seed corn for planting the general fields. Seed corn of this quality would be in great demand in any locality at most satisfactory prices. CONTINUING INDIVIDUAL EAR TEST AND MATING IN BREEDING BLOCKS. It is well that the corn breeder continue the individual test from year to year. The ears for this purpose may be secured from the increase bed. Such ears, of course, will already have a record back of them. A strict record should be kept when they go to the individual ear test. The breeding blocks of 20 hills square should also be continued from year to year. The corn secured for this purpose may come from two sources: 1. The very best of the ears produced in the breeding block oi the previous year. (Do not use an ear which has not been tested.) 2. Ears secured from the individual ear test. A policy that may well be adopted by all corn breeders, is not to mate two ears of corn in the breeding block until they first have been given an individual ear test as to their performance. Therefore, no individual ear of corn should be taken from the increase bed to mate in the breeding block until it has first been given a trial in the in- dividual row test. By so doing, the corn breeding will be kept at the highest standard. It will be seen that such a system as herein outlined for the corn breeder, while not taking a great deal of extra time, demands the most careful attention of a competent person. PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED 463 Outline to Be Followed By the Corn Breeder. The corn breeder’s method as herein outlined, is as follows: First year, trial plot of individual ears. Second year, trial plot—breeding block. Third year, trial plot—breeding blocks—increase beds. In addition to the above will be the general fields, which, partly during the third year and entirely so the fourth, may be planted from the pure bred seed from the “increase bed.” PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED. The corn produced in the increase beds may be classed as “pure bred” seed corn. As a definite line of breeding has thus been followed out, the parentage of the ears may be thus traced back to the individual ear row test. The corn breeder will, no doubt, have other of his larger fields in corn, the seed of which was secured from that which was left over from the breeding blocks after he had selected the best of it to put in the “in- crease beds.” In this general field he has done no detasseling, but merely has a mixture of this high yielding corn secured from the vari- ous breeding blocks in which he was mating different high yielding ears. The corn produced in these general fields may be classed as “high grade seed.” These two terms, “pure bred” and “high grade” may be looked upon as synonymous to the similar terms used with live stock; in one case, as With “pure bred” it is possible to give a pedi- gree; in the second, it is not. It will thus be seen that when selec- tions made from the progeny of high yielding ears are brought to- gether in a common field, the breeding identity is lost track of; the product, however, may be called “high grade seed.”” When ears are mated, as in the “increase bed,” it is possible to give them definite lines of breeding and it may thus be classed as “pure bred” seed. SOME POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BY THE SEED CORN BREEDER. The successful seed corn breeder must be able to dis- pose of his product. Many men of intelligent observation and love for plant breeding can develop a desirable type of corn. Few men are fitted for salesmen. Judicious advertising solves the question of se- curing customers. The farmer buys many things because of the wide circulation of farm papers giving descriptions of offered articles. The corn breeder should be very careful, supplying only such seed as may be depended upon to give satisfactory results. This insures patronage in the future. The new law passed by the State Legislature of Iowa, provides that seed corn sold to patrons by seed firms, must show a 464 CORN germination test of 94 per cent. Among the best dealers, this will have a tendency to induce them to adopt better methods of storage and a definite system of testing each ear sent out. It will, in fact, put the business of breeding seed corn ona scientific and legitimate Dasis, More corn is shipped in the ear now than ever before. Much of it is still shelled, especially with the seed companies. Crates containing one bushel each of ear corn are now used by all retailers of seed corn. An attractive crate with the sender’s name in a conspicuous place creates interest wherever it goes. A station agent will be much less liable to allow a slatted crate of corn to remain on the platform in a storm, than he would were the corn in a closed box. Mice are less liable to hide in a conspicuous place, such as between the ears of an open crate. HAND PICKING SHELLED SEEDCORN. The corn is carried over a belt. BUTTING AND TIPPING 465 Satisfying patrons over a wide expanse of territory is impossible if only one breed of corn is grown. The sooner the limitation regard- ing the successful culture of a given type or variety is known to the dealer, that much sooner the corn can be improved to fit the limited district. If the dealer live in southern Iowa, he cannot expect a breed which he has established in that rich, loamy soil to prove satisfactory to growers in southern Minnesota or northern Nebraska; at least not until it has become thoroughly acclimated in these districts, which may take several years. By keeping in touch with each and every pur chaser of seed, the results obtained will point to further exploration of that field or its entire abandonment. BUTTING AND TIPPING BY MACHINERY. 466 CORN CCLLATERAL READING: Crossed Varieties of Corn, Second and Third Years, Kansas Bulletin No. 17. Detasseling Corn, Nebraska Bulletin No. 25 The Farmer as a Corn Breeder, Article by Thompson, Editor Farmer’s Tribune. Breeding Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 210. Directions for Breeding of Corn. Illinois Circular No. 74. Inquiry Concerning Number of Barren Stalks in Illinois Corn Fields, Illi..ois No. 57 (Circular). Tillering of the Corn Plant, Nebraska Bulletin No. 57 Breeding Corn, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 267. Indian Corn, Kansas Bulletin No. 147. CHAPTER XXII. CORN BREEDING MECHANICAL METHODS OF SELECTING SEED CORN FOR IMPROVED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION With care, corn growers or farmers can learn to pick out protein seed corn by dissecting and examining a few kernels from each ear by means of a pocket knife, selecting for high protein seed the ears whose kernels show a large proportion of horny parts. High protein kernels contain much horny part, with little white starch, while with low protein kernels the reverse is true. This method is already used by practical corn breeders and with a very satisfactory degree of success. For example, in selecting seed corn by this method, Mr. Ralph Allen, of Tazewell County, Illinois, obtained seed ears for the year 1go2, which were 1.46 per cent higher in protein than the rejected ears from the same lot, and for the season 1903, his selected seed ears contained 1.58 per cent protein more than the ears which he rejected. The method proposed some years ago by Professor Willard, chem- ist of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, of picking out high protein seed by simply selecting for large germs, enabled one, as a rule, to make some gain in protein; but the gain is very much greater when the proportion of horny part is considered. In fact, from experience at the Illinois Station, it was found that the selection for a large portion of horny part is of very much more trustworthy index of high protein than is the size of the germ. Corn is often found with large germs which is actually low in protein because of a small per- centage of protein in the remainder of the kernel. The fact that only 20 per cent of the total protein of the kernel is obtained in the germ is evidence of the uncertainty of obtaining high protein seed corn and of the improbability of making any very considerable gain in protein by this method of selection. This difficulty was well understood by Professor Willard, as will be seen in the following quotation from the Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 197, Page 63. “There are undoubtedly great differences in the protein content of the part of the kernel, exclusive of the germ, and it is conceivable and 468 CORN not improbable that a large germ, though in itself tending to produce high protein content, might be overcome by the low protein of the remainder of the kernel.” (Protein is substituted for nitrogen in this quotation). Of course, if one picks out corn with large germs and at the same time either consciously or unconsciously selects those ears the kernels of which contain a large proportion of horny part, he may make con- siderable gain in protein, but in such case the gain should not be at- tributed solely to the large germs. The method of selecting seed corn for high oil content on the basis of large germs is certainly well founded, because of the fact that more : than 80 per cent of the total oil of the kernel is contained in the germ. Speaking of the correlation of oil and protein, Dr. Hopkins says: “All of the data gathered tends to prove that as the percentage of protein increases in corn, the starch decreases, while the oil remains almost unchanged, and that we may increase or decrease the percent- age of oil or of germ in corn without markedly affecting the percent- age of protein. This was the conclusion drawn when 163 ears of corn were analyzed more than 6 years ago. The different strains of corn which we have finally produced in our regular corn breeding work, furnish us excellent material for ascertaining what effect is produced upon the oil content of corn by breeding for a higher or lower pro- tein content and vice versa. What effect is produced upon the protein content by breeding for a higher or lower oil content may also be as- certained. “In 1909, we planted rows called the ‘mixed plot’ with 2 kinds of corn in every row, one kind having been bred for 4 years for high oil content, the other (originally from the same variety and stall) having been bred during the same 4 years for low oil content. These 2 kinds of seed were planted in every row just far enough apart so that the identity of the plants individually could be known as they grew during the season. The corn from each of the 10 rows was harvested in 2 lots, one being corn from high oil seed, and the other lot being from low oil seed. The 2 lots from each row were kept separate, the one being labeled ‘Corn from the high oil seed’ and the other ‘Corn from the low oil seed’.” The percentages of oil and protein as contained in these different lots of corn are shown in the following table: SELECTION FOR OIL AND PROTEIN 469 OIL AND PROTEIN IN CORN HARVESTED FROM THE MIXED OIL PLOT IN 1900. | LOW OIL SIDE | HIGH OIL SIDE Row No. Per cent Oil | Per cent Protein | Per cent Oil | Per cent Protein 2 | 3.93 10.07 5.61 10.06 2 3.78 9.26 6.75 9.05 3 38.73 10.21 5.88 9.12 4 3.75 8.47 5.99 9.65 5 3.89 9.39 5.71 10.08 6 | 3.80 9.77 5.91 10.23 7 | 3.60 9.80 5.60 9.91 8 | 3.58 9.65 5.84 10.382 9 | 4.22 9.18 5.68 9.15 10 | 3.27 9.26 5.82 9.32 Average | 3.81 9.51 | 5.78 9.69 This data is considered very reliable, both kinds of corn having been grown during the same season and in exactly the same soil, and each individual sample whose composition is shown is a composite sample representing many ears. The average difference in oil con- tent between the high oil side and the low oil side is 1.97 per cent oil, while the average difference in protein is .18 per cent. Consider- ing the percentage of protein in the corn is twice as large as the per- centage of oil, it will be seen that there is less than 5 per cent of a perfect correlation between the oil and protein. Attention is called to the fact that in selecting seed corn by chemi- cal analysis for high protein, there is a tendency to increase, not oniy the horny starchy part (which contains more of the total protein than any other part of the corn kernel), but also to increase the horny glut- en and the germ, both of which, though small in amount, are rich in protein, and consequently there is a tendency for the oil to be in- creased not only in the germ, but also in the horny gluten (aleuron layer) which is quite rich in oil. This is the evident explanation as to why there is a slightly higher degree of correlation between oil and protein in our pedigreed strains of corn than there is in ordinary corn which has not been so bred. Every low oil ear contains a small percentage of germ and every high oil ear a high percentage of germ. Attention is called to the fact that the high oil germ is even richer in oil than would be indicated by the high germ percentage as compared with the per cent of oil and germ in low oil corn, indicating that the breeding for high oil has not only increased the oil by increasing the percentage of germ (which contains most of the oil), but that there is also an increase the percentage of oil in the horny glutenous part. Similarly, the per- centage of oil in the kernel has decreased even more rapidly than the (16) 470 CORN percentage of germ in the low oil corn. These results are very apparent in the table which gives this data. EFFECT OF BREEDING ON COMPOSITION OF GERMS AND ENDOSPERMS. As already explained, 10 ears were selected for each of the four different strains of corn, low protein, high protein, low oil and high oil, and 25 kernels were taken from each of the 40 ears, the germ being separated trom the rest of the kernel, which we call endosperm. After the percentage of germ was determined for each individual ear, the germs from each lot of Io ears were put together to make 2 samples, each sample representing 5 ears. The endo- sperms were likewise put together, so that we had duplicate samples of both germs and endosperms for each of the 4 different strains. These samples were analyzed chemically and the results are given in the following table: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GERMS AND ENDOSPERMS FROM LOW PROTEIN AND HIGH PROTEIN CORN AND FROM LOW OIL AND HIGH OIL CORN. Variety Part of Kernel | Percent Protein | Percent Oil 18.05 33.59 Low Protein, Germs, } 17.96 34.60 20.85 34.99 High Protein, Germs, j 21.65 36.02 21.70 25.01 Low Oil, Germs, } 21.71 24.62 17.55 41.76 High Oil, Germs, j 17.84 41.75 5.69 83 Low Protein, Endosperms, j 5.68 91 13.67 -76 High Protein, Endosperms, j 13.92 72 9.13 52 Low Oil, Endosperms, 9.14 51 10.62 1.07 High Oil, Endosperms, 10.10 1.24 “The results show in a very striking manner the effect of breeding in changing the composition of the different physical parts of the ker- nels. Thus, the germs from the low oil cori contain about 25 per cent of oil, while those from the high oil contain nearly 42 per cent of oil. As stated above, breeding to change the oil content not only changes the percentage of germ, but it also changes the percentage of oil in the germ. It should also be noted that endosperms from the high oil corn contain about twice as much oil as those from the low oil corn, al- though the percentage of oil is very small, even in the low oil corn, and this oil is largely contained in the horny gluten.”* Perhaps the most marked and valuable results are shown in the percentages of protein contained in the endosperms from low protein *Bulletin 87 of Illinois. HIGH AND LOW OIL CORN 471 and high protein corn; the endosperm from the low protein corn contains less than 6 per cent of protein, while that from the high protein corn contains almost 14 per cent. These results, together with the ones given previously, would seem to show conclusively that to select high protein seed corn by mechanical examination, we should select principally for a large proportion of the more nitrogenous part of the endosperm; that is, the horny part. To select entirely for large germs will have only a slight effect upon the protein content of the corn, although it will produce a rapid and marked increase in the oil content. Referring again to the preceding table, it will be seen that the en- dosperms from the high oil corn contain about I per cent more pro- tein than those from the low oil corn. On the other hand, the germs from the high oil corn contain less protein (17.7 per cent) than those from the low oil corn (21.7 per cent), the difference being 4 per cent protein in favor of the low oil corn. These results were to be ex- pected, even from a study of the analyses of the 163 ears reported in Illinois Bulletin No. 55 in 1899, which showed that large germs were naturally even richer in oil than the size of germs would indicate, the increased oil tending to decrease the percentage, though not the actual amount of protein in tne germ. TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF GERM AND OIL IN HIGH AND LOW OIL CORN. Ear No. | Per aoe a ae ee Germ| | Ear No. Per SE hor oe ec 4,474 2.68 8.05 [? 4,374 7.10 12.90 4,486 2.65 8.13 } 4,411 7.01 12.75 4,491 2.60 7.92 4,412 6.87 13.73 4,495 2.59 7,39 4,417 7.01 14.50 4,509 | 2.53 7.06 4,421 7.02 14.65 4,512 2.45 7.89 4,423 6.95 13.88 4,521 2.12 7.13 4,436 TT 14.10 4,537 2.40 7.57 4,441 7.37 14.53 4,548 | 2.54 7,83 4,448 6.78 14.35 4,555 | 2.65 8.47 | 4,462 6.74 13.03 It will also be seen that high oil corn contains nearly twice as much germ as low oil corn and that the germs from the high oil corn are nearly one and one-half times richer in oil than the germs from the low oil corn, but that, although the high oil germs contain a larger amount of total protein because of their increased size, they are considerably poorer in percentage of protein than the low oil germs. Attention is called to the fact that, although the physical parts of the corn kernel which contain almost all of the oil, viz; the germ and 472 CORN horny gluten, also contain most of the ash, yet a high percentage of the ash in the germ is associated with a low percentage of oil, and vice versa, indicating that the ash content of the germ (which contains the major part of the ash of the entire kernel), bears a more constant relation to the oil-free material in the germ than to the whole germ. By computing, we find that the oil-free germs contain the percentages of ash as given in the following, assuming the oil to contain no ash, which is approximately correct. PERCENTAGE OF ASH IN GERMS. I In Fresh Germs In Oil-Free Germs 10.19 15.34 From Low Protein Corn............ | 10.16 15.54 | 10.12 15.57 From High Protein Corn............ 10.07 15.74 | 13.18 17.51 From Low Oil Corn................. 13.36 17.72 8.75 15.02 From High Oil Corn................ 8.81 15.12 Breeding for high or low protein produces no marked effect upon the ash content of either the germs or the endosperm, nor does it have any effect upon the oil content of either of these, and only slightly influences the protein content of the germs. The low protein germs contain about 18 per cent of protein and the high germs about 21 per cent. The results show that such breeding produces exceedingly marked effects upon the protein content of the endosperms, the low protein endosperms containing about 6 per cent and the high protein endosperms containing about 14 per cent protein. In this connection it is well to remember that the corn kernel only contains about 11 per cent of germ, while the endosperm amounts to about 89 per cent of the kernel. The significance of this becomes more readily apparent by an examination of the following table, which shows where the protein actually exists in 100 pounds of corn. PROTEIN IN ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF CORN. Names of Parts | In Germs { In Endosperms Low Protein Corn, Per cent of corn............... 9.33 90.67 Per cent of protein............ 18.01 5.69 Pounds of protein.............. 1.68 5.16 High Protein Corn, Per cent of corn............... 11.44 88.56 Per cent of protein............ 21.25 13.80 Pounds of protein............. 2.43 12.22 DiffERONG Ses as cihe ee «ate 8 wrasceitin ecu. eset ot5 7.06 A Absorption of water by plants................ecceeeuees pigiee sev uadanedvete oie 60-61 AChEA QC OF. CORN Mia scdasen aie pitted aida eaieels ASEM Bus Yee Bete § DEER ae ES OUR R ea BO 4-8 in: ‘the United States». is: swesaws egeres savawhas «et sceuttacmegs's cod oad 4-8 Of barley! dome mec and iced eh ct ites Fog hee GG GREE haa WS ahan ieee we QIAN WEA Oe 5-7 of cereals in the United States........... ccc cece scence cent een eeeeeetennes 5-7 OF COLI: gisele sree ant aisha ee cloaca sm SRAM Seg aidan Shah vvehaptltn es ar BeeaseiRln gn oc ghia lath A 4-8 Of “OAIS; seem Anise ne ghee emesis sauay saulsbatn saa NEE ME ets we shoe EE 5-7 Of MEE as ackslneacid Meee sce + ASEDSRES LER IA OES 4 HOUTORGNES SE TEST CARGO Lee 5 Of TYG sweteniied ecseea pdowee hag oaheew a qlaeany eahore wnat baaerancm ae cee ase See 5-7 OE Wye abe aes 88 Smt eiracarseaelas whe Sahin acd qu hucteneuetd odsni uate dash Boansnce la Epep SaiA adele Gre kaere Ve 5-7 MAT abe arts sora ciiaus Suda ser ved sabe nusienlsla nid he wea HAD Saint a PRR Scat dbdace eet MES, Oa Te HE BNO 288 Africa, production of Crm Is css5.5 cacinmais wees vee eden gees ous eas salcenawe 9, 33 Age of seed as affecting germination. ........... ccc cece eee een ence e eee eeeee 55 Agricultural -Jéaders: in’ Mexic0s vo5224502 044 a9 655 dat se HOR CAF ca HSG ce sae ee es 24 Air, int the! soil: LustisCadcoineliashon das.cnae Depa ae aasainlebaaidee’ dantonw dcaehuiels 99, 109, 353 effect of breeding ONsvsscgs gia ees Gs oaas RAE OMOS STE OE LUTE Bae ea a 467-473 effect of climate and soil on......... cc ccc cece cence reece ete eee en eee neee 74-84 Of AP SENte COPD: ui seninnterd ROA art Shadows Wolwie ove dein! Boa MWh ena Acad 8 30 of parts of corn Kernelasciinanss cae cew ssnriciiasGe Gone wae see eeeeee eng es 349-350 of corn fodder 26.3 ¢aka oa vee tee seh acalin ses Web ee ee ek Dees HedeeeR aS 348-350 OF Sage: i124 vase oor eete 656 WS Oks oe BS aRRY Ye EI ea dw esa Oni 379-397 Chemical “products, Of Cont: ¢ -+-ssnsidiciaticcinutaa 8 nae advan cate Racca ocd soararana a remanded CMO 338 Chicago as a terminal market... 2.204.646. be seaweed ene aee beeen eens 253-270 Pricesof COR In. mackie ccee ss iieauea sy seaGe ee apasdelondeweuaaldatieedeoass 271 Chittch bugs). asiaiowe ovgcanyo MeMeees se a2 8e¥4 RYSMENSOE REET eS Aang PA CRAs 233 Glaims fort losses in Shipping scaj savas sce qnnde & HUE ew Ratt Swi el aaa oteence td mane aye dn ey Nyavenb dela oe anne COth -SMUE: ose ys sree d gee woe RONG vad s ae ESA aR ee ea eid He ee diD.c es ; Corn stalk disease: ccs scexc cs oy key aes Saw Fede eed Gee Bas Mea ede ee ees ae COLIY WHE ware accuses aie d epeeancanenbek b Sinbtes aciadeitn aa FLOR ER EMAAR ae ee SCAT TOUS! aie kid cites Cee aMersaesee-¥ se ass Shee GAIN Re NE ALS aa. deviate Cartanedys ocd ves code NieNe ee SEER leat blight: xo Maer ser hg ceed aes Hae eee Don Baines mene soe eee meee ok HMAIZE: LUSE. sheen earnas ce BE OMEN Be Ee Ro we ede De eleeeeRed ks ee tues Distance between COrn TOWS 10... eee e eee ete e eee ene e ee eee ee eee e nets reas Distillery: ‘slop: weawcdeg yc vnw tao adauieun duels atenGun cies, duaded vine wie de Sineada tGonmiaes Distillers: Sains sveedeviae pus esriows + van eoegiensest teak sareameeeghwarees Disthibution: Of COP, ade. 2sewe vs wie oe AR eee g weed, gal et aitioss Beet aid saw opeing Sacpipenta wares effect: of climate Of. o.ccs dsc ewee eek eS eA MORE TS ADHERE SOT SHEN EESE OE See E eS Drilled: Corn. wcscronte css aa ck Had od once: BS Sua ROD SA WEES UE Da Amar RTE LAN CUlLVATON OL. sega var adors sa Pnese GLA OTDAGA RR dEMGe ERE eISSN planting’ of) 2:30 2eu saves due ieee dee eee eels ea Rae Boa REE La oa ed Drought resisting characters Diuvel! moisture: test sasccivaaar anne cede ccass Wis IATA S hee A DO HINOE YT Lees tases E Early cultivation of COrm......6. cee sects eee e eee e etn teen tte e teens 178 Early varieties ........0 0 cece cee eet ne ee teen en eee tenn et eens 3 Ear of corn plant....... 0. cece eee eee een eee enn enn e rete eee e ete n eas 49 development of 1.2.6... cece eee teen n te eee e etna ee 49 POSition Of 22... cece cece enn Ene ene EEE ee ee ees 52 VIII INDEX Ear rots ce ee GG HO a SS ESSE ae ea OR SEWER BOT he ee eee a eae fae ela aeaulen 221-223 Boar: “wy OUimiy, p2sceeye.caysavagavinia est asses Seow ant carabapaiesasnantes asses aaa te Sracesaen oes were week Chae unin sae 247 Blevatorst- ccsecaws weet. dat saasdie cs aaae pee Ne hd ase Gs Milo Ganee! agus MAO BAMA 253-260 COFO PET ALIVE. fecrccnnarsa nanaiiee ace a agua dens PuNseebdoy Sarteis ee ahecaHa Geo oO ocrers eatin 256-260 independent aus eievsas soaberew ene ss se4 RERwReey ee Lesa watbemee e BAG ee uutels 256 WME. soos ae sii enseaneard ceca Siaguy aecnaieadiant flee Daten @adhinNacnd Meera naa yeakeayamen 256 cost of handling grain through............ 0. cece cee ee cece eee eens 254 GiStribUtion: Of: waieasis cee cei snsic nd Stee eelgae celta gin ele lameneudiaW a wees a ame 254 manager of, qualifications: ¢6. 445 sss4sdcee teow nese reso eo eewaadee ewe eeee ean 255 regular Warehouses: «.:caececdas ance ds ccuires tees Gaw cee Reade tea Sees ee 255 TEIN ZYAMIES), ~ 5tcs wie souk dative raeeug 5 Gvenandcanenle adios Bie AG owe fesancanielnaiede Ge. dota sie oane- SuBmapaveylenave a. Iau ane eiasins 57 Epidermis sof icorn: stalks s.cic.e adiccveceace Gisraranenics cucnetea sane ad ee nares ee bue.e SNE Lata = 42 Equipment cost in corn production. ........ 0... ccc cece eee ee eee eee eens 207 Europe, distribution of corn in 12... .. 66. cece cee ee tee eee eee 1, 9, 31, 32 PLOCUCHOM Of {COM IM se sdcsisenas Soh eon MR Raa WON Had a aed Remora gars 9, 31, 32 Evolution: Of GOrn 2 cicans stata mes aoe ey Taian Malema awa enle s Gib MkL adhere bo walend Nee 3 EXpOtt “COPA waco cnr ane GaAs SR NG NON Sk Ghee eA OOS Laas Rey aie eT RAY 297-303 amount: €xportéd 2. sa vdsasseeeia eee ey ese eaRneseae eens esau a pees 28-30, 297-303 Argentine: corn for export: <.4.ssiacesG deg swaws erase vee veamee Sea eee s 28-30 Orn Meal: EXPOTEd ~ eene gies Seelgrecstee re hn Pod aaomd ya eede de eaa w AF Sant Garwunecm ges 334 destination Of (deaatcnua siete ¢h4Gew ons MORSE Ske ee edaw see ee CEERI 297-299 Diy OE isis ig wea Bs Saint Seca stig i SAS Goh p 0a Sn oaala Sn Rit eae aw Bnsd 8 haa Be Seats 300 PriGes™ LOR) Wewar ney ud Aqullannan dwagsoun ede sae aulansadebuldns emote gay madara 300 trade certificates sos siisvkwoseeed need sean ser enandenere ce oeen ss ee eee 301 Exports Markets): scosndes oo se Zora Ggeratescisunctaains S nictin ew aa aReaesedaen gee ae oa ee unantas 298 F Farmérs Rehante 2: ssves-eayia ede raca aed datd maleate Ne a side eee Sigeweie dls 434- Fattening dry-lot cattle on COMM. ... 0... cee ee cece eee eet e eee ne 360 Fat dil COM wseasicc aii ee i eameiaaew on iaans bree Maa TRE Vesa aia cease Eee 351 Federal inspection Of rain, 2.65500 008 04.4 deme cae Qe geus ea ned agus eaeamanea 272-281 Feeding: corn fodder: i iscemccde ves cee scat kaa pusewbes rete. lesae@aewen 374, 378, 397 Feeding value of corn products............. 0. cece cee eee cence eens 345-365 LOT CACELEY s ststc te scaksiaue cus 2sirestexe: glee plone ub gsuawssts a eea ae dae eaaulevas alopabauec eaten Mocca ple edhe av Geo as 359 FON COWS: sia anaTiennedaso Mai Ga T Med paid Sat ERE HAE MeMEN GAS Demers 359 for Orses: Acie es ties ey qidigedan iste (ews we alee g Wena yeaa asl mse eis Maik wale aes 356-357 for HOGS: 9s icaeceeddd yea Benes e oho Lae Me oes see We NEES os ROSES BREE See 357 fOr SHEEP -osap ea dhansansds5eo58 26 aeRO Sea Se Aen eee eaa ret oh enan fa ek 358 OF Orn’ BY=PFOGUCES: 125,422 tied beecie amet eatin egun Pd De alae oe Rusare Sh Mate S 362 Of scorn, fodder idaccseesoudardings Steiat LS OOEded ao eloneaee eRe eee 378, 397 Of COrn ccaiseestaex Siaceshe sass sho al gianeh th cnaiendte AS pean a astess Sverpan nee aod Sa sous gaa aes Suaase ER, oS BP 391 Capacity Of sccssy seas vnweied rey etree pea ENE Se Oe ee dais SRE aes 394 filling” Of ga: .gaph siden. 4 MRSS USE URN ee os ANE CE DERE CARES Usa eee ee ERS 391 SEBEL secu Seth Cet Mitta BSAA Sea ERE AE NIE Ae re TE Ste 393-394 Gilver King 2.6... ce. cece ce eee ee eee eee nent tenn nent tee e enon nes 435 STU ES canine es he ARN BA Be Gb DSN Sb b HEA ORS Chae oe HT AOREe ele meee 216 effectiiof in: feeding cs csc: nes HU besd hee ee et erseee same eye ea ee 219 yield of corn as affected by ...-.-. eee e eee eee e ete e nee eee eens 215 Suid Web WORM «6 swsiauememey ate caw nee Game Taw cama tae RE BOS LENS 88-89, 93-94 uise:-OF: fertili zens? sss seethigunsgess Ptaawwne ds Sakae o 9's aque ew g HACER NTS Rie eeHenne eat 92 use. Of TANULE acc ech ie? seas eves k ORG Ge ee Ses SHS EES e Sede eee aoe Baw 90-92 South America, production of corn im 1.6... 0... cece eect e eee ene eees 9, 26 Speculanon an; rain’ ciate ie ean anaiaw sna be Cewhne eae padeg ad Ende eens 316-317 ete hts Of cacrmsia wale gale cs wuahaialnngcy & won mike a RAS ON PE Ole eR Teceranaee aes 317 ehniGOnOf iiss vas Wee tas eae vo § BOSSE AE eae 5 Gee ae ama nn aEEa sels 316 Necessity fOr 29444 seks we ewa erode ads eayamagils OEsees. Ot aeemse eI Re EES 316 Stalkcof orm plane: 5:2.2 5 wag in a dapcorioe Maan Beard SalaEHA LaaNS ES ead Bare Renna nee GA 42 StIUCtUTe: Of Attgciueriwevncatae chs saath eetekane sateen ee aa teemesed 42 EPUGOLIM ES, Ai hss steers: wes sacs ce peered ge pila tancghteh lanes apices gid etches cst Mes See eee 42 fibro-vascular bundles sscc.esccs sche vs wteaweas see dows GramonmERee oe er ees 43 lth aise te aieeh tee Beth ee cece, darth gt Ne pare ead gop Beg ale ditoie aed gareeainanis ooo arent Sse 43 WOOdY: Sw all | esosa s eondoreuniaa se rauid nad DOO AeA DE TOSA E's WERE Kaye A 43 Stale DOrer. esse ranaxe eaecek seact-crmcdae ss avcdys nian renee MRE A aN ee Race eta 235 Stalls diseases cars sahinissinielsncndisg ners heme nek ae eed MAGES ANE MERE sates 220-221 Stalkfields: o..s4 yea ces Soe vested ees Hos Kae ee Vere seayes cewss sues 208, 381 Stalks, umber pee Uh sa iaccisens ateies von 24 tesugsaca as tocageaninden don a doe odkunemuecabineipear bch sigue 165 SUANE ec bea alia dg eded RR ReMi AO AES NOUR EG RA Lae oe SaG Ee aT ES 171 Starch, cass scvweadeniae Ouclesg ea ieee ae MOM DA a REA nga Relay EMEA 339-340 Starch: feeds) giscusas cConee bene + yea seve ss Maye Lah ON FEA GRERE LASS Hes PoE 364 Stock: in ‘unhusked flelds sissicueissawee ns See He4 Mas bos ROR ENE Rw Ke SONS ESS 381 SStGp OPEL widdieyoendic en ae auidacs +e SMEG AAG Silerdidlenwiae WOE aoa gas Haale RES Oy 313 StGRABE: OF GOTH: cious sak ea RHO HaCaT MA GORE Hae ODEON WES OSE 195-199 CLIDS si sek Gra sisnndixae gaiee-oaceaaueentan nae Deeb arena eE Manna deracen aay 196-197 elevators: soa eka e ctuies musi eed SRS Ga ee Coe Dt Oates ee RO asd Re eee 254-260 public: warehouses 2.44 ..2440c¢44 bheduawades eyes deg MEET ERS SE NE Cae ED 296-297 Storing Seéd Com: «4. seenad sobs SOG diay SRS ASS CHAT OER MEd eR eee 102-112 Stored corn, insects injurious to ........ ce cee ee eee eee eee ee 248 shrinkage: of 00 sud. Yea ah von ddmare sg tae ft eo aot BARS Od ae ements ae 197-200 Stored grain; ‘heating OF wie uiewnanginga's ss vaeSgnn oueateeaiens Seae ee eee Milman s Rae 293 Stover seciins ois br clae nea eee hiaahecs oaeldcus Ree wae Aaaea ees WEeREy Ee MER 366 digestible nutrients: In «cys cscessdscieweese isis see gn a ctmamaes coe ease 379-380 SCEUCHUITE; “OF CORT. LEAVES isis 5 oe sane insceisoseneneraratseuss deve adave on0R aliens aooie, Anew ODS ave mde Leal 45 Of COTM LOOSE 64. areca SAN lalla Meee na NOE tae e eS ON etd Gemma ind 40 Of ‘corn-'stalks- a Giaticrn cairns gaiw Segundo ae he bang sig Pi OMe Se nis Bain’ as Bulge 4 42 Epldermis: aires nici lean winiiieennaes peed ean Oudigulewatdseneaa kd Beebe Ons 42 PIN daw cesses os QNG TS serous SwRI Ga ae eee NESE EGTA OEE eee tas 43 WOOUY? Wal lh cissc Sai sora idaisuonasiinss srivaceponne Ne Seacpaean ge bone waneueradadee anaes tae 43 Suckers; CAUSes OF 3.0 eiccsnn poor. snk Haewacdiale aie Ged tal Aa emai aie aan s a totes, 169, 449-450 Supply and demand of corn) s.s:ccccccse ie etem ae netasad oe beac sug: Peat genes 21 SYLUP: “ee4 oyu Ga Lace wes es ewes satiny ves BM see SawekeG Se goede aoe Seseumed vas yee 340 T iW PUN AXES: «sii gtd cise anaes sas otras je haan ate ga pale a al babadht wie wae 4 eee aera, vee 207 LOOSING: < 42 ose cavte sis Sas gOS Buy hee SES en ERA ees cyeee Dm hogs 4 undue di nwide eee 37 Temperature in relation to corn growth ..................00. 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 75, 83 sLerminia ll markets). 2.c.2 srqasiaieca ci hares 2 6 Fa lah deem eo weds ma neeeleeey aie amhognie eipeaome dice 268 Terminal export markets ........... 00.00. c ee eee eee eee ee eee 253, 298 Terms used in buying and selling grain........... 0. cece cece cece eee eee 288, 312 ‘Testing’ corn. for moisture: xx sss 2058 yews eK eee ew swiss Silden mes ca ned 277, 284 Pesting’ S6éd: OT: gaacine Laie eemee ss ues beck Mile eS tala ba Bhd Ae OR ae eRe SOA 112-130 COSt OF Yaduenateee aGhiRanodions PELGAA Fae HomaaNNsS Reve a ageleme Ms ae wes es 127 qmethods Ob > 3 sivaccionentyien ia oes tenilau ad galls sag tele'e om MNS Se eo See SSE ke 115-130 rag doll) wacesiea dies suedisgeabasied 04% 36 Ha mnelew. Netw anger aoe aud lc Hale's 128-130 Sawdust) DOK: sin. dais hea Sp Moe SoG RG Ree a eal a oe a a aaa zea 115-126 NECA OF LOSE sscuasiue tied Ga davient ma tearnculelaln dh andssovacrlory aojatedle- ave eecar are ae ua indgads ee ately 112 relation of test to stand of COrM....... cc eee ee cee eee eee eee v eens aaas 114 INDEX XIX relation of test to yield of COrN......... cee cee cece eee te teen neeeneee 113-114 TESUItS: 1GF ESE sire denanntia ded aciadded RecEad dae Rae bihroe PRUs Vie ehdwas 0K 120 time “Of test veaee acai r0 ek Gace sides gene Lo oie Ln tonba cela aug os Spee nee 115 Value: of “test: cans se saws sabacwa cakes $444 SROSEEEE ROLE Tea RRR RENE Y BER OES 113-114 Texas, production: of Corn in is a3 s0c-ss ens cc bcs ppd Re ee eee db baw eee HAN OS 13-14 ACKEABEL ertvsinns ses Boies 2d wai Rag Ae AMES Wah OtnMa Raa mate Wee abavalsine oelauas pearaceys 6-7 PFOGCUCHION » sire ssseorina cond einis wine eam 2lw aeees Sake aa esate ag Sad Giese na maine 13-14 Valuation: causisn soins ou pal Mangus dala eeicda addaloame o> aeaee ea Soulageeiea eae 22-23 Thickness of ‘planting: os sc. sss1seoeccses ee aed saga dgmendar ese saseudebnasaae 165 FOL? SURE 43 saiace od gue srank alee Postal aarasasaanl dS Obuane £018 vada eu a ranahaldy oataea tenets 387 relation: to barren, Stalks: 5 .c2swsee ii aace ts chee ongnwiies Sn9E6 Hers aivatuce paces 168 relation to per cent of nubbins ........... cece eee eee eee cette tenn enaee 169 relation to per cent Of SUCKers: ...cceescgececdetienmeweee neeteda ne saneilaneewes 169 relation; to: quality Of eafS <244sctmes caesasue thie is ete eG dees aeons Sees 169 Hel ator. tO: viel sjaicac sce 3 stewss Ssyhcsteneeant aid God di Gd Syhudiongodetses Saye aameaip neg Moda ntentoace 166 Tillage of corn (see “Cultivation”) .......... cece cece eee eee een eens 178-191 Time of planting: 5 ss0de-csiasieueweareesecleiay gaceiewies euiers Sseiengies: govitrde haw einige oe 161-162 Time required for germination ......000ecrecrccvernceceeesrecenvscennsees canes 58 Tortilla. (Mexican bread) 32 issccosss0epeaawa sae ed as ts doe Oo ea Res eee Ree TIES 25 EE AG LENG: csp fos. a Ga eusceashea docu Dapaasee eas tags ok & Getta Nad adhe s BLauacaee RAS tacat a tgdaes 288-292, 311-331 Cash: (Paine senwdas otadawdeowiudan eiedaan ooed aeiaage Coeeanle aan ad wederetes 288 FULULES sii hued atest Nena ee ROA ale Leet may AOA RAE Camp eatatas 318 hours for trading: s¢sriciastaavonse pase eer cy Oot eaweed es tae eae SEEN HS oe 311 tal thes pith crcydsadeaenrnmennnsas aida caammumes.4 9 van Saaneeae eka kee g wa 314, 318 terms used in trading ......... ccc cece cece eect eee e et en tee neenene 288, 312-314 PLEADS PiGAUOM: (6: at, haya mentee vet aca wis daveyeiabaut ious Oa Pdr esertdua. Guapaltiaso nce duldesvinsdin ge. bisa iataliptade duke 54 Trade certificates for export COrM «1.11... ee eee ee eee nena 301 DUreidity 225 s¢seades vi pee ds 4 wtateeewees ode ghaed PANE GRO gaee sears REMbuRaIE cess 61 U United States, production of corn in ....... 6. cece eee cece eee e teen eee eeee 9, 13, 14-20 ACEARE Sosy tedoes a Woe yDhs a4 aeelndenen et eed dae a aalee uals alee ee Fae 6-7 cériter of production in, s1.s2e%0asee0+sassasinwerawe a enescs cies unguenton ye ane 17 PLOCUCEOD: sins seins tse du omitveraue corals Uemaik ae Bee iansdanateae atest Suds Seale OES 9, 13, 14-20 WalUatiON Of i445 este taadadet aiq@eammams Maes Caw Raed mimaacinn RRR AANA 22-23 Unloading corn, methods of .....-..cce cece eee cnet e cence teen tenet teen ne ees 194 Upkeep, in cost of production .......... 66sec cece ec eect eee tee e tee eeenee 207 Vv Value of corn Crop occ see cece cence ence nee en nen eet n eben seen een ee tonne ees 20-23 Value of corn crop as compared with other cereals.......-.. 6... ee eee eee e eee ees 21 Value. of stalk fields: ci... .cscsnsasetsades aati wiedwee bi dons esau axenawesee vedee 208 Varieties: Of (COID gana ei Gensd Hee ds ¢permaety deed dj giawad ass, Nile 060 de beaded Des 420-441 Bloody Butcher ....-....c cece eee c cece ener eee eee een e teen ence een enns 438 Boone County White ........ cece teen cere e eee tenn tent ee eee en eee 428-430 Calico. wane ddd gQsnra team nes Gas t4 8 seg 8s eyes ass wists. g tenseanucae whale etaiataechd 438 Cattle King 0.0... ccc cece cece eee eee eee eee een en eee eee n ees 440 Chase's. White: Dent -asag phos hie opal ooca daetin Vineguene ss gebeneged wamwa Car auusverede 436 Ratmeis, “Reliante: 54, 110-112 ethect of Freezing? Of scoes.d0¥5 sonhn eh eS AAA RN aah IR SUS a5 Gaea ee ees 110-112 effect iof moisture-ON:)cscncaasins bevicaanee iain Ge adelen gare saa ERauN Fe 111-112 WwW Warehouses: ccaaiiwitcta sass areata wa Le iesacareedeunsanoied qanaaraieie 296-297 Water and plant growth (see also “Moisture”)............ 0.00 eee eee 60-61 absorption: of by ‘plants accent scsccene Cas aeecerys HE4 bees LON weaane ee ae 60-61 amount used in production of one ton of dry matter................ 0000 eee 46, 62 chemical changes caused by ........ 2.0 cceeee eee c eee ete eee ee eteennues 56, 57 functions of ................0- CLEA GOLASE Me Ge DWmaE Ren aH SB pla ays hx creas 60-61 TUN GOPT sets aie ncn sures ahacisraringgie ae eaeeAaG TAY Hele MeN ease aide ne aE 99, 109, 353 physical changes caused: by i. jnowgvelewseeyesgyaas ar widwanseead dieses s Semen 62 uses of in. plant growth ssi ssasee ses ides ans eae a eee dh GAS ROSS ee eae 60-61 IW-Ebi WUGEMe 3 cussccssaieninta esses @ Suis es eaedwale an esn hue e ON a aelauutG ap pea INSSEateun 228 Weeder, use of in corn production. ..... 0... ccc cece eee ee eee eee 179-181 Weighing: charges at’ Chicago:ig2 gos mcsnsiesausva awa 4 shtetensiniedase's weed ye 4 analengie 292 Wheat, production of ............60e eee eee vibepbiges &aeier ed Deed eae <3 13-14 ACKCAGE wv sgag doe taaaeee EPA RE Rees GTS SURES PTS Ses o4Ns SEES BEG es 6-7 PIO MUCHOS