Cornell University Library OF THE Mew Work State College of Agriculture Ag.11.9.11. Date Due i wi FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK The Rural Manuals &* Manvan or GAarpEenine — Bailey Manvat or Farm Animats — Harper Farm anp GarpEen Rute-Boox — Bailey Manvat or Home-Maxine — In preparation Manvat or Cuttivatep Pirants — In prepara- tion FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK A MANUAL OF READY RULES AND REFERENCE WITH RECIPES, PRECEPTS, FORMULAS, AND TABULAR INFORMA- TION FOR THE USE OF GENERAL FARMERS, GARDENERS, FRUIT-GROWERS, STOCKMEN, DAIRYMEN, POULTRY- MEN, FORESTERS, RURAL TEACHERS, AND OTHERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA BY L. H. BAILEY NINETEENTH EDITION Neto Work THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1915 All rights reserved sts @ $B46 82 Iq is ha.1757 CopyRIGHT, 1911, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1911, Reprinted August, 1912; June, r9x4. New edition, with corrections, November, 1915. Nortoood ress J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co, Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE Tue first edition of this manual was’ published late in 1889, and the second early in 1892, both by the Rural Publishing Company, publisher of the “American Garden” and “Rural New-Yorker.” The third edition, much remodeled, was pub- lished by The Macmillan Co, May, 1895. The book has been reprinted, February, 1896; May, 1897; August, 1898; Au- gust, 1899; June, 1901; October, November, 1902; February, 1904; July, 1905; January, 1907; May, June, 1908; August, 1909. The old form of the book, under the title “ The Horticulturist’s Rule-Book,” is now to be discontinued, having served its place ,and day. So far as I know, it was the first compilation of its kind in this country, and therefore it was very imperfect and incomplete. The intervening years, covering nearly a quarter century, have also seen a vast enlargement of the farmer’s hori- zon, so that the little book that I prepared in my novice days can no longer represent the situation. I am sure that I have more misgiving in putting out this larger and completer book than I had in the small first effort. The field.is wider, and therefore more difficult to cover; and knowledge has grown so uninterruptedly that one knows scarcely where to begin and what to compass. ‘The only definite point is where to end, for publishers fortunately set limits to sizes of books; and when this limit was reached I discarded three or four chapters and prepared the index. For myself, I am conscious of the many good things that have not been printed in the book; but I hope that my consultant —I cannot expect to have a reader for a book of this sort — will find some satisfaction in the things that are included. Every v vi PREFACE care has been taken to choose reliable sources of information, but I can scarcely hope to have escaped errors; and of course I cannot hold myself responsible for the value of the many diverse varieties of information and advice that are here collected. Any user of the book will do me a kindness if he reports to me any error that he may discover. If the new book should meet with the favor that fell to the old, I shall need these suggestions in the making of new editions; but I can hardly hope that such continued favor will come to it, for this would mean that the two would span a half century, and in these rapidly enlarg- ing days this is too much to expect of any fascicle of facts. I am indebted to many good persons for the information con- tained in the book, as the names in the proper places testify ; but I am specially under obligation to Professor A. R. Mann for much help. i Ge yaar Irnaca, N.Y., September 1, 1911. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES Tue WEATHER 5 ‘ . . ‘ ‘ ‘3 a . 1-23 How to use the Weather Map . : . 2 The storm-tracks, 2— The weather sap, eas The Peatiar indi- cations, 5. Weather Bureau Forecasts a 6 Signals of the United States Weather Tuanaaay 7— _ Canadian signals, 8. Barometer and Wind Indications 7 . F 3 ‘ ‘ i 9 Popular Weather Signs. . 3 ‘ < ‘ 7 « 2h Frosts, and Methods of Protactlon ‘ 12 How frost forms, 12— To find the demon, “14 Tait ise determining temperature of dew-point, 15— Methods of protec- tion against frost, 16. Phenology . ‘ é ‘ 7 s WY Climate and Crop Prodwetions Eeanbaeg Reoitie 2 é 19 Climatic records compiled by the weather services, 20 — “How climatic data may be secured, 21 — Making local observations, 23. CHAPTER II Tue ELEMENTS AND THE SoIL. ‘ ji ; 5 . . 24-39 Distribution of the Elements ‘ J 25 The atmosphere, 25 — The elements ‘aeeantiat fa the life anil growth of plants, 25 Ultimate composition of a wheat plant, 26 — Ultimate composition of human body, 26. The Ash and Mineral Parts of Animals and Plants . 4 26 Mineral elements in animal bodies, 27 —Composition of ah of human body, 27 — Composition of the ash of leading farm crops, 28. Chemical Compounds . 2 * , ‘ ‘i : ‘ , . 28 The Soil. ‘ . 29 Classification of soils in eae 6 adits 29 — Classification of vii viii CONTENTS PAGES soil constituents, 29 — Weight of soils, 30 — Texture of the soil, 32, Soil Water . - : ‘ ‘ . 382 Amount of water mised ee various cone in : produaling a ton of dry matter, 32— Mean volume of water held by different soils, 33 — Water evaporated by growing plants for one part of dry mat- ter produced, 33 oe needed under arid conditions, 34. Plant-food in the Sot F ‘i z . 34 Plant-food in ae soil, with caleuilattons 16 pownile in an es 34, ‘ Alkali Lands c ‘ 4 . . 385 The normal condition of aia lands; 35 — aPapeantans gatopocieat of alkali, 836 — Quantity of gypsum required to neutralize sodium carbonate, 37. Tiiiage, and Soil Management . A 7 . ‘ . 37 Objects of tillage, 37 — Jordan’s rules of fertility, 38. CHAPTER III CuemicaL FERTILIZERS; AND LimE . 7 . - . é 40-80 Some of the Sources of Chemical Fertilizers. . 7 ‘i » 41 Composition of materials used as sources of nitrogen, 41 — Com- position of materials used as sources of phosphoric acid, 41— Marketed production of phosphate rock in United States, 41 — World’s production of phosphate rock, 1905-1907, 42 — Average composition of Stassfurt potash salts, 42 — Potash salts produced in the United States, 1850 to 1905, 43 Importation of potash salts, 43— Potassic materials produced by the aid of electricity, 44 — Principal potash material used in United States, 45. Fertilizer Formulas and Guarantees . 5 : e A . . 45 Methods of Computing Value of Fertilizers ‘ ‘ 47 Trade-values of plant-food elements in raw mitadiale and vein: cals, 1910, 47 —'Valuation and cost of fertilizers, 48 — Valuation, and agricultural value, 48— Rule for calculating approximate commercial valuation of mixed fertilizers, 48 — Computing the trade value, 49 — How to figure the trade value, in greater detail, 50. Home-Mixing of Fertilizers é . . 62 General advice, 62... Treapelibles in "fertilizer ili fara, 53 — Table for calculating raw materials required per ton by mixtures of given composition, 53, \ CONTENTS ix Soil Analysis and Fertilizer Tests. - : ; eo os Field tests to determine fertilizer needs, 56. Analyses of Various Chemical Fertilizer and Related Materials . 87 Dissolved bone-black, 57 — Bone charcoal, 57 — Ground bone, 57 — Dried blood, 58— Dry ground fish, 58 — Sulfate of ammo-. nia, 58 — Sulfate of potash, 58 — Sulfate of magnesia, 58 — Nitrate of Soda, 58 — Muriate of potash, 58 — German potash salts, 58 — Kainit, 59 — Land-plaster or gypsum, 59 — Ashes, unleached, 59 — Ashes, leached, 59 — Coal ashes, bituminous, 59 — Coal ashes, anthracite, 59 —Gas-lime, 59 — Seaweed, 60. Fertilizer Formulas for Various Crops . 60 Formulas suggested by Maine Experiment Station, 60 — = patie mixtures for different crops, 63. Lime for the Land. : 17 To determine whether a sof is wi 71 = Apptioaton of ‘Tha, 78 — Forms of lime, 78 — Fineness of division, 79 — Classification of lime for agricultural purposes, 79 — Other tests for lime, 80. CHAPTER IV Farm Manures, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS . : 3 . 81-91 Composition and Characteristics of Manures . r 3 . 81 Cattle manure, 81— Stable or horse manure, fi Sheen ma- nure, 82 — Hog manure, 82. Composition of Manure from Different Animals : 5 . 82 Composition of fresh excrement of farm quadrupeds, 83 — Cbm- position of drainage liquors, 883— Composition of litter, 84— Poultry manures, 84. Utilization of Manures ‘ 85 Rate of production, 85 ies of fennanet 86 _ Gonmesctal value, 86 — Losses by leaching, 87. Further Analyses of Animal Excrements . é 88 Common barnyard manure, fresh, 88 — Cention, haenyarl manure, moderately rotted, 88 — Same, thoroughly rotted, 88 — Cattle-feces, fresh, 88 — Cattle-urine, fresh, 88 — Horse-feces, fresh, 88 — Horse-urine, fresh, 89 — Sheep-feces, fresh, 89— Sheep-urine, fresh, 89—Swine feces, fresh, 89— Swine-urine, fresh, 89 — Peruvian guano, 89 — Human feces, fresh, 90-——- Human urine, fresh, 90 — Sewage, 90. Analyses of Fruit and Garden Products, with reference to their Fer- tilizing Constituents . i 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ , . 90 x CONTENTS CHAPTER V PAGES SreEp-TABLEs . ‘5 i ‘ - ‘ a 92-105 Quantity of Seed ver ee teva 92 94 Hay and Pasture Seeds 3 i 5 Permanent meadows, 94 — Permarient pastunan, 94 — Number and weight of grass seed, and another estimate of quantity to sow, 94 — Examples of seed mixtures that would furnish 20,000,000 grass seeds per acre, 95 — Testing grass seed, 96. Number of Tree-Seeds ina Pound . 3 . _ 3 = - 96 Fruit trees, 96 — Forest trees, 96. Weights and Sizes of Seeds é 97 Seedmen’s customary weights per bushel, 97 — Weight anid size of garden seeds, 98. Figures of Germination and Purity . : 100 Testing seeds, 100— High average percontnes of a anil of germination of high-grade seeds, 101 — Average time required for garden seeds to germinate, 102. Longevity of Seeds. 3 102 Vilmorin’s tables, 102 — Habetianilt’s figures, 104. _ Vitality of seeds buried in soil, 104. i Average Yields of Garden Seed-Crops “8 ‘ é : - 105 CHAPTER VI PLANTING-TABLES . ‘ . - 106-128 Dates for Sowing or Setting Kitchen-Garden Venetaties in. Differ- ent Latitudes . § 106 Lansing, Michigan, 106 — Boston, 106 — New Sark, 107 Nor. folk, 107 — Georgia, 108 — Tender and hardy vegetables, 108. Date-Tables : 109 Weevtablesantenen! planting-table, 109 =< Uiaat silane ‘thites for field crops, 110 — Flower-planting table, 116. Distance-Tables . $ 119 Usual distances apart for ilenting fruits, 119 — Usual distanoes apart for planting vegetables, 119 — Orange trees, 119 — Number of plants required to set an acre of ground at given distances, 120 — Quincunx planting, 123. Plan for a Home Garden . : a ; é . » 128 CONTENTS CHAPTER VII xi PAGES Martorities, YIELDS, AND MULTIPLICATION . 7 . . - 124-182 Maturity-Tables . é eee 7 " Time required for maturity of dierent penile sie. reckoned. from the sowing of the seeds, 124 — Time required, from setting, for fruit-plants to bear (for northern and central latitudes) 124 — Average profitable longevity of fruit-plants under high culture, 125. Yield- Tables i Average full yields per: acre ot various hortienltural drape: 125 — Yields of farm crops, 127. Propagation- Tables Tabular statement of the ways in n Which Matias are pronedted, 180 — Particular methods by which various fruits are multiplied, 130 —Stocks commonly used for various fruits, 131 — How vege- table crops are propagated, 131— How farm crops are propa- gated, 182. CHAPTER VIII Crops ror SpeciAL Farm Practices. Home Srorace anp Kerrp- 124 125 130 ING OF Crops . ‘ ‘ : 5 5 5 ‘ ‘ « 183-149 Forage Crops. Roughage, 133 a Atedier, 133 _— Soiling, 188 — Silace, 134, Soiling Crops Soiling crops adapted ® northern Naw Bapland, 135 — Time of planting and feeding soiling crops, 185 —Soiling crops for Penn- sylvania, 186— Crops for partial soiling for Illinois during mid- summer, 136—Succession of soiling crops for dairy cows for Wisconsin, 136 — Mississippi, 187 — Kansas, 1387 — Dates for planting and using soiling crops in western Oregon and western Washington, 137 — Dairyman’s rotation in middle latitudes, 137. Cover-Crops 7 3 : ‘ 7 . . i 5 3 Catch- Crops 3 i “ - ‘ 7 f : Nurse-Crops ji ‘ . ‘ ‘ . ‘ Field Root-Crops Methods of Keeping and Storing "Fruits and Wepetablen : Apples, 141 — Cabbage, 142 — Celery, 142 — Crystallized or glacé fruit, 143 — Figs, 144 — Gooseberries, 144 — Grapes, 144 — Onions, 146 —Orange, 147 — Pears, 147 — Quince, 147 — Roots, 147 —Squash, 147 —Sweet-potato, 148 — Tomato, 149. Cold Storage ® . . . < ; ‘ SM le 188 134 188 139 140 140 141 149 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER IX PAGES CommerciaL Grapes or Crop Propucts. Fruit Pacwaces . 160-171 Cotton Grades. ae eo tat, ip ao a . 150 Grades of Hay and Straw . a . . : s . 161 Hay, 151— Alfalfa, 152 — Straw, ‘162, Grades of Grain . 2 . 158 White winter wheat, 153 — Red syiniten soheaty 154— Hara winter wheat, 154 — Northern spring wheat, 154 — Spring wheat, 155 — White spring wheat, 155— Durum wheat, 155 — Velvet chaff wheat, 156 — Pacific Coast wheat, 156— Mixed wheat, 157 — Rye, 157— White oats, 157— Mixed oats, 158— Red or rust- proof oats, 158— White clipped oats, 158 — Mixed clipped oats, 159 — Purified oats, 159 — Corn, 159— White corn, 160 — Yellow corn, 160— Mixed corn, 160—Milo-maize, 160 — Kaffir corn, 161— Barley, 161— Winter barley, 162—-Sample grades, 163. Fruit Packages . ‘ . 163 California deciduous faite, 163 — - Chantaiqua erape Agures, 164 — California citrus fruits, 164—-Apple boxes, 164— Canadian fruit packages, 167 — Proposed United States standards, 168. Packages for truck crops, including strawberries , A ‘ - 169 i. CHAPTER X Tue Jupcine or Farms, Crops, AnD Pants. Exaisition anp No- MENCLATURE RuLEs. EMBLEMATIC PLANTS AND FLOWERS 172-186 Farms and Farm Practices . ‘ 2 . 172 The agricultural virtues, 172 =euanden" s males for gardeners, 173 — Essential points to consider in the organization of a farm, 174 — Points of a good ee 174 — Score-card for farms, 175. Corn and Potatoes. . 177 Score-card for dent corn, 177 — For use in fhe plant selection of seed corn, 177—Card for use in judging varieties of corn at husking time, 177 — Score-card for potatoes, 177. Standards for Judging Fruits at Exhibitions . 7 177 Apples and pears, 177 — Peaches, 177 — Plums, 178 _ Cherries, 178 — Grapes, 178 — Collections, 178 — Barrel apples, 178 — Box apples, 179. Flowers and Plants . ‘ ° . 179 The American Rose Saciety: ia of wéinia: 179 — Standardize. tion of roses, 179 — Carnations, 179 — Gladiolus, 180 — Chrysan- CONTENTS xiii PAGES themum, 180 — Sweet pea, 180 — Scale of points of florists’ plants, 180. Sample Rules to Govern Exhibitions . : ae - 181 Massachusetts Horticultural Society rules, 181. Nomenclature Rules . 5 . 183 Rules for naming ikitehen-garden vepotables, 183 — Mined Pomological Society rules of nomenclature, 183. Emblematic Plants and Flowers . 185 State flowers, 185 — National and regional lowers, 186 — — Party flowers, 186. CHAPTER XI GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN Work . r 6 ‘ + 187-201 Greenhouse Practice . ‘ . 187 Potting earth, {80—Sagpestions 408 pattie santa, 198 Wat- ering greenhouse and window plants, 188 — Liquid manure for greenhouses, 188. Lists of Plants . . 189 Twenty-five plants adapted to windowcatdéas. 130 — —Yegeisible- growing under glass, 190 — Twenty-five useful aquatic and sub- aquatic plants for outdoor use, 191— Commercial plants and flowers, or ‘‘ florists’ plants,’? 191. The Heating of Greenhouses. . 192 Methods of proportioning radinting sunfaps for heating of pieehe houses, 192 — Size of pipes connecting radiating surface and the boiler or heater, 194 — Table of dimensions of standard wrought- iron pipe, 194 — To design heating surface, 195. Other Information relating to Heating . . 195 Diameters for chimney flues, 195 — Effects of wind | in sooilix glass, 196 — Table of radiation for glass, 196 — Radiating surface of pipes, 197 — Method of finding boiler capacity for cast-iron pipe, 198 — Customary temperatures in which plants are grown under glass, 198. Various Estimates and Recipes . : 3 . 198 Percentage of rays of light reflected from lass rouls at various angles of divergence from the perpendicular, 198 — Angle of roof for different heights and widths of house, 199-— Standard flower- pots, 199—To prevent boilers from filling with sediment or scale, 200 — To prepare paper and cloth for hotbed sash, 200 — Paint for hot-water pipes, 200 — Liquid putty for glazing, 201 — Paint for shading greenhouse roofs, 201 —To keep flower-pots clean, 201. xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XII PAGES Forestry AND TIMBER . ‘ 3 : é : % . . 202-220 Planting Notes . 7 . 202 Nursery planting-table “fo — ‘cee 202 — Forest planting, 208. Hardness of Common Commercial Woods . a z ; ‘ . 204 Forest Yields ‘ 3 204 Approximate time required 46 produse wine ean; 204 — "Yield of white pine, 205. Life of Fence-Posts and Shingles , : z 207 Durability of fence-posts in Minnesota, 207 Prolonging he life of fence-posts, 207 — Prolonging the life of shingles, 209 — Sug- gestions for community action, 210. Board Measure . a : ‘ 5 7 5 . ‘ A . 210 Cord Measure . 5 . A : < : : . . . 211 Log Measure 5 5 7 ‘ . . : . 212 Scribner decimal is miles 214, U. S. Forest Service Log-Scaling Directions . . fs . . 214 Allowances for taper, 216. Cubic Log Measure . 216 Method by wieasirenitnt of fengeh andl middle diameters, 217 — By length and end diameters, 217 — Solid cubic contents of logs, 218. Cubic Contents of Square Timber in Round Logs . r . 218 The two-thirds rule, 219 — The inscribed-square rule, 220. CHAPTER XIII WEEDs . 3 : > : ‘i 3 é . i 5 . 221-238 General Practices 3 F . 221 Annual weeds, 221 —idmatals, 299 — Perennials, 222, Chemical Weed-killers or Herbicides . ‘ 223 Salt, 223 — Copper sulfate (blue vitriol), 203 — Tron anltate, 293 — Kerosene, 223 —Carbolic acid, 224 — Sulfuric acid (oil of vitriol), 224 — Caustic soda, 224 — Arsenical compounds, 224. Application of Herbicides . A . 224 Gravel roadways, gutters, bennts wourts, edi, 224 — List of weeds that may be controlled by means of chemical sprays, 225 — List of weeds on which present spraying methods are not effec- tive, 225— Rhode Island experience with iron sulfate, 225 — South Dakota experience with iron sulfate, 226— Ohio experi- CONTENTS XV PAGES ence, 226— Cornell experience, 227 — Various experiences, 227 — When to apply weed sprays, 228. Treatment for Particular Weeds : . 229 Poison ivy, 229 — Prickly lettuce, 229 — Bracted vinalain; 229 — Horse nettle, 229— Buffalo bur, 229— Spiny amaranth, 229 —Spiny cocklebur, 229 — Chondrilla, 280 — Wild carrot, 230 — Wild oats, 230 — False flax, 230 — Mustard, 230 — King-head, 230 — Canada thistle, 230 — Dandelion, 231 — Sow thistle, 231 — Quack-grass, 231— White daisy, 231— Black mustard, 232 — Orange hawkweed and chickweed, 232. Lawns . - . . A . 282 Weeds in lai, 232 — Moss on laws anil rile, 233. Moss or Lichen on Trees . : ‘ : . . . 3 . 238 CHAPTER XIV Prests anp NuISANCES . é ‘ : 2 . % 7 - 2384-251 Mice and Rats. : . : . 284 To prevent mice from ginttine (ene in ate 234 — Washes to protect trees from mice, 235 — Carbonate of baryta for rats and mice, 235— Tartar emetic, 235 — Strychnine for mice, 235 — Camphor for rats and mice, 236— French paste, 286 — Phosphorus, 236 — To protect seed-corn from ee ae 236. Rabbits r . 236 Wash for keeping rabbits, sheep. and mice — fam teow, 236 —Blood for rabbits, 236 — To drive rabbits from orchards, 237 — Another wash, 237 — California rabbit-wash, 237 — California rabbit poisons, 237 — Sulfur for rabbits, 237 — Cow-manure, 237 — Asafoetida, 238 — Kansan method of protecting trees from rabbits, 2838 — To remedy the injury done by mice, rabbits, and squirrels, 241. Ground ee or Beer Remedies ‘ ® . ‘ . 241 Moles . 3 : . . . a ‘ ‘ ji . 242 Prairie-dogs i 7 * ‘ 7 7 . C . 242 Woodchucks or Gebietes pans 3 < . . ‘: . is . 248 Pocket-gophers . . ‘ ‘ ‘ 3 s ‘ 7 . . 248 Wolves and Coyotes . ‘ 7 ei ; . ® - ‘ 248 Muskrats. ‘ ‘i Fi . _ . . A 5 5 . 248 : 243 “Pestiferous Birds Bird poisons, 243 — Poison for English sraniae 244 — To — tect fruits from birds, 244 —To protect newly planted seeds, 244 xvi CONTENTS PAGE! —To protect corn from crows, 245 —To protect young chickens, 245, Mosquitoes . 2at Kerosene for ma aaquleee; 245 — Fishes availutle for destruction of mosquito larve, 246 — Hibernating mosquitoes, 246 — Rules for mosquito extermination and prevention, 247. The House-Fly . ee: The typhoid fly, or r house, 249 — Ganiiral, 250, Slime on Ponds. . oe oe elm OT CHAPTER XV FouneicipEs AND GERMICIDES FOR Piant Diseases . 5 - 252-258 Practices. . f 252 Destroying affected paves, 252 — Rotation of erops, 253 — Steri- lizing by steam, 253. Substances . 253 Bordeaux cies: ie nerwerBaee abet carbonates 255 — Copper carbonate, 255 — Corrosive sublimate, 255 — Formalin, 256— Lime, 256—Lime-sulfur, 256 — Potassium sulfid, 258 — Resin-sal-soda sticker, 258 — Sulfate of copper, 258 — Sulfate of iron, 258 — Sulfur, 258. CHAPTER XVI Puant Diseases. 3 ‘ 5 . ‘ . 259-285 Certain General or Unolassifted Sieenees ‘ . 260 Damping-off, 260 — Cidema or dropsy, 260 — Smut of ereila 260 — Storage rots, 262. Diseases of the Different Plants or Crops . 6 « 262 Alfalfa, 262 — Almond, 263 — Apple, 263 — eisiook 265 — Asparagus, 265 — Barley, 265 — Bean, 265-—— Bean, Lima, 265 — Beet, 266 — Blackberry, 266 — Brussels sprouts, 266 — Cab- bage, 266 —Carnation, 267 — Cauliflower, 267— Celery, 267 — Cherry, 267 — Chestnut, 268— Chrysanthemum, 268 — Corn, 268 — Cotton, 269 — Cranberry, 269 — Cucumber, 270 — Currant, 270 — Ginseng, 270 — Golden-seal, 271 — Gooseberry, 271 — Grape, 271 — Hollyhock, 273 — Lettuce, 273 — Muskmelon, 274 — Nectarine, 274 — Nursery stock, 274 — Oats, 274 — Onion, 274 — Pea, 275 — Peach, 275 — Pear, 277 — Plum, 279 — Potato, 279 — Pumpkin, 280— Quines, 280 — Radish, 280 — Raspberry, 281— CONTENTS xvii PAGES Rice, 281 — Rose, 281— Spinach, 281 — Strawberry, 282— Sweet- potato, 282 — Tobacco, 282 — Tomato, 283 — Violet, 283— Wheat, 283, Seed and Soil Treatments. «5 sett ttt CHAPTER XVII NSECTICIDAL Marerrats AND Practices . - + + + 286-300 General Practices ‘ ‘ - 286 Cleanliness, 286 — Handapicning, "286 - —_ eordoting growth, 286 Burning, 286 — Banding, 286 — Fumigation, 287 — Fungous dis- eases as insecticides, 290. Insecticidal Substances. - 290 Arsenic, 290 — Arsenicals, 291 _— Bait, '293 — “ Bran-arsenic nash 293 — Bisulfid of carbon, 293—Carbolic acid materials, 293 — Criddle mixture, 293 — Distillate emulsion, 294 — Hot water, 294 — Kerosene emulsion, 294— Lime-sulfur, 294 — Miscible oils, 297 —Pyrethrum, 297— Resin and fish-oil compounds, 298 — Soaps, 298-299-—-Soda and aloes, 299——Sulfur, 299 — Tangle- foot, 299 — Tar, 299 — Tobacco, 299 — White hellebore, 300. CHAPTER XVIII ygurious InsecTs, WITH TREATMENT . . a . é . 801-336 General or Unclassified Pests . ‘ 301 Angleworm, 301 — Aphides, 301 — Tian, 301 —_ Blister- beetle, 302 — Brown-tail moth, 302 — Cutworm, 302 — Flea- beetle, 8303 — Four-striped plant-bug, 303 — Gipsy-moth, 303 — May-beetle, 303 — Mealy-bug, 303 — Nematode root-gall, 303 — Red-spider or mite, 304 —San José scale, 304 — Scale-insects, 804 — Snails, 805 — White ants, 305 — Wire-worm, 305. Insects classified under the Plants they chiefly Affect . ‘ 305 Apple, 305 — Apricot, 310 — Asparagus, 310 — Aster, 311— Henn, 311 — Birch, 311 — Blackberry, 311— Cabbage, 311 — Carrot, 312 — Cauliflower, 318 — Celery, 313 —Cherry, 313 — Chestnut, 313 — Chrysanthemum, 313 — Clover, 313 — Corn, 314 — Cotton, 316 — Cranberry, 317 — Cucumber, 318 — Currant, 318 — Dahlia, 319 — Egg-plant, 319 — Elm, 319 — Endive, 320 — Gooseberry, 320 — Grape, 320 — Hollyhock, 322 — House-plants, 322 — Lawns, 322 — Lettuce, 322—Melon, 322 — Mushroom, 823— Onion, 3823 — Orange and lemon, 323 — Parsley, 324 — Parsnip, 324 — Pea, 324 — Peach, 325 — Pear, 826 — Pecan, 327 — Per- XViil CONTENTS PAGES simmon, 828— Pineapple, 328 — Plum, 329— Poplar, 329 — Po- tato, 8329 — Privet or Prim, 330 — Quince, 330 — Radish, 330 — Raspberry, 330 — Rhubarb, 331 — Rose, 331— Squash, 331— Strawberry, 332 — Sugar-cane, 333 — Sumac, 334 — Sweet-potato, 334 — Tobacco, 335 — Tomato, 335 — Violet, 335 —— Wheat, 336 — Willow, 336. CHAPTER XIX Live-Stock RuLses anp Recorps i : : r 3 . 887-364 Determining the Age of Farm Animals . 337 Cattle, 337 — Sheep, 338 — Swine, 339— HORE, ‘339. Gestation and Incubation Figures 342 Number of young at birth, 343 — Nuishee a Bas in broad, ‘343, Other Characteristics . 344 Average temperatures of arm ofienle, 344 —The puts of form animals, 344-— Period of heat, 344 — Quantity of blood in the bodies of farm animals, 345. Temperatures for Cold Storage a Animal Products . 345 Advanced Registry 345 Schedule of charges for supervising warped: of cows, 348 — Hol- stein-Friesian records, 349 — Ayrshire records, 350 — Guernsey records, 351 — Jersey oo 354, Fast Horse Records 357 Trotters, 358 — Pacers, 358 — _ mastest Seeiuile for one sales 358 — Fastest records for two miles, 359 — Fastest records for three miles, 359 — Fastest records for four miles, 359 — Fastest records for five miles, 359 — Fastest records for six miles, 359 — For ten miles, 359 — For eighteen miles, 359 — For twenty miles, 360 — For thirty miles, 360 —For thirty-two miles, 360 — For fifty miles, 360 — For one hundred et 360 — For oe 360. Profit-and-Loss Figures 360 Profit or loss in dairy cows, 360 — Profit or Toss in fatteniug steers, 362 — In fattening sheep, 362 — In fattening swine, 362. Cow-testing Associations 362 Apparatus required, 364 — Value of Bomcesling: asoctitions in Virginia, 364. CHAPTER XX Pouttry ‘ : : 5 : + 865-382 Standard Weights of Poultry in ie é ‘ 366 Descriptive Score-Card for Standard Poultry 367 CONTENTS xix PAGES Eggs . . F “ . 368 Scoring and mitieici one dazed a 368 — Students’ score-card for a dozen eggs, 369. Rules for Machine Incubation . . i ‘i 7 ‘a . 370 Feeding z e r , : ‘ ‘ * . 3872 Cornell ration tor egg: papaaatlan: 372 — Relation of food-con- sumption to egg-production, 372. Preparing Fowls for Market by eee . . ‘ . 874 Care of Feathers and Eggs . : 875 Feathers, 375 — General care of en 375 — eesti sas, 376. Parasites of Fowls ‘ 377 Hen louse, 377 — Chicken itis, 317 = Beale ioe, 378 — Deplum- ing scabies, 378 — Hen fleas, 8378 — Chicken tick, 378. Sample Rules and Regulations for the Exhibition of Poultry . . 878 Outline for Critical Examination of a Poultry Farm a i . 881 CHAPTER XXI ExuisBiTinc AND JupGiING Live-Stock. Market Grapbms . . 883-408 General Rules and Regulations governing Exhibits of Live-Stock . 383 Score-Cards for Farm Animals . 2 . 3892 Draft-horse, 392 — Light-horse, 893 — Students? card for propor- tions of horse, 395 — Beef-cattle (female), 895 — Beef-cattle (bull), 897 — Dairy-cattle, 398 — Mutton sheep, 399 — Breeding- sheep, 401 — Fat-hog, 402 — Bacon-hog, 404. Market Classes and Grades 4 . 404 Beef, 404 — Veal, 405 — Mutton “endl lant, 406 — Pork, 406 — Swine, 407. CHAPTER XXII Computing THE RATION For Farm ANIMALS ‘i j - . 409-428 Computing by Energy Values . . 3 3 . 409 Computing on Basis of Quality and Guetitity of Milk é : . 410 Computing the. Balanced Ration by the Wolf-Lehmann Standards . 418 The Feeding Standards. i . 414 Feeding standards per day sail 1000 Ib. jive alate: 414— Per day per head, 415 — Proteid requirements for cattle, sheep, and swine, 416 — Average weights of different feeding stuffs, 417 — Sample rations, 417. Composition Tables . : ‘ ‘ ‘ 3 7 ‘ : . 419 xx CONTENTS PAGES Composition tables, 419— Digestion tables, 424— Fertilizing constituents, 426. CHAPTER XXIII EXTERNAL Parasites OF ANIMALS ‘6 e ‘ ‘ . 429-441 Handling the Cattle-tick or Texas-fever Tick . . . 429 Dips for cattle-ticks, their preparation and use, 429 _ “Method of spraying, 438 —Disinfectant for ticks in infested stables, 434 — Eradication of ticks by rotation of fields, 435. Other External. Parasites of Farm Animals : 2 . 484 Lime-and-sulfur dips, 434 — Nicotine solutions, 434 — Commer. cial dips, 4836 — Crude oil emulsion, 436— Lice powder, 436— Cresol disinfecting soap, 486—The kinds of parasites (cattle, 437 ; horse, 439 ; sheep, 440; swine, 441). CHAPTER XXIV Miix anp Mitx Propucrs; Darry Farms ‘ ‘é é . 442-472 Composition of Milk . : j A . 442 Composition of cow’s milk, 442 — Average ‘oomipodiiion of milk of various kinds, 443-— Average composition of typical cow’s milk, 443— The milk of different breeds, 444 — Milk solids of different breeds, 444— Ash in cow’s milk and its products, 444 — Mineral constituents in milk, 444 — Variation in average compo- sition of 574 samples of market butter samples, 445 — Nutrients and energy in one pound of food materials as compared with milk, 445 — Average composition of milk products and other food materials, 446. Milk, Butter, and Cheese Tests . ‘ . 446 Babcock test for butter-fat, 446 — Compating total aaitaa, 447 — Test for acid, 447 — Test for boiled milk, 448 — The lactometer test for specific gravity, 448— Test for boric acid or borax, 449 — Test for formaldehyde in milk, 450 —Standardizing milk, 450 — Butter moisture-test, 451 — Salt in butter, 453 — Salt in cheese, 453 — Over-run in butter-making, 454 — Spoon-test for oleomar- garin and renovated butter, 455 — Moisture in cheese, 455 — Babcock test for fat in cheese, 456 —Casein in milk, 456— Wis- consin curd-test, 457. Propagation of Starter for Butter-Making and Cheese-Making . . 458 CONTENTS xxi Farm Butter-Making . 3 s ; & > oye ‘ 468 Bitter milk and cream, 459 — Why butter will not ‘* come,” 460 — Old cream makes poor-flavored butter, 461— White specks in the butter, 461 — Mottled butter, 461 — Effect of feed on butter- fat, 461. Butter from Whey ‘ 3 ‘ : 461 Milk, Butter, and Dairy-farm Scores ‘ z 3 - . 462 Score-card for market-milk, 462 — Butter score-card, 463 — Cheese score-card, 464 — University of Wisconsin score-cards, 465. Butter Classifications and Grades 5 3 : : 5 - 465 Definitions, 465 — Grades, 465 — Specials, 465 — Extras, 466 — Seconds, 466 — Thirds, 467 — No. 1 packing stock, 467-— No. 2 packing stock, 467 —No. 3 packing stock, 467. Dairy Establishment Scores and Rules : ‘i : ‘ . 467 Score-card for production of sanitary milk, 467— Milk inspec- tion of farm dairies, 469— Rules for the production of clean milk, 471 ——Sanitary inspection of city milk plants, 472. CHAPTER XXV Construction, Farm Encineerinc, MrecHanics . a . 473-503 Silos . é é ‘ ‘ i ‘ 3 : F 2 473 Least number of dairy cows for silos of given diameters, 473 — Feeding capacity of silos, 473 (Approximate quantity of silage required per day — Necessary diameter of silos for feeding given numbers of cows) — Other silo figures, 476 (Weight of silage- capacity of cylindrical silos). Barn Figures. ‘ : 3 . é 4 " 477 Wire Fence . 7 ‘ ‘ ‘ : a ‘i ‘ : . ATT Dimensions of 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-acre lots and fence required to inclose them, 478 — Gauges, sizes, and weights of plain wire, 479 — Barb- wire, 479 — Galvanized coiled spring-steel wire, 479— Rods of fence required for fields of different sizes, 480. Tensile Strengths of Ropes . : 2 ‘i i ‘i 4 , 481 Tile Draining . : ‘ ; 3 . ‘ ‘ . . 481 Number of feet of tile per acre, 481— Limit of size of tile to grade and length, 481 — Number of acres drained by given sizes of tile, 482 — Price-list of tile, 483— Cost of laying tile, 483 — Drainage points, 484 — Don'ts in land drainage, 484. = Road-Drags % é ‘ ‘ ‘ +s . ‘ y : Use of the King road-drag, 485 — The split-log road-drag, 487. XX11 CONTENTS PAGES Dataon Water . . Fi . és . 489 Rules, 469 Fest-tiead acid pressure, 40 Pressure and feet- head, 490— Equivalents for moving water, 490— Foot-loss of water through pipes by gravity, 491— Friction-loss of water in pipes (pounds), 492 — Friction-head (feet), 493 — Barometric pressure at different altitudes as affecting pumps, 494. Windmill Figures 3 ; é 5 4 ; é . 494 Windmills for pana pane: 494 — Power of mill, 495 — Speed of mill, 496 — Loading and speed, 497 —Sizes and cost of circular neaaeaibe for irrigation by windmills, 497 — Cost of mills, 498. Machinery and Motors z . 498 Widths of belting, 498 — Size anid spent of cullapa or ‘peas 498 —Calculated capacity of piston pumps, 499 — Power required to operate triplex pumps, 500 — Horse-power required to raise water to different heights, 501 — Horse-power of steel shafting, 501 — Electric appliances on the farm, 502—The motor power of a stream, 502 — Hydraulic rams, 503 — Hot-air engines, 503. CHAPTER XXVI ~° Mason Work. Cements, Paints, GLues, AnD Waxes . . 604-515 Building or Mason's Cement ; Gravel and Pitch : ‘ - 504 Approximate estimates of mason-work, 504 — Floors, banian, walks, and foundations, 505. Mending Cineilts 5 dj 3 3 : ‘ - 607 Cements for iron, 507 — Belles cerderie, 507 — Tar peat, 508 — Copper cement, 508 — Fire-proof or stone cement, 508 — Earthenware cement, 508 — Cement for glass, 508 — Sealing cements, 508. Paints and Protective Compounds. : ‘ . 609 Home-made washes for fences and euitbuildings, 509 — iMice-pibes paint, 509 For damp walls, 509 — Water-proofing paint for leather, 510— For cloth for pits and frames, 510—For paper, 510 — To prevent metals from rusting, 510 — To prevent rusting of nails, hinges, etc., 510—To remove rust, 511— Amount of paint required for a given surface, 511. Glues . ‘ 611 Liquid glue, 511 Miwa gum, B11 _— (Git: for label and speak. mens, 512. Waxes for Grafting and for Covering Wounds . é . 612 Common resin and beeswax waxes, 512 —Albstidltiies wax, 513— CONTENTS Pitch wax, 513 Waxed string and bandages, 518 — Covers for wounds, 514. CHAPTER XXVII ComputTaTion TABLES % Tables of Regular American Weights aa Wawaunes 3 7 5 Avoirdupois weight, 516 — Troy or jewellers’, 516 — Apothe- caries’, 516 Comparative weights, 517—Dry measure, 517 — Liquid measure, 517 — Apothecaries’ fluid measure, 517 — Line or linear measure, 517 — Surveyors’ or chain measure, 518 — Square measure, 518— Surveyors’ square measure, 518 — Solid or cubic measure, 518 — Paper and book denominations, 519. Metric Weights and Measures Weight, 519 — Capacity, 520 — Ceneth, 520 — Sunixes, 520 _ Cubic, 520 — Equivalents in metric and American measures, 521. Money Tables English money, 521 Prench §02— Geman, 522 — Dutch, 522 —lItalian, 522 —Spanish, 522 — Russian, 522 — Austrian, 522 — Monetary units of American countries, 522 — Other money equivalents, 523 — Money table, 524 Legal rates of interest, 524, Wage-Tables Day wages, 526- 527 —Month ee 526, Thermometer Scales Miscellaneous Measures, Weights, ana eciineates : Measures and dimensions of many kinds, 528 — Weights of various varieties of apples’ per bushel, 529— Dried fruit and cider, 529— Various estimates, 529—To find bushels in bins, 530 — To find tons of hay in mow or stack, 530 — To figure cost of hay by the ton, 530. Capacities of Pipes and Tanks Quantity of water held by pipes of various sizes, 531 - Nuiaber of gallons in circular tanks and wells, 531 — Approximate con- tents of cylinders, 531 — Gallons in square-built tanks, 532. Legal Weight of the Bushel s List of products for which legal woe have ae fixed i in iis one or two states, 533, 540— Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel in the United States, 534— Other articles, 540 — Legal weights of seeds and grains in Canada, 540. Government Townships és a . : ; : . . . XX1il PAGES . » . 616-542 516 519 521 526 527 528 531 538 541 xxiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVIII PAGES CoLLecTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS FOR CABINETS OR EXHIBI- TION. Prerrumery. LasBets. ‘1 Fi ‘i : : . 648-558 Collecting and Storing Samples of Soil . : ‘ 3 f . 543 Samples of Seeds and Grains. F 3 3 . 544 Collecting and Preserving Plants for Hevbaria “ 545 Preserving, Printing, and Imitating Flowers and Other Parts of Plants ,. . ‘ : é 3 : : . 646 Collecting and Freeing Feels ; . Jee x . 651 Making Perfumery at Home ‘ ‘6 . ‘ . 661 The Preservation of Fruits for Exhibition Foepasts ; : i . 652 Six Canadian recipes, 552 — A California method, 556. Labels . 2 . ‘ a A , . : - . . 656 Jars for Specimens . . « «© « e ‘ . ee «(558 CHAPTER XXIX Directories 7 . 659-567 Institutions and Agensles mcleiny ron a besser Rural Life . 3 559 Agricultural and Forestry Colleges, Schools, and Experiment Sta- tions in Canada. 561 Agricultural Colleges and Fesveatinnd ‘Sintions ¢ in the United Staves. 561 Forestry Schools in the United States ‘ 3 : . 664 North American Veterinary Colleges and Rapartoiaiite ‘ ‘ . 665 Home Economic Institutions and Departments . é 566 Institutions teaching Landscape Architecture (or Hontecape Briton: ing) of College Grade . : : : 5 3 ‘ . 667 FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK CHAPTER I THE WEATHER Tue farmer lives with the weather. Therefore he should under- stand it; and he should be able to follow the indications of the weather maps, and should be provided with good thermometers and barometers of his own. It is important that the thermometer should indicate the tempera- ture correctly, and for this one must rely on the maker. Most reli- able instrument-makers place the firm name on their instruments as a guarantee of accuracy. When purchasing, it is therefore well to see that the instrument bears the name of the maker. A reliable thermometer of the ordinary pattern costs $1 to $3, depending on the size and style of the case. Probably the most satisfactory instru- ment for farm use is “Six’s” pattern of self-registering maximum and minimum thermometers. ‘This instrument is but little larger than the ordinary thermometer, and arranged with two scales, one of which shows the highest and the other the lowest temperature since the instrument was “set.” To “set” the thermometer, the small steel index in the tube is pulled down to the end of the column by a magnet that accompanies the instrument. The current temperature is indicated by this instrument in the same way as by the ordinary thermometer. Thermometers that cost from 25¢ to 50¢ are usually inaccurate through a part of the scale. The same rule as to maker should be observed in the purchase of an aneroid barometer, although there are probably fewer worthless barometers on the market than worthless thermometers. A good aneroid barometer costs $10 to $15, depending on the size and make. As these instruments depend for accuracy on the mechanical con- struction, the cheaper grades are usually unsatisfactory. A pocket B 1 2 THE WEATHER aneroid barometer (about the size of a watch) costs about $12. These instruments are arranged to determine elevations as well as to give weather indications. : Mercurial barometers are more expensive, costing $25 to $40. As the mercury in the column of a mercurial barometer changes its length with changes of temperature just as the column of mercury does in a mercurial thermometer, it is necessary to correct the read- ing at each observation. Tables, giving the amount to be added or subtracted from the reading for each degree of temperature, should be secured when the instrument is purchased. Thermometers should be exposed in the shade, and where there is a free circulation of air. Barometers should not be exposed to full sunshine for any great length of time. Any convenient place in the house will give proper exposure for barometers. How to use the Weather Map (Weather Bureau, U.S. Dept. Agric.) The first impression of a student of the weather maps, as they pre- sent their seemingly endless forms and combinations of the temperature and pressure lines, is often one of confusion. This feeling is likely to be attended by one of discouragement, and the impulse to abandon the task of seeking an underlying plan is more powerful with many persons than the incentive, which depends upon curiosity, to know what it all really means. The storm-tracks. The storms of the United States follow, however, year after year a series of tracks, not capricious, but related to each other by very well- defined laws. The positions of these tracks have been determined carefully for the United States by studies made in the Forecast Division of the Weather Bureau, on the long series of maps that have been made during the past twenty years. The track that the central point of a high area or that the center of a storm follows in passing over the country from west to east is laid down on individual charts, these are collected on a group chart, and from this the average track pursued can be readily described. The chart herewith (see fig. 1) shows the general result of THE WEATHER MAP “BUIIO}S JO JUSUIBAOU Affep osvIOAG PUL SyOeI} USUI ZULMOYS ‘deur Joy}VEAA —“[ “PLT 4 THE WEATHER a study of tracks of storms in the United States. It indicates that, in general, there are two sets of tracks running westerly and easterly, one set over the northwestern boundary, the Lake region, and the St. Lawrence Valley; the other set over the middle Rocky Mountain dis- tricts and the Gulf States. Each of these is double, with one for the “ highs ” and one for the “ lows.” Furthermore, there are lines cross- ing from one main track to another, showing how storms pass from one to the other. The transverse broken lines show the average daily movement. On the chart the heavy lines all belong to the tracks of the “ highs,” and the lighter lines to the “lows.” Let us trace them somewhat in detail. A “high” appearing on the California coast may cross the mountains near Salt Lake, and then pass directly over the belt of the Gulf States to the Florida coast; or it may move farther northward, cross the Rocky Mountains in the State of Washington, up the Columbia River Valley, then turn east, and finally reach the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The paths are determined by the laws of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the configuration of the North American continent. This movement of the “highs” from the middle Pacific coast to Florida or to the Gulf of St. Lawrence is con- fined to the summer half of the year — April to September, inclusive. In the winter months, on the other hand, the source of the “ highs ” is different, though they reach the same terminals. In the months October to March, inclusive, many “ highs ” enter the United States near the one hundred fiftieth meridian and move south along the Rocky Mountain slope into the southern circuit, and thus reach the South Carolina coast; or else they turn more abruptly eastward and move in the northern circuit over the Lakes to Newfoundland. The chief difficulty in the art of forecasting is to decide which of these paths will be pursued and the probable rate at which the movement will take place. The weather map. The daily maps of the Weather Bureau show stations in the United States and Canada that make telegraphic reports of the weather each day at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., seventy-fifth meridian time. The reports consist of observations of the barometer and thermometer, the veloc- ity and direction of the wind, amount, kind, and direction of move- ment of clouds, and amount of rain or snow, and the 8 a. m. reports WEATHER INDICATIONS 5 e furnished to nearly one hundred stations of the Weather Bureau r use in the preparation of maps and bulletins. On the weather maps solid lines, called isobars, are drawn through ints that have the same atmospheric pressure, a line being drawn r each one-tenth of an inch in the height of the barometer. Dotted ies, called isotherms, are drawn through points that have the same mospheric temperature, a line being drawn for each ten degrees of mperature. Heavy dotted lines are sometimes used to inclose areas aere decided changes in temperature have occurred during the pre- ding twenty-four hours. The direction of the wind at each station indicated by an arrow which flies with the wind. The state of the sather — clear, partly cloudy, cloudy, rain, or snow — is indicated by mbols. Shaded areas are used on the maps issued at Washington, id at several stations, to show areas within which precipitation in e form of rain or snow has occurred during the preceding twelve vurs. The tabular data give details of maximum and minimum mperatures, and 24-hour temperature changes, wind velocities, and nount of precipitation during the preceding twenty-four hours. The xt printed on the maps presents forecasts for the state and the sta- on, and summarizes general and special meteorological features that ‘e shown by the lines, symbols, and tabulated data. The weather indications. The centers of areas of low barometric pressure, or general storms, ‘e indicated on the map by the word “low,” and the centers of ‘eas of high barometric pressure by the word “high.” The gen- ‘al movement of “lows” and “ highs” in the United States is from est to east, and in their progression they are similar to a series of mospheric waves, the crests of which are designated by the ‘‘ highs ” id the troughs by the “lows.” These alternating “highs” and lows” have an average easterly movement of about six hundred to ven hundred miles a day. The “lows” usually move in an easterly, ‘north of east, direction, and the “ highs” in an easterly, or south "east, direction. In advance of a “low” the winds are southerly or easterly, and ‘e, therefore, usually warmer. When the “low” passes east of a ace, the wind shifts to westerly or northwesterly with lower tempera- ire. The eastward advance of “ lows” is almost invariably preceded 6 THE WEATHER and attended by precipitation in the form of rain or snow, and their passage is usually followed by clearing weather. The temperature on a given parallel west of a “low’’ may be reasonably looked for on the same parallel to the east when the “low” has passed, and when the night is clear and there is but little wind, frost is likely to occur along and north of an isotherm of 40°. A “low” is generally followed by a “high,” which in turn is followed by another “low.” By bearing in mind the usual movements of “lows” and “highs” and the general conditions referred to that attend them, coming weather changes may be frequently foreseen. “Lows” often move south of east from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi Val- ley, and then change direction to north of east. “ Lows” of tropi- cal or subtropical origin often move in a westerly direction to our south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and then recurve to the northeastward. The centers of “lows” do not as a rule cross isotherms, but generally follow the general trend of the isothermal lines. Cold waves are always accompanied by, and forerun, “ highs.’’ When isotherms run nearly east and west, no decided changes in temperature are likely to occur. When isotherms directly west of a place incline from northwest to southeast, the temperature will rise; when from northeast to southwest, the temperature will fall. Southerly to easterly winds prevail west of a nearly north and south line passing through the middle of a “high,” and also east of a like line passing though the middle of a “low.” Northerly to westerly winds occur west of a nearly north and south line passing through the middle of a “ low,” and also east of a similar line passing though the middle of a “ high.” ; An absence of decided and energetic “lows ” and “ highs ” indicates that existing weather conditions will continue until later maps show a change, which usually appears in the west. Weather Bureau Forecasts Forecasts of the weather expected during the ensuing thirty-six hours are issued by the United States Weather Bureau daily at about 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. and are distributed to all parts of the country by telegraph, telephone, mail, and by means of flag and whistle signals, Nearly all telephone companies codperate or are willing to coéperate WEATHER FLAGS AND SIGNALS 7 h the Weather Bureau in making the information available to the ic in general. It is thus possible to obtain the official weather ‘cast by calling the central exchange of almost any telephone one y be using. nals of the United States Weather Bureau. Flag Signals (Fig. 2) ac Fic. 2. — United States flag signals. 1, square white flag, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tem- erature. 2, square blue flag, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tem- erature. 3, square, white above, blue below, alone, indicates local rain, ‘ationary temperature. 4, triangular black, refers to temperature. 5, square white, with black center, cold wave. 1, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, warmer. 1, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, rain or snow. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain or snow. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather with local rains. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather with local rains. 1, with No. 5 below it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. 2, with No. 5 below it, indicates wet weather, cold wave. Whistle Signals he warning signal, to attract attention, will be a long blast of . fifteen to twenty seconds’ duration. After this warning signal been sounded, long blasts (of from four to six seconds’ duration) ‘to weather, and short blasts (of from one to three seconds’ dura- ) refer to temperature; those for weather to be sounded first. 8 THE WEATHER Buasts InpiIcaTEe Onelong. . . .. . . . . Fair weather. Twolong. .... . . . . Rainor snow. Three long . . . . . . . . Local rains. One short ... . . .. . . Lower temperature. Twoshort ... . . . . . Higher temperature. Three short . . . .. . . . Cold wave. Interpretation of Combination Blasts One long, alone . . . . . Fair weather, stationary temperature. Two long, alone . . . . . Rain or snow, stationary temperature. One long and short . . . . Fair weather, lower temperature. Two long and two short . . . Rain or snow, higher temperature. One long and three short . . Fair weather, cold wave. Three long and two short . . Local rains, higher temperature. By repeating each combination a few times, with an interval of ten seconds between, possibilities of error in reading the forecasts will be avoided, such as may arise from variable winds, or failure to hear the warning signal. Canadian signals (Fig. 3) val a Fig. 3. — Canadian storm warnings. No. 1, gale at first from an east- No. 3, heavy gale at first from erly direction. an easterly direction. No. 2, gale at first from a west- No. 4, heavy gale at first from erly direction. a westerly direction. The night signal corresponding to Nos. 1 and 3 is a red light. Night signal corresponding to Nos. 2 and 4 is a white light above a red light. ATMOSPHERIC EDDIES 9 Barometer and Wind Indications (W. M. Wilson) The mercurial barometer is the instrument used for all observations when great accuracy is required, but an aneroid barometer is more convenient, less liable to injury, and will answer all practical purposes. Attention need not be given to the legends fair, changeable, stormy, etc., that usually appear on the face of the instrument, because changes im pressure are much more important indications of approach- ing weather than the actual pressure at a given time. To forecast the weather accurately, the force and direction of the wind should always receive equal consideration with the changes of pressure as indicated by the barometer. The following general statements may aid in showing the relation of wind, pressure, and weather : — The atmosphere may be compared to an ocean of air that rests upon the earth just as the water rests upon the bed of the oceans. There are great currents of air in the atmosphere, just as there are great currents or rivers of water in the oceans. Storms are eddies in the atmosphere, and float along in the currents or rivers of air very much like the eddies often seen floating on the surface of a river. All of the United States and Canada, except the southern part of Florida, lies at the bottom of a great river of air that flows from west to east around the world with the north-pole at the center. It is called the circumpolar whirl. And as the storms in this latitude are eddies in the north-circumpolar whirl, they float along from west to east in the current of this river of air. The air always whirls about the center of every storm-eddy in the same direction — counter-clock-wise in the northern hemisphere and clock-wise in the southern hemisphere. Therefore, if a storm-eddy in the latitude of the United States is approaching, the winds will first be from a southerly direction, and when the center of the storm has passed, the wind will come from a northerly direction. If the center of the storm passes north of the observer, the wind will change from S.E. to S., then to 8.W., and finally to W. or N.W. as the storm passes on its way eastward. If the center of the storm passes south of the observer, the wind 10 THE WEATHER will start in from the §.E. and gradually “ back ” to the N.E., then to the N. and finally to the N.W. To locate the center of the storm, stand with your face squarely to the wind, and extend your arms from your sides. Your right hand will then point in the direction of the center of the storm. For exam- ple, if one faces a wind from the south, his extended right hand will point toward the west; if one faces a west wind, his extended right hand will point north. A study of the daily weather maps, printed in many daily papers, will be of much help in becoming familiar with the movements of these storm-eddies. The pressure of the atmosphere at the center of the storm-eddy is always less than at a distance from the center; therefore, as the storm approaches, the pressure will decrease and the barometer will fall. Thus a falling barometer indicates the approach of a storm- eddy, and the direction of the wind will give approximately the location of the center. If the barometer is falling and the wind square from the south, the indications are that the storm is approaching from the west and will probably pass near the observer. If the barometer is falling and the wind from the southwest, the center of the storm will probably pass north of the observer. If the barometer is falling and the wind N.E., the center of the storm is approaching from the southwest, and will probably pass south of the observer. If the barometer is rising and the wind 8.W. to W., the center of the storm will pass north of the observer, and clearing weather follow soon. The following barometer and wind table is condensed from Pro- fessor Garriott’s more extended compilation, and is the result of many years of study and experience : — Barometer steady; wind, S.W. to N.W.; fair weather, with slight changes in temperature for 1 or 2 days. Barometer falling slowly; wind, 8.W. to N.W.; warmer, with rain in 24 to 36 hours. Barometer falling rapidly; wind, 8.W. to N.W.; warmer, with rain in 18 to 24 hours. Barometer falling slowly; wind, 8. to 8.E.; rain within 24 hours. BAROMETER INDICATIONS 11 Barometer falling rapidly; wind, 8. to 8.E.; wind increasing in cce with rain within 12 to 24 hours. Barometer falling slowly ; wind, S.E. to N.E.; rain in 12 to 18 hours. Barometer falling rapidly; wind, 8.E. to N.E.; increasing wind d rain in 12 hours. Barometer falling rapidly; wind, E. to N.E.; in summer rain obable within 24 hours; in winter rain or snow with increasing nds, probably continuing 24 to 48 hours. Barometer rising slowly; wind, 8. to S.W.; clearing and cooler thin a few hours, and probably continued fair weather for several ys. Barometer rising rapidly; wind, 8. to W.; clearing and cooler. winter cold wave probable. Should the barometer continue low when the sky becomes clear, pect more rain within 24 hours. (C. L. Prince.) Rapid changes in the barometer indicate early and marked changes the weather. (E. B. Garriott.) If the thermometer and barometer rise together, It is a very sure sign of coming fine weather. If the barometer falls two or three tenths of an inch in four hours, pect a gale of wind. (C. L. Prince.) In summer, when the barometer falls suddenly, expect thunder- yms; if it does not rise again when the storm ceases, there will several days of unsettled weather. The barometer falls lower for high winds than for heavy rains. Popular Weather Signs (Wilson) When it is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather: for the heaven red. And in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day: for the aven is red and lowering. — Matthew, xvi, 2, 3, Rev. version. When ye see a cloud rising in the west, straightway ye say, There meth a shower; and so it cometh to pass. — Luke, xii, 54, Rev. rsion. After fine, clear weather the first signs in the sky of coming changes 2 usually light streaks, curls, wisps, or mottled patches of white, stant clouds, which increase and are followed by an overcasting 12 THE WEATHER of murky vapor that grows into cloudiness. Usually the higher and more distant the clouds seem to be, the more gradual but general the coming change of weather will prove. — Fitzroy. If cirrus clouds form in fine weather with a falling barometer, it is almost sure to rain. — Howard. If cirrus clouds dissolve and appear to ental it is an indication of fine weather. — Garriott. When cloud streamers point upward, the clouds are falling or de- scending, and rain is indicated; when cloud streamers point downward, the clouds are ascending, and dry weather is indicated. — Garriott. Clouds flying against the wind indicate rain. If in hot weather two strata of clouds appear to move in opposite directions, thunderstorms are indicated. Well-defined cumulus clouds forming a few hours after sun-rise, increasing toward the middle of the day, and decreasing toward even- ing are indicative of settled weather ; if instead of subsiding in the even- ing, leaving the sky clear, they keep increasing, they indicate wet weather. — Jenyms. Birds fly high in fair weather and low in foul weather. The expla- nation is that in fair weather the barometer is usually high, the air heavier and denser and capable of sustaining a given weight at a greater elevation than when less dense during the passage of a storm. Frosts, and Methods of Protection How frost forms (Wilson). In the day, plants usually receive more heat from the sun than they give off (radiate), and consequently become warmer; but at night the process is reversed, and they radiate more heat than they receive and thus grow colder. When the surface of a plant has lost (radiated) sufficient heat to cause its temperature to fall to 32° or below, frost forms. Any condition that causes increased radiation will increase the liability of frost, and conversely, whatever checks radiation or supplies additional heat to the air will tend to ward off frost. A clear night is favorable for frost because radiation or loss of heat from the surface of the earth proceeds most rapidly under a clear sky. Clouds act as a blanket. The heat rays do not penetrate them easily, but are reflected back toward the earth, thus checking radiation by confining the heat to the strata of air between the earth and the clouds, FROST 13 A quiet air is favorable for frost. Radiation proceeds more rapidly from the surface than from the air above the surface. This is shown by the fact that a thermometer placed in the grass on a quiet, clear night will read 10° or even 15° below one suspended three or four feet above the surface. If there is much wind, this difference will not occur, because the wind mixes the colder air at the surface with the warmer air above, thus giving a more uniform temperature. A moderately dry atmosphere is favorable for frost, because when the air is humid only a slight fall of temperature will occur before the temperature at which dew begins to form (dew-point) is reached, and when the vapor in the air begins to change into water (dew), the heat that was used originally to change the water into vapor is no longer required and is said to be liberated, and tends to raise the temperature of the air, or at least to retard the fall. The effect of the liberation of heat in the process of the formation of dew may be appreciated when it is said that the heat added to the air in the formation of a pint of dew is sufficient to raise the temperature of more than five pints of water from the freezing to the boiling point. Under ordinary conditions, when the dew-point is 10° or more above the frost-point, 32°, a frost is not likely to occur, but if the dew-point approaches 32°, frost is likely to occur. In a cranberry marsh near Mather, Wis., during the season of 1906, Cox found that the minimum temperature averaged 8.2° below the temperature of the dew-point as observed the previous evening, and in extreme cases the difference was as much as 20° and 22°. On a marsh near Berlin, Wis., on the night of September 27, 1906, at 11 p.m. the dew-point was found to be 43°, yet frost began to form in parts of the marsh at 1 P.m. when the temperature had fallen to 28°: frost became general at 2 a.m., and the following morning a minimum temperature of 24.4° was observed. The dew-point of the previous evening cannot, therefore, be regarded as a safe guide for the minimum temperature of the following night. The chief value of dew-point observations of the previous evening appears to be in the fact that they indicate the temperature at which the heat from the condensing vapor will begin to be poured into the air, and if this temperature is much above the frost-point, this addition of heat may be reasonably expected to check the fall of temperature and thus ward off a frost. 14 THE WEATHER To find the dew-point. The dew-point is determined by the wet- and dry-bulb thermometer (or psychrometer). The instrument may be made as follows: For the frame find a board eighteen inches long, two inches wide, and one half inch thick; bore a hole in one end so as to hang the apparatus on a nail when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers with cylindrical bulbs, and the degrees Fahrenheit engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, fastening it securely by a thread. When this cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to evaporation in the air, it constitutes the ‘‘ wet-bulb ther- mometer ”; the other thermometer has no covering on its bulb, is not wet at any time, and constitutes the “ dry-bulb thermometer.” The range of temperature of the open air in the following table is from 36° Fahrenheit to 75° Fahrenheit, and of depression of tempera- ture in the wet bulb, from 1° to 13° Fahrenheit, giving a range in both directions of sufficient scope for the needs of northern farmers during the growing season. The temperature of the dry-bulb (or open- air temperature) is found in the left-hand column of the table; the difference in degrees between the readings of the dry- and wet-bulb is entered in the horizontal line at the top, from 1° to 13°. To find the temperature of dew-point at any observation, find in left-hand column the temperature of dry-bulb, then follow the horizontal line opposite that figure till you reach the perpendicular column under the difference between dry- and wet-bulb readings, and the figures at the meeting of these two columns will give the temperature of dew-point. For example, suppose the dry-bulb stands at 65° and wet-bulb at 55°: the difference is 10°. Pass across the page in the line of 65° till you intersect the vertical column under 10°, and you read 47°, which is dew- point under these conditions. If the dew-point is 10° or more above frost-point (32° Fahrenheit), there is little danger of killing frost; but if the dew-point is less than 10° above 32°, danger may be apprehended. If a line is drawn from the intersection of 43°—1° and 67° — 13°, of the table, this may be called the danger line, and all dew-point temperatures below this line indicate danger of frost, and are printed in italics. This margin of 10° is taken because the temperature on a still night will often sink several degrees below the first dew-point, and the temperature of the air at five feet above the ground is TO DETERMINE THE DEW-POINT 15 reral degrees above that at ground level. For these reasons nbined, a margin of 10° may be safely assumed as the limit of ‘ety. ble for determining the temperature of dew-point from the readings of the dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers (Hazen) DEPRESSION OF THE WET-BULB THERMOMETER | “LHERMOMETER 4°) 62 | 61 | 59 | 57 | 56 | 54 | 52 |} 50 | 48 | 46 | 43 40 3°| 61 | 60 | 58 | 56 | 55 | 53 | 51 | 49 | 47 | 44 | 42 | 41 | 38 2°) 60 | 59 | 57 | 55 | 53 | 52 | 50 | 48 | 45 | 438 39 | 37 1°) 59 | 58 | 56 | 54 | 52 | 50 | 48 | 46 | 44 | 42 | 41 | 38 | 35 °| 58 | 57 | 55 | 53 | 51 | 49 | 47 | 45 | 48 39 | 86 | 33 eo! 57 | 56 | 54 | 52 | 50 | 48 | 46 | 44 40 | 38 | 35 | 82 3°} 56 | 55 | 53 | 51 | 49 | 47 | 45 | 42 | 41 | 89 | 36 | 33 | 30 7°) 55 | 54 | 52 | 50 | 48 | 46 | 44 40 | 87 | 85 | 31 | 28 3°| 54 | 53 | 51 | 49 | 47 | 44 | 42 | 47 | 39 | 86 | 33 | 30 | 26 3°] 53 | 52 | 50 | 48 | 46 | 43 40 | 87 | 84 | B31 | 28 | 25 4°} 52 | 50 | 49 | 46 | 44 | 42 | 41 | 39 | 36 | 33 | 380 | 27 | 23 3°] 51 | 49 | 47 | 45 | 43 40 | 87 | 84 | 81 | 28 | 25 | 20 2°1| 50 | 48 | 46 | 44 | 42 | 41 | 38 | 36 | 83 | 30 | 27 | 23 | 18 1°) 49 | 47 | 45 | 48 40 | 87 | 84 | 31 | 28 | 25 | 21 | 16 | 48 | 46 | 44 | 42 | 41 | 88 | 36 | 83 | 80 | 27 | 28 | 19 | 14 | 47 | 45 | 43 87 | 84 | 81 | 28 | 25 | 21 \ 17 | i 3°] 46 | 44 | 42 | 42 | 88 | 36 | 33 | 80 | 27 | 23 | 19 | 14 9 7°; 45 | 48 87 | 865 | 82 | 29 | 265 | 22 | 17 | 12 6 3°] 44 | 42 | 41 | 39 | 36 | 83 | 80 | 27 | 24 | 20 | 15 | 10 3 3° | 43 40 | 87 | 85 | 82 | 29 | 26 | 22 | 18 | 13 v | = 3°] 41 | 89 | 36 | 84 | 81 | 28 | 25 | 21 | 17 | 12 6 | -2 |-16 -1 |-12 |-35 -& |-25 16 THE WEATHER Methods of protection against frost (Wilson). Protection against frost is not only possible, but practicable. The method to be employed depends on the kind of crop, the expense its value will justify, and the facilities at hand. But whatever method is chosen, it must be carried out systematically, intelligently, and with thoroughness if satisfactory results are to be obtained. Progressive cranberry growers resort to three expedients to ward off light frosts, aside from flooding, which is practiced in the spring and autumn and also when exceptionally severe frosts are expected. These methods are cultivation, drainage, and sanding. By cultivating the marsh and keeping it free from weeds, moss, and other vegetation, the heat from the sun more easily penetrates the soil, and there is, there- fore, more heat to be ‘given off when needed to prevent frost during the night. Good drainage decreases the effect of cooling by evapora- tion, and a dry soil becomes warmer under sunshine than a wet soil, and therefore radiates heat more freely into the air at night when needed to ward off frost. A covering of sand lowers the specific heat of the soil, and thus stores up a large amount of heat during the day to be given to the air at night. In the Cape Cod marshes it is the prac- tice to spread about half an inch of sand over the surface of the marsh each year. These methods, when systematically and carefully carried out, are usually effective in warding off light frosts that are liable to occur between early spring and autumn. Smudging has been practiced for many years in the trucking sections of the Southwest, as well as in the fruit-growing districts of California and Florida. The object is to cover the garden or orchard with a thick blanket of smoke and vapor, with a view to checking radiation. The success of this method depends upon the care and thoroughness with which it is carried out. The cloud of vapor or smoke must cover the garden or orchard, and be dense. A thin blanket will not be suffi- cient. The fire should be built on the windward side of the orchard, and such material used as damp straw, prunings, manure. If the fire burns briskly, it may be sprayed with water to increase the cloud of vapor. Portable smudges have superseded the stationary smudge in many places. They possess the advantage of being moved from place to place, thus overcoming the effect of a change of wind, which often ren- FROST — PHENOLOGY 17 ders the stationary smudge ineffective. Any sort of a fire-box that can be placed on a stone-boat or sled will answer the purpose. The most effective method, and the one now practiced by the large fruit-growers of Colorado and California, is the distribution of a large number of small fires, about forty to the acre, throughout the orchard. In this case dependence is placed in the direct heat given off by the fires as well as in the cloud formed from the smoke. Coal is the fuel most generally used in California, while oil is coming into use in Colorado. When coal is used, it is the practice to suspend wire baskets a few feet from the ground, containing ten to twenty pounds of coal, which is lighted when frost threatens. Forty such baskets will raise the temperature of the orchard three or four degrees. The cost depends upon the price of the fuel. In California a ton of soft coal that costs $2.50 was considered sufficient for one acre each night. Some orchardists have replaced the coal baskets with oil burners. This method is more expensive to install, as the burners are more costly than the baskets, and tanks must be provided for the storage of the oil; but it is said to be much more convenient, and quite as efficient. At the Hamilton fruit ranch, near Grand Junction, Col., the temperature in an orchard of twenty acres was maintained at 33° by the use of oil burners, while a minimum temperature of 27° was registered in surrounding localities. The cost of the protec- tion of this orchard for four nights when frost occurred in the vicinity was approximately ten per cent of the value of the crop. Methods less systematic than the above are usually disappointing. (For another discussion, see Paddock and Whipple, “ Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions.’’) Phenology Phenology (contraction of phenomenology) is that science which con- siders the relationship of local climate to the periodicity of the annual phenomena of nature. It usually studies climate and the progression of the seasons in terms of plant and animal life, as the dates of migrations, of blooming, leafing, ripening of fruit, defoliation, and the like. If observations are to have permanent value, they must be taken with a definite purpose. The articular objects of phenological obser- vations are the following: — c 18 THE WEATHER 1. To determine the general oncoming of spring. 2. To determine the fitful or variable features of spring. 3. To determine the epoch of the full activity of the advancing season. 4, To determine the active physiological epoch of the year. To determine the maturation of the season. To determine the oncoming of the decline of fall. To determine the approach of winter. To determine the features of the winter epoch. To determine the fleeting or fugitive epochs of the year. SON OM Good phenological observations upon plants should satisfy the fol- lowing tests, as given by Hoffmann: — 1. They should represent as broad a distribution as possible of the given species, selected for observation. 2. Ease and certainty of identifying the definite phases which are to be observed. 3. The utility of the observations as regards biological questions, such as the vegetative periods, time of ripening, etc. 4. Representation of the entire vegetation period. 5. Consideration of those species which are found in almost all published observations, and especially of those whose development is not influenced by momentary or accidental circumstances, as is the dandelion. The epochs of vegetation that should be observed for most pheno- logical purposes are these: — 1. Upper surface of the leaf first visible or spread open. 2. First blossoms open. 3. First fruit ripe. 4. All leaves, or more than half of them, colored. Typical and average plants should always be selected for observa- tion, and they should be few in number. A dozen well-selected species will afford more satisfactory records year by year than observations made at random upon a great variety of plants. For the sudden moods of spring, the peach and dandelion are useful for observation, but such plants— those which respond quickly to every fitful variation of the PHENOLOGY — RECORDS 19 ly season — are not reliable for the staple records of the years. 2ful plants for study are the following: — \pple. Cultivated Strawberry. ear. Lilac. Quince. Mock Orange (Philadelphus). Jum. Horse Chestnut. Sweet Cherry. Red-pith Elder Sour Cherry. Common Elder. each. Flowering Dogwood. Shoke Cherry. Native Basswood. Nild Black Cherry. Native Chestnuts. lapanese or Flowering Quince. _Privet or Prim. Sultivated Raspberry. Red Currant. Sultivated Blackberry. Cultivated Grape. Climate and Crop Production; keeping Records (Wilson) ivery farmer understands that a very intimate relation exists be- xen climatic conditions — the average temperature, rainfall, and ishine — and the growth of plants ; but not all farmers appreciate : full significance of the climatic factor in crop production. \n officer of a state college of agriculture recently asked five members the faculty to assign respective values to the three main factors xcting the average yield of corn under the climate of the forty- ond parallel. The factors considered were: soil, including texture, tility, and cultivation ; climate, including temperature, rainfall, and ishine ; and seed. The average of the five estimates on the basis 100 were for soil, 46; climate, 36; and seed, 17. Three out of the + gave to climate a value of 40, one 35, and one 25, and two out of five gave climate and soil equal values. f these estimates are near the truth, it becomes apparent that nate is nearly, if not quite, as important a factor in crop pro- :tion as soil, and much more important than seed; yet it receives ; scant attention from the average agriculturist, probably because nate, unlike soil and seed, is beyond the control of man. “he weather is a variable factor, because it changes from day to day, n week to week, and from season to season. But climate is a per- nent factor ; for climate, which is the average of all the weather, 20 THE WEATHER does not change, except possibly through long geological periods. When the climate of a locality has been once determined, it may be counted on absolutely. What the climate is for this generation it will be for the next, and the next, so far as we cansee. It could not be other- wise, for climate in the large is the result of the sun’s heat, modified by the topography of the earth’s surface — the mountains, the valleys, the oceans; and “so long as the sun shines with his accustomed vigor and the hills and the seas abide in their places,” so long will the climate of every locality remain unchanged. The fact that crops now are grown successfully in what are considered arid regions, and are being pushed farther and farther into the frosty north, has been cited in support of the contention that the climate is changing ; but these changes in the area of successful production have not been brought about by an increase of rainfall on the one hand, or of temperature on the other, but by new methods of cultivation and seed selection, and better adaptation of human practices to natural conditions. We may rely, therefore, upon the permanency.of the climatic factor in crop production. The weather may vary by a small margin from year to year, or from one season to the next, but the average tem- perature, rainfall, and sunshine for so short a period as ten years will depart so little from the true normal climate that the departure may be neglected in actual practice. Climatic records compiled by the Weather Services. As it requires about ten years of careful observation to determine approximately the average or normal temperature of a locality, and perhaps twenty years to determine the normal rainfall, few farmers would feel that they had the time or skill to devote to so serious an undertaking ; nor is it necessary that they should. This work has been done already in the United States, and with great accuracy and care. The Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture has collected and tabulated all records of temperature and rainfall that have been made in the United States. Some of these records cover a period of more than a hundred years, many of them more than fifty years, and the work still is going on. At present, observations are being made at about 4000 places. With this number of records, distributed more or less evenly over the entire country, it is possible WEATHER RECORDS 21 Jetermine very accurately the normal temperature and rainfall almost any locality in the United States. . similar system is in operation by the Canadian Government, and rmation as to the climate of almost any inhabited locality in the adian provinces may be had on application to the Director of the adian Meteorological Service, Toronto. he data are usually compiled by months. For example, the normal perature and rainfall by months for Ithaca, N.Y., are as follows: mal or average temperature, 31 years record: January, 24°; ruary, 25°; March, 32°; April, 44°; May, 57°; June, 66°; ', 71° ; August, 68° ; September, 61° ; October, 50° ; November, ; December, 28° ; Annual, 47°. Normal or average precipitation aches and hundredths of inches, including melted snow: January, ; February, 1.84 ; March, 2.42 ; April, 2.30 ; May, 3.39; June, ; July, 3.51; August, 3.06 ; September, 2.89; October, 2.96 ; rember, 2.50; December, 2.30; Annual, 32.97. hese values would be considered approximately correct for a radius wenty to fifty miles, depending principally on the topography, ther mountainous or level, and the proximity of large bodies of ar and the prevailing wind direction. It is recognized that there ‘be an appreciable difference between the climate of a valley and -of an adjacent hill, or, on account of differences of soil character, veen one farm and another in the same locality. Such local va- ons are usually small, although important, particularly in such ters as air drainage and frost, and can be determined only by rvations made on the spot. The averages, compiled by the ther Bureau, include observations made on hill-tops as well as in sys, and, therefore, represent strictly average conditions. They » been carefully computed, and may be relied upon with confidence. ‘climatic data may be secured. he Climatological Service of the U. S. Weather Bureau is organ- by sections, each section embracing a single state, except in the of some of the smaller states, which are included in one section. New England States make up one section ; also Delaware, Mary- , and the District of Columbia. The work of each section is under supervision of a section director, in whose office are kept all records aining to his section. The accompanying list gives the city in 22 THE WEATHER which the office of each section director is located, and the section under his charge. A request for climatic data should show clearly (1) the locality for which the data are desired, and (2) the character of the data, and should be addressed, Section Director, Local Office, Weather Bureau, followed by the appropriate city and state: — Crry Section City SEcTION Atlanta _. Georgia Louisville. Kentucky Atlantic City New Jersey Milwaukee . Wisconsin Baltimore . Maryland and Delaware | Minneapolis Minnesota Bismarck . . North Dakota Montgomery Alabama Boise. Idaho Nashville. Tennessee Boston . . New England New Orleans Louisiana Cheyenne . Wyoming Oklahoma 3 Oklahoma | Chicago Illinois Parkersburg . . West Virginia Columbia Missouri Philadelphia Pennsylvania Columbus . . Ohio Pheenix x Arizona Denver. . Colorado Portland Oregon Z Des Moines . Iowa Raleigh North Carolina Grand Rapids Michigan Reno. . Nevada Helena. . Montana Richmond . Virginia Honolulu. . Hawaii Salt Lake City Utah Houston Texas San Francisco California Huron. . . South Dakota San Juan. ‘ Porto Rico, W. I. Indianapolis Indiana Santa Fe . ; New Mexico Ithaca . . New York Seattle . Washington Jacksonville Florida Springfield Tilinois Lincoln. . Nebraska Topeka . Kansas Little Rock Arkansas Vicksburg Mississippi Probably the most important information for the general farmer concerning the climate of his locality is the average temperature and rainfall by months, but the following data are available for practically all parts of the United States, having been compiled in 1906 and published in Bulletin Q, to which reference should be made when mak- ing request : Temperature by months ; mean or average ; mean of maxima ; absolute maximum ; mean of minima ; absolute minimum ; highest monthly mean ; lowest monthly mean ; precipitation, includ- ing melted snow ; mean or average ; number of days with .01 inch (one hundredth of an inch) or more ; total amount for the driest year ; total amount for the wettest year; dates on which the extreme tem- peratures for the locality occurred. For northern states the dates are given generally when the minimum temperature fell to -10° (10° below zero) or below, and the maximum rose to 90° or above; for southern states, when the minimum fell to 32° or below, and the maximum rose to 95° or above. MAKING THE OBSERVATIONS 23 Making local observations. The value of climatic information, supplied by the Weather Bureau, may be enhanced greatly by observations of temperature and rainfall made on the farm, particularly if made in connection with phenological observations suggested on pages 17-19. Such a record is a valuable asset to a farm, and its value increases as each year’s record is added. A suitable equipment need not be expensive, nor the work made la- borious. The highest and lowest temperature may be obtained at a single reading, made preferably about sunset, by use of Six’s pattern of maximum and minimum thermometers, mentioned on pagel. The average of the two thermometer readings gives the daily mean. This is the method used by the Weather Bureau, and will make the record strictly comparable with any data obtained from that source. A serviceable rain-gauge may be constructed by the use of any vessel having straight sides. A tomato-can, placed two feet above ground, and fifty feet from buildings or trees, will give good results. The depth of the water caught may be measured with an ordinary rule, but to make the record comparable with those made by the Weather Bureau, the fractions of an inch should be reduced to decimals. Perhaps it would be better to make a rule graduated in inches and tenths. Ten inches of average snow will make, when melted, one inch of water. A convenient method for recording and preserving. weather obser- vations is important. A book is preferable, having at least thirty-four ruled lines. Use one page for each month. Rule the page into eight columns, leaving ample margin on the right for phenological notes. Beginning at. the left, head the columns as follows : date ; highest tem- perature; lowest; mean; rainfall; snowfall; wind direction (every farm should have a good weather-vane); weather; phenology. Enter each day’s record on line with appropriate date. Under phenology full notes should be made, showing the condition and advancement of the various crops, for here is the point of contact between current weather and plant growth. All this may be combined with a diary of farm work. At the end of each month the temperature columns should be averaged and the total rainfall set down; and when these values are compared with the normal, the importance of the climatic factor in crop production will be more fully understood. (For ther- mometer scales, see Chap. XXVII.) CHAPTER. II Tue ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Tue mass of the earth (and the atmosphere) is at present assumed to be composed of certain elementary or indivisible substances, and of combinations of these substances. The number of elements now recognized by chemists is eighty-three. The names of these elements, with the symbols that are used for convenience and brevity in ex- pressing the combinations into which they unite, are given in the table: — The elements and their symbols Aluminum ........ AL Tron, gs em we ew eB: Antimony ...... . Sb. Krypton... .. . . . Kr ATQON x @ s « @ % 3 % » oA Lanthanum ...... . La Arsenic «ss » =» « « « As [dead 4 « < « « + 2 « « Pb: Barium ..... . . . Ba. |Lithium . ....... Li. Beryllium .... . . . Be. |Lutecium. . ..... . Lu. Bismuth . ...... Bi, Magnesium . ..... . Mg. Boron, 4. @ sa ue we a BS Manganese . . ... . . Mn. Bromin. .... . . . Br. |Mercury . ...... . Hg. Cadmium ..... . . Cd. | Molybdenum .... =. =. Mo. Cesium ....... Cs. | Neodymium... ... . Nd. Calcium . ..... =. =. Ca. |Neon ........ 2. Ne Carbom «4 6 ws a we os OS Nickel 03 4 woe @ ae 2 Ni Cerium ..... . . . Ce. | Niobium ...... . .. Nb. Chlorin . ...... . Ch Nitrogen . . . . .... Nz Chromium ...... . Cr. |Osmium ........ 0s, Cobalt . . . . . . . . Co. | Oxygen . . .. . .. . OO, Columbium . . . . . . . Cb. | Palladium . ...... Pda- Copper... . . . . . Cu. | Phosphorus . ...... ?&P, Dysprosium . . . . . . . Dy. | Platinum. ...... . Pt Erbium . ... . . . . Er. | Potassium. . ...... K,z Europium ... . . . . Eu. | Praseodymium . ... . . Pr, Fluorin . . ...... F. Radium ........ Ra. Gadolintuum . . .. . . . Gd. | Rhodium... ... .. Rh Gallium .... . . . . Ga. | Rubidium a ee ee ee ee Germanium . . .. . . . Ge. | Ruthenium ...... | Ru. Glucinum ....... GL Samarium ...... . Sm, Gold . . . .... . . Au. |Seandum. . .... . ! Se. Helium ...... . . He {Selenium ......,.: Se. Hydrogen ....... Hz. Silicon. 2... . LY, Si. Indium ....... . In Bilver owe ke ek Ag. Todim 6 3 wee Se ae te Sodium ee @ Iridium . ...... . In Strontium ...., 24 THE ELEMENTS IN NATURE 25 HU oe: GS. eh ee. Qe Pe WAS: Tungsten . WwW. otalum. . . . . . . . Ta. | Uranium . U. Jurium. . . . . . . . Te. | Vanadium ioe ge aw VE cbium . . . . . . . . Tb. | Xenon. . 2... fll Oe, allium . . . . . . . . Ti. | Ytterbium Yb. orlum . . . . . . .). «GUTh. | Yttrium ee ulium . ....... Tm/Zine . ... . Ll oan bee 6 2 ew ww.) 6 Sm. | Zircontum fw ww... Oe amnilum ........ Ti. Distribution of the Elements Jxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and some of the rarer elements exist the atmosphere in a pure or free state as well as in combinations in mal and plant and earthy substances; but most of the elements are sent in nature only in combination with other elements. The zer number of the eighty-three known elements are very rare. arly 99 per cent of the earth’s crust (including the water) is made of eight elements, as follows (according to Clark) : — Ren & ee ek ew Re See Oe we wee ee ee we es CON ee ea BI eS En See ep a se ae a es a es oe B06 MiBUM « « 4 + # & « ee ee * He ee ee He RS 8.16 GUI ye Oe A a ce a ar we ee we IO TUM 5) Sa a fp as ae ag ee a) — ek ae Oa ee eee se: 368 GNESI: we ea ww ea ee we we BD BSSIUM: o's Gh. se a se aie el a Gee vay ere We ns we eB Yo other element is estimated to contribute as much as 1 per cent the composition of the crust of the globe. Hydrogen is estimated sxomprise .17 per cent, and carbon .12. "he atmosphere is a mixture (by volume) of seventy-nine parts of ‘ogen and twenty-one parts of oxygen, with small quantities of on, carbon dioxid, vapor of water, ammonia, and organic gases in ition. "he elements essential to the life and growth of plants, so far as known, ten: calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, iron, sulfur, o the soil; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, from the atmos- re. Combinations formed by the vital processes of plants and nals — as starch, sugar, acetic acid— are known as organic com- nds; all others are inorganic compounds. The different elements ting up a compound are calculated in terms of their atomic weights. ‘he elements of which plants are composed, are largely oxygen, car- , and hydrogen. The younger and more succulent the plant, the 26 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL greater the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen, because the proportion of water is greater. Ultimate composition of a wheat plant at maturity, containing 10 per cent mois- ture. The hydrogen and oxygen of the water are included in the statement Carbon . eK Ban Bho ae o's jor ghee é . . 42.87 Hydrogen . 7 ee a ee ee eee y als 6.04 Oxygen. . “ ae ee Se ak Bae 4 . . 45.26 Nitrogen. Shy oat tots qiiac wer Ge. ces haley Sere "a 6. 0.94 Potassium . é eo oe ex : eR oe 0.36 Calcium .. ‘ ee ee ee ee ee ee 0.33 Phosphorus .. . eo 2 ty ad sakes eae ida “ae Be ' 0.11 Other ash constituents i var. eh Cag ae a. las Gk a Oe cae en 4.09 100.00 Ultimate composition of human body. The proportion of C varies greatly with the amount of fat, also the O and ash to a less extent. The statement includes the oxygen and hydrogen of the water Kirk VOLKMAN oO. 72.0 65.7 Cc. 13.5 18.4 H. 9.1 10.0 N . 2.5 2.6 Ca. 1.3 Poa 1.15 8. 0.15 Na 0.1 Cl. 0.08 F. 0.08 K 0.03 Fe 0.01 Mg 0.001 Se | trace The water is about 65 per cent, which makes the dry-matter in the animal much less than in the mature plant, the moisture content of which is shown to be 10 per cent in the preceding table. The Ash and Mineral Parts of Animals and Plants When a plant is oven-dried, the free or uncombined water passes off. When it is completely burned, the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and most of the oxygen are driven off. What remainsis ash, containing the mineral elements. Incomplete burning of plant material results in coals and ash; the coal is mostly carbon. Charcoal is carbon. COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS AND MAN Mineral elements in animal bodies (Calculated from Results of Lawes and Gilbert) Ox CaLF SHEEP Lams Pig Malt) pat | Fat | Thin | Half | pot | Very] pat | Thin| Fat % % %o % % % % 111 | 361 | 12.8} 1877 | 25°5 | a6 | a8s| 26s | 243 | 43% tropenous matter’ 16.6 | 14.5 | 15.2) 14.8 | 14.0 | 12.2 | 10.9] 12.3 | 13.7 | 10.9 inerals 4,66} 3.92} 3.8) 3.16} 3.17} 2.81] 2.9] 2.94] 2.67] 1.65 ater . 51.5 | 45.5 | 63.0] 57.3 | 50.2 | 43.4 | 35.2] 47.8 | 55.1 | 41.3 mtentsof stomach, ete.| 8.2 6.0 3.2} 6.0 9.1 6.0 5.2 8.5} 5.2 4.0 Total 100.0 |100.0 |100.0/100.0 |100.0 {100.0 |100.0}100.0 {100.0 |100.0 MINERALS % % | To | % % % | % | % To % .osphorus -803 | .677] .670| .488 524] .454] 484] .492 | .465 .286 cium 1.508 | 1.281 |1.177| .944 9635] .846] .886] .915 771 455 agnesium -051} .037}| .048) .034 031] .029] .033] .031 032 -019 tassium . -170| .146] .171) .144 140] .123] .131] .138 163 115 arama -108| .094] .109) .090 077| .072| .096| .076 | .082 .054 . -028}| .017] .015) .026 029} .024} .021; .018 | .015 -009 ifur 015] .013| .016] .021 014} .012} .011} .016 021 -012 He ‘weight, Tbs. 1,232 | 1,419 |258.8] 97.6 | 105.1 | 127.2 |239.4| 84.4 | 93.9 | 185.0 z Ayr. | 4yr. | 9.5 | lyr. | 344 | 114 | 134 yr. wk. yr yr. yr. Composition of ash of human body (Beaunis) CALF TIssuE Bone | Mus- | Brain | Liver | Lunes | Btoop | Mix | Lympz CLES Analyst Heintz | Staffel | Breed a ee Pay Verdeil ae pun dium chlorid —— | 10.59 | 4.74 | —— | 13.0 | 58.81 | 10.73 | 74.48 dium oxid —— | 2.35 | 10.69 | 14.51 | 19.5 4.15 | —— | —— itassium oxid —— | 34.40 | 34.42 | 25.23 1.3 | 11.97 | 21.44 | 10.35 cium oxid . | 37.58 | 1.99 |] 0.72} 3.61 1.9 1.76 | 18.78 | 3.25 agnesium oxid 1.22 | 1.45] 1.23] 0.20 1.9 1.12 | 0.87] 0.97 tric oxid 1.66 | —— | —— | 2.74 3.2 8.37 | 0.10} 0.26 lorin —— | —— | ——- ]} 2.58 | —— | 8.37} —— | 0.05 gorin 2 —~ | — }] -— | ——_ ] ——_] 10.23 | —— 1.09 tosphorus pen- toxid . | 53.31 | 48.13 | 48.17 | 50.18 | 48.5 | 10.23 | 19.00 | —— lphur trioxid —— | —— | 0.75} 0.92 1.4 1.67 | 2.64 .20 bon dioxid 5.47 | —— — | 119 | —— | —— icic oxid ——~ | 8h | O22) 62F |) ——— |S —— | tassium chlorid | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 26.33 28 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Composition of the ash of leading farm crops (Snyder) Composition oF 100 Parts or THE PURE ASH Dry- Pure SrEps Mat- |" hae TER K,0 | Na,O| CaO | MgO |Fe,0,| P,0;| SO; | SiOz] Cl Wheat . 2.03 |30.24].0.65 | 3.50 |13.21] 0.60 |47.92} —— | 0.73) —— Oats. . es 3.12 |17.90] 1.66 | 3.60] 7.03] 1.18 |25.64] 1.79 |39.20/ 0.94 Barley . 3 4 | 2.61 |20.92| 2.39) 2.64) 8.83) 1.19 |35.10 1.80 |25.90} 1.02 Rye . g 3 | 2.09 |32.10) 1.47] 2.94/11.32] 1.24 |47.74] 1.28] 1.37] 0.48 Corn 8 | 1.45 29.8 | 1.10] 2.17/15.52) 0.76 |45.61| 0.78 | 2.10) 0.91 Flax . 2 | 3.67 |26.27] 2.22} 9.61]15.86] 1.11 }42.48} —— | 0.88} —— Clover . 2 | 4.50 |35.35/ 0.95 | 6.40)12.90) 1.70 [37.93] 2.40] 1.30 1.23 Peas . a 2.73 |43.10] 0.98 | 4.81] 7.99] 0.83 |35.90] 3.41] 1.91] 1.60 Beans 3.63 |41.48] 1.10} 4.99) 7.15} 0.46 |38.86] 3.40] 0.65) 1.80 FoppErs Clover > 7.02 |27.25} 0.80 |29.26} 8.32] 0.57 |10.66] —— | 6.18} —— Timothy 3 6.82 |34.69] 1.83] 8.05] 3.24] 0.83 |11.80] 2.80 |32.17| 5.20 Brome grass a 6.55 |27.65] 0.89} 7.59] 4.32/ 1.83] 5.84) —- | 4.37) — orn Ge | 8.72 |27.18| 0.85} 5.70)11.42) 0.85 | 9.14) — |40.18} — Straws 8 3 Flax... a ty | 2.86 |34.07| 4.37 |24.81/15.04/ 3.67 | 6.24] —- | 6.70) — Buckwheat @ 8. | 6.15 /46.60| 2.20 |18.40] 3.60 — 11.19] — | 5.50/ — OB ee yop | 4.80 /21.40) 5.70 |38.80) 7.20) 1.40] 7.10} — | 5.40) — Bean Bee 6.10 |32.70] 8.70 |25.30] 7.30) 1.70} 7.90} —— | 5.50} —— Wheat . 5.37 {13.65} 1.38} 5.76) 2.46] 0.61 | 4.81] —— |67.50]/ —— Oat . . 2 7.17 |26.42) 3.29] 6.97] 3.66] 1.20] 4.59! 3.20 |46.70] 4.40 Barley . 5.35 |23.26] 3.54 | 7.22) 2.58] 1.13 | 4.24] 3.80 |51.00] 3.20 Roots Potatoes 24 | 3.80 |60.00] 2.96] 2.64} 4.93 | 1.10 |16.86] 6.50} 2.10] 3.40 Sugar-beets 15 | 3.80 53.10) 8.92} 6.10] 7.86 | 1.14 |12.20] 4.20] 2.28] 4.80 Turnips 12 | 8.00 |45.40} 9.84 }10.60) 3.69] 0.81 /12.71] —— | 1.80] 5.00 Chemical Compounds The chemist uses initials (or other letters) to designate the elements, when he makes a formula to express the composition of any compound ; and he adds a figure to each symbol when more than one part or atom (by atomic weight) enters into the make-up of the molecule. Thus H,O represents a compound in which the molecules are two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen; in common language, this particular compound is known as water. K,O is potash (or potassium oxid) — two parts potassium and one part oxygen. Gypsum or land-plaster is calcium sulfate, —CaSO,, which means calcium one part, sulfur one part, oxygen four parts. Quartz is SiO, Quicklime is CaO, NATURE OF SOIL 29 Phosphoric acid is P.O; Common table salt is NaCl (sodium and chlorin). Following are the formulas for various common substances : — Aceticacid . . . . . C,Hi0, Nitric oxid . . . . . NO Ammonia. . . . . . NHs Nitric peroxid «Os Aniline . . 2. . . LN BEACH) Nitrous oxid . . . . . NO Arsenious oxid . . . . As,Os Saltpetre . ve . KNO,; Carbon dioxid . . . CO2 Starch... . © CeH Os Carbonic oxid . « « GO Strychnine . . . . . CyHaN.Or Chloroform . . . . CHCl Sugar, cane . ‘ 1229044 Ferric oxid (iron rust) . . FeOs Sugar, grape or glucose « CoHy,Oc Ferrous oxid . . . . FeO Sulfate of potash . . . K.S0, Hydrochloric acid . . . HCl Sulfuretted pydrogen e « HS Mercuric oxid . . . HgO Sulfuric acid . . . . HSO, Nitrate of soda . . . . NaNO, Sulfuric oxid . . . . . SO, Nitricacid . . . . . HNO, Sulfurous oxid < . ] SO, The Soil The soil, as the farmer understands it, is the soft tillable covering or epidermis of the earth. It is derived primarily from disintegrated rock, but all productive soils contain organic remains, or materials derived directly from these remains. Some soils, as those in swamps, are very largely organic. Classification of soils in respect to origin (Merrill) = Residual deposits | Residuary gravels, sands, clays, wacke, 2 Sedentary laterite, terra rossa, etc. ds Cumulose deposits | feat, muck and swamp or palludal 3 3 soils, in part. a Colluvial deposits Talus and cliff debris, material of me { avalanches. 33 Alluvial deposits, ¢ Modern alluvium, marsh and swamp Re including the | deposits, estuarian clays. Loess and 8 (Transported aqueo-glacial . adobe in part. Se Wind-blown material, sand-dunes. AXolian deposits . { Adobe and loess in part. Morainal material, either lateral, ter- Glacial deposits . minal, or ground moraines, drum- lins, etc. Classification of soil constituents (U. S. Dept. Agric.) Size or PaRTICLES nes (diameters in millimeters) 1, Gravel 9 2 6 % 2 & & * % ew 2.0 to1.0 2. Coarsesand . . . .- + + e+ © «© 10 to0.5 3. Medium sand 4 oy car ar ie Sk 0.5 to 0.25 4. Ane ae : a Be ee et ats See Se aa to ee 5. Ve ne san Be * to 6. Silt a a eee ee 0.05 to 0.005 TOBY. Ge ee aa a a . 0.005 to 0.0000 30 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Weight of soils. Soils vary widely in weight according to their composition and the size of the particles. Humus soils are the lightest, and sandy soils are the heaviest. Clay soils weigh less per cubic foot than arable soils or sandy soils. The larger the amount of organic matter in a cubic foot of soil, the less it weighs. For this reason, surface soils are lighter, as a rule, than subsoils (Stevenson). The weight of a cubic foot of dry soil is a by Shubler as follows : — LB. Silicious sand LP abe Be ake aa! Mee a he os 110 Half sand and half ‘clay ‘ ee ANTES a> de ideas ate 3 Common arable soil ‘ 8 bee ee eR RO . 80 to 90 Heavy clay . é OG 75 Garden mold rich i in vegetable matter... 1 ls. se 70 Peat soil . oak i we a OK a ee a we we 80060 Warington gives the following data regarding the weight of soil per acre : — 1. Old pasture, Rothamsted, loam with clay subsoil Dry Som ORIGINAL Wet Soin Total Stones Fine soil Roots Ib. Ib. lb. lb. Ib. First 9 inches. .| 3,294,380 | 2,328,973 |. 174,091 2,144,470 | 10,412 Second 9 inches .| 3,867,780 | 3,098,939 353,322 2,744,715 902 Third 9inches .| 4,091,620 | 3,273,324 217,515 3,055,501 308 Fourth 9 inches .| 4,139,420 | 3,343,787 280,730 3,063,057 2. Arable land, Rothamsted, loam with clay subsoil Dry Sort ORIGINAL Wet Soin Total Stones Fine soil Roots Ib. Ib. | Ib. Ib. Ib. First 9 inches . .| 3,288,553 | 2,919,689 340,656 2,578,634 399 Second 9 inches .| 3,688,115 | 3,044,615 141,861 2,902,682 72 Third 9inches .| 3,882,285 | 3,215,285 213,190 3,002,095 Fourth 9 inches , 3,995,723 | 3,313,563 197,400 3,116,163 WEIGHT OF SOILS 31 8. Arable land, Woburn, sandy soil Dry Soin ORIGINAL Wert Soi. Total Stones Fine soil Roots lb. lb. Ib. lb. lb. First 9inches . .| 3,835,104 | 3,157,448 93,763 3,063,074 611 Second 9 inches .| 3,947,640 | 3,381,804 201,527 3,180,277 Third 9 inches’ .| 4,046,364 | 3,462,498 170,443 3,292,055 Fourth 9 inches .| 4,014,432 | 3,501,466 274,239 8,227,227 These tables show: (1) That each of these classes of soil is lighter at the surface; (2) that in each case the weight increases with an in- crease in depth. This increase in weight of the lower zones is due: (1) to the increase of pressure to which the lower zones are subjected ; (2) to the fact that the surface soil is more loose and porous; (3) to coarser texture of subsoil. This condition is brought about by the removal of the finest soil particles from the surface into the sub-soil by the action of rain; by the accumulation of organic matter in the surface soil; and, in the case of arable soils, by tillage. The specific gravity of a soil indicates its weight as compared with the weight of an equal volume of water. An English authority has published the following table, which gives the specific gravity of the more common soil constituents : — Water . . a . 1.00 Dolomite 2.8-3.0 Humus ‘ 2 1.2-15 Mica... 2.8-3.2 Clay Re Han . 2.50 Hornblende 2.9-3.4 Quartz a ae oa ae 2.02 Augite . 3.2-3.5 Feldspar . . . . . . 2.5-2.8 Limonite 3.4-4.0 Tale. 2, . . . 26-2.7 Hematite 5.1-5.2 Calcite . . ea . 2.75 Schéne gives the following for the specific gravity of soils: — Clay soil 2.65 Sandy soil . 2.67 Fine soil ‘ a8 ‘ ‘ 2.71 Humus soil, « s 6 8 se ee He HR SOR OH ES 2.53 The true specific gravity of an arable soil varies from about 2.5 to 2.7. 32 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Texture of the soil. The size and shape of the particles of which the soil is composed determine its texture. The arrangement of the particles determines its structure, as “loose,” “open,” “mealy,” “ friable,” ‘“ cloddy,” “porous,” “ hard,” “ compact,” ‘“ retentive,” “ leachy.” The texture determines the amount of soil-surface exposed to roots, and to a great extent the quantity of moisture that the soil may hold. The size and form of the particles determine the number in a given volume of soil. It has been estimated by Whitney that a gram of soil contains 2,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 soil particles. ‘The number of particles per gram of different soil types is approximately as follows : — Early truck . htc cae ANY Se LA ends aat Cee hn ser aap ae 1,955,000,000 Truck and small fruit ee ee Re we e y # » & « +8,955;000,000 Tobacco. . . . ef he, ee ae . oe. ee ee) ~~» 6,786,000,000 Wheat . Bun io AK, Ta Sts 72e XS 2 oe. ee ee) 6) 610,228,000,000 Grass and wheat | | 1). : ca . 14,735,000,000 Limestone . ....... . 2 e se es + « + 19,638,000,000 Owing to the fact that a soil is made up of particles, there is between them a certain amount of space that is occupied by air or water; this is known as the “ pore space.” In ordinary soils the pore space varies from a little over 50 per cent, in the finest clay soils to about 25 or 30 per cent in coarse sands of uniform texture. Soil Water Water occurs in the soil in three forms: (1) Gravitational or hydro- static water; (2) capillary water; (3) hygroscopic water. Amount of water used by various crops in producing a ton of dry-matter (Stevenson) a ache aren No. or ATER USED Dry-Marrer| OF WATER PER Ton OF |WaTeR USED PER To. TRIALS |DRy-MatTER per Acre | Dry-Marren (Kine) tons in, tons Barley. . .. 5 464.1 20.69 5.05 4.096 Oats... . 20 503.9 39.53 8.89 4.447 Maize... . 52 270.9 15.76 6.59 2.391 Clover Be Ree, 46 576.6 22.34 4.39 5.0899 Peas . . "i ae 477.2 16.89 4.009 4.212 Potatoes Be 14 385.1 23.78 6.995 3.339 Average . . 446.3 23.165 5.987 3.939 Mean volume of water held by different soils, WATER IN THE SOIL high, with calculations to field 33 in laboratory tests in columns 45 inches conditions (Lyon and Fippin) I II III IV Vv VI VII & [mf me bo & |we@sa a ag 3 » B |@S ae as 25 js os He | 28, [BCP al & a? <5 She a 258/48 a Aals HO & Fe] BOZ Bes] oo % ens fs go Aang APs Ap a BEB CBS 4 r:) Ma | ae (2ee5/C88|Sne| gal [Bebe eu | zoe |RSBS| BES | 858 aad oa a A | erm |gono) o Bam See 2SAk Ib. ok cc. 1. Dune sand 52 10.7 3 7.7 | 80 “te6 2,720 | 4.60 2. Coarse sand. .| 51 10.6 3 7.6| 81 170 2,790] 5.20 3. Fine sandy loam 50 18.0 5 13.0 83 300 4,900] 8.50 4, Light silt loam . 50 20.9 10 10.9 83 250 4,100] 6.90 5. Clay... 59 30.4 17 13.4 68 252 4,140) 7.03 6. Muck soil . 801 | 250.0 80 170.0 15 740 11,550 | 20.50 1 Estimated. Water taken from the soil by evaporation is a loss additional to that transpired by the crop. The following results ‘were secured at the Iowa Experiment Station in an experiment to determine the total amount of water removed from the soil by evaporation and tran- spiration : — Tons or WaTEeR ACRE-INCH OF One Ton Lost WatTER Lost Cloverhay . .. . 1560 13.7 Air-dried corn fodder 570 5.0 Oats and straw 1200 11.0 One inch of water covering an acre of land weighs about 226,875 pounds, or more than 113 tons. Water evaporated by growing plants for one part of dry matter produced, in pounds (Lyon and Fippin) Lawes AND GILBERT HELLRIEGEL WoLiny Kine ENGLAND GERMANY GERMANY WISCONSIN Beans . 214 | Beans 262 | Maize 233 | Maize 272 Wheat 225 | Wheat 359 | Millet 416 | Potatoes 423 Peas . . .|235|Peas. . .| 292 | Peas 479 | Peas. . .| 447 Red clover . | 249 | Red clover .| 330 | Rape 912 | Red clover . | 453 Barley 262 | Barley 310 | Barley 774 | Barley 393 Oats . 402 | Oats. . .| 665 | Oats . 557 Buckwheat. | 371 | Buckwheat . | 664 Lupine . 373 | Mustard 843 Rye . 377 | Sunflower . | 490 34 * THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Water needed under arid conditions. Under dry-farming conditions, Widtsoe calculates that 1 acre-inch of water will produce 2% bu. wheat 10 acre-inches of water will produce 25 bu. wheat 15 acre-inches of water will produce 3714 bu. wheat 20 acre-inches of water will produce 50 bu. wheat { : if all the water could be saved and be fully utilized in plant growth. Under average cultural conditions in arid regions, he concludes that approximately 750 pounds of water are required for the production of one pound of dry matter. Plant-Food in the Soil In estimating plant-food, chemists usually catalogue only the three elements (or combinations of them) that are likely to be much depleted by the growing of crops, — nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. (These determinations were made by the _ solution-in-hydrochloric-acid method, sp. gr. 1.115. Other analytical methods in use would give higher readings, particularly in phosphorus and potash, as stronger acids are used to make the soil solutions.) Plant-food in surface soils, with calculations to pounds in an acre (Roberts) No.| NitR0c=N | Pxos. Acto| Porasa as a oe Fi 5 a N.. % P205, % K,0, % 8 in. Som | 8 in. Som | 8 m. Som 1 .379 .059 -062 8,310 1,294 1,360 2 .293 -056 .084 6,250 1,194 725 3 .195 -196 .183 4,218 4,240 3,959 4 -282 .267 .866 6,436 6,094 19,766 5 245 -05 -282 5,364 1,095 5,079 6 -26 .052 348 5,700 1,140 7,630 7 .26 .029 -182 5,635 628 3,945 8 -26 15 -903 5,700 3,289 19,800 9 .109 -032 .149 2,321 681 3,173 10 334 -038 .056 7,224 822 1,211 11 14 -051 .047 2,971 1,082 997 12 -295 .037 .1380 6,312 792 2,782 13 .04 .23 .23 872 5,016 5,016 14 .09 -019 -019 1,912 404 404 15 12 23 9 2,548 4,884 19,113 16 -07 13 83 1,512 2,808 17,929 17 .03 22 65 635 4,659 12,812 18; ‘09 3 21 1,958 6.526 | 45'686 19 .07 .29 1.19 1,497 6,202 25,448 20 12 44 1.96 2,571 9,428 42,000 000,000 000,000 000,000 THE ALKALINE SOILS 35 No.| NzfRocen | Pxos. Acip Potasa Te me P05 Ts EO N., % P205, Yo K0, % 8 in. Som | 8 1n. Som | 8 IN. Som 2 000,000 000,000 000,000 21 10 33 1.8 2,153 7,105 38,752 22 11 15 83. 2,343 3,195 17,682 23 aol 28 1.95 2,455 6,250 43,526 24 .04 13 .89 850 2,759 18,890 25 .07 .21 1.1 1,484 4,451 23,314 26 .08 18 -98 1,701- 3,846 20,833 27 .08 19 86 1,699 4,034 18,260 28 -03 AS -54 636 3,180 11,447 29 122 AQ 1.85 4,746 10,571 39,910 . 80 16 36 1.9 3,509 7,895 41,670 31]. .04 14 ia 848 2,967 15,480 32 .06 14 ‘ -92 1,272 2,969 19,510 33 17 38 1.18 3,599 8,046 24,984 34 wl 2 1.13 2,143 4,285 24,212 Alkali Lands In countries of heavy rainfall, the alkaline materials are leached out in the drainage waters. In arid countries there is very little or no leachage; the water passes off by evaporation, and the alkaline and other materials in solution are left at or near the surface of the ground. The normal condition of arid lands is illustrated in the table below (Means). The first part gives the percentage of total soluble salts in two soils from central Montana, where neither soil originally con- tained enough alkali within the zone of root action to be detrimental. The second part shows the condition of these soils after a few years of judicious irrigation, and the third part displays the condition after a few years of irrigation without drainage : — Table showing percentage of alkali in soils UNIRRIGATED IRRIGATED OVER-IRRIGATED Derra and: Sand: Sandy ee Clay Lowi, Clay Loam . Clay First foot... ‘ 04 -04 04 10 79 .76 Second foot a .04 -04 -05 -07 .92 71 Third foot .*. . .03 05 04 -08 94 63 Fourth foot 03 -20 05 .08 79 61 Fifth foot... Be ed -05 33 -06 08 52 59 Sixth foot. . . 4 .06 34 -05 16 52 19 Seventh foot . y .06 25 .06 21 36 Eighth foot . . . . 17 25 .07 .36 Ninthfoot ... . 24 28 -05 .29 Tenth foot . .. . 24 .05 Eleventh foot . . . 21 .07 Twelfth foot... . 12 .07 36 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL Percentage composition of alkali in arid soils! (Lyon and Fippin) Potassium chloride, KEL os 2 @ « Potassium sulfate, 4 Bee ik Potassium carbonate, 2CO3 Sodium sulfate, 4 . . Sodium nitrate, NaNOs ie 28 Sodium carbonate, N a2COs . . Sodium chloride, NaCl Sai kes Sodium _ phosphate, NagHPQ, . . . Magnesium sulfate, MgSO, ee Magnesium chloride, MeClL . A Calcium CaCl, Sodium _ bicarbonate, NaHCO;... . Calcium sulfate CaSO. . ee Calcium bicarbonate, Ca(HCOs)2 : Magnesium bicarbon- ate, (Mg(HCOs)2 Potassium _ bicarbon- ate, KHCO, . Ammonium carbon- ate (NH,).CO; chloride, Yakima Co., Wasi. MEADOWLAND Boise VAL- LEY, IpaHO BILLINGS, Montana CALIFORNIA Sur- face 12 in. 13.30 1.90 9.12 2d 12 in. 5.61 9.73 36.72 1.87 16.48 12.57 3d 12 in. Sur- face 12 in, Sur- face Depo-| sit Crust 0-1 in. Sur- face 10 in. Tu- lare Exp. Sta. Mo- jave Pla- teau Im- perial Des- ert 7.82 8.64 45.28 6.17 13.17 12.34 8.08 16.54 41.55 °1.10 1.84 67.70 10 17.56 6.15 72 5.93 1.60 85.57 trace 55 8.90 67 2.71 21.41 35.12 7.28 trace 4.06 22.06 10.07 3.95 125.28 19.78 32.58 14.75 2.25 1.41 -92 43.34 15.38 39.34 1.02 8.21 -5& 28.8¢ 2.8) 58.4% 1 Compiled from analyses made by the Bureau of Soils of the United Stat Department of Agriculture and by the California Experiment Station. oe TILLING THE SOIL 37 The following table shows the quantity of gypsum required to neutralize sodium carbonate in an acre-foot of soil : — Per Cent Sopium GYPSUM PER Per Cent Sopium GYPSUM PER CaRBONATE Acrker-Foot! CARBONATE AcRE-FooT! Per cent Pounds Per cent Pounds Ol 640 -06 3840 -02 1280 .07 4480 03 1920 -08 5120 -04 2560 09 5760 05 3200 10 6400 1 An acre-foot of soil weighs 4,000,000 pounds, Very often the black alkali is accompanied by other soluble salts, and the change in kind of salt brought about by the gypsum leaves more white alkali than plants will stand. The economic use of gypsum is therefore restricted to localities having only small amounts of total soluble salts. As a general rule, drainage can be properly applied, and the land freed of both black alkali and white alkali at less expense than by the application of gypsum. Gypsum costs $4 to $10 per ton in the regions where it is needed in black alkali reclamation, and when it becomes necessary to apply sufficient to neutralize 0.1 per cent of sodium carbonate in two or three acre-feet of soil per acre, the cost is seen to be prohibitive. Tillage, and Soil Management Tillage is the preparing and stirring of the soil with the object to make it more congenial to the growth of plants. On the wise manage- ment of the soil depends the perpetuation of the human race. Objects of tillage (King). Stated in the broadest and briefest way, the purpose of tillage is to develop and maintain beneath the surface of the field a commodious and thoroughly sanitary home and feeding ground for the roots of crops and for the soil organisms that help to transform the organic matter and the less soluble forms of the mineral plant-food materials of the soil into more soluble and suitable conditions adapted to the immediate needs of plants. But to make the habitable part of the soil 38 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL of a field commodious and sanitary, and at the same time to maintain within it a sufficiently rapid development of readily water-soluble plant-food materials so conditioned as to be highly available to the crop, requires careful attention to many essential details. Some of the chief objects of tillage are: — (1) To secure a thorough surface uniformity of the field, so that an equally vigorous growth may take place over the entire area. (2) To develop and maintain a large effective depth of soil, so that there shall be ample living room, an extensive feeding surface and large storage capacity for moisture and available plant-food materials. (3) To increase the humus of the soil through a deep and extensive incorporation of organic matter, so that there may be a strong growth of soil micro-organisms and the maintenance of a high content of water-soluble plant-food materials. (4) To improve the tilth and maintain the best structural condition in the soil, so that the roots of the crop and the soil organisms may spread readily and widely to place themselves in the closest contact with the largest amount of food materials. (5) To control the amount, to regulate the movement, and to deter- mine the availability of soil moisture, so that there shall never be an excess or a deficiency of this indispensable carrier of food materials to and through the plant. (6) To determine the amount, movement, and availability of the water-soluble plant-food materials present in the soil, so that growth may be both rapid, normal, and continuous to the end of the season. (7) To convert the entire root zone of the soil into a commodious sanitary living and feeding place, perfectly adapted to the needs of the roots of the crop and to the soil organisms, — adequately drained, perfectly ventilated, and sufficiently warm. (8) To reduce the waste of plant-food materials through the de- struction of weeds, and the prevention of their growth, through preven- tion of surface washing and drifting by winds. Jordan’s rules of fertility. 1. Thorough tillage, with efficient machinery, to be given if possible when the moisture conditions of the soil admit of satisfactory pulveri- zation. RULES OF FERTILITY 39 2. Frequent surface tillage at times of scanty rainfall, in order to conserve the supply of soil moisture. 3. A sufficiently rapid rotation of crops to insure good soil texture, to allow the necessary frequency of applying fertilizing material, and as a main result to secure a paying stand of crops. 4. The introduction into the soil at frequent intervals of an amount of organic matter necessary to proper soil texture and water holding power, either by application of farm manures, by plowing down soiling crops, or by the rotting of the turf. 5. The scrupulous saving of all the excrement of farm animals, both solid and liquid. 6. The purchase of plant-food with due reference to the needs of the farm and to the system of farm management prevailing. 7. The maintenance in the soil of those conditions of drainage and aeration which promote the growth of desirable soil organisms, and the introduction into the soil, when necessary, of such organisms as are essential to the growth of particular plants. CHAPTER III CueEmicaL Fertinizers; AND Lime A fertilizer is a material added to the soil for the purpose of supply- ing food for plants. ‘An amendment is a substance or material that modifies the physical, mechanical and chemical nature of the soil. Stable manure is both fertilizer and amendment. Lime is used mostly as an amendment, since it is not often necessary to supply it for thé plant-food that it contains. On sandy soils it may be needed as a fertilizer. The extent of the fertilizer industry is indicated by the following figures of complete fertilizers manufactured in the United States in two given years : — . Psr CENT oF 1900 1905 INCREASE teceease Quantity in tons of 2000 ib. . . . 1,478,826 1,603,847 125,021 8.5 Value. . . . . .| $26,318,995 | $31,305,057 | $4,986,062 18.9 Fertilizer discussions are concerned mostly with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (always in combination with other elements, never used in their elemental form), since these are the elements most likely to be deficient in the soil. To be economically usable as a fertilizer, a material must not only contain some one or more of these three elements in available form, but it must be relatively low in price and obtainable in large quantities. Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) is a good fertilizer, but it is impossible to use it because of the cost. Many of the fertilizer materials, — 4s bone-black, blood, ashes, —~ are waste products or by-products. 40 FERTILIZER MATERIALS Some of the Sources of Chemical Fertilizers 41 Percentage composition of materials used as sources of nitrogen (German Kali Works, N.Y. City) Nirrocen se a Porasn Puos. Acip AMMONIA 2 Toray Nitrate of soda 15 toi6 18 to19% — — Sulfate of ammonia .|1914 to 21 |24 to 25% — — Dried blood (high grade). . . . ./18 tol4 16 to17 — 2 to 3 Dried blood (low grade). . . . ./10 toll 12 to 13 — 1% to 2 Tankage. . . 5 to 9 6 toll — 9 tol6 Dried fish scrap 9 to10 |11 to12 —"' | 54%to 7 Cottonseed meal 64 to 74%| 7% to 9 144 to 2 2 to 3 Castor pomace 5 to 6 6 to 1 tol 1% to 2 Tobacco stems 214% to 3 38 to 34%/ 2 told ¥%to 1 Composition of materials used as sources of phosphoric acid (Kali Works) EQuivaLEent AvaiL- | Insoi- PorasH ToTau Kaen UBL NITROGEN ‘ten ie Ky Acid phosphate .|16 to 19/14 to 17] Lto 2} —- — — Carolina phos. rock |26 to 27 26 to 27 —— — — Dissolved bone : black . . . .{17 to 20/16 to 18} Lto 2 — Bone meal . . . |20t0 25) 5to 8/15to17| 1to044)1% to 54) —— -Dissolved bone . {15 t0 17/13 to15| 2to 3} 2to3 |24%to 34%) —— Thomas slag . [22 to 24 22 to 24 Peruvian guano .|12to15| 7to 8| 5to 8| 6to10 |74%to 12 |iM%to4 Marketed production of phosphate rock in the United States, from the beginning of the industry in 1867 to 1909, in long tons (Van Horn, U.S. Geol. Surv.) YEAR QUANTITY VALUE YEAR QUANTITY VALUE 1867-1887 4,442,945 |$23,697,019 | 1900 . 1,491,216 | $5,359,248 1888 . . 3,567 2,018,552 | 1901 . 1,483,723 5,316,403 1889 550,245 2,937,776 | 1902 . 1,490,314 4,693,444 1890 510,499 3,213,795 | 1903 . 1,581,576 5,319,294 1891 587,988 3,651,150 | 1904 . 1,874,428 6,580,875 1892 . 681,571 3,296,227 | 1905 . 1,947,190 6,763,403 1893 941,368 4,136,070 | 1906 . 2,080,957 8,579,437 1894 996,949 3,479,547 | 1907 . 2,265,343 | 10,653,558 1895 1,038,551 3,606,094 | 1908 . 2,386,138 | 11,399,124 1896 30,779 2,803,372 | 1909 . 2,330,152 | 10,772,120 1897 . 1,039,345 2,673,202 SSS 1898 1,308,885 3,453,460 Total 33,924,431 | 139,487,246 1899 1,515,702 5,084,076 42 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS, AND LIME World’s production of phosphate ae 1905-1907, by countries, in meiric toni Van Horn) 1906 1907 1908 CountRY Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Algeria . .| 333,531] $965,600! 373,763 |$2,183,404| 452,060 |$2,639,94C Aruba (Dutch! West Indies) . 26,138 1 36,036 1 29,061 : Belgium . .| 152,140] 282,612) 182,230 332,114) 198,030 355,897 Canada . . 521 4,024 748 6,018 1,448 14,794 Christmas Islands (Straits Settle- ments) 92,010 1 112,147 1 110,849 : France . .| 469,408] 1,872,000} 431,237] 1,876,736] 485,607] 1,896,60€ Norway . . 3,482 6,524 a —— —— — Poa ts = ee 1,300 7,592 2 —_— — —— Tunis. . .| 796,000] 2,304,400 | 1,069,000} 4,547,842] 1,300,543 | 5,531,624 United King- dom — —- 33 224 9 6& United States 2,114,252 | 8,579,437 | 2,301,588 |10,653,558) 2,424,453 |11,399,124 Average composition of Stassfurt potash salts (German Kali Works) Ft a | 54] 8-4 3 a a a a S| 82 |Saleze CaueuLaTEr as as Ea ag Be gals To Pure HO) zo] ee] #2) 36 BA eel pe PorasH Name or Sats Aa | Be we | So] Gg? [A elon) B K,O In 100 Parts are Conranen| 8&8 | Se | BS | BS] Oe QA olgt] = * 5° 3° nm oO ° a4 EB K,- Meg- | Mg- Ca-/|a 8 - 86, | Kot | 80, | Cl |Nact 80, | 8 of ares n A. Crude Salts (Natural pecensts) Kainit . . 21.3] 2.0] 14.5] 12.4 | 34.6 /1.7 |0.8 | 12.7] 12.8] 12.4 Carnallit . — | 15.5] 12.1} 21.5) 22.4 /1.9 |0.5 | 26.1] 9.8] 9.0 B. Concentrated Salts (Manufactured Toe 96 97.2} 0.3] 0.7] 0.4] 0.2/0.3 /0.2| 0.7) 52.7 | 51.8 palit of Potash (554? 90.6| 1.6} 27| 1.0] 12]0.4/0.3| 2:2|49.9| 48.6 Sulfate ofpotash-magnesia] 50.4 | —— | 34.0] —- | 2.5/0.9 /0.6 | 11.6 | 27.2 | 25.9 Muriate of eee — 191.7} 0.2} 0.2] 7.1}]— 0.2] 0.6] 57.7 | 56.8 Potash |80-85%| —— | 83.5| 0.4] 0.3) 14.5} — 0.2] 1.1] 52.7] 50.5 Mans salt, min. pot- - . 20% | 2.0) 31.6) 10.6] 5.3} 40.2 /2.1 |4.0} 4.2] 21.0] 20.¢ Manure salt, min. a0 ; potash . 1.2] 47.6] 9.4) 4.8| 26.2 /2.2/3.5| 5.1] 30.6! 30.¢ 1 Value not reported. 2 Statistics not yet available. SOURCES OF POTASH 43 Potash salts produced in the United States, 1850 to 19051 (Phalen, U.S. Geol. Survey.) NuMBER or Propucr CrENsus EstTaBLisH- AVERAGE Price MENTS 4 PER PouND Quantity Value | lb, 1850 2 4 r 569 — $1,401,533 —_- 1BGQ0 2. 4 « 2 212 — 538,550 — Tei a. a 4 ‘ 105 —a 327,671 —. 1880 . . 68 4,571,671 232,643 $0.051 1890 . . 75 5,106,939 197,507 0.039 1900 . ie, 2 67 2 3,864,766 178,180 0.046 1905 « # « « é 39 2 1,811,037 104,655 0.058 1 Munroe, C. E., Bull. 92, Census of Manufactures, Bur. Census, 1905, p. 38. nena establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of other products. There was a time when the United States produced a large part, if not all, of the potash it consumed. The burning of wood and the lixiviation of the resulting ash to extract the potash, though of minor importance so far as the monetary value of the product is concerned, is one of the oldest of the purely chemical industries in this country. Cognizance was taken of it in the census reports as early as 1850, so that data are available for comparing the condition of the industry for each decade since that year. The above table gives the quantity and value of potash produced in the United States from 1850 to 1900. Potash salts are used extensively in the United States. They are essential to numerous industries that are vitally connected with the welfare of the American people — the most notable being the ferti- lizer industry. They are used also in the manufacture of glass, in certain kinds of soap, in some explosive powders, and in the chemical industries, including the manufacture of alum, cyanides, bleaching powders, dyestuffs, and other chemicals. (Phalen.) . Importation of potash salts The potash industry has not been revived in the United States thus far, and the great bulk of the potash salts now used are imported. The following table (by Phalen) shows the magnitude of the importation of potash salts for the years 1900, 1905, and 1910: — 44. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME Imports of potash salts for the calendar years 1900, 1905, and 1910, in pounds', [Figures from Bureau of Statistics] 1900 1905 1910 Quantity | Value | Quantity Value Quantity Value Ib. Ib. Ib. Chlorate... . 1,243,612) $68,772 =< ———— a Chloride . . . . |130,175,481/1,976,604/214,207,064)/$3,326,473) 381,873,875/$5,252,373 Nitrate (crude and refined) . . «| 10,545,392} 276,664] 9,911,534) 304,596 11,496,904} 333,854 All other, including carbonate (crude and refined), bi- carbonate, caustic (crude and _ re- fined), chromate and _bichromate, eyanide, hydrio- date, iodide, io- date, permanga- nate, prussiate (red and yellow), sulfate (crude and refined) . .| 54,904,088/1,407,303| 82,935,532) 1,891,081) 116,820,873] 2,777,396 Total . . . . |196,868,573/3,729,343/307,054,130) 5,522,155) 510,191,652) 8,363,623 Increase . . . . — —— 110,185,573) 1,792,812] 203,137,522] 2,841,468 Percentage of in- crease . . . —_ — 55.96 48.07 66.15 51.45 Kainit, ‘‘kyanite,” and kieserite, and . manure salts? . |520,605,120/1,508,217/830,903,360| 3,116,884)/1,288,199,360) 3,251,511 , _ ! This table is based on total imports for the calendar year, not on imports for consump- tion for the calendar year. - 2 These figures are for the fiscal years. Potassic materials produced by the aid of electricity Among the chemicals produced by the aid of electricity are potas- sium chlorate and potassium hydroxid. The following table gives the quantity and value of the potassium salts made electrolytically at the censuses of 1900 and 1905, with the amount and percentage of increase (Phalen) : — 1900 1905 Incrsasn | PER Cunt oF Quantity, tons . . 1,900 3,908 2,008 10 Value. . . . . .| $80,097 $200,008 $119;911 87 CONTENT OF FERTILIZERS 45 Principal potash materials used in fertilizers in the United States, 1900 and 1905 " Per CENT oF 1900 1905 INCREASE INGHEAGE Kainit: Quantity, tons . . 54,700 190,493 135,793 248.3 Value... .. $520,833 $1,891,073 $1,370,240 263.1 Other potash salts: Seay, tons. . — 122,107 —— —— alue. . . . .| $3,098,400 3,606,701 ; é Nitrate of potash . $ es ee Quantity, tons. . 884 1,160 276 31.2 Value. .... $32,156 $39,039 $6,883 21.4 Wood ashes: Quantity, bushels . — 17,083 —— Value... .. — $2,050 — — Fertilizer Formulas and Guarantees (Voorhees) Probably more than nine-tenths of the fertilizers used in this country are purchased in the form of mixtures containing all three of the essen- tial constituents, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The various brands are prepared from formulas designed to be especially suitable for different crops and soils. This method of purchase saves labor and thought on the part of the farmer, but the cost of the constituents is greater than if the fertilizer materials are bought and home-mixed ; besides, in the mixtures the farmer does not always obtain such pro- portions of the constituents as are best adapted to his conditions. These mixed fertilizers, as a rule, are, and should always be, accom- panied by a statement of guaranteed composition. This is very essen- tial, because purchasers are unable to tell, by mere visual inspection, what kinds and proportions of fertilizing materials have entered into the mixture. In many states the laws require that the source of the materials also shall be distinctly stated, in order to insure the use of good products, as the mixing permits the disguising of poor forms, especially of those containing the element nitrogen. Guarantees, however, sometimes confuse the purchaser, because the method of stating the guarantee is such as to mislead, provided he does not understand the meaning of the terms, or is unable to convert the percentages into their equivalents. It is entirely legitimate, when there are no laws forbidding, for the manufacturer to guarantee ammonia, 46 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME instead of nitrogen; bone phosphate, instead of phosphoric acid; and sulfate of potash, instead of actual potash. The statement of the guarantec of the constituents in combination increases the percentage, thus leading ignorant purchasers to think that they are obtaining a larger percentage of the constituents than is really the case. In the case of raw materials, a guarantee based on the purity of the chemical salts is very frequently used. That is, a substance when pure contains 100 per cent of the specific salt, and the guarantee which accompanies this product is merely a statement that indicates its purity. For example, when nitrate of soda is guaranteed to contain 95 per cent nitrate, it means that it is 95 per cent pure nitrate, or that 5 per cent of the total substance consists of impurities. The same is true in the case of sulfate of ammonia, sulfate of potash, muriate of potash, and other potash salts that may be offered. In order that the farmer may have a simple method of determining the actual content of the constituents, however guaranteed, the following tables are given to show the terms that are used, their equivalent of actual elements, and the factors to use in converting the one into the other : — To convert the guarantee of Multiply by Ammonia i, tee hak tao a) Nitrogen . . 0.8235 Nitrogen... a Ammonia ... . 1.214 Nitrate of soda . ie Nitrogen. . . . 0.1647 Bone phosphate . . . . into an Phosphoric acid . . 0.458 Phosphoric acid . . . . equivalent Bone phosphate » 2483 Muriate of potash . . . of Actual potash . 0.632 Actual potash. . ... Muriate of potash 1.583 Sulfate of potash ae er Actual potash % 0.54 Actual potash. . . . . Sulfate of potash . 1.85 The following statements show the methods of stating guarantees on the basis of purity, in the case of many raw materials, and the equiv- alent percentage on the basis of actual constituents: Guarantee on basis of purity : — ; Nitrate of soda, 95 per cent, or containing 95 per cent pure nitrate. Muriate of potash, 80 per cent, or containing 80 per cent pure muriate. Sulfate of potash, 98 per cent, or containing 98 per cent-pure sulfate. Kainit, 25 per cent, or containing 25 per cent pure sulfate. Guarantee on basis of actual constituents : — Nitrate of soda, total nitrogen . ‘ che » . . 15,64 Muriate of potash, actual potash . . aa » . 50.50 pe ey Sulfate of potash, actual potash - 53.00 per cent. Kainit, actual potash . . . 1... ww. «1B 5O per cent, TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZERS 47 The following illustration shows a guarantee of the same mized fertilizer, on the basis of equivalents in combination, and on the basis of actual constituents : Guarantee on basis of equivalents in combination : — Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia), 2 to 3 per cent. Available phosphoric acid (equivalent to bone phosphate of lime), 16 to 20 per cent. Potash (equivalent to sulfate of potash), 6 to 8 per cent. Guarantee on basis of actual constituents : — Nitrogen (total) , ~» eo . . 1.65 to 2.50 per cent. Phosphoric acid (available) BSc ee “an 38 ene 7.00 to 9.00 per cent. Potash (actual) . . Be RCSD tes cae US 4 . 3.25 to 4.25 per cent. It will be observed that the guarantee in the one case means the same as in the other. Different methods of stating guarantees should not mislead those who will familiarize themselves with the terms used, and with the conversion factors. In the case of the mixed fertilizers, the percentage of the constituent elements that are given on the basis of equivalents represents the amounts when they exist in combination with other elements, viz., nitrogen, as ammonia; phosphoric acid, as bone phosphate; and potash, as sulfate. Methods of Computing Trade Value of Fertilizers Trade-values of plant-food elements in raw materials and chemicals, 1910. The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Vermont, as a result of study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of these states. These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated, the average prices at which, during the six months preceding March, the respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw materials, could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets. These prices also corre- spond (except in case of available phosphoric acid) to the average whole- sale prices for the six months preceding March, plus about 20 per cent in case of goods for which there are wholesale quotations. 48 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME ets. per Ib Nitrogen in ammonia salts 2» eS ~ & & 16 Nitrogen in nitrates 16 Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood and mixed fertilizers . . a ee 20 Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage BS ee ae 20 Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and sees cw ee 15 Phosphoric acid, water-soluble. est. war SS fer say 4 Phosphoric acid citrate, soluble (reverted) Oe OO 4 Phosphoric acid in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage o-% 4 4 Phosphoric acid in cottonseed meal, castor pomnee and ashes ‘i 38 Phosphoric acid in coarse fish, bone and tankage. . 34 Phosphoric acid in mixed f ertilizers, insoluble in ammonium citrate or water 2 Potash as high-grade sulfate, i in forms free ‘from 1 muriates (chlo- rides), in ashes, etc. wk Deedee tay Sigs hee se Sh 5 PoOtashein:MMUPAtE: ler ces gas wt od ee aa eG ea Se 44% Valuation and cost of fertilizers. The total cost (to the farmer) of a ton of commercial fertilizer may be regarded as consisting of the following elements: (1) Retail cash cost, in the market, of unmixed trade materials; (2) cost of mixing; (3) cost of transportation; (4) storage, commissions to agents and dealers, selling on long credit, bad debts, etc. While the total cost of a fertilizer is made up of several different elements, a commercial valua- tion includes only the first of the elements entering into the total cost, that is, the retail cash cost in the market of unmixed raw materials. Valuation, and agricultural value. The agricultural value of a fertilizer depends upon its crop-producing power. A commercial valuation does not necessarily have any relation to crop-producing value on a given farm. For a particular soil and crop, a fertilizer of comparatively low commercial valuation may have a higher agricultural value; while, for another crop on the same soil, or the same crop on another soil, the reverse might be true. Rule for calculating approximate commercial valuation of mixed -ferti- lizers on basis of trade-values for 1910. Multiply the percentage of nitrogen by 4.0. Multiply the percentage of available phosphoric acid by 0.8. Multiply the percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid (total minus available) by 0.4. Multiply the percentage of potash by 1.0. FIGURING FERTILIZERS 49 The sum of these 4 products will be the commercial valuation per ton on the basis taken. Illustration. The table of analyses shows a certain fertilizer to have the following composition: Nitrogen 2.52 per cent; available phos- phoric acid 6.31 per cent; insoluble phosphoric acid .89 per cent; potash 6.64 per cent. According to this method of valuation, the computation would be as follows: — Nitrogen . . . . 2.52 X 4.0 = $10.08 Available phosphoric acid 6.31 X0.8 = 5.05 Insoluble phosphoric acid 0.89 X04 = 0.36 Potash, §. 6 os. ue 6.64 * 1.0 = 6.64 $22.13 This rule assumes all the nitrogen to be organic and all the potash to be in the form of sulfate. If a considerable portion of nitrogen exists in the fertilizer as nitrate of soda or as sulfate of ammonia, and potash is present as muriate, the results are somewhat less. Farmers should be warned against judging fertilizers by their valua- tions. A fertilizer, the cost of which comes chiefly from the phosphoric acid present, would value much lower commercially than a fertilizer with a high percentage of nitrogen, and yet the former might be the more profitable for a given farmer to purchase. Table for converting the fertilizer elements into their usually reported forms, and vice versa (J. P. Stewart) Corrected (a) ConvertinG ELEMENTS INTO Com- (b) CONVERTING ComMPouNDs INTO ELE- POUNDS MENTS K x 1.2048 = K.0. (Atomic wts. based K:O x .8303 = K. P x 2.2903 = P2Os. on O= 16) P.O; X .4366 = P. N xX 1.2154 = NH. NH: x .8228 = N. Mg X 1.6568 = MgO. MgO x .6036 = Mg. Ca x 1.3990 = CaO. CaO x .7148 = Ca. Computing the trade value. A simple way of figuring the value of a commercial fertilizer } (Cavanaugh) Exampite No. 1. Guaranteep ANALYSIS Nitrogen 2. we we ee ee et 1.60 to 2.00 per cent Phosphoric acid available. ©. . ©. - - ee ee 7.00 to 8.00 per cent Potash « «a a « « # # “ong SB OS ae. we 2.00 to 3.50 per cent Cost perton . . . - ee ee ee es $29.00 1In these and the succeeding examples, it, happens that the trade values per lb. of chemicals are not those of 1910, given on pp. 47-48; but it is intended only to explain the method. E 50 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME Multiplying the lowest figure representing the per cent of the given element by 20, and calculating the value from the price per pound, we have in No. 1 (remembering that 1 per cent means one pound in a hundred, or twenty pounds in a ton) : — Nitrogen . ‘ . oe. we es (1.60 X 20 = 32 1b. @ 15% = $4.80 Phosphoric acid a ph es 7 X20 =140lb.@ 5¢ = 7.00 Potash 2 X20 = 40lb.@ 5¢ = 2.00 Commercial value per ton ee ae ae 2 oe eee) 6$13.80 ExampLe No. 2. GUARANTEED ANALYSIS Nitrogen . : ee . . 8.30 to 4.00 per cent Phosphoric acid available F 2 . 8.00 to 10.00 per cent Potash , a @ ' . 7.00 to 8.00 per cent Cost per ton ae Ti a ee ee . . $38.00 Tts value is calculated the same as No. 1: — Nitrogen . z - 1. . « . 3.80 X 20 = 66 1b. @ 15% = $9.90 Phosphoric acid . oe ww. . 8.00 X 20 = 160]lb.@ 5% = 8.00 Potash . aa : .. . 7.00 X 20 = 1401lb.@ 5% = 7.00 Commercial value . . . . . . 1. eee ~ . . $24.90 The cheapest fertilizer is the one in which one dollar purchases the greatest amount of plant-food. In No. 1, $29 obtained $13.80 worth, which is at the rate of forty-eight cents worth for $1. In No. 2, $38 buys $24.90 worth of plant-food, or at the rate of sixty-five cents worth for the dollar. The difference between the commercial value, as calcu- lated, and the selling price, is to cover expenses of manufacture, bag- ging, shipping, commission fees, and profits. How to figure the trade value of a fertilizer in greater detail ( Voorhees) It is assumed that the mixed fertilizer is guaranteed to contain Ammonia a Pa ae ee ee ee ee ee a . 4 per cent Available phosphoric Weide si ig ete neal # . 8 per cent Total phosphors: Beld oS & Ae # 4 e 4s - « 9 per cent Potash . . gow eek o ae he S23 4 e 2 6 per cent and that the nitrogen exists in three forms, as nitrate, as ammonia, and as organic; the phosphoric acid in three forms, soluble, reverted, and insoluble; and potash in two forms, sulfate and muriate. The 4 per cent ammonia would be equivalent to 3.28 per cent nitrogen, 1 per cent of which is nitrate-nitrogen, } per cent sulfate of ammonia-nitrogen, FIGURING FERTILIZERS 51 and 1.78 per cent is derived from organic forms. Of the total phos- phoric acid, 6 per cent is soluble, 2 per cent reverted, and 1 per cent is insoluble; of the total potash, 3 per cent is derived from muriate and 3 per cent from sulfate. The first column in Table A shows the percentage of the constituents contained, which, multiplied by 20, gives the pounds per ton in the second column, which, multiplied by the schedule prices per pound, gives the valuation per ton, as shown in the fourth column. In the case of ground bone, the guarantee is 4 per cent ammonia and 48 per cent bone phosphate, which are equivalent to 3.28 per cent nitro- gen and 22 per cent phosphoric acid. It is assumed that 60 per cent of the material is finer than ¥5 of an inch, and is regarded as “ fine,”’ and 40 per cent is coarser than #5 of an inch, and is regarded as “ coarse.” Taste A.— CoMPLETE FERTILIZER 1 2 3 4 5 Estimated Total value per estimated ton of each value Per cent or Pounds pounds per 100 per ton cen constituent per ton Nitrogen, as nitrates. 1.00 X 20 = 20.0 X 16.5 = $3.30 Nitrogen, as ammonia salts 0.50 ¥20— 100 6175 = 175 Nitrogen, asorganic matter 1.78 X 20 = 35.6 X 18.5 = 6.59 Total nitrogen. . . 3.28 65.6 $11.64 Phosphoric acid, soluble . 6.00 X 20 = 120.0 X 4.5 = $5.40 Phosphoric acid, reverted. 2.00 X20 = 400 x 4.5 = 1.80 Phosphoric acid, insoluble . 1.00 X 20 = _20.0 X 2.0 = 0.40 Total phosphoric acid . 9.00 180.0 7.60 Potash, as muriate . . . 3.00 X20 = 60.0 X 4.25 = 2.55 Potash, as sulfate . . 8.00 X20 = 60.0 X 5.0 = 3.00 Total potash 6.00 120.0 5.55 $24.79 TasLe B. — Grounp BoNnE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ba eS mate: ‘ota Fen cent Per cent Per far Pounds oe wales eS pounds finene es e100. per ton pound, of each value per 100 eoee py cents con- per ton stituent 3.28 X60 = 1.97infine X20 = 39.40X18.0= $7.09 —- 3.28 X40 = 1.31 in coarse X20 = 26.20X13.0= 3.41 Total 3.28 65.60 $10.50 Phosphoric’{ 22.00 x 60 = 13.20in fine X 20 = 264.00 x 4.0 = 10.56 acid 2.00 X 40 = _ 8.80 in coarse X 20 = 176.00 X 3.0= 5.28 Total . 22.00 440.00 _15.84 52 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME The first column of figures in Table B shows the percentage, or pounds per hundred, of the constituents, which is multiplied by the percentage of fineness, which gives the percentage or pounds per hun- dred of fine or coarse in the third column. The calculation is then finished, as in the case of complete fertilizers. ; Home-Mixing of Fertilizers General advice (Kentucky Station). The farmer may mix his own fertilizers in a satisfactory manner. He should first determine how many pounds of phosphoric acid, nitro- gen, and potash he wishes to use per acre, then determine how much of each of the materials used will be required to furnish the desired amounts of the ingredients. This having been done, it is easy to figure to any number of acres. It does not matter about figuring out what per cent there will be of each ingredient, the important thing being to know how many pounds of each ingredient are being applied. The foregoing points having been determined, the next step is the mixing. Prepare a tight floor of sufficient size. Put down the bulkiest material first in an even layer, following with the others in order of their bulk. See that all lumps are well broken up. Potash salts and nitrate of soda may be lumpy. Take a shovel and begin at one end of the pile and shovel the materials back, turning and mixing each shovelful as much as possible. Repeat the operation until well mixed. There is no doubt that fertilizers may be well mixed at home, but it is advised only when it can be done more cheaply and when fertilizers of the desired composition cannot be purchased. The function of the fertilizer factory is to mix fertilizers cheaper and better than the farmer can do it himself. That the factory can do this there is no doubt. That they are not doing so, as a rule, is evident. In some states, the farmer decides what he wants to use on his land and submits his formula to the manufacturer, who mixes his goods for him and charges the retail price for the singles or simples used, and a reasonable profit on the actual cost of mixing. It is gratifying that some of the largest manufacturing concerns advocate the exclusive use of high-grade fertilizers and the unit or pound basis of purchase. ANTAGONISTIC INGREDIENTS OF FERTILIZERS 53 Incompatibles in fertilizer mixtures (U. 8. Dept. Agric.). The danger of indiscriminate mixing of fertilizing materials should be understood, and a diagram (Fig. 4) is given to indicate what com- binations may be safely made of some of the more common materials. Superphosphate, Thomas slag. Ye Barnyard manure Ammonf{um sulphate. Ss and guano. Lime nitrogen (eal- cium cyanamid). (basic calcium nitrate). Potash salts. Kainit, Nitrate of soda. Bone meal, Fic. 4.—Incompatible combinations in fertilizers. In this diagram the heavy lines unite materials which should never be mixed, the double lines those which should be applied immediately after mixing, and the single lines those which may be mixed at any time. Table for calculating raw fertilizer material required per ton by mixtures of given composition Factor FoR Factor FOR Per Cent or | EquivaLent CALCULATING |. CALCULATING FertivizER MateriaL AS CALLED FOR IN A cap are (N)| To Ammonta FERTILIZER FERTILIZER FormMuLa a 2 MatTeriau MAarTrEriaL FORMULA Per CENT |p20m NITROGEN| FROM AMMONIA Multiply by Multiply by Nitrate of soda 15.0 18.2 133 110 Dried blood 12.4 15.0 161 133 Sulfate of ammonia 20.0 24.3 100 86.4 7.0 8.5 286 235 Cotton-seed meal 54 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME Table for calculating raw fertilizer material required per ton by mixtures of given composition. — Continued FacTor FOR FacTor FOR | carcuLaTING Fertitizer MarertaL| PHospHorus PHospHoric | CALCULATING PRRTILIZER AS CALLED FOR IN A (P) Acip (P205) FERTILIZER |) 4 ppRIAL FROM ForMULA MATERIAL FROM!" pa ospHoRIC Per CENT Pur Cent PHOSPHORUS Mero Multiply by Multiply by Acid phosphate 6.1 14.0 328 1 Basic slag 7.0 16.0 285 125 Factor FOR Factor ror Potassium PotasH CALCULATING | CALCULATING (K) (K,0) FERTILIZER FERTILIZER MATERIAL FROM| MATERIAL FROM Per Cent Per CENT Potassium PotasH Multiply by Multiply by Muriate of potash 41.5 50 48 40 ainit 10 12 200 167 Sulfate of potash 40 48 50 42 To mix a 2-8-6 fertilizer, t.c. a fertilizer containing 2 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 6 per cent potash, the quantities of raw material may be calculated as follows : — 2X 133 = 266 lb. nitrate of soda 8 x 143 = 1144 lb. acid phosphate 6x 40 = 240 Ib. muriate of potash 1650 lb. mixture If dried blood were ‘used instead of nitrate of soda, it would be necessary to use 322 lb. of it to secure the required amount of nitro- gen (2 x 161 = 322) in the ton. If the formula called for ammonia rather than nitrogen, the multiple would be 110 or 133 respectively. Soil Analysis and Fertilizer Tests (Cavanaugh) A chemical analysis of a soil consists in finding the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, and humus that it contains. It may be carried further, and the other constituents determined. These materials, except the humus and nitrogen, are extracted from the soil by strong acids. The action of these acids is many times stronger than is ever brought to bear on the soil in its normal con- CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 55 dition in the field. It is therefore impossible at present to draw any certain conclusions from the results of such an analysis that are applicable to field conditions. If, however, an analysis shows only a very small amount of nitrogen, then one may conclude that the soil is deficient in this element and will probably be benefited by its application. But this may be as easily told by a simple inspection of the field while plants are growing. A soil deficient in nitrogen is constantly showing its condition in the plants. Short growth of straw and vine, failure to develop a full, dark-green color, and the growth of sorrel and ox-eye daisy, all tell as accurately as the chemist with all his skill that the soil lacks nitrogen. And it is the same with the other constituents. It is only when a soil is extremely deficient in certain plant-foods that an analysis shows the cause of the trouble. The great majority of all soils, good and poor agriculturally, differ only in narrow limits as to their composition. Every soil that yields well does not contain more plant-food than one that yields less; on the other hand, many soils that give poor yields are often rich ‘in plant- food. Two samples of soil were recently examined in the chemical labora- tory. On one of the soils alfalfa grows readily, on the other it has failed. It might seem that the cause could be discovered by analyzing the two samples. Following are the results : — No. 1, that does not grow alfalfa ‘No. 2, that grows alfalfa Nitrogen (N) . 0.07 per cent Nitrogen (N) . . 0.07 per cent Phosphoric acid P08) 0.12 per cent ree acid (202) 0.12 per cent Potash (K,O) . . 0.14 per cent Potash (K20) . . 0.13 per cent Lime (CaO) . . 0.17 per cent Lime (Ca) : 0.20 per cent Magnesia (MgO) - 0.24 per cent Magnesia (MgO) | 0.22 per cent Organic matter (humus) 3.45 per cent Organic matter (humus) 3.15 per cent Soils have an average weight of 2,000,000 lb. per acre for a depth of eight inches, and the composition of the two soils by weight is as follows : — No. 1 No. 2 .07 N = 1,400 lb. per acre. 0.07 N = 1,400 Ib. per acre. 12 P,0; = 2,400 lb. per acre. 0.12 P,O, = 2,400 Ib. per acre. .14K,0 = 2,800 lb. per acre. 0.13 K,0 = 2,600 lb. per acre. 17 CaO = 38,400 lb. per acre. 0.20 CaO = 4,000 lb. per acre. .24 MgO = 4,800 lb. per acre. 0.22 MgO = 4,400 lb. per acre. __3.45 humus = 69,000 lb. per acre. 3.15 humus = 63, 000 Ib. per acre. 56 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME It will be seen that in chemical composition these soils are practically identical, and yet one grows good alfalfa and one does not. This shows that the chemical composition is not always the deciding factor in fertility. As a matter of fact, it is rarely the deciding factor. A soil that showed higher amounts of plant-food than in the cases cited above gave very low yields. A good system of tile drains was put in this field, and three years later the crops were very large. The drain- ing produced no differences in the chemical content, but it brought success. Failure may be due in other cases to poor tilth, acidity, bad rotations, and various physical causes. Chemical analyses of soils are valuable mainly to assist in con- ducting investigations of a scientific character. With the present methods they are of little use as a means of deciding what fertilizer should be applied. The farmer should experiment with different fer- tilizers, and not depend on a chemical examination of his soil, unless he has reason to think that he has avery special problem. The wide- spread notion that chemical analyses of soil and of plant will tell what fertilizers to add and what crops to grow is erroneous. Field tests to determine fertilizer needs may be made as follows : — The field should be plowed before the plats are laid out. Then use substantial stakes at the corners of the plats and mark them well. It would be well to leave a space of 4 feet between each two plats, to be sure that the plants on one plat cannot feed on the fer- tilizer each side of it. Do not lay out the plats on land that has been manured within one year. If you made fertilizer experiments last year, do not use the same set of plats again this season. The following diagram shows the arrangement of the plats, with the spaces between, each plat containing 2s of an acre: — : 3 100 lb. lime 1. Plat K. 15 lb. Muriate|potash on this half . 100 Ib. lime | 2. Plat N. 15 lb. nitrate/soda on this half on this half | 3. Plat P. 30 Ib. super|phosphate 100 Ib. lime ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANCES 57 $| 4. Plat Blank. No fer|tili 100 Ib. lime : Dan Eee on this half 3 ®| 5. Plat KN. 15 lb. murilate potash 100 1b. lime g 15 lb. nitra|te soda on this half 3 a] 15 lb. muriate potash 100 Ib. li g 6. Plat KP. (mixed) ia lb. superphlosphate ee ime 15 lb. nitrate/soda 100 Ib. lime 7. Plat NP. 30 Ib. superp|hosphate on this half ‘ 15 lb. nitra|te soda 100 Ib. li 8. Plat NPK. (miyeq) 15 lb. murilate potash this half 30 Ib. super|phosphate OR eas. ae 9. Plat S. stable|manure ee pe Eight rods long. Analyses of Various Chemical Fertilizer and Related Materials Dissoitvep Bonre-Buack This material is a superphosphate prepared by treating refuse bone-black from sugar refineries with oil of vitriol, which renders nearly all the phosphoric acid soluble in water. Soluble phosphoric acid . Reverted phosphoric acid Insoluble phosphoric acid Moisture at 100° C. Ash Total phosphoric acid. Soluble phosphoric acid . Bons C: 18.16 72.24 25.58 0.38 Grounp Bone. Moisture at 100° C. . Ash BE ee er say Boe Total phosphoric acid . . Reverted phosphoric acid . Insoluble phosphoric acid Nitrogen . . Insoluble matter . . ‘ 14.55 2.389 0.20 HARCOAL Reverted phosphoric acid 5.18 Insoluble phosphoric acid 20.02 Insoluble matter 3 0.69 (Two samples) I II : 3.97 12.43 ‘ 49.35 64.21 5 19.49 25.67 i 3.80 6.20 . 15.69 19.34 i 4.04 2.68 i 0.78 0.42 58 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME Drizp BLuoop Moisture. . . .. . . . 15.02 Nitrogen . . - »+ + © © + 8.24 Dry Grounp FIso Oe CRESS Ce ere ee Total phosphoric acid . . . ‘ a ¥ eee Meek 4 ale ce B28 Soluble phosphoric acid . ; “ en de the See Seo r 0.10 Reverted phosphoric acid ‘ Oe ee a 6 oe ow ee we FBT Insoluble phosphoric acid . . ee 8 a ‘ o ow 2 | (ABD MiEDPCH a «sw 6» 5 & # +» . ‘ ‘ a ; » «2 «81 Insoluble matter . . . . é . e Bo 4 eae . . 0.82 SuLraTe oF AMMONIA This article, now manufactured on a large scale as a by-product of gas-works, usually contains over 20 per cent of nitrogen, the equivalent of from 94 to 97 per cent of sulfate of ammonia. The rest is chiefly moisture. Nitrogen . . . . . . 20.02 Equivalent ammonia. . . . 24.30 SuLrate oF PotasH. (Two samples) - double sulfate of potash and magnesia is usually sold as ‘sulfate of potash.” lL II. Actual potash. . .. . cose ot, Ee he RS we QT ETG 51.28 Equivalent sulfate of potash ge oe ae ec as. eee See - 94.80 SuLFATE OF MAGNESIA Moisture at 100°C. . . . 29.01 Sulfuricacid . . . . . . 80.35 Magnesium oxide . . . . 15.87 Insolublematter . . . . . 6.29 NITRATE oF Sopa Nitrate of soda is mined in Chile and purified there before shipment. It usually contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen, equivalent to 97 per cent of pure nitrate of soda. It contains, besides, a little salt and some moisture. Moisture . . . . . . . . 0.85 Sulfateofsoda. . . . . . 0.21 Salt (sodium chloride). . . . 0.23 Purenitrateofsoda . . . . 99.21 MoriATeE oF PotasH. (Two samples) Commercial muriate of potash consists of about 80 per cent of muriate of potash (potassium chloride); 15 per cent or more of common salt (sodium chloride), and 4 per cent or more of water. I II Actual potash . . . . . tho A Se get 7 . 50.0 52.82 Equivalent muriate . . . et eM ak te ee AOE2 83.70 German PotasH Sats — Average of 11 Analyses Moisture at 100°C. . . . . 13.14 Magnesium oxide. . . . . 9.25 Potassium oxide . . . . . 21.63 Sulfuricacid . . . . 2 . 10.85 Sodium oxide . .. . . 13.76 Chlorine . . .. 35.63 Calcium oxide . . . . . . 0.85 Insoluble matter had ane. 2.08 ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANCES Karnir — Average of 3 Analyses Moisture at 100°C. . . . . 9.26 Magnesium oxide . Potassium oxide . . . . . 14.04 Sulfuric acid Sodium oxide . . . . . . 21.38 Chlorine i Calcium oxide . . . . . . 1.12 Insoluble matter LAND-PLASTER OR GYPSUM Hydrated sulfate of lime Matters insoluble in acid Moisture . Other matters, chiefly | carbonate of lime AsHEs (Woop), UNLEACHED Moisture at 100°C. . . . . 1... Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide . Ferric oxide . . o aee Potassium oxide Phosphoric acid. ow Insoluble matter, before calcination Insoluble matter, after calcination Asues (Woop), LeacHEep Moisture at 100° C. Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide . Ferric oxide . . Potassium oxide Phosphoric acid . Insoluble matter, before calcination . Insoluble matter, after calcination Coat ASHES, BITUMINOUS Water ‘ . . . 5.0 Soda . Organic substance — . . 5.0 Magnesia . Ash e ‘ ; . 95.0 Phosphoric acid Potash | 1 1... . . 0.4 Sulfuric acid Coat ASHES, ANTHRACITE Water .. » oe es . 5.0 Soda Gigante substance . . . . « 5.0 Magnesia . Ash “ . 2 es + + 90.0 Phosphoric acid Potash. . . .... . . + O.1 Sulfuric acid . . Gas-Lims — Average of 4 Analyses Moisture at 100°C. . . . . 22.28 Sulfur . Calcium oxide . . . . . . 42.66 Insoluble matter 59 8.97 21.05 32.38 0.89 74.88 1.23 1.18 22.66 13.72 48.07 6.06 0.68 1.92 1.79 5.49 2.57 WOW avi OWS oror 20.73 6.05 60 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME SEAWEED. (Two samples) I W Moisture at 100°C... 2. 2. 2 1 1 ee ee ee ew we 12,05 14.96 Nitrogen. eS) Sh ae ale a a’ Henge na ay Se Sve OB 1.28 Phosphoric @Gd 5 ow ee ee ee ke we nh ve oe OE 0.17 Potassium oxide Soe Ga eR A oe Haw ah ee A BL 0.36 Calcium oxide ii GF Sah de> cp! dee bea deine ase eee ae “La ae a Gee 3.86 Magnesium oxide. . 2. 2. 2 1. ee ee ee ee ee 148 1.80 Fertilizer Formulas for Various Crops There is no exact method of determining the fertilizer or plant-food needs of the various crops. Certain guides have been established, however, from analyses of the plants and other means, and some of these block formulas are given here for the information of the con- sultant. The careful grower will make tests of his own (see p. 56),- and use formulas only as guides. Formulas suggested by the Maine Experiment Station. It is to be borne in‘mind in using these formulas that they are only suggestive and that different conditions of soil make such different treatment essential that a formula which may prove successful on one farm may not be equally so on another. In no case is it to be expected that fertilizers will take the place of good tillage and care of crops. WeicHtT Pxospuoric Acip Crop aNp Fertitizinec MATERIALS USED NitRo- Avail | ma.) | POTASH per Acre} GEN vel Total able Corn on sod land or in conjunc- Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. tion with farm manure: Nitrate of soda... . . 100 16 — — — Acid phosphate . . . . |. 400 — 52 56 — Muriate of potash . . : 150 —. —. 75 Total * ‘ 650 16 52 56 75 Percentage composition —— 2.5 8.0 8.6 11.5 Nitrate ofsoda . . ... 100 16 Screened tankage .... 200 11 15 32 — Acid phosphate . . . . . 300 a 39 42 —— Muriate of potash . . . . 150 — — — 75 Total a ‘ 750 27 54 74 75 Percentage composition |) 3.6 72 9.9 10.0 .Nitrate of soda . . . . 100 16 — Cottonseed meal . . . .| 200 14 3 4 Acid phosphate . . .. . 400 — 52 56 os Muriate of potash . . . . 150 — — ——= 75 Total. . , 850 30 52 59 * 79 Percentage composition ._|o- 3.5 6.1 7.0 9.3 FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS é1 PuospxHoric Acip Ww: Crop anp Fertitizina MateRIAts usep | Nurro- |__| 5, aes per Acrp| G=N Avail- T able ‘otal Grass — spring seeding with Ib. Ib. Ib. lb. Ib. oats as a nurse crop in con- junction with liberal appli- cations of farm manure: } Nitrate of soda . . . . . 50 8 — soe —— Acid phosphate . . .. . 200 — 26 28 ss Muriate of potash . . . . 200 — — — 100 Total . : 450 8 26 28 100 Percentage composition | | 1.8 5.8 6.2 22.2 Grass — spring seeding with oats without farm manure: Nitrate of soda . ona, 100 16 — — a Screened tankage . Bs 500 28 36 80 — Acid phosphate . . .. . 200 — 26 28 — Muriate of potash . . . . 250 — — — 125 Total. . ‘ 1050 44 62 108 125 Percentage composition “——— 4,2 5.9 10.3 11.9 Grass — summer or fall seeding on farm manure (at seed- Acid fr ohapabate ee era 100 —— 13 14 — Muriate .......- 75 —. — — 38 Total _( % > 13 14 38 Percentage composition (1 ——— 7.4 8 22 The following spring apply — Nitrate of soda . . a te 100 16 — — — Acid phosphate . ... . 200 — 26 28 — Muriate . ...-... 200 — — — 100 Total . ‘ 500 16 26 28 100 Percentage composition | pS 3.2 5.2 5.6 20.0 Grass — summer or fall seeding without farm manure (at seeding) : Nitrate of soda . ... .- 100 16 — — —S= Screened tankage ... . 400 22 29 64 — Muriate of potash . .. . 100 — — — 50 Total . : 600 38 29 64 50 Percentage composition | =—_— 6.3 48 . 10.7 8.3 The following spring apply — ; Nitrate of soda . . eo 8 100 16 — — — Acid phogplate ma, Sha Ye 200 — 26 28 — Muriate . oe aes gh 8 200 — — — 100 Total F w 500 16 26 28 100 Percentage composition | 3.2 5.2 5.6 20.0 1 If desired to apply by machinery, it would be necessary to mix with about 200 pounds of some fine, dry material, as muck or loam. 62 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME PxHospHoric Acip Crop anp FErtitizing MATERIALS wae * | Nerro- i PorasH e a 2 Per Acre| S2N aid Total Grass—spring top-dressing grass Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. land, suggested by the Rhode Island Experiment Station :1 Nitrate of soda . . . 5 350 54 — ae = Acid phosphate . . . ‘ 400 = 52 56 = Muriate of potash . : 250 ——= — — 125 Total ...... .{ 1000 54 52 56 125 Percentage composition . | —— 5.4 5.2 5.6 12.5 CLOVERS, OR ALFALFA, without other manure and on land carrying the proper root tu- bercle organisms : Nitrate of soda wn ‘ 50 8 == = — Acid phosphate . . . 4 400 — 52 56 —_ Muriate of potash . . : 250 = — ——— 125 otal 4 «8 wm wm & 8 700 8 52 56 125 Percentage composition . | —— 1.1 7.4 8.0 17.9 BEANS oR PEAS without other manure on soil carrying the proper root tubercle organ- isms: Nitrate of soda . . ; 50 8 — — — Acid phosphate . . : 400 — 52 56 —. Muriate of potash . 5 ae 150 — — — 75 Lotals «2 « & «3 1 600 8 52 56 75 Percentage composition . | —— 1.3 8.7 9.3 12.5 MANGOLDS OR OTHER BEETS, based upon experiments at the Rothamsted (England) Experiment Station (to be used in conjunction with a liberal dressing of farm ma- nure) : Nitrate of soda . . . . . 400 64 —— — —. Muriate of potash . — 400 — —. —— 200 Common salt? . fo gh! 200 —. —— — —— Total. . . . . . . .| 1000 64 — — 200 Percentage composition . -— 6.4 — — 20.0 MANGOLDS OR OTHER BEETS without farm manure: Nitrate of soda . Of, oe oni 200 o2 — — —_— Screened tankage ... . 800 44 58 128 — Sulfate of ammonia (or 300 pounds high-grade dried blood) . . soy 4% % 200 40 —. — — Acid phosphate . . . . 200 — 26 28 —. Muriate of potash . . . , 400 — — — 200 Common salt a a 200 — — —. —. Total. . . . . . . ./ 2000 116 84 156 200 Percentage composition . | —— 5.8 4.2 7.8 10.0 1 Rhode Island Sta. Bul. 90, 2 Beets are successfully grown in Maine without salt. FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS 63 It is of the utmost importance in purchasing materials for these home mixtures to buy only on a guaranty of composition and to insist that the materials shall be of standard high-grade quality. Specific mixtures for different crops (Agric. Exp. Sta. Geneva, N.Y., 14th Rept.). In the following tables (pages 64 to 77), Van Slyke gives formulas for various crops as an illustration of the kinds of mixtures that are ordinarily advised. He is convinced, however, that prac- tically all purposes would be satisfactorily served by the use of not more than a half dozen different formulas. We should work toward the more or less independent handling of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds, using them separately or together as special conditions and the results of observation and experience may suggest. This is possible, of course, only with the student farmer. For the mass of farmers, the formal recipe or the commercial mixture must yet form the basis of fertilizer applications. As a broad statement to guide the careful farmer, Van Slyke suggests the following : — For leguminous crops, a formula of 1-8-10 (in the order of nitrogen, available phosphoric acid and potash). For cereals, 3-8-5. For all kinds of garden crops, 4—8-10. For grass and forage crops, 4-6-9. For orchards, 2—5-10. For root-crops, 3-8-7. The materials that are given for use in the succeeding tables are assumed to have a fairly definite composition, and the calculations are based on the following conditions of composition : — (1) Nitrate of soda, 95 to 96 per cent pure, containing 16 per cent of nitrogen. (2) Dried blood, containing 10 per cent of nitrogen. (3) Sulfate of ammonia, containing 20 per cent of nitrogen. (4): Stable manure, containing .5 per cent of nitrogen. (5) Bone-meal, containing 20 per cent of total phosphoric acid, one-half being calculated as available during first season on application ; also containing 4 per cent of nitrogen. Whenever bone-meal is used in a mixture, allowance should be made for its nitrogen, and so much less of other forms of nitrogen-materials used. 64 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME (6) Dissolved bone, containing 15 per cent of available phosphoric acid and 3 per cent of nitrogen. : (7) Dissolved bone-black, containing 15 per cent of available phos- phoric acid. (8) Dissolved rock, containing 12 per cent of available phosphoric acid. (9) Muriate of potash, 80 per cent pure, containing 50 per cent of potash. (10) Sulfate of potash, 90 to 95 per cent pure, containing 50 per cent of potash. (11) Kainit, containing 12 to 13 per cent of potash. (12) Wood-ashes, containing 5 per cent of potash. ALFALFA PER CENT| FOR ONE Pounps ACRE Pounps OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS FOR Onze AcRE Nitrogen . 1 Available phos- phoric acid 8 Potash 10 30 to 60 40 to 80 (1) 30 to 60 Ib. nitrate of soda: or 5 to 10 (2) 25 to 50 Ib. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 50 to 100 lb. dried blood; or (4) 1000 to 2000 lb. stable manure. (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone-meal or bone-black ; or (3) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved rock. (1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate; or (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate; or (3) 325 to 650 lb. kainit ; or (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. APPLES Potnps FORONE ACRE Per Cent Pounps or DirrERENT MATERIALS FOR ONE ACRE Pounps or DiFFERENT Marerias ror ONE TREE Nitrogen . 8 to 16 Available phos- phoric acid 30 to 60 Potash . 12 |50to100 (1) 50 to 100 Ib. nitrate of soda; or (2) 40 to 80 Ib. sulphate of ammonia; or (3) 80 to 160 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 1600 to 3200 Ib. stable manure. (1) 300 to 600 Ib. bone- meal; or (2) 200 to 400 Ib. dissolved bone-meal or bone- black; or (3) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved rock, (1) 100 to 200 Ib. muriate; or (2) 100 to 200 Ib. sulfate; or (3) 400 to 800 Ib. kainit; or 4) 1000 to 2000 Ib. wood- ashes. (1) 1 to 2 lb. nitrate of soda ; or (2) 3% to 1% |b. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 114 to 3 lb. dried blood; or (4) 35 to 70 Ib. stable ma- nure. (1) 6 to 12 Ib. bone-meal; or (2) 4 to 8 Ib. dissolved bone or bone-black ; or (3) 5 to 10 Ib. dissolved rock, (1) 2 to 4 Ib. muriate ; or (2) 2 to 4 lb. sulfate ; or {3} 8 to 16 lb. kainit ; or 4) 20 to 40 Ib. wood-ashes. FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 65 ASPARAGUS Pounps PER CENT ne a Pounps or Dirrerent MATERIALS FOR ONE ACRE Cc : (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda; or Nitrogen . . 5 20 to 40 | (2) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood; or ‘8 Seo eee I stable 00) 4 (2) 350 to 700 Ib. dissolved bone or bone phoric aci ‘ 6 50 tol black; or (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. .((1) 130 to aoe ae mae ; or 2) 130 to 26 . sulfate; or Potash . . .| 8 |65t0130 &) 500 to 1000 Ib. kainit’; or (4) 1300 to 2600 Ib. wood-ashes. 68 CAULIFLOWER ~ Same as for cabbage. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME CHERRIES ae gE 204 Pounps or DirFERENT Pounps or DIFFERENT ag 586 | Mareriars ror ONE Acre | MaTertats For One TREE AYO] Aa : (1) 60 to 120 lb. nitrate of | ( (1) % a 1 Ib. nitrate of soda; or , goda; or (2) 50 to 100 Ib. sulfate of || (2) 44 to 1 Ib. sulfate of ‘ ammonia; or ammonia; or Nitrogen . 2 | 10 to 20/5 (3) 100, to, 200 Ib. dried |} (3) 1 to 2 Ib. dried blood ; or ood; or (4) 2000 to 4000 Ib. stable | | (4) 20 to 40 Ib. stable ma- manure. nure. (1) 350 to 700 Ib. bone-| ((1) 334 to 7 lb. bone-meal ; meal; or or ae 7 \a5to 7012 2 ae to 500 Ib. dissolved | J (2) 278 to a Ib. dissolved * one, etc.; or one, etc.; or (3) 300 i 600 Ib. dissolved | | (3) 3 to 6 Ib. dissolved rock. rock. {1} 90 to 180 lb. muriate; or % 1 to 2 lb. muriate; or 2) 90 to 180 Ib. sulfate; 2) 1 to 2 Ib. sulfate; or or Potash . . «| 9 /45t090 (3) 350 t0 700 Ib, kninit; or |) (3) 324 to.7 Ib. kainit; or 4) 900 — 1800 lb. wood- | | (4) 9 to 18 lb. wood-ashes. ashes. CLOVER Same as for alfalfa. Corn Pounps PER = Pounps or DIFFERENT MATERIALS Crent roe Oxn FOR ONE ACRE (1) 60 to 120 Ib. nitrate of soda; or : (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia; Nitrogen . 2 10 to 20 or (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood; or (4) 2000 to 4000 1b. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal; or phoric acid . 7 35 to 70 i oy to 500 a eee bone, etc. ; or to 600 issolved rock. (1) 60 to 120 lb. muriate; or Potash, 6 30 to 60| | (2) 60 to 120 Ib. sulfate; or (3) 250 to 500 Ib. kainit ; or (4) 600 to 1200 Ib. wood-ashes. For sweet corn, somewhat steer amounts of nitrogen may be applied. FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 69 CucUMBERS Per Cent Pounps | FOR ONE ACRE Pounps or DirreRENT MATERIALS FoR ONE AcRE Nitrogen... 4 Available phos- phoric acid .|. 6 Potash .. . 8 30 to 60 50 to 100 65 to 130 | | 1) 180 to 360 lb. nitrate of soda; or 2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate of ammonia; ( ( or (3) 300 to 600 lb. dried blood; or (4) 6000 to 12,000 Ib. stable manure. (1) 500 to 1000 Ib. bone-meal ; or (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, ete. ; or (3) 400 to 800 Ib. dissolved rock. (1) 130 to 260 1b. muriate; or (2) 130 to 260 lb. sulfate; or (3) 500 to 1000 Ib. kainit; or (4) 1300 to 26,000 lb. wood-ashes. CuRRANTS Per CENT Pounps FoR ONE ACRE Pounps or DirrerENT MATERIALS FoR ONE ACRE Nitrogen. . . 2 Available phos- phoric acid . 5 Potash. . . . 8 10 to 20 25 to 50 40 to 80 | | | (1) 60 to 120 Ib. nitrate of soda; or (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood; or (4) 2000 to 4000 lb. stable manure. (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal; or (2) 175 to 350 Ib. dissolved bone, etc. ; or (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 80 to 160 1b. muriate; or (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate; or (3) 320 to 640 lb. kainit; or (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. Eaa-PLant PER CENT Pounps FOR ONE ACRE Pounps oF DirrERENT MATERIALS FoR OnE ACRE Nitrogen Bok 4 Available phos- phoric acid Potash. . . . 9 40 to 80 50 to 100 90 to 180 | | | (1) 240 to 480 Ib. nitrate of soda; or (2) 200 to 400 Ib. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 400 to 800 lb. dried blood; or (4) 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, ete.; or (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 180 to 360 lb. muriate; or (2) 180 to 360 lb. sulfate; or 3) 700 to 1400 lb. kainit; or (4) 1800 to 3600 lb. wood-ashes. . 70 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME Fruax Per Cent hii ee PouNnpbs oF Duneesent Womenrace FOR ONE ACRE (1) 60 to 120 Ib. nitrate of soda; or . (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or Nitrogen . 3 | 10 to 20 | } (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood ; or (4) ciate! a ange a stable ee : 1) 250 to . bone-meal ; or Available phos- 3) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone or bone- phoric acid . 25 to 50 black; or cy re ie a ge eee rock. to . muriate; or (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate; or Potash . 9 | 30 to 60} ) (3) 250 to 500 Ib. kainit; or (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. GOOSEBERRIES Same as currants. GRAPES PoniCae ee Pounps oF Ie ee pean FOR ONE ACRE - = — 3 5 to see Te . soda; or r to . sulfate of ammonia ; or Nitrogen . 2 8 to 16 |} (3) 80 to 160 Ib. dried blood; or if apne ie ae 7 stable ea : oO . bone-meal; or ee a. | Nsw | (2) 200 to 400 ib. dissolved bone, ete.; or | (3) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved rock. BH ue to . sulfate; or Potash . 11 | 45 to 90 | ) (3) 350 to 700 Ib. kainit: or (4) 900 to ¥800 lb. wood-ashes. Grass FOR PASTURES Par Cant] ro oNeS,| Pounns or Dirrerent MaTeRIALs ror ONE ‘ACRE ACRE (1) 90 to 180 Ib. nitrate of soda; or Nitrogen . 2 115 to 30 Ea See oe . dried blood; or ; (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- | (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal; or phoric acid 8 30 to 60 |{ (2) 200 to 400 Ib. dissolved bone, ete. ; or | (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. [ (ib. muice Potash . 10 O . sulfate; or ne ao toe0 | (3 278 fo 5501b, kainit or ) 800 to 1600 tb. wood-ashes. FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 71 Grass ror Lawns ) 250 to 500 lb. kainit; or PerCent aoe Pounps or DirrerENT MATERIALS FOR ONE AcRE AcrE (HR A wets Nitrogen . 2 O . sulfate of ammonia ; or e Sean | (3) 200 to 400 Ib. dried blood; or : (4) 4000 to 8000 Ib. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal; or phoric acid 6 25 to 50 |} (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone, ete.; or (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. ( (1) 60 to 120 1b. muriate; or Potash 8 30 to 60 | 4 ts 60 to 120 lb. sulfate; or la ) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. As a more specific mixture, we suggest the following: 100 Ib. nitrate of soda, 100 Ib. bone-meal, 100 Ib. acid phosphate (dissolved rock) and 100 Ib. muriate of potash an acre. Grass ror MEapows Per CENT Pounps FOR ONE ACRE Pounps or DirFERENT MATERIALS FOR ONE ACRE Nitrogen . Available phos- phoric acid Potash . 15 to 30 30 to 60 35 to 70 ) 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda; or ) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or ) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood; or ) 3000 to 6000 Ib. stable manure. ) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or ) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or ) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved rock. ) 70 to 140 lb. muriate; or ) 70 to 140 lb. sulfate; or ) 275 to 550 |b. kainit ; or ) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. PATAARADARADADROND RWNREWONRRWNe Hors PER Crnt PouUNDS FOR OnE AcRE Pounps or DirFERENT MATERIALS FOR ONE ACRE Nitrogen. . . Available phos- phoric acid Potash ... 6 12 20 to 40 35 to 70 -100 to 200 (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda; or (2) 100 to 200 1b. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood; or (4) 4000 to 8000 lb. stable manure. (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or (2) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 275 to 550 lb. dissolved rock. ( (1) 200 to 400 lb. muriate ; or { (2) 200 to 400 Ib. sulfate ; or (3) 800 to 1600 lb. kainit ; or | (4) 2000 to 4000 1b. wood-ashes. 72 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME Horst RavisH PER Cent Pounpbs For ONE ACRE Pounps oF DirFERENT MATERIALS FOR OnE ACRE Nitrogen eee Available phos- phoric acid . Potash . . 15 to 30 25 to 50 35 to 70 ) 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda; or ) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or ) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood; or ) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. ) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal; or ) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or ) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. ) 70 to 140 lb, muriate; or ) 70 to 140 lb. sulfate; or ) 275 to 550 Ib. kainit; or ) 700 to 1400 1b. wood-ashes. | | a. PAARARARADOON OO NR WN PRwWhe Lretruce PER CENT Pounps FOR ONE ACRE Pownps or DIFFERENT MATERIALS FOR OnE ACRE Nitrogen . Available phos- phoric acid . Potash .. 40 to 80 50 to 100 75 to 150 (2) 200 to 400 Ib. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 400 to 800 lb. dried blood; or (4) 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. { (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or | (1) 250 to 500 Ib. nitrate of soda; or (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, ete.; or (3) 400 to 800 Ib. dissolved rock. (2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate; or (3) 600 to 1200 Ib. kainit; or; (1) 150 to 300 lb. muriate; or (4) 1500 to 3000 lb. wood-ashes. MILLET Same as for meadow grass. | MuskKMELONS Same as for cucumbers. Nursery Stock PER Pounps én ror ONE Pounps or Digan Mienatirs FOR 0 ge to 128 1p. mitre a soda; or : r to . sulfate of ammonia; or Nirogen<« + | 8 1020/7 Gy tone d001h, dried bload: tr ; (4) 2000 to 4000 Ib. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal; or phoric acid . 6 25 to 50 |4 (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone, ete. ; or (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 60 to 120 1b. muriate; or Potash 7 30 to 60 | 1 (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate; or (3) 240 to 480 lb. kainit; or (4) 600 to 1200 1b. wood-ashes. FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 73 Oats P Pte ron Owe Pounps oF De rae Mamaniaus FOR ot B to ie i niizate o soda; or . eee to sulfate of ammonia; or UO BRE f [Be ta2a ls (a) ioote Bagi dried blood: oc ; (4) 2500 to 5000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 200 to 400 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid . 6 20 to 40 | 4 (2) 140 to 280 lb. dissolved bone, ete. ; or (3) 160 to 320 lb. dissolved rock. (2) 6040 1201 sulfate, or” to sulfate; or Potash. . . - 9 30 to 60 (3) 250 to 500 lb. kainit : or (4) 600 to 1200 Ib. wood-ashes. ONIONS PER Pet ties Pounps or DirreREnT MATERIALS FOR CENT ‘Acre OnE AcRE ' 0 ay to on ib miteaie a soda; or + to 450 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or NUMAN Gi 5 | 45 to 90 | (35 450 to 900 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 9000 to 18,000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid . 6 55 to 110); (2) 385 to 770 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock. 3 160 to o20 i muniates or 2) 160 to . sulfate; or Potash . - -| 9 [80 t0 160), (54 650 to 1300 1b. kainit; or. (4) 1600 to 3200 lb. wood-ashes. PaRsNIPs ae ron One P ‘OUNDS OF sapien i aa FOR (1) 120 to 240 lb, nitrate of soda; or . (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or Nitrogen. . -| 3 | 20t0401) (3) 900 to 400 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 4000 to 8000 Ib. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid . 9 55 to 110) 4 (2) 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or (3) 450 to 900 Ib. dissolved rock. (1) 100 to 200 1 ade or (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate; or Potash . . «| 8 {5001004 (3) 400 to 800 Ib, kainit;' or (4) 1000 to 2000 Ib. wood-ashes. 74. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME PEACHES Per Pee Pounps oF DIFFERENT MATERIALS FOR Cenr [PGS ONE ACRE (1) 90 to 180 i sinals e soda; or . (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or Nitrogen. . «| 2 — | 15 t0.80/4 (35 150 to 300 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 400 to 800 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid . 5 40 to 80 | 4 (2) 280 to 560 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 320 to 640 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 110 to 220 He aaa : or (2) 110 to 220 |b. sulfate; or Bate coe} [Seite 10) ) 2) AGG O00 Ib, kainite or (4) 1100 to 2200 lb. wood-ashes. PEARS Same as for apples. Pras Same as for beans. PLums Same as for cherries. PoTaToEs ao. ron One Pounps or Dirrenent MareRrats FOR . (1) 180 to 360 Ib. nitrate of soda; or Nitrogen. . . 4 30 to 60 |} (2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or (3) 300 to 600 lb. dried blood. Available phos- (1) 400 to 800 1b. bone-meal; or phoric acid . 6 40 to 80 |} (2) 275 to 550 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 325 to 650 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 130 to 260 lb. muriate; or Potash ... 9 65 to 130) 4 (2) 130 to 260 1b. sulfate; or (3) 520 to 1040 lb. kainit. PumMpPxKINS Same as for cucumbers. QUINCES Same as for apples. FERTILIZERS FOR SPECIAL CROPS 75 RaDISHES Pounps ¥ ee FoR ONE Pounps or Digmeneas MAmastars FOR fa os 17 i coat of soda; or q oO . sulfate of ammonia; o: Misnagen @ | #289804 13) 150 to 400 Ib. died bleeds or (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 350 to 700 Ib. bone-meal; or phoric acid 7 35 to 70/4 (2) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved bone, ete.; or (3) 280 to 560 Ik. dissolved rock. 3 ay to a ib msi or to . Sulfate; or Potash. S /A8 90 |) (3) Bab ta 700 1b, halal? oF (4) 900 to 1800 lb. wood-ashes. RASPBERRIES - ron One Pounps or eennaee FOR Qi a to ae ie nee oe soda; or . 60 to . sulfate of ammonia; or Riinarem # jAatewe) G) i2ntp2dt Th, dried blood; on (4) 2400 to 4800 Ib. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 400 to 800 lb. bone-meal; or phoric acid . 7 40 to 80 |; (2) 280 to 560 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 320 to 640 lb. dissolved rock. £3 120 to Ay 1p. mriale 5 or 120 to 2 . sulfate; or BOCAS oh 10 (2 fo 120/) (3) 480 to G801b, kainits ‘or (4) 1200 to 2400 lb. wood-ashes. Rye | SoreHuM Same as for oats. Same as for corn. SPINACH aoe vom On Pounps or Disrenent Marenrats FOR CRE (1) 90 to 180 ae 2 soda; or ‘ (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or Nitrogen . 2 | 15 to 30 |) (3) 150 to 300 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid < 55 to 110] { (2) 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or (3) 450 to 900 Ib. dissolved rock. (1) 80 to fee ip meee or - # (2) 80 to 160 Ib. sulfate; or Potash. . 5 | 40 to 80 |) (3) 390 to 640 Ib. kainit; or (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 76 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME SquasHEs Same as for cucumbers. (3) 250 to 500 lb. dried blood ; or STRAWBERRIES Pounps Si Pounps or DirreRENT MATERIALS Cent oe 7 FOR ONE ACRE | ( (1) 150 to 300 Ib. nitrate of soda; or Nitrogen 3 25 to 50 | J (2) 125 to 250 lb. sulfate of ammonia; or Available phos- phoric acid . 55 to 110 | (4) 5000 to 10,000 lb. stable manure. (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal ; or (2) 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or (8) 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock. (2) 140 to 280 Ib. sulfate; or Potash: yx | 9 WO tOLEONS Oe ei ta 1100 1b, kainit or (4) 1400 to 2800 lb. wood-ashes. Togsacco Phos ron One Pounps oF pie ah ae oy 136 to B68 iP he o soda; or Hi 2) 150 to . sulfate of ammonia; or Nitrogen. . .| 4 [80t0601) (3) 390 to 600 Ib. dried blood; or _ (4) 6000 to 12,000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 500 to 1000 1b. bone-meal; or phoric acid. 6 |50 to 100] { (2) 350 to 700 Ib. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 3} ne to ae ie pet rock. Potash . . to . sulfate; or oe a8 BO 10160 { (2) 1600 to 3200 lb. wood-ashes. TOMATOES gE, ron Owe Pounps ae Diprsnars Mareniats 1 Oe aes . " . sulfate of ammonia; or Nitrogen. . -| 4 | 2540501) (3) 950 to 500 Ib. dried blood; or (4) 5000 to 10,000 lb. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or phoric acid . 6 35 to 70 | + (2) 250 to 500 Ib. dissolved bone, ete. ; or (3) 280 to 560 lb. dissolved rock. (1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate; or Potash eke as 7 40 to 80 (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate; or | (3) 320 to 640 lb. kainit; or (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. SPECIAL FERTILIZERS. — LIME 17 TURNIPS Same as for beets. WATERMELONS Same as for cucumbers. WHeEat Pounps Per Pounps or D Cent ae et ron Ose ay rane ( a as fo it 1b. ila of soda; or ‘ ae oe ‘O sulfate o ammonia; or Nitrogen 4 | 12 to 24 | (3) 120 to 240 Ib. dried blood; or : (4) 2400 to 4800 Ib. stable manure. Available phos- (1) 200 to 400 Ib. bone-meal; or phoric acid . 20 to 40 (2) 140 to 280 lb. dissolved bone, etc.; or (3) 160 to 320 lb. dissolved rock. i} eb mae Potash ... to sulfate ; or has TAtO2E|4 (ay 100 to 200 Th, kainits vr (4) 250 to 500 lb. wood-ashes. Lime for the Land Of late years the old custom of liming the land has been revived. It is now found that lime, or other alkali, is needed to neutralize the acidity of certain soils. To determine whether a soil ts acid, and therefore probably in need of lime (Wheeler). By litmus paper (to be secured at drug store). — To half a cup of soil add water until it is like thick porridge, and then insert blue litmus paper without handling the end introduced into the soil. After an hour or two, remove and rinse only the lower end. If this end is in- tensely reddened, liming is probably desirable. The color is pinkish if much acid vegetable matter is present; but if it is not present, the color may be brick-red. By ammonia water. — To a tablespoonful of soil in half a glass of water add a teaspoonful or more of dilute ammonia water ; if the liquid 78 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME becomes intensely brown after standing for some hours, and especially if it becomes black, the probable presence of acid vegetable matter is indicated. When a soil test indicates only slight acidity, lime may not be needed for most plants. Application of lime. On sandy soils, 500 lb. of lime to the acre may be sufficient. On soils very rich in acid organic matter, as much as 5000 to 6000 lb. may be needed. Under usual conditions, about one ton to the acre is a good dressing (20 to 40 bu., with 30 bu. perhaps the average). The legal weight per bushel of lime is 70 lb. in some states and 80 lb. in others. Some persons apply lime after plowing and mix it into the soil with the harrow; others apply in fall and follow by spring plowing. Forms of lime (Fippin). In a pure form, the calcium equivalent in 100 lb. of lime is about as follows (Ca is calcium; O, oxygen; H, hydrogen) : — EQUIVALENT IN Cancrom IN Composition TO 100 ua. 100 ts. Lump Lime (a) CaO, Lump lime, freshly burned lime, quicklimée 3 « 5.5 4 © © # @ 4 & 71 100 (b) oo Hydrated lime, water-slaked lim 54 132 (c) CaCOs, Lime carbonates, air-slaked lime, ground limestone, marl — 40 180 (d) CaSO. + 2H.20, Gypsum, land ‘plaster 4s 23 310 (e) Cas(POs)2, Lime phosphate, ground phos- 38 Pure 187 phate rock . 389 25% CaCOs 181 (f) CaH,(PO,.)2 + CaSOu, Acid phosphate (15% P20s) 23 310 (g) eet Basic ‘slag, ‘Tomas phosphate * = x 43 165 (A) wanes enatuinine quicklime) ~ 6 « « « 15 to 30 450 Strictly speaking, the lime manufacturers are concerned with only the first three forms, but these must compete to some extent with other forms. Phosphate fertilizers may sometimes owe their benefits to their lime contents. The same result might then be secured at much less cost from lime. AGRICULTURAL LIME 79 Fineness of division of lime (Fippin). The finer the lime (the smaller the particles) the greater its availa- bility. Considering the calcium content, first cost, freight, and fineness, it is often better to use the lump or hydrated or ground lime than the ground limestone or marl; the lump quicklime slakes into very fine particles when applied to the soil. It is impossible to attain the same degree of fineness by grinding that is attained by burning and slaking. Seventy-five per cent, at least, of the ground material should pass a 100-mesh screen. The larger the percentage of coarse material, the larger the amount necessary to get the same net effect. Considering composition and fineness as commonly found on the market, 50 lb. of lump lime is equivalent approximately to 60 lb. hydrated lime. 100 Ib. air-slaked lime. 250 lb. ground limestone or marl, Classification of lime for agricultural purposes. Agreement between the Directors of the New England and New Jersey Ex- periment Stations and _ the Special Committee of the National Lime Manufac- turers’ Association of Boston, March 3, 1909. Must contain 93% combined oxides (1) Spraying {and hydrates and all pass a standard 100-mesh sieve. (1) Hydrate Must contain not less than 90% combined oxides, (2) Land hydrates, and car- bonates, gt wing A 2 not over 25% s| (1) High Calcium { l be carbonates. Must contain 90% combined oxides and carbonates, of (1) Lump which not more (2) Caustic (2) Fines 4 than 10% shall be (3) Ground carbonates, except LIME ing Ground, which may contain 20% carbonates. Must contain 90% . combined carbon- (3) Ground Limestone. - } sites aad pass 50- (2) Dolomitic mesh sieve. {cnt guaranteed, or | High Magnesium contains core, 4) Kiln Slaked . (a Beet ashes, and refuse. 80 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME All shipments except Kiln Slaked shall be accompanied by a state- ment showing (1) proper class name and (2) guaranteed analysis, in which the respective percentages of calcium and magnesium oxides are given. Package shipments to show class and analysis on each package. Bulk shipments to have class and analysis statement attached either to invoice or inner side of the car. All lime to be sold by weight cwt. or ton. Analyses to be those at kiln, and guaranteed. . Other tests for the need of lime (Fippin). There is no simple method for accurately determining the need of lime. The use of strips of blue litmus in the wet soil and their distinct change to a pink color in a half-hour is one common test that is indica- tive of such need. Strips of blue and red litmus paper may be placed in the bottom of a drinking glass and covered with white filter paper or blotting paper on which is placed the soil to be tested. The soil is then moistened with clear rain water until the paper becomes damp. This is a more exact test than the direct application of litmus paper to the soil. Another method of determining the presence of free bases is to put on the soil a drop of muriatic acid diluted four or five times. If there is any perceptible bubbling, or effervescence, this indicates the presence of sufficient lime. Should lime be shown in the subsoil but none in the soil, a moderate application of lime is likely to be beneficial. The best indication of the need for lime is the type of plant growth that the soil bears. The vigorous growth of lime-loving plants, such as alfalfa, clover, and the scab of potatoes, indicates the presence of sufficient lime; while the absence or weak growth of plants of this kind, and the predominance of such plants as horse sorrel, white daisy, and redtop, indicate a need for lime. CHAPTER IV Farm MANuREs, AND SimILaAR MarTERIALs ANIMALS are among the most essential agents in the maintaining of the fertility of the land. Farm manures are of great value, not only for the plant-food they contain, but for the humus that they contribute and the organisms that they carry. Composition and Characteristics of Manures (Brooks) Catile manure. For practical purposes, one will be sufficiently accurate in estimating well-kept barnyard (or cattle) manure to contain one-half of one per cent each of nitrogen and potash, and one-third of one per cent of phosphoric acid. On this basis, a ton of manure would contain 10 lb. each of nitrogen and potash, and 63 lb. of phosphoric acid. A cord of well-preserved manure kept without loss of urine and without ex- posure to the weather will weigh a little more than three tons. A cord of such manure, therefore, should contain about thirty pounds of nitrogen and potash and twenty pounds of phosphoric acid. Stable or horse manure. The manure from horses is generally more valuable than that from the other larger domestic animals, excepting sheep, provided it has been well kept. It is richer in nitrogen, and usually also in phosphoric acid and potash, than the manure of either cattle or hogs. It contains relatively little water, and ferments rapidly. Experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station showed horse manure to have the following composition : water, 48.69 per cent ; nitrogen, 0.49 per cent; phosphoric acid, 0.26 per cent; potash, 0.48 per cent. Plaster was very freely used in this experiment, and this doubtless reduced the percentages, so that the figures are undoubtedly below the average. G 81 82 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS Sheep manure. Sheep manure is generally accumulated under the animals with sufficient litter to keep the latter dry and clean. Under these condi- tions, there is commonly no appreciable loss either of urine or of am- monia because of excessive fermentation. The amount of urine voided by sheep is relatively small, and the elements of value in sheep manure ordinarily suffer less loss than is common in the case of other kinds of farm manure. When sheep manure is finally removed from the pens and put into loose piles, as is often the case, in order that it may be worked into suitable mechanical condition to spread, it very rapidly undergoes decomposition, and heats quickly. It is then likely to lose a part of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. To prevent this, it is well to scatter kainit or land-plaster as the pile is built up. The aver- age of four analyses of sheep manure made at the Massachusetts Experiment Station showed it to contain: water, .2922 per cent; nitrogen, 1.44 per cent; phosphoric acid, .92 per cent; potash, 1.17 per cent. Sheep manure is now sometimes collected, dried, and ground, and put on the market as sheep guano. In this form it is a concentrated manure, especially valuable for dressing lawns, for use in hothouses, and like purposes. Hog manure. The manure made from swine undoubtedly varies more widely than that from the other domestic animals, because of the wider varia- tions in the nature of their food and the conditions under which they are kept. The excrements of swine on most farms are not kept by themselves but are mixed with other manures, and this in general would seem to be the better system of management. Hog manure, if kept by itself, is relatively watery, and is usually poor in nitrogen and rich in phosphoric acid. It decomposes slowly, and must be ranked as a cold manure. Comparison of Manure from Different Animals (Brooks) Having made separate statements on the qualities and character- istics of the manure from cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, we may now compare these manures in tabular form: — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MANURES 83 Composition of fresh excrement of farm quadrupeds. One thousand pounds of fresh dung contain : — WATER NITROGEN snp one ALKALIES Horse. . . ae 760 5.0 3.5 3.0 Cow . . “4 840 3.0 2.5 1.0 Swine . 6 le os 800 6.0 4.5 5.0 Sheep. . ‘ : 580 7.5 6.0 3.0 One thousand pounds of fresh urine contain : — WATER NITROGEN pat BIC ALKALIES Horse. . ... . 890 12.0 0.0 15.0 Cow ..... 920 8.0 0.0 14.0 Swine... # 975 3.0 1.25 2.0 Sheep . é a 865 14.0 0.5 20.0 The potash of both the dung and the urine is included with lime, magnesia, and other elements, to make up the so-called “ alkalies.” Composition of drainage liquors. One thousand pounds contain : — WATER NITROGEN oe PortasH Drainage from gutter behind milch cows . 932 9.8 2.4 8.8 Drainage from manure heep «4 « « © 4 820 15.0 1.0 49.0 The figures presented in this last table are based on analyses made at the Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass. It will be noticed that these liquors are richer both in nitrogen and in potash than the average of farm manures. 84 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS Composition of litter. One ton contains in pounds : — NiTROGEN EEDSEE OHIO Potash Wheat straw 9.6 4,4 16.4 Rye straw . 2 5.1 18.1 Oat straw 14.4 3.6 23.0 Barley straw 11.4 5.0 23.5 Pea straw 20.8 7.0 19.8 Soy bean straw . 14.0 5.0 22.0 Buckwheat straw 13.0 7i- 24.2 Millet straw 14.0 3.6 34.0 Marsh hay . 17.2 10.6 54.0 Ferns .. 00.0 TA 87.2 Leaves 15.0 3.2 6.0 Poultry manures. Poultry manures are richer than the other farm manures when well preserved. There are two principal reasons for this: First, the food is richer, as a rule; and second, the excretion corresponding to the urine of the larger domestic animals is semi-solid, voided with the dung, and not subject to direct loss. Poultry manures as a rule are rich in nitro- gen and phosphoric acid, because the foods given the fowls are rich in these elements. These manures are relatively poor in potash, al- though they may contain a larger percentage of this element than do the other farm manures. The composition is subject to wide variation. The table shows the results of analyses : — Nirro-|PHospHoric WATER GEi ‘Aci PorasH Per cent/Per cent] Per cent Per cent Hen manure, fresh, according to Storer. .| 56.00] 1.60 | 1.50-2.00 0.80-0.90 0.99 Hen manure, fresh, analysis by Goessmann | 52.35 0.74 0.25 a? manure, dry, average two analyses, OCSSTIGNN « 2 @ «ws se ew » «| SR) Bis 2.02 ls Duck manure, fresh, according to Storer .| 56.60! 1.00 1.40 co Goose manure, fresh, according to Storer .| 77.10 | 0.55 0.54 0.95 Pigeon manure, according to Storer . . . 52.00 | 1.75 | 1.75-2.00| 1.0-1.25 HOW TO USE MANURES 85 Poultry manure ferments very quickly, and, as frequently handled, loses much of its nitrogen in the form of compounds of ammonia, which are rapidly formed and which escape into the air unless means to pre- vent are taken. The mixture of poultry manures with such materials as land-plaster, kainit, acid phosphate, or superphosphate plaster is almost imperative for satisfactory preservation. Often dry earth or powdered dry muck or dry sawdust are also excellent materials to mix with it. If kainit alone is used, poultry manure remains very moist, and will be found difficult of application. As a result of experiments in the Massachusetts Experiment Station, it is concluded that the annual excreta collected beneath the roosts per adult barnyard fowl will amount to about 30 to 45 lb., according to the breed. Utilization of Manures Rate of production (Roberts and Brooks). Extended investigations at the Cornell Experiment Station showed that the following amounts of excrements were produced daily for each 1000 Ib. of live weight of animal : — Ls. Sleeps cc Ra eA SR Br Re a we ee ee Re a Bed Calves. . RS ih a a are Sta ec ca Lie en car RA ae: cs . . + 67.8 Pigs? ws Ge Ge Reo a ee a ars Bd are ‘ . 83.6 Cows: vob a le oe a a BOR OR ee ae ae a CHASE Horses . . Se te wt oe SEBO ee eee aire . 48.8 Mowis 2) i: a2 AP ee ee oer eer, ele ee ee we es 808 Total excrements . . - 1 ee ee eee ee ee we 848.2 Total manure Be ee ge ie Ik eae A as ee ee Oar Oe SSO If straw bedding be added, which is nearly or quite equal to ex- crements in potential manurial value, it will be seen how large a quantity of manure is produced from 6000 Ib. of mixed live-stock. A dairy of twenty 1000-lb. cows comfortably fed would produce, in the six winter months, 1334 tons of excrement, or 146} tons of manure. Animals fed a highly nitrogenous ration, say 1:4 (as were the pigs in the above investigation), consume large quantities of water, and hence produce large quantities of excrements, especially liquid, the weight of which usually exceeds the weight of food consumed ; while those fed on a wide ration, say 1:9, consume comparatively little water, and hence produce less weight of excrements. The experienced farmer will know from the results of earlier years 86 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS about the quantity of manure that will be made from a given number of animals. For a beginner, some rule whereby the amount to be made can be estimated with reasonable accuracy will be useful. As the result of careful experiments, German investigators give the following rules to determine the quantity of manure that will be made: Multiply the dry matter in the food consumed by the different classes of farm animals by the following factors: for the horse, by 2.1; for the cow, by 3.8; for the sheep, by 1.8. To the product, in any case, add the weight of the bedding used. The horse of average size consumes daily about 24 lb. of dry matter, and makes, therefore, 2.1 times 24 lb., or 50 lb., of manure daily. The cow of average size consumes daily about 25 Ib. of dry matter, and makes 3.8 times 25 Ib., or 95 lb., of manure daily. A 125-lb. sheep consumes about 3 Ib. of dry matter daily, and makes 1.8 times 3 lb., or 5.4 lb., of manure daily. Use of manures. A thousand pounds of wheat, 16% bu., and 2000 lb. of straw (an average crop per acre) require 27 lb. of nitrogen, 12.4 lb. of phosphoric acid, 17.9 lb. of potash. Ten tons of fresh unrotted manure from horses and cattle fed a moderate grain ration contain 136 lb. of nitrogen, 44 lb. of phosphoric acid, 120 lb. of potash. In farm practice it is esti- mated that the first crop grown after manuring may utilize, under favorable conditions, one-half of the plant-food contained in the manure applied. The plant-food available in ten tons of good fresh manure is: nitrogen 68 lb., phosphoric acid, 22 Ib., potash, 60 lb. Thirty bushels of wheat and 2600 Ib. of straw require, approximately, 46 lb. of nitro- gen, 21 Ib. of phosphoric acid, and 27 lb. of potash (Roberts). Manures are frequently wasted by being applied too liberally., It is not economical, except for special crops or special conditions, to apply as much as thirty to forty two-horse loads or tons per acre at one time. For usual farm purposes, ten to twenty tons, or ten to twenty two-horse loads, is a liberal application per acre. It is best to apply it as it is made, if the land is not in a growing crop. The manure should be spread directly from the wagon, or amanure-spreader be used. Commercial value (Roberts). The value of manure in the following tables is determined by in- vestigation during the winter months, and the nitrogen, phosphoric VALUE OF MANURES 87 acid, and potash are computed at 15, 6, and 43 cents per pound, re- spectively (see prices, p. 47). The indirect benefits of manures may be considered an equal offset for the slightly less availability of their plant-food constituents as compared with fertilizers : — Kinp or Manure VALUE PER Ton Sheep: a) ek a A A ek OB. Calves... . 3 a ‘ ed a sp ~ DAG Pigs : ‘ a> Es 2 ae > » 2,29 Cows a‘ bouts i ee. easly a. oy 22,02 Horses. . . . ee SC em, See a Ob) ee He ye Gb ae SE Limited amounts of bedding were used in the tests {rom which the above figures were made. The plant-food in straw is not so quickly available as it is in the excrement of animals. The following table exhibits the value of manure from different animals of average or aggregate weight of 1000 pounds: — Kinp or ANIMALS VALUE PER YEAR Howls 3.0 fr er ae. a hk Se So HS ee BIO Sheep... . Be he A saad gs Saag gs - +. « « 26.09 Calves. Go aati a Sea! Jen oie , . 2 24,45 Pigg seo.) sae de ade ond Ser An aes Gay oh) Ae in a ee ge FO BOSS Cows... eg on ok eh slatp sie < Se > ke i 29.27 Horses) is: psd Soe le a ek ee ag ek TE Manurial value of a ton of the usual bedding material computed as above : — NITROGEN EEpArnS: RIC Potasa TorTaL Barley straw .. . $1.65 $0.34 $1.74 $3.73 Oats: 6 en a Ge 1.38 0.33 1.59 3.30 Rye ... eos 1.47 0.30 0.77 2.54 Wheat . . ‘ 1.44 0.26 0,57 2.27 Losses by leaching (Roberts). Manures exposed at Ithaca in loose heaps of two to ten tons for six months showed loss of values as follows : — Per Cent 1889 horse manure Bs, dade ek Aaty tee ee 42 1890 horse manure ...... + + «ss we ua, ae a es ae Ca Ra 08) 1890 cow manure. .... . i Fes Pits 3 i.) 3 : . . 80 1889 mixed manure (compacted) . 9 In other cases, when small quantities of gypsum were mixed with the manure, the losses were notably diminished. 88 Further Analyses of Animal Excrements Common barnyard manure, fresh Water. .. Oe 710.0 Organic substance ‘ 246.0 Ash : 44.1 Nitrogen ” <2 Ye mR eH 4.5 Potash wos se @ % & 5.2 BOda. saeco ae ee 1.5 Lime) « « # * % Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid . Sulfuric acid Silica and sand ‘ Chlorine and fluorine Common barnyard manure, moderately rotted Lime Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid | Sulfuric acid . Silica and sand A Chlorine and fluorine Common barnyard manure, thoroughly rotted Water. . 750.0 Organic substance . 192.0 Ash . - . « 58.0 Nitrogen : f= & S39 5.0 Potash bone dey (aE ins 6.3 DOOR ik ie Spree eee Gt Lae 1.9 Water .. 790.0 Organic substance 28s 145.0 Ash a hee ioe we 65.0) Nitrogen | ‘ Bee Beek 5.8 Potash ee 5.0 Soda ...... 1.3 Lime Magnesia ay Phosphoric acid Sulfuric acid . Silica and sand Chlorine and fluorine Catile-feces, fresh Water .. a ao ae 838.0 Organic substance x4 145.0 Ash 17.3 Nitrogen ; a a 2.9 Potash . ...... 1.0 Soda 6 ww es we wee 0.2 Lime .... Magnesia ‘ Phosphoric acid | Sulfuric acid . . Silica and sand Chlorine and fluorine ‘ Cattle-urine, fresh Water. . tel ta Me 938.0 Organ‘e substance’ | | | | 35.0 Ashby i & o% & - . 274 Nitrogen. . . . s 4 5.8 OtasH: ee er Se ee 4.9 Soda. sei esa a 6.4 Water. 757.0 Organic substance ~ « w 211.0 Ash Be had Geo ING Nitrogen - i jk ee 4.4 Potash 3.5 Soda’. . 0.6 Lime. . ... Magnesia . . . Sulfuric acid . Silica and sand . Chlorine and fluorine Lime ..... Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid . Sulfuric acid . Silica and sand Chlorine and fluorine FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS et m PNP NE or nob Pay ” iG Nie Eee 00: OWS Wo CHWRAWS ONS Pico bbw N to WOroo OWA RR OOO Ome WOAndA ANALYSES OF MANURES Water ‘ OG Organic substance Ash Nitrogen — eS : Potash . .... Soda ..... Water ... ox Organic substance | r Ash. i a HOW: Ge we Nitrogen. . . . Potash . ..... Soda. se «@ Yow Water. . . Organic substance Ash Nitrogen . Gace hed e Potash . . .... Soda! ais a we a ao A Water. . . ie Ge Organic substance oa Ash ig7ye he Nitrogen . 5 a oS Potash ...... Soda. 6 6 we 8 we Water. . . Organic substance Ash a ass, Va ok oe Nitrogen aes ae Potash ..... ee eee Moisture at 100°C. . . Total phosphoric acid . Soluble phosphoric acid Reverted phosphoric acid Insoluble phosphoric acid Potassium oxide . . . Horse-urine, fresh 9010 Lime ...., 71.0 Magnesia . . . . 28.0 Sulfuric acid . 15.5 Silica and sand 15.0 Chlorine and fluorine 2.5 Sheep-feces, fresh 655.0 Lime ....., 314.0 Magnesia . . ° . 81.1 Phosphoric acid | 5.5 Sulfuricacid . . . 1.5 Silica and sand . 1.0 Chlorine and fluorine Sheep-urine, fresh 872.0 83.0 45.2 19.5 22.6 5.4 Lime .... Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid . Sulfuric acid . Silica and sand Chlorine and fluorine Swine-feces, fresh Lime ..... Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid . Sulfuric acid Silica and sand 5 Chlorine and fluorine Swine-urine, fresh 967.0 28.0 15.0 4,3 8.3 Soda ..... Magnesia . . i Phosphoric acid. Sulfuric acid é Chlorine and fluorine Peruvian guano 12.17 18.45 1.54 5.92 10.99 3.46 Total nitrogen. . - Actual ammonia .. Organic nitrogen . . Nitrogen as nitric acid Insoluble matter . ee eo ee eee ee 89 ROONe RODARE m ONE Ore Wome OM AHOLD OnoORHS MOWOwR WORROO NOSoN &o 00 S100 90 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS Human feces, fresh Water. . 2 4 @ ~« % 4120 Lime «¢ » & » w % Organic substance . . . . 198.0 Magnesia , a ia Ash aan » . « « «29.9 Phosphoric acid . Nitrogen ao on . 10.0 Sulfuric acid Potash -. . ... ge 2.5 Silica and sand r Soda é 1.6 Chlorine and fluorine . Human urine, fresh Water. . ~ oe . . » 963.0 Lime Organic substance » . . . 24.0 Magnesia . . Ash ‘ 13.5 Phosphoric acid . Nitrogen . ‘ 6.0 Sulfuric acid iz Potash 2.0 Chlorine and fluorine Soda . 4.6 Sewage (Samuel Rideal) 1000 tons of London crude sewage Ammonia Phosphoric acid (soluble) ‘ Phosphoric re CaeONEE? Potash . SrHooua CO 000 Gb ToC e° OnNWb Analyses of Fruit and Garden Products, with Reference to their Ferti- lizing Constituents (Wolff and Goessmann) One thousand parts of the plants contain in pounds : — P. NAME WatTER BaEe- Aso |Porassa|] Lime paonie ; AcIp Corn, kernels . » . . « sf] 144 | 16.0 | 12.4 3.7 0.3 5.7 stalk and leaves. . . . .| 150 4.8 | 45.3 | 16.4 4.9 3.8 Potato, tubers. . . |" 750 3.4 9.5 5.8 0.3 1.6 vines... . .| 770 4.9 | 19.7 4.3 6.4 1.6 Peas,seed . ... , | 143 35.8 | 23.4 | 10.1 1.1 8.4 vines... - | 160 | 10.4 | 43.1 9.9 | 15.9 3.5 Beans, seed. . . . . - .{ 150 | 39.0 | 27.4 | 12.0 1.5 9.7 vines... » . . «{ 160 | ——]} 40.2 | 12.8 | 11.1 3.9 Carrots, roots . 2 te . | 850 22 8.2 3.0 0.9 La leaves . . . se «| 822 5.1 | 23.9 2.9 7.9 1.0 Sugar beet, roots. . . . . .| 815 1.6 7.1 3.8 0.4 0.9 leaves . . Sth ae Ro gl BOE 30 | 163 4.0 3.1 0.7 White turnip, roots ao laeas 2. 45'|\ 920 1.8 6.4 2.9 0.7 0.8 leaves . . ot, ar, We cone a |“ B98 3.0 | 11.9 2.8 3.9 0.9 Swedish turnip, roots. gn | BRO 2.1 75 3.5 0.9 aus leaves © gee ee sa | BBA 3.4 | 19.5 2.8 6.5 2.0 White cabbage, head |) ] 900 3.0 9.6 4.3 1.2 li roots . . 2 #2 = 4 «|:890 2.4 | 15.6 5.8 2.8 1.4 FERTILITY CONTENT OF VEGETABLES 91 Analyses of Fruit and Garden Products — Continued P: Namg WATER Dees AsH |Porasu| Lime Baoan . ACID Savoy cabbage, head. . . . .| 871 5.3 | 14.0 3.9 3.0 S.1 Cauliflower. . . ... . .| 904 4.0 8.0 3.6 0.5 1.6 Horseradish, roots . «eo MOL 4.3 | 19.7 7.7 2.0 2.0 Spanish radish, roots. . . . | 933 1.9 4.9 1.6 0.7 0.5 Parsnip, roots. . . . . | 793 5.4 | 10.0 5.4 1.1 1.9 Artichoke, roots . . ag ct eek —— | 10.1 2.4 1.0 11 Asparagus, sprouts . . . . ./| 933 3.2 5.0 1.2 0.6 0.9 Common onion, bulb. . . . | 860 2.7 74 2.5 1.6 1.3 Celery ... : . . | 841 24 | 17.6 7.6 2.3 2.2 Spinach . . . . .. . . | 923 4.9 | 16.0 | 2.5 1.9 1.6 Common lettuce . . . . 940 — 8.1 3.7 0.5 0.7 Head lettuce . . . . . . | 943 2.2 | 10.1 3.9 1.5 1.0 Roman lettuce. . eo 925 2.0 9.8 2.5 122 11 Cucumber . . ye. G 956 1.6 5.8 2.4 0.4 1.2 Pumpkin ..... . | 900 1.1 4.4 0.9 0.3 1.6 Rhubarb, roots... . . .| 743.5 5.5 | 28.8 5.3 5.0 0.6 stem and leaves . e * 916.7 13 |} 172 3.6 3.4 0.2 Apples ... , 831 0.6 2,2 0.8 0.1 0.3 Pears... . « «& « ) Bee 0.6 3.0 1.8 0.3 0.5 Cherries. . . . ... . .| 825 — 3.9 2.0 0.3 0.6 Plums ...... . | 838 ——— 2.9 1.7 0.3 0.4 Gooseberries . . . . . . .| 903 —— 3.3 1.3 0.4 0.7 Strawberries . ye 3 » « «| 902 —_ 3.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 Grapes .... . | 830 1.7 8.8 5.0 1.0 1.4 seeds . ...... ./110 19.0 | 22.7 6.9 5.6 7.0 For analyses of fertilizer ingredients in forage crops and feeding- stuffs, see Chap. XXII. Consult, also, Cover-crops and Catch-crops, Chap. VIII. CHAPTER V SEED-TABLES Tue farm practice of the particular person greatly modifies the quan- tity of seed to be used to the acre, as also the purpose for which the given crop is to be grown; but the average quantities are to be found about midway between the extremes given in these tables. Quantity of Seed Required per Acre Alfalfa (broadcast) 20-25 Ib. Alfalfa (drilled) . 15-20 Ib. Artichoke, Jerusalem . 6-8 bu. Asparagus 4 or 5 lb., or 1 oz. for 50 ft. of drill Barley 8-10 pk. Barley and peas . . 1-2 bu. each Bean, dwarf (in drills) 1% bu. Bean, pole (in drills) . 10-12 qt. Bean, field (small va- rieties) 2-3 pk. Bean, field (large va- Tieties) , 5-6 pk. eet . 4-6 lb. Beggarweed (for forage) 5-6 lb. Beggarweed (for bass 8-10 lb. Bent-grass . 1-2 my Berseem.... . 1-1 b Blue-grass «ee «2b, Tein Brome-grass (alone, for hay) ‘ 12-15 lb. Brome-grass (alone, for pasture) . . 15-20 lb. Brome-grass (in mix- BIGEE. ew we 2-5 lb Broom-corn . 3 pk. Broom-corn (for seed) 1 pk. Buckwheat. . . 3-5 pk Bur-clover 12 Ib. Cabbage . 3471 lb. Carrots (for stock) 4-6 lb. Cassava . . By cuttings Cauliflower . 1 oz. for 1000 plants Celery . 1 oz. for 2000 plants 92 Chick-pea . Chicory (and by cut- tings) Clover, alsike (alone, for forage) Clover, alsike (on wheat or rye in spring) .... Clover, Egyptian or berseem Clover, Japan espe- deza) Clover, mammoth Clover, red (alone, for forage) Clover, red (on small grain in spring) . Clover, sweet (melilo- tus) Clover, white |)! Clover, yellow (for seed) ae eee ee Clover, yellow (in mixture) . Corn . Corn (for silage) Cott ue Cow, oepes (in drill, with corn) Cowpea (for ‘seed) ‘ Cress, upland (in drills) Cress, water (in drills) Crimson clover. Cucumber (in hills) Durra. See Kafir and Milo 30-50 lb. 1-14 lb. 8-15 lb. 4-6 lb. W-1 bu. 12 lb. 12-15 lb. 16 lb. 8-14 lb. 2 pk. 10-12 lb. 3-5 lb. 1 Ib. 6 qt.-1 bu. 9-11 qt. 1-3 bu. 1-144 bu. vid Die pk. , oP lb. 2-3 lb 12-15 ib. 2 |b. SEEDS TO Eggplant . . 1 oz. for 1000 plants Field-pea (small va- rieties) . 24% bu. a (large varie- 3-314 bu. Flee ion fiber) * 114-2 bu. Flax (for seed) 2-3 pk. Grass, for lawns 3-5 bu. Guinea-grass . Root suntan Hemp (broadcast) 374 —4 pk. Hungarian-grass (hay) 2 pk. Hungarian-grass (seed) 1 pk. Johnson-grass - . 1- Vea pu Kafir (drills) . . 3-6 lb Kafir (for fodder) . 10-12 Ib. Kale . . ... 2-4 |b. Kohlrabi . 4-5 lb. Lespedeza 12 lb. Lettuce 1 oz. for 1000 plants Lupine ae bu. Mangels . we 8 Ib. Meadow fescue; . bas Ib. Melon, musk (in hills) 2-3 lb. Melon, water (in hills) 4-5 lb. Millet, barnyard (drills) 1-2 pk. Millet, foxtail (drills) 2-3 pk. Millet, German (seed) 1 pk. Millet, Aino (drills) 2-3 pk. Millet, pearl (for soiling) 4 lb. Millet, pearl (for hay) 8-10 lb. Millet, pepe or Deer icle ‘d ‘ 2-3 pk. Milo . : 5 lb. Mustard, broadcast | ¥ bu. Oat-grass, tall. . 30 Ib. Oats . . Soe 2-3 bu. Oats and peas . { Deas 34 bi Onion (in drills) . . 5-6 lb Onion seed for sets (in drills) . . . . . 30 Ib. Onion sets (in drills) . 6-12 bu. Orchard-grass . 12-15 lb. (pure) Para-grass . . Cuttings Parsnips 4-8 lb. Peas, garden (in drill) 1-2 bu. Popcorn. . 3 Ib. Potato (Irish) average 10-14 bu. Potato, cut tolor2eyes 6-9 bu. Potato, recommended by many for best yields . . . 15-20 bu. Pumpkin. 4 |b. Radish Gin drills) . ‘ 8-10 lb Rape (in drills). . . 2-4 |b, Rape (broadcast) . 4-8 lb. THE ACRE 93 Red-top (recleaned) . 12-15 lb. Rescue-grass » « 38040 bu. Rice... 1-3 bu. Rutabaga 3-5 lb. Rye (early) . 3-4 pk, Rye (late) 6-8 pk Rye (forage) 3-4 bu. Rye-grass . 2-3 bu Sage (in drills) ; ia - de 8-10 lb. Sainfoin (shelled seed) 40 lb. Salsify (in drills) 8-10 lb. Sand lucerne (broad- cast) 15 lb. Serradella (alone, in drills) . 40-50 Ib. Sheep’s fescue . . 24-3 bu. Sorghum (forage, broad- cast) 144-2 bu. Sorghum ‘(for seed or syrup) . 2-5 lb. Sorghum, saccharine (for silage or sailing, drills) . . 6 lb.-% bu. Sorghum and peas. 3-4 pk. each Soybean (drills) 2-3 pk. Soybean (broadcast) : 1-1% bu. Spinach (in sa 10-12 lb Spurry . 6-8 qt. Spurry (for seed) . é .4 qt. Squash, bush (in hills) 4-6 lb. Squash, running (in hills). . 2... 3-4 Ib. Sugar-beets . 15-20 lb. Sugar-cane . . 4tons of cane Sunflower 10-15 Ib. Sweet clover 2-4 pk. Sweet-potato 144 bu. Teasel 1-1% pk. Teosinte . 1-3 lb. Timothy ._ é . 15-25 Pes Timothy and clover | Hmothy 10 Ib. S 1 tablespoonful to 100 sq. yd. to set out 6 acres Tomato (to transplant) Y% |b. Turnip (broadcast) . 2-4 Ib. Turnip (drills) . 5 1-2 lb. Tobacco . Turnip (hybrid) 3-5 lb. Velvet bean . ‘ 1-4 p a Vetch, hairy (drilled) | 1 Duff 2a Vetch, hairy scsi 1% bu. + 1 bu. cast small grain Vetch, kidney . 18-22 lb. : { %pk.+1 bu. Vetch, spring . | Po Ulan Wheat ? 6-9 pk. 94 SEED-TABLES Hay and Pasture Seeds Permanent meadows: Permanent pastures: Timothy. « « « +A2Tb, Timothy. . . . . 3lb.) Red clover . . . . 4lb. Orchard-grass . . . 2\b. Alsike . . . « 2lb. Red-top . 2 Ib. Timothy. . . . .16lb. Kentucky blue-grass . 2 |b. ¢ Red-top. . . . .16lb. Italian rye-grass . . Ilb. Red clover... 4 lb. Meadow fescue . 2 Ib. Red-top . . . 13 lb. Red clover . . . 4lb. Orchard-grass . 18 lb. White clover . . 2 Ib. Meadow fescue . Olb. Kentucky blue-grass. 8 lb. Redclover. . . . 4ib. White clover . . . 4lb. Tall oat-grass . . . 281b. Perennial rye-grass . 9 |b. Red clover » . . 8lb. Red fescue « » « Sib. Timothy. « « » « Sb, Red-top 2 ae wee aglbs Redclover . . . . 4lb. Red-top. . . . .14 Ib. | Alsike . pales Alsike . . . 8lb. | Wet pas- Kentucky blue-grass. 2b. Creeping bent. . . 6 Ib | ture Red-top . dem Fi 2 |b. Perennial rye-grass .121b. Orchard-grass | . :101b. Red fescue. . . . 201b.) right Red-top (recleaned) . 5lb. Red-top . . 10 lb. sandy Red-top (in chaff) .12]b. Kentucky blue-grass . : lb. ail White clover . . 2b. Tall meadow oat-grass 12 1b. Red clover . 8lb ‘Alsike clover... 4Ib. Timothy, red-top, Kentucky blue- grass and red clover, equal parts, 8 to 20 lb. pounds per acre of the mixture. For quantity of seed for cover-crops, see Chap. VIII. Number and weight of grass seeds, and another estimate of quantity to sow (Fraser). The following table has been adapted from ‘The Best Forage Plants,” by Stebler and Schroeter, and from it calculations may be made. The actual number of grains in a pound will frequently vary 20 per cent either way ; for example, in recleaned fancy seed there are fewer grains to the pound, while in an uncleaned sample free from chaff, but con- taining many small seeds, the number will be greater. The recleaned seed weighs heavier per bushel. The uncleaned seed may contain a large proportion of chaff, and in such case the number of seeds per pound of material may be very low. The numbers given are per pound of pure seed. The percentage of germination of average samples of seed is frequently but half, and even less than half, of that given in the table. The germination of the rye grasses given in the table is a little higher than ordinarily found in the United States, even with imported seed. Low germinating power may be due to lack of uniformity in ripening the seed; to part of the seed on a plant being mature before GRASS-SEED TABLES 95 the remainder, frequently seen in meadow foxtail; or to poor methods of harvesting, as in Kentucky blue-grass : — D fy za a 4 Lae 4° OBR Sx Ss ze "ag ce Ba | 32% O6 offs a< ed 28 & OA a Le oO % a B Z 3 Name om B guts. Ba ae 845 gee | Sue | a cu | gas #6 3 Bs24 ad ee gC 8 é Ze ga35 8 & a7 83 5 Ao ZnO 8° Ez Eos Pounds Pounds Pounds Awnless brome grass 137,000 | 30-50 75-90 13-14 72.99 Kentucky blue-grass 2,400,000 15-20 80-90 14-32 4.17 Orchard-grass . "579, 000) 20-35 80-95 12-23 17.25 Perennial rye-griss 336,800 | 25-40 95-98 18-30 29.7 Italian rye-grass . 285, 300 30-45 95-98 12-24 35.1 Meadow fescue 318,200 30-35 75-95 12-30 31.42 Sheep’s fescuc . 680,000 | 25-30 60-75 10-25 14.85 Tall oat-grass 159,000 | 20-30 80-90 10-16 62.89 Meadow foxtail 907,000 20-25 60-90 6-14 11.02 Red-top 6,030,000 8-16 90-95 12-40 1.65 Timothy . 1,170,500 | 10-16 95-98 45-48 8.54 Alsike clover 707,000 10-13 95-98 60-64 14.14 Red clover . 279,000} 10-16 95-98 60-64 35.8 White clover 740,000} 10-12 95-98 60-64 13.51 Alfalfa. . 209,500] 15-30 95-98 60-64 48.56 Examples of seed mixtures that would furnish 20,000,000 grass seeds per acre, and the weight of same (Fraser) For hay and fall Ree: Timothy .. Alsike .. ee White clover... For hay and pasture. Timothy Kentucky blue-grass * Orchard-grass . x Alsike ..... White clover . . . For hay and pasture. Timothy Kentucky blue-grass ; Orchard-grass . Meadow foxtail . . Alsike ..... White clover . HEY ay Boe duration. Weight of Pure, No. of Seeds 13,400,000 3 300, 000 3,300,000 20,000,000 10,000,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 3,300,000 3,300,000 20,000,000 8,000,000 2,400,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 3,300,000 3,300,000 20,000,000 Viable Seed. Lb. 11.44 4.66 4,46 20.56 8.54 0.82 2.42 4.66 4.46 20.90 6.84 1.00 3.46 1.10 4.66 4.46 21.52 96 SEED-TABLES Examples of seed mixtures — Continued Weight of Pure, No. of Viable Seed Seeds Lb. For hay. Heavy loam. Redlwiove® «2 4 21 « & 4 & & OS we ao 2,790,000 10.00 AUSIKG: 5 jer A Rae a Ow 2,121,000 3.00 Timothy «@ = « = 3 w 2 eo sf a = % 7,089,000 6.06 TREGEtOp: say se is ode en se ae ae ea aes 8,000,000 1.32 20,000,000 20.38 Testing grass seed (Fraser). In testing the seed for germination power and purity it is more satis- factory to weigh out a sample of the seed, separate the chaff and inert matter, weigh it, and then proceed to make a germination test of the remainder. For example, if a sample of awnless brome grass contain 10 per cent of dirt and chaff, and 75 per cent of the pure seeds are viable, the actual germination power of the sample is 67.5 per cent, or 75 X 90 _ og Oe Number of Tree-Seeds in a Pound FRUIT TREES Applema. si Gi i ah fd AN iy AP a > rin Ses “le a ee Cherry pits) & 4 wt a es Sk Se we ee a a Se ROACH. ay \ say Ge Se Gow yar ee. sg ae MD ke Se ay aS Se POAT vg to mee eR OSs Pham le ge ake i ag a a WQUINCE 6 si) Gsr. Gel Ses a GD “Ge ln Fey. Asi wee Se can ar > 9,858 eo ® 10,656 FOREST AND FARM SEEDS Silverfr ..... Box elder oa a Hardy catalpa . . Ailanthus. . White pine Scarlet maple Green ash. Black locust . Redelm . . ‘American white elm American mountain ash White birch . ‘i FOREST TREES — Continued Abies pectinata Negundo aceroides Catalpa speciosa. . . Ailanthus o odeleeue ‘i Pinus Strobus Acer rubrum Fraxinus viridis Robinia Pseudacacia Ulmus fulva : Ulmus Americana Pyrus Americana Betula alba 97 By count 12,000 14,784 19,776 20,161 20,540 22,464 22,656 28,992 54,359 92,352 108,327 500,000 Figures vary greatly in different counts, the variation probably amounting to as much as 20 per cent. It is usually estimated that white pine seeds run about 30,000 to the pound, and red cedar 20,000. Weights and Sizes of Seeds Seedsmen’s customary weights per bushel of seeds (Edgar Brown) Kinp or SEED pie Kinp oF SEED i Toes Alfalfa . 60 Cowpea 56-60 Amber cane . 45-60 Crested dog’ s-tail 14-30 Bent-grass : Fescue: Creeping . 10-20 Hard. . 12-16 Rhode Island — 10-15 Meadow. 14-24 Bermuda-grass . 24-36 Red. . 12-15 Bird’sfoot clover 60 Sheep’s . 12-16 Bitter vetch . Tall : 14-24 Blue-grass : 60 Various leaved . 14-18 Canada 14-20 || Flat pea 50-60 Kentucky . 14-30 Flax 48-56 Texas 14 Hemp . . 40-60 Broad bean ‘ 50-60 || Japan clover: Brome, awnless . 10-14 Hulled . 60 Broom corn . 45-60 Unhulled 18-25 Bur clover: : Johnson-grass 14-28 Hulled .° 60 Kafir 5 50-60 Unhulled 8-10 ||Lentil . . 60 Spotted 60 Lupine, white | 50-60 Castor bean . 46-60 || Meadow foxtail . 7-14 Clover: Meadow-grass Alsike 60 Fowl a a! 11-14 Crimson 60 Rough-stalked 14-20 Egyptian 60 Wood .. . 14-24 Mammoth 60 Millet: Red. . 60 Barnyard 30-60 White 60 Broom corn 45-60 98 SEED-TABLES Weights and Sizes of Seeds — Continued Kinp or Seep es Kinp or SEED peel Millet—continued. Rye-grass : Common 48-50 English . 10-30 German : 48-50 Italian . 14-25 Golden Wonder . 48-50 || Sainfoin 14-32 Hungarian . 48-50 || Serradella . 28-36 Pearl 48-56 || Soybean 58-60 Milo 50-60 || Spalt 40-60 Oat-grass : Sunflower . 24-50 Tall... 10-14 || Sweet clover: Yellow . 7-14 Hulled 60 Orange cane . 45-60 Unhulled 3 33 Seana 10-18 || Sweet corn (according to variety) 36-56 “Field < 60 Sweet vernal, perennial 6-15 Garden, smooth . 60 Teosinte ie 40-60 Garden, wrinkled 56 Timothy 45 Peanut. . ete 20-30 || Velvet bean 60 Rape, winter 50-60 || Vetch: ed-top: Hairy 50-60 Chaff . 10-14 Spring . 60 Fancy 25-40 Water-grass, large ' 14 Rescue-grass . 12-28 || Wild rice . . 15-28 Rice. 43-45 || Yellow trefoil 60 For legal weights of seeds, grains, fruits, and other products, see Chap. XXVIL. Weight and size of garden seeds (adapted from Vilmorin’s tables) Weight of a qt. of seeds in oz. Number of seeds in 1 grain Angelica x Anise Asparagus bea! bean (Dotichos sesquipedalis) Basil Bean Beet Borage Borecole Broccoli Cabbage Caper Caraway Cardoon Carrot with the spines Carrot without the spines 20.59 24.27 to 33.02 9.71 18.65 27.19 27.19 11.02 12.96 32.40 to 42.12 in 100 er. 129.60 51.84 4.86 to 51.84 in 100 gr. 3.24 4,21 19.44 24.30 19.44 10.37 22.68 1.62 45.36 61.56 GARDEN SEEDS 99 Weight and size of garden seeds — Continued Weight of a qt. of seeds in oz. Number of seeds in 1 grain Catmint Cauliflower Celery Chervil . Chervil sweet-scented | Chervil turnip-rooted Chicory : Chick-pea Coriander Corp-salad Cress, American Cress, common garden . Cress, meadow (ecuckoo-flower) Cress, Para . . . Cress, water . Cucumber, common Cucumber, globe Cucumber, prickly-fruited gherkin Cucumber, snake (Cucumis flexcuosus) Dandelion . . . .. 1 Dill. Egeg- plant Endive Fennel, common or wild . Fennel, sweet ‘ Gumbo, see OKRA. Good King Henry Gourds, fancy Hop .. Horehound Hyssop. Kohlrabi . Leek . Lettuce Lovage . Maize, or Indian corn Marjoram, sweet Marjoram, winter Martynia . Muskmelon . . Mustard, black or brown. Mustard, Chinese cabbage-leaved Mustard, white, or salad. Nasturtium, tall Nasturtium, dwarf Okra ~. . . Onion . Orach . Parsnip Parsley CA al der uae Pea, gray or field 26.42 27.19 18.65 14.76 9.71 20.98 15.54. 30.30 12.43 10.88 20.98 28.36 22.53 7.78 22.53 19.42 19.42 21,36 17.48 10.49 11,65 19.42 13.20 17.48 9.13 24.28 17.48 19.42 27.19 to 31.08 26.41 to 31.08 45.36 1.94 in 10 gr. 5.83 64.80 61.56 29.16 97.20 220.32 259.20 2.27 6.48 8.42 2,59 77.76 to 97.20 58 9. 2.59 to 3.24 in 10 gr. 259.20 777.60 1.29 2:27 45.36 42.12 12.96 4.54 to 5.18 in 10 gr. 9.7 in 10 gr. 9.7 to 11.66 in 10 gr. 16.20 16.20 14.25 22.67 1.29 to 3.56 in 10 gr. 3.24 to 5.18 in 10 gr. 00 SEED-TABLES Weight and size of garden seeds — Continued Weienig sate Number-of seeds in 1 grain -eanut 15.54 1.29 to 1.94 in 10 gr. -epper 17.48 9.72 -umpkin . 9.71 1.94 in 10 gr. -urslane . 23.70 162.00 tadish . 27.19 7.77 tampion . 31.08 1620.00 thubarb . 3.10 to 4.66 3.24 tocket Salad 29.13 35.64 tosemary . 15.54 58.32 tue . . 22.53 32.40 G26. gos 4 ea me Hm 21.37 16.20 BUG 4 ee we ee Oe 8.93 6.48 ‘avory, summer ee 19.42 97.20 avory, winter . 16.70 162.00 : corzonera, 10.09 5.83 curvy-grass 23.30 97.20 to 116.64 ea-kale . 8.16 9.72 to 11.66 in 10 gr. pinach, prickly-seeded . 14.57 5.83 pinach, round-seeded 19.81 7.13 pinach, oo Zealand 8.74 6.48 to 7.77 in 10 gr. trawber 23.30 51.84 to 162.00 eadberes blite (Blitum) ‘ 31.08 324.00 trawberry tomato ee ei 25.25 64.80 weet Saacly" 9.71 2.59 ‘ansy 11.65 453.60 *hyme 26.41 388.80 ‘omato 11.65 19.44 to 25.92 ‘urnip) . 26.03 29.16 ‘alerian, African 4,27 16.20 Vatermelon . 17.87 3.24 to 3.88 in 10 gr. Vax gourd ‘ 11.65 1.36 Velsh onion, common . 18.65 19.44 Velsh onion, early white . 22.92 32.40 YVormwood a 25.25 745.20 Figures of Germination and Purity Seed testing. The testing of seeds is of two purposes, — to determine whether he sample is adulterated, and to determine the viability or germi- iating power. Adulteration or impurity is discovered by examining the sample inder a lens. Viability is determined by sprouting the seeds under favorable ionditions. Mix the sample well, and choose 100 seeds as they come, liminating only the foreign seeds. Place them between folds of noist Canton flannel, and keep moist (not soaking wet) by covering with a plate. GERMINATION TABLES Keep at living-room temperature. 101 As rapidly as the seeds sprout, remove them. See that the seeds do not touch each other, or mold may spread. High average percentage of ae ona germination of high-grade seed uvel) GERMINA- GERMINA- SrEp Puriry TION SrED Poriry Per CENT | pop Cont Per Cent | pon Conn Alfalfa 99 95 Millet, hog . 99 90 Asparagus 99 85 Millet, pearl 99 90 Barley 99 98 Mustard 99 95 Beans . ‘i 99 98 Oats . 99 96 Beet, garden 99 1501 Okra . 99 80 Beggarweed . 99 90 Onion ccs 99 96 Bermuda-grass . 98 90 Orchard-grass . 95 90 Blue-grass, Can- Parsley . 99 80 BOS ee 95 85 Parsnip . 98 85 Blue-grass, Ken- Peas . . 99 98 tueky . « « 95 85 Pumpkin 99 96 Brome, awnless . 90 90 Radish 99 97 Buckwheat 99 96 Rape. . 99 96 Cabbage . 99 95 Red-top . 96 90 Caraway . 98 90 Rice . . 99 95 Carrot . . 98 85 Rye .... 99 96 Cauliflower . 99 85 Rye-grass, Ital- Celery. . . 98 85 a 98 90 Clover, alsike 98 95 Rye-grass, Eng- Clover, crimson . 98 97 Ish. -s, 98 90. Clover, red 98 95 Salsify 98 85 Clover, sweet 98 90 Sainfoin . 99 95 Clover, white 96 90 Sorghum. 98 95 Collard 99 95 Soybean . 99 95 Corn, field 99 99 Spinach . 99 90 Corn, sweet . 99 94 Spurry 99 90 Cotton 99 90 Squash 99 96 Cowpea 99 95. Sugar-beet Cress . . 99 90 (large balls) . 99 1751 Cucumber 99 96 Sugar-beet Eggplant . 99 90 (small balls) . 99 1502 Endive : 99 85 Sunflower fs 99 90 Fescue, meadow 98 90 Sweet-pea 99 90 Fescue, sheep’s . 96 85 Teosinte . 99 90 Plax os se. & 99 95 Timothy 99 96 Hemp. . 99 90 Tomato . 99 94 Kafir corn 99 97 Tobacco . 99 90 Kale . 99 95 Turnip .. 99 98 Lettuce 99 98 Velvet bean 99 90 Melon, musk 99 96 Velvet grass Melon, water 99 96 (hulled) 97 85 Millet, common 99 90 Vetch 99 93 Wheat 99 98 1Each beet fruit, or ‘“‘ball,’’ is numbers given in the table represent t! likely to contain two to seven seeds. he number of sprouts from one hundred balls. The 102 Average time required for garden seeds to germinate SEED-TABLES Days Days Bean. . . 5-10 Lettuce . 6-8 Beet . . 7-10 Onion . 7-10 Cabbage -.... 510 Pea... 6-10 Carrot . . + « . . 12-18 Parsnip . » « 10-20 Cauliflower . . . . 5-10 Pepper . » 9-14 Celery . . 10-20 Radish . - 3-6 Corn... 5-8 Salsify . - 7-12 Cucumber . 6-10 Tomato. - 6-12 Endive . . 5-10 Turnip . . £8 Longevity of Seeds Vilmorin’s tables AVERAGE EXTREME YEARS YEARS Angelica 1 or 2 3 que . ve @ 2 S| aragus ean olichos’ ses % edalis B alin ares a = ) 4 7 Barley ° 3 = Basil 8 10+ Bean. . 3 8 Beet . bh ae bi aeesahdday Wee dal Soak cas ae 6 10+ BOPA@G. tk me BR ee et tee ae 8 10+ Borecole . 5 10 Broccoli . . 5 10 Buckwheat . 2 — Cabbage . 5 10 Caraway . 3 4 Cardoon. . . 7 9 Carrot, with the spines 4or5 10+ Carrot, without the spines 4or5 10+ Catmint. ..... . 5 64+ Cauliflower eae 5: 10 Celery . oe 8 10+ Chervil . i oe ae Bw 2or3 6 Chervil, sweet-scented. |... aoa 1 1 Chervil, turnip-rooted . 1 1 icory . .... 8 10+ Chick-pea . . . ; 3 8 Clover ...... 3 _ Coriander ‘ 6 8 Corn-salad, common Byres ae ta’ ad Us 5 10 Cress, American a er me a 3 § Cress,common garden . a a oe ae 5 9 Cress, meadow (cuckoo-flower) Soael miainee ide 4 (2) Gress, Paras; 3... si se te, af gk SS 5 T+ Cress, water . . . 5 9+ Cucumber, common 10 10+ Cucumber, globe. . 6 (?) LIFE OF SEEDS Longevity of Seeds — Continued 103 AVERAGE YEARS EXTREME YEARS Cucumber, prickly-fruited gherkin Cucumber, snake (Cucumis sadist: Se ion ke Ege-plant Endive ; Fennel, common or wild © Fennel, sweet Flax... Gumbo, see OKRA. Good King Henry . Gourds, fancy Hop =. « Horehound Hyssop Kohlrabi Lettuce, common Lovage . Maize, or Indian corn Marjoram, sweet Marjoram, winter . Martynia . Millet . Muskmelon . Mustard, black or brown. Mustard, Chinese cabbageleaved Mustard, white or salad Nasturtium, tall Nessa e eet Oats .. Okra . . Onion Orach ‘ Orchard-grass Parsnip i! cee oF Oe Parsley oo. « «© » # » Pea, garden . Pea, gray or field Peanut Pepper Pumpkin . Purslane . eae Radish;.. «3 # = # # # = Rampion. . .. ++ +> * Rape .. . a er SE Rhubarb 2a Oe es 28 Rocket salad Se Rosemary Rue. oo POR ROOTES RH WW WDD ANTW COUR EPEC Y CIOL WOR WOON AL NRRORWWE D i) on connon ++ ee + Jax _ NNR POOOCOURPROM ~~ + i eT Swod | + + woorl aS | won + | Bee oMmloooonr ++ ~ ~ oy )4 SEED-TABLES Longevity of Seeds — Continued AVERAGE EXTREME YEARS YEARS | ye. we . usify . ‘ wory, summer wory, winter . sorzonera survy-grass . 2a-kale yybean . 6 dinach, prickly-seeded sinach, round-seeded sinach, New Zealand yuash, bush-scallop . rawberry x cantare tomato (Physatis) weet Cicely . . . ‘ ansy . — hyme imothy omato urnip alerian, African ‘atermelon i ‘ax gourd . ‘ ‘elsh onion, common... ee ee felsh onion, early white . ..... . = SMOHWNNANINEsT0N + e + e PNW CORTANWHEDWAMNAUNHERNWWNWh ee | AaNWMNCONCO!] Nhe + ++ + 1) wo ‘aberlandt’s figures of becigetiy’ Sued in Johnson’s ‘‘How Crops row PERCENTAGE OF SEEDS THAT GERMINATED IN 186] FROM THE YEARS 1850 | 1851 1854 | 1855 1857 | 1858 | 1859 | 1860 arley . . . 0 0 24 0 48 33 92 97 faize . . 0 |not tried} 76 56 |not tried) 77 100 96 ats. . . .| 60 0 56 48 72 32 80 100 Vea, cea 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 96 "heat . . . 0 0 8 4 73 60 84 89 Vitality of seeds buried in soil (W. J. Beal). In the fall of 1879, fifty fresh seeds of each of twenty-one kinds of lants (mostly weeds) were mixed with moderately moist sand and placed . uncorked bottles that were buried twenty inches below the surface, ith the mouths slanting downward. Acorns were buried near the ottles. Six tests have been made of these seeds. The crosses (+) idicate germinations : — LIFE OF SEEDS 105 NAMES OF SEEDS TESTED AS 5TH 10rnh | 1597 KNOWN IN 1879 Ywuar | Year vmae You Yo toa Amarantus retroflexus. . + + Ambrosia artemisizfolia , 0 0 : q . & Brassica nigra. a + + + + es Bromus secalinus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Capsella Bursa-pastoris + 7 + + + + Erechtites hieracifolia. 0- 0 0 0 0 0 Euphorbia maculata 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lepidium esac ‘ + + + + + + Lychnis Githago. 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maruta Cotula . + + oe 0 + 0 Malva rotundifolia + 0 0 + 0 0 Cnothera biennis . + + + + + + Plantago major . . 0 0 + 0 0 0 Polygonum Hydropiper (0) + + + + |possibly Portulaca oleracea . 0 + + + + 0 Quercus rubra 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex cripsus .: + 2 + + + + Setaria glauca . . . . + + + 0 + + Stellaria media . . ao + + + + + Thuja occidentalis . 0 0 0 0 0 0 Trifolium repens 0 0 0 0 0 0 Verbascum Thapsus + : + 4. 0 0 In all of the six tests, eight species out of twenty-two failed to germi- nate; and of the remaining fourteen species, seeds of eight, possibly nine, germinated often when they had been buried thirty years. The acorns (Quercus rubra) buried near the bottles of seeds were all dead at the end of two years. Average Yields of Garden Seed-Crops Wuen Cror Is aS GOOD as 20 Bu. or WHEAT PER ACRE WOULD BE WHEN CROP IS VERY HEAVY Bean Pen. « « Squash, summer Squash, winter Sweet corn Cucumber . Muskmelon Watermelon . sid Tomato... ..... Cabbage Ibs. of seed per acre 1 1000 to 2500. (according to variety) 150 125 150 100 250 lbs. of seed per acre 1500 2500 700 400 2500 to 4000 700 600 1000 400 800 The average crop is probably 10 to 20 per cent less than the figures given in the first column. CHAPTER VI PLANTING-T ABLES Tue novice always wants exact advice as to dates, depths, and dis- tances. It is impossible to give such advice that is reliable in all times and places; it must be given only for suggestion and guidance, not for exact and absolute application. Accepted in this spirit, planting-tables may be very useful, even for the experienced planter. Dates for Sowing or Setting Kitchen-Garden Vegetables in Different Latitudes Lansing, Michigan (Average of 4 and 5 years.) Bean, bush Se ie! teeta thie, beng’ ie" Saen'= ate | Se Bean, pole Beet . _ Broccoli Brussels sprouts | ” ‘ Cabbage, aul, under glass Cabbage, late . F Carrot . . is Cauliflower, under glass 7 Celery, under glass Celery, in open ground Corn. dd ieee: Cucumber Eee- plant, under glass Kohlrabi Lettuce Melon Okra Onion Parsnips Peas. Pepper under glass Potato Pumpkin Radish . Salsify . ty a OR RO eB Spinach. 92 ig a ee a a te Ge Squash. . Tomato, under glass Turnip . a © ore ae 2 S&S Boston (Rawson) Asparagus . . . . . . About the end of April. Bean, bush . . . . . About the first week in May. 106 DATES TO PLANT GARDEN SEEDS 107 Bean, pole . Bean, lima Beet... . . Borecole, or Kale Brussels sprouts . Cabbage Carrots . Cauliflower Celery . Corn, sweet Cucumber . Egg-plant Endive Kohlrabi Okra. . Peas . Pepper Radish Spinach . Tomato. . . . Turnips, for fall use Watermelon From about the middle of May to the Ist of June. About the 1st of June. : : About the middle of April. About the middle of April; plant out in June. In March or April in hotbed. Transplant the last week in April or the Ist in May. Last of May or Ist of June. From the 1st of May until the 1st of July. The 1st week in April to the 2d in July. About the Ist of May. For 1st crop, about the middle of March. About March 15 in hotbed. June or July. May or June. About the 10th of May. During the last of April up to the 1st of May. Put out of doors about the 1st of April. From the Ist of April to the middle of June. About the 1st of September. About the 25th of May set plants outdoors. Any time from July 1 to August 20. About the middle of May. New York (Henderson) Plants to sow from the middle of March to the end of April. Thermometer in shade averaging 45 degrees. Beet Cauliflower Parsley Carrot Endive Peas Cress Kale Radish Celery Lettuce Spinach Cabbage ~- Onions Turnip Parsnip From the middle of May to the middle of June. Thermometer in the shade averaging 60°. Bean, bush Bean, runner Nasturtium Bean, cranberry Corn, sweet Okra Bean, lima Cucumber Pumpkin Bean, pole Melon, musk Squash Bean, scarlet Melon, water Tomato Norfolk, Virginia Months in which different crops are planted or sown, or set out in the open air. Kale and Spinach sown during August, September, and October. Cabbage . . . The seeds are sown in August and September, and the plants are transplanted in the open air in November and De- cember. Onions . . . Sown in August, September, January, and February. Leeks . . . . The same as onions. Lettuce . . . Sownin Bopieaber and . aad i . . . Sown in every month in the year. ; pe - . . +. December, Tanta, February, March, April, August, and September. Beans . . . . March and April. Egg-plant . . April and May. Tomatoes April and May. 108 Squash . Cauliflower Potatoes Sweet-potatoe Beets . .. Corn Oats Millet . Grass-seed Carrots Celery. . Cucumbers Watermelons Canteloupes . Peanuts Asparagus Bean, bush ee Cabbage Cauliflower Cucumber Egg-plant Lettuce Onion , Pea ‘ Potato Radish Spinach Squash .. Sweet-potato , Tomato ‘ Watermelon . PLANTING-TABLES April. _ March and April. February, March, and July. May. February and March. April, May, June, and July. September, October, November, December, February, and March. June and July; after potatoes. September, October, November, February, and March. February and March. April and May. April. April. April. May. : Georgia (Oemler) From December 1 to the middle of March. From the 1st to the middle of March. Through November and December. From the Ist of October to the 15th. Transplant about November 1 and later. From May to September. About March 1 to the 15th. : : To prick out, about the middle of January, otherwise ten or fifteen days later. About the middle of September. About January 1. About December 1. The Ist of February. From Christmas to the last of February. From September 10 until October 15. About the last of February up to the middle of March. In cold frames, about the 1st of January. About January 1. About the 15th of March. Tender and hardy vegetables Vegetables injured by a slight frost, and which should therefore be planted only All Kidney, Lima, and Common Beans Corn Cucumber after the weather has settled. Egg-plant Pumpkin All melons Squash kra Sweet Potato Pepper Tomato Vegetables which, when properly handled, will endure a frost. Asparagus Corn-salad Parsley Bean, Windsor, Broad or Horse Cress Parsnip Beet Endive ea, Borecole Horseradish Radish Broccoli Kohlrabi Rhubarb Brussels sprouts Kale Salsify Cabbage Leek Sea-kale Carrot Lettuce Spinach Cauliflower All Onions Turnip Celery WHEN TO PLANT GARDEN SEEDS 109 Date-tables Vegetable-gardeners planting-table (U. S. Dept. Agric.) See also separate table of distances on p. 119. SEEDS OR DISTANCE FoR PLANTS TO STAND PLANTS TS Sra Anas pe SE Plants apart oa 100 Feer or |Horse culti-/Hand culti-| in rows Row vation vation Artichoke, globe ¥% ounce 3to4ft. |2to3ft. | 2to3 ft. 1 to 2 in. Artichoke, Jerusalem . |2 qt. tubers 3 to 4 ft. 1 to 2 ft. 1 to 2 ft. 2 to 3 in. Asparagus, seed 1 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 1 to 2 ft. 3 to Sin, | 1 to 2 in. Asparagus, plants 60 to 80 plants] 3 to 5 ft. 12 to 24 in.] 15 to 20 in.| 3 to 5 in. Beans, bus 1 pint 0 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 5 or 8 toft.| }4 to 2 in. Beans, pole . 1% pint 3 to 4 ft. 3 to 4 ft. 3 to 4 ft. 1 to 2 in. Beets . . 2 ounces 24 to 36 in.) 12 to 18 in.| 5 or 6 to ft.) 1 to 2 in. Brussels sprouts” 4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 16 to 24 in.| 14 in. Cabbage, early . 4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 12 to 18 in.) 4 in Cabbage, late 14 ounce 30 2 40 in.| 24 to 36 in.| 16 to 24 in.| }4 in. Cardoon ¥% ounce $f 2 ft. 12 to 18 in.| 1 to 2 in. Carrot . ‘ 1 ounce 30 am 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.) 6 or 7 to ft. ¥ in. Cauliflower . . 4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 14 to 18 in. in. Celeriac . ae 4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.) 4 or 5 to ft.) ¥% in. Celery . . . ‘4, ounce 3 to 6 ft. 18 to 36 in.) 4 to 8 in. i, in. Chervil . : 1 ounce 30 to 36 in.} 18 to 24 in.| 3 or 4 to ft.| 1 in. Chicory .. ; V4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 4% in. Citron. . ‘ 1 ounce 8 to 10 ft. | 8 to 10 ft. | 8 to 10 ft. | 1 to 2 in Collards aa Y ounce 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.) 14 to 18 in in. Cornsalad ... 2 ounces 30 in. 12 to 18 in.| 5 or 6 to ft. ¥% to Lin Corn, sweet . 2 \ pint 36 to 42 in.| 30 to 36 in.| 30 to 36 in.| 1 to 2 in Cress, upland : ¥% ounce 30 in. 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 4% to 1 in Cress, water. . . 4% ounce Broadcast On surface Cucumber ' ¥% ounce 4toGft. |4to6ft. | 4 to 6 ft. 1 to 2 in. Dandelion . 1% ounce 30 in. 18 to 24 in.| 8to12in. | in. | Eggplant . . . ¥y ounce 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.) 18 to 24 in.| 72 to. 1 in. Endive .. . 1 ounce 30 in. 18 in. 8 to 12 in. | to 1 in. Horseradish . . 70 roots 30 to 40 in.| 24 to 30 in.) 14 to 20 in. 3 to 4 in. Kale, or borecole 44 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 18 to 24 in. % in. Kohlrabi .- 4% ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 4 to 8 in. ¥ in. Leek ... 4% ounce 30 to 36 in.| 14 to 20 in.| 4 to Sin, | 1 in. Lettuce . . 4% ounce 30 in. 12 to 18 in. 4 to 6 in, 4 in. | Melon, muskmelon ¥% ounce 6 to 8 ft. 6 to 8 ft. Hills 6 ft. 1 to 2 in. Melon, watermelon 1 ounce 8 to 12 ft. | 8 to 12 ft. | Hills 10 ft.| 1 to 2 in. Mustard 1% ounce 30 to 36 in| 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft. Min. | New Zealand ‘spinach | 1 ounce 36 in. - 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 1 to 2 in. Okra, or gumbo . | 2 ounces 4to 5ft. |3to4ft. | 24 to 30in.| 1 to 2 in. Onion, seed . «| 1 ounce 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in,| 4 or 5 to ft. ¥% to 1 in. Onion, sets . | 1 quart of sets | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1 to 2 in Parsley . | 14 ounce 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in,} 3 to 6 in. ¥ in. Parsnip. . | 4 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 5 or 6 to ft.) 44 to 1 in Peas .. .- . .| 1 to 2 pints 3 to 4 ft. | 30 to 36 in.| 15 to ft. | 2 to 3 in Pepper. . . | 4% ounce 30 to 36 in.) 18 to 24 in.) 15 to 18 in.| 44 in. Physalis_. . | % ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in,| 18 to 24 in. ¥ in Potato, Irish 3 5° Ib. (er 3 bu. | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 36 in,| 14 to 18 in.| 4 in. er . . 3 befor or 75 Oi 3)/ 3 to 5 ft. | 3 to 5 ft. 14 in. 3 in. aoe ¥% sort pe) 8 to 12 ft. | 8 to 12 ft. Hilg a to | 1 to 2 in. adish . ‘ 1 ounce 24 to 36 in.) 12 to 18 in.| 8 to 12 toft. ¥ to 1in Eadie, seed | ¥ ounce 36 in. 30 to 36 in.| 6 to 8 in. a tot in. Rhubarb, planta 33 plants 3 to 5ft. | 3 to 5 ft. 3 ft. | eB 7 Rutabaga . 44 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in. 6to8in. | 4% fe a in Salsify . 1 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in. 2to4in. | % — | in Spinach ae 1 ounce 30 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 7 or 8 to ft.| 1 to 2 in. Squash, bush ¥ ounce 3 to 4 ft. 3 to 4 ft. Hillsdto4ft.| 1 to 2 in. Squash, late . . 14 ounce 7 to oN ye 10m Falla rtoo. ak . a 1 3 to 5 ft 0 5 : D arin oe i ence 34 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 6 or 7 to ft.| 34 to 34 in, Vegetable marrow . % ounce 8 to 12 ft. | 8 to 12 ft. | Hille8to9ft.| 1 to 2 in PLANTING-TABLES 110 Teune Ayne-pudy | or Anp-ct AVAL | 0% ounp-OT ABI Amnp-Avyw oun ° * eT qorsyy qQay -ydag—qo1e JA Apne ABI Snyzo[]ayL OZ-T ABI | T “sry ‘yore SEW | 0¢ SeW-ST dy ACT 02-1 AFI * spesueyy OZ-T ABIN J Ajne-qore yy ABI | OT PUNL-OT ABTA eung ‘Avy | T eung-0z Avy * ezreyAy qoreyy ABIA ol AB Ndy ABI — aurdnT SI-I qoreyt : — ezapedsa'T ST [dy Wore al AB THdy Indy peqioH —— * pqeaqou 0% ABI eunp-[dy ABI — cos + Igey ABIN, AVI * * g XBL T dy Tady “qaq sunp-fudy | ABW-ST YoreyAl ABI ABN * + wod-ppeoLy GZ-ST ABI LT ysngsny-Avyy | og oung-cy Avy | 1 ounc—cT Avy — eodmord GT ABIN-0Z “IRIN 103302 [udy—qaq | 900 “3deg “eT qsnany—yoreyy | T “3deg-cT “rey ABI, AB | * TACO study | = [Ndy—02 Je ACN Av ABT ARN | * "gore T eung-oT “idy «Gow —"uer Avy | ST oung—qoreyy Indy peqioH SI-T APN | ¢ * adeqqrD qT sane OS-ST Gore | ¢ AMC-GT une grt sony Aynp-AB eune | * * Seaqmouy 0 ABI Av ‘Udy — SZ-GT ABN Og-ST ABW : us09-MO00lg 0% ABIL eun-judy | ¢z eunr—cT ABW Av Og-ST ABI ST-I eune | * : suvog T Indy “990-02 “3dag ST ABW ‘dy As ‘dy oung ‘ABTA ABIN | * 7 Aayeg 0199-02 "AON ST [udy ‘qoIBy “ 9a7 —_ judy ABIL — * snseivdsy Yorsyl. eune ‘AByL ABIL — * 9yoqoyiy 19q0}90, yengny-ldy | “re-06 “Ged ST ‘Bny—-AByy Ajnp-Aeyy AC Ane-O1 ABIL BBTV GLLGAVAY VNVEVIY HYUOX MIN SHONIAOY, : eres NV VIOWOSY) TAGE) aNyION a AEN rosaaag anes ie (omsy ‘IoULy ‘O[a4D) sdouo pyayf sof sayop buyyunjd yons ) 111 FIELD-CROP DATES *‘XBQ WO [91718 Vas ‘SI9]}O JOT ¢ “Suryueldsuvly, z “Iol[1va BABP AIA} JNO’ [BAJO] JO POLI4SIC, + Oaqan’ Jo yorsysiq] 7 OT “290-02 “deg T Indy qsn3ny—Aeyy 4aqoqQ ‘4ydag ST-OT ABIL 0¢-T ABI OI-T ABI eo-GT ABI TE-06 ABTA OT “390-02 “3dag SZ-06 Indy Ayne—-AByy ST ABW eunp-qdy og-sz Indy OL “1dy-GT “Ie “AON “190 “490 “qdag ‘OL “IBIN-SZ “G97 OT-1 Ame ‘9g INdy—qaq ARTAL 19Q0DOQ-YoIeyT zAjap-1 Avy g Id y-1g “Ie 0g-¢ Idy aunf—-OT dy ounf-ST oer “790 ‘ 4dag ¥ “AON—"9dag ‘rey Ane ABI-WosV AL 19Q030Q ‘Gorey ACT or-t Aine ‘QoreIN-ST “qea aun ‘AByAT ge “dy—cg “IBIA “AON—9dag ‘Wore “ar “ydag-judy qsnany—Aeyy Apnp-ABAy Ty sung ‘dy “Gorey, peq-peeg “qdag—qo1e Jy ACT oune ‘Aeyy eune ‘AB GZ eUNL-CT ABA zaqoyoOQ-ysnsny aun ‘AByAT Aynp-Aeyy ABI g Afnp—qoreyy ACW Indy Indy Apne qsnany—Ajne ‘ABW ‘dy ST eunp—0z ABI ‘pO—sny ‘eT ABW-GT “dy. ST eunp-eT Ae AB O€-O1 AFIT “qdag ‘Avy “idy Og-9 Sune ludy Te-g Avy OT SeW-ST Indy AB ‘dy Tudy ABW oune ‘Aeyy Ayn p-AByl JT ung yued ‘WHdy peqwoy ABIL ABI ABT O&-ST ABTA, “‘qdag 10 Avy oune ‘AB Ayn p—-ABYy O&-ST ABT AB AUN eunr ‘Avy ABI ABN 0g oUNp—CT ABT ABI, ST ABN Teunc—or Ay ABW eune qT eune T oung—cT Avy ABN ABIL yeou * YOwRA drain J, ovoeqoy, * — Aqgoury, oyejod-ja0mg 9ued-1e3Nng qeaq-1e3ng * -ysenbg * ueaqsog wanysI0g ulojureg an ‘+ oFej0g qnuseg drasseg 5780 PLANTING-TABLES 112 T ABQ ST [dy sung ‘Av | 1 ABW-T [dy g Ae 91 AeA SI-I Ae |" | spesueyy BI ABI ST AB Avy ‘dy |¢l eunp-cy “ze GZ-1 ABW | T eune-1Z ABW Of-ST ABW | °° e2zIeW Wdy-GI “ze —- — — — * + guidny ee es —— —— — — — * ezepedse’T ST [udy =S_ 0g INdy-T “ze oe aa * BIGOSE OT [dy ST Avy | ounp-qoreyw |} 1 Amp-T tudy GO-T SEW ae —— i Ie OL Indy Ory: = GT eung-gT Av = "8 fg Xela T Ae .TIady | eunp-yore T yore | T INdy—-T “sey S-h Av 08-02 Indy |* ¥ed-prela . zeus — GI ung} pue sadg [eT Ajng—-cT Aeyq | OT A[ng-T eune TI oune Te-0¢ AB |* * Bvadmog == ST Ady-02 “eW 9I-L ABW |¢T ABW-Geidy |" * yore 02 ABI ST Judy ee! T eune-T ‘idy (eT Ajne-cT “ze GB Wdy | O€-ST ABW “IL | °° aseqqeD A[ne-cT sune Pia — UMOIZ 40N T 48 |OT 4[n¢-0g eung | * yeoqyayong OT Indy GT Seq Sey ‘dy | ct Ae-1 Indy St-O1 AB Sw or * Wa09-uI00Ig, qourumns 0% ABW | T eune—cT ABW sa os “pima-cT pudy TT eune OS-OT Ae | * * suBOg g AB | = OS-ST Wore | ST ‘IB -ST “99d [OT “Idy-0 “Ie SZ-O1 AB S@-O1 Indy |* * _ Aopeg GT ABW Tady —_— — T A¥W-02 “Te | 9 ABT syoo"ug —_ ° snaeiedsy ‘i Indy eas iar Og-T Indy ST ABW oun ‘Ae | * = eVoqoNAy T'29Q-ST “SNY | T “99Q-ST “Bny [oT4deg-cT “any OT A8W-ST “Idy jog “Id y-ST “seY | ‘TNA y “qoreyl [oT ABTA-GT “Je [ST AVW-ST “Ady | T oune-eT Avy | TAne-oT dy | °° ByesV ‘VIaWO'T0; 1 VNVINOJ oaqvao10g §=|OoIxa]y, MEN VWOHVIIO ss ay Cae VaOLINVIAL NISNOOSIM penuru09 — sdous par sof sayop buyunjd yons_ 113 FIELD-CROP DATES ‘emmystour YRNouws st 104} JT » ‘sUOIPBAOTA YRIY 4B ATWO WMOID ¢ *MOT[B SUOTFIPUOD 8B CZ YOIB]Y 1a4Jye Woos se ‘sdoIO poyeBl1I[-uoU Joy + sdo1o PoPESIIA IO] + "xe U0 OfOIVTE 908 ‘BIOYYO IO z B WO efor 30 JOT 1 Sey g Sey 1 Ae Oo J se ze sen OT 48 So O1 AeW-1 “dy g Av OT 4ing 09 dn 0z AB ge AB OT AWW OT SB GT ABIL St “ady—-cT se iequia}dag eunp—yore yy ST ady-cT ‘Ie 02 ABW GT “Id y-CT rey 0% ABI 02 ABI ST “3dag aunp—qoieyjy Avy ‘dy 93 ABI OL eune-0g ABI OI-1 Indy GT ‘Id Y-GT “Ie Tidy “¢T ‘tej - $1990-T “3dag ‘ST [Ndy—aep eunr—qore yy “400 “ydeg Ajnp—use 2 ABW dy 4p (—"92a 4[ng ‘aune 08 “AON-OT “3dag Tg ‘sny-ctT Ajne¢ T 48-1 Indy ST AB-1 “dy ST A[npe-sT Av T ‘any-T “sey eT “AON-ST “any T 48-1 Indy T ‘Id y-ST “99g T ABW-T Indy GT Ajar—sT eune ‘GT “ABIN-ST “Qed gy eune-cT “idy ST “ABI-ST “eT y oung-] ‘eyy 08 '990-ST “3dag qsngny ‘judy qsngny—-qoieyy Se-T ABIL ‘qdag ‘judy GT oune-GT AByl GB-1 ABI g ABN T oune—-]T ABIL OT Ayng-T ounce GZ-T ABTA 18qQ0zQ ‘adag Gs ACTA ABW—YorVB yy [ oune-T Avy 08 “Id Y-CT “el [ ABW-ST ‘dy T INdy-T “1871 TE-ST Gore yy Ajng ‘oune Asy ‘dy Or ABW-OT “dy T eung—cT ABT TZ-9T ABTA Teunp-sT Avy, 9 Ae zZoune II eune T eunp-1Z AeWW oTA8W-OT “1dy aune ‘ABT + TAnL-0g “idy 2 oune ST AB OT [dy 02-01 ABI 8-T AB qsnany-[udy 08-02 Indy O@-T ABIL JT une -T ABW AL “qdag-[Ndy og-T ABI OT eunr-0g ABW O€-OT ABI Og-ST ABT 02-01 ABI O13deg-cz “sny O&-T ABW I ‘Sny-T Le 08-01 Ae og eung-] AW og-01 Indy Aing-0g ABW 0&-ST INdy yeodM. " eWRA : drain, * + oooBqoy, * AQIOULT, 09890d-3204G * 9uBa-IBsNg * geeaq-1e2ng ‘os ysenbg * uvaqéog TINY BIOG * WIOjUrEg aAY * oyeqog * qnuveg * diusieg "+ 8380 * VITA snjzoT PAL PLANTING- TABLES g ‘sny-O1 Ame == SI-1 AB | oT AB—-qorew Av ‘dy 10% 4eW-02 [dy |‘ST “Ae-02 “Gad * azreyl eras T AeW-ST [dy | oT Aey—qoreyy *q2,q—18q0799, —> oe * eurdny — — —. * ezepadseT (sse[a 1apun) Teung aL | T INdy—ct Av | oT Avyy—qoreyy Iedy—9eq ST Av eunp-judy " Tqeryqoxy (amoiz you) T ABW | oT AeW—qoreyy aune-[udy | OT AeW-02 [dy = 7 AGES (umorg you) T ABW SI-T ABW | oT AeW-qoreyy Indy—9aq O@-T ABW = "8 * ¢ Xe 02 ‘AON-0¢ “Sny ST Iady | st SeW-et ‘wey | gl Avyy—qoreyy Av—ydeag Ae ‘[udy “qoq “uer * _ wod-ppany —_ — ABT ‘Pludy qsnsny—[idy "+ eadmop —- 2 AB ‘udy — Judy "+ 109909 02d —"20 ‘qaqa PO T [dy |4ydeg ‘udy ‘sey | ‘eT Aepy—qoseyy ‘AB ‘dy INdy ‘gore yy — ‘ * WAOID ST “990-02 “sny T Ae | St AeW-ST [dy | gt Aew—qoieyy Tudy—ydeg ST SOW “qq “uer "5 gorreD (ssv]@ Jepun) ‘20q-990 0@ “390 ‘ST “3dag —— T ‘ady-ct “ze | ‘oT Avp—qoueyy [Edy—qdag ST ABW | “qaq “ue “ay * aseqqeD Or Av OZ-OT ABW | GT ABW—yore Wy AB OI-1 ABW * geaqaxong OZ-OT ABI | T eung-cT Ae Avy ‘dy | og A8W-0¢ rady — U100-WO001g 5 | ST 3dag-cT “any == 9¢ ABW -Gg [dy | eT Avpy—qorepy AB ‘dy 02 481 | ‘ST Pad y—yore py "7 sueeg: “09 —po SI-T Ae 0@ dy | ‘oT AoE —IOLE yore—"90q, Indy | 1 qorey—3deg . 8 Agpeg “AON ‘99. — ST ABI-OL “IB | ST Av —qoreyy Arenuep “00q — ‘aati oe * snseviedsy — T ABI-I [dy | sT Avpy—qozepy qorey—"90q] — * ayoyoiy OT ‘AON-0z “3dag — ST ABW-06 “Ady | ¢T Avyy—qorepy “qeq—10qoqQ | ysnsny—qoreyW “qeq “uer "8 Bet vusviy NOLONIBSV A NoDauQ VINUOSTIVD yavAaN aie penuryaoD — sdouia pray sof saypp burunjd yonszp 115 “yred W19q}IOU oUIeI}xXe Ul A]WO UMOIL 5 ‘XBB UO JJOT}WIB 99g ¢ “gonpoid yeloraurUT09 ON 3 “UOTYe4g JUSUIIIOdE [VINQNONISY BuoZIIY ‘TIT I1@q ‘SF ON ‘“]INg wo, { Avy ‘sutdg fAyne ‘10qUr A Te 4mp-judy HTT TIT FIELD-CROP DATES T Avy ‘sutdg ‘Ainge ‘requ, ST ABW-ST “idy T ABW T AB ST dy GT AB-02 Indy ST. [udy qdeg “sny ‘(Hdy—qaq ‘ydag-judy eunr-[udy (sse[z apun) 0G WIR “qdag “idy “rey SI-T AB SI-T Avy I Avy OZ-T ABI T dy SI-T Av “4dag “ady “reyy JT eung-T Avy I eunr-1T judy GI-T ABIL T AB-T dy T AB-T Indy OT Indy AB -YoiVyAy T eung-T judy ‘0aq-"990 ‘gl AeW—GoreW ‘20-109 ‘gl SeW—qoreW ‘03q—"990 ‘gl ABW-GoreW ST Se—qoreyW, “d9q—19q0399, ST Av yore J oung—-GT Avy T eunp—T AB ST ABW Yor GT Ae Gore 29-990, ‘oT AB—qoreyy ST AB-qorey qsnany—qoreyr T eung-GT Aeyy ST Av W—qoreyy ST AeW—qoreny "99-390 ‘oT AvW—qoie yy T eunf-oT ABW ST ABIN—qoreyy ST ABW—qorey qoreJ—"99q “qoq—"ydag ABy—3deg ABW—"ydeg » ABW ‘Judy ABYAT Avyy—Areuner Ae ‘dy Tdy—"qar sunr-jdy *qoyq—"99, qdy—3d9g As ‘udy AByy—ydag Ae ‘dy AB ‘dy [dy—00q Ae ‘wady aunp—19q01909 Indy Ayeq ST ABN lady ‘qoreyq OT Avw-0g dy 02 ABIL OT ABW-02 dy “AON—"9dag ‘Wady—qar OI-T ABW Aner you) Indy 4]7eq OT 48 ST AeQ-ST Indy ST Av rudy Ayre indy Aire ST ABW -ST [udy ‘yoQ-any Can nep ABW -Yosreyy OT "390-02 “3dag ‘8G “qeq—CT ‘uer ‘any ‘oune “reyAy eune ‘Avy aunf—qoreyy OT "3dag-0g “sny "CT “qeq-ST ‘uer “99q—19q0190, qsnsny yeauM, " YOWA drain, oosoeqoy, : Aqyourry, 07830d-300MG * 9ueo-IeANg yeaq-1esng ysenbg * ueaqhog wanys10g * uloyareg aA ezeqeyny 7 + aory * edey wydung ‘+ oyeqog * qnuveg ‘+ drasieg + + gy29 "QTL > sngoTTS + + spsaeyq L6 PLANTING-TABLES Flower-planting table (Suburban Life) It is a wise plan to grow enough extra plants in a reserve bed or in pots during the sum- or, so that any gaps in the bed may be filled as the occasion requires. This table includes me perennials and biennials, as well as annuals. It is made for about the latitude of aw York. WHEN TO sow SEED et tTraNs-| Hercut | Season of | CoLor OF VARIETY PLANT | (Inches) Bioom FLOWERS TO Indoors | Outdoors (Inches) wonia . . . .| March May 12 ¥% to 144|July to frost) Yellow, pink, rose thillea (Sneezewort)| —— June— 12 1to14% July- White Sept. 1 October : lonis . . . . .| March April —. 1 June- Crimson August : seratum . March May 6 1% to 34 |Juneto frost} Blue, white ostemma (Rose- , of- Heaven). . .| April May 6 1 to 114 {July to frost} Rose, white omsoa . ww April May 6to12}| 1to3 {July to frost|Scarlet, white naranthus . . .| April 18 5 to 6 August |Red, purple, yellow, white juilegia (Colum- —— |July-Sept.1 8 2% ~_‘|June-Sept.1| Yellow, white, bine) . red, blue. gemone (Mexican April in May 12 144 to 2 July, Yellow, white Poppy) . x pots August pert BS April May 6 1 Aug., Sept. Blue ter “(China)” - +| March, May 9 -1to3 July— ‘| Yellow, white ; April October red, blue ter (Perennial) July— 12 1to3 | Sept., Oct. |White, pink, ; Sept. 1 blue Wloon Vine - | April _ May 6 10 Aug., Sept. White dgam..... April May 24 2 to 214|July to frost] Yellow, white, b pink, red wtonia . ... 7 May —. 1to3 July—Sept. Yellow ets... . .| April — 6 1 to 2 — Ornamental 2 foliage ack Dahlia. . .| March May 12 1to1% July, Dark red August achycome (Swan River Daisy) . . April May 6 % tol Blue, white ealia (Emilia) . May 6 1to2 |July to frost Sart yel- low Jandrina May 6 ¥% tol —_— Rose, purple aa (Pot Mari-| March | Late April 6 2h, June—Oct. |Orange, yel- low fees (Corzopeis) March April 10 144 |Juneto frost) Yellow Mir! Poppy | April ay 9 1to3 |July to frost|Purple, lilac, Mallow). . red, cherry mpanula. (Canter- —_— _ July- 12 2to3 | June— Blue, white, bury Bell) Mg . Sept. 1 August pink adytuft . . .| April May 4to12| 144 to14| June—Oct. White mnabis (Giant — 10 Inconspicu- mind Flower” |) Matai 9 |1t02% | Aug, Sept.| _Searl rdinal Flower | arel Oo ug., Sept. carlet stor bean (Ricinus)| April May 3 4to8 e E Grown for foliage tananche . . .| March _—_ 6 2to3 June- Blue, white 3 August losia (Cockscomb) | March, May 6 1 to 34 June Red April to frost FLOWER PLANTING 117 Flower-planting table — Continued WHEN TO sow SEED Tae VARIETY Trans-| Hercutr | Szason PLANT | (Inches) Boon ee Indoors | Outdoors Ginshed oe CMaargber March — 6 1to1\% June White, pink ‘ : to frost red , iBotil) ; "Blue — April 6 2to3 é Je oe anes entranthus f April Ma: 9 1 i Chrysanthemun, An- Alareh; May 8 1 ta 16 eee Wiens ri , red, Cloose(Spider Plant) April May 8 2 July, Len August : Cobeea . March, 8 10 to 20 Aug. “Sept. Violet, green- er April ish purple Collinsia April May 8 1to1% July, White, lilac, A 6 i Convolvulus . . : April 2 % tol uly to frost tet Cosmos, Early April May 12 4 July, White, pink R August Cosmos, Late . April, May 24 6 to8 Sept. White, pink, : - May to frost Te Dahlia . March, — 3 4 Aug. to frost} White, red, April yellow Denes CC: hina nereds May 5 6 1 to 114 |July to frost} White, pink, pril d Digitalis (Foxglove) July- 9 3 to 4 July, Pink, white . . Sept. 1 August Eschscholzia (Cali- — May 4 34 July-Sept. | Orange, yel- fornia Poppy) low, white Evening Primrose . —_. 20 1 to 1% | July-Sept. Yellow FIAK: os ee : May 8 2 to 244 | July-Sept. | Red; blue Four O'clock . April May 8 1% to 2 |July to frost Wate: ar low, ri Gaillardia . . . April May 6 %, to 1 |July to frost] Yellow, red Gila .... —_—_ May 3 to 12] 4% to2'4| July-Sept. Be red, white Globe amaranth | April May 6 1 July to frost} Red, white, (Gomphrena) . . blue Golden-tuft (aiys: — July— 4% July- Yellow sum). . Sept. 1 October Gourds. . . tee May 12 15 September White pril Gypsophila . . .| April May 8to12| 1to2 | July-Sept. Rosy Hawkweed ... April, May 6 % tol | Aug., Sept.| Yellow, red Helianthus (Sun-| April, May 12 to 36} 3 to6 |July to frost Yellow flower) . . . .| May qi Hibiscus . . . .| March, July— 15 to 24) 5to7 August | White to red April Sept. 1 3 Hollyhock . . . March, July- 15 5 to7 August | White to red April Sept. 1 - Honesty (Lunaria) . pet May 12 |144 to2%| June, July | Pink, purple ; pri Hop. . April, May 12 20 to 30 — Ceeenent ‘oliage Ipomcea (Morning-| March April 6 10 to 15 June Blue, red, lory) ... to frost white Kochia. . . . —_ April 9.to 12] 2 to 24% Grown for foliage 118 PLANTING-TABLES Flower-planting table — Continued Wuaen To sow SEED ra TRANS-| Hercut | Season or | CoLor oF Nastery PLANT | (Inches) BLoom FLOWERS Indoors | Outdoors (inches) Larkspur (Annual) .| March, May 5 6 1 to 114 | June-Sept. | Blue, white, April red, pink Lobelia . . Feb.- May 4 % June Blue, white April to frost : Lupinus May 6 2 July, Pink, blue, August white Madia (Tarweed) May 12 1to2 | July-Oct. Yellow Marigold April May 6 ¥% to 3 |July to frost Yellow Martynia (Unicorn April May 24 1 July Yellow, pur- . plant) ‘ ple, white Matthiola bicornis ‘ April 6 4 to1 |Aug. to frost} White Mignonette 2 March, May 10 6 1 July to frost| Greenish ‘April yellow Myosotis (Woreet-me- April May 6 % June— Blue, pink, not) .. August white Nasturtium April May 1 6 1 to 10 June Yellow, red, to frost orange Nicotiana (Tobacco) | April May 10 9 3 July to frost} White, pink, red, yellow Pansy March |April, July, 4 Wy April Various August to frost Petunia Feb., May 6 1 June aed, white, March to frost ink Phlox (Annual) March, May 12 1 July to frost Red. ‘white, April pink, yellow Poppy (Annual) . April, Sept., 6 1 to2 June-___|Pink, red, yel- October August low, white Poppy, Iceland —— | April-Sept. 1 June— Red, yellow, August white Pyrethrum —. July-Sept. 12 2 July, White, pink, August red Portulaca May 6 1 July to frost Red, white 3alpiglossis April May 6 2 to 214 |Aug. to frost Yellow, white . red, brown Salvia Feb., May 18 2to3 |Aug. to frost Scarlet : March Seabiosa (Mourning| April May 9 2 July to frost} White, pur- Bride) .. . E ple, yellow Silene (Catchfly) March April 6 1 to 14% | July—Sept. |_ Red, white, 3napdragon March 6to12) %to3 |July to frost eer wale pink, re Stocks (Ten Weeks) | March, May 12 1 to 144 | July—Sept. | Pink, scarlet ‘ April . white, yellow 3weet Alyssum April, May 4 | to % | June-Oct. White Sweet Pea. . ar., April 3 6 July—Sept. All colors Sweet William March July— 6 2 June, July | Red, white Sept. 1 pink Ree cur -glass Keail , peccularia pri 6 4, Aug., Sept. | White, blue Verbena . . Feb.- May 6 1 June White, pink, ee April to frost red, blue linnia March, May 1% to 2 | June-Oct. |Red, yellow, April pink, white HOW FAR APART TO PLANT Distance-Tables 119 Usual distances apart for planting fruits Apples Apples, dwarf (Paradise stocks) ‘ Apples, dwarf eBougin stone), Pears . Pears, dwarf . Plums Peaches Cherries . Apricots . Nectarines Quinces Figs . . Mulberries Japanese Persimmons Loquats . x Pecans Grapes Currants . Gooseberries Raspberries, black Raspberries, red Blackberries Cranberries . Strawberries ‘ Oranges and Lemons 30 to 40 feet each way. 8 to 10 feet each way. 12 to 25 feet each way. 20 to 30 feet each way. 10 to 15’ feet each way. 16 to 20 feet each way. 16 to 20 feet each way. 16 to 25 feet each way. 16 to 20 feet each way. 16 to 20 feet each way. 8 to 14 feet each way. 20 to 25 feet each way. 25 to 30 feet each way. 20 to 25 feet each way. 15 to 25 feet each way. 35 to 40 feet each way. to 12 feet each way. 5 feet. 5 feet. 6 feet. 5 feet. 7 to 6 X 8 feet. 8 4 4 3 3 4 or 2 ft. apart each way. x x x x x r2 1 1 X 3 or 4 feet. 25 to 30 feet each way. Distances recommended for orange trees in California Dwarfs, as Tangerines Half-dwarfs, as Washington Navel . . Mediterranean Sweet, Maltese Blood, Valencia St. Michael . Seedlings . 10 to 12 feet. 24 to 30 feet. 24 to 30 feet. 18 to 24 feet. 30 to 40 feet. Usual distances apart for planting vegetables (see also table, p. 109) Artichoke . Asparagus Beans, bush Beans, pole Beet, early Beet, late Broccoli i Cabbage, early Cabbage, late . Carrot . Cauliflower Celery . 3 to 1% 2x 2X culture,” Corn‘salad_ . Corn, Sweet . Cress. Cucumber. Egg-plant . Endive... 1 Horseradish . . 1 4 to 3X x x 4 ft. each way. In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. In drills 2 to 3 ft. apart. xX 214 ft. to2 X 3 ft. 16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. 3 ft. to 244 X 34 ft. In drills 1 to 2 ft. apart. 2 ft. to2 X 3 ft. Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 6 to 9 in. in the row; 7 X 7 in., each way. In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. Rows 3 to 31% ft. apart, 9 in. to 2 ft. in the row. In drills 10 to 12 in. apart. 5 ft. each way. 3 ft. 1ft.tol X 1% ft. 2 or 3 ft. Rows 3 or 4 ft. apart, 2 to 3 ft. apart in the row. Rows 38 to 4 ft. apart, 1 to 2 ft. apart in the row. 1 ft. apart in rows 2 to 3 ft. apart. “new celery 120 Kohlrabi Leek . Lettuce Melons, musk Melons, water Mushroom Okra. Onion . Parsley Parsnip Peas. Pepper Potato . Pumpkin . Radish . Rhubarb Salsify . Sea-kale Spinach .. Squash, bush . Squash, late . Sweet Potato Tomato Turnip PLANTING-TABLES 10 X 18 in. to1 X 2 ft. ee Poe In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart. In drills 1 to 2 ft: apart. In drills, 18 in. to 3 ft. apart. In drills; early kinds, euallei in double rows, 6 to 9 in. apart ; late kinds, in single rows, 2 to 3 ft. apart. 15 to 18 in. X 2 to 214 ft. 10 to 18 in. X 2 to 3 ft. 8 to 10 ft. each way. In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. 2to4 ft. xX 4 ft. In drills, 14 to 2 ft. apart. 2X2 to In drills, ie + 18 in. apart. 8 to 4 ft. xX 4 ft. 6 to 8 ft. each way. 2 ft. X 3 to 4 ft. 4 ft. X 4 to 5 ft. In drills, 144 to 24 ft. apart. Number of plants required to set an acre of ground at given distances This table is computed by dividing 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre) by the product of the two distances, in feet: 7260. This assumes that the acre is full to the margin. 43,560 + 6 (2 ft. X 3 ft.) = A square acre is a little less than 209 ft. on all sides. lin. x lin... lin. xX 2in.. lin. xX 3in.. lin. x 41m. lin. xX 5in.. lin. XxX 6in.. lin. xX Tin... lin. xX 8in lin. xX Qin lin. X 10in lin. X 1lin lin. X 12 in. 2in. xX 2in. 2in. xX 3in 2in.X 4 in 2in.X 5in 2in.X 6in in, & Tin. 2in.X 8in 2in.X Qin 2in. X 10 in 2in. X 1lin 2in. X 12 in 3in. xX 3in 3in.X 4in x PLANTS PLANTS . 6,272,640 | 3in.X Gin... . . . . 348,480 . 3,136,320 | 3in. x Tin. . - « . 298,697 . 2,090,880 | 3in.X 8in.. » . » 261,360 . 1,568,160 | 3in.xX Qin. . . . . 232,320 - 1,254,528 | 3 in. x 10 ing. . . . . 209,088 - 1,045,440 | 3in. x 11 in. was » . 190,080 - 896,091 3 in. X 12 in. . . . « . 174,240 784,080) 4in.X 4in.. . . . . 892,040 696,960} 4in.xX 5in.. . . . . 318,632 627,264] 4in.X Gin... . . . . 261,360 570,240 | 4in.xX 7in.. . . . . 224,022 - 622,720] 4in.xX Sin... . . . . 196,020 . 1,568,160} 4in.x 9 in. . . . . 174,240 . 1,045,440 | 4in. x 10 in. 1» » « » 3SO 816 . 784,080] 4in. xX 11 in. » 2 « «© « 142,560 627,264] 4in.X 12in.. . . . . 130,680 522,720} Sin. xX 5in.. . . . . 250,905 448,045 | 5in.xX Gin... . - . 209,088 392,040; 5in.X Zing. . . . . 179,218 348,480} 5in.X 8in.. . . . . 156,816 313,632 | Sin.xX Qin... . . . . 139,392 285,120 | 5in. X 10 in. » « « « « 125,452 261,360 | 5in. x 11 in. soe ew ww) 6 114,048 696,960 | 5 in, xX 12 in. soe + 6 « 104,544 522,720 | 6in. xX 61 In... . . ) «174,240 418,176! Gin.x Tine. 2. 2. 149,348 NUMBER OF PLANTS TO THE ACRE Gin. xX 8 in. 6in. xX Qin. 6 in. X 10 in. 6 in. X 1lin.,. 6in. X 12in. . 7in.X 7in Zin. xX 8in 7in.X Qin 7 in. X 10 in 7in. X 1llin 7in. X 12 in 8in.X 8in 8in. xX Qin 8 in. X 10 in 8 in. X 11 in 8 in. X 12 in 9in.X Qin Qin. X 10 in 9in. X 11 in 9in. X 12 in 10 in. X 10 in 10 in. X 12in 10 in. xX 15 in 10 in. X 18 in 10 in. X 20 in. ee 10 in. X 24 in. or 2 ft. 10 in. X 30 in. : 10 in. X 36 in. or 3 ft. 10 in. X 42 in. . 10 in. X 48 in. or 4 ft. 10i in. X 54 in. 10 in. X 60 in. or 5 ft. 12 in. X 15 in is 12 in. X 18 in 12 in. X 20 in 12 in. X 30 in 12 in. X 42 in 12 in. X 54 in 15in.X 15in.. . 15in. X 18in.. . 15in.X 20in.. . . 15 in. X 24 in. or 2 ft. 15in.X 30in.. . 15 in. X 36 in. or 3 ft. 15in.X 42in.. . . 15 in. X 48 in. or 4 ft. 15in. xX 54in.. . 15 in. X 60 in. or 5 ft. 18in.X 18in.. . . 18 in. X 20 in xX 4 xX xX 18 in. X 48 in, or 4 ft. 18 in. X 60 in. or 5 ft. 20 in! X 24 in. or 2 ft. 20 in. X 30in,., . 24 in. or 2 ft. 36 in. or 3 ft. Puants 130,680 116,160 104,544 95,040 87,120 128,013 112,011 99,562 89,609 81,462 74,674 98,010 87,120 78,408 71,280 65,340 77,440 69,696 63,360 58,080 62,726 52,272 41,817 34848 31,363 26,136 20,908 17,424 14,935 20 in. 20 in. 20 in. 20 in. 20 in. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 it. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2h, 2 it. 2 ft. 8 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. KXXXK XK KX KKK KKK KKK KKK KK KKK KKK KKK KK KKK KK KKK KKK KK KKK KKK KK NI o X 36 in. or 3 ft. x 42 in. PLANTING-TABLES PLANTS . ne 't. X 11 ft. 660 | 18 ft. xX 42ft. . . . . .: 't. 12 ft. 605 | 18 ft. xX 48 ft. . . . + - 50 t. X 7 ft. 8s9| 18 ft. xX 54ft. . . . : 44 ‘t. x 8 ft. 777 | 18 ft. x 60ft. . . 2 a 40 ‘t. X 9 ft. 691] 20ft.x 20ft. . .°. ‘ 108 ‘t. X 10 ft. 622 | 20ft. X 24 ft. a a 90 ‘t. & 11 ft. 565 | 20ft. x 30ft. . . . si 72 ‘t. X 12 ft. 518| 20ft.x 36ft. . . . = - 60 it. X 8 ft. 680 | 20 ft. x 42 ft. a 51 tt. XK 9 ft. 605 | 20 ft. x 48 ft. 6% ‘ 45 It. X 10 ft. 544| 20ft. x 54 ft. . . ee 40 ft. X 11 ft. 495 | 20ft. xX 60ft. . ex 36 ft. X 12 ft. 453 | 24ft. xX 24ft. . . .. 75 ft. xX 9 ft. 537) 24ft. xX 30ft. . . . . .- 60 ft. X 10 ft. . e * & « 484 | 24 ft. X 36 ft. oe 50 tb. S011 ft, $0) HE cal 440! 24 ft. X 42 ft. ‘i eo * 43 ft. X12 ft. . a a oe 403 | 24ft. xX 48ft. . . * 3 37 Hy M14. « s ew ee 345! 24ft. x 54ft. . . . . . 33 ft. x 15 ft. . eA 322 | 24 ft. x 60 ft. se ie 7 30 ft. X 18 ft. . se @ x 268 | 30ft. xX 30ft. . . ‘ 48 Hy ROOT, 6 ww a a 242] 30ft. xX 36ft. . . * * 40 ft. X 10 ft. . is 435 | 30ft. xX 42ft. . . . . - 34 fi K1lgie « » & & 8 363 | 30ft. xX 48ft. . . od 30 fh SO ee a a 290| 30ft. xX 54ft . . . : 26 ft. X18 ft. ¢ 2 «© 8 « 4 242) 30ft. xX 60ft. . a ard 24 (i 20% « & we & ee 217| 36ft. X 36ft. . . 33 ft. X 24ft. . . ao 181] 36ft. x 42ft.. m < 28 [to XS0 ft. < g- 4 2 « « 145 | 36 ft. X 48 ft. ‘i y 25 ft. X 36 ft. i x so i 121) 36ft. xX 54ft. . . 4 22 ft. x 42 ft. " ; F 103 | 36 ft. x 60 ft. ok . 20 ft. x 45 ft. ‘ ‘ 96) 38ft. xX 38ft. . . . 30 ft. X 48 ft. «a 90} 38ft. x 40ft. . . - 28 ft. x 54 ft. ‘ ‘ BO} S8it X 42% « « & » # 27 ft. X 60 ft. poy 72| 38 ft. X 48ft. . . . . 23 ft. xX 12ft. . e P 802 | 38ft. xX 50ft . . . . 22 ft. X 15 ft. se eS ee 242) 38ft. xX 54ft. . . . . 21 ft X18ft . . bo a1 201 | 38 ft. x 60ft. . . es 19 ft. xX 20 ft. . ‘ 181| 40ft. x 40ft ... 27 ft. X 24 ft. . ‘ 161 | 40 X 424% . « « 25 ft. X 30 ft. . 121) 40ft. xX 48ft . 2... . 22 ft. X 386 ft. . «24 100 | 40 ft. x 50ft. . . e% 21 ft. X42 ft. . c 86] 40ft. xX 54ft. . . . ‘ 20 ft. X48 ft. . 75) 40ft. xX 60ft. . . 18 ft G4 ite . w « 5 i 67 | 42 ft. x, 42 ft. 8 24 ft. xX 60ft. . . . 60 | 42h, x 464%, «§ «© w « « 21 i Mt 6 ww ee es 193 | 42 ft. X 54 ft. : 19 Ft KIS Tt ce as ee ws 161| 42ft. xX 60ft . .. ‘ 17 ft. xX 20ft. . . . eh 145| 48ft. xX 48ft 2. 2. . 1. 18 ft. K 24ft. 2. 1. a 8 121| 48 ft. X 54ft. . Bes 16 EG. 5630 ft. on i 96 | 48ft. xX 60ft. . . ‘ 15 ft. X 36 ft. . Sa 80] 50ft. xX 50ft. . . ... 17 ft. X 42 ft. ms Ho 8 69| 50ft. X 54ft. . . a 16 ft. X48 ft... a) an a8 60] 50ft. X 60ft . . ... 14 ft. x o4ii . a 53 | 54 ft. X 54 ft. ‘ ey 14 1 SOU « « i: HO -2 48| 54ft. xX 60ft. . .... 13 Pek VEE eg me ee Sw 134] 60 ft. X 60 ft. a a 12 it. 20th « « & « 121| 70ft. xX 7Oft. . . 8 ft. X 24 ft. ¥ 100 | 80 ft. X 80 ft. Ds ak 7 ft. X 30 ft. (ote ‘ 80 | 90 ft. X 90 ft. 8 F 5 ft. X 386.ft. . o> 2 67 |100 ft. X100ft. . . 2... 4 FAMILY GARDEN 123 Quincunxz plani- + Ww. To find the num-_ | fle |Mer ce eyers Pears ber of plants re- one fear oa a quired to set an acre by the quin- cunx method, ascer- tain from the above See nee —— Lemsu Gaave Rares. Carcanes nga bere) Hen Lerch tables the number j [--------------------- required at the |p‘ — oS ae gh ee | ees 22 we ae we = HE we Fc a cae re a at i se yi given rectangular if Enourchetrn distances, and then Ecce Ear Caperce _Crucceue sage Sencar) Fane Cavursortr_———— . re increase the number en 20 Temata Poawts ramen IOAN. ---- --------4 by one-half. ped heee SoCo cle ooo SIS UN Deas The realquincunx ifo os" o eto oS © © lanting places r omega a ibe Bo 0 1 o "So © tree in the center of . ‘ oe UCUM BER: CELA L0Ns the square. Thegst® ° err"S eg Ole oe OS of he trees cannot all be :b o S$" S'o «0 © © “OS oe @ equaldistanceapart. if ___ as eguapaip Geared 3 pet tect The so-called quin- if Fane Sweet Goan ———— Pee ccaeeecessess Aan Seer Cy, -- - ------------4 cunx that places all : > shecetacen: trees at equal dis- | f----------------- Mare Cae S08 G08 — — nm mm “4 Main Caop Sweet Coan _ tances is only the square method run- . — da soms Bomrogs. ning diagonally if | : across the field. p Plan for a Home Garden (Fig. 4) ee Many plans may He 7 be found in books j [----777777 77077077 7 eI and periodicals for ee eae oa te age home gardens. [opie ewaseceesdossasslicc. sens eas ee They are not to be = accepted _ literally, 75° but as suggestions E Fic. 4.—A garden for a family of six of the problems in- volved. persons (Suburban Life). CHAPTER VII Marouritigzs, YIELDS, AND MULTIPLICATION Any figures of dates of maturity of the various plants or crops and of yields must necessarily be only approximately or averagely correct ; but methods of multiplication allow of more definite statement. Maturity-Tables Time required for maturity of different garden crops, reckoned from the sowing of the seeds Dare From SEED Beans)‘string’s 6 2 4 & Soe eH we eee ee 5 Beans, shell . 2. 1. 1 1 0 ts ee we tt ew 65-70 Beets, turnip... Se BER eels 65 Beets, long blood . . . . . 1. 1 + ee se ee 150 Cabbage, early . 2. 6 1. 1 1 ew ew ee ee 105 Cabbage, late . . 1. 1. 1 ee 6 ee ee ee 150 Cauliflower . 2. 2. 6 6 1 6 6 oe tee ew we 110 Cori «4 2© 4 = « oe ok ee ee BO Egg-plant 150-160 Lettuce .... . a a ee ee ae ee 65 Melon, water a a a cel ge 3. Te FA VLG Uniformity be tol WAG) ana Ml dea eh. Ste ae oy REO ao Freedom from blemish: | |; ion be Ge a ah ep ee ee 2D Cherries. — Single Plates PO: 8 « ¢ we fats fas a Seca 320 Color 6m ak a a a ae a no ee eo we eo 20 Uniformity ss ‘ . Bn he oe ee ee @ ZS Freedom from blemish. . . . . . aN week Sie war ecae See ee eee. Grapes. — Single Plates Porno bdweh 2 «= *¥ + % * € & « e &% B 4 B.S ee ee tae Size of bunch . . is i wee ae i OG e % < ew & = V5 Size of yee oe ROR ee f ee ee ee ee ee 10 Color. aes Pie as ae Ta as oe CORD Gat ome ca ec Gao | Bloom . 5 ye Bow NOR we ae ek 5 Freedom from blemish ‘ ae Oe iS? Adee oe ak tet oak) Flavor sm eae és , bo ce Ge Nas ae eae AE 25 Firmness ..... . : 8 “ * « oe ew. 5 100 Collections of Apples, Pears, Plums, Peaches, Cherries, and Grapes on Plates Freedom fee pees St pe SOS ae 2 6 Hog @ wok we sae 20 Color. « er ee oe ir te) ep gn ae te Dae Ga Oe Uniformity | ee ee ae ee ee ‘ # ge ton Sie, Sob, Se eae 10 Size . . h goe ee we OS ee @ Ow: @ ee ee Form ge eg ae ae CG oa eae a we ae we eo Commercial value |: 1... See de ane ees eo ee, ec ae CO Quality... . a ee eo 8 NE Raa a > aa 10 Nomenclature ‘ a a 4 3% re ae ae ae 5 ArPangement: 4 hee. eee a we tw a 5 SGS80D as a oS a SOS ER ee ER oe OR we oh ew ws 5. . Barrels. — Apples Fruit: — DIZOL Fae: Se, aa eo Ro GO. Ge Ge Sr Sake a. Bue <3. cee AO Collen n 4 e wk me ew Oe ae we a ewe ee OY 20 Uniformity . a ae ee ee ee | Freedom from blemish | | |. 1]. ] ! eo ee owe 2D Texture and flavor . . . .... 0. ee ee ee 18 75 Package: — si Material Finishing Packing: — os RAGING: os. ass a) Se ole aS ee Dailing: ss, & x se we Rm a eee Racking. 2 x wos & @ & & we oR we we : PRessingGy.g: a: “As ate coho Ge a WE Be . - Slacwe Slow 15 100 SCORE-CARDS 179 Boxes. — Apples, Pears, Peaches ator i BO- ge: sie ae Gal) a ep i “A Se, ap) Roa we ce ee Ge a Colotefe. vais Qicmytin ap eo A Bel al dap ee As 20 Uniformity . Mgt 242 pitt a ote Po raves Pe Sate ide pak Mae Be Freedom from blemish | | | | Be ie, 8 Ae Se ay Ab ge SD. Texture and flavor . ........+..2.2.242.2. 15 75 Package and packings — a Material . Wo i as ete Bs. WS SD 3 Finishing . : 4 Fullness or bulge ¥ 4 Solidity. or compactness . 5 Attractiveness a ae of ‘pack 5 Alignment : so 4 35 COC Flowers and Plants 100 The American Rose Society scale of points an exhibits will be judged by points in accordance with the following official scales : — Com- Novauiree Com- Novauurs FOR ER- FOR ER- Points oF VALUE oo OPK o ATES, Points or VALUE ee TIFICATES, ETC. Size « 2 & # 15 10 Foliage . . 15 15 Color... . 20 20 Fragrance (for Stem .... 20 15 novelties only) —_ 5 Form... . 15 15 Distinctiveness a _10 Substance : 15 10 100 100 Standardization of the grading of roses (American Rose Society, 1911). Nine-inch, twelve-inch, fifteen-inch, eighteen-inch, and twenty-four- inch, and higher as necessary. Such a grading should be appreciated by both the commission men and retailers. Scale of points for judging carnations (American Carnation Society) This scale shall be employed in judging all seedlings for Certificate of Merit, or for any special prize, and in all classes where competition is close, it shall be used to arrive at a decision : — Color ao cies Beyue fay ket 38 oo eo ee Oe me Behe Gwe (26 Sizer eee ke, Hes Bae a. ewe. oe. GER! SAR Ras HAR! Oa ode Se Gor a FO Calyx> a.) 48 lig Se Ge? acy OS pon be ate Re eae 5 Stem. . 4, Sys Me eels be ae Bee OE Soa ee Bee S20 Substance dee ns ade ee UR) dee Ota Mes Bea. CERN Be coay Sah ete 10 Form: 4. 4 4 % @ «6 Ge «eo we oo ay ope wink Mire te 15 Fragrance . 2 1 1 ee ee ee LB Total: ¢on 2. we ee es Bea aOR Be a Se Boe Be ee, 00 180 THE JUDGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS Scale for gladioli (American Gladiolus Society) Resistance to disease. . . 2. 1. ee ee ee ee ee ee we CB Texturevof flower «& «© & #0 we a w & # we & ee Se ee a AO Duration of bloom . . ... 2... ee ee ee ee el ee (10 Sizeof bloom: = 2 sa i % Ae ae ew ee ee ee we Ge 10 Color of bloom. . . ......e. oa es ee oe) « Ab Form of flower. . . . .... ‘ Se - 10 Form of spike . Os Ge Ser Be a SG oe - 10 Stem (length and stiffness) es) Gp bate e Cat. Ys hte 3 ‘ 10 Number of flowers on spike ae ae ae wns » 46 Vigor (aside from disease resistance) < a cae me 2 Chrysanthemum (Official Scale of Chrysanthemum Society) Commercial Exhibition Color 4 «© 6 s @ « & » » 20 Color «2 wo se ews es «© & = A MOPm) ee Gea A ee ee CUD) Stemi oe. a we we see 5 Fullness Sous #8 2 a w = TO Woligge . «2 «© & » « = = * 5 Stem ee es a we a weg we be ulness' oe oe eo Ge ee Woliager.. «6 2 nw «2 a a w 2S Horm: a a we ewe ee we NS Substance « « « «2 » » » « 4S Depth « « « ww wm wa we es Sizes we es we @ we we we CIO Bie oo % Boe ee es oe 85 100 100 Single varieties Pompon varieties Colof 6 6 ww ewe we 40 Colo ke we ee «AO Form. «aw 6 % « « +» «« 20 Form «..2 5 « » «2 % «= « 20 Substance . . - . « « . 20 Stemand foliage. . ... . 20 Stem and foliage . woe ee ee QO! Rullmess) oe oe ar we ce 20 100 100 Single varieties to be divided into two classes, large-flowered and small- flowered. Scale of points to govern judges of sweet peas (National Sweet Pea Society of America) Length of stem .. . . . . 25 Substance . . . 15. Color. . . . . . . . + + 20 Number of flowers ona stem: 15 Size. - ee ee + 25 Total . oa a ee 100 The sweet pea or other foliage can be used with the flowers unattached, and flower stems must be free of wood, unless otherwise specified. Wiring of flowers or stems will disqualify. Scale of points of florists’ plants adopted by National Flower Show of the Society of American Florists No. 1. Single Specimen Foliage Plants Size of plant owe 6 « 25 Rarity 5 «© «© «© « Cultural perfection i oe ¢ « Ce Pot . . « Distinctiveness . ..... 15 SCORE-CARDS 181 No. 2. Single Specimen Flowering Plants Size of plant. « « « « «» 20 Flomferouenees. « «5 « « » « $5 Cultural perfection ak ae SE SIGS se a es a ee we we we Rarity ...... =... 10 Foliage : . .. 2... (10 No. 3. Collections or Number of Flowering Plants Size of group or collection . . . 15 Arrangement or staging. . . . 10 Distinctiveness + . « « « 15 Color SaTDODY iow eS eS we oe TO Cultural perfection . . . . . 20 Rarity . os dae Cava”) aio vie! 210 Number of varieties . . . 20 No. 4. Collections or Number of Foliage Plants Size of group or collection . . . 15. Number of varieties . . . . . 20 Rarity . - . . . . 15 Arrangement or staging. . . . 20 Cultural perfection 30 No. 5. Group of Foliage Plants Size . . «es. . . . . 10 Rarity . “ ee oe 10 Distinctiveness — a 8 Geo ee 20 Arrangement or staging Og Sk ay 280. Cultural perfection . . . . . 20 Coloreffect . . ...... #10 No. 6. Group of Flowering Plants Size of group ... . . . . 10 Arrangement ....... 35 Rarity » . . « « 10 Quality of flowers. . ... . 20 Cultural perfection - . . . . 15 Foliage .. +s &¢ &» » & 3D Sample Rules to Govern Exhibitions Massachusetts Horticultural Society rules (1911). Special rules of the plant and flower committee. —1. All named varieties of Plants or Flowers exhibited for premiums or other awards must have the name legibly and correctly written on stiff card, wood, or some other permanent substance; and each separate plant or flower must have its name attached. 2. All exhibits shall be marked by a card on which shall appear the name and address of the exhibitor and inclosed in an envelope on which shall appear only the number of Prize as listed in the Schedule. 3. Plants in Pots, to be entitled to Prizes, must evince skillful culture ‘in the profusion of bloom. or decorative foliage, and in the beauty, symmetry, and vigor of the specimens. 4. No awards will be made on other than regular prize days, except for objects of special merit. 182 THE JUDGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS Special rules of the fruit committee. — All fruits offered for pre- miums must be correctly named. Indefinite appellations, such as “‘ Pip- pin,” “‘ Sweeting,” ‘ Greening,” etc., will not be considered as names. 2. All Fruits offered for premiums must be composed of exactly the number of specimens or quantity named in the Schedule. A “dish ” of Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Nectarines, Quinces, Figs, Apricots, etc., is understood to contain twelve specimens, and this number will be required of all Fruits when not otherwise specified. 3. The whole quantity required of any one variety of Fruit must be shown in a single dish or basket except in collections. 4. Contributors of Fruits for Exhibition or Prizes must present the same in the Society’s dishes. All Small Fruits must be shown in baskets of uniform size, which will be furnished to exhibitors by the Superintendent at cost. 5. No person can compete for more than one Prize with the same variety or varieties of Fruit; except that a single dish of the same variety, but not the same specimens of fruit, may be used by an ex- hibitor for both Special and Regular Prizes. 6. The Fruit Committee, in making its awards, will consider the flavor, beauty, and size of the specimens, comparing each of these properties with a fair standard of the variety. The adaptation of the variety to general cultivation will also be taken into account. Other things being equal, specimens most nearly in perfection as regards ripeness will have the preference. Score-cards may be used at the discretion of the Committee. Special rules of the vegetable committee. — 1. The specimens offered must be well grown and placed on the tables clean and correctly labeled. 2. All exhibits of Vegetables offered for premium must be composed of exactly the number of specimens or quantity named in the Schedule. 3. At all exhibitions of Fungi distinctively colored cards, having the word “Poisonous” plainly printed thereon, shall be provided, and all persons exhibiting Fungi not known to be edible shall be required to use these cards in labeling all such exhibits. 4. All collections of vegetables will be judged on merit, giving con- sideration, first, to quality; second, to arrangement; and third, to variety. Not more than two varieties of one kind of vegetable admis- sible in collections, RULES FOR NAMING VEGETABLES 183 Nomenclature Rules Rules for naming kitchen-garden vegetables, adopted by the Committee on Nomenclature of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations (1889, and still in force). 1. The name of a variety shall consist of a single word, or at most of two words. A phrase, descriptive or otherwise, is never allowable; as, Pride of Italy, King of Mammoths, Earliest of All. 2. The name should not be superlative or bombastic. In particular, such epithets as New, Large, Giant, Fine, Selected, Improved, and the like, should be omitted. If the grower or dealer has a superior stock of a variety, the fact should be stated in the description immediately after the name, rather than as a part of the name itself; as, “Trophy, selected stock.” 3. If a grower or dealer has secured a new select strain of a well- known variety, it shall be legitimate for him to use his own name in connection with the established name of the variety; as, Simith’s Winnigstadt, Jones’s Cardinal. 4. When personal names are given to varieties, titles should be omitted; as Major, General, ete. : 5. The term “ hybrid ’”’ should not be used except in those rare in- stances in which the variety is known to be of hybrid origin. 6. The originator has the prior right to name the variety, but the oldest name which conforms to these rules should be adopted. 7. This Committee reserves the right, in its own publications, to revise objectionable names in conformity with these rules. Code of nomenclature of the American Pomological Society. Prioriiy: —Rule 1. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been applied in violation of this code. A. The term “ kind ” as herein used shall be understood to apply to those general classes of fruits which are grouped together in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship, as apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, ete. B. The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or introducer 184 THE JUDGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recog- nized and emphasized. C. Where a variety name through long usage has become thoroughly established in American pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be advanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suitable distinguishing term which will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. D. Existing American names of varieties which conflict with earlier published foreign names of the same or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be dis- placed. Form of Names. — Rule 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall con- sist of a single word. A. No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to existing varieties in some important characteristic, nor until it has been deter- mined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. B. In selecting names for varieties the following points should be emphasized: Distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and spelling, indication of origin or parentage. C. The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the rules which control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was derived. D. A variety imported from a foreign country should retain its foreign name, subject only to such modification as is necessary to con- form it to this code or to render it intelligible in English. E. The name of a person should not be applied to a variety during his life without his express consent. The name of a deceased horticul- turist should not be so applied, except through formal action by some competent horticultural body, preferably that with which he was most closely connected. F. The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, pippin, pear- main, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. G. The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible. H. The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, should RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS 185 be considered only as a temporary expedient while the variety is under- going preliminary test. I. In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing varietal name which has through long usage become firmly embedded in American pomological literature, no change shall be made which will involve loss of identity. Rule 3. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name of the author who first published it shall be given. Publication. — Rule 4. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed description of the variety named, giving the distinguish- ing characters of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new name for a variety which is properly described elsewhere; such publi- cations to be made in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue, or periodical, providing the issue bears the date of its publication and is generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit-growers, and horticul- turists; or (3) in certain cases the general recognition of a name for a propagated variety in a community for a number of years shall constitute publication of that name. A. In determining the name of a variety to which two or more names have been given in the same publication that which stands first shall have precedence. Revision. — Rule 5. No properly published variety name shall be changed for any reason except conflict with this code, nor shall another variety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. Emblematic Plants and Flowers State flowers adopted by the vote of the public schools, sometimes by the legislatures (*), sometimes by choice of the people. Alabama .... . . . 6 « « « « © « + Goldenrod Alaska eee ew ee ee ee ew ew ws). 6Forget-me-not ATKKANISGS op ic gd Gd de even Ge Say SS . . Apple blossom California. . . 1. «© 2 6 «© s @ ee - California poppy (Eschscholzia) Colorado: a;9%) ew es Rw Columbine Connecticut . . . . .. =. . +. + «+ + + Mountain laurel * Delaware . . . . 1. 4. + « « « « « «+ « Peach blossom Florida see ee we we we heheheh 6(Orange blossom Tdaho) 2 we he ek em ee Se , SyTinga Tilinois: 5 s&s 2 we ew ee ae & » @ Violet Indiana «4 2 «© & # @ ow ww © sy * «© » Corn PTO wai: 2h aca) te ae Mos ee US GaP RS es Ga os Shee ROSE Kansas. . . 1 ee ee ee ew ee ee 6 6Sunflower Kentucky. . . 1. . e+ « « © «© «© « « « Trumpet-flower Louisiana. . 1 6 2 ee ew ew eh he heh ehh) 6CMagnolia 186 THE JUDGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS *Maine ... Ren ta 8 ‘ . . Pine cone and tassel Maryland. . .. . eee te elk . Goldenrod * Michigan «« « a « & ig Je aOR . Apple blossom Minnesota . ...... . . . . « « Moceasin-flower Mississippi... . .. . 0. ee eee Magnolia Missouri . . . soe ee ee we) 6. )6Goldenrod * Montana . soe ee ee ss). Bitterroot (Lewisia) * Nebraska . . . Hg Ses . . . Goldenrod Nevada ... ‘3 at Ae Aas . . Sage-brush New York. Lnfee “B . . Rose North Dakota . . ‘ e 4S ae . Wild rose Ohio. . 2 Ban ator ce . . Scarlet carnation Oklahoma. . Oo igi Geos . . Mistletoe * Oregon . ee ae . Oregon grape (Berberis) Rhode Island | 4% . Violet State tree . . ea 4 ‘ . Maple South Dakota . wae o® = Paaiie (Anemone) Tennessee. . . a a re tg Texas . .. . a ee ee . . . .» Blue bonnet Utah . ... By Ge ste: . . « « Sego lily (Calochortus) ¥ "Vermont! 95" a ae ge le? te i Red clover Washington . . af ae ag | | Rhododendron (R. Californicum) West Virginia . Pa * . Rhododendron Wisconsin (State tree) é ~ 2 2 « . « Maple National and regional flowers Cansda 2 6 se ee 4 8 . . Sugar maple China: 4. @ 2 « & € = ¢ . . Narcissus Higypt: 9 ee ae ae als . . Lotus (Nymphza Lotus) England. ....... - . . . Rose Pianee 2 « & » #« 4% & . . . Fleur-de-lis (Iris) Germany as he (eb peat i 5 . Corn-flower (Centaurea Cyanus) Greece (Athens) 4 4 & oe « & » = @ w Miolet Ircland . ‘ . os. . . . » . Shamrock (Trifolium, usually " T. repens) Italy oe BO a a ee ee Sly Japan. . woe ee ew ee ee) ).)6Chrysanthemum Nova Scotia. . 1.1... Mayflower (Epiga@a) Prussia... . . . oo. oe . . . » Linden Saxony . « « » + » =» » » «» » » « Mignonette Scotland. . ....... . . . . Thistle Spain swe ae we » + « « « . Pomegranate Wales . Leek Party flowers Beaconsfield’s followers OR OE ae ae ae he eae: . Primrose Bonapartists . . .. . . $2 & we w 8 e eo = Viblet Orleanists . . . . . . a eatin eas (fe 3s Seo Meee e.g . White daisy Ghibellines . Oe Re ee ee a we oe we White lily Guelphs. . . . BR OR ee oe ee ee ae ERed lily Prince of Orange. . . . . . « « « . « «ww « . . The orange Parnellites . ‘ Jacobites... a os) ice hele oe ee HAL ee ke Whit soe CHAPTER XI GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WoRK GREENHOUSE production has now passed beyond the stage of exclusive amateurism, and has become a’recognized form of agriculture. It is farming under glass. The area is small, but the investment is high and the skill is great. Greenhouse Practice Potting earth. Loam (decomposed sod), leaf-mold, rotted farm-yard manure, peat, and sand afford the main requirement of the plants most commonly cultivated. Seedlings, and young stock generally, are best suited by a light mixture, such as one part each of loam, leaf-mold, and sand in equal parts. The older plants of vigorous growth like a rich, heavy compost, formed of equal parts of loam and manure; and a sandy, lasting soil, made up of two parts each of peat and loam to one part of sand, is the most desirable for slow-growing sorts. A little lumpy charcoal should be added to the compost for plants that are to remain any great length of time, say a year, in the same pot. The best condi- tion of soil for potting is that intermediate state between wet and dry. Sphagnum (moss), or fibrous peat and sphagnum in mixture and chopped, should be used for orchids and other plants of similar epiphytal character. Cow-dung is highly prized by many gardeners for use in potting soil. It is stored under cover and allowed to remain until dry, being turned several times in the meantime to pulverize it. Manure water is made either from this dried excrement or from the fresh material. When made from the fresh material, the manure-water should be made weaker than in the other case. 187 188 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK Suggestions for potting plants. The pots should be perfectly dry and clean, and well drained. How- ever one-sided a plant may be, it is advantageous to have the main stem as near the center of the pot as possible, and the potted plant is usually in the best position when perfectly erect. Soft-wooded plants of rapid growth, such as coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and begonias, thrive most satisfactorily when the soil is loose rather than hard about the roots. Ferns should have it moderately firm, and hard-wooded stock, azaleas, ericas, acacias, and the like, should be potted firmly. In repotting plants, more especially those of slow growth, the ball of soil and roots should never be sunk to any great extent below the original level, and it is always preferable to pot a plant twice, or even three times, rather than place it in a pot too large. Watering greenhouse and window plants. Plants cannot be satisfactorily watered just so many times a day, week, or month. All plants should be watered when necessary — when they are dry. This is indicated by a tendency to flag or wilt, or by the hollow sound of the pots when tapped. The latter is the safest sign, as, after a prolonged period of dull weather, many plants wilt on exposure to bright sunshine, although still wet at the roots. But a growing plant should not be allowed to become so dry as to wilt, nor should the soil ever reach a condition as dry as powder. This is a condi- tion, however, which is essential to some plants, more particularly the bulbous and tuberous kinds, during their resting period. Incessant dribbling should be avoided; water thoroughly, and be done with it until the plants are again dry. Plants under glass should not be sprayed overhead while the sun is shining hot and full upon them. The evening is the best time of the day for watering in summer, and morn- ing in winter. In watering with liquid manure, the material should not come in contact with the foliage. Plants recently potted should not be watered heavily at the roots for a week or ten days; spray them frequently overhead. Liquid manure for greenhouses. Most of the artificial fertilizers may be used in the preparation of liquid manure, but a lack of knowledge as to their strength and char- WINDOW-GARDEN PLANTS 189 acter lessens their value in the minds of gardeners. Clean cow manure, which varies little in stimulating property, is considered by gardeners to be the safest and most reliable material to use for a liquid fertilizer. A bushel measure of the solid manure to 100 gallons of water makes a mixture which can be used with beneficial results on the tenderest plants; and for plants of rank growth the compound may be gradually increased to thrice that strength with safety. Soot may be added with advantage, using it at the rate of 1 part to 10 parts of the manure. The mixture should stand for a few days, being stirred occasionally, before application. Lists of Plants Twenty-five plants adapted to window-gardens POTS Adiantum cuneatum, particularly the Fuchsia, varieties. form known as A. gracillimum. Mahernia odorata. Aloysia citriodora. Myrtus communis. Begonia metallica, and many others. Pelargoniums, in variety. Cocos Weddelliana. Primrose, Chinese. Ficus elastica. Pteris serrulata. Freesia refracta. Vallota purpurea. BASKETS Epiphyllum truncatum. Saxifraga sarmentosa, beefsteak gera- Fragaria Indica. nium. Fuchsia procumbens. Sedum Sieboldii. Othonna crassifolia (O. Capensis). Tradescantia zebrina, wandering Jew Oxalis violacea. (Zebrina pendula). Pelargonium peltatum. WATER Eichhornia crassipes (E. speciosa). Narcissus Tazetta, var. orientalis, Hyacinths. Chinese sacred lily. In selecting plants for a window-garden or house conservatory, those plants should be omitted that are much subject to the attacks of aphis and mealy-bug. Amongst the common plants which are much infested are coleus, German ivy (Senecio scandens), calla, Vinca variegata, Cyperus -alternifolius, fuchsia, cineraria, and carnation. Those that are nearly exempt are most kinds of geraniums, begonias, wandering Jew, and most ferns. Palms are very liable to scale in- festation. (For insects, see p. 301.) 190 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK Vegetable-growing under glass Nicat| Day | Maturity Tem. | Tem. | From SEED ADVICE oR oR: or Roots Asparagus 45-55 | 60-70 | 3-4 wk. | Roots are taken from field, 3-5 years old; use only strong roots. Beans 60-65 | 70-80 | 6-8 wk. | Little grown commercially and then as incidental crop. Cauliflower 50-55 | 60-65 | 4-5 mo. | Transplant once; give abundance of air; requires much water, yet good drainage. Avoid checking growth of plants. Commonly matured un- der glass, as a late spring crop. Cucumber . 60-65 | 70-75 | 10-14 wk.] Often follows winter tomatoes, in ground beds, making a spring and l early summer crop. Sometimes grown on benches. There are two types of forcing cucumbers, the common, or White Spine, type and the English or frame varieties. Lettuce . 45-50 | 55-65 | 7-12 wk. | Grown mostly on the ground. Mushrooms 50-60 | 50-60} 6-8 wk. | Grow under benches, or in cellars; an uncertain crop. Muskmelon 65-70 | 70-85 | 10-14 wk. Notcommonly forced. When grown, usually as a late fall or late spring crop. , Parsley . 45-50 | 55-65] 8 wk. Transplant in the fall from the field, and cut back. , Peas . 45-50 | 55-65 | 70-80 d. | Little grown under glass, as the yield is light. Must be off before hot weather of spring. Radishes 45-50 | 55-65 | 5-6 wk. | Rapid growth should be secured; use no old manure. Rhubarb 45-50 | 55-60 | 3-5 wk. | Roots dug in fall, frozen and planted under benches or in frames. After 5 cropping, replant in field. Spinach 45-50 | 55-65 | 8-10 wk. | Grown as an incidental or secondary crop; does well in solid beds. Tomato 60-65 75 4-5 mo. | Transplant into pots, hand pollinate in winter and dark weather, but most growers depend on shaking the plants. Now widely grown in ground beds. Beets, cress, sweet herbs (particularly spearmint), are also grown under glass. GREENHOUSE PLANTS 191 Twenty-five useful aquatic and sub-aquatic plants for outdoor use t denotes those that do not endure the winter (tender). Acorus gramineus, variegated. Aponogeton distachyum. Azolla Caroliniana. Caltha palustris. Cyperus alternifolius; t. Eichhornia crassipes or azurea (prop- erly E. speciosa); t. Limnanthemum Indicum; t. Limnanthemum nymphoides. Limnocharis Humboldtii (Hydrocleys Commersonit). Myriophyllum proserpinacoides; ¢. Nelumbium (Nelumbo). Many species and varieties. Somet. Nuphar advena. Nympheza. Many species and vari- eties. Some ¢. Ouvirandra fenestralis fenestrale) ; t. Papyrus (Cyperus Papyrus) ; t. Pistia Stratiotes; t. Pontederia cordata. Sagittaria Montevidensis; 2. Salvinia natans. Sarracenia purpurea. Scirpus Tabernsemontanus (Juncus effusus, variegated). Trapa natans. Typha latifolia. Victoria regia; ¢. Zizania aquatica. (Aponogeton zebrina, Commercial plants and flowers, or “ florists’ plants” The following are chiefly grown by florists in this country : — Adiantum. Alyssum. Anemone. Antirrhinum Asparagus plumosus. Aster, China. Azalea. Begonia. Bougainvillea. Bouvardia. Calla. Carnation. Cattleya. Chrysanthemum. Cineraria. Coreopsis. Cyclamen. Cypripedium. Dahlia. Daisy (Bellis perennis). Deutzia. Dracena. Freesia. Gaillardia. Gardenia. Genista (Cylisus). Gladiolus. Gypsophila. Helianthus. Heliotrope. Hyacinth. Hydrangea. Iris. Lilac. Lilium Harrisii (LZ. longiflorum, var. eximium). Lily of the Valley. Marguerite, or Paris Daisy (Chrysan- themum frutescens, and C. fenicu- laceum). Mignonette. Narcissus. Nephrolepis (fern). Nymphea. Pansy. Peony. Phlox. Poinsettia. Rhododendron. Rose. Smilax (Asparagus medeoloides). Spirea (Astzlbe). Stevia (Piqueria trinervia). Swainsona. Sweet pea. Tuberose. Tulip. Violet. 192 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK The Heating of Greenhouses (R. C. Carpenter) Methods of proportioning radiating surface for heating of greenhouses. Radiating surface, whether from steam or hot-water pipes, is esti- mated in square feet of exterior surface. All projections, ornaments, etc., on the exterior of pipes or radiators are counted as efficient surface. Formerly, cast-iron pipe of about 4 inches in diameter was used almost altogether for greenhouse work; it is still used to some extent for hot- water heating, but the great majority of houses are now piped with wrought iron or steel pipe, which is made of standard size and thickness, and is a regular article of trade. The heating surface in a boiler or hot water heater is that portion of the boiler, or heater, which is exposed to the direct heat of the fire or of the heated gases. Grate surface is the number of square feet of grate in the boiler or heater. In estimating the heat required for greenhouses, the area expressed in square feet of glass in the roof and walls is taken as the basis from which computations are made. Certain rules of practice have been adopted, and appear to give fairly good results in proportioning radiating sur- face, grate surface, and heating surface. The ratio of heating surface to grate surface in heaters will depend upon the kind of coal to be burned and the economy desired. The more heating surface provided per unit of grate surface, the higher the economy, but the greater the first cost of the heater. The usual practice in large boilers is to employ 40 square feet of heating surface to 1 of grate surface for hard coal, and 80 feet of heating surface to 1 of grate surface for soft coal. In small cast-iron heaters the proportion of heating surface to grate is frequently one-third to one-fourth that given above. If the greenhouse is maintained at 70° when the outside tempera- ture is zero, one square foot of radiation will supply 5 square feet of glass surface, if steam is used at 5 pounds pressure, or 4 square feet of glass surface if water at a temperature of 180° F. is used. The following table gives the ratio of radiation to glass surface for various temperatures: — GREENHOUSE HEATING 193 (A) Table showing relation of glass surface, radiating surface, and heating surface! Hot-waTer Huatine |Steam Hreatina (5\bs. _(10 lbs. Pressure) Pressure) 2 220° Temperature of radiating surface . . .| 160° | 180° | 200° Square feet of glass for 1 square foot radiating surface. Temp. 100° F. above surrounding air . Temp. 90° F. above surrounding air . Temp. 80° F. above surrounding air . Temp. ' 70° F. above surrounding air . Temp. 60° F. above surrounding air . Temp. 50° F. above surrounding air . Temp. 40° F. above surrounding air Temp. 30° F. above surrounding air . Radiation per pound of coal Heat units given off 1 square foot radiating surface B.T.U.? for 70° Temp. diff. . 160 190 220 225 250 an cw or Pe Om | ou ee G21 S ONO OUR DN OUR Go Go bY to bo NNN w Note DIS @ OUP B09 Co DO NONBMAOWON he POMS ORI woo cmoebunonl e 00 NOT OTR 09 Go BNOHOWoON Ponpoonab ou » pe Oo For instance, to maintain the temperature of a greenhouse 70° at zero weather, there should be 1 square foot of radiating sur- face for 4.0 square feet of glass for hot-water heating, in which the maximum temperature of the water is maintained at 180°3 or there should be 1 square foot of radiating surface for 5 square feet of - glass for low-pressure (under 5 pounds) steam. These numbers are given somewhat greater by some authorities, and there is no doubt that if the house is not much exposed, higher proportions will give satisfactory results. The preceding table gives more exact values for these quantities, and will be found to accord with the best practice in heating of green- houses, either by steam or hot water. Each pound of coal burned on the grate will transfer to the water or steam in the heater about 9000 B.T.U. As the amount of coal consumed can be varied with the draft or firing conditions, it is evident that no fixed rule can be given for the proportion of grate to radiation. 1 From Carpenter’s work on “Heating and Ventilating Buildings.” 2 British Thermal Unit, — heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 degree. o 194 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK Size of pipes connecting radiating surface and the boiler or heater. Various empirical rules have been given for proportioning main- supply and return pipes, which have proved quite satisfactory in practice. George A. Babcock gives the following rule, which will be found very satisfactory for greenhouse heating, whether with low- pressure steam or with water : — The diameter of main pipe leading to the radiating surface should be equal in inches to 0.1 the square root of radiating surface in square feet. The main pipes should not be less than 1} inches in diameter, return pipes for water heating the same size as mains, and, for steam heating, one size less than mains, but never less than ? inch in diameter. The following table shows the radiating surface sup- plied by various sizes of main pipe. (B) Swe or Pires RapiaTina SurFAcE SUPPLIED 1Winches. . ...... +. +. 155 square feet 14% inches . . ee ae ae ee . 225 square feet 2 inches... ae aS Ae ee sd Be 400 square feet Ste ioohes sg ke we oe He ee . 620 square feet 3 inches. . . . oe ee wl wl el heh) 6900 square feet 34% inches. . . . oe ww wl 6s) 6 61220 square feet 4 inches . . » « « 1600 square feet (C) Table of hianeons of sibidatd wrought-iron pipe— For steam and water 1 inch and below, butt-welded ; proved to 300 pounds per square inch, hydraulic pressure. 14% inch and above, lap-welded ; proved to 500 pounds per square inch, hy- draulic pressure. TaBLe oF STANDARD Sizes 2 £ gee | & ¢ a Z8 ia Fe ofa a 2 & a 2 Og aya Oo By 2 n m Ba | ge | Ssh [aged |teuta| bes By aas pet Bog Bape | a@beas Age a0 Bra | G98 | G54 |Geseg |os5ee | G85 | Saud so g & b Es Se 2Az | 285 | S82 | AiSsG |2e25s| Sok | 2828 4% 0.3048 2.652 4.502 0.221 0.0102 14 3% 0.5333 3.299 3.637 0.274 0.0230 14 1 0.8627 4.134 2.903 0.344 , 0.0408 11% 1% 1.496 5.215 2.301 0.434 0.0638 11% 1% 2.038 5.969 2.010 0.497 0.0918 11% 2 3.355 7A61 1.611 0.621 0.1632 11% 24 4.783 9.032 1.328 0.752 0.2550 8 3 7.368 10.99 1.091 0.916 0.3673 8 3% 9.837 12.56 0.955 1.044 0.4998 8 4 12.730 14.13 0.849 1.178 0.6528 8 4% 15.939 15.70 0.765 1.309 0.8263 8 5 19.990 17.47 0.62 1.656 1.0200 8 GREENHOUSE HEATING 195 The preceding table gives the standard sizes and principal dimensions of wrought-iron pipe. From this table the amount required for a given amount of radiating surface can be readily computed. This pipe can be purchased of any dealer. To design heating plant. 1. Find radiating surface by dividing area of glass in square feet by results in table A. Hot water pipes can be kept at a temperature of 180° F. if desired. 2. Find the size of grate by multiplying amount of radiating surface by number of pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour divided by “radiation per pound” in table A. 8. Find size of main pipes by table B, using size next larger when radiating surface comes between numbers given. It is usually better to have several main and return pipes, and divide the radiating surface in sections. Other Information relating to Heating Diameters for cylindrical chimney-flues, for given heights and boiler capacities (R. C. Carpenter) Four-cornered chimneys are considered to be equivalent to cylindrical chim- neys when the sides equal the diameter. HeicatT OF anny IN 30 40 50 60 80 100 g. i pen a/ Sted Diamictet Tiameter Diameter Thameter Diameter Caantet 2 | Balle, Ee Leo Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches | Inches 250 375 7.0 500 750 9.2 8.8 8.2 8.0 750 1,125 10.8 10.2 9.6 9.3 8.8 8.5 1,000 1,500 12.0 11.4 10.8 10.5 10.0 9.5 1,500 2,250 14.4 13.4 12.8 12.4 11.5 11.2 2,000 3,000 16.3 15.2 14.5 14.0 13.2 12.6 3,000 4,500 18.5 18.2 17.2 16.6 15.8 15.0 4,000 6,000 22.2 20.8 19.6 19.0 17.8 17.0 5,000 7,500 24.6 23.0 21.6 21.0 19.4 18.6 6,000 9,000 26.8 25.0 23.4 22.8 21.2 20.2 7,000 10,500 28.8 27.0 25.5 24.4 23.0 21.6 8,000 12,000 30.6 28.6 26.8 26.0 24.2 23.4 9,000 13,500 32.4 30.4 28.4 27.4 25.6 24.4 10,000 15,000 34.0 32.0 30.0 28.6 27.0 25.4 196 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK Effects of wind in cooling glass (Leuchars) Velocity of Wind per hour 3.26 miles . 5.18 miles. 6.54 miles. a 8.86 miles . . ... 10.90 miles 13.36 miles 17.97 miles m 20.45 miles . . . om a 24.54 miles . . . . i 27.27 miles . . . Time Required to lower Temperature from 120° to 100° F. : 58 minutes : 16 minutes :91 minutes : 66 minutes : 50 minutes : 25 minutes : 08 minutes tr ees : 00 minutes Eh cit pain ae 4s :91 minutes ec ee ae “ee : 81 minutes eee eee bb « Table of radiation for g’ass (Dean ') STEAM Hor Water Table of amount of steam radiating sur- face necessary to heat a given amount of glass exposure to various tempera- tures in zero weather. Table of amount of hot-water radiating surface necessary to heat a given amount of glass exposure to various temperatures in zero weather. Number of square feet of " Square radiation required at feet of exposure 40° | 45° | 50° | 60° | 70° Number of square feet of radiation Square required at feet of exposure 40° | 45° 50° 60° 70° 8 50,000 |5556 {6250 |7143 |8333 |10,000 ; 8, 50,000 |8333 10, 000 12, 500 |14;286 |16,667 1 From Dean's ‘‘ Greenhouse Heating,” by permission of ‘' Domestic Engineering.” 197 GREENHOUSE HEATING of different lengths and diameters . ‘face of pipes o, ing sur Radiat 2a QL AQ OND] ANDO MAID AYION AAQHOWOAIQMODONVONAOAWON Lalo) TAM HID OM OONNAMHMIORDBOTANHXOONRDONFADMHORDADOTNHNHON AY FINN NIN NOD 019 019 01D) CVD O19. OOD. 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O19 OD OD O10 O19 OD SH SH SH St SH HH SH HD 198 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK Method for finding boiler capacity for cast-iron pipe Table showing how to get at the amount of 34-inch cast-iron pipe necessary to heat greenhouse to temperature wanted, when outside temperature is at zero, Fahrenheit (Lord & Burnham Co.) For 10° below zero, add 10 per cent. ; for 20° add 20 per cent., and so on. For 70° to 75° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 1.8. For 65° to 70° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 2.28. For 60° to 65° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 2.62. For 55° to 60° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 3. For 50° to 55° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 3.46. For 45° to 50° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 4. For 40° to 45° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 4.67. For 35° to 40° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 5.5. For 2-inch work, use same table and same example and multiply the amount of 314-inch pipe obtained by 1.68. In proportioning glass surface, all wall surface must be figured in; about 5 feet of wall equals 1 foot of glass. Customary temperatures in which plants are grown under glass Day Nieat Asparagus plumosus 70° 60° Azalea, Indian . ... . 6S" 50° Bulbs (hyacinth, tulip, ete.) . 60° 45° Carnation. ..... 60° 50° Calla. . . .. 70° 60° Chrysanthemum . 55° 45° Cineraria he 65° 50° Cyclamen... . 65° 50° Ferns, as maiden hair 75° 60° Lily (Easter) . . . . 65° 5a” Lily of the valley (forcing) 90° 90° Palms, house... . . 75° 60° Primulas 65° 50° Rose . 65° 55° Smilax 60° 50° Stocks 65° 50° Sweet pea . 60° 50° Violet 50° 40° Various Estimates and Recipes Percentage of rays of light reflected from glass roofs at various angles of divergence from the perpendicular (Bouguer) IO as es a we 10° ow oe eS 20°. 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° BOP a. Lae ey “ea ae Se ee oe Sg BO ae Gee < Se eu ake ase Ses Ge Se ae are Se a, cae Some 2.5 per cent 2.5 per cent 2.5 per cent 2.7 per cent 3.4 per cent 5.7 per cent 1,2 222) 1.2 4.3 per cent GREENHOUSE FIGURES 199 Angle of roof for different heights and widths of house (Taft) anak 4 Fr, 5 Fr, 6 Fr. 7 Fr, 8 Fr. 9 Fr. Wipta o fF o fF o oF o oF o on o oF FEET 6 33 21 39 48 45 49 24 53 8 56 18 7 29 44 85 32 40 36 45 48 49 52 07 8 26 33 32 36 52 41 11 45 48 22 9 23 57 29 3 33 5 37 52 41 38 45 10 21 48 26 33 30 58 35 38 39 41 59 A 24 26 28 36 32 28 36 2 39 17 12 22 57 26 33 30 15 33 41 36 52 13 21 2 24 47 28 18 31 36 34 42 14 23 12 26 34 29 44 32 44 Among greenhouse builders, 32° is the pitch of roof that has practically been established for all houses up to 25 feet in width; beyond that width, 26° is commonly used for the slope or pitch of the roof. Standard flower-pots. American The Society of American Florists has adopted a standard pot, in which all measurements are made inside, and which bears a rim or shoulder at the top. The breadth and depth of these pots are the same, so that they “ nest ” well. English. — Chiswick Standards Dee AT Depra In. In. Thimbles , ook ye Se oR & ee 2 2 Thumbs ...... ae ae ee ee 2 214 60’s . . . < Boy Deer Sec push ose Gf a ae Oe ee as 9% 9 12’s . . ie te he Lees. “ibe Mae Snes cee Eat. ew Sa 11% 10 8's 12 11. 6's 13 12 4’s 15 13 2’3 18 14 200 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK To prevent boilers from filling with sediment or scale. (1) Exercise care to get clean water and that which contains little lime. (2) Blow it out often. It can be blown out a little every day, and occasionally it should be blown off entirely. (3) Put slippery- elm bark in the boiler tank. Or, if slippery-elm is not handy, use potato-peelings, flax-seed, oak-bark, spent tan, or coarse sawdust. (4) Put in, with the feed-water or otherwise, a small quantity of good mo- lasses (not a chemical sirup), say one-half to one pint in a week, de- pending upon the size of boiler. This will remove and prevent incrustation without damage to the boiler. These vegetable sub- stances prevent, in a measure, by mechanical means, the union of the particles of lime into incrustations. To prepare paper and cloth for hotbed sash. 1. Use a sash without bars, and stretch wires or strings across it to serve as a rest for the paper. Procure stout but thin manila wrapping-paper, and paste it firmly on the sash with fresh flour paste. Dry in a warm place, and then wipe the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. Dry again, and then apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of the paper; and dry again in a warm place. 2. Saturate cloth or tough, thin manila paper with pure, raw lin- seed oil. 3. Dissolve 12 pounds white soap in one quart water; in another quart dissolve 17 ounces gum arabic and 5 ounces glue. Mix the two liquids, warm, and soak the paper, hanging it up to dry. Used mostly for paper. 4. 3 pints pale linseed oil; 1 ounce sugar of lead; 4 ounces white rosin. Grind and mix the sugar of lead in a little oil, then add the other materials and heat in an iron kettle. Apply hot with a brush. Used for muslin. Paint for hot-water pipes. Mix lampblack with boiled oil and turpentine. It is harmless to plants. GREENHOUSE RECIPES 201 Liquid putty for glazing. Take equal parts, by measure, of boiled oil, putty, and white lead. Mix the putty and oil, then add the white lead. If the mixture be- comes too thick, add turpentine. Apply with a putty-bulb. Paint for shading greenhouse roofs. Make a paint of ordinary consistency of white lead and naphtha. It is removed from the glass by the use of a scrubbing-brush. Make it thin, or it is hard to remove. Ordinary lime whitewash is good for temporary use. If salt is added, it adheres better. It may be applied with a spray pump, To keep flower-pots clean. When the pots are cleaned, soak them a few hours in ammoniacal carbonate of copper (recipe, page 255). Soak them about once a year. This fungicide kills the green alga upon the pots, and prevents a new growth from appearing. CHAPTER XII FORESTRY AND TIMBER Forestry is the raising of timber crops. It is not the planting of shade trees or ornamental trees, or even of groves, but the planting and rearing of forests. The primary product of the forest is timber; usually the timber is sawed into boards, known collectively in North America as lumber (lumber is properly and differently used in Eng- land); some timber is used for fire-wood, some for wood-pulp, and some for other uses. In the trades, timber usually means -the squared or heavy sawed product used in framework. Planting Notes Nursery planting-table for forest trees (Farmer’s Bulletin) Ba A a Bog oa & Aa Zod a@ ORS WHEN TO fn WHEN TO SPACING OF 9 Species COLLECT poe eee Ou g PLANT es, Sezps in. | # eS | SEEDS a SEEDS a gE Rows Zoe aes ad Be a zo < q 2 ‘ In. In. Ash, green. . |Oct. Bury insand | 35-50|Spring ¥ |Scatter thickly} 6-9 Ash, white. . At vs 35-50 us 4 pee 6-10 Basswood . . |Sept. or Oct. |Sow at once 5-50|Fall % ee 6-12 Beech . . | Fall Bury insand | 70-80|Early spring | 34 |2 in. apart 3-6 Butternut! . |Sept. or Oct. Be 75-80 1 |3 to Gin. apart | 10-18 Box elder s r “ 40-60|Spring % |Touching in| 10-14 rows Catalpa, hardy |Oct. or Nov. |Cool, dry place | 40-75 ie 1 |% in. apart 14-30 Cherry, black . |Aug. or Sept.|Bury insand | 75-80 “ 1 |2to3in, apart] 4-6 Coffee tree, Sept. or Oct. |Cool, dry place,| 70-75 ws 1 . 3-6 Kentucky . or bury in sand Cottonwood ? . |June or July |Sow at once 75-95|Summer ¥ |1 in. apart 20-30 Elm, slippery . |May or June ee 50-75] Late spring % Scatter thickly| 15-18 Elm! white . “ « 50-75). VA “ 3-10 Hackberry . . |Oct. Bury insand | 70-80/Spring ¥% |1 to 2in. apart] 6-12 Hickory, pignut'|Sept. or Oct. bp 50-75 Ba 1-2/3 to 6 in. apart] 2-6 Hickory, shag- ia = 50-75 a 1-2 2-6 bark!. 2. . Hickory, shell- st se 50-75 ny 1-2 ee 2-6 bark . 5 _} Difficult to transplant on account of tap root. Advisable to sow seeds in permanent sites in field whenever possible. 2 Easily grown from cuttings. Not necessary or advisable to attempt growing from seed. 202 FOREST NURSERY Nursery planting-table for forest trees — Continued 203 he a a oa wan WHEN TO aos W: “a 8 oog a. HEN TO PACING OF a SPEciEs COLLECT HOY 0 Bros Ca é PLANT ge SEEDS IN a & a SEEDS 2 2 z| Seeps |g 5 Rows ao a g < Ay EO a Z m 7) i‘ In. In. Locust, black . |Oct. Cool, dry place,| 50-57 |Spring 1 |2 to 3 in. apart} 18-20 or bury in sand Locust, honey . Ms os 50-75/Fall or spring| 14 me 6-14 Maple, red. . |May or June |Sow at once 25-60|Late spring | 1 [4 in. apart 6-10 Maple, silver . se ws 25-50 es 1 ue 12-20 Maple, sugar . |Oct. Sow at once, or| 30-50/Fall or spring] 1 r 6-12 bury in sand Mulberry, Rus- |July or Aug. |Cool, dry place| 75-95/Spring 1% |Scatter thickly} 8-10 sian... Oak, bur! . . |Sept. or Oct. |Sow at once, or| 75-95|Fall or spring| 14/3 to 6 in. apart] 5-9 , bury in sand Oak, red} ae a ie 75-95 S 1% su 6-20 Oak, white! - oi 75-95 ™ 14 . 5-9 Osage orange . ce Cool, dry place} 60-95|Spring: ¥% }1 in. apart 10-15 Poplar, yellow a Sow at once 5-10/Fall 4 |Scatter thickly] 4-6 Walnut, black? os Bury insand | 75-80)Spring 134|3 to 6 in. apart] 10-18 For number of tree seeds in a pound, see Chapter V. 1 Difficult to transplant on account of tap root. sites in field whenever possibl Note on the conifers (Mulford).— be collected as soon as it is ripe, in September. e. Advisable to sow seeds in permanent White pine, Scotch pine, and Norway spruce seed should The cones should be dried, allowing the seed to fall out. The seed should be stored for the winter in bags hung in a dry, cool place, and should be sown thickly in thes From 60 to 90 per cent of the seed shou and one-half to three inches high. Forest planting (Mulford). Forest planting is usually done with the mattock (grub hoe). d germinate. spring, covering with about one-eighth inch of soil. One-year-old seedlings are from one A space about twelve to sixteen inches square should be cleared of all growth, and a hole dug in the middle of this large enough to receive the roots comfortably. Another method is to plow and harrow the ground, mark out with a corn marker, and simply set the tree in a slit pried open with a common spade, the slit being closed by a second thrust of the spade. By the former method, from 250 to 600 trees per day per man can be planted; by the latter method, from 800 to 2000 trees. Forest trees are ordinarily planted 4x4, 5X5, or 6X6 feet (i.e. about 2700, 1750, and 1200 trees per acre, respectively), the closer spacing being more necessary with slow-growing trees and on poor soils, 204 FORESTRY AND TIMBER Hardness of Common Commercial Woods Shellbark hickory .100 Black walnut . Pignut hickory . . 96 Black birch White oak . . . . 84 Yellow oak. White ash . . . 77 White elm . Scrub oak . . . 73 Hard maple Redoak . . . . 69 Redcedar . White beech . . . 65 Wild cherry Forest Yields Approximate time required to produce different wood crops (U. S. Forest 65 Yellow pine 62 Chestnut . 60 Yellow poplar . 58 White birch 56 Butternut 56 White pine Service) Z Zugal 2 78 a> zs | og feces) = |=? | 28 5 32 re! en! Sa i = = Srecizs 3 a6 zn° J =A za] 2a i | a& Begg ae | asd | ae j a8 ss a a g |gBae| e | gee | es Northern forests Years | Years | Years | Years | Years Aspen. le Pale Aiay Ags Me. 30 40 60 —_ — Beech } Mich.| — 80 100 _— 200 Birch, paper e. — 50 — — — Hemlock 3 ; Mich.| — 100 130 _ — Maple, sugar! . Mich. | — 90 — —_— 200 Pine,red. . . . . Wis. 32 40 55 75 100 Pine, white. . . .... N.Y 32 40 55 — 90 Central hardwood forests Chestnut? . . ..... Md. 20 25 40 55 85 Oak, red. . . Ky. 25 30 45 _ 100 Oak, white . . Ky. 35 45 80 —_— 160 Poplar, yellow . lat 46 Tenn —_ 45 —_— _— 110 Farm timber plantations Catalpa 2 * ee oe Hw Til. 20 —_— — —_— ——— Larch, European 2 Ill. 23 —_— —_— —_ — Maple, silver 2 Til.’ — 25 — —_ — Walnut, black 2 Tl. 25 35 — —_ —— Cottonwood 2 ae Nebr.| — 18 —_— — — Southern forests Ash, white... .. Ark. —_— 30 45 | — 85 Cottonwood Miss. | — 15 — —_— 30 Cypress... Md. 40 — 65 75 90 Gum, red. 8.C. — —_— 30 — 55 Pine, loblolly a 4 S.C. 25 40 55 70 Pine, longleaf . . ... S.C. — — 75 100 130 Pacific coast forests Fir, Douglas . . . .. Wash.| 25 35 45 50 75 Hemlock, western Wash.; — 50 70 — 125 Pine, sugar. . . . Cal. 40 50 65 — 100 Pine, western yellow . Cal. 25 35 45 55 80 Redwood Cal. 20 25 35 50 70 1 Species tolerant of shade which should show better results in second growth. 2 Species growing under favorable conditions when measured. FOREST YIELDS 205 Yield of white pine per acre in southern New Hampshire (Margolin) Quauity I Current | Mean An- AGE EES ieee | ean | Vouume |AnnvauIn-| nuat IN- CREMENT CREMENT Years Square ft. Feet Cubic ft. |. Cubic ft. Cubic ft. 25 2,430 190 33 3,100 124 124 30 1,840 215 41 4,367 253 145 35 1,250 230 48 5,850 296 167 40 870 238 56 7,033 236 176 45 640 243 64 8,000 193 177 50 510 246 70 8,767 153 175 55 430 249 75 9,475 141 172 60 380 252 80 10,100 125 168 65 340 255 84 10,633 106 164 70 310 258 87 11,100 93 158 75 280 261 90 11,567 93 154 80 260 263 93 12,000 86 150 85 240 266 95 12,383 76 146 90 220 268 97 12,767 76 142 Quauity II 25 2,430 163 31 2,700 108 108 30 1,840 183 38 3,700 200 123 35 1,250 195 45 4,850 230 139 40 870 212 52 5,800 190 145 45 640 221 59 6,600 160 147 50 510 228 65 7,300 140 146 55 430 233 71 7,925 125 144 60 380 236 76 8,500 115 142 65 340 238 80 9,000 100 138 70 310 241 84 9,450 90 135 75 280 244 87 9,900 90 132 80 260 247 89 10,300 80 129 85 240 250 91 10,650 70 125 90 220 253 93 11,000 70 122 Quauity IIT 25 2,430 150. 28 2,300 —_ 92 30 1,840 165 °35 3,033 146 101 35 1,250 176 42 3,850 163 110 40 870 185 48 4,567 143 114 45 640 191 54 5,200 126 116 50 510 197 60 5,833 126 116 55 430 201 66 6,375 108 116 60 380 205 71 6,900 105 115 65 340 208 75 7,367 93 113 70 310 211 79 7,817 90 112 75 280 213 83 8,233 83 110 80 260 216 85 8,600 73 107 85 240 218 88 8,917 63 105 90 220 221 89 9,233 63 103 206 FORESTRY AND TIMBER Second growth VoLuME AGE Quality I Quality II Quality III Years Board feet Board feet Board feet 20 4,600 3,150 1,700 25 8,400 5,900 3,450 30 15,100 10,800 6,550 35 24,950 18,050 11,200 40 33,550 25,000 16,450 45 40,750 31,450 22,150 50 47,450 37,800 27,650 | 55 52,350 42,550 32,750 60 57,300 47,400 37,500 65 61,850 51,850 41,850 70 65,900 55,800 45,700 75 69,750 59,500 49,250 80 73,300 62,850 52,400 85 76,700 66,000 55,300 90 80,050 69,000 57,950 ! Volume in board feet is round-edged box board material. White pine thinnings Quauity I “Quatiry IT Quauity III Trees Trees Trees AGE under under under Total Thinning ag Total Thinning a te Total Thinning Eibehes per Acre atieter ‘per Acre Atetee per Acre aietes Breast- Breast- Breast- high high bigh Yéare Cubic | Board | Cubic Cubic Board | Cubic | Cubic | Board | Cubic feet Seet Seet Seet Seet Seet Seet Seet Seet 25 1,350 | 2,000 | 830 900 750 | 750 600 600 30 1,730 | 4,500 | 660 1,380 3,300 | 600 | 1,090 | 2,200] 500 35 | 1,980] 6,800 | 480 1,680 5,600 | 450 | 1,440 | 4,300; 400 40 | 2,120] 8,700 | 270 1,900 7,500 | 300 | 1,640 | 5,800 | 300 45 | 2,240] 10,100 60 2,040 8,900 | 150 | 1,750 | 6,900 | 200 50 | 2,280} 11,200 | —— 2,100 9,900 | —— |.1,800 | 7,600 80 55 | 2,280] 12,000 | —— 2,100 | 10,400 | —— |1,780 | 8,100} —— 60 | 2,260} 12,300 | —— 2,000 | 10,600 | —— | 1,700 | 8,300 | —— 65 | 2,200 | 12,300 | —— 1,850 | 10,300 | —— | 1,590 | 8,200 | —— 70 | 2,100} 11,900 | —— 1,630 9,500 | —— | 1,420 | 7,800 | —— 75 1,950 | 11,100 | —— 1,300 8,000 | —— | 1,200 | 6,900 | —— 80 1,700 | 9,500 | —— 860 5,000 | — 920 | 5,600 | —— 85 — | ——— —_— 200 1,200 | — 650 | 4,000 | —— 90 | — |} — | — | —- | —— | — | 3870] 2,300; — TREATING POSTS 207 Life of Fence-Posts and Shingles Durability of fence posts in Minnesota (Green). Years Red cedar . erie! Ue a RD das ap EP Tap i BO White cedar (quartered 6 in. face) feo ee Se oe wa we ee LORDS. White oak (6 in. round) a tee ae ee a ee ae 8 Redand) black:Oale (isc: ee seu ee a Sgt ae eo a es CA 4 Tamarack (red wood) be ee OM eA eae OS 9 Babys aes, Djs nase nce era dec ae feu” fo as a ae oy Gee ae OR, Ree Mag Ne. Rea Ost) GON Ash, beech, maple Ce ae Cn ae ee ee a oe 4 Black-walnut, « 2 4 4 4 © # © 8 # ¥ # & 4H &@ « a « @ -FELO Prolonging the life of fence-posts (Willis). Measures for posts named in ascending order of efficiency : — Peeling and seasoning. Charring. Painting. At best, surface brush paintings are not very durable. Some of the substances which may be applied with a brush are whitewash, petro- leum-tar creosote, coal-tar creosote, and various patented products of coal tar and petroleum tar. Paint and whitewash are inferior to antiseptic preservatives; products of coal tar (creosote, etc.) are the best. These are best applied hot, in two or more coats. A barrel (50 gallons) of creosote should be sufficient to paint at least 300 posts with three coats for the butts and two for the tops. Dipping. One defect of brush treatment is that the preservative does not enter readily the cracks and checks. This defect may be overcome by dipping the posts in the preservative. Another advantage of dip- ping, as compared with painting, is a saving in labor. On the other hand, dipping requires a larger quantity of preservative, and, in ad- dition to the amount consumed, there must be enough surplus to keep the barrel or tank filled to the proper depth. This usually forbids the use of any expensive preservative for dipping. Petroleum tar, coal tar, and the creosotes, however, may often be advantageously employed. Posts have been treated by dipping the butt in cement. This is . 208 FORESTRY AND TIMBER hardly satisfactory, owing to the ease with which the protective covering may be broken; moisture is absorbed after treatment; and causes the wood to expand and crack the cement. Cold-bath treatment. This differs from dipping because penetration of the wood is se- cured by leaving the post in the bath for ten hours or more. As a rule, only the cheaper preservatives can profitably be used in the cold-bath treatment. Coal tar is so ropy and sticky that it will scarcely pene- trate even the most easily treated woods. Crude petroleum enters the wood rather readily, but lacks strong antiseptic qualities. A long bath in crude petroleum may, however, prove a feasible method of treatment where petroleum is very cheap and the woods used are readily impreg- nated. Creosote is usually the best preservative to employ. Coal- tar creosote requires a slight heating to liquefy it. Water in the wood cells resists the penetration of the oil. Thorough seasoning before treatment, therefore, is necessary to allow the oil to penetrate readily and to prevent checking after treatment. The cold-bath method of treatment has not yet been thoroughly investigated. It is probable, however, that it will impregnate but few woods. The woods which are likely to prove most suitable are beech, cottonwood, the gums, pin and red oaks, the pines, sycamore, and tulip tree. Impregnation with creosote. The impregnation of fence posts with creosote is best accomplished by the so-called “ open-tank”’ process, so designated to distinguish it from the “closed” or “ pressure” cylinder process which is often employed in creosoting ties and piling. This consists of heating wood for a certain period and then cooling it in the preservative. The principle is simple: during the heating the high temperature causes the air and water contained in the wood cells to expand, so that a por- tion of this air and water is forced out. The rest contracts as the sub- sequent cooling progresses, and a partial vacuum is formed, into which: atmospheric pressure forces the cool preservative. The open-tank principle may be variously applied in the treatment of posts. The best way to heat the posts is to immerse their butts in creosote mainta ned at a temperature of 220° F. If a single tank is TREATING POSTS AND SHINGLES 209 used, the cooling bath may be given by permitting the temperature to fall, and in this case the preservative must, of course, be used for the hot bath. It is better, however, to employ an additional tank containing the cold preservative. If two tanks are used and a thorough impreg- nation of the top of the post is desired, the cold-bath tank should be large enough to permit the soaking of the entire post. The top of the post will not be too heavily impregnated, because it has not been im- mersed in the hot oil. With two tanks, crude petroleum or any heavy (high-boiling) oil may be used in the hot-bath tank. Creosote is usually the most satisfactory preservative. Other wood. Wood used on the farm in various forms other than post material may often be advantageously preserved from decay by chemical treatment, as all timbers used in foundations, sills, beams, and plank- ing, as well as the lower parts of board fences, and the lumber used near the ground in sheds and barns. The treatment of these is very similar to that given posts. Prolonging the life of shingles (Willis). Water absorbed during a storm subsequently evaporates rapidly from the upper surface of shingles and rather slowly from the lower surface. Consequently, the upper part of the shingle shrinks more than does the under, and curling or warping results. The impor- tance of excluding moisture is obvious. In addition to this, it is advisable to employ an antiseptic to retard decay. The best pre- servative, it follows, must possess such qualities as will operate in both these ways to prolong the life of the shingles. Apply preserv- atives only when the wood is thoroughly dry. Non-antiseptic preservatives. — The application of paint is the pre- servative measure most commonly used with shingles. The method of applying it is of paramount importance. Dipping the shingles individually is the only satisfactory procedure. When a roof is painted ridges of paint are formed at the base of the shingles, owing to the irregularities of the surface over which the brush passes. These cause the water to permeate the crevices between the shingles and frequently hasten decay. P 210 FORESTRY AND TIMBER Antiseptic preservatives. — The best antiseptics for shingle treat- ment are creosote and other derivatives of coal tar. Painting the roof with these oils is a rather satisfactory method of treatment, since the coal-tar derivatives penetrate the shingles better than ordinary paint and do not leave ridges below the base of the shingles. At least two coats should be applied. Dipping the individual shingles gives good results. The best results, however, are obtained by heating and cooling the wood in the preservative, as described for the treatment of fence posts. Suggestions for community action (Willis). It is often difficult for a farmer efficiently to treat his own material with preservatives. This, however, does not indicate that the work should be neglected. Rather it points to some different means of securing the desired result. There are two practical methods of doing this. One is for some individual to undertake the work for the neighborhood. A small wood-preserving plant could be profitably operated in connection with a threshing outfit, a feed mill, or sawmill. The other plan is for several farmers to codperate in establishing and operating the plant. As an indication of the success which should attend such an undertaking, the codperative creameries of various sections of the country may be cited. Board Measure Board measure is designed primarily for the measurement of sawed lumber. The unit is the board foot, which is a board one inch thick and one foot square, so that with inch boards the content in board measure is the same as the number of square feet of surface; with lumber of other thicknesses the content is expressed in terms of inch boards. Lumber is always sold on a basis of 1000 feet board measure, the abbreviation for which is B.M., and for thousand is M. Thus, 500 feet B.M., costing $18 per thousand, would be $9; 100 feet B.M., $1.80; 10 feet B.M., 18 cents. ; At $10 per M., B.M., lumber costs 1% per square foot; at $12, 1.2¢ square foot; at $14, 1.4%; at $15, 11%; at $17, 1.7%; at $20, 2¢ square BOARD AND CORD MEASURE 211 foot. At $9 M., 1 sq. ft. is 5%; at $8, 38%. Multiply the number of square feet B.M. by the price per square foot. ‘ To find the B.M., multiply the length in.feet by the thickness and width in inches, and divide the product by 12. Thus, a plank 18 ft. 18 x2x8 —jr = 24 ft. B. M. Or, the length of the plank in inches may be multiplied by the end area in square inches, and the result divided by 144. For example, the number of feet B. M. in a piece 18 ft. long, 2 in. thick, and 8 in. wide, will be 216 in. (18 ft. X 12) multiplied by 16 sq. in. (2 X 8, the end area), or 3456 sq. in., 1 in. thick; dividing by 144, the result is 24 ft. B.M. long, 2 in. thick, and 8 in. wide contains Cord Measure (The Woodsman’s Handbook, U.S. Forest Service) Firewood, small pulp-wood, and material cut into short sticks for excelsior, etc., is usually measured by the cord. A cord is 128 cubic feet of stacked wood. The wood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths, in which case a cord is a stack 4 feet high and wide, and 8 feet long. Some- times, however, pulp-wood is cut 5 feet long, and a stack of it 4 feet high, 5 feet wide, and 8 feet long is considered 1 cord. In this case the cord contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where firewood is cut in 5-foot lengths, a cord is a stack 4 feet high and 6} feet long, and contains 130 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where it is desirable to use shorter lengths for special purposes, the sticks are often cut 1}, 2, or 3 feet long. A stack of such wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is considered 1 cord, but the price is always made to conform to the shortness of the measure. A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord, and is equivalent to a stack of 4- foot wood 4 feet high and 1 foot wide. Farmers frequently speak of a foot of cord wood, meaning a cord foot. By the expression “ surface foot” is meant the number of square feet measured on the side of astack. In some localities, particularly in New England, cord-wood is meas- ured by means of calipers. Instead of stacking the wood and computing the cords in the ordinary way, the average diameter of each log is de- termined with calipers and the number of cords obtained by consulting a table which gives the amount of wood in logs of different diameters and lengths. 212 FORESTRY AND TIMBER Log Measure (The Woodsman’s Handbook) In the United States and Canada logs are most commonly measured in board feet. In small transactions standing timber is often sold by the lot or for a specified amount per acre. Standing trees which are to be used for lumber are occasionally sold by the piece. Hoop poles and other small wood are sold by the hundred or thousand. Ties and poles are sold by the piece; piles and mine props by the piece or by linear feet, the price varying in piece sales according to specifications as to diameter, length, and grade. Firewood and wood cut into short bolts, as for small pulp-wood, ex- celsior-wood, spool-wood, novelty-wood, and heading, is ordinarily measured in cords. In certain sections of the East it has been the custom to use a stand- ard log as a unit of measure. In the Adirondacks a common unit of measure is the 19-inch standard, or, as it is often called, the ‘‘ market.” In this case the standard logis 19 inches in diameter at the small end inside the bark and 13 feet long. In New Hampshire the Blodgett standard is in common use. This unit is a cylinder 16 inches in diam- eter and 1 foot long. There were formerly other standards in use, such as the 24-inch standard once used in New England, and the 22-inch standard in use in certain parts of Canada and northern New York. The standard measure is decreasing in use. The cubic foot is the best unit for measuring the volume of logs. It has gained a foothold in this country, and will unquestionably be the unit of the future. Even now, red-cedar pencil-wood, wagon stock, and other valuable hardwood material is occasionally sold by the cubic foot in certain sections of the East. The unit is used by a few companies in Maine for measuring pulp-wood. A special commission on the measurement of logs has recently recommended to the legisla- ture of Maine that the cubic foot be adopted as a statute unit of measurement. The cubic foot has for a long time been used for the measurement of square timber. Round logs are often measured in terms of cubic feet, but the plan is to determine the contents of the square which can be cut from the log, rather than the full contents, including slabs. The cubic foot is in common use in the measurement of precious woods which are imported from the tropics. LOG MEASURE 213 In continental Europe and the Philippine Islands, the cubic meter has been established as the standard unit for the measuring of logs and timber. In recent years, board measure has also been used as a unit of volume for logs. When so applied, the measure does not show the entire con- , tent of the log, but the quantity of’ lumber which, it is estimated, may be manufactured from it. The number of board feet in any given log is determined from a table that shows the estimated number which can be taken out from logs of different diameters and lengths. Such a table is called a log scale or log rule, and is compiled by reducing the dimensions of perfect logs of different sizes, to allow for waste in manu- facture, and then calculating the number of inch boards which remain in the log. The amount of lumber that can be cut from logs of a given size is not uniform, because the factors which determine the amount of waste vary under different circumstances, such as the thickness of the saw, the thickness of the boards, the width of the smallest board which may be utilized, the skill of the sawyer, the efficiency of the machinery, the defects'in the log, the amount of taper, and the shrinkage. This lack of uniformity has led to wide differences of opinion as to how log rules should be constructed. There have been many attempts to devise a log rule which can be used as a standard, but none of them will meet all conditions. The rules in existence have been so unsatisfactory that constant attempts have been made to improve upon them. Asa result there are now actually in use in the United States 40 or 50 different log rules, whose results differ in some cases as much as 120 per cent for 20-inch to 30-inch logs and 600 per cent for 6-inch logs. Some of these are constructed from mathematical formule; some by preparing dia- grams that represent the top of a log and then determining the amount of waste in sawdust and slabs; some are based on actual averages of logs cut at the mill; while still others are the result of making correc- tions in an existing rule to meet special local conditions. The large number of log rules, the differences in their values, and the variation in the methods of their application have led tomuch confusion and inconvenience. Efforts to reach an agreement among lumbermen on a single standard log rule have failed so far. A number of states have given official sanction to specific rules; but this has only added to the confusion, because the states have not chosen the same rule, so 214 FORESTRY AND TIMBER there are six different state log rules, and, in addition, three different official log rules in Canada. It is probable that a standard method of measuring logs will not be worked out satisfactorily until a single unit of volume, like the cubic foot, is adopted for the measurement of logs. The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture has adopted the Scribner Decimal Rule for timber sales on the National Forests. It has been in use for about four years, and, in the main, has proved satisfactory, since competitive bids enable the buyer to bid higher if the character of the logs indicates a mill overrun. Scribner decimal log rule The total scale is obtained by multiplying the figures in this table by 10. Thus the contents of a 6-inch 8-foot log are given as 0.5, so the total scale is 5 board feet. A 30-inch 16-foot log is given as 66, or a total scale of 660 board feet. LenctH (FEET) : LenetH (FEET) DIAMETER DIAMETER 6 8 10 12 | 14 | 16 In, |Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.|Bd. ft) In. |Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft. 6 | 0.5) 05; 1 1 1 2 || 42) 50| 67] 84) 101 | 117 | 134 9; 1 2 3 3 3 4 || 44) 56| 74] 93] 111 | 129 | 148 10 | 2 3 3 3 4 6 |} 48) 65] 86] 108 |) 130 | 151 | 173 12 | 3 4 5 6 7 8 50] 70] 94 | 117 | 140 | 164 | 187 15 | 5 7 9 | 11 | 12 | 14 54 | 82] 109 | 137 | 164 | 191 | 218 18 | 8 |1l1 13 | 16 | 19 | 21 56 | 88 | 118 | 147 | 176 | 206 | 235 20 ;11 |14 17 | 21 | 24 | 28 60 | 101 | 135 | 169 | 203 | 237 | 270 22 1/13 |17 21 | 25 | 29 | 33 65 | 119 | 159 | 199 | 239 | 279 | 319 24/15 | 21 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 70 | 139 | 186 | 232 | 279 | 325 | 372 28 | 22 | 29 36 | 44 | 51 | 58.]) 80 | 185 | 247 | 309 | 371 | 432 | 494 30 | 25 | 33 41 | 49 | 57 | 66 85 | 210 | 281 | 351 | 421 | 491 | 561 36 | 35 | 46 58 | 69 | 81 | 92 || 95 | 262 | 350 | 487 | 525 | 612 | 700 40 |45 | 60 75 | 90 |105 |120 || 100 | 289 | 386 | 482 | 579 | 675 772 U. S. Forest Service Log-Scaling Directions Unless timber is sold on the basis of an estimate,.it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the cutting area, or from the place agreed upon for the scaling, the counting, or the measuring. LOG-SCALING RULES 215 All saw timber will be scaled by the Scribner Decimal log rule. This rule drops the units and gives the contents of a log to the nearest. ten. When the total scale of a log is desired, all that is necessary is to add one cipher to the sum of the numbers read from the scale stick, except- ing the contents of 6 and 8 foot logs, 6 and 7 inches in diameter. These are given as 0.5, which, multiplied by 10, gives 5 feet as the actual con- tents. In the absence of a scale stick, or where the position of logs in the pile makes its use difficult, the diameters and lengths may be tallied and the contents figured from a scale table later. Purchasers should be required to skid logs for scaling, if the cost of scaling will be materially decreased by these requirements and if the cost of logging will not be greatly increased. The forest officer should always insist on having one end of piles or skidways even, so that ends of logs may be easily reached. When necessary and possible, the purchaser will be required to mark top ends of logs to avoid question when they are scaled in the pile. Each log scaled must be numbered with crayon. The number will be the same as that opposite which the scale of the log is recorded in the scale book. The logs in all skidways must be counted, and the number in each checked with the entries in the scale book. | Each merchantable log after scaling will be stamped “U.S.” on at least one end. Logs so defective as to be unmerchantable will not be stamped, but will be marked “ cull.” On all national forests except those in Alaska and on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet long will be scaled as two or more logs, if possible in lengths not less than 12 feet. The following table shows how the lengths will be divided when scaling logs 18 to 60 feet long. The number of inches to be added to the diameter at the small end of each log, to cover taper, is placed under each length. For example, a 42-foot log 16 inches in diameter at the top would be scaled as — One 12-foot log with a diameter of 16 ice One 14-foot log with a diameter of 17 inches. One 16-foot log with a diameter of 19 inches. 216 FORESTRY AND: TIMBER Allowances for taper in logs This table is intended to be used simply as a guide. The allowances for taper should be varied to conform to the actual taper Tota LencTH Loe LencTa Tora, LencTa Loa Lenora Sec- . Sec- Butt Third| Top Butt Third} Top Feet Lo é gud Loe: | Loe Feet Log pod zl Loe VS: ca at a .| 10’ | —-|—| 8’ |/40 . . . .| 16’ | 12’ | — | 12’ Increase 1” | — | —]| 0” Increase. | 3” | 1” |—- | 0” 20 « a x .| 10’ | —-}| —-] 10’ ||42 . . . .| 16’ | 14’ | ——} 12’ Increase .| 1” | — |; — | 0” Increase.| 3” | 1 |—J| 0” 22... =. +.{ 12’ | —}]—]10’ 44 . . . .} 16’ | 16’ | ——| 12’ Increase .| 1” | —|— | 0” Increase.| 3” | 1” | — J] 0” QA we ew 14’ | —_|—]} 10’ |}46 . . . .} 16’ | 16’ | —-} 14 Increase .| 1” | — |— | 0” Increase.| 4” | 2’ | ——| 0” 26... . .{14’ | —]|—]12’ |}48 . . . .| 16’ | 16’ | —| 16’ Increase .| 1” | —|—| 0” Increase. | 4” | 2” | —]| 0” 28s we » « @) 14? b= | | 14 150 2 sw te] dd? 2" 1 re | a Increase .| 2’ | —-|—]| 0” Increase.}| 4” | 3” |] 1” | 0” B04 « « » «| 26" | —]—]14' 152 . « . «| 16" | 2% | 12? | 12 Increase .| 2” | —|— |] 0” Increase.| 4” | 3” |] 1” | 0” 32... . ./ 16’ | —|—/ 16’ 154 . ... .| 16’ | 14’ | 12’ | 12’ Increase .| 2’ | —-|—]| 0” Increase.| 5” | 3”] 1” | 0” 84... . . .{12’ | 12’ | —|10’ 56 . . . «| 16’ | 16’ | 12’ | 12’ Increase .| 3” | 1” |—J]| 0” Increase.| 5” | 3” | 1” | 0” 36... . .Y 12’ 12’ | —|12’ 758 . . . .| 16’ | 16’ | 14’ | 12’ Increase .| 3” | 1” |—J] 0” Increase. | 5” | 3” | 2” | 0” 88... . . «| 14’ | 12’| —] 12’ |}60 . . . .| 16’ | 16’ | 14’ | 14’ Increase .| 3” | 1” | —J| 0” Increase.| 5” | 37%] 2” 1] 0” Cubic Log Measure (The Woodsman’s Handbook) A cubic unit, either the cubic foot or cubic meter, ultimately will be in common use for the commercial measurement of timber. This will come about with the increase of the value of timber. When the whole log, including slabs, can be used, the owner cannot afford to sell his logs purely on a basis of an estimated product in manufactured boards. If logs are bought according to their solid contents, though they may not cost more, yet the buyer will feel that he pays for the material he wastes, and therefore will be more eager to utilize it. There are a number of methods of determining the solid contents of logs in cubic feet. The two methods in most common use for commer- cial work are given in this book. Other methods, designed for scientific work, are discussed at length in treatises on forest mensuration. CUBIC LOG MEASURE 217 Method of cubing logs by the measurement of the length and of the middle diameters. To cube logs, one method requires the measurement of the average diameter of the log at its middle point and the length. The volume of the log is obtained by multiplying the area of the circle correspond- ing to the middle diameter of the log by the length: — V=BLiXL, in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet, B} the area of the middle cross section in square feet, and L the length in feet. Example: Suppose a log to have a middle diameter of 15 inches and a length of 30 feet. One finds in a table of areas of circles (giving the diameter in inches and the area in square feet) the area corresponding to 15 inches, namely, 1.227; then V = 1.227 x 30 = 36.8 cubic feet. This method is very: simple, because it requires only two measure- ments of the log — the diameter at the middle and the length. Tables showing the areas of circles in these units are readily accessible, and also tables showing the cubic contents of logs of different middle diam- eters and lengths, so that there is no computation necessary. Method of cubing logs by measurement of the length and end diameters. ' By this method the diameters of the two ends of the log and its length are measured. The volume is obtained by multiplying the average of the areas of circles that precese to end diameters by the length : — V = —— L, 2 in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet, B and 6 are the areas in square feet that correspond to the diameters of the two ends, and L is the length in feet. Example: A log is 12 feet long, and the diameters at the ends are 16 and 18 inches. The areas that correspond to the end diameters are found in a table of circular areas, and used in the formula, as follows : — V eee x 12 = 18.97 cu. ft. 218 FORESTRY AND TIMBER This method requires one more measurement than’ the previous, and is therefore not as rapid for ordinary work in commercial scaling. It is, however, a very convenient formula for determining the contents of logs where it is not possible to take the measurement at the middle, as on logs piled on a skidway. Solid cubic contents of logs (in cubic feet) He AVERAGE DIAMETER IN INCHES [} A 4HZ]6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 15 | 18 | 20] 24 30 33 36 | 40 | 44 | 48 10 . |1.96) 3.49) 5.45] 7.85)12.27/17.67/21.82| 31.42] 49.09] 59.40) 70.69] 87.3/105.6/125.7 11 =‘ |2.16]) 3.84) 6.00} 8.64]13.50/19.44/24.00] 34.56] 54.00] 65.34) 77.75] 96.0/116.2/138.2 12 , |2.36] 4.19] 6.55) 9.42/14.73/21.21|26.18| 37.70] 58.90) 71.27] 84.82/104.7/126.7/150.8 13 . |2.55] 4.54) 7.09/10.21/15.95/22.97|/28.36] 40.84) 63.81| 77.21] 91.89/113.4]137.3|163.4 14 , |2.75] 4.89) 7.64/11.00/17.18)24.74|30.54] 43.98] 68.72] 83.15] 98.96/122.2)147.8]175.9 15 . |2.95} 5.24! 8.18/11.78118.41|26.51|32.72| 47.12) 73.63) 89.09]106.03]130.9/158.4/ 188.5 16 . |3.14] 5.59) 8,.73/12.57|19.63/28.27|34.91| 50.27) 78.54] 95.03/113.10/139.6/168.9/201.1 17 . |3.34| 5.93) 9.27/13.35}20.86/30.04/37.09) 53.41] 83.45/100.97/120.17|148.4|179.5/213.6 18 . |3.53] 6.28) 9.82/14.14,22.09|31.81|39.27| 56.55) 88.36/106.91/127.32/157.1/190. 1/226.2 19 3.73] 6.63)10.36]14.92|23.32/33.58|41.45| 59.69] 93.27/112.85/134.30/165.8/200.6/238.8 20 . ;3.93} 6.98/10.91]15.71/24.54135.34/43.63] 62.83] 98.17/118.79]141.37|174.5)211.2/251.3 21 . /4.12) 7.33/11.45}16.49|25.77/37.11/45.82| 65.97|103.08|124.73|/148.44|188.3/221.7|263.9 22 , |4.32} 7.68/12.00)17.28|27.00/38.88]/48.00| 69.11}107.99]130.67/155.51/192.0/232.3|276.5 23 © 4.52) 8.03/12.54/18.06|28.23/40.64/50.18| 72.26|112.90)136.61/162.58/200.7/242.9]/289,0 24 . \4.71| 8.38/13.09/18.85/29.45/42.41|52.36] 75.40/117.81|142.55/169.65|209.4|253.4/301.6 25 . |4.91) 8.73/13.64|19.64)30.68/44.18/54.54|} 78.54/122.72|148.491176.71|218.2/264.0/314.2 26 . |5.11) 9.08/14.18}20.42131.91/45.95|56.72| 81.68]127.63]154.43/183.78|226.9/274.5/326.7 27 . |5.30) 9.42/14.73)21.21/33.13/47.71|58.90] 84.82/132.54|160.37/190.85|235.6)285.1/339.3 28 = =|5.50) 9.77/15.27/21.99/34.36/49.48/61.09] 87.96/137.44|166.31]197.92|244.3/295.7/351.9 29 . (5.69)10.12/15.82/22.78/35.59/51.25/63.27| 91.11/142.35)172.25|204.99]253.1/306.21364.4 30 . |5.89/10.47/16.36|23.56|36.82|53.01|65.45| 94.25]147.26]178.19|212.06|261.8/316.8|377.0 31 . |6.09 10.82]16.91 24.35/38.04/54.78/67.63] 97.39]152.17|184.13/219.13|270.5/327.3|389.6 32 = {6.28/11.17)17.45)25.13/39.27/56.55/69.81/100.53|157.08|190.07}226.19/279.3/337.9|402.1 33 —_|6.48/11.52/18.00/25.92/40.50/58.32|71.99]103.67/ 161.99) 196.01!233.26!288.0/348,5/414.7 34 , /6.63]11.87|18.54/26.70/41.72|60.08]74.18]106 81}166.90|/201.95/240.33|296.7/359.0/427.3 35 . |6.87)12.22/19.09/27.49/42.95/61.85|/76.36|109.96/171.81 |207.88|247.40/305.4|369.6/439.8 36 . |7.07)12.57/19.64)/28.27/44.18/63.62/78.54/113.10/176.71/213.82)254.47|314.2/380.1/452.4 37 . |7.26/12.92/20.18/29,06/45.41|65.38/80.72/116.24/181.62/219.76|261.54/322.9|390.7/465.0 38 . |7.46)13.26/20.73/29.85|46.63/67.15/82.90/119.38/186.53|225.70|268.61 |331.6|401.2/477.5 89 . |7.66/13.61|21.27/30.63/47.86|68.92|85.08]122,.52/191.44/231.64|275.67|340.3|411.8|490.1 40 . |7.85/13.96|21.82/31.42/49.09/70.69/87.27|125.66/196.35|237.58|282.74|/349.1/422.41502.7 Cubic Contents of Square Timber in Round Logs (Woodsman’s Handbook) The most common methods of determining the cubic contents of square timber that may be cut from round logs is the so-called Two- thirds Rule, and the Inscribed Square Rule. CUBIC CONTENTS OF SQUARE TIMBER 219 The two-thirds rule. In the Two-thirds Rule the diameter of the log is taken at its middle point, or the diameters of the two ends of the log are averaged. The diameter of the log is reduced one-third to allow for slab, and the re- maining two-thirds is taken as the width of the square piece Which may be hewed or sawed out of the log. The cubic contents of the squared log are then obtained by squaring this width and multiplying by the length of the log. Square timber cut from round logs (in cubic feet) (Inseribed-Square Rule) AVERAGE DIAMETER IN INCHES LreNncTa IN Fret o — eo -_ wo -_ wo a oS aw So wo ow wo o 10 5 11.3 13.9 20 31.8 | 37.8 45 12 6 13.5 16.7 24 38.1 | 45.4 54 14 7 15.8 | 19.4 28 44.5 | 52.9 63 16 8 18.0 | 22.2 32 50.8 | 60.5 72 18 9 20.3 | 25.0 36 57.2 | 68.1 81 20 10 22.5 | 27.8 40 63.5 | 75.6 90 22 11 24.8 | 30.1 44 69.9 | 83.2 99 24 12 27.0 | 33.3 48 76.2 | 90.8] 108 26 13 29.3 | 36.1 52 82.6 | 98.3} 117 28 14 31.5 | 38.9 56 88.9 | 105.9 | 126 30 15 33.8 | 41.7 60 95.3 | 113.5) 135 32 16 36.0 | 44.4 64 | 101.6 | 121.0} 144 34 17 38.3 | 47.2 68 | 1080 | 128.6} 153 36 18 40.2 | 50.0 72 | 114.3 | 136.2) 162 38 19 42.8 | 52.8 76 | 120.7 | 143.7 | 171 40 20 45.0 | 55.6 80 | 127.0 | 151.3 | 180 WN NOOO 1 WANDA OUP WG DI Ft OO 2 OO NI NTO? Ori i GO PNOWRONW MDE RNORROWRON MOH RNOWROWOONDN to rx) i © on o uy ay 0 iv) _ oo © nN _ ey p> HS m © a BO RO ROIOIG BOND NSS Fe ae SS HN OR Ose aS BRE Hee eee eee eee PHAAT PS PVGOOVH EH SSOGHMHNNAAUO AWOL | w Boos £0 €O'6O 10000 0000'S UST SGD Sd G2 3 OU GUGT Oru ie uh Cd Ce 60 C0 DON NON MBHSWNWOWMWOWNWODMNWODNWOdDMWOWiNwW Odo into 220 FORESTRY AND TIMBER The inscribed-square rule. ‘ The Inscribed-Square Rule gives the cubic contents of square pieces which can be exactly inscribed in cylinders of different sizes. The width of this square piece is usually obtained by multiplying the diam- eter of the cylinder by 17 and dividing the result by 24, or by multi- plying the diameter by 0.7071. This rule of thumb for calculating the width of the inscribed square piece is based on the fact that one side of the square inscribed in a circle 24 inches in diameter is 17 inches long. The exact mathematical rule for determining the side of a square inscribed in a circle is to square the diameter, divide by 2, and extract the square root. The table on the preceding page was computed by this method. Practically the same results are obtained by the Seventeen-inch Rule, which is based on the fact that a 17-inch log will square 12 inches. According to the Seventeen-inch Rule, the cubic contents of a log are obtained as follows: Multiply the square of the diameter of the log by its length, and divide by the square of 17. CHAPTER XIII WEEDS A WEED is a plant that is not wanted. The methods of weed- control depend ‘largely on the character of soil, system of farming practiced in the neighborhood, and, particularly, on the type of weed concerned, whether annual, biennial, or perennial. The better the crop-scheme, the less will be the difficulty from bad weeds. The prime remedy, therefore, is to improve the general farm plan and practice, and to use only clean seed. Special means and methods may be dis- cussed, however; and these discussions are drawn from Farmers’ Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture, from bul- letins of the Rhode Island, Ohio, and North Dakota Stations, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, and other sources. General Practices For annual weeds, which reproduce from seed only, the root and branch dying each year, the essentials for eradication are the use of clean seed, the killing of plants before they ripen seeds, and the preven- tion of new infestation by such means as manure from stables where weed forage has been used. For permanent pastures, lawns, and roadsides the prevention of seed production is often the most practi- cable method, and it is sufficient if persistently followed. In culti- vated fields the land thus seeded may first be burned over to destroy as many as possible of the seeds on the surface. It may then be plowed shallow, so as not to bury the remaining seeds too deeply. The succeed- ing cultivation, not deeper than the plowing, will induce the germina- tion of seeds in this layer of soil and kill the seedlings as they appear. The land may then be plowed deeper, and the tillage repeated until the weed seeds are cleared out to as great a depth as the plow ever reaches. Below that depth, eight to ten inches, very few weed seeds can germinate and push a shoot to the surface. Barren summer- 221 222 WEEDS fallowing is often practiced to clear out weedy land by the method just described ; but usually a cultivated crop may better be grown. For biennials, which also reproduce from seed, mowing them when coming into flower or cutting the roots below the crown is usually effective. Autumn is the best time for such grubbing. Biennial weeds are readily killed by such tillage as is given to hoed crops. For perennials which reproduce both from seed and from surface runners or perennial underground roots or stems, seed production must be prevented and the underground part must be killed. Seed production may be prevented by mowing when the first flower-buds appear. The best methods for killing the roots or rootstocks vary considerably according to the soil, climate, character of the different weeds, and the size of the patch or the quantity to be killed. In general, however, the following principles apply : — 1. The roots, rootstocks, bulbs, and the like, may be dug up and removed, a remedy that can be practically applied only in small areas. 2. Salt, coal oil, or strong acid applied so as to come in contact with the freshly cut roots or rootstocks destroys them for some distance from the point of contact. Crude sulfuric acid is probably the most effec- tive of comparatively inexpensive materials that can be used for this purpose, but its strong corrosive properties render it dangerous to handle. Carbolic acid is less corrosive, and nearly as effective. Arse- nite of soda and arsenate of soda, dangerous poisons, are effective, particularly the former, applied as a spray on the growing weeds. Fuel-distillate, a petroleum product, is very promising. 3. Roots may be starved to death by preventing any development of green leaves or other parts above ground. This may be effected by building straw stacks over small patches, by persistent, thorough cultivation in fields, by the use of the hoe or spud in waste places, and by salting the plants and turning on sheep in permanent pastures. 4, The plants may usually be smothered by dense sod-forming grasses or by a crop like hemp, buckwheat, clover, cowpeas, or millet that will exclude the light. 5. Most roots are readily destroyed by exposing them to the direct action of the sun during the summer drought, or to the direct action of the frost in winter. In this way plowing, for example, becomes effec- tive. 6. Proper crop rotation is one of the best means of eradication. WEED POISONS 223 Chemical Weed-Killers or Herbicides The usefulness of chemicals as weed-killers is largely limited to the following cases (Jones) : — 1. When an especially obnoxious weed, as poison ivy, occurs in a limited locality and is to be destroyed regardless of consequences to soil or neighboring plants. 2. When the aim is to render the soil permanently sterile, as in, roadways, tennis courts, and the like. 3. When the weed plant, as orange hawkweed and mustard, is much more sensitive than the associated useful plants to the action of some herbicide. Kinds of herbicides (L. R. Jones). The chemicals used as herbicides, the worth of which has been established, are the following : — Salt (sodium chlorid), is more commonly used than any other com- pound, chiefly because of cheapness and handiness. It should be applied dry or in strong solution; and it is most effective in hot, dry weather. Salt can be used in any weed-killing operation, but it is most valuable on roadways and like surfaces and for certain lawn weeds. Hot brine (one pound salt to one gallon water) is useful on walks and roadways. Blue vitriol (copper sulfate). — This is more powerful in herbicidal action than salt, but its cost prohibits its general use. For most pur- poses it is best used in solution, 2 to 10 per cent being effective. It is often used on gravel walks and similar surfaces, but salt will generally be found cheaper and arsenical poisons more effective. Its chief value is against charlock or mustard. Copper sulfate solution, containing 8 to 10 pounds of blue vitriol to 50 gallons of water, and applied at the rate of 40 to 50 gallons per acre, is a good formula. Iron sulfate (copperas) solution, containing 13 to 2 pounds of iron sulfate to the gallon of water (100 pounds iron sulfate to 52 gallons of water), is a good herbicide. Use at the rate of 50 to 75 gallons per acre. Kerosene. — This and other coal-oil products will kill plants. It is weak in efficiency, and relatively more costly than any other chemical 224 WEEDS here listed. A pint of crude carbolic acid will do better service than two gallons of kerosene, and costs much less. Carbolic acid. — This is one of the quickest and most valuable herbi- cides. The crude acid is relatively cheap. It is not quite equal to the arsenical poisons for penetrating the soil, or in lasting effects, but it is often preferable because of cost or convenience. It does not corrode metals, and therefore may be applied with any spray-can or pump. An effective method is to squirt the strong acid from an ordinary oil can on the roots or crown of individual weeds. If it is to be sprayed or sprinkled broadcast on the foliage or ground, it should be diluted with 15 to 30 parts of water, and this mixture agitated frequently during use. Sulfuric acid (oil of vitriol). — This is destructive to everything it touches. It can be applied in the crown or about the roots of coarse or especially hardy plants, provided the user is willing to kill the adjacent vegetation also. In general, carbolic acid will be preferred, partly because sulfuric acid can be handled only in glass vessels. Caustic soda. — A strong solution of this material makes a cheap and effective herbicide, commended especially for pouring on soil where it is desired to destroy poison ivy or other deep-rooted or woody plants. Soil so treated will be rendered sterile fot some time, but the soda will gradually leach away. Like salt, this is most effective if applied in hot, dry weather. Arsenical compounds. — One or another of the soluble arsenical com- pounds form the most effective herbicides known, to use on roadways and other plain surfaces. These form the basis of all, or nearly all, of the various proprietary “ herbicides” or “ weed-killers.”” The sim- plest to employ is arsenite of soda. This needs only to be dissolved in water for use, the rate of 1 pound in 3 to 9 gallons of water. White arsenic is still cheaper, but according to Schutt’s formula it must be combined with sal soda, which is somewhat bothersome. (White arsenic, 1 pound; washing soda, 2 pounds; water, 3 to 9 gallons.) An important characteristic of these arsenical poisons is that they endure for a long time and do not readily wash or leach away. Application of Herbicides Gravel roadways, gutters, tennis courts, walks, and like surfaces can be kept free from weedy growths by the application of any of the above. WEED POISONS 225 If salt is used, it should be scattered freely in the dry form. Caution is necessary where it is liable to be washed on to lawns, lest it damage the grass borders. Carbolic acid or arsenical poisons are preferable, being both less liable to wash and more enduring in their action. One quart of crude carbolic acid in eight gallons of water, or one pound of either arsenical compound mentioned above in a like amount of water, will suffice to cover a square rod or more of surface; and one or at most two applications per year will be sufficient. Walks should be so made that weeds cannot grow in them. This can be done by making a deep stone foundation and filling between the stones with cinders, coal ashes, or other similar material. List of weeds that may be controlled by means of chemical sprays. The following named weeds may be eradicated or largely subdued in cereal grain fields through the use of chemical sprays: False-flax, worm-seed mustard, tumbling mustard, common wild mustard, Shepherd’s purse, pepper-grass, ball-mustard, corn cockle, chickweed, dandelion, Canada thistle, bindweed, plantain, rough pigweed, king- head, Red River weed, ragweed, cocklebur. Weeds on which field spraying methods as now in use are not effective. The following weeds are not effectively controlled by chemical sprays as now used: Hare’s ear mustard, French weed, pink cockle, perennial sow-thistle, lamb’s-quarters, pigeon-grass, wild oats, chess, quack- grass, sweet-grass, or holy-grass, and wild barley. Results of spraying with iron sulfate for the control of weeds (Rhode IslandSta.) PLANT Errsct Common Name Botanical Name Yellow dock . . . .| Rumex crispus Plants checked for about three weeks. Sheep sorrel . . . ./| Rumex Acetosella All blossoms killed and 90 per cent of all leaf growth. Common chickweed__ . | Stellaria media Killed. Can be controlled. Mouse-ear chickweed .| Cerastium vulgatum Practically killed, but not so easily as the common chickweed. Purslane . . . . .| Portulaca oleracea Young leaves and tips of stems killed. Old growth not injured. 226 WEEDS Results of spraying with iron sulfate — Continued PLANT Errecr Common Name Botanical Name Buttercup. . Se A | Ranunculus bulbosus Killed. Shepherd's purse . .| Capsella Bursa-pastoris | Completely controlled. Five-finger . . . .| Potentilla Canadensis | Young plants killed, old plants seriously injured. Poison ivy s & . | Rhus Toxicodendron Not injured when sprayed with concentrated solution. Wild carrot . . . .{| Daucus Carota Only slightly injured. Common plantain . .| Plantago major Lenyes badly spotted, plant no Rib grass, narrow- | Plantago lanceolata Young plants killed, old ones leaved plantain . . os eg from maturing see Robins plantain . . .| Erigeron pulchellus Blossom I buds killed, no aeea orme Yarrow . | Achillea Millefolium Practically no injury. With the exception of the application to the poison ivy, the iron sulfate was applied as a 20 per cent solution, using it at the rate of 100 to 150 pounds per acre. At the South Dakota Station the following weeds were entirely killed by the use of tron sulfate: — Wild mustard (Brassica arvensis) ; ragweed (Ambrosia artemisefolia) ; king-head or greater ragweed (Ambrosia trifida); bindweed (Convol- vulus Sepium); marsh elder (Iva xanthifolia); milkweed (Asclepias sp.); pepper-grass (Lepidium Virginicum); pigweed (Amarantus sp.) ; sweet clover (Melilotus alba and M. officinalis). Those that were more or less badly injured: Russian thistle (Salsola Kali); sunflower (Helianthus sp.); dandelion; dock (Rumex crispus); thistle (Carduus) sp.); white clover (Trifolium repens) ; red clover (Trifolium pratense) ; alfalfa (Medicago sativa). The following were but slightly injured: plantain (Plantago major); sheep sorrel (Oxalis violacea); prairie rose; lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album). Grasses in general, including the grains (wheat, oats, corn, barley, and speltz were sprayed in our experiments) were none of them seriously injured. According to the Ohio Station, salt has thus far proved the best spray tested for Canada thistle, poison ivy, yarrow, and horse-nettle. In the WEED POISONS 227 Northwest, sodium arsenite (124 pounds sodium arsenite in 50 gallons water) is given first rank. Salt is probably the most effective to destroy dandelion and some other weeds. Tron sulfate is very satisfactory to kill mustard weeds, ragweed, white-top, yarrow, and we believe a great many other broad-leaved weeds. Neither the salt nor the iron sulfate is regarded as offering any risk of application to pastures in which stock is running. Sodium arsenite is a very active poison, and rather dan- _gerous for that reason. Calcium chlorid (of same strength as common salt solution) has done very well where tested, but appears to be slightly inferior to salt. Copper sulfate solutions may be used in grain fields for mustards, especially, but owing to the poisonous nature of the copper sulfate, it has a very narrow range of application. Experiments by the Cornell Station gave the following general con- clusions: Wild mustard growing with cereals or peas can be destroyed with a solution of copper sulfate, without injury to the crop. A 3 per cent solution (about 10 pounds to the barrel, or 40 gallons of water), at the rate of 40 to 50 gallons per acre, gives very satisfactory results. The following notes on the effect of the copper sulfate solution on different plants are from observations and reports from various sources: “Plants reported killed by copper sulfate solutions: wild mustard, wild radish, wild barley, penny-grass (if young), shepherd’s purse, wild buckwheat, lamb’s quarters, ragweed, sow-thistle, hemp-nettle, bind- weed, dock, dodder. “Plants reported severely injured; curly dock, black bindweed, dandelion, sow-thistle, and senecio. “Plants reported as not injured: wild rose, poppies, pigweed, spurge, corn-flower, field-thistles, chamomile, couch-grass, bent-grass, and horsetails. “ Crops that may safely be sprayed: all cereals, as wheat, rye, bar- ley, and corn; the grasses; peas; sugar beets. “Crops that are killed or severely injured by the copper sulfate ‘solution: beans, potatoes, turnips, rape.” Charlock, known also as kale or wild mustard (Brassica Sinapistrum), is easily destroyed in oat-, wheat-, or other grain-fields by spraying with a solution of 1 pound of copper sulfate in 4 to 6 gallons of water (2 to 3 per cent solution). A force pump should be used, supplied with fine 228 WEEDS nozzles. The treatment is most effectively made when the grain is 8 to 6 inches tall, since at this stage the large charlock leaves spreading above the grain are easily covered by the spray. About one barrel of the solution (30 to 50 gallons) suffices to cover an acre and destroy the charlock, and this amount causes little or no damage to the grain. This same treatment is reported to be more or less effective against a variety of other common grain-field weeds. The wild turnip (Brassica campestris) and some allied cruciferous weeds are less easily killed because the spray does not adhere to their smooth leaves. When to apply weed sprays (Ohio Station). In practice, the time of applying sprays needs to be adjusted to the condition of the growing crop, and the relative development of the weeds to be killed. It seems probable that very early spraying will be less effective than spraying after the weeds have developed a fair supply of leaves. The first spraying should be made not later than the beginning’ of bloom. Repeated applications need to be made as often as a new supply of leaves is developed, provided the condition of the host crop permits this. In grain-fields, the best results will be obtained on prac- tically all weeds, when only a single spraying is to be made, to apply the spray just as the crop is ready to occupy the land. With mustards, this will find some already in bloom. With ragweed, it is best to spray before the stems of the plants become hardened. With other weeds, of which these two are the type, as well as with these, it is often profitable to make an extra earlier spraying than that designated. For perennial sow-thistle, wild lettuce, and orange hawkweed, the spraying in grain- fields should precede the blooming of the plants, and in cases of bad infestation with perennial sow-thistle or the golden hawkweed, two sprayings should be made before the grain occupies the land. It is not clear just what can be done in the handling of bindweeds in grain- fields, but similar principles will apply. For spraying in timothy or other grass meadows to kill white-top, yarrow, self-heal, ox-eye daisy, and a number of meadow weeds, the principle is similar to that stated for grain-fields, namely, to spray thoroughly just before the grass begins heading out. This will be during late May and early June for Ohio. In spraying pastures to check weeds, the maximum returns will usually come from a beginning application in late June or early July before many weeds are coming to bloom. After the initial application, THE KINDS OF WEEDS 229 the spraying should be repeated as often as there is development of new foliage to a marked degree. In general, better results are secured from applications made in cloudy weather, although any weather, except that followed by rain, is satisfactory. Treatment for Particular Weeds Poison ivy and similar woody-rooted pests can be eradicated by cutting off the tops in hot, dry weather in midsummer and pouring a saturated solution of caustic soda about the roots. The arsenical solutions men- tioned above can be used, but are generally objectionable because they render the soil sterile for so long a period thereafter. Prickly lettuce (Lactuca Scariola), called also milk-thistle, English thistle, and compass plant. Biennial or annual. Mow the plants repeatedly as they first begin to blossom. Thorough cultivation with a hoed crop is most effective. Mow and burn mature plants. Most frequently introduced as an impurity in clover, millet, and the heavier grass seeds. Bracted plantain (Plantago aristata). Annual. Employ hand pulling and burning. If well established, a series of hoed crops may be necessary to eradicate. In permanent pasture, mow the plants as the seed stalks first appear. Horse nettle (Solanum Carolinense). Perennial. Keep the plants mown to prevent seed production. To destroy the roots, practice clean ‘cultivation and grubbing or spudding to prevent any develop- ment above ground. A thick growth of grain will weaken the roots. After the grain is cut, the land should be immediately plowed and harrowed repeatedly, and then sown to a winter crop. Then follow with a hoed crop. Buffalo bur (Solanum rostratum). Annual; subdued by preventing seed production by mowing as often as the yellow blossoms appear. Spiny amaranth (Amarantus spinosus). An annual, subdued by preventing seed production by thorough cultivation, mowing, or grub- bing out the plant before the flower spikes develop. An intertilled crop followed by a winter crop will keep down the weed. Spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum). Annual; may be choked down by any quick-growing crop that will crowd and shade it. In permanent pastures and waste places mow the plants twice a year, in 230 WEEDS August and September, or cut them out with hoe or spud in May and June. Chondrilla (Chondrilla juncea). Biennial. Destroyed by cultiva- tion and fertilizers to encourage the growth of desirable grasses. Wild carrot (Daucus Carota). Biennial. In permanent pastures, mow persistently as the flowers appear. Cutting the roots well below the surface and hand pulling are effective. Thorough cultivation subdues it. Wild oats (Avena fatua). Annual. Stir the land when it is warm and moist to cause the seeds to germinate, then cultivate to kill. Keep the ground occupied or stirred. Omit oats from the rotation. Plow shallow in late fall. In the spring, plow deep and summer fallow, keeping the ground clean. Plant to grain the next season without replowing. Then plow deep early the next fall. Then repeat the fallow, followed by grain two years later, again without replowing. False flax (Camelina sativa). Annual. Omit winter wheat and rye from the rotation, and raise crops that will permit full cultiva- tion. Hoed crops are best, as they induce the seeds to germinate. If well established in permanent pastures, plow and cultivate the land. Mustard, Charlock (Brassica Sinapistrum). An annual, destroyed by early cultivation. Destroyed by spraying, when the plants are just beginning to bloom, with iron sulfate, copper sulfate, common salt, and sodium arsenite. Use 75-100 pounds of iron sulfate in 52 gallons of solution per acre; of copper sulfate, 12-15 pounds to each 52 gallons of water; common salt, $ barrel to each 52 gallons of water; sodium arsenite, 13 pounds to each 52 gallons of water. Spray after a rain, or in a wet season on a bright, still day. King-head, Greater ragweed (Ambrosia trifida). Annual. Culti- vate to cause seed germination a sufficient time before cropping to allow the killing of the weeds by a subsequent cultivation. If the weeds are large on summer fallow, plow them completely under or collect and burn. Spray, when the plants are tender, with common salt, copper sulfate, iron sulfate, or sodium arsenite at the same rate and strengths as for mustard, except that at least 100 pounds of iron sulfate should be used for each 52 gallons. Throw the spray forcibly. Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis). Perennial. The plant should never be allowed to produce seeds, and the underground stems, which are usually 3 to 12 inches under ground, must be removed or starved THE KINDS OF WEEDS 231 by covering with straw. Cutting the plants just before the budding period is destructive. To eradicate by cutting or cultivation no plant should be allowed to show green leaves for a period exceeding a few days. The most effective spray is sodium arsenite, 14 to 2 pounds per 52 gallons water; or common salt, 4 to 4 barrels to 52 gallons water; or copper sulfate, 15 pounds to 52 gallons water; or iron sulfate, 75 pounds to 52 gallons of water, sprayed on twice, one week apart. Spray just before the budding period. Spray again after the crop is harvested. Repeat the second year. Sodium arsenite is a very active poison, and must be used with care. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Perennial. Dig up with spud or strong knife. Keep lawn heavily seeded to crowd out the dandelion. Spray with iron sulfate, 14 to 2 pounds for each gallon of water. Spray two or three days after mowing lawn, and do not again mow until two or three days after spraying. Spray on bright, sunshiny days. Heavy wetting within ¢wo days after spraying destroys the weed-killing power. Spray at intervals of four to six weeks. New York State Station (Geneva) reports, 1911, that spraying dandelions with iron sulfate was not successful. The second season of treatment the grass was considerably injured. Sow-thistle (Sonchus arvensis). Perennial. Spraying is not effective. Practice bare cultivation for two seasons, allowing no green leaves to appear. On small patches, smother by covering with straw or manure. There are annual species of Sonchus. Quack-grass (Agropyron repens). Perennial. In small patches, uproot in dry, hot weather and remove all underground stems. Cut off closely in July, and smother with straw or manure. In large areas, mow when in blossom, and break the sod shallow in mid-July. Back- set in mid-August slightly deeper than before. Disc and harrow throughout the fall, allowing no green leaves to show. Then plow deeply in late fall. Plant cultivated crop next season, and dig out every blade of grass. Or sow a heavy seeding of millet or other dense- growing annual forage late in May on a well-prepared seed bed. The drier the ground and the hotter the weather, the better the killing effect of cultivation. White daisy, White-weed (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). Peren- nial. Plow up old infested meadows. Spray with iron sulfate at rate of 150 to 200 pounds peracre. Spray when blossom stalks 232 WEEDS are just forming. Two or more years are required for eradication. (R. I. Sta.). Black mustard (Brassica nigra) and wild mustard (B. arvensis). Annual. Spray with iron sulfate, 50 gallons to acre, using 75 to 100 pounds of iron sulfate, depending on whether the plants are tender and succulent or more mature and hardy. Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum), chickweed (Stellaria media), and some other of the shallow-rooted succulent weeds of lawns and grass lands can be combated effectively by the use of salt, more so than by any other chemical. Fine, dry salt should be applied on a bright, hot summer day (late June or early July best), broadcasting it so as to cover all plants uniformly, since it kills chiefly by drawing water from the leaves. One to four quarts of salt can be used per square rod, with little or no permanent injury to the grass if on a strong soil in the north- eastern states. Since the effect varies with local conditions, advance trials should be made on small scale. Following the application, the dead weeds should be raked out and a liberal application of grass- seed made. Weeds in lawns. aus Weeds usually come up thickly in newly sown lawns. They are to be prevented by the use of commercial fertilizers or very clean manure and clean grass-seed. Clean June-grass, or blue-grass, seed is usually best. Grass-seed should be sown very thick —3 to 5 bushels to the acre — and annual weeds cannot persist long. Frequent mowings will keep these weeds down (except low growers like chickweed), and most species will not survive the winter. In old lawns most peren- nial weeds can be kept down by frequent mowings. Grass can stand more cutting than weeds. If mowing cannot be practiced often enough for this purpose, the weeds may be cut off below the surface with a long knife or spud, and the crowns are then readily pulled out. Or a little sulfuric acid or other herbicide may be poured on the crown of each plant. It will usually be found that weedy lawns are those in which the sod is poor andthin. The fundamental remedy, therefore, is to secure a strong sod. This is done by raking or harrowing over the lawn in late spring, when it is somewhat soft, and sowing a liberal dressing of chemical LAWNS AND LICHEN 233 fertilizer and grass-seed. Roll the land down level. All poor spots in lawns should be repaired in this manner every year. The use of fresh and coarse stable manure on lawns should be discouraged, both be- cause it is offensive and because it generally abounds in weeds. Moss on lawns and walks. In damp and shady places, and also in sterile places, moss may ap- pear on walks and lawns. If the conditions cannot be improved, the following treatments may be tried : — One pound oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid) to ten quarts of water. Wet the surface thoroughly, being careful not to sprinkle edgings or good sod. In early spring when the ground is soft, work it backwards and for- wards with a long-toothed rake, in order to bring the moss to the surface. Clear away the moss, and leave the ground untouched for a fortnight. Early in March repeat the operation, and about the middle of that month apply a dressing of rich compost, which may consist of any old rubbish well decomposed, adding one-sixth of fresh lime. Mix with compost a few days before using. Cover the ground with the compost at the rate of 200 barrow-loads per acre, passing it through a d-inch sieve, to save the trouble of rolling. Rake it evenly over the surface, and when dry seed down. An English method. Endeavor to improve the sod, as recommended on page 232, and thereby drive out the moss. In shady places, where grass will not grow, plant some shade-loving plant, as periwinkle (Vinca minor), lily-of- the-valley, violets, moneywort (Lysimachia nummularia), or species of carex. Note the ground-cover plants that grow in shady places in the region. Moss or Lichen on Trees Moss on fruit-trees is usually an indication of lack of vigor. Culti- vate and prune. Wash the trees with soap or lye washes. Scrape off the bark, exercising care not to expose the ‘‘ quick,” or the tender inner bark. A good scraper is made of a small and much-worn hoe with the handle cut to about two feet long. The moss is readily destroyed by bordeaux mixture and other good fungicides. CHAPTER XIV Pests AND NUISANCES Various kinds of mammals and birds become plagues and nuisances at times, sometimes destroying plants, sometimes annoying human beings; and with these may be included mosquitoes and flies. Roaming cats are often nuisances that demand control. A tres- passing cat should be considered as much a transgressor as a trespass- ing dog or chicken or goat, — and perhaps even more so if the neighbor- hood is choice of its music. Owners of cats are under just as much responsibility to keep their cats at home as to keep their horses or pigs at home; if they cannot keep them at home, they should not be allowed to have them. A clean and tidy place harbors few pests. In general, if the plan- tation is free of litter, and the adjacent fields contain no harbors of brush, mice and rabbits are rarely annoying to orchards. In hard winters, with deep snow, these animals are more destructive than in open winters. Rabbits browse young growth of nursery stock and small trees. Sheep and hogs rarely girdle trees if they are given sufficient food and water, the latter being especially important. Mice and Rats To prevent mice from girdling trees in winter. In heeling-in young trees in the fall, do not use straw or litter, in which mice can make their nests. In orchards, see that tall grass, corn- husks, or other dry materials do not gather about the trees in fall. If danger from mice is apprehended, tramp the first snow firmly about the trees, in order to compact the grass and litter so that mice cannot find shelter. Where the paper-birch grows, it is a good plan to place sections of birch-bark from limbs or small trunks about the base of the tree. 234 TO KEEP MICE AND RATS AWAY 235 These sections roll tightly about the tree, and yet expand so readily with the growth of the tree that they may be allowed to remain, al- though it is advisable to remove them each spring, so that they will not become a harboring-place for insects. Tie thin strips of wood, as laths or shingles, about the tree. Common window-screen placed about the tree is effective and safe. Remove in spring, as it is likely to attract borers. Tarred paper is sometimes advised to keep away mice and borers, but it is very likely to kill the bark, especially on young trees, if tied on, or if left on in warm weather. Washes to protect trees from mice. Wash the trees with some persistent substance in which is placed paris green. Maynard finds the following substances useful for holding the poison: portland cement of the consistency of common paint; portland cement 10 parts and gas-tar 1 part; portland cement 10 parts and asphaltum 1 part; portland cement 10 parts and Morrill’s tree-ink 1 part. Lime-wash, to which is added a little sulfur, tobacco-decoction, and soapsuds. Carbonate of baryta for rats and mice. Sugar and oatmeal or wheat flour, of each 6 ounces; carbonate of baryta, + pound; oil of anise-seed, enough to give the mixture a pretty strong odor. This remedy is frequently made simply of oatmeal and barium- carbonate, 1 part poison to 8 of oatmeal, the combined materials being made into a stiff dough by the use of water. This has the ad- vantage of working so slowly that the victims generally leave the premises in search of water. Tartar emetic for rats and mice. Tartar emetic, 1 part; oatmeal or flour, 4 parts;. beef or mut- ton suet enough to make all into a paste. Strychnine solution for mice. Mice have been successfully poisoned by the use of wheat soaked in strychnine solution. (See ground squirrel remedies, p. 241.) 236 PESTS AND NUISANCES Camphor for rats and mice. Mix a few pieces of camphor with vegetable seeds, to repel vermin. French paste for rats and mice. Oatmeal or wheat flour, 3 pounds; powdered indigo, + ounce; finely powdered white arsenic, 4 ounces; oil of anise-seed,? dram. Mix, and add of melted beef suet or mutton tallow 2} pounds, and work the whole up into a paste. Commercial forms of phosphorus are popular as exterminators of vermin. To protect seed-corn from burrowing animals (chiefly field mice). Drop poisoned bait into small holes made into runways, then cover the holes. Corn or wheat treated as for ground-squirrels is effective. Or the grain may be moistened with water containing a little gum arabic, and then dusted with ordinary white arsenic. The grain may be allowed to dry before using. To prepare a bait that will work in a planter, it is recommended to dissolve one-eighth of an ounce of strych- nia sulfate in two quarts of hot water, preferably rain water. Soak the corn in this for forty-eight hours, and then spread it out and dry thoroughly. A teaspoonful of coal-tar to a peck of dampened grain seems to be effectual protection. Rabbits Wash for keeping rabbits, sheep, and mice away from trees. Some writers recommend fresh lime, slaked with soft water (old soap-suds are best); make the wash the thickness of fence or house wash. When 1 peck of lime is used, add, when hot, gallon crude carbolic acid, 4 gallon gas-tar, and 4 pounds of sulfur. Stir well. For summer wash leave gas-tar out, and add in place of it 1 gallon of soft soap. To keep rabbits and sheep from girdling, wash late in fall, or about the time of frost, as high as one can reach. Blood for rabbits. Blood smeared upon trees, as high up as rabbits can reach, will generally keep them away. TO KEEP RABBITS AWAY 237 To drive rabbits from orchards. Dip rags in melted sulfur, and then secure them to sticks which are stuck promiscuously through the orchard. Another wash to protect trees from rabbits. Fresh cow dung, 1 peck; quick-lime, ? peck; flowers of sulfur, + pound; lampblack, 4 pound. Mix the whole into a thick paint with urine and soapsuds. ‘ California rabbit-wash. Commercial aloes, 1 pound to 4 gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. California rabbit poisons. 1. Pieces of watermelon, canteloupe, or other vegetables of which they are fond, may be poisoned with strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. 2. To 100 pounds of wheat take 9 gallons of water and 1 pound of phosphorus, 1 pound of sugar, and 1 ounce oil of rhodium. Heat the water to boiling-point, and let it stand all night. Next morning stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. Scatter it about the place. 3. Another preparation is 4 teaspoonful of powdered strychnine, 2 teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and 4 of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. Rabbits lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the poison. Sulfur for rabbits. Equal proportions of sulfur, soot, and lime, made into a thick paint with cow-manure. Smear upon the trees. Cow-manure for rabbits. . A mixture, of lime, water, and cow-manure, made strong, is said to be an excellent anti-rabbit composition. 238 PESTS AND NUISANCES Asafetida for rabbits. A teaspoonful of tincture of asafcetida in + pailful of liquid clay, mud, or muck of any kind. Apply with a brush to the stem and branches of young trees. Two or three applications during winter. Kansan methods of protecting trees from rabbits (Kansas Station). 1. Trapping. — Traps of various sorts may be constructed. A simple and successful method is to sink a barrel in the ground level with its surface. Fit the head slightly smaller than the top, and allow it to swing freely on a rod or old broomstick. Pieces of apple or grains of corn may be placed on the outer edge of the cover, and when the rabbit attempts to get these, the lid tips up, and he slides into the barrel, while the lid, which is slightly heavier on one side than the other, assumes its original position. The heavier side should strike against a heavy nail or bolt so that only the lighter side of the lid will drop. Itshould be covered over with brush or light, flat stones. “IW 7 Q- b b S ia Ss Fic. 5 — Wellhouse rabbit-trap. An ingenious trap for catching rabbits has been designed by Walter Wellhouse, and used with remarkable success by him in his orchards (Fig. 5). The trap consists of a box made of fence boards (old ones preferred), six inches wide and one inch thick. The boards are cut twenty-two inches long, and the top and bottom boards are nailed on to RABBIT TRAP 239 the side boards, thus making the opening four inches wide and six inches high. The door, D, is made of wire, shaped as shown in fig. d, and hung with two staples, cc, to the under side of the top board. To prevent the rabbit from pushing the door open, a strip three-fourths of an inch square is inserted in the opening and nailed to the bottom board, as shown in fig. a, and in part in fig. d. The door must be made long enough to reach well below this catch, as shown in fig. d. The trigger is made of wire, bent as shown in figs. b and ¢, and hung loosely with two staples to the center of the top board. These staples must be carefully placed, to allow the trigger to be pulled forward far enough so that the door will rest upon it when the trap is set, and also to allow the loop in the trigger, A, fig. c, to be pushed against the back of the trap by the rabbit when it is sprung, thus preventing its being bent. To operate the trap, push the door, D, inward, and with the forefinger catch the hooked end of the trigger, B, fig. c, and pull it forward until the door rests upon the wire above the hook. The rabbit enters the trap, prompted by curiosity or otherwise, just as he enters a hollow log, and thinks no more of the wire trigger than he would of a small piece of brush which he must push out of his way. As soon as he touches the trigger, the door drops and the rabbit is caught. No bait is used, and the trap cannot easily be sprung by birds or wind. Care must be taken to see that all staples are loosely set, so that the trigger slides easily and the door will drop of its own weight. If new boards are used, it would be well to stain with some dark coloring material which is not offensive to the rabbit’s delicate sense of smell. 2. Wrapping. —- When one has only a few trees, such as fruit or shade trees, the most satisfactory method is to wrap them. An ordinary tree veneer which is made of very thin wood may be purchased from any seed store or nursery company. This fits closely about the body of the tree, and will enlarge as the tree grows. However, during the summer it may offer a harbor for injurious insects, and should remain on the tree only during the winter. Trees may be wrapped with bur- lap, corn-stalks, or ordinary lath. The only caution with any of these is to remove them when the tree resumes growth in the spring. Ordi- nary wire screen answers very well as a protection for the tree. 3. Repellents. — The tree may be covered as far as the rabbit can reach with blood. The entrails and blood of the rabbit itself rubbed over the tree is quite effective, but is very apt to be washed off by rain. # 240 PESTS AND NUISANCES A concoction of tallow and tobacco smeared on to the trees acts as a repellent. However, where there are a great many trees, and especially small trees, such as honey locust, elm, and others, used as windbreaks, it is out of the question to treat each individual tree by hand. In this case, a spray applied by a hand pump will be found effective. The common lime and sulfur spray used to destroy the San José scale has been recommended, and can be applied with an ordinary spray pump. Mix together dry, fresh hydrated or ground lime, 4 pounds; powdered sulfur, 3 pounds. Add water to forma thin paste, and boil from one-half to one hour, or until the mixture becomes a reddish amber color. Dilute to 10 gallons, spray on to the trees while the liquid is still warm. This spray is excellent for the trees as well, but must not be applied to the trees while they are in leaf. Commercial aloes at the rate of one pound to four gallons of water sprayed on to the trees gives the bark and leaves a bitter taste which repels rabbits. A spray made of buttermilk and common stove soot has proven quite satisfactory here. Buttermilk, 1 gallon; common stove soot, 4 pound. Boil for twenty minutes. Keep well stirred to prevent clogging the pump. 4. Poisoning. — Much may be done in eradicating this pest with poison. The “ Wellhouse” poison is made as follows: Sulfate of strychnine, 1 part; borax, 4 part; white syrup, 1 part; water, 10 parts. Put the mixture into a jug or large bottle, and shake well. Cut fresh twigs — apple water sprouts are best —and with a small brush paint them, especially over the terminal bud, with the above preparation. Scatter the twigs in the runways and about the trees where the rabbits feed. Stock or fowls will not molest this poison, and it is said that dogs may eat the dead rabbits and suffer no ill effects. _ The Western Australia Department of Agriculture recommends a similar poison. Dissolve 13 ounces strychnine in 1 quart of vinegar; dilute with 5 gallons of water; add 2 pounds of flour and 1 pound of sugar; stir well and apply to twigs as recommended above. A jam made of fruit and sugar is readily eaten by the rabbits. Chop apples or melons into small cubes. Add sugar equal to one-half the weight of the fruit. Boil until the mass forms a thick jam. Add strychnine, either powdered or dissolved, at the rate of 1 ounce to 25 pounds of the jam, and mix thoroughly, RABBITS AND GROUND SQUIRRELS 241 To remedy the injury done by mice, rabbits, and squirrels. 1. Pare and clean the wound, and cover it thickly with fresh cow- dung, or soft clay, and bind it up thoroughly with a cloth. Grafting- wax bound on is also good. Complete girdling, when done late in spring — when settled weather is approaching — can be remedied in this way. 2. Insert long scions over the wound, by paring them thin on both ends, and placing one end under the bark on the upper edge of the wound and the other under the bark on the lower edge. Wax thor- oughly the points of union, and tie a cloth band tightly about the trees over both extremities of the scions. Ground Squirrel or Spermophile Remedies 1. Secure 5 quarts of clean wheat; scald with water; drain. Take % cup of white sugar, dissolve with sufficient water to make a syrup; add 1 ounce powdered strychnine, stir thoroughly until a thin paste is formed. Pour this on the damp wheat. Stir thoroughly for at least 15 minutes. Add 1 pint powdered sugar, stir; add 5 to 10 drops of rho- dium and 5 to 10 drops of oil of anise-seed. Place a few grains in each squirrel-hole, putting it as far in as possible. 2. Dissolve 1} ounces of strychnia sulfate in a quart of hot water. Add a quart of molasses, — molasses, sorghum, or thick sugar and water, —and a teaspoonful of oil of anise. Thoroughly heat and mix the liquid. While hot pour it over a bushel of clean wheat and mix completely. Then stir in two or more pounds of fine corn- meal. The quantity of corn-meal will depend on the quantity of extra moisture present. There should be enough to wet every grain of the wheat, and no more. Let the poisoned grain stand over night, and dis- tribute it in the early morning of a bright day. A tablespoonful is placed near the mouth of the burrow, scattered in two or three little piles. The best time to use this or other poisons is in early spring, when the ground-squirrels are hungry from their winter fast, and when the destruction of the old ones before the young are born will greatly lessen the numbers of the pests. 3. Bisulfid of carbon is also largely used. A small quantity is poured into the burrow, and the hole is immediately closed securely with dirt. R 242 PESTS AND NUISANCES 4. Tying newspapers about trees in such manner as to allow the upper part of the paper to project loosely a few inches frightens the squirrels away. Moles Moles are rather easily poisoned by inserting in the runways corn in the milk stage, freshly cut from the ear, and poisoned with strychnine solution. Moles live in loose and sandy land. If the place is watched, they may be destroyed when they are heaving their burrows. Mole-traps are on the market. (See gophers, p. 243.) Prairie-dogs Prairie-dogs may be destroyed by much the same means as are ground squirrels. (See ground squirrel remedies, p. 241; and wood- chuck or ground-hogs, p. 243.) Poisoning by grain soaked in strychnine solution has proved most successful. The following method has been devised and used by the Kansas Experiment Station: The mixture is in the form of a syrup, composed of the following ingredients (for 1 quart): 1 ounce strychnia sulfate (powdered), 1 ounce potassium cyanide, 13 ounces alcohol, 1 pint syrup. Oneounce of green coffee-berries is mixed with the white of one egg, and allowed to stand at least fourteen hours. The strychnia is dissolved in a half-pint of boiling water. The potassium cyanide is dis- solved in a quarter-pint of hot water and allowed to cool. Add a little warm water to the mixture of coffee and eggs, and mix it with the po- tassium cyanide. Then strain this mixture through a coarse sieve into the mixing vessel, and add the syrup. Mix the alcohol with the hot solution of strychnine, and add it to the other mixture. Stir all thoroughly. One quart of the mixture is sufficient to poison a half- bushel of wheat or kafir. The mixture must be thoroughly stirred before it is poured over the grain. Two or three pounds of fine corn-meal are stirred in with the grain to take up the extra moisture. On a bright, warm morning in January, February, or March, place half a teaspoonful or less of the bait in two or three little piles at the outside of each burrow occupied by prairie-dogs. A half-bushel of grain should poison 500 to 600 holes. VARIOUS PESTS 243 Woodchucks or Ground-hogs These animals are readily trapped at the mouths of their burrows. They are also easily killed by the vapor of bisulfid of carbon, the liquid being poured on a handful of moss, cotton, or other absorbent material, and pushed down the burrow, all openings being at once closed. The vapor is heavier than air, and will settle to the bottom, where it will kill any animal present. Pocket-gophers These pests are readily destroyed by poisoned grain, corn being espe- cially recommended for the purpose, although various other materials may be employed. A dibble, made by adding a metal point to a spade handle, is used to make holes in the runways, into which the poisoned bait is dropped. “ A skillful operator,” writes D. E. Lantz, “ can go over twenty to forty acres of badly infested land in a day, and, if the work is done carefully, at a time when the pocket-gophers are active, all the animals should be destroyed by the first application of poison.” The pests may also be destroyed by trapping and by fumigation with carbon bisulfid. Wolves and Coyotes These animals are most easily destroyed by hunting out the breed- ing-places in early spring and killing the litters of pups. They may also be poisoned and trapped. Muskrats Powdered strychnia sulfate sweetened with powdered sugar or commercial saccharin and sprinkled over freshly cut pieces of apple, carrot, or ripe squash has proved effective. Crystals of the same poison may be inserted in the bait with a knife. Bid patos. Pestiferous Birds 1. Place a shallow box on the end of a pole, and put it four or five feet from the ground to keep the poison out of the way of domestic fowls. In the box sprinkle corn-meal and a very little strychnine, which mixture the birds eat. It will not hurt dogs or cats to eat the 244 PESTS AND NUISANCES dead bird, for the reason that there is not enough poison absorbed by the bird. (California.) 2. Put the strychnine in pieces of apples, and stick them on the ends of limbs of the trees. (California.) 3. Porson for English sparrows. Dissolve arsenate of soda in warm water at the rate of one ounce to one pint ; pour this upon as much wheat as it will cover (in a vessel which can be closed so as to prevent evaporation), and allow it to soak for at least twenty-four hours. Dry the wheat so prepared, and it is ready for use. It should be distributed in winter in places where the sparrows congregate. Wheat may be similarly prepared with strychnine. 4. Put } ounce of strychnia sulfate into ? of a gill of hot water, and boil until dissolved. Moisten 14 teaspoonfuls of starch with a few drops of cold water, add it to the poison solution, and heat till the starch thickens. Pour the hot poisoned starch over a quart of wheat, and stir until every kernel is coated. To protect fruits from birds. One of the best devices is mosquito-bar spread over the bushes or trees. For bush-fruits and small trees the expense is not great. There is a commercial netting made for the purpose. Have a taxidermist mount several hawks, and place them in natural positions in the trees or vines. In large plantations of cherries or other fruits subject to the depre- dations of birds, the injury is generally proportionately less than in small areas. Some cherry-growers plant early sweet varieties to feed the birds, which, getting their fill, give less attention to the main crop. Birds prefer the Russian mulberry to cherries, and an occasional tree in the cherry orchard may protect the crop. Plantings of mulberry, buckthorn, elder, and chokeberry may serve to protect raspberries and blackberries. For strawberries, sweet early varieties which are left to ripen on the vines have been recommended. To protect newly planted seeds from birds. Coat the seeds with red lead by moistening the seeds slightly and stirring in red lead until all the seeds are thoroughly coated. Let the seeds dry for two or three hours before sowing. BIRDS, MOSQUITOES 245 Several ways to protect corn from crows. Dip the kernels in coal-tar, and then dust them with plaster ; tar the seed; plant it deeply; scatter soaked corn over the field to attract attention from the young plants; hang streamers of cloth from twine strung about the field on poles; or use scare-crows. ‘ To protect young chickens. Young chickens may be protected from hawks by covering their runways with fine wire netting. Chickens are comparatively safe when king-birds or purple martins breed about the farm-yard, as these birds drive hawks away. They should be encouraged. Some hawks are frightened away by guinea-hens. A pair of ospreys or fish-hawks nesting near a farmhouse will keep other hawks away. Mosquitoes The discovery that certain mosquitoes carry the organisms of malaria and other diseases has started a crusade against these pests. We now feel that mosquitoes must be controlled, both as a sanitary meas- ure and as a relief against the insects themselves. The chief mode of attack is to destroy their breeding-places. They breed only in standing water. Draining the breeding-places, or filling them up and emptying all receptacles in which water stands, is the first thing to be considered. The big gray mosquitoes that breed in tide marshes are specially pestiferous. They propagate in the brackish pools. These pools should be filled or drained, or else the tide dyked out so that the pools may dry. The second thing to consider, if the above cannot be carried out, is to cover the breeding-pools with oil so that mosquito larve may be deprived of air (they rise to the surface to breathe). In fountain tanks, lily ponds, and other water areas that are to be retained, the mosquitoes may be kept down by stocking with fish that eat the larve or wrigglers. Kerosene for mosquitoes (Needham). An ounce of kerosene to every 15 square feet of surface is about the right proportion, according to Howard. The film of oil will be retained 246 PESTS AND NUISANCES for about two weeks. The grade of kerosene known as “ light fuel oil * is best. Any kerosene will’ kill aquatic plants, if sprayed on them. It should be poured on surface of water in cultivated ponds and spread with a broom or mop. It should be applied oftener than once in two weeks in such cases, and in much less quantity. One-fourth as much twice as often will probably be equally effective. It is best not to use kerosene at all on ornamental ponds; it is un- sightly; it smells badly; it kills all larve that require air derived from the surface, including those of many of the higher diptera which as adults are useful flower pollinators; it endangers the plants even when most carefully applied, to say nothing of smearing them. Fishes available for destruction of mosquito larve (Needham). 1. Goldfish eat eggs by preference, also the larve. They thrive in any warm pool, or even in cisterns with scant light; eat prepared focds, so can be readily supplied with supplemental food if necessary. They are easily obtained in the market, and are ornamental. Must be taken indoors for winter. 2. Top minnows are natural enemies of mosquitoes in native water. They are hardy and long-lived; but they are not on the market, and have to be sought with a seine. Not especially ornamental. 3. Sunfish are fond of mosquito larva. They do well only in midst of aquatic growth; require much food, and insect food is pre- ferred. Ornamental. 4, Sticklebacks are most voracious mosquito enemies, and are also worthy of cultivation for their remarkable nest-building habits. Rather particular as to conditions, but in proper pools they are hardy. All these fishes require room in which pasturage may grow. A pair of the smallest of them would probably find scant natural food in a square rod of water area. Hibernating mosquitoes. Some mosquitoes hibernate in cellars, and from them the breeding starts in spring. Cellars may be fumigated with powdered Datura Stra- monium (Jimpson weed), or with culicide (culex is the generic name of the greater number of mosquitoes). In either case, according to J. B. Smith, the cellar to be fumigated should be as tightly closed as possible, MOSQUITOES 247 to hold the fumes and make them most effective. The powdered stramonium is used at the rate of eight ounces for each 1000 cubic feet of space, mixed with one-third its weight of saltpéter to facilitate com- bustion. Spread the mass out on a tin plate or stone flag and light at several points to hasten the burning. The vapor is not dangerous to human life, so even if some escapes into the rooms above, no harm will be done. If the cellar is leaky, use two or three times as much as ad- vised, and in all cases keep it as tightly closed as possible for two hours at least. Culicide is made of equal parts by weight of carbolic acid crystals and gumcamphor. Melt the acid crystals over a gentle heat, and pour slowly over the gum. The acid dissolves the camphor, and makes a clear, somewhat volatile liquid, with rather an agreeable odor. This solution is permanent, and may be kept indefinitely in tight jars. Use three ounces of this culicide for every 1000 cubic feet of space, and volatilize over a lamp of some kind. A simple and inexpensive appa- ratus for this purpose (J. B. Smith) consists of an 8-inch section of galvanized-iron stove-pipe, cut so as to leave three legs, and with a series of 4-inch holes near the top to make an outlet for the draft. Upon this place a shallow, flat-bottomed basin to hold the culi- cide, and beneath this use an ordinary glass or other alcohol lamp. Two ounces of culicide may be evaporated with 2 an ounce of alcohol in twenty-five minutes, and a larger quantity would probably re- quire proportionately less time if given a larger evaporating surface in a dish of larger diameter than the pipe. This combination is inflam- mable, but not explosive, and should be used on a cement, earth, or stone floor, or on bricks in a tub of water, to avoid danger of fire. The fumes are not dangerous to human life until they become very dense, and such as might penetrate into upper rooms through leaky floors or doors would do no harm to anything. This also should be allowed to act at least two hours before the doors are opened again. Flies and other insects succumb as readily as mosquitves. Rules for extermination and prevention of mosquitoes. (Anti-Mosquito Convention, N. Y.) Pools of rain water, duck ponds, ice ponds, and temporary accumu- lations due to building; marshes, both of salt and fresh water, and road- 248 PESTS AND NUISANCES side drains; pots, kettles, tubs, springs, barrels of water, and other back-yard collections should be drained, filled with earth, or emptied. Running streams should have their margins carefully cleaned and covered with gravel to prevent weeds and grass at the water’s edge. Lily ponds and fountain pools should, if possible, be abolished; if not, the margins should be cemented or carefully graveled, a good stock of minnows put in the water, and green slime (algze) regularly cleaned out, as it collects. Where tanks, cisterns, wells, or springs must be had to supply water, the openings to them should be closely covered with wire gauze (gal- vanized to prevent rusting), not the smallest aperture being left. When neither drainage nor covering is practicable, the surface of the standing water should be covered with a film of light fuel oil (or kerosene) which chokes and kills the larvae. The oil may be poured on with a can or from a sprinkler. It will spread itself. One ounce of oil is sufficient to cover fifteen square feet of water. The oil should be renewed once a week during warm weather, Particular attention should be paid to cesspools. These pools, when uncovered, breed mosquitoes in vast numbers; if not tightly closed by a cemented top, or by wire gauze, they should be treated once a week with an excess of kerosene or light fuel oil. Certain simple precautions suffice to protect persons living in mala- rial districts from infection : — First: Proper screening of the house to prevent the entrance of the mosquitoes (after careful search for and destruction of all those already present in the house), and screening of the bed at night. The chief danger of infection is at night (the anopheles bite mostly at this time). Second: The screening of persons in malarial districts who are suffering from malarial fever, so that mosquitoes may not bite them and thus become infected. Third: The administration of quinine in full doses to malarial patients to destroy the malarial organisms in the blood. Fourth: The destruction of mosquitoes by one or more of the methods already described. : These measures, if properly carried out, will greatly restrict the MOSQUITOES. HOUSE-FLIES 249 prevalence of the disease, and will prevent the occurrence of new malarial infections. It must be remembered that when a person is once infected, the organisms may remain in the body for many years, producing from time to time relapses of the fever. A case of malarial infection in a house (whether the person is actively ill or the infection is latent) in a locality where anopheles mosquitoes are present, is a constant source of danger, not only to the inmates of the house, but to the immediate neighborhood, if proper precautions are not taken. It should be noted in this connection that the mosquitoes may remain in a house through an entire winter, and probably infect the inmates in the spring upon the return of the warm weather. The House-Fly (C. R. Crosby) The typhoid fly, or house-fly (Musca domestica). For ages this ubiquitous pest has been looked upon as a harmless though annoying and unpleasant nuisance, and its presence has been tolerated as a necessary evil. It has now been scientifically demon- strated that it plays an important réle in the transmission of certain intestinal diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, infantile diarrhoea, etc., by carrying infected matter from the excreta of patients to the food of healthy persons. It is now thought that next after polluted water and contaminated milk, flies are the most important factor in the spread of typhoid. Both in city and in country the presence of these pests is a constant menace to the health of the community. House-flies breed chiefly in horse manure, and to a less extent in garbage, human excrement, and other filth. Each female lays about 120 eggs, which hatch in a few hours. The maggots become full grown in about five days, and an equal period is spent in the pupal stage. The whole life cycle thus requires only ten to fourteen. days in midsummer. In the climate of Washington, D.C., there are twelve or thirteen generations annually. Dr. L. O. Howard reports finding 1200 larve and pupz in a single pound of horse manure. The winter is passed either as adults hidden away in houses or as pupe beneath manure piles. 250 PESTS AND NUISANCES Control. The house-fly nuisance can be abated most easily by the elimination of possible breeding-places. The great majority of the flies found in houses breed in piles of horse manure about near-by stables. Breeding in such places may be easily prevented by storing the manure, pending its removal, ina dark, fly-proof bin. This receptacle may be built as a lean-to attached to the stable with which it is connected by a small screen door. A larger door outside provides for the removal of the contents. The manure should be carted away at least once a week, and spread out on the land, where by drying it soon becomes unfit for breeding purposes. Whenever it is necessary to store such material in piles in the open, they should be located as far as possible from the nearest dwelling or milk-house. Flies do not usually travel more than one-fourth mile from the place in which they breed. When only two or three horses are kept in a town, the manure can be handled in regular garbage-cans, in the same way as the kitchen refuse or ashes. Breeding in manure piles can be prevented by hie Sift borax on manure, particularly around edges of pile, immediately after removal from barn, then sprinkle with water. Use $lb. borax to 8 bu. of manure. Kitchen refuse and similar garbage should be kept in tight cans and removed at frequent intervals. Flies should be rigidly excluded from all places where food is exposed to contamination, including kitchens, dining-rooms, stores, etc. Especial care should be taken to protect milk and milk utensils, since milk furnishes an excellent medium for the growth of typhoid bacteria and is a common source of infection. Flies may be driven from rooms by leaving one door open and darken- ing all the rest. Then evaporate a spoonful of carbolic acid over a lamp, or burn some pyrethrum insect-powder. They may be caught on sticky sheets, or poisoned with a sweetened 5 per cent solution of commerical formaldehyde. On isolated farms each owner has it in his power by proper measures in the disposal of manure to reduce the fly nuisance toa minimum. In towns the case is different; there codperation is necessary. In attempting to reduce the numbers of house-flies in the District of Columbia, the health department has formulated a series of rules which L. O. Howard has summarized as follows: — HOUSE-FLIES. PONDS 251 “ All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the ground covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain, in connection therewith, a bin or pit for the reception of manure, and, pending the removal from the premises of the manure from the animal or animals, shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin shall be so con- structed as to exclude rain water, and shall in all other respects be water- tight, except as it may be connected with the public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover, and constructed so as to prevent the ingress and egress of flies. No person owning a stable shall keep any manure or permit any manure to be kept in or upon any portion of the premises other than the bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such bin or pit to be overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in any of the more densely populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure to be removed from the premises at least twice every week between June 1 and October 31, and at least once every week between Novem- ber 1 and May 81 of the following year. No person shall remove or transport any manure over any. public highway in any of the more densely populated parts of the District, except in a tight vehicle which, if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to prevent the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit manure removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely populated parts of the District without a permit from the health officer. Any person violating any of the provisions shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by a fine not more than $40 for each offense.” Slime on Ponds The slime, or alge, on ponds may be destroyed by copper sulfate. The common spirogyra is dispatched by 1 part of the sulfate to 25,000,000 parts of water, and other forms by a stronger solution. These weak solutions are little injurious to the higher plants and not much so to any animals. A better way is to keep the toads and to let their tadpoles eat the alge. Red-bellied minnows would also help. CHAPTER XV FuNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DisEASsES By Donatp ReEppicK PLANT diseases are caused by parasitic fungi or by bacteria, or other vegetable parasites; or by forms of physiological disturbance. Each disease calls for special treatment. Most plant diseases must be prevented, not cured. It should be understood that spraying is only one of the control measures effective against plant diseases. Many diseases are not affected by spraying, though perhaps more are susceptible to this treatment than to any other. A satisfactory fungicide must be one that does not injure the plants and at the same time is effective against the parasite. For spraying, ad- ditional requirements are imposed; it should not dissolve readily in rain water; it should adhere to foliage and fruit; in some cases it should be colorless in order not to make ornamentals more unsightly than when diseased. The fungicide which has been used most for general purposes is bordeaux mixture. Lately some other preparations, par- ticularly lime-sulfur combinations, have come into use, and in many cases are supplanting bordeaux. There are in addition a large number of other substances which have fungicidal value and are in more limited use for specific cases. Practices Destroying affected parts.—It is important that all affected parts should be removed and burned, if possible. In the fall all leaves and fruit that have been attacked by fungi should be raked up and burned. Diseased branches should be severed at some dis- tance below the lowest visible point of attack. Fungous dis- eases often spread rapidly, and prompt action is usually necessary. Practice clean and tidy culture. 252 STERILIZING 253 Rotation of crops. — One of the most effective and practical means of heading off fungous diseases. Especially applicable to diseases of roots or root-crops, but also to many other diseases of annual plants. Sterilizing by steam. — An effective fungicidal practice for several soil-in- habiting organisms which attack roots and stems. This includes nematode worms. It is especially applicable in the greenhouse, where it may be applied (a) through sub-irrigation tile or through specially laid perforated steam pipes in the bottom of the bed. Cover the bedsiwith blankets, introduce steam under pres- sure of 40 to 80 pounds for two hours. Insert thermometers at various places to see that the soil is being uniformly heated. (6) A large galvanized iron tight box may be constructed with finely perforated trays 4 to 6 inches in depth. Soil placed in these trays and steamed for two hours as above will be freed from par- asitic organisms. In this case the frames should be sprayed with a solution of formalin, 1 pint in 10 gallons of water. Steam sterilization of soil may be used on intensively cultivated areas or extensive seed-beds. A portable boiler is necessary. The beds are sterilized after they have been prepared for seed, and just before the seed is sown. A galvanized pan 10 by 6 feet and 6 inches deep is inverted, and the edges are pushed down into the soil one or two inches. The pan is connected with the steam boiler by means of a steam hose and live steam is run into the pan for about forty minutes under a pressure of 100 pounds and up. The higher the pressure the more thoroughly the soil will be sterilized. The cost of sterilizing is approximately three-fourths of a cent the square foot. It should be noted that soil sterilization has an invigorating effect on the plants, and it will be necessary to run greenhouses at a lower temperature (5°-10°) both night and day. Field sterilization also kills weed seeds, and with the reduction of the cost of weeding makes the process practicable. Substances Bordeaux mixture. — A bluish-green copper compound that settles out when freshly slaked lime and a solution of copper sulfate (blue- 254 FUNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DISEASES stone) are mixed. Many formulas have been recommended and used. The 5-5-50 formula may be regarded as standard. In such a formula the first figure refers to the number of pounds of copper sulfate, the second to the stone or hydrated lime, and the third to the number of gallons of water. Bordeaux must often be used as weak as 2-2-50, on account of injury to some plants. To make 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture, proceed as follows: (1) Pulverize 5 pounds of copper sulfate (blue vitriol), place in a glass, wooden, or brass vessel, and add two or three gallons of hot water. In another vessel slake 5 pounds of quicklime in a small amount of water. When the copper sulfate is all dissolved, pour into a barrel and add, water to make 40 or 45 gallons. Now strain the lime into this, using a sieve 50 meshes to the inch or a piece of cheese-cloth supported by ordinary screening. Stir thoroughly, and add water to the 50-gallon mark. The flocculent substance which settles is the effective fungicide. Always stir vigorously before filling the sprayer. Never add the strong lime to strong vitriol. Always add a large amount of water to one or the other first. Blue vitriol used alone would not only wash off quickly in a rain, but cause a severe burning of fruit and foliage. Lime is added to neutralize this burning effect of the copper. If the lime were absolutely pure only slightly more than one pound would be re- quired to neutralize this burning effect. For many purposes an excess of lime is not objectionable and may be desirable. For nearly ripe fruit and ornamentals an excess of lime augments spotting. In such cases the least amount of lime possible should be used. Determine this by applying the cyanide test (2). (2) Secure from the druggist 10 cents’ worth of potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) and dissolve it in water in an 8-ounce bottle. Cut'a V-shaped slit in one side of the cork, so that a few drops of the liquid can be obtained. Now proceed as before. Add lime with constant stirring until a drop of the ferrocyanide ceases to give a reddish-brown color. (3) When bordeaux mixture is desired in large quantities, stock solutions should be made. Place 100 pounds of copper sulfate in a bag of coffee-sacking, and suspend in the top of a 50-gallon barrel, and add water to the 50-gallon mark. In twelve to fifteen hours the vitriol will be dissolved and each gallon of solution will FUNGICIDES 255 contain 2 pounds of copper sulfate. Slake a barrel of lime, and store in a tight barrel, keeping it covered with water. Lime so treated will keep all summer. It is really hydrated lime. This is often dried, pulverized, and offered on the market in paper bags of 40 pounds, each, under such names as ground lime, prepared lime, hydrated lime, etc. If the paper is not broken, the lime does not air-slake fora long time. One and one third pounds of hydrated lime equals in value one pound of quicklime. Air slaked lime cannot be used in preparing bordeaux mixture. Arsenical poisons can be combined with bordeaux mixture. See Chapter XVII, page 290. Ammoniacal copper carbonate. — For use on nearly mature fruit and on ornamentals. Does not discolor. Weigh out 3 ounces of copper carbonate, and make a thick paste with water in a wooden pail. Measure 5 pints of strong ammonia (26° Beaumé) and dilute with three or four parts of water. Add ammonia to the paste, and stir. This makes a deep blue solution. Add water to make 50 gallons. Copper carbonate. — For use in the above formula, it may be obtained as a preen powder, or may be prepared as follows: Dissolve 12 pounds of copper sulfate in 12 gallons of water in a barrel. Dissolve 15 pounds of sal soda in 15 gallons of water (pref- erably hot). Allow the solution to cool; then add the sal soda solution to the copper sulfate solution, pouring slowly in order to prevent the mixture from working up and running over. A fine precipitate is formed which will settle to the bottom if allowed to stand over night. Siphon off the clear liquid. Wash the pre- cipitate by adding clear water, stirring, and allowing to settle. Siphon off the clear water, strain the precipitate through muslin, and allow it to dry. This is copper carbonate. The above amounts will make about 6 pounds. Copper sulfate. — See SuLrate oF Copper, p. 258. Corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride).— Used for disinfecting pruned stubs and cleaned-out cankers, at the rate of one part in 1000 parts of water. Can be secured from the druggist in tablet form in vials of 25 each, and costing 25 cents. One tablet makes a pint of solution. Make and store solution in glass and label poison. 256 FUNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DISEASES Formalin (forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas in water). — A pungent, clear liquid, very irritating to eyes and nose. Ob- tained at any drug store at about 40 cents per pint. Used for potato-scab, oat smut, bunt in wheat, soil disinfection, etc. Lime. — Offered for sale in the following forms. (2) Ground rock or ground limestone ; air-slaked lime is of the same composition, 2.e. a carbonate of calcium. (6) Lump, barrel, stone, or quick lime ; this is burned limestone, and should preferably test 90 per cent oxide of calcium. (c) Prepared, ground, or hydrated lime ; this is water or steam-slaked quicklime, dried and pulverized. Used as an applicant to the soil to correct acidity (p. 77), for club-root of cabbage, etc., and for preparing spray mixtures. Lime-sulfur (see page 294).—In the many possible combinations, lime-sulfur is coming to be equally as important as bordeaux mix- ture, in the control of many plant diseases. (a) A mixture of equal parts of dry lime and powdered sulfur is often dusted on plants for surface mildews. (b) A paste of equal parts of lime, sulfur, and water. This is painted on the heating pipes in the greenhouse, and is valuable for keeping off surface mildews. (1) Home-boiled dilute lime-sulfur. This solution has been widely used in the past as a dormant spray, particularly for San José scale and peach leaf-curl. It is likely to be supplanted by (2) or (8). For preparation see page 295. (2) Home-boiled concentrated lime-sulfur.— When a great deal of spraying is to be done, a concentrated lime-sulfur solution may be boiled at home and stored in barrels to be used as needed. For method of preparation see page 295. Test with a Beaumé hydrometer, which has a scale reading from 25° to 35°. Dilutions are reckoned from a standard solution testing 32°. If the solution tests only 28°, it is not as strong as standard, and cannot be diluted as much as a solution testing 32°. The table on opposite page shows the proper dilution for solutions testing 25° to 35° Beaumé. Decimals are given in all cases, but for practical purposes the nearest even gallon or half gallon can be used, unless appliances for more accurate measurement are at hand. It is understood in making all dilutions that water is added to one gallon of the con- LIME-SULFUR 257 centrate to make the stated amount. Do not measure out the stated amount of water and add the concentrated solution to it. 1-10 | 1-15 | 1-20 | 1-25 | 1-30 | 1-40 | 1-50 | 1-60 | 1-75 | 1-100 25°| 7.4 {11 14.7 | 18.4 | 22.1 | 29.5 | 36.8 | 44.2 | 55 73 26°] 7.7 | 11.6 | 15.4 | 19.3 | 23.2 | 30.9 | 38.6 | 46.3 | 58 77.2 27°) 8.1 | 12.1 | 16.1 | 20.2 | 24.3 | 32.4 | 40.5 | 48.5 | 60.6 80.7 28°) 8.4 | 12.7 | 16.9 | 21.1 | 25.4 | 33.8 | 42.3 | 50.7 | 63.5 84.5 29°) 8.8 | 13.2 | 17.6 | 22.1 | 26.5 | 35.3 | 44.2 | 53 66.3 88.2 30°} 9.2 | 138.9 | 18.4 | 23 27.6 | 36.9 | 46.1 | 55.3 | 69 92 31°} 9.6 | 14.4 | 19.3 | 24 28.8 | 38.4 | 48 58 72 96 32°] 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 33° | 10.4 | 15.6 | 20.8 | 26 31.2 | 41.5 | 52 62.4 | 78 104 34°] 10.8 | 16.2 | 21.6 | 26.8 | 32.4 | 43.2 | 54 64.7 | 80.8 | 108 35°} 11.2 | 16.8 | 22.4 | 28 33.4 | 44.9 | 56 67.4 | 84.2 | 112 (3) Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur.— As manufactured and placed on the market is a clear amber liquid, and should test 32° to 35° Beaumé. It costs about 20 cents per gallon retail, and comes ready to pour into the spray tank. For apple and pear diseases. Arsenate of lead can be used with this solution, and increases its fungicidal value. : (4) Self-boiled lime-sulfur. This is a mechanical mixture of the two substances, and is really not boiled, the heat being supplied by the slaking lime. In a small barrel or keg place 8 pounds of good quicklime. Add water from time to time in just sufficient amounts to prevent burning. As soon as the lime begins to slake well, add slowly (preferably through a sieve) 8 pounds of sulfur flour. Stir constantly, and add water as needed. As soon as all bubbling has ceased, check further action by adding a quantity of cold water, or pour into a barrel or tank and make up to 50 gallons. Keep well agitated. Very effective against peach scab and brown rot. Several other formulas have been used: 10-10-50 and 5-5-50. Arsenate of lead can be used with this mixture. By using boiling water and allowing the hot mixture to stand for half an hour, a stronger spray mixture of the above can be secured. It cannot be used safely on peaches, but has been used: success- fully on grapes for surface mildew. The addition of sulfate of 8 258 FUNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DISEASES iron or sulfate of copper, one or two pounds to 50 gallons, has been used for apple rust. Potassium sulfid (iver of sulfur). — Simple solution 3 ounces in 10 gallons of water. For mildew in greenhouses, on rose-bushes and other ornamentals. Resin-sal-soda sticker. — Resin, 2 pounds; sal soda (crystals), 1 pound, water, 1 gallon. Boil until of a clear brown color, 7.e. from one to one and ahalf hours. Cook in aniron kettle in the open. Add this amount to 50 gallons of bordeaux. Useful for onions, cab- bage, and other plants to which spray does not adhere well. Sulfate of copper (blue vitriol). — Dissolve 1 pound of pure sulfate of copper in 25 gallons of water. A specific for peach leaf-curl. Apply once before buds swell in the spring. Cover every bud. For use in preparing bordeaux mixture. Costs from 5 to 7 cents per pound, in quantity. Sulfate of iron (copperas). — A greenish granular crystalline substance. Dissolve 100 pounds in 50 gallons of water. For mustard in oats, wheat, etc., apply at the rate of 50 gallons per acre. Also for anthracnose of grapes as a dormant spray. Sulfur (ground brimstone, sulfur flour, flowers of sulfur). —Should be 99 per cent pure. Valuable for surface mildews. Dust on dry or in the greenhouse used in fumes. Evaporate it over a steady heat, as an oil stove, until the house is filled with vapor. Do not heat to the burning point, as burning sulfur destroys most plants. To prevent burning, place the sulfur and pan in a larger pan of sand and set the whole upon the oil stove. CHAPTER XVI PuLant DISEASES By Donaup Reppick Some knowledge of the habits of the organism causing a disease is usually necessary in order successfully to combat it and prevent its ravages. Those diseases caused by powdery mildew fungi (which are surface infestations) can be cured. Practically all others must be prevented. Fungi attacking parts of plants above ground are usually dissemi- nated by means of spores. Water is often necessary to liberate the spores from the fungus proper, and is nearly always necessary to permit spore germination and infection of other plants. Heavy dew sometimes furnishes sufficient moisture, but prolonged drizzling rains are more favorable. For this reason a fungicide, in order to be effective against such parasites, must be applied before the rain. If it is going to rain to-morrow, spray to-day. But how know whether it is going to rain? This can best be told from a study of the United States weather maps, which are printed and distributed from the many weather stations, or else appear in the daily papers. Storm periods, indicated by a “ low ” barometer, travel quite regularly from west to east, and are usually accompanied or followed by rain. This can be determined by noting the amount of precipitation, if any, in the wake of the storm. Local conditions are often a factor to be considered. A few minutes’ study of the weather map each day will soon make one reasonably efficient in predicting the weather. See Chap. I. It is unfortunate that a definite system of naming plant diseases has not been formulated. Diseases of plants of a similar nature should bear the same common name. The term “blight” is commonly used for many kinds or forms of diseases. It might well be restricted to bacterial diseases like fire-blight of pear or bean blight. When some definite system of naming diseases is adopted, it is likely that a tabula- 259 260 PLANT DISEASES tion of methods of control will be somewhat simplified, for if the term “blight” is restricted to bacterial diseases of the nature of pear blight, it will be understood that certain control measures, such as spraying, will not be effective. At present, each case must be con- sidered separately, and in the following pages the popular names are used. These names are followed by the technical botanical name of the organism causing the disease, in italics, and this by a brief description of the disease, the most prominent symptom being: men- tioned first. Certain General or Unclassified Diseases Damping-off. — A term applied to the decay of young seedlings or cut- tings at or near the surface of the ground. The trouble is due to the action of various organisms, especially Pythium deBaryanum, Phytophthora cactorum, Rhizoctonia sp., ete. Wet soil, confined atmosphere, and crowded plants are conducive to damping-off, Control. — Steam-sterilize seed or cutting beds. Sterilize nursery seed beds with formalin, using 1 gallon of 1 per cent solution to the square foot, ¢.e. 1 pint of formalin in 12-15 gallons of water. Cdema or Dropsy.—A disorder of various plants under glass, as tomatoes, violets, geraniums, which have insufficient sunlight, stimulating temperature and soil, and too much moisture. It has also been observed on twigs of the apple. It is usually indicated by elevated corky or spongy points or masses, much resembling fungous injury. The leaves curl. The only remedy is to improve conditions under which the plants are grown. Smuts of cereals. — Practically every cereal is attacked by a specific smut fungus, and most of them by two perfectly distinct species. These smuts are confined to a single species of cereal, and never cross from one to another. Some of the smuts produce a loose black spore-mass (loose smuts), while in others (covered smuts) the seed coat of the grain is not affected, so that the smut is not detected until the grain is broken open. The most important difference to be noted, however, is the method of wintering. In some the spores adhere to the surface of the seed and infect the young seedling plant at the time of germination, while in the other case the spores fall upon the blossoms and grow down into the seed directly, there lying dormant until the seed is planted. THE SMUTS 261 Control. — The treatment is very different in the two cases. If the spore is on the surface of the seed, it may be killed with forma- lin; but if the seed is infected internally, a different treatment is necessary. The formalin treatment is very simple and inex- pensive. Select a clean place on the barn floor, and heap the seed grain upon it. Make a solution of formalin at the rate of 1 pint of formalin to 50 gallons of water. Use as many gallons of this solution as there are bushels of grain to treat. Shovel the grain over, and at the same time spray the formalin over with a sprinkling pot. Shovel over twice, and then cover two hours or over night with blankets or canvas. Spread out the grain to dry. Make allowance for swelling of the seed at the rate of one peck peracre. When the infection is internal, the hot water process of treatment must be resorted to. Obtain a reliable thermometer, and make arrangements to keep a quantity of water at perfectly uniform temperature. Soak the seed in water at ordinary tem- perature for five to seven hours. Then place it in small loose sacks or wire baskets containing not more than a half peck each, and allow to drain. Provide two tubs or vats, of 30 or 40 gallons capacity, which can be heated, or provide in addition an iron kettle for heating a quantity of water. Heat the water in the two vats to the temperature indicated below. Immerse the drained sacks of seed in tub 1 to remove the chill, then suspend in tub 2 for the indicated length of time. Keep the temperature of tub 2 constant by applying heat or adding small amounts of boiling water. Treat for the indicated time, remove, and dry. Barter. Coverep Smut (Ustilago hordei). — The covering is thin and easily broken, and when old may resemble loose smut. Seed- ling infection. Control. — Formalin, as indicated above. Loose Smut (Ustilago nuda). —'The smutted heads are loose and black from the first. Flower infection. Control. — Hot water, as indicated above. The temperature of tub 2 should be 127° F.; and the seed should be left in fifteen minutes. If the temperature of tub 2 varies slightly from 127°, the length of treatment should be lengthened or shortened ac- cordingly as the temperature is below or above that desired. 262 PLANT DISEASES In no case should the temperature go above 129° or below 124° F, This treatment will also be effective for covered smut. _ Oats. Loose Smuts (Ustilago avene and Ustilago levis). — Both characteristic loose smuts, and both seedling infection. Control. — Formalin treatment, as indicated above. Wueat. Stinkinc Smut or Bunt (Tilletia fetens). — Can be de- tected in the field by the flaring of the beards, in the bin by the peculiar fetid odor and by breaking open the kernels. The seed coat remains intact. Seedling infection. Control. — Formalin treatment, as above. Loosr Smut (Ustilago tritici). — Characteristic loose smut of the head appearing at blossoming time. Flower infection. Control. — Hot water, as indicated above. The temperature of tub 2 should be 129° F., and the seed should be left in ten minutes. If the temperature of tub 2 should go above 129° or fall below 126° the length of treatment should be diminished or increased accordingly. In no case should the temperature go above 131° or below 124° F. Storage rots (Penicillium expansum and P. italicum).— These two organisms are responsible for much of the rot appearing in storage or transportation. The former is the common one on apples, the latter on oranges and lemons. These organisms are not able to enter through an unbroken surface, but are dependent upon cracks, bruises, scab spots, etc. Control. — Avoid puncturing the skins with shears or finger- nails, handle and pack with care to prevent bruises, and spray to prevent scab spots. Store at a temperature of 32°. In making long distance shipments, pre-cool the car and ship under ice. Diseases of different Plants or Crops Alfalfa. Lear Spor (Pseudopeziza medicaginis). — Small black spots on the leaves. Causes the leaves to turn yellow and fall. Control. — Frequent close mowing usually holds the disease in check. Dopver (Cuscuta epithymum).—A tangled mat of yellow threads entwining the alfalfa stems. Usually appears in spots in the field and spreads from these points. Is easily spread by the rake, APPLE DISEASES 263 and especially in seed. Dodder is not a fungus, but a specialized parasitic plant of the morning-glory family. Control. — As soon as discovered, cover the infested spot with straw and oil and burn. Screen the alfalfa seed to remove seed of dodder. Make a screen 12 inches-square by 3 inches deep with a 20 X 20 mesh wire-cloth made of No. 34 steel wire. Sift each half pound of seed vigorously for one half minute. Almond. Buicut (Coryneum beyerinkit). —See PEacH Buicut, p. 275. YeiLows. See under Praca. Apple. Buriat. — The same disease as PEAR Buicut, which see. Brirrer-rot or Ripe-rot (Glomerella rufomaculans). — Produces a browning and drying of the fruit. Progressing in concentric rings from a central point. Attacks nearly mature fruit. Also occurs on limbs, where it produces a canker scarcely distinguishable from New York apple-tree canker (p. 264). Contrel. — Trim out all cankers early in the spring, and remove all mummied apples from the trees. In addition to the spray- ings for‘apple scab, make three, four, or five sprayings with bor- deaux mixture, 3-3-50, according to the severity of the disease and the character of the summer as regards rainfall. Buack-rot of fruit. — Fruit stage of the New York apple-tree canker disease, which see. Buotcu (Phyllosticta solitaria).— Attacks fruit, twigs, and leaves. Blotches a quarter of an inch or more in diameter appear on the fruit. These often coalesce, and the fruit often cracks deeply. Scurfy cankers are formed on the twigs while very small; circular spots a quarter of an inch in diameter are formed on the leaves. Ben Davis is especially susceptible. Control. — Careful pruning to remove cankered twigs. Spray as for apple scab and bitter rot. Brown-ror. —See under Cuerry (p. 267). Canker. — Smooth cankers in bark of trunk and limbs usually in- dicate blight, rough ones New York apple-tree canker. Cotuar-rot. — A dead area in the bark near the ground ; often girdles the tree. Cause not known. May be started in some cases by the fire-blight organism, in others by winter injury. Com- mon on King, Baldwin, and Ben Davis. Remedy. — As soon as noticed, cut away dead bark and wood 264 PLANT DISEASES to the living healthy tissue. Swab the wound with a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1:1000, and paint over with a lead paint which is free from turpentine. Slit the-callus on the edge from year to year to make it spread faster, and keep dead wood well protected with paint. CRown-GALL (Bacterium tumefaciens). — See under Pracu, p. 276. New York APPLE-TREE Canker (Spheropsis malorum).— The fungus causing the disease attacks limbs, causing roughened cankers and often girdling the limb; attacks leaves, causing a reddish brown leaf-spot, and on the fruit produces a black rot. Abundant on Twenty Ounce. Control. — Remove and burn old cankers. Clean out and dis- infect small cankers as for collar-rot. Soak old limbs well with spray mixture when spraying for scab. Spraying as for apple scab usually controls black rot of fruit, though in the Ozark region a late spraying may be advisable for leaf-spot. Cultivate thoroughly. Powpery Muitpew (Spherotheca leucotricha).— Attacks nursery stock, covering the leaves with a grayish white, powdery mildew. Also on leaves and twigs of new growth in the orchard, often causing the leaves to fall. Remedy. — Lime-sulfur, 1-40, as applied for scab is a specific. Rust (Gymnosporangium macropus). —- A bright yellow rust appear- ing on the young leaves and fruit. Enfeebles the whole tree and produces one-sided fruits. It is known that one stage in the cycle of the fungus is the cedar apple, which occurs on the red cedar. Apples are always infected from the cedar, never from apple to apple. Control. — Destroy red cedars in the neighborhood, also wild apples and hawthorns. Spray thoroughly in the spring as for scab. ScaB (Venturia inequalis). Olive green, brownish or blackish scab-like spots on leaves and fruit. Arrests growth, and often causes distortion. In severe cases may make the leaves and young fruit fall. Makes leaves susceptible to spray injury. The fungus is known to be dependent upon weather conditions, as out- lined in the beginning of this chapter. The fungus winters reg- ularly on the dead fallen leaves. In the milder climate of Vir- ginia, the fungus may winter on the twigs. APRICOT — BEAN 265 Control. — Rake and burn leaves, or plow under very early (before blossom buds open). Spray with lime-sulfur 32° Beaumé, 1-40, or bordeaux, 3-3-50: (a) when blossom buds show pink, but before they open; (6) when the majority of petals have fallen; (c) three weeks after b depending upon the weather; (d) if a late attack is feared, spray thoroughly before the fall rains begin. Apricot. Lear-rust.— See under Pium, p. 279. YELLows. — See under, PEacn, p. 276. Biacxk-spot or ScaB. — See under Peacu. Asparagus. Rust. — (Puccinia asparagi). A rust of the tops, which is often so severe as to kill them, thus interfering with root de- velopment. Control. — Three weeks after cutting stops dust the young tops with dry sulfur at the rate of 12 sacks of sulfur per acre. This should be done very early in the morning while the dew is still on, and only on a dewy morning. In a month or less make another application, using 2 sacks of sulfur per acre. The sulfur must go on in a dusty, smoky cloud and form a covering over all the growth. Flowers of sulfur is more satisfactory for this work, and is less expensive in the long run. Dusting machines may be obtained on the market. Barley. Smut.—See under Smut or CrERmALs, p. 260. Bean. ANTHRACNOSE or Pop-spot (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum).— Reddish-brown scab-like spots appearing on stems, pods, and veins of leaves, particularly on yellow-podded snap beans. The fungus grows through the pod and into the young bean seed. It lies dor- mant in the seed, and becomes active when the bean is planted. Control. — Select. pods which are free from the spots and save the seed for planting. Such seed will grow a clean crop. If dis- ease appears in the garden, it can be controlled by thoroughly hand spraying the vines from beneath as well as above, repeating the operation every ten days as long as necessary. Buicut (Bacterium phaseoli). — A bacterial disease. Causes large, papery spots on leaves and watery spots on pods. Control. — As for ANTHRACNOSE. Bean, Lima. -— Buicur (Phytophthora phaseoli). — Attacks the pods in August and September, covering them with a white, felted cvat- ing. It also attacks shoots and leaves. 266 PLANT DISEASES Control. — Spray with bordeaux, 4-4-50, beginning about August first, and making applications at intervals of ten days or two weeks. Beet. Heart-rot (Phoma bete).— Leaves appear spotted late in July, then wilt, and finally a dry heart rot appears. Control. — Destroy infected plants. Practice long rotation. Treat seed with formalin, 1 pint in 30 gallons of water. Lear-spot (Cercospora beticola).— Ashen gray spots with reddish borders occurring on leaves. In advanced stages, leaf becomes much cracked and torn. Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, at frequent intervals. ScaB (Oospora scabies). — Fungus produces a scabby patch on the root. The same disease as potato scab. Control. — Avoid planting beets after potatoes for several years. Blackberry. Anthracnose. — See under RaspBerry, p. 280. CRoWN-GALL or Root-Gauu (Bacterium tumefaciens). — A bacterial disease which soon ruins the bushes. Treatment. — Plow up and burn all bushes in a diseased patch. Plant clean roots in a new place. Rep or OrAncE Rust. — See under RaspBERRY. Brussels sprouts. CiuB-RooT. — See under CaBBAGE. Cabbage. CiuB-RooT or CxuB-Foor (Plasmodiophora brassice). —— A contorted swelling of the roots of cabbage in the seed bed or field, preventing the plant from heading and causing it to assume a sickly color. Occurs on many allied plants — turnips, cauli- flower, Brussels sprouts, chard, radish, wild mustard, etc. Control. — Destroy affected seedlings. Rotate crops, and do not follow with other susceptible crops. Keep down weeds on which disease occurs. Lime the soil at least eighteen months before planting to cabbage, using at the rate of two tons of quick- lime to the acre. Buack-ror (Bacillus campestre).— The bacteria causing this disease get into the sap tubes, turn them black, and cause the leaves to drop, thus preventing heading. ; Control. — Practice crop rotation. Soak the seed for fifteen minutes in a solution of mercuric chloride, one tablet in a pint of water. f CARNATION — CHERRY 267 Carnation. Rust ( Uromyces caryophyllinus). — Produces brown, pow- dery pustules on stems and leaves. Control. — Take cuttings only from healthy plants. Pick off diseased leaves. Spray once in two weeks with a solution of copper sulfate, 1 pound to 20 gallons. Keep water from leaves, and grow the plants at as low temperature as is compatible with best development. Stem-rot (Rhizoctonia and Fusarium).— The former produces a sudden wilting of the plant, and the stems are soon dead and dry. The latter produces a slow rot of the heart, one branch dying at a time. The treatment is the same. Control. — In the field change the location every year. In the greenhouse sterilize the soil with steam. Cauliflower. See under CaBBacs. Celery. Earty Lmar-siicut (Cercospora apit).— A spotting and eventual blighting of the leaves early in the summer. Begins in the seed-bed. It is favored by hot weather, either wet or dry. Control. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate, 5-3-50, beginning in the seed bed and keeping the new growth covered throughout the season. Late Buicut (Septoria petroselini var. apii). — A fungous disease, appearing late in the season, causing a blight of the foliage, and often destructive after the celery is stored. Control. — As above, except that spraying should be continued up to harvesting time. In either case, the disease is practically controlled by growing the plants under half shade. Cherry. Brown-rot (Sclerotinia fructigena).— Attacks flowers, leaves, and fruit. The flowers die and decay, the leaves become discolored with irregular brown spots, and the fruit rots on the tree. Attacks also peaches, plums, and apples. Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, or lime-sulfur, 1-40, (a) just before the blossom buds open; (b) just after the blossoms fall; (c) make one or two more applications at intervals of ten days. Lear-rust. See under Pium, p. 279. Powprery Minpew (Podosphera orycanthe). — Attacks leaves and twigs, often causing defoliation. Seriousonnursery stock. Spray- 268 PLANT DISEASES ing as for brown rot usually controls this trouble. If it appears, spray with lime sulfur, 1-40, or dust heavily with powdered sulfur. Lear-spor (Cylindrosporium padi).-— A fungous disease in which the leaves become thickly spotted with reddish or brown spots and fall prematurely. The spots often drop out, leaving shot holes. Control. — Spray with lime sulfur, 1-40, or with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, as for brown rot. Winter Ingury. — Trees so injured make a scant growth; many leaves turn yellow and fall about picking time; gum exudes at the crotches and about the trunk; sometimes the bark on the stock is entirely killed, in which case the tree languishes and finally dies. Control. — It is thought that heavy applications of highly nitrog- enous fertilizers in late summer favor winter injury. Do not stimulate the tree to too active wood development. Cut out the gum pockets and cankers, and paint them with a heavy lead paint. Chestnut. Bark Disease (Diaporthe parasitica). — A fungous disease, attacking the bark of the American chestnut. Limbs and trunk are girdled, and the tree dies. The disease is present in many of the nurseries. Control. — Inspect nursery stock very carefully, especially about pruned stubs. Discard diseased trees. Make a careful examination of old trees, especially about old wounds and pruned stubs. If the disease is present, clean out the diseased wood with a gouge, and coat heavily with gas-tar. If the disease has pro- gressed far, cut off diseased limbs or the whole tree and burn at once. Keep all wounds and pruned stubs covered with gas-tar. Chrysanthemum. Lear-spor (Septoria chrysanthemi). — First ap- pears as dark brown spots, which increase in size until the leaf dies. Control. — Pick and burn diseased leaves. Spray the plants with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. Rust (Puccinia chrysanthemi). — Reddish brown rust pustules on the leaves. Control. — Avoid wetting the foliage when watering. Spray as for Lear Spor. Corn. Ear-ror (Diplodia zee). — Several other organisms may cause an ear rot, but this is the more common one. The ear is imper- fectly developed, soft, and overrun with a whitish mold. In many cases the husks and silk are also involved. CORN — CRANBERRY 269 Control. — Destroy old infected ears and stalks. Practice a rotation which will exclude corn for two years from or near the _ given plat of ground. Rust (Puccinia maydis). — Reddish pustules on the blades. Com- mon on some varieties of sweet corn. Control. — No satisfactory method of control is known. Smut (Ustilago zee). — Attacks stalks, ears, and tassels, produc- ing abnormal boils or outgrowths. Will infect at actively growing points at any time. Control. — Rotate crops. Do not manure corn ground. Cut out smut and burn it. Soaking seed is of no avail. Cotton. ANTHRACNOSE (Colletotrichum gossypii). — Forms black or purplish colored spots on bolls. Disease also occurs on seed leaves and on the leaves and stems. Select seed from fields free from the disease. Rotate crops. Use disease-resistant varieties. Roor-ror (Ozonium omnivorum). — Easily recognized by the sudden wilting and dying of the plants in the field. Control. — A combination of rotation of crops and deep fali plowing is effective. Witt (Fusarium vasinfecta). — Causes a gradual wilt and eventual death of leaves and stems. Control. — Rotate crops. Secure seed of wilt-resistant varieties of cotton. Cranberry. Buast or Scaup (Guignardia vaccinit).— The fungus causes a blast of the flowers and very young fruits, and attacks older fruits, causing them to appear scalded or watery. Control. — Spray five or six times with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, to which has been added 4 pounds of resin fish oil soap, mak- ing the first application just before the blossoms open. Long lines of hose are most satisfactory for this work, and the spraying must be done thoroughly. Ror. (Acanthorhynchus vaccinit). — A disease which cannot be dis- tinguished from scald with the naked eye. Control. — As for Sca.p. Hyrvertropay (Exobasidium oxycocct).—- Appears on the young leaves soon after the water has been let off in the spring. The axillary leaf buds are attacked and produce short shoots with rather close, enlarged, swollen, and distorted leaves which are 270 PLANT DISEASES pink or light rose color. The production of fruit is prevented or reduced. Control. — Early spraying with bordeaux mixture has heen advised. Cucumber. ANTHRACNOSE. — See under MuskmE on, p. 274. Buicut or Mipew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis). — A blighting and premature yellowing of the foliage. Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50. Commence to spray when the plants begin to run, and repeat every ten to fourteen days throughout the season. Wit (Bacillus tracheiphilus). — This is a disease caused by bacteria that get into the sap tubes of the leaf and stem, clog and destroy them, causing the plant to wilt. The bacteria are distributed chiefly by the striped cucumber beetle. Control. — Control the striped beetle. See p. 318. Gather and destroy all wilted leaves and plants. Witt (caused by malnutrition). — Excessive fertilizing with highly nitrogenous fertilizers will sometimes produce a peculiar curling and wilting of the leaves. Currant. ANTHRACNOSE (Gleosporium ribis).— Small dark brown spots, chiefly on the upper surface of the leaf. The leaves finally turn yellow, and fall in July or August. Control. — Thorough applications of bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50. Lear-spor (Septoria ribis, Cercospora angulata etc.). — Whitish spots with black centers. Appears in midsummer, and causes defoliation. Control. — As for ANTHRACNOSE. Witt or CaNE-BLIGHT.— A destructive fungous disease which causes the canes to die suddenly. Character of the wilting much like that produced by the cane-borer. Control. — No satisfactory method known. The most that can be done is to go over the patch three or four times during the summer, cut out and burn the blighted canes. Ginseng. Bucur (Alternaria panacis).— Papery brown spots on the leaves, which spread until the whole leaf is involved. Also at- tacks the seed heads, producing a blast. Control. —In the spring before the plants come through the ground spray the soil thoroughly with copper sulfate, 1 pound to GINSENG — GRAPE 271 10 gallons of water. As the plants are breaking through the soil, spray with bordeaux, 3-3-50. Spray repeatedly while the plants are coming through the ground, making a special effort to cover the stems. Keep all growth covered with spray throughout thesummer. Spray the seed heads thoroughly just after the blos- soms fall, and again when they are two-thirds grown. Destroy all diseased tops. Finer Ror (Thielavia basicola).— Commonly called rust or rusty root, from the characteristic appearance. The plants eventually wilt and die. : Control. — Treat the soil with acid phosphate at the rate of 1000 pounds to the acre. Dip the roots in bordeaux mixture, 38-3-50, before planting. Mitpew (Phytophthora cactorum).— Attacks tops shortly after they come up. Control. — Thorough spraying early, as for blight, will control this disease. Witt (Acrostalagmus sp.). — A sudden wilting of the whole plant, caused by the action of the fungus in the sap tubes of the root. Control. — Remove the wilted plants as soon as discovered in order to prevent further spread. Root-rot. — Caused by various soil organisms. Favored by wet, soggy soil. Control. — Underdrain the soil thoroughly. Golden-seal. — Consult treatments under GINSENG. Gooseberry. — MitpEw (Sphaerotheca mors-uve).— A powdery mil- dew attacking the fruit and young growth of English varieties of gooseberry. : Control. — As soon as the leaves begin to unfold, spray with potassium sulfid, 1 ounce to 2 gallons of water. Rust (4Aicidium grossularie). — Orange-colored rust pustules on the fruit and under side of the leaves. Control. — Early spraying as for Mitprw. Keep down sedges and grasses. Grape. ANTHRACNOSE (Sphaceloma ampelinum).— Occurs on the fruit as a definite dark brown spot with a lighter auriole ; on canes as deep pits with an elevated red margin, and on veins of 272 PLANT DISEASES the leaves, causing the leaves to crimp. Occurs on all varieties, especially Roger’s hybrids. Not so abundant as formerly. Control. — It is said that an early spraying before the buds open with sulfate of iron, 100 pounds to 50 gallons of water, is very important. Later sprayings for black rot will also be effective in preventing spread. Biack-roT (Guignardia bidwellii).— The most serious disease of grapes east of the Rocky Mountains, especially southward. At- tacks all green parts. Produces a brown circular spot on leaves, a black, elongated, sunken pit on petioles, canes, etc., and on the berry a brown rot with shriveling and wrinkling ; finally the berry becomes black and hard. Control. — This disease may be controlled by timely applica- tions of bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. It is of great importance that spraying be done before rain storms, as the berry enlarges so rapidly. Spray (a) when the third or fourth leaf has unfolded ; (6) as soon as the blossoms have fallen; (c) when the berries are the size of a pea ; (d) in about two weeks. In a wet season make two more applications. After July 20 make the bordeaux 4-2-50, or use ammoniacal copper carbonate. In case of dense foliage all applications except the first two should be made by hand. Attach trailers to the sprayer, and have two men following to apply the spray directly to the clusters. About ten acres can be sprayed in a day, and the total cost of labor and material should not exceed 75 cents per acre for each application. CALIFORNIA VINE-DISEASE. — An obscure disease, which destroyed thousands of acres of vines in California. Cause not known, and at present practically unknown and of no importance eco- nomically. Crown-GALL or Buack Knor (Bacterium tumefaciens).— A tu- merous, gnarled outgrowth on roots and stems, especially on Euro- pean varieties. Frost injury often forms an infection court for the bacteria. See p. 276. Control. — Grub out and burn infected vines. Downy Mitpew or Lear-suicut (Plasmopara viticola). — Appears in white frost like patches on under side of leaf, the upper side of the leaf showing a yellowish discoloration ; gradually spreads to all parts of the leaf causing it to dry up. Attacks the berry, which GRAPE —LETTUCE 273 remains hard and white or gray. Worst on hybrids with vinifera blood ; especially common on Delaware and Roger’s hybrids. Widespread in North America. Control. — Spray as for BLack-RoT. Necrosis or Drap-arm Diszase (Fusicoccum viticolum). — Attacks shoots, and progresses from there to the old wood, causing a dry rot and eventual death of the vine. Control. — Inspect canes at trimming time, and use care not to leave those on which the brownish black spots.are present. Train up renewals from the root, and cut off the old stem below the dis- eased area. Ries-not (Glomerella rufomaculans).— See under APPLE, p. 263. Treatment as for black-rot is efficacious. SHELLING or RattTites.— Cause unknown. The berry breaks squarely off at its juncture with the pedicle. The leaves on such vines usually turn reddish brown about the margin. Powdery mildew is sometimes responsible for shelling. Control. — No method is known. Hollyhock. ANTHRACNOSE (Colletotrichum malvarum). — Angular brown spots on leaves and stems which spread, killing the entire leaf. Control. — As for Rust. Rust (Puccinia malvacearum). — Attacks all parts of the plant, causing reddish brown pustules on affected parts ; later leaving deep pits ; may entirely destroy the leaves. It is abundant on the common mallow or “ cheeses.” Control. — Eradicate the mallow ; pick off diseased leaves in the fall, and burn all litter. Repeat in the spring; and spray new growth thoroughly with bordeaux mixture, 4-3-50. Spray every week until the flower-stalks are well developed. Lettuce. Lear Prrroration (Marssonia perforans).— Dead areas in the leaves which finally drop out. Also on veins of the leaves. Control. — As for Roserre (p. 274). Downy Miupew (Bremia lactuce).— Yellow spots on the upper surface of the leaf, accompanied by a frosty growth on the opposite side. Control. — Destroy infected plants. Keep water from the leaves ; furnish water by means of subirrigation. T 274 PLANT DISEASES Drop or Rot (Sclerotinia libertiana). — Base of the leaves or stem rots off, allowing leaves to drop. Control. — Sterilize the soil with steam before planting. See under Steam in Chapter XV, p. 253. Roserre (Rhizoctonia sp.). — A rotting or damping-off of the stem. Late affected plants have a rosetted appearance. Control. — Start seed in steam-sterilized soil, and transfer to beds that have been sterilized with steam, as for Drop. Muskmelon. ANTHRACNOSE (Colletotrichum lagenaritum).— Dead spots on the leaves and stems and sunken pits on the fruit. Thorough and frequent spraying with bordeaux mixture will hold this dis- ease in check. Downy Mitpew. — The same disease as on cucumbers (p. 270). Often very destructive. Control. — A satisfactory method is not known. Spraying as for cucumber mildew has not proved effective. Wixr. — See CucuMBER. Nectarine. Yellows, etc. See under Pracu, p. 276. Nursery Stock. — Foliage on young trees is apt to be attacked by various leaf-spot fungi. The damage comes in reducing growth, thus often making seconds. Several applications of bordeaux mixture to keep the new growth protected are beneficial. Oats. Rust (Puccinia coronata). — A red rust of the blades. Control. — There is no known method of control. Smut. — See under Smuv or CEREALS, p. 260. Onion. Mitpew (Peronospora schleideniana). — Causes a wilt or blight of the leaves. Control. -- Spray with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, to which has been added one gallon of resin-sal-soda sticker. The first applica- tion should be made when the third leaf has developed, and the application should be repeated every ten days until the crop is har- vested. Smut ( Urocystis cepule). — Forms black pustules on the leaves and bulbs. Seedlings may be killed outright. Control. — Onions from sets or from seed started in soil free from the disease seldom have the smut. Practice crop rotation. Drill into the soil with the seed 100 pounds of sulfur and 50 pounds of air-slaked lime to the acre. ONION — PEACH 275 Pea. Muinpew (Erysiphe polygoni). — A powdery mildew on pods and leaves. Control. — Dust dry sulfur over the plants, repeating the opera- tion if necessary. Pop Spor anp Lzar-spor (Ascochyta pisi). — Black circular spots on stems, leaves, and buds. The fungus grows through the pod into the seed, and is thus carried through the winter. Control. — Select pods free from spots, and save the seed from these for the next year’s planting. On a large scale have a clean seed garden in which to grow clean seed for the following year. Peach. Bucur (Corynewm beyerinku).— A spotting, gumming and death of the buds and twigs, particularly in the lower part of the tree. The fruit drops. Especially serious in Cali- fornia. Control. — For California conditions two applications of spray are inade : (a) in November or December, and (b) in February or March. This also controls leaf-curl. Bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, or lime-sulfur, 1-10, may be used. Brown-ror (Scerotinia fructigena). — Causes a rot of the fruit, and often runs down the spur, forming a canker in the limb. Also produces brownish irregular spots on the leaves. Control. — Spray with self-boiled lime-sulfur, 8-8-50, adding 2 pounds of arsenate of lead. Spray first about time shucks are shedding from young fruit; second, two to three weeks later, and third, about one month before the fruit ripens. Omit the arsenate of lead from the third spraying. On early maturing varieties two applications may be sufficient. . Spraying within a month of picking time is apt to leave the fruit spotted. It is especially im- portant that sprayings be made before a continued storm period. Destroy rotten peaches. The rotten ones on the ground are as great a menace (especially if plowed under) as those on the tree, as the fungus winters readily on the fallen mummies. Brown-rot also occurs on cherries, plums, apricots, and sometimes on apples and pears. Lear-cur (Exoascus deformans). — Causes the leaves to crimp and curl and often to turn bright red. Also causes shoots to swell and become distorted. Control. —In an infected orchard more than 90 per cent of 276 PLANT DISEASES the curl can be controlled the first year. The second year control should be complete. The secret of control of leaf-curl lies largely in the thoroughness with which the work is done. A number of spray substances may be used. A single thorough application before the buds swell in the spring is sufficient. Every bud must be covered and from all sides. Lime-sulfur as applied for San José scale will control curl. Commercial lime-sulfur, 1-20; bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50; or a simple solution of blue vitriol in water, 2-50, are all specifics. Lear-rust. — See under Pium (p. 279). Lirrte-peacH.—A disease that in its early stages resembles yellows. It differs from yellows in producing small fruit that matures later than normally. Fruit does not have the small red spots characteristic of yellows, nor are there slender sickly branches. The cause of this disease is unknown. Apparently spreads more rapidly than yellows and commonly destroys the affected tree sooner. Occurs in the northern states. Preventive. — As for YELLOws (see next page). PowpERY MILDEW (Spherotheca pannosa).— A whitish powdery growth on the young shoots and leaves, and whitish spots on the fruit. Control. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur as for Ror. Root-GaLtt, Root-Knot, Crown-catt, Harry-roor (Bacterium tumefaciens). — Hairy roots or tumerous outgrowths on the roots and root crowns ; sometimes occurs on trunks and limbs. Pri- marily a nursery disease. Does not seem to be a serious disease on peaches in the North, but is reported as very serious in the South. Attacks a wide range of orchard plants, including apple, pear, brambles, grape, etc. Control. — Reject all stock showing symptoms. Rosette. — An obscure southern disease of peach trees and some kinds of plums, characterized by bunchy growths containing very many rolled and yellowish leaves which fall prematurely. The tree dies the first or second year. There is no premature fruit as in yellows. It is often accompanied by gummosis of the roots. The disease is communicable by budding, and it may enter through the roots. All affected trees should be exterminated, Known in South Carolina, Georgia, Kansas, and Arkansas, PEACH AND PEAR DISEASES 277 ScaB or Bracx-srot (Cladosporium carpophilum). — Black scab- like spots on the fruit, often causing it to crack deeply. Control. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur, as applied for Brown-Rot. Yewtows. — A fatal disease of peaches; also attacks nectarine, almond, apricot, and Japanese plum. Cause unknown. The first symptom in bearing trees is usually the premature ripening of the fruit. This fruit contains definite small red spots, which extend towards the pit. The second stage is usually the appear- ance of “ tips,” or short, late, second growths upon the ends of healthy twigs, and which are marked by small, horizontal, usually yellowish leaves. The next stage is indicated by very slender shoots, which branch the first year and which start, in tufts from the old limbs, bearing narrow and small yellowish leaves. Later the entire foliage becomes smaller and yellow. In three to six years the tree dies. The disease spreads from tree to tree. It attacks trees of any age. Known at present only in regions east of the Mississippi. Peculiar to America, so far as known. Preventive. — Pull up and burn all trees as soon as the disease appears. Trees may be reset in the places from which the “yellows ” trees were taken. Laws aiming to suppress the disease have been enacted in most peach-growing states, and the enforce- ment of them will keep the disease well under control. Pear. Bucur (Bacillus amylovorus).— A very serious bacterial disease. Bacteria winter just at the edge of the dead wood in trees blighted the previous year. With the advent of warm spring days they ooze through the bark in sticky drops and are carried by bees and flies to blossoms. The blossoms blight, and the spur may also blight. Plant-lice carry bacteria from blighted blossoms to spurs and shoots. If a spur becomes blighted, the bacteria may spread in the bark of the limb, causing a depression or canker. This may girdle the limb and cause its death. The leaves turn black and stick tenaciously, even through the winter. Succulent water sprouts are very apt to blight and cause large cankers. Generally distributed in North America, and known only in America. Attacks apple, quince, mountain ash, hawthorn; the Spitzenburgh is specially liable to attack. Control. —Clean up hedgerows of hawthorn, old blighted pear trees and apple trees. In early spring cut out the blight 278 PLANT DISEASES of the previous year and disinfect the stubs with corrosive sub- limate, 1-1000. Clean out cankers with a sharp knife, and dis- infect. Paint over with lead paint. At blossoming time make a systematic daily inspection for blossom blight, and break it out. Watch for blight in the shoots. When it appears get a long- handled pruning-hook, fasten a sponge near the knife, and saturate it with corrosive sublimate solution, 1-1000. Clip out the blighted twigs, cutting five or six inches below the blight, and sop the pruned stub with the sponge. During a blight epidemic, drop all other work. The work must be done systematically and per- sistently, or not at all. One week’s work may save the pear crop and the pear trees. LEAF-BLIGHT AND CRACKING OF FRUIT (Fabrea maculata). — Attacks nursery stock of pears and quinces, beginning as small circular brown spots on the leaves. These spread, and if numerous cause the leaf to fall. The same disease produces a black spot or pit on the fruit. Control. — In nurseries spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. In the orchard spray as for pear scab, with perhaps one additional application. Lear-spot (Mycospherella sentina).— Small lecticular spots with white centers on leaves. Spots become so numerous as to cause defoli- ation. Thefungus is known only on leaves, and it winters on them. Control. — Burn fallen leaves. Spray as for Scan. Scas ( Venturia pyrina). — Greenish brown or black spots on leaves and fruit, arresting growth and often causing fruit to crack. Severe on Flemish Beauty. Often attacks pedicles of fruits and causes them to drop, and may even cause defoliation. Is different from apple scab, but behaves much like it. Differs especially in the fact that the fungus winters on the twigs as well as on fallen leaves. Control. — Owing to the nearness of the fungus (on the twigs) and the slowness with which the pear-leaf unfolds, two applications of spray before the blossoms open are sometimes necessary, and one immediately after they fall. Use lime-sulfur, 1-50, or bordeaux, 3-83-50. Remarks in regard to apple scab (on page 264) are equally important here. \ PLUM AND POTATO DISEASES 27! Rust (Gymnosporangium globosum). — Having the same habits an appearance as apple rust. Control. — As for Scas. Plum. Buackx-Knot (Plowrightia morbosa). —A black tumerous swell ing from one to several inches in length, appearing on the limb and twigs of American plums and sour cherries. Point of attacl is usually under a bud or in crotches. Confined to America A very serious disease. In some regions it has destroyed th plum industry. It was once supposed to be caused by ai insect. Control. — Burn all affected parts in the fall. Cut severa inches below the swelling. A badly infected tree should be cu down at once, as there is no hope of saving it. Many states hav: a law requiring the destruction of affected trees. Brown-rot. — See under Peacu (p. 275). SHOT-HOLE FUNGUS. — See Lear-spoT oF CHERRY (p. 268). Lear-rust (Puccinia pruni-spinose).— Small circular powder spots of yellowish brown on the under surface of the leaves, anc reddish spots on the upper surface directly above them. Control. — Early spraying with bordeaux, 3-3-50, or self-boilec lime-sulfur, 8-8-50. PowWDERY MILDEW. — See under Praca (p. 276). Potato. EARLY BLIGHT (Alternaria solani). — A blight of foliage begin. ning as an even circular spot and coming early in the season usually in July. Progresses slowly. This disease does not attack the tubers. Control. — Bordeaux mixture at intervals of ten days, beginnin; when plants are 6-8 in. high. Late BLicuT and Porato-rot (Phytophthorainfestans).— The fungu: winters in the tuber, which shows a faint pinkish tinge and a drj rot. Diseased tubers are planted, the fungus fruits on the cu surface and its swarm spores pass through the soil-water to thr leaves which touch or are buried in the soil. An extensive ir regular blighted area covers the leaf, the under surface of whicl may have a mildewy appearance. The disease spreads ver} rapidly. Later spores are washed down to the tubers and infec: them. Appears late in the season, usually not much befor August 1. 280 PLANT DISEASES Control. — Can be controlled successfully by the use of bor- deaux mixture, 5-5-50. It is always profitable to spray at least three times, and in a wet season six or more applications should be made. As the vines increase in size, greater quantities of spray and more nozzles must be used. Use from 40 to 100 gallons of spray mixture per acre. Dry-Rot and Witt (Fusarium oxysporum). — A dry rot of the tuber in storage and wilt of plants in the field. Can be detected in the seed tuber before there is any external appearance by examin- ing a section near the stem end. A black ring or chain of dots near the surface is indicative of the rot. Infection frequently takes place through wounds. Control. — Reject all diseased tubers for seed. Practice a rotation in which potatoes are not grown on the soil for at least two years. Scas (Oospora scabies). — A scabby and pitted roughness of potato tubers. Lime, ashes or manure added to the soil increases the amount of scab by favoring the growth of the fungus. It has become one of the serious diseases of the potato. Control.— Do not plant on land which has grown scabby potatoes. Plant clean seed. If only scabby seed is at hand, soak the uncut tubers in a solution of formalin, 1 pint in 30 gallons of water, for two hours. Drain, cut, and plant in clean soil. Use the formalin solution over and over. The same fungus also attacks beets. Pumpkin. — See under Musxmeton (p. 274). Quince. Bracx-ror (Spheropsis malorum). — A trouble which usually appears at the blossom end of young quince fruits, causing them to become black and hard, with a dry rot of the tissue. The same disease occurs on apples, which see. Buieur. — See under Pear Bucur (p. 277). Lzar- anp Fruit-spor. —See Pear-Lear Bucur, which is the same disease. Rust. — The organism causing this disease is of the same habit and nature as that causing apple rust. Control. — As for AppLe Rust (p. 264). Radish. Wuite rust or Minpew (Albugo candidus).— A whitish powdery growth on the leaves and petioles, often causing distortion. ROSE — SPINACH 28: Control. — Steam-sterilize the soil before planting. Cius-Rroor. — See under CasBpace (p. 266). Raspberry. ANTHRACNOSE (Gleosporium venetum).— Circular 0: elliptical, gray scab-like spots on the canes. Control. — Avoid taking young plants from diseased plantations Remove all diseased canes as soon as the fruit is picked. Practic frequent rotation. : CROWN-GALL or Root-caLtt (Bactertum tumefaciens). — Tumeroui outgrowths on the roots, especially on red varieties. -It is con tagious dnd destructive.’ Control. — Never set plants which have galls on the roots Avoid setting on infested land. See under Pracu (p. 276). Rep or Oranee rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis).— A dense rec powdery growth on the under side of the leaves of black varietie: and of blackberries. The fungus hibernates in the roots. Control. — Dig up and destroy infected plants. Rice. Buast, Buicut or Rorren-neck (Piricularia oryze). — An ex tensive paling and drying of leaf and stem, and a partial failuri of the heads to fill. Control. — The selection of early maturing varieties is advis able. Burn stubble and trash left in the fields. Rose. BLack LEAF-Spot (Actinonema rose). — Attacks the full-grow1 leaves, first appearing as small black spots, but later coverin; nearly or quite the whole surface with blotches. The spots hav: frayed edges. Control. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate, beginnin; with the first appearance of the spots and continuing at interval: of one week until under subjection. Mitvew (Spherotheca pannosa). — A white powdery mildew on thi new growth. Control. — For greenhouse roses keep the steam pipes paintec with a paste made of equal parts lime and sulfur mixed witl water. Out-of-door roses should be dusted with sulfur flow or sprayed with potassium sulfid, 1 ounce to 3 gallons o water. Spinach. — There are numerous fungous diseases of this crop, but : practical method of control has not been developed. The bes that can be done is to rotate crops. 282 PLANT DISEASES Strawberry. Lear-spot or LeaFr-BLIGHT (Mycospherella fragarie). — Small purple or red spots appearing on the leaves. They increase in size and make the leaf appear blotched. The fungus passes the winter in the old diseased leaves that fall to the ground. Control. —In setting new plantations remove all diseased leaves from the plants before they are taken to the field. Soon after growth begins, spray the plants with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. Make three or four additional sprayings during the season. The following spring spray just before blossoming, and again in ten to fourteen days. If the bed is to be fruited again, mow the plants and burn over the bed as soon as the crop is off. Mitpew (Spherotheca custagnet).— A whitish cobweb-like mildew on fruit and leaves, causing the latter to curl. Control. — Spraying as for leaf-spot ; dusting with sulfur flour. Sweet-potato. Biack-rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata). — Causing black shank of the plant and a black rot of the tuber. The spots on the tuber are greenish black, from a quarter of an inch to four inches in diameter and extending for some distance into the tissue. Control. — Never use affected potatoes from which to grow sprouts. Steam-sterilize the soil in the hotbed. Practice rotation. Rots. — The sweet-potato is susceptible to a large number of rots, soft, dry, hard, white, etc. In practically all cases the organism producing the disease is an inhabitant of the soil. The best method of preventing these diseases is to use perfectly sound potatoes for sprouts and plant on soil which has not grown sweet- potatoes for several years. Tobacco. Roor-ror (Thielavia basicola).— A rot of the main root and dwarfs the plants. Occurs both in seed-bed and field. Control. — Steam-sterilize the seed-bed by the inverted pan method. (See discussion on p. 253.) Rotate crops. Avoid lim- ing, and add acid fertilizers. Wixr (Bacterium solanacearum).— A wilt of the plants caused by bacteria. Control. — Very difficult to control, as the organism lives in the soil for years. Never plant on land known to be diseased. Do not cultivate related plants, as potato, tomato, egg plant, or pepper, on the same soil. Transplant early, and avoid breaking the TOMATO — VIOLET 283 roots. Where tobacco is grown under shade (as is now a common practice) the soil should be steam-sterilized. Tomato. BacrTeRIAL BLIGHT. — See ToBacco WILT. Buicut or ScaB (Cladosporium fulvum).— Soft brown irregular spots on the under surface of the leaves. The upper surface be- comes spotted with yellow. The leaves finally wither and die. Most serious in the greenhouse. Control. — In mild cases the disease can be prevented by pick- ing off the affected leaves. In severe cases spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, at intervals of ten days. Downy MILDEW (Phytophthora infestans). —' The same fungus that causes PoTAaTO-BLIGHT, which see (p. 279). Enp-ror. — Not well understood, and no method of control is known. Lear-spot (Septoria lycopersica).— A serious disease attacking leaves and stems. At first'small spots appear, which spread until the whole leaf is consumed. In severe cases the fruit may also be attacked. Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, making the first application two weeks after the plants are set out, and repeating every two weeks throughout the growing season. (ipema. — A diseased condition of forced tomatoes characterized by rolled or curled leaves, distended veins, and by swollen areas having a frosty appearance on leaf veins, petioles and stem. This condition may be brought about by insufficient light, too much water in soil, excessive fertilization, high soil temperature. Prevention. — Avoid conditions favorable for the disease. Pro- vide good ventilation in forcing-house; in field, cultivate deep and avoid topping plants. (See p. 260.) Violet. Lar-spors and LeAF-BLIGHTS. — A number of different or- ganisms are responsible. Usually not very destructive. Control. — Destroy affected plants; use fresh soil for new plantings; spray the foliage in the summer and fall with bor- deaux mixture, 4-4-50. Root-ror (Thielavia basicola).—The same as the root-rot of tobacco. The plants make poor growth, owing to the fungus on the roots. Control. —Start in steam-sterilized soil, and transfer to sterilized beds. 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UI sINOY Z 10j poses HBOG “Iepus]ey Avidg aeg ‘syueyd Jo SurAwids Ysno1g} pases Jo wol.eyuI UMOp doayy (‘eA0g% OT ‘ON Joepun poyyeur jo uoNdizosep e9g) ‘sInoy BF 03 FZ JO porsod © 10; soqBI9 4e]8 Jo salid pasojo -Ul Ul ses epAYOP]VUIOF YY ‘SMOIMO Arp ay} YoosUIsIp 07 oy eS1UIN Ajuo Apeurey ‘+ moqueo jo pynsig ayeyns Jaddoo 10 19984 yoy ‘apAyopyeus0g * + eyess 4OT pogrpoyy 7 + + ‘apAéyepleurs0,7 * UWIBeqs TYLA [LOS yeOTT * ¢ * [FOS Ur ouarToING * JayBA-qns IO YON UIBO}S TFTA [IOS OZI]11995 WIB94S YALA OZIT -l1998 Jo opAyepleur -10J YA speq qoueiq oapAyep[euri0,y epAyoplemioT UWI8a}s TILA [IOs B2Z1]11039 * * qeos IO} se opAY -Op[BUa1Oj Ul pass Zeog ‘+ segeunyiqns oars -O1109 10 opAYopyeur -10} UI psas ynoun YZwog " * sxneapiog qa doio Sutmois ay} Atadg * ged opAgop ~[SURIOZ YI QoosUISICT UIVIZ pal0}s UI s}OosUT “qnus Suryuiy¢e * ynuIs es00'T ssoudtiqyuy asnoyzOY UI sepoyeuteN| set f goor-qniy * asnoyqyoy UI 401-010g esnoyzoY Ur sapoyeurENy * qo1-pag put 401-J00y 4OI-U19}g PUB 4OI-HOVT + gsouoBIqyUy OsNOy}OY Ul SepozeUTaNT (eruojoozITY) 994080 qzog (UaTq) esoussUY = 8 8 8JOI-9381099 . yeouM R210) font ‘oyeuIO J, oaoBqoy, 07e10g Jog * eA * soso oyeq0g * wag moLUgQ CHAPTER XVII INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES By C. R. Crossy Tus results secured from the use of an insecticide or fungicide depend upon the operator. Timeliness, thoroughness, and persistence are the watchwords of success. It is easier to keep an enemy away than to drive him away. The worst foes are often the smallest ones ; and the injury is often done before they are detected. Be ready; begin early. General Practices Cleanliness. — Much can be done to check the ravages of insects by de- stroying their breeding-places and hiding-places. Weeds, rub- bish, and refuse should be eliminated. Hand-picking is often still the best means of destroying insects, despite all the perfection of machinery and of materials. This is partic- ularly true about the home grounds and in the garden. The cul- tivator should not scorn this method. Promoting growth. — Any course that tends to promote vigor will be helpful in enabling plants to withstand the attacks of plant- lice and other insects. Burning. — Larve which live or feed in webs, like the tent-caterpillar and fall web-worm, may be burned with a torch. The lamp or torch used in campaign parades finds its most efficient use here. Banding. — To prevent the ascent of canker-worm moths and gypsy- moth caterpillars, various forms of sticky bands are in use. For this purpose there is no better substance than Tree Tanglefoot. It may be applied directly to the tree-trunk, but when so used leaves an unsightly mark and requires more material than when the following method is used : — First place a strip of cotton batting three inches wide around 286 FUMIGATION 287 the trunk ; cover this with a strip of tarred paper five inches wide ; draw the paper tight and fasten at the lap only with three or four tacks. Spread the tanglefoot onthe upper two-thirds of the paper, and comb it from time to time to keep the surface sticky. Burlap bands are made by tying or tacking a strip of burlap around the trunk and letting the edges hang down. The larve will hide under the loose edge, where they may be killed. Banding is now little used for the codlin-moth, since spraying with poison has been found so much more effective. Fumigation. — Fumigating or “ smoking” or “ smudging ” in green- houses is performed by the slow burning of tobacco-stems. Best results are obtained when a sheet iron vessel made for the purpose is used, having holes in the bottom to supply draft. A quart of live coals is placed in the bottom of the vessel, and about a pailful of tobacco-stems is laid on them. The stems should not blaze, but burn with a slow smudge. If they are slightly damp, better results are obtained. Some plants are injured by a very heavy smoke, and in order to avoid this injury, and also to more effec- tually destroy the insects, it is better to smoke rather lightly and often. It is always well to smoke on two consecutive days, for the insects which persist through the first treatment, being weak, will be killed by the second. If the plants are wet, the smoke is more likely to scorch them. The smudge often injures flowers, as those of roses and chrysanthemums. In order to avoid this injury, the flowers should be covered with paper bags. Tobacco fumes can be conveniently generated by burning strips of prepared nico- tine paper, or by vaporizing a concentrated aqueous solution of nicotine in pans over alcohol or special kerosene lamps. Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. —Hydrocyanic acid gas is a deadly poison, and the greatest care is required in its use. Al- ways use 98 to 100 per cent pure potassium cyanide and a good grade of commercial sulfuric acid. The chemicals are always com- bined in the following proportion : Potassium cyanide, 1 ounce ; sulfuric acid, 1 fluid ounce ; water, 3 fluid ounces. Always use an earthen dish, pour in the water first, and add the sulfuric acid tc it. Put the required amount of cyanide in a thin paper bag, anc when all is ready, drop it into the liquid and leave the room immediately. For mills and dwellings, use one ounce of cyanide 288 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES for every 100 cubic feet of space. Make the doors and windows as tight as possible by placing strips of paper over the cracks. Remove the silverware and food, and if brass and nickel work cannot be removed, cover with vaseline. Place the proper amount of the acid and water for every room in two-gallon jars. Use two or more in large rooms or halls. Weigh out the potas- sium cyanide in paper bags, and place them near the jars. When all is ready, drop the cyanide into the jars, beginning on the top floors, since the fumes are lighter than air. In large build- ings, it is frequently necessary to suspend the bags of cyanide over the jars by cords running through screw-eyes and all leading to a place near the door. By cutting all the cords at once, the cyanide will be lowered into the jars and the operator may escape without injury. Let the fumigation continue all night, locking all outside doors, and place danger signs on the house. Fumigation of greenhouses. — No general formula can be given for fumigating the different kinds of plants grown in greenhouses, as the species and varieties differ greatly in their ability to with- stand the effects of the gas. Ferns and roses are very susceptible to injury, and fumigation, if attempted at all, should be per- formed with great caution. Fumigation will not kill insect eggs, and thus must be repeated when the new brood appears. Fumi- gate only on dark nights when there is no wind. Have the house as dry as possible, and the temperature as near 60° as prac- ticable. Fumigation of dormant nursery stock.— Dormant nursery stock may be fumigated in a tight box or fumigating house made espe- cially for the purpose. Fumigating houses are built of two thick- nesses of matched boards with building paper between, and are provided with a tight-fitting door and ventilators. The stock should be reasonably dry to avoid injury, and should be piled loosely in the house to permit a free circulation of the gas. Use one ounce of potassium cyanide for each 100 cubic feet of space, and let the fumigation continue forty minutes to one hour. Fumigation of citrus trees.—In this case the tree is covered with an octagonal sheet tent made of 6} ounce special drill or 8 ounce special army duck, and the gas is generated in the ordinary way beneath it. The tent is so marked that when in position it is FUMIGATION 289 an easy matter to determine the distance over the tent and the cir- cumference at the ground. When these figures are known, the Dosage chart for fumigating citrus trees (Bureau of Entomology, U.S. Dept. Agric proper dosage may be obtained from the above chart, which has been prepared for a strength of one ounce of cyanide for each 100 cubic feet of space. U 290 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES The top line of numbers, beginning at 16 and continuing to 78, represents the distance in feet around the bottom of the tent. The outer vertical columns of larger numbers running from 10 to 59 rep- resent the distance in feet over the top of the tent. The number of ounces of cyanide to use for a tree of known dimensions is found in that square where the vertical column headed by the distance around the tree intersects the horizontal line of figures correspond- ing to the distance over. Using fungous diseases as insecticides. — Fungous diseases have been successfully employed against the citrus white-fly in Florida. There are seven species of fungus which attack the white-fly, and nearly all are more or less valuable. The object is to introduce some form of the fungus into orchards and on trees where it is absent. This may be accomplished by spraying the under side of the leaves with a mixture of fungus spores in water. The mixture may be made by placing two or three fungus-bearing leaves in a quart of water, and stirring occasionally for fifteen minutes. Strain through cheesecloth, and apply to those parts of the tree most badly infested with the white-fly larve. The fungus may be introduced by pinning a dozen or so fungus- bearing leaves to the under side of the leaves of the tree infested with white-fly. The fungus-covered surface should face downward. Insecticidal Substances Arsenic. — Known to chemists as arsenious acid, or white oxide of arsenic. It is considered an unsafe insecticide, as its color allows it to be mistaken for other substances ; but in its various com- pounds it forms our best insecticides. From one to two grains, or less, usually prove fatal to an adult; 30 grains will usually kill a horse, 10 grains a cow; and 1 grain, or less, is usually fatal to a dog. In case of poisoning, while awaiting the arrival of a physician, give emetics, and, after free vomiting, give milk and eggs. Sugar and magnesia in milk is useful. A cheap and effective insecticide may be prepared from white arsenic by the following methods : — For use with bordeaux mixture only. Sal soda, 2 pounds; water, 1 gallon; arsenic, 1 pound. Mix the white arsenic into a paste, and ARSENICALS 291 then add the sal soda and water, and boil until dissolved. Add water to replace any that has boiled away, so that one gallon of stock solution is the result. Use one quart of this stock solution to 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture for fruit-trees. Make sure there is enough lime in the bordeaux mixture to prevent the caus- tic action of the arsenic. For use without bordeaux mixture. Sal soda, 1 pound; water, 1 gallon; white arsenic, 1 pound; quicklime, 2 pounds. Dissolve the white arsenic with the water and sal soda as above, and use this solution while hot to slake the 2 pounds of lime. Add enough water to make 2 gallons. Use 2 quarts of this stock solution in 50 gallons of water. Arsenicals. — A term popularly used for compounds of arsenic. The leading arsenicals used in destroying insects are arsenate of lead, paris green, and london purple. ARSENATE OF Leap. — This can be applied in a stronger mixture than other arsenical poisons, without injuring the foliage. It is, there- fore, much used against beetles and other insects that are hard to poison. It comes in the form of a paste or powder, and should be mixed thoroughly with a small amount of water before placing in the sprayer, else the nozzles will clog. Arsenate of lead may be used with either bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur without lessen- ing the value of either. It is used in strengths varying from 4 to 10 pounds per 100 gallons, depending on the kind of insect to be killed. Lonpon Purpie. — An arsenite of lime, obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of aniline dyes. The composition is variable. The amount of arsenic varies from 30 to 50 per cent. The two following analyses show its composition : (1) Arsenic, 43.65 per cent; rose aniline, 12.46; lime, 12.82; insoluble residue, 14.57; iron oxide, 1.16; and water, 2.27. (2) Arsenic, 55.35 per cent; lime, 26.23; sulfuric acid, 0.22; carbonic acid, 0.27; moisture, 5.29. It is a finer powder than paris green, and therefore remains longer in suspension in water. It is used in the same manner as paris green, but is sometimes found to be more caustic on foliage. This injury is due to the presence of much soluble arsenic; but it can be averted by the use of lime, as advised under paris green. Paris Green.— An aceto-arsenite of copper. When pure it contains about 58 per cent of arsenic. By the provisions of the federal 292 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES insecticide act of 1910, paris green must contain at least 50 per cent of arsenious oxide, and must not contain arsenic in water- soluble form equivalent to more than 34 per cent of arsenious oxide. It is applied in either a wet or dry condition ; but in any case, it must be much diluted. For making a dry mixture, plaster, flour, air-slaked lime, road dust, or sifted wood ashes may be used. The strength of the mixture depends upon the plants and insects to which it is to be applied. The strongest dry mixture now recommended is one part of poison to fifty of the diluent; but if the mixing is very thoroughly done, 1 part to 100, or even 200, is sufficient. Paris green is practically insoluble in water. When mixed with water, the mixture must be kept in a constant state of agitation, else the poison will settle, and the liquid from the bottom of the cask will be so strong as to do serious damage, while that from the top will be useless. For potatoes, apple-trees, and most species of shade trees, 1 pound of poison to 200 or 250 gallons of water is a good mixture. Paris green is very likely to burn the foliage of stone fruits, especially peaches and Japanese plums, and has been generally replaced by arsenate of lead for such purposes. In all cases, the liquid should be applied with force, in a very fine spray. At some seasons of the year foliage is more liable to injury than at others. The addition of a little lime (twice the bulk of lime as of paris green) to the mixture will tend to prevent any caustic injury upon the foliage. Spraying with paris green or london purple does not endanger stock pastured in the orchard. CoMBINATIONS OF ARSENICALS AND Funaicipes. — Arsenicals may be used in connection with some fungicides, and both insects and plant diseases in this manner may be combated at the same time. The arsenicals may be added to bordeaux mixture in the same proportion as if the bordeaux were plain water. Arsenate of lead may be added to the lime-sulfur wash, but the addition of paris green or arsenite of lime is liable to cause burning. The addition of lime to paris green and london purple mixtures greatly lessens injury to foliage, and, as a consequence, they can be applied several times stronger than ordinarily used, if they are combined with the bordeaux mixture. The free lime in the VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 293 mixture combines with the soluble arsenic, which is the material that injures the foliage, and the combination is thus made quite harmless. Bait. Vegetable bait. — Spray a patch of clover or some other plant that the insects will eat with paris green or some other arsenical; mow it close to the ground, and while fresh place it in small piles around the infested plants. To avoid wilting of the bait, cover the heaps with a shingle or piece of board. Bran-arsenic mash. White arsenic, } pound, or paris green, 1 pound; bran, 50 pounds. Mix thoroughly and then add enough water to make a wet mash. Sugar or molasses may be added, but is unnecessary. Poisoned baits are used against cutworms and grasshoppers. See CrippLe Mixture, below. Bisulfid of carbon. — A thin liquid which volatilizes at a very low temperature, the vapor being very destructive to animal life. It is exceedingly inflammable, and should never be used near a lamp or fire. It is used for many root-insects. It is poured into a hole, which is immediately closed up, causing the fumes to permeate the soil in all directions. In loose soils it is very destructive to insects. Against weevils infesting stored grain and corn, carbon bisulfid is effective at the rate of 5 pounds for each 1000 cubic feet, pro- vided the application is made while the temperature is not below 65° F. Make the bins as tight as possible, and after sprinkling the liquid over the grain, cover tightly with gas-proof tarpaulin. Let the fumigation continue for at least twenty-four hours. Carbolic acid and soap mixtures. — One ounce crude carbolic acid ; 1 pound fish-oil soap; 1 gallon hot water. Mix thoroughly. This wash is used for borers. Apply with a cloth or soft broom. Use only on dormant wood. Carbolic acid emulsion. — Soap, 1 pound; water, 1 gallon; crude car- bolic acid (90 per cent strength), 1 pint. Dissolve the soap in hot water; add the carbolic acid, and agitate into an emulsion. For use against root-maggots, dilute with 30 parts of water. Carbon bisulfid. — See BisutFip or CaRBON, above. Criddle mixture. — Mix 1 pound of paris green with 4 barrel of horse droppings, and add 1 pound of salt if the material is not fresh. For use against grasshoppers. 294 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES Distillate emulsion. — 5 gallons of 28° gravity untreated distillate ; 5 gallons boiling water, 1 pounds whale-oil soap. Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the distillate, and thoroughly emulsify by means of a power pump until a yellowish, creamy emulsion is produced. For use on lemon dilute with 12 parts of water; on orange, with 15 parts. Formerly much used on citrus trees, but now generally replaced by fumigation. Hellebore. — See WuttE HELLEBORE, p. 300. Hot water. — Submerge affected plants or branches in water at a temperature of about 125°. For aphis. It will also kill rose-bugs at a temperature of 125°-135°. Kerosene emulsion. — Hard, soft, or whale-oil soap, $ pound; water, 1 gallon; kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in hot water ; remove from the fire and while still hot add the kerosene. Pump the liquid back into itself for five or ten minutes, or until it becomes a creamy mass. If properly made, the oil will not sep- arate out on cooling. For use on dormant trees, dilute with from 5 to 7 parts of water. For killing plant-lice on foliage dilute with from 10 to 15 parts of water. Crude oil emulsion is made in the same way by substitut- ing crude oil in place of kerosene. The strength of oil emulsions is frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the diluted liquid: — For a 10 per cent emulsion add 17 gallons of water to 3 gallons stock emulsion. For a 15 per cent emulsion add 10} gallons of water to 3 gallons stock emulsion. For a 20 per cent emulsion add 7 gallons of water to 3 gallons stock emulsion. For a 25 per cent emulsion add 5 gallons of water to 3 gallons stock emulsion. Lead, arsenate of. —See under ArsENIcALS, p. 291. Lime-sulfur. — A compound of lime and sulfur makes both a good insec- ticide and a good fungicide (for anaccount from the fungicide point of view, see page 256). There are several forms of it, as (1) the ordinary dilute home-made ; (2) the concentrated home-made ; (8) the commercial concentrated brands ; (4) the so-called self- boiled preparation. The three first are solutions, and are modi- LIME-SULFUR 295 fications of one preparation ; the self-boiled is mostly a mechanical mixture of the lime and sulfur. 1. Home-made dilute solution of lime-sulfur.— Quick lime, 20 pounds; sulfur (flour or flowers), 15 pounds; water, 50 gallons. The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An iron kettle is often convenient for the work. Proceed as follows: Place the lime in the kettle. Add hot water gradually in sufficient quan- tity to produce the most rapid slaking of the lime. When the lime begins to slake, add the sulfur and stir together. If con- venient, keep the mixture covered with burlap to save the heat. After slaking has ceased, add more water, and boil the mixture one hour. As the sulfur goes into solution, a rich orange-red or dark green color will appear. After boiling sufficiently, add water to the required amount and strain into the spray tank. The wash is most effective when applied warm, but may be applied cold. If one has access to a steam boiler, boiling with steam is more con- venient and satisfactory. Barrels may be used for holding the mixture, and the steam applied by running a pipe or rubber hose into the mixture. Proceed in the same manner as for boiling in the kettle until the lime is slaked, when the steam may be turned on. Continue boiling for forty-five minutes to an hour, or more if necessary to get the sulfur well dissolved. This mixture can be applied safely only when the trees are dor- mant, — late in the autumn after the leaves have fallen, or early in the spring before the buds swell. It is mainly an insecticide for San José scale, although it has considerable value as a fungi- cide for certain diseases, like the peach leaf-curl. As the San José scale is not killed unless the solution comes in contact with it, great care should be exercised to completely cover the branches. 2. Home-made concentrated lime-sulfur wash. For making the concentrated mixture, the steps are the same as in making the usual boiled wash, but the following formula should be used : — Pure calcium oxide . . ..... . 36 lb. or Lump lime {95 per ct. calcium oxide . . . . . . 381b. or 90 per ct. calcium oxide . . » . . 40 1b. Sulfur . 3 oe ik w 2 ; Waters i a) @ me a Ve ke Ge an Gow, we CL DO SBal. 296 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES Slake the lime, make a thin paste, and add the sulfur. Flowers of sulfur or light or heavy sulfur flour may be used. The lime should be fresh lump lime, free from dirt and grit, containing 90 per cent or more of calcium oxide and less than 5 per cent of magnesium oxide. Stir thoroughly during the hour of cooking, to break up the lumps of sulfur. Enough water should be added at the start so that the evaporation will not leave the quantity less than 50 gallons when the cooking is ended. If kettles are used, 10 to 15 gallons additional will be needed, while with steam none may be required. The kettles should be considerably larger than the amount of wash to be made, to prevent loss of material by boiling over. The clear liquid should be drawn off into tight containers if to be kept any considerable time ; and stored where there is no danger of temperatures much below freezing. For use, test the clear solution with the hydrometer, and dilute as indicated in the table : — Dilutions of Concentrated Lime-Sulfur Solutions for Spraying (N. Y. Exp. Sta.) 2 Wira Eacu GALLon oF nD Wira Eacu Gatton or as EE | Concenrrare, Use—| 2 2E | Concenrrars, Use— 5 Be 25 Pelee tlm er ee ag a s For San | For Blister} 3 3 8 a For San_| For Blister Arg wo | José scale Mite ag ac | José scale Mite Gals. water | Gals. water Gals. water | Gals. water 35 {1.3181 9 12 25 =| 1.2083 53 73 34 | 1.3063 84 113 24 |1.1983 5} 7 33 | 1.2946 8 11 23 11.1885 43 63 32 | 1.2831 7 103 22 = |1.1788 43 61 31 |1.2719 7k 10 21 =| 1.1693 4} 52 30 | 1.2608 7 93 20 = |1.1600 4 5k 29 |1.2500 63 9 19 | 1.1507 33 5 28 | 1.2393 63 82 18 /|1.1417 3h 43 27) =|1.2288 6 82 17 (| 1.1328 3 43 26 |1.2184 52 7} 16 | 1.1240 2¢ 4 15 {1.1153 23 32 3. Commercial concentrated mixtures. The lime-sulfur may be purchased in the concentrated form and the trouble of making it avoided. The strength of the commercial product varies considerably, and in order to compute the proper dilution correctly the strength should be determined by means of a hydrometer. Having determined the strength of the concen- VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 297 trated mixture, the proper dilution for use against the San José scale and blister mite may be obtained from the table on opposite page. 4, Self-boiled. See page 257. London purple. — See under ARSENICALS, p. 291. Miscible oils.— There are now on the market a number of prepara- tions of petroleum and other oils intended primarily for use against the San José scale. They mix readily with cold water, and are immediately ready for use. While quickly prepared, easily applied, and generally effective, they cost considerably more than lime-sulfur wash. They are, however, less corrosive to the pumps, and more agreeable to use. They are especially valuable to the man with only a few trees or shrubs who would not care to go to the trouble and expense to make up the lime-sulfur wash. For use they should be diluted with 15 parts of water. Use only on dormant trees, and when the temperature is above freezing and the trees are not wet. Paraffine oil. — Essentially the same as Krroseng, which see (p. 294). Paris green. — See under ARSENICALS, p. 291. Persian insect powder. — See PyretHruM. Pyrethrum. — A very fine and light brown powder, made from the flower-heads of species of pyrethrum. It is scarcely injurious to man. Three brands are on the market : — Persian InsEctT-POWDER, made from the heads of Pyrethrum roseum, a species also cultivated as an ornamental plant. The plant is native to the Caucasus region. Detmation INSECT-POWDER, made from Pyrethrum cinerariefolium. Buuacu, made in California from cultivated plants of Pyrethrum cinerariefolium. When fresh and pure, all these brands appear to be equally val- uable, but the home-grown product is usually considered most reliable. Pyrethrum soon loses its value when exposed to the air. It is used in various ways :— 1. In solution in water, 1 ounce to 3 gallons. Should be mixed up twenty-four hours before using. 2. Dry, without dilution. In this form it is excellent for thrips and lice on roses and other bushes. Apply when the bush is wet. Useful for aphis on house plants. ; 298 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 3. Dry, diluted with flour or any light and fine powder. Thi poison may be used in the proportion of 1 part to from 6 to 30 o, the diluent. 4. In fumigation. It may be scattered directly upon coals, 01 made into small balls by wetting and molding with the hands anc then set upon coals. This is a desirable way of dealing witk mosquitoes and flies. 5. In alcohol. (1) Put a part of pyrethrum (buhach) and 4 parts alcohol, by weight, in any tight vessel. Shake occasionally and after eight days filter. Apply with an atomizer. Excelleni for greenhouse pests. For some plants it needs to be diluted « little. (2) Dissolve about 4 ounces of powder in 1 gill of alcohol, and add 12 gallons of water. 6. Decoction. Whole flower-heads are treated to boiling water, and the liquid is covered to prevent evaporation. Boiling the liquid destroys its value. Good insect-powder can be made from Pyrethrum roseum, and probably also from P. cinerariefolium, grown in the home garden. Resin and fish-oil compound.— Ten pounds of resin ; 14 pounds ol fish-oil, 3 pounds of caustic soda, and enough water to make 5C gallons. Break the resin into small lumps, and place it together with the caustic soda in the boiler, with three or four inches of water. Stir till the resin is dissolved; then add about one-fourth of the required water and boil one-half hour. Place in the spray tank and add the rest of the water. Used in California against the cottony cushion scale and the brown apricot scale. Soaps, whale-oil, or fish-oil soap.—Soaps are effective insecticides for plant-lice. Dissolve in hot water and dilute so as to obtain 1 pound of soap for every 5or 7 gallons of water. Commercial whale-oil or fish-oil soaps frequently injure tender foliage be- cause of the free alkali which they contain. An excellent fish-oil soap free from uncombined alkali may be easily prepared at home, as follows: Six pounds of caustic soda ; 14 gallons of water ; 22 pounds of fish oil. VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 299 Completely dissolve the caustic soda in the water, and then add the fish-oil very gradually, under constant and vigorous stirring. The combination occurs readily at ordinary summer temperatures and boiling is unnecessary. Stir briskly for about twenty minutes after the last of the oil has been added. (New York Experiment Station.) Soap and tobacco. — Dissolve 8 pounds of the best soft soap in 12 gallons of rain-water, and when cold add 1 gallon of strong tobacco liquor. For plant-lice. Soda and aloes. — Dissolve 2 pounds of washing-soda and 1 ounce of bitter Barbadoes aloes, and when cold add one gallon of water. Dip the plants into the solution, and lay them on their sides for a short time, and the insects will drop off. Syringe the plants with clean, tepid water, and return to the house. For plant-lice. Sulfur.— Fumes of sulfur are destructive to insects, but should be carefully used, or plants will be injured. The sulfur should be evaporated over an oil stove, until the room is filled with the vapor. The sulfur should never be burned, as burning sulfur kills plants. For greenhouse use. See p. 258. Sulfur and water. — To 3 gallons of weak soap suds add 1 pound of flowers of sulfur and stir thoroughly. Apply as a spray. For red spider and mites. Tanglefoot is a sticky commercial substance much used for banding trees. See under Banpina, p. 286. Tar is sometimes used to prevent the female and wingless canker- worm from ascending trees. The tar should be placed on cotton, or some material which will prevent it from coming in contact with the bark, and a band of the preparation is then placed around the trunk. Care must be taken to see that the tar does not injure the tree. Tarred paper may be rolled loosely about trees to keep away mice, but it should be removed before warm weather. It is sometimes recommended as a preventive of the attacks of borers, but it very often injures trees, and should be used, if at all, with great caution. Tobacco. — 1. Stems, placed on the walks and under the benches of greenhouses, for plant-lice. Renew it every month. 2. Tobacco-water, used with whale-oil soap. 300 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 3. Dust and snuff. Snuff may be blown lightly on plants, as house-plants, for lice. 4, Fumes. Burn dampened tobacco-stems. See Fumigation, p. 287. 5. Nicotyl. Steep tobacco-stems in water, and evaporate the water. 6. Tea, or common decoction. Boil the stems or dust thoroughly, and strain. Then add cold water until the decoction contains 2 gallons of liquid to 1 pound of tobacco. There are various concentrated commercial preparations of tobacco which have recently been giving good results against’ plant- lice. White arsenic. — See ARSENICALS, p. 291. White hellebore.—A light brown powder made from the roots of the white hellebore plant (Veratrum album), one of the lily family. It is applied both dry and in water. In the dry state, it is usually applied without dilution, although the addition of a little flour will render it more adhesive. In water, 4 ounces of the poison is mixed with 2 or 3 gallons ; and an ounce of glue, or thin flour paste, is sometimes added to make it adhere. A decoction is made by using boiling water in the same proportions. Hellebore soon loses its strength, and a fresh article should always be de- manded. It is much less poisonous than the arsenicals, and should be used in place of them upon ripening fruit. Used for various leaf-eating insects, particularly for the currant-worm and rose-slug. CHAPTER XVIII Insurious Insects, WITH TREATMENT By C. R. Crossy “Insects are of two kinds as respects their manner of taking food, — the mandibulate insects, or those that chew or bite their food, as larvee (“ worms ”’) and most beetles ; and those that suck their food, as the plant-lice and true bugs. The former class is dispatched by poisons, the latter by caustic applications, as kerosene or soap preparations. General or Unclassified Pests Angleworm or Earthworm. — The common angleworm often destroys greenhouse plants by its burrowing. It is sometimes annoying in gardens also. Treatment. — Lime-water applied to the soil. Ants. — See Lawns, p. 322. Aphides, Plant-lice or Green-fly, and Bark-lice. — Minute insects of various kinds, feeding upon the tender parts of many plants, both indoors and out. Treatment. -- Kerosene emulsion. Hot water (about 125°). Pyrethrum. Fish-oil soap. Tobacco-water or extracts. Alco- holic and water extracts of pyrethrum. Hughes’ fir-tree oil. In the greenhouse, fumigation with tobacco or hydrocyanic acid gas. Knock them off with the hose. In window gardens, dry pyre- thrum or snuff. Bag-worm or Basket-worm (Thyridopteryx ephemereformis). —Larva working in singular dependent bags, and feeding upon many kinds of trees, both evergreen and deciduous. In winter the bags, empty or containing eggs, are conspicuous, hanging from the branches. Treatment. — Hand-picking. Arsenicals. 301 302 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Blister-beetle (Lytta, two or three species). — Soft-shelled, long-necked and slim black or gray spry beetles, feeding on the leaves of many trees and garden plants. Treatment. — Arsenicals. Jarring. : Brown-tail moth (Huproctis chrysorrhea).— This highly destruc- tive European insect was introduced near Boston a number of years ago, and is now rapidly spreading over New England. The snow-white moths, with a large tuft of brown hairs at the tip of the abdomen, appear in July and deposit eggs on the leaves in elongate masses covered with brown hairs from the body of the female. The caterpillars become only partly grown the first season, and hibernate in conspicuous nests, three or four inches long, at the tips of the branches. The black-bodied caterpillars, clothed with rather long, brownish, stinging hairs, complete their growth the next spring, feeding ravenously on the tender foliage and causing great damage in orchards, parks, and forests. Treatment. — Cut out and burn all winter nests before the buds start. In the spring spray with arsenate of lead, as recommended for the gipsy-moth. Prevent the ascent of caterpillars from other trees by banding the trunks with tanglefoot. Keep the bands fresh by combing the surface every few days. Cutworm. — Various species of Agrotis and related genera. Soft brown or gray worms, of various kinds, feeding on the roots, crown, or even the tops of plants. Treatment. — Encircle the stem of the plant with heavy paper or tin, coating the top with tanglefoot. Arsenicals sprinkled upon small bunches of fresh grass or clover, which are scattered at short intervals about the garden towards evening. They will often collect’ under boards or blocks. Arsenicals mixed with shorts and placed about the plants. Make two or three deep holes by the side of the plant with a pointed stick; the worms will fall in and cannot escape. Dig them out. Plow infested land in the fall to give birds a chance to find the worms. Cutworm, Climbing. —Several species. The worms climb grape vines and small trees of various kinds at night and eat out the buds. Preventive. — Band of cotton batting tied about the tree by lower edge, and the top rolled down like a boot-leg. Baits (see p. 293). Treatment. — Arsenicals. Hellebore, VARIOUS INSECTS 3035 Flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata ; Haltica striolata, etc.) — Minute, dark- colored beetles, feeding upon many plants, as turnip, cabbage, radish, mustard, potato, strawberry, and stocks. They jump upon being disturbed: Closely related species attack various plants. Very destructive to plants which are just appearing above the surface. Treatment. — Bordeaux mixture applied liberally is the best remedy, — it drives them away. Four-striped Plant-bug (Pecilocapsus lineatus).— A bright yellow, black-striped bug about one-third of an inch long, puncturing the young leaves and shoots of many plants. Treatment. — Jarring at any time of day into a dish of dilute kerosene. Kerosene emulsion (diluted five times) when the bugs are young, in their nymphal stage. Cut off and burn the tips of the growing shoots in early spring to destroy the eggs. Galls. — See Nematope Roor-catu, below. Gipsy-moth (Porthetria dispar). — Larva, between two and three inches long when mature, dark brown or sooty in color, with two rows of red spots and two rows of blue spots along the back, and with a dim yellowish stripe between them. Devours many kinds of foli- age. Confined to New England. It has become a serious pest. Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead as soon as the cater- pillars hatch in the spring. Band trees with tanglefoot. May-beetle or May-bug (Lachnosterna fusca). — A large and familiar brown beetle, feeding upon the leaves of many kinds of trees. The common white grub is the larval state. It often does great damage to sod and to strawberries. Sometimes called June-bug. Remedies. — See under Corn, p 314. Mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri and P. longifilis) —A white, scale-like insect, attacking greenhouse plants. Treatment. — Whale-oil soap. Carbolic acid and soap. Re- moving insects with brush on tender plants. House-plants may be washed in soapsuds. The best procedure in greenhouses is to knock them off with the hose. A small, hard stream of water upsets their domestic affairs. , Nematode Root-gall ( Heterodera radicicola). — A disease characterized by the knotting and contortion of the roots of the peach, orange, and many other plants. The knots are mostly rather soft swell- 304 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT ings, and on the smaller roots. It is usually most destructive on the peach. It is caused by a nematode, or true worm (not an insect). Gulf States. Attacks greenhouse plants in the North. Preventive. — Plant non-infested plants in fresh soil; bud into healthy stocks. Fertilize highly, particularly with potassic fertilizers. Set the trees 8 or 10 inches deep in high and dry soils. Infested small trees may be remedied, in part at least, by transplanting them into highly manured holes which have been prepared contiguous to them. Does not live in regions where the ground freezes deeply. If it is feared in greenhouses, see that the soil has been thoroughly frozen before it is used. White- wash the benches. Red-spider or mite (Tetranychus bimaculatus). — A small mite infest- ing many plants, both in the greenhouse and out of doors. It flourishes in dry atmospheres, and on the under sides of the leaves. In some forms it is reddish, but usually light-colored and two-spotted. Common. Remedies. — Persistent syringing with water will generally destroy them, if the spray is applied to the under surface. Use much force and little water to avoid drenching the beds. Sulfur and water. Drysulfur. On orchard trees flour paste may be used. San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus).—This scale is nearly cir- cular in outline and about the size of a pin-head. When abun- dant it forms a crust on the branches, and causes small red spots on the fruit. It multiplies with marvelous rapidity, there being three or four broods annually, and each mother scale may give birth to several hundred young. The young are born alive, and breeding continues until late autumn, when all stages are killed by the cold weather, except the tiny, half-grown, black scales, many of which hibernate safely. Spray thoroughly in the fall after the leaves drop, or early in the spring before growth begins, with lime-sulfur wash, or miscible oil, 1 gallon in 10 gallons of water. When badly infested, make two applications, one in the fall and another in the spring. In case of large, old trees, 25 per cent crude oil emulsion should be ap- plied just as the buds are swelling. % Scale-insects. — Various species of small insects inhabiting the young growth of trees, and sometimes the fruit, in one stage character- 4 VARIOUS INSECTS 30! ized by a stationary scale-like appearance. Lime-sulfur anc miscible oils are the best remedies. Species which migrate on tc the young growth in spring can be readily dispatched at thai time by kerosene emulsion. Snails. — These animals are often very troublesome in greenhouses eating many plants voraciously. ' Preventives. — Trap them by placing pieces of turnip, cab: bage, or potatoes about the house. Scatter bits of camphor-gur about the plants. Strew a line of salt along the edges of the bed Lime dusted about the plants will keep them away. White ants or termites. — These insects often infest orchard tree: in the southern states, particularly in orchards which contair old stumps or rubbish. Remedy. — The soap-and-arsenites wash brushed over the trunk and branches of the tree. Wire-worm (various species). — Slim and brown larve, feeding upor the roots of various plants. They are the larve of the click beetle, or snapping-beetle. Remedy. — Arsenicals sprinkled upon baits of fresh clover o1 other material which is placed about the field under blocks o boards. Sweetened corn-meal dough also makes a good bait The best treatment is to plow infested land early in the fall. A system of short rotations of crops will lessen injury from wire worms. Insects classified under the Plants they chiefly Affect Apple. ApprE-BuccULATRIX (Bucculatrix pomifoliella). — A minut yellow or green larva feeding upon the upper surface of the leaves causing the lower surface to turn brown. The cocoons are whit and slender, and are laid side by side upon the under side of twigs where they are conspicuous in winter. Treatment. — Lime-sulfur while tree is dormant. Arsenical for the larve in summer. APPLE-curcuULIO (Anthonomus quadrigibbus). — A soft, white grub about half an inch long, living in the fruit. Treatment. —Clean cultivation. Rake the small apples tha drop early out into the sun where they will-dry up. See PLum CURCULIO, p. 329. x 306 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT ApPLE FLEA-BEETLE (Graptodera foliacea). — Brassy, green beetle, one-fifth inch or less long, feeding upon leaves. Treatment. — Arsenicals. Lime-sulfur or bordeaux mixture as a repellent. APPLE-MAGGOT OR, RAILROAD-woRM (Rhagoletis pomonella). — Mag- got ; infests harvest and fall apples mostly, occasionally attacks winter fruit. It tunnels apples through and through, causing the fruit to fall to the earth. Treatment. — Pick up all windfalls every two or three days, and either feed them out or bury them deeply, thus killing the maggots. Pasture to hogs. Bup-mota (Tmetocera ocellana).—The small brown caterpillars with black heads devour the tender leaves and flowers of the opening buds in early spring. Treatment. — Make two applications of either 1 pound paris green or 4 pounds arsenate of lead in 100 gallons of water ; the first when the leaf-tips appear, and the second just before the blossoms open. If necessary, spray again after the blossoms fall. In cases where lime-sulfur is used just before the buds open for scale or blister mite, arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons, may be added and will help to control the bud-moth. CasgE-BEARERS. The pistol-case-bearer (Coleophora malivorella) and the cigar-case-bearer (C. fletcherella).— The small cater- pillars live in pistol or cigar-shaped cases, about a quarter of an inch long, that they carry around with them. They appear in spring on the opening buds at the same time as the bud-moth, and may be controlled by the same means. CaNKER-WorM. Spring and fall (Paleacrita vernata and Alsophila pometaria). — Larva ; a ‘‘ measuring worm,” an inch long, dark, and variously striped, feeding upon the leaves. Preventive.— Band the trees with tanglefoot to prevent the wingless females from climbing. Treatment. — Arsenicals, thoroughly applied in spray, are very effective. See Banprne, p. 286. Copuin-moTtH (Carpocapsa pomonella).— This is the pinkish caterpillar which causes a large proportion of wormy apples. The eggs are laid by a small moth on the leaves and the skin of the fruit. Most of the caterpillars enter the apple at the blossom end. APPLE INSECTS 307 When the petals fall, the calyx is open, and this is the time to spray. The calyx soon closes, and keeps the poison inside ready for the young caterpillars’ first meal. After the calyx has closed, it is too late to spray effectively. The caterpillars become full grown in July and August, leave the fruit, crawl down on the trunk, and there most of them spin cocoons under the loose bark. In most parts of the country there are two broods annually. Treatment. — When the majority of the petals have fallen, spray with 4 pounds arsenate of lead in 100 gallons of water, using a stiff spray to force it into the blossom end of the apple. Repeat the application three weeks later. For use of the poison with bordeaux or lime-sulfur, see APPLE Scas, p. 264. Paris green was formerly used. Fatt Wexs-worm (Hyphantria cunea). — Hairy larva, about an inch long, varying from gray to pale yellow or bluish black, feed- ing upon the leaves of many trees, in tents or webs. Treatment. — Destroy by burning the webs, or removing them and crushing the larve. Spray with arsenicals. Lear Buster Mire (Eriophyes pyri). — The presence of this minute mite is indicated by small irreguiar brownish blisters on the leaves. Treatment. — Spray in late fall or early spring with lime-sulfur, or miscible oil. For dilution of commercial lime-sulfur, see p. 296. FLat-HEADED Borer (Chrysobothris femorata).— Larva about an inch long, flesh-colored, the second segment (“‘ head ’’) greatly enlarged ; boring under the bark and sometimes into the wood. They are readily located in late summer or fall by the dead and sunken patches of bark. Preventive. — Soap and carbolic acid washes applied from May to July. Keep trees vigorous. Treatment. —Dig out the borers in early summer and fall. En- courage woodpeckers. Pear TWIG-BEETLE. — See under Prar, p. 326. Pium-curcuiio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).— Beetle ; deforms the fruit by its characteristic feeding and egg-laying punctures. The grubs develop in the fruit and cause it to fall. Treatment. — Spraying with arsenate of lead, as for codlin- moth, whenever it can be applied with a fungicide so as not to increase expense, will help to control the trouble. Thorough su- 308 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT perficial tillage of the surface soil during July and August will kill many of the pups, and is recommended. For treatment on plum, see under Pium, p. 329. RaILROAD-worM. — See APPLE-MAGGOT, p. 306. Roor-Louse, “ American Buicut.” — See under Wooiy ApuHis, page 310. Rosm-cHAFER.—See under Grape, p. 322. At the first appearance of the beetles spray plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water, to which should be added 1 gal- lon of molasses (New York Experiment Station). Rounp-HEADED Borer (Saperda candida).— A yellowish white larva, about one inch long when mature. It is said to remain in the larval state three years. Preventive. — Keep the beetles from laying eggs by spraying the trunks several times during the spring and summer with kerosene emulsion or by coating them with an alkaline wash made from soap, caustic potash, and carbolic acid. Tarred paper tree-protectors well tied at the top, or wire mosquito netting protectors closed at the top and encircling the trunk so loosely that the beetles cannot reach the bark, are effective in preventing egg-laying. Practice clean cultivation, and do not let water sprouts or other rank vegetation encircle the base of the tree. Remedial. — Dig out the borers whenever they can be located by discolored bark or by the sawdust thrown out of the burrow. San Jose Scare (Aspidiotus perniciosus). — See p. 304. LEAF-CRUMPLER (Mineola indigenella).— Reddish brown caterpillars that live in slender, horn-shaped cases and feed on the tender leaves. They hibernate as partly grown larve and attack the opening buds the following spring. They usually live in a nest of several leaves fastened together with silk. Treatment.— Gather the nests and burn them. Arsenicals when the buds open. OYSTER-SHELL ScaLeE (Lepidosaphes ulmi).— This is an elongate scale (sometimes called bark-louse), one-eighth inch in length, resembling an oyster-shell in shape and often incrusting the bark. It hiber- nates as minute white eggs under the old scales. The eggs hatch during the latter part of May or in June, the date depending on the season. After they hatch, the young may be seen as tiny whitish APPLE INSECTS 309 lice crawling about on the bark. When these young appear, spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil, or any good soap, 1 pound in 4 or 5 gallons of water. Where trees are regularly sprayed with lime-sulfur as for the San José scale or blister mite, the oyster-shell scale is usually controlled. Scurry Scag (Chionaspis furfurus). — This whitish, pear-shaped scale, about one-eighth inch ‘in length, often incrusts the bark, giving it a scurfy appearance. It hibernates as purplish eggs under the old scales. Treatment. — Spray as recommended for OystTER-SHELL SCALE -(p. 808). TENT-CATERPILLARS (Malacosoma americana and M. disstria). — Larva, nearly two inches long, spotted and striped with yellow, white, and black ; feeding upon the leaves. They congregate in tents or in clusters on the bark at night and in cool weather, and forage out upon the branches during the day. Treatment.— Arsenicals, as for Coptin-moTH (p. 306). Burn out nests with torch, or cut them out and crush the larve. Pick off egg masses from twigs during winter and spring. Tussocx-motH (Hemerocampa leucostigma).— A handsome, red- headed, yellow and black tufted caterpillar, about an inch long, which devours the leaves and sometimes eats into the fruit. Remedial. — Collect the frothy egy-masses in fall and winter and band the trees to prevent a reinfestation by migrating cater- pillars. Spray with arsenicals as for codlin-moth, taking care to cover the under side of the leaves. TWIG-BORER (Schistoceros hamatus).— Beetle, three-eighths inch long, cylindrical and dark brown, boring into twigs of apple, pear, and other trees. The beetle enters just above a bud. Treatment. — Burn the twigs. The early stages are passed in dying wood such as prunings, diseased canes, and in upturned roots. Burn such rubbish, and thus destroy their breeding- places. This is also a grape pest. Twic-prunER (Elaphidion villosum).— Yellowish white larvae, about a half inch long, boring into young twigs, causing them to die and break off. Treatment. — Burn the twigs. 310 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Wootty Apuis (Schizoneura lanigera). —Small reddish-brown plant- lice covered with a conspicuous mass of white, waxy fibers, found on the branches, sprouts, trunks, and roots. Preventive. — Do not set infested trees. Treatment. — For the form above ground drench the infested parts with 15 per cent kerosene emulsion ; for the underground form remove the earth beneath the tree to a depth of 3 inches, and apply 10 per cent kerosene emulsion liberally, and replace the earth. In the case of nursery stock the emulsion may be applied in a shallow furrow close to the row. Apricot. Prar Twic-BEETLE. — See under Puar, p. 326. Pin-note Borer. — See BARK-BEETLE under Peacu, p. 325. Pium-curcuLio. — See under Pum, p. 329. Brown Apricot-scaLe (Eulecanium armeniacum).— A soft brown scale infesting the under side of the smaller branches. Treatment. — Spray with resin and fish-oil compound, taking care to hit the underside of the twigs. In California the applica- tion should be made in January and February. Asparagus. Common ASPARAGUS-BEETLE (Crioceris asparagi). — Beetle, less than one-fourth inch in length, yellow, red, and shin- ing black, with conspicuous ornamentation, feeding upon the tender shoots. Larva feeds upon the leaves and tender bark. Treatment. — Freshly slaked lime dusted on before the dew has disappeared in the morning. Poultry. Cut down all plants in early spring to force the beetles to deposit their eggs upon the new shoots, which are then cut every few days before the eggs hatch; or leave a row or so around the field as a lure for the beetles where they may be killed with arsenicals. Tue TWELVE-SPOTTED ASPARAGUS-BEETLE (Crioceris 12-punctata). —Similar to the last, but with twelve spots on the wing- covers. Treatment. — Similar to that used above, except that the grubs cannot be destroyed by lime, since they live within the berry. Asparacus Miner (Agromyza simplex). — A maggot mining under the skin near the base of the plant. Treatment. — Leave a few volunteer plants as a trap in which the fly will deposit her eggs. Pull and burn these plants in late June and early July. ASTER — CABBAGE 311 Aster. AsTER-worm (Papaipema nitela). — A small larva boring in the stem of garden asters about the time they begin to flower, causing the heads to droop. All infested stocks should be burned. Destroy by burning all rank weeds, such as ragweed and cocklebur, before September. Bean. BEAN-WEEVIL OR Beran-Buc (Bruchus obtectus).— Closely resembles the pea-weevil, which see for description and remedies. Holding over the seed will be of no value with this insect. Seep-corn Maaeor. (Pegomya fusciceps).— A maggot attacking germinating seeds and roots of young plants. Treatment. — Avoid stable manure ; practice crop rotation. In the garden use sand moistened with kerosene around the plants to keep the flies from laying the eggs. Birch. Bronze Brrcw-Bormr (Agrilus anvius). — A slender, creamy white grub, three-fourths inch in length when full grown, that burrows under the bark of the white birch, ultimately killing the tree. The eggs are laid during May and June by a slender, olive- bronze beetle about one-half inch in length. Treatment. — After a tree has become thoroughly infested, nothing can be done to save it. As the first indication of the presence of the borer is usually a dying of the topmost branches, such trees should be carefully examined, and if infested should be cut down and burned before May 1, to prevent a spread of the trouble to other trees. Blackberry. Canz-BorER. — See under RaspBerry, p. 330. Root Gati-Fty.—See under RaspBerry. Snowy Cricker.— See under RaspBERRY. Cabbage. CABBAGE-woRM or CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY (Pontia rape). — The green caterpillars hatch from eggs laid by the common white butterfly. There are several broods every season. Treatment. — If plants are not heading, spray with kerosene emulsion or with paris green to which the sticker has been added. If heading, apply hellebore. FLEA-BEETLE. — See FLEA-BEETLE, p. 303. Common CaBBAGE-LOOPER (Autographa brassice).— A pale green caterpillar, striped with lighter lines. Feeds on the leaves. Treatment. — Arsenicals applied to lower surface of leaves. Cappace Apuis (Aphis brassice). — These small, mealy plant-lice 312 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT are especially troublesome during cool, dry seasons, when their natural enemies are less active. Treatment. — Before the plants begin to head, spray with kero- sene emulsion diluted with 6 parts of water or whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 6 gallons of water, or use one of the concentrated tobacco extracts. Destroy all cabbage stalks and other crucif- erous plants in the fall. Dip infested plants in soap solution before planting. Hariequin Canspace-suc (Murgantia histrionica).— Bug about a half-inch long, gaudily colored with orange dots and stripes over a blue-black ground, feeding upon cabbage ; two to six broods. Treatment.— Hand-picking. Place blocks about the patch, and the bugs will collect under them. In the fall make small piles of the rubbish in the patch, and burn them at the approach of winter. Practice clean culture. Destroy all cabbage stalks and other cruciferous plants in fall. Early in the spring plant a trap crop of mustard, radish, rape, or kale. When the overwintering bugs congregate on these plants, destroy them with pure kerosene or by hand. Macecor (Pegomya brassice). — A minute white maggot, the larva of a small fly, eating into the crown and roots of young cabbage, cauliflower, radish, and turnip plants. Treatment. — Carbolic acid emulsion diluted with 30 parts of water applied the day following the transplanting of the cabbage plants, and repeated once a week for several appli- cations. Remove a little earth from about the plants, and spray on the emulsion forcibly. It has also been found practi- cable to protect the plants by the use of tightly fitting cards cut from tarred paper. In seed beds protect the plants by surrounding the bed with boards one foot wide placed on edge, across which a tight cover of cheese-cloth is stretched. Carrot. Pars~Ey-worm. — See under Parsiey, p. 324. CARROT-BEETLE (Ligyrus gibbosus).— A reddish brown beetle one-half inch or more long, which attacks the young plants. The larva lives in the ground, where it feeds on humus. Preventive. — Crop rotation and other remedies for white grub, which see under Corn, p. 314. CARROT — CHRYSANTHEMUM 313 Cauliflower. CAULIFLOWER or CABBAGE-worM. — See under CaBBacE. Maacor. — See under CaBBacg, p. 311. Celery. Carror Rust-riy (Psila rose). Minute whitish yellow maggots infesting the roots and stunting the plants. Preventive-— Late sowing and rotation of crops. Celery or carrots should not follow each other. CELERY CATERPILLAR (Papilio polyxenes).—A large green caterpillar, ringed with black and spotted with yellow, which feeds on the leaves. Treatment. — Hand-picking as soon as observed. Cevery Lear-tyer (Philycenia ferrugalis).— A greenish cater- pillar, feeding on the under side of the leaves. Treatment.— Spray with arsenicals while the larve are still young. Litre Necro-Buc (Corimelena pulicaria). — Glossy black bugs one-eighth inch in length, which collect in clusters in the axils of the leaflets and cause the plants to wilt. Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion or tobacco extract. Cherry. CaANKER-worm. See under Appin, p. 306. Pium-curcutio. See under Puiu, p. 329. Rose Berrie. See under Appie and Grape, pp. 308, 322. Stue (Eriocampoides limacina). — Larva, one-half inch long, black- ish and slimy, feeding upon the leaves ; two broods. Treatment. Arsenicals, hellebore, tobacco extract. Arnis (Myzus cerast). Blackish plant lice infesting the leaves and tips of new growth. Treatment. Spray as soon as the first lice appear with whale- oil soap or tobacco extract. Chestnut. Wervit (Balaninus proboscideus and B. rectus). — A grub working in chestnuts, making them wormy. The weevil is a curculio-like insect. Preventives. — Destroy wild trees where the insects breed. Plant the most immune varieties. Gather and destroy the in- fested nuts immediately after they fall. Chrysanthemum. CanBaGE-LooPeR. — See under Lerrucs, p. 322. CurysaNTHEMUM Lear-MINER (Phytomyza chrysanthemi).— Remedy. — Spray leaves with “ Nicofume Liquid,” or “ Black Leaf 40,” 1 part in 450 parts water, at intervals of week or 10 days. Clover. FLOWER-MIDGE (Dasyneura leguminicola).— An orange-red 314 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT maggot infesting the flower-buds, where they consume the contents of the ovary. Preventives. — Cut the first crop for hay as early as possible, thus destroying the undeveloped larve of the first brood. In the latitude of Illinois this should be done before June 25. SEED-cHALCIS (Bruchophagus funebris).— A white grub found in- side the seed. Preventive.—Same as for Ftower-mipez, above. Destroy all volunteer clover plants. SEED-CATERPILLAR (EHnarmonia interstictana).— A small whitish or orange caterpillar infesting the heads. Preventive. — Early cutting of first crop, as for FLOWER-MIDGE. Root-BorER (Hylastinus obscurus). — Small white grub burrow- ing in the roots. Preventive. — Plow under badly infested fields as soon as pos- sible after cutting. Hay-worm (Hypsopygia costalis).— A brownish caterpillar three- fourths inch long, infesting stacked or stored clover. Preventive. — Remove old clover hay before putting in the new. Place stacks on log or rail foundation, and salt the lower layers. (Illinois Experiment Station.) Corn. Corn-Roor Apuis( Aphis maidiradicis).— A bluish green aphis infesting the roots. Preventives. — A short rotation period in corn, especially in dry years. Deep and thorough and repeated stirring of old corn ground in fall and spring as a preparation for corn-planting. Maintenance and increase of the fertility of the soil. Waite Gruss (Lachnosterna spp.).— The large white curved larve of the common June beetle. Preventives. — Rotation of crops; do not let corn follow sod, but let a crop of clover or clover and oats intervene. To help clear sod land of grubs, pasture to hogs any time between April and October. To prevent laying of eggs in corn-field, keep the ground free from weeds during May and June. Thorough cul- tivation and heavy fertilization. Nortuern Corn Root-worm (Diabrotica longicornis). — A whitish grub two-fifths inch long, which burrows in the roots. Preventive. — Crop rotation ; corn should not follow corn. CLOVER — CORN 315 Wire-worms (Elateride).— Hard, yellowish, or reddish, cylin- drical larvee feeding on the roots. Preventives. — Crop rotation ; let clover intervene between sod and corn, planting the corn late the second or third year. Early fall plowing. Cur-worms (Agrotis, Hadena, etc.). — Soft-bodied caterpillars eat- ing and cutting off the young plants. See p. 302. Preventives. — Early fall plowing of grass lands intended for corn ; pasturing by pigs of grass or clover land intended for corn ; distributing a line of poisoned bran by means of a seed-drill. To prevent the caterpillars entering from a neighboring grass field, destroy them with a line of poisoned vegetable bait. Sop Wes-worms (Crambus spp.).—Gray or brownish caterpillars about one-half inch long, living in a silk-lined burrow in the soil at base of the plant. They thrive in grass land. Preventive. — Early fall plowing of grass land intended for corn, or else plow as late as possible the next spring. Army-worm. (Leucania unipuncta). — A cut-worm-like caterpillar, which normally feed on grass. When this food supply is exhausted, they migrate in numbers to other fields and attack corn, wheat, ete. Preventive. — To stop the advance of the “ army,” plow deep furrows so the dirt is thrown towards the colony ; in the bottom of the furrow dig post holes into which the caterpillars will fall and where they may be killed with kerosene. Cutncu-Bue (Blissus leucopterus). — A red or white and black suck- ing bug, three-twentieths of an inch long. Attacks wheat and corn in great numbers. Preventives. — Clean farming to destroy suitable hibernating shelter. Stop the migration of the bugs from the wheat-fields into corn by maintaining along the field a dust strip ten feet wide in which a furrow and post-hole barrier has been constructed. This may be supplemented by a coal-tar barrier. GrassHoppErs (Acridide).— Kill them with poison bran mash fla- vored with lemons or oranges. Corn Ear-worm (Heliothis armiger). — A green or brownish stiiped caterpillar feeding on the corn beneath the husk. Three to six generations yearly. 316 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Preventives. — Plant as early as possible, and still avoid a “ set back” to the crop. For insects infesting stored corn, see under FuMIGATION, p. 287. Cotton. — Bottworm (Heliothis obsoleta). —This insect is also known as the corn earworm and tomato fruit-worm. The caterpillars are over an inch in length, and vary in color from greenish to dark brown. Preventives. — Produce an early crop of cotton by planting early varieties, heavy fertilizing, early and frequent cultivation. Practice fall plowing, to destroy as many hibernating pupe as possible. Use corn asa trap crop. Plant it in strips across the field and time it so that the crop will be in silk and tassel about August 1. In areas infested by the boll weevil follow the recom- mendations given below. (Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Dept. Agric.) Mexican Boti-weevit (Anthonomus grandis).— A snout beetle about one-fourth inch in length, which lays its eggs in the squares and bolls, producing a grub which eats out the contents. Treatment (U. S. Dept. Agric.) : — 1. Destroy the vast majority of weevils in the fall by up- rooting and burning the plants. This is the all-important step. It results in the death of millions of weevils. It insures a crop for the following season. 2. Destroy also many weevils that have survived the pre- ceding operation and are found in the cotton-fields and along the hedgerows, fences, and buildings. This is done by clearing the places referred to thoroughly. 3. As far as possible, locate the fields in situations where damage will be avoided. This cannot be done in all cases, but can frequently be done to good advantage. 4. Prepare the land early and thoroughly in order to obtain an early crop. This means fall plowing and winter working of the land. ia 5. Provide wide rows, and plenty of space between the rows and the plants in the drill, for the assistance of the natural enemies of the weevil, which do more against the pest than the farmer can do himself by any known means. Check-rowing, wherever prac- ticable, is an excellent practice. , , COTTON — CRANBERRY 317 6. Insure an early crop by early planting of early-maturing varieties, and by fertilizing where necessary. 7. Continue the procuring of an early crop by early chopping to a stand and early and frequent cultivation. Do not lose the fruit the plants have set by cultivation too deep or too close to the rows. 8. Where the labor is sufficient, pick the first appearing weevils and the first infested squares. Do not destroy the squares, but place them in screened cages. By this means the escape of the weevils will be prevented, while the parasites will be able to escape to continue their assistance on the side of the farmer. 9. Use a crossbar of iron or wood, or some similar device, to cause the infested squares to fall early to the ground, so that they will be exposed to the important effects of heat and parasites. 10. Do not poison for the leaf-worm unless its work begins at an abnormally early date in the summer. Cranberry. FRurt-worm (Mineola vaccinii). —Small caterpillar work- ing in the fruits, eating out the insides. Preventive. — For bogs with abundant water, reflow for ten days immediately after picking. Let the foliage ripen, and then turn on water for winter. Draw off water early in April, and every third or fourth year hold it on until the middle of May. For dry bogs spray three times with arsenate of lead during July. Bury all screenings. FIRE-worM, CRANBERRY-wORM, or BLACK-HEADED CRANBERRY- worm (Hudemis vacciniana). — Small larva, green, black-headed, feeding upon the shoots and young leaves, drawing them together by silken threads ; two broods. Treatment. — Flooding for two or three days when the worms come down to pupate. Arsenicals. YELLOW-HEADED CRANBERRY-worRm (Acleris minuta). — Stout, yel- lowish-green, small caterpillar, with a yellow head, webbing up the leaves as it works. Treatment. — Hold the water late on the bog in spring to pre- vent egg-laying. Arsenicals from the middle of May till July 1. CRANBERRY-GIRDLER (Crambus hortuellus). —Small caterpillars feed- ing on the stems just beneath the surface of the sand. Preventive. — Reflow just after picking, for a week or ten days, or reflow for a day or two about June 10. 318 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Fatse Army-worm (Calocampa nupera).—Green to blackish caterpillars devouring the leaves and buds. Treatment. — Reflow for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours soon after the middle of May. It may be necessary to reflow a second time. Destroy all caterpillars washed ashore while the water is on. In dry bogs, spray early in May with arsenate of lead. Cucumber. Pickte-worm (Diaphania nitidalis).— Larva, about an inch long, yellowish white, tinged with green, boring into cucum- bers; two broods. Preventives. — Clean farming, fall plowing, and rotation of crops. Remedies. — Kill the caterpillars before they enter the fruit by spraying with arsenate of lead about the time the buds begin to form, and repeat in two weeks. Srem-BorER. —See under Squasu (p. 331), where it is described as root-borer. Me on-worm. — See under MEton, p. 322. SrorreD CUCUMBER-BEETLE (Diabrotica 12-punctata). — Beetle, yellowish and black spotted, about one-fourth inch long, feeding upon the leaves and fruit. Sometimes attacks fruit-trees, and the larva may injure roots of corn. Treatment. — Same as for StrrpeED CucUMBER-BEETLE, below. STRIPED CUCUMBER-BEETLE (Diabrotica vittata).— Beetle, one-fourth inch long, yellow with black stripes, feeding on leaves. Larva one- eighth inch long and size of a pin, feeding on roots; two broods. Preventive. —Cheap boxes covered with thin muslin or screens of mosquito-netting, placed over young plants. Remedies. — Arsenicals in flour. Arsenate of lead. Ashes, lime, plaster, or fine road dust sprinkled on the plants every two or three days when they are wet. Air-slaked lime. Plaster and kerosene. Tobacco powder, applied liberally. Apply remedies when dew is on, and see that it strikes the under side of the leaves. Currant. Borer (Sesia tipuliformis).— A whitish larva, boring in the canes of currants, and sometimes of gooseberries. The larva remains in the cane over winter. Treatment. — In fall and early spring cut and burn all affected canes. These canes are distinguished before cutting by lack of vigor and by limberness. CURRANT — ELM 319 CuRRANT-worM, or Currant and GooseBerry Sawer ty (Nematus ventricosus). — Larva, about three-fourths inch long, yellow- green, feeding on leaves of red and white varieties; two to four broods. Treatment. — White hellebore, applied early. Arsenicals for the early brood. Treatment should begin while the larve are on the lowermost leaves of the bushes. Before the leaves are fully grown, the holes made by the worms may be seen. The second brood is best destroyed by killing the first brood. Currant Mrasurine or Span-worm (Cymatophora ribearia). — Larva somewhat over an inch long, with stripes and dotted with yellow or black, feeding upon the leaves. Treatment. — Hellebore, applied stronger than for currant- worm. Arsenicals. Hand-picking. Four-stRipeD PLant-Buc. — See p. 303. GREEN Lear-HOPPER (Empoa albopicta).— Small insect working upon the under surface of currant and gooseberry leaves. Also upon the apple. Remedies. — Pyrethrum. Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco-dust. Tobacco extracts. Dahlia. Four-stripep Puant-Bua. — See p. 303. CapBacGe Looper. — See under Caszace, p. 311. Egg-plant. PovraTo-BEETLE. — See under Potato, p. 329. Elm. CaNKER-worm. — See under Appi, p. 306. Eom Lzar-BEEtie (Galerucella luteola).— A small beetle, imported from Europe, which causes great devastation in some of the eastern states by eating the green matter from elm leaves, causing the tree to appear as if scorched. Remedy. — Arsenate of lead (15 pounds to 25 gallons). Eto Sawrty Lear-Miner (Kaliosysphinga ulmi).— A greenish white larva feeding between the two layers of the leaf, causing large blotches; when abundant, the leaf dies and falls. They some- times kill the trees in two or three years. Treatment.— When the blotches are about one-third to one- half inch in diameter, spray with “ Black-leaf 40,” tobacco extract, 1 gallon in 800 gallons of water, adding 4 pounds of whale-oil soap to each 100 gallons. WILLOw-worm. — See under WILLow. 320 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Endive. CaBBaGE-LoopER. See under CaBsace, p. 311. Gooseberry. CURRANT-BORER.—See under Currant, p. 318. Currant MEASURING or SPAN-worm. — See under CuRRANT. Four Srripep PLant-Bua. — See p. 303. GoosEBERRY or CURRANT-woRM.— See under CURRANT. GooseBerry Fruit-worm (Dakruma convolutella). — Larva, about three-fourths inch long, greenish or yellowish, feeding in the berry, causing it to ripen prematurely. Treatment. — Destroy affected berries. Clean cultivation. Poultry. Green Lear-Hopper.— See under CuRRAntT. Grape. GRAPEBERRY-woRM (Polychrosis viteana). — Larva, about one- fourth inch long, feeding in the berry, often securing three or four together by a web; two broods. Remedy. — Spray with arsenate of lead before ,blossoms open. Repeat after blooming and again in early July. Destroy wormy berries in August. GRAPE-CURCULIO (Craponius inequalis).— Larva, small, white, with a brownish head. Infests the grape in June and July, causing a little black hole in the skin and a discoloration of the berry immediately around it. The adult is a grayish brown snout-beetle, about one-tenth inch long. Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead while the beetles are feeding on the leaves. The beetle may be jarred down on sheets, as with the plum-curculio. Bagging the clusters. GrapeE-sLue or Saw-FLy (Selandria vitis). — Larva about one-half inch long, yellowish green with black points, feeding upon the leaves ; two broods. , Remedies. — Arsenicals. Hellebore. Grave Root-worm (Fidia viticida).—The small white grubs feed upon the roots, often killing the vines in a few years. The adults are small grayish-brown beetles that eat peculiar chain-like holes in the leaves during July and August. Cultivate thoroughly in June, especially close around the vines to kill the pupe in the soil. At the first appearance of the beetles spray the plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water, to which should be added 1 gallon of molasses (Geneva Experiment Station). GRAPE INSECTS 321 GRAPE-VINE FLEA-BEETLE (Graptodera chalybea).— Beetle, of a blue metallic color, about one-fourth inch long, feeding upon the buds and tender shoots in early spring. Treatment. — Arsenicals to kill the grubs on leaves during May and June. The beetle can be caught by jarring on bright days. GRaAPE-VINE Root-BorER (Memythrus polistiformis). — Larva, one and one-half inch or less long, working in the roots. Preventive. — Thorough cultivation during June and July. Treatment. — Dig out the borers. GRAPE-VINE SPHINX (Ampelophaga myron).— A large larva, two inches long when mature, green with yellow spots and stripes, bearing a horn at the posterior extremity, feeding upon the leaves, and nipping off the young clusters of grapes ; two broods. Treatment. — Hand-picking. Arsenicals early in the season. There are other large sphinx caterpillars which feed upon the foliage of the vine and which are readily kept in check by harid- picking and spraying. Paytioxera (Phylloxera vastatrix).— A minute insect preying upon the roots, and in one form causing galls upon the leaves. Preventive. — As a rule this insect is not destructive to American species of vines. Grafting upon resistant stocks is the most re- liable method of dealing with the insect yet known. This pre- caution is taken to a large extent in European countries, as the European vine is particularly subject to attack. Remedies. — There is no reliable and widely practicable remedy known. Burn affected leaves. Bisulphide of carbon poured in holes in the ground, which are quickly filled, is very effective. Carbolic acid and water used in the same way is also recommended. Flood the vineyard. Snowy Cricket. — See under Raspserry, p. 331. Lear-Horrer (Typhlocyba comes).— These small yellowish leaf- hoppers, erroneously called “ thrips,” suck the sap from the under- side of the leaves, causing them to turn brown and dry up. Treatment. — Spray the under side of the leaves very thoroughly with whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 10 gallons of water, or with “Black-leaf” tobacco extract, 1 gallon to 100 gallons of water; or 1 gallon “ Black-leaf 40” in 1000 gallons of water about July 1, to kill the young leaf-hoppers. When using tobacco extract add YX 322 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT about 2 pounds whale-oil soap to each 50 gallons to make it spread and stick better. Repeat the application in a week or ten days. In houses, tobacco-smoke, pyrethrum poured upon coals held under the vines, syringing with tobacco-water or soap suds. GrassHoppEers. — See under Corn, p. 314. Rose-cuarer (Macrodactylus subspinosus). — The ungainly, long- legged, grayish beetles occur in sandy regions, and often swarm into vineyards and destroy the blossoms and foliage. Treatment. — At the first appearance of the beetles spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water, to which should be added 1 gallon of molasses. Hollyhock. Bue (Orthotylus delicatus).—A small green bug, attacking the hollyhock with great damage. Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco extracts. House-plants. See Apuipes, Meaty-suc, Mires, and Rep-spipER, pp. 301-304. Lawns. Ants (Formica sp.).— Insects burrowing in the ground, forming “ ant hills.”’ Remedy. — A tablespoonful of bisulfid of carbon poured into holes six inches deep and a foot apart, the holes being immediately filled up. Lettuce. ApHis or GreeN-FLy.— A plant-louse on forced lettuce. Preventive. — Tobacco-dust applied on the soil and plants as soon as the aphis makes its appearance, or even before. Renew every two or three weeks if necessary. Fumigating with tobacco is the surest remedy. See Fumication, p. 288. CABBAGE-LOOPER (Autographa brassiae). — Larva, somewhat over an inch long, pale green, with stripes of a lighter color, feeding on leaves of many plants, as cabbage, celery, and endive. Remedies. — Pyrethrum diluted with not more than three times its bulk of flour. Kerosene emulsion. Hot water. Melon. MeEton-worm (Diaphania hyalinata). — Larva, some over an inch long, yellowish green and slightly hairy, feeding on melon- leaves, and eating holes into melons, cucumbers, and squashes ; two or more broods. Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals early in the season. Sporrep CucUMBER-BEETLE. -- See under Cucumper, p. 318. SQuasH-vinE Root-BorER. — See under Squasn, p. 331. MUSHROOM — ORANGE 323 Mushroom. MusHroom-rty.— The maggot bores through the stems of the mushrooms before they are full grown. Preventive. — Keep the beds cool so that the fly cannot develop. When the fly is present, growing mushrooms in warm weather is usually abandonded. Onion. Maacot (Pegomya cepetorum).— Much like the CapBacE Maggot, which see (p. 312). Remedies. — Carbolic acid emulsion. Bisulfid of carbon. Turis (Thrips tabaci). — Minute elongate yellowish insects that cause a wilting and dying of the tops. Treatment. —Clean culture, kerosene emulsion, tobacco extracts. Orange and Lemon. Purpie Scare (Lepidosaphes beckii). — An elongate brownish purple scale resembling an oyster-shell in shape. Treatment. — Fumigation, using heavy dosage. ‘Rep-scate (Aspidiotus aurantii).— A nearly circular reddish or yellowish scale. Treatment. — Fumigation. Distillate. Buack-scaLe (Saissetia olew).— A large soft-bodied dark brown or nearly black scale. Treatment. — Fumigation. Distillate. Meary-suc (Pseudococcus citri).— A mealy white soft-bodied insect nearly one-fourth inch long, occurring in masses in the angles of the branches, axils of the leaves, and around the stem of the fruit. : Treatment. — Fumigation. Destruction of all rubbish under the trees. Rep-sprper (Tetranychus sexmaculatus). — Minute greenish yellow mites found on the leaves. See p. 304. Treatment. — Dry sulfur, or sulfur and water used as a spray. Warte-ry (Aleyrodes citri and A. nubifera). — The immature stages are found on the underside of the leaves and are scale-like in form. The adults are minute white-winged flies. Treatment. — Fumigation. Fungous diseases (p. 290). Rust-mite (Phytoptus oleivorus). — A minute mite, causing the rust on oranges and lemons. Treatment. — Sulfur, dry or as a spray. Turips (Euthrips citri).— A minute, active, yellow insect that scars the fruit and curls and distorts the leaves. 324 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Treatment. — Make four applications of lime-sulfur (33° Beau- mé), 1 gallon in 75 gallons of water, adding “ Black-leaf 40” tobacco extract at the rate of 1 part in 1800 parts of the di- lute lime-sulfur, as follows: — First. — Just after most of the petals have fallen from the blossoms. Second. — Ten or fourteen days after the first. Third. — From three to four weeks after the second. Fourth. —In August or September, to protect later growths of foliage. (U.S. Bureau of Entomology.) Parsley. Parsiey-worm (Papilio asterias). — Larva, inch and a half long, light yellow or greenish yellow with lines and spots ; feeding upon leaves of parsley, celery, carrot, etc. When the worm is disturbed it ejects two yellow horns, with an offensive odor, from the anterior end. Remedies. — Hand-picking. Poultry are said to eat them some- times. Upon parsnip, arsenicals. Parsnip. Parstey-worm. — See under Parsey, above. Parsnip Wes-worm (Depressaria heracliana). — Larva, about a half inch long, feeding in the flower cluster and causing it to become contorted. Treatment.— Arsenicals, applied as soon as the young worms appear, and before the cluster becomes distorted. Burn the dis- torted umbels. Destroy all wild carrots. Pea. Pra-wEEVIL or Pea-BuG (Bruchus pist). — A small brown-black beetle, living in peas over winter. The beetle escapes in fall and spring, and lays its eggs in young pea-pods, and the grubs live in the growing peas. Treatment. — Hold over infested seed for one year before plant- ing. Late planting in some localities. Fumigation with carbon bisulfid. Pea Apuis (Macrosiphum pisi). — A rather large green plant-louse, often attacking peas in great numbers and causing enormous losses. Treatment. — Rotation of crops. Early planting. When peas are grown in rows, the brush-and-cultivator method may be used. The plant-lice are brushed from the plants with pine boughs, and a cultivator follows stirring the soil. This operation should be PEACH INSECTS 325 performed while the sun is hot and the ground dry. Most of the lice will be killed before they can crawl back to the plants. Repeat every three to seven days. Peach. Brack Apuis (Aphis persice-niger).—A small black or brown plant-louse which attacks the tops and roots of peach-trees. When upon the roots it is a very serious enemy, stunting the tree and perhaps killing it. Thrives in sandy lands. Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco decoction and ex- tracts. RoUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE Borer. — See under Appts, p. 308. FLAT-HEADED Borer. — See under Appie. Karypip. — This insect is often troublesome to the peach in the southern states in the early spring, eating the leaves and girdling young stems. Remedy. — Poisoned baits placed about the tree. GREEN PEACH-LOUSE or APHIS (Myzus persice). — A small insect feeding upon the young leaves, causing them to curl and die. Treatment. — Lime-sulfur, kerosene emulsion, or tobacco de- coction. After the buds open, either of the last two. Pracu-TreE Borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa). — A whitish larva, about three-fourths inch long when mature, boring into the crown and upper roots of the peach, causing gum to exude. Remedies. — Dig out the borers in June and mound up the trees. At the same time apply gas-tar or coal-tar to the trunk from the roots up to a foot or more above the surface of the ground. Peacu Twic-mots (Anarsia lineatella).— The larva of a moth, a fourth inch long, boring in the ends of the shoots, and later in the season attacking the fruit. Several broods. Remedy. — Spray with lime-sulfur just after the buds swell. Spray trunks and larger branches with kerosene or distillate emul- sion in late spring to kill first brood pupz in the curls of bark. Peacu-TREE BARK-BEETLE (Phleotribus liminaris).— A dark brown beetle one-tenth inch in length burrowing under the bark. Treatment. — Burn all brush and worthless trees as soon as the infestation is observed. Keep the trees in healthy condition by thorough cultivation and the use of fertilizers. Apply a thick whitewash to the trunk and branches three times 326 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT a season ; first, the last week of March ; second, second week in July ; third, first week in October. FRrvuit-TrREE BLACK-BEETLE (Scolytus rugulosus).— A small beetle similar to the last. Treatment. — Same as preceding. Pium-curcu tio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).—In Missouri and Geor- gia this insect has been successfully controlled on peach by spray- ing with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons of self-boiled lime-sulfur. Spray, first when the “husks” drop from the fruit; second, ten days or two weeks later. It is unsafe to spray peaches more than twice with arsenate of lead (p. 329). RosE-BEETLE. — See under Grape and AppLe, pp. 308, 322. Rep-LecceD FLea-BEEt_e ( Haltica rufipes). — A flea-beetle feeding on the leaves of peach trees, often in great numbers. Remedies. — The insects fall at once upon being jarred, and sheets saturated with kerosene may be used upon which to catch them. Spray with arsenate of lead in self-boiled lime-sulfur. Pear. AppLE-TREE Borer. — See under Appie, p. 306. Bup-motu. — See under APPLE. Cop.in-Motu. — See under Apple. Fiat-HEADED Borer. — See under Apple. Mipce (Diplosis pyrivora).— A minute mosquito-like fly ; lays eggs in flower-buds when they begin to show white. These hatch into minute grubs which distort and discolor the fruit. New York and eastward. Prefers the Lawrence. Introduced in 1877 from France. Remedies. — Destroy the infested pears. Cultivate and plow in Jate summer and fall to destroy the pupe then in the ground. Prar-LeaF Buster (Hriophyes pyri). — A minute mite which causes black blisters to appear upon the leaves. The mites collect under the bud-scales in winter. Remedy. — Lime-sulfur or miscible oil as a dormant spray. Prar-TREE Borer (Sesia pyri). — A small whitish larva, feeding under the bark of the pear tree. Remedy. — Same as for round-headed apple-tree borer. Pear-rwic Breriz (Xyleborus pyri). — Brownish or black beetle, one-tenth inch long, boring in twigs, producing effect much like pear-blight, and hence often known as “ pear-blight beetle.” It PEAR INSECTS 327 escapes from a minute perforation at base of bud ; probably two broods. Treatment. — Burn twigs before the beetle escapes. Pear Psyiua (Psylla pyricola).— These minute, yellowish, flat- bodied, sucking insects are often found working in the axils of the leaves and fruit early in the season. They develop into mi- nute, cicada-like jumping-lice. The young psyllas secrete a large quantity of honey-dew, in which a peculiar black fungus grows, giving the bark a characteristic sooty appearance. There may be four broods annually, and the trees are often seriously injured. Treatment. — Clean culture ; remove rough bark from trunks and larger limbs to discourage adults from hibernating on the trees, and spray with miscible oils while trees are dormant. Spray with lime-sulfur wash at strengths used to combat scale, just before leaves appear, to destroy eggs. After blossoms have dropped, spray with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 or 7 gallons of water ; kerosene emulsion diluted with 8 to 12 parts of water; or standardized tobacco decoctions at strengths recommended on containers. If psyllas are abundant, trees should be frequently sprayed. (New York Experiment Station.) Pear Turips (Euthrips pyri).— Minute insects, #5 inch in length, dark brown when adult, white with red eyes when young, that attack the opening bud and young fruits in early spring. They suck the sap from the tender growth, and the females lay eggs in the fruit stems, causing a loss of the crop. The nymphs hibernate in the ground a few inches from the surface. A serious pest in California and recently introduced into New York. Treatment. — Thorough cultivation during October, November, and December (in California). Make two applications of “Black-leaf” tobacco extract, 1 gallon in 60 gallons of 2 per cent distillate oil emulsion, the first just as the fruit buds begin to open, the second just after the petals fall. In the East it may be controlled by timely applications of tobacco extract and whale-oil soap. Pecan. Bup-moru (Proteopteryx deludana). — A brownish caterpillar about one-half inch in length, feeding on the opening buds in early spring and on the underside of the leaves in summer. 328 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Treatment. — Arsenate of lead in summer to kill larvee of second brood. Lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead in dormant season just before buds open, to destroy hibernating larve. CASE-BEARER (Acrobasis nebulella). — A small caterpillar living in- side a case which it carries with it. It attacks the opening buds. Treatment. — Arsenate of lead as soon as the buds begin to open. Repeat if necessary. Borer (Sesia scitula).— A wood-boring caterpillar working in the sapwood. Treatment. — Digging out. Twia-GiRDLERS. — See under Persimmon below. Rost-BEETLE. — See under Grape and Apps, pp. 308, 322. RouND-HEADED Borger. — See under APPLE. Stua. — See under CuErry, p. 313. TWIG-GIRDLER (Oncideres cingulatus).— A brownish-gray beetle, about one-half inch long, which girdles twigs in August and Sep- tember. The female lays eggs above the girdle. The twigs soon fall. Remedy. — Burn the twigs, either cutting them off or gather- ing them when they fall. TWIG-PRUNER. — See under Appts, p. 309. Persimmon. Wuite Pracu-scate (Diaspis pentagona). Remedy. — Lime-sulfur when the trees are thoroughly dormant. TWIG-GIRDLERS (Oncideres cingulatus and O. texrana). — Dark gray long-horned beetles that girdle the twigs, causing them to drop. Remedy. — Pick up and burn fallen twigs in fall and winter. Pineapple. Karypip (Acanthacara similis). — A large katydid which attacks, among other plants, the leaves of the pineapple. Remedy. — Arsenicals, before the plants are mature. MzEALy-BuGs (several species). — These mealy white insects attack the plant at the base of the leaves, usually underground. Treatment. — Set only clean plants, or dip them in resin wash or kerosene emulsion. In the field apply tobacco dust freely in the bud before the bloom begins to appear, or spray with kerosene emulsion. Rep-Sprper (Stigmeus floridanus). — Minute mites occurring in great number at the base of the leaf, where they induce rot. Treatment. — Tobacco dust applied to bud. PLUM — POTATO 329 Plum. CANKER-worM. — See under Apptz, p. 306. Curcutio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). — Larva, a whitish grub, feed- ing in the fruit. Remedies. — Arsenate of lead, 6 pounds to 100 gallons of water; apply as soon as the calyx falls, and repeat two or three times at intervals of about ten days. Jarring the beetles on sheets very early in the morning, beginning when trees are in flower, and con- tinuing from four to six weeks, is probably the most sure proce- dure. There are various styles of sheets or receptacles for catch- ing the insects as they fall from the tree. Clean culture. FLAT-HEADED Borer. — See under APPLE. Pzar-twia Brrette.— See under Pzar, p. 326. Pium-couGceR (Coccotorus prunicida).— A small larva, feed- ing upon the kernel of the plum. The beetle bores a round hole in the plum instead of making a crescent mark, like the cur- culio. Remedy. — Catch the beetles over a curculio-catcher. Scare (Lecanium cornt).— A large circular scale occurring on plum (and perhaps other) trees in New York. Remedy.— Thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion, one part to five of water, in the winter. More dilute emulsion or tobacco extracts in midsummer, when the young insects are on the leaves and young shoots. Siue. — See under Cuerry, p. 313. TwIiGc-PRUNER. — See under APPLE, p. 309. Poplar. Corronwoop LEAF-BEETLE (Lina scripta). — A striped beetle feeding on the leaves and shoots of poplars and willows. Remedy. — Arsenicals. WILLow-worm. — See under WILLow, p. 336. Poriar Borer (Cryptorhynchus lapathi).— A whitish grub bur- rowing in the wood. Treatment. — In nurseries spray thoroughly about the middle of July with arsenate of lead to kill the parent beetles. Potato. Conorapo PoraTo-BEETLe (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). — Beetle and larva feed upon the leaves. Remedies. — Arsenicals, either dry or in spray, about a third stronger than for fruits. Hand-picking the beetle. STaLK-WEEVIL (Trichobaris trinotata). — A grub boring in the stalk 330 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT of the potato near or just below the ground. Serious at the West and in some places eastward. Remedy.— Pull all infested vines as soon as they wilt, and spread them in the sun where the insects will be killed. Burn the vines as soon as the crop is harvested. Destroy all solanaceous weeds. FLes-BEETLES (Halticini).—- Small, dark-colored jumping beetles that riddle the leaves with holes. See p. 303. Preventive. — Bordeaux mixture as applied for potato blight acts as a repellent. Potato TuBer-worm (Phthorimea operculella).— A small caterpillar burrowing in the stems and tubers both in the field and in storage. Preventives. — Clean cultivation, sheep and hogs to destroy the small potatoes left in the field after digging. Crop rotation over a considerable area. On digging remove the potatoes at once to an uninfested storeroom. Do not leave them on the field over-night. WirE-worms. — See p. 305. Privet or Prim. Priver Wes-worm (Diaphania quadristigmalis). — Small larva feeding in webs on the young shoots of the privet, appearing early in the season ; two to four broods. Remedies. — Trim the hedge as soon as the worms appear, and burn the trimmings. Probably the arsenicals will prove useful. Quince. Rounp-HEADED Borers. — See under Appiz, p. 308. Stuac. — See under Curry, p. 313. QUINCE-cURCULIO (Conotrachelus crategi). — This curculio is some- what larger than that infesting the plum, and differs in its life- history. The grubs leave the fruits in the fall, and enter the ground, where they hibernate and transform to adults the next May, June, or July, depending on the season. When the adults appear, jar them from the tree on to sheets or curculio-catchers and de- stroy them. To determine when they appear, jar a few trees daily, beginning the latter part of May. Arsenicals. Radish. Maccor (Pegomya brassice). — Treated the same as the CaBBAGE-MAGGOT, which see (p. 312). Raspberry. CaNE-BORER (Oberea bimaculata). — Beetle, black, small, and slim ; making two girdles about an inch apart near the tip of the cane, in June, and laying an egg just above the lower girdle ; the larva, attaining the length of nearly an inch, bores down the cane. Also in blackberry. RASPBERRY — SQUASH 331 Remedy. — As soon as the tip of the cane wilts, cut it off at the lower girdle and burn it. RaspBERRY Root-Borer (Bembecia marginata). — Larva about one inch long, boring in the roots and the lower parts of the cane, remaining in the root over winter. Remedy. — Dig out the borers. RaspBerry Saw-riy (Monophadnus rubi).— Larva about three- fourths inch long, green, feeding upon the leaves. Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals, after fruiting. Root GaLi-Fiy (Rhodites radicum).— A small larva which pro- duces galls on the roots of the raspberry, blackberry, and rose, causing the bush to appear sickly, and eventually killing it. The swellings are probably often confounded with the nematode root- galls, for which see p. 303. Remedy. — There is no remedy except to destroy the galls ; if plants are badly affected, they must be dug up and burned. Snowy or TREE-cRICKET (Cicanthus niveus).— Small and whitish cricket-like insect, puncturing canes for two or three inches, and depositing eggs in the punctures. Remedy. — Burn infested canes in winter or very early spring. Rhubarb. RaupBars-curcutio (Lixus concavus).— A grub three- fourths inch long, boring into the crown and roots. It also attacks wild docks. Remedy. — Burn all infested plants, and keep down the docks. Hand-picking. Rose. Root Gati-riy.— See under RaspBerry, above. Meaty-sua. — Tobacco extracts. Syringe the plants in the morn- ing, and two hours later syringe again with clean water. See also p. 303. Rosk-cHAFER, RosE-BEETLE, or “ Rosu-Buac.” See Grape, p. 322. Rosz Lear-Hoprer (Typhlocyba rose).— A very small hopper, white, often mistaken for thrips, living on the leaves of roses. Remedies. — Whale-oil soap. Kerosene. Kerosene emulsion. Dry pyrethrum blown on bushes when leaves are wet. Tobacco extracts. Squash. Borer or Roort-BoreR (Melittia satyriniformis). — Soft, white, grub-like larva which bores inside the stem and causes rot to develop, killing the vine. 332 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Preventives. — Plant early squashes as traps. As soon as the early crop is gathered, burn the vines to destroy eggs and larve of the borer. Fall harrowing of infested fields will help to expose the pup# to the elements. Cut out borers whenever found. After the vines have grown to some length, cover some of the joints with earth, so that a new root system will develop to sustain the plant in case the main root is injured. Strawberry. Crown-BorER (Tyloderma fragarie).— White grub, one-fifth inch long, boring into the crown of the plant in mid- summer. The mature insect is a curculio or weevil. Preventives. — Rotation of crops. Isolation of new beds from infested beds. Plant uninfested plants. Lear-Rouier (Ancylis comptana). — Larva, less than one-half inch long, feeding on the leaves, and rolling them up in threads of silk ; two broods. Treatment. — Turn under in the fall all old beds that have become worthless. Spray with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 100 gallons of water, after the eggs are laid but before the leaves are folded — the first half of May in the latitude of New Jersey. Root-sorer (Anarsia sp.).—Larva, about one-half inch long, whitish, boring into the crown of the plant late in the season, and remaining in it over winter. Remedy. — Burn the plant. Root-LousE (Aphis forbesii). — From July to the close of the season the lice appear in great numbers on the crowns and on the roots of the plants. Remedies. — Rotation in planting. Disinfect plants coming from infested patches by dipping the crowns and roots in kerosene emulsion, or tobacco extract. Fumigation. Saw-riy (Emphytus maculatus). — Larva, nearly three-fourths inch long, greenish, feeding upon the leaves ; two broods. Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals for second brood. Weevi (Anthonomus signatus).— Beetle, one-eighth inch long, reddish black, feeding on flower-buds, particularly those of the polleniferous varieties. Preventives. — Plant principally pistillate varieties. Every fifth row should be of some profusely flowering staminate variety SUGAR-CANE INSECTS 333 to insure pollinization. Clean culture. Destroy all wild black- berry and raspberry vines in the vicinity. Root-sorER (Typophorus canellus).—- A whitish grub one-eighth inch in length, feeding on the roots. The parent beetle is brown- ish, and appears in great numbers in May. Treatment. — Arsenicals to kill the beetles. Plant new beds at a distance from old ones. Wurtz Gruss. See under Cory, p. 314. ” Sugar-cane (D. L. Van Dine). SraLK-Bormr (Diatrea saccharalis). — This is the “ cane-borer ” of the South, and is a species of long standing in the southern United States. The insects attack corn and sugar-cane. The insect occurs as far south in the United States as the Rio Grande valley in Texas, and as far north as Maryland on the Atlantic coast. In carn-growing areas in the South, it is known as “ the larger corn stalk-borer.” The eggs of the insect are laid on the cane-leaves, and the caterpillar of the moth develops within the cane-stalk. Between the months of May and December, the complete development of the insect occupies a period of a little over thirty days, that is, a brood may be ex- pected about every month. Treatment. — The control measures consist of the burning of the trash after harvest, fall planting where possible, not to intercrop cane with corn, not to plant corn or cane on windrowed areas, that is, areas on which cane has been windrowed for the spring plant, and to cover all seed cane well to prevent the emergence of moths which may have developed from “ borers ” planted in the seed cane. Mazaty-sue (Pseudococcus calceolarie).— Common on sugar-cane in the southern parishes of Louisiana, and recorded further in the United States from Florida and California. Known in Louisiana as “ pou-4-pouche.” The insects occur in a mass about the roots and beneath the lower leaf-sheaths of the cane plant, and the mass is covered by a white mealy secretion. The mealy-bug hiber- nates on the roots of the stubble beneath the surface of the ground or on the stalks put down in windrow as seed for the spring plant. Brood follows brood throughout the summer months. Treatment. — Burning of trash after harvest, fall planting, and the selection of seed cane from non-infested areas are the main methods that may be employed in the control of this species. 334 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Root-BertLe (Ligyrus rugiceps). — This insect occurs throughout the lower Mississippi valley and the southern states generally as far north as North Carolina. As the name implies, the beetle infests the roots of the cane plant. The insect hibernates in the advanced larval or the pupal stages, and the adult appears in the spring. The injury to the cane is accomplished by the adult eating into the young shoots just below thé surface of the ground. From this point the insect works downwards to the roots, where the eggs are laid. The larva develops about the roots. In the’case of young shoots the injury is sufficient to practically sever the shoot from the mother cane or stubble. This kills out the heart of the young plant, and unless the cane suckers well, the stand is seriously affected. Treatment. — If the stubble cane is off-barred in the spring and the soil kept away from the young cane as late as the conditions will allow, much injury from the root beetle will be avoided. Fre- quent cultivation of the plant cane will disturb the beetles in the soil and lessen their chance of attacking the cane. No great amount of vegetable matter should be plowed under. on those areas where the root beetle is abundant, since this favors the de- velopment of the larve or “white grubs.” The headlands and ditch banks should be kept clear of grass, since the beetle de- velops in these situations bordering the cane-fields. In districts where freezing temperatures occur, late fall plowing will turn out many of the grubs, and they will perish from exposure. During an attack, it is often profitable to have children follow and collect the beetles behind the hoe gangs. Sumac. AppLE-TREE Borer. — See under Appts, p. 308. Jumpina Sumac-BEETLE (Blepharida rhois). — Larva, half-inch long, dull greenish yellow, feeding on leaves; two broods. Remedy. — Arsenicals. Sweet-potato. Saw-riy (Schizocerus ebnus and 8. privatus). — Small larva about one-fourth inch long, working upon the leaves. The fly is about the size of a house-fly. Remedies. — Hellebore and arsenicals. Roor-porer (Cylas formicarius). — A whitish grub one-fourth inch in length, burrowing through the tubers. Preventive. — Burn infested tubers and the vines. SWEET POTATO — TOMATO 335 TORTOISE BEETLES (Cassidini). — Beetles of brilliant colors and their slug-like larvee which eat holes in the leaves of newly reset. plants. Treatment. — Same as for next. FLEA-BEETLE. (Chetocnema confinis).—Small, dark-colored beetles, which attack the plants soon after they are reset. Treatment. — Dip the plants in a strong solution of arsenate of lead before resetting. Spray once or twice later with the same. Rotation of crops. Destroy all bindweed and wild morning-glory plants. Cutworms. — Poisoned bait. Late planting. Keep the land free from weeds the previous fall. See p. 302. Tobacco. Fiea-BEETLE (Epitrix parvula).— Small beetles eating holes in the leaves in the seed beds. Treatment. — Cover the beds tightly with canvas, or spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead, one pound in 12 gallons of water. Cutworms. — Use poisoned bait. Sod land should be plowed in fall. Horn-worms. — See under Tomato, below. FLEA-BEETLES, GRASSHOPPERS, and TREE-cricKets. — Attacking the crop in the field, may be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead, 1 pound in 16 gallons of water. Tomato. Fruit-worm (Heliothis obsoleta).— Larva, one inch in length, pale green or dark brown, faintly striped, feeding upon the fruit. Also on corn and cotton. Treatment. — Hand-picking. Avoid planting close to corn or cotton, or after either of these crops or after peas or beans. Prac- tice fall or winter plowing. Tomato-worm (Phlegethontius sexta and P. quinquemaculata). — A very large green worm feeding upon the stems and leaves of the tomato and husk tomato. Seldom abundant enough to be very serious ; kept in check by parasites. Remedies. — Hand-picking. Rotation of crops. Clean culture. Turkeys. FLEA-BEETLES. — Dip the young plants in a strong solution of arse- nate of lead: Bordeaux mixture acts as a repellent. See p. 303. Violet. Apuis. — Fumigation when grown under glass. 356 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT Gaut-Fiy (Contarinia violicola).— The adult is a minute mos- quito-like fly. The whitish or yellowish maggot feeds in folds of the opening leaves, which become deformed, turn brown, and die. Treatment. — Fumigation is practically of no value. Thorough hand-picking as soon as any sign of injury is noticed. Do not let the pest become established in a house. Rep-spiwER (Tetranychus bimaculatus).— Minute mites which cause the leaves to turn paler and become yellowish. Treatment. — On greenhouse violets there is nothing better than a stiff spray of clear water so applied as not to drench the beds. Repeat the spraying once or twice a week. See p. 304. Wheat. Husstan-rLy (Mayetiola destructor).—A small maggot in- festing the plant between the leaf sheath and the stem. When full grown they transform to the puparium or “ flaxseed ”’ stage. Preventives. — Crop rotation, destruction of all volunteer wheat. Burning stubble where practicable. Late sowing as follows: — After September I in northern Michigan ; September 20 in south- ern Michigan and northern Ohio ; October 1 in southern Ohio ; October 10 to 20 in Kentucky and Tennessee ; October 25 to November 15 in Georgia and South Carolina. (Bureau of Ento- mology.) Joint-worms (Isosoma spp.).— Small yellowish larve found in the straw, causing hard knots or galls. Preventives. — Crop rotation. Heavy use of fertilizer to give a rapid growth. Burning of stubble wherever practicable. CuincH-BuG. — See under Corn, p. 314. Willow. WiLLow-worm (Huvanessa antiopa).— Larva, nearly two inches long, black, feeding upon leaves of willow, elm, and poplar ; two broods. Remedy. — Arsenicals. CHAPTER XIX Live-stock Ruites ann Recorps Farm live-stock, as the term is usually understood, includes the mammals that produce edible products or perform agricultural labor, as the cow, the horse, the sheep, the goat, the swine. Strictly speak- ing, it should also comprise poultry (Chapter X X), but this large group usually is treated by itself. Many kinds of pets and of fancy stock — cats, dogs, cavies, canaries — form another group. Determining the Age of Farm Animals (Wing) Cattle. The teeth of the ox serve to help in the determination of its age, although not so accurately nor to so great an extent as in the horse. Under ordinary circumstances, the incisors are the only teeth that are used in the determination of age. Of these, the ox has eight, or four pairs, and on the lower jaw only. There are two sets, the temporary or milk teeth, and the permanent teeth, the latter differing from the former mainly in their greater size and width. The calf is born with the two central pairs of milk teeth fully up, and the remaining pairs appear within the first month after birth. When the animal reaches the age of about eighteen months, the middle pair of milk teeth are replaced by permanent ones that are fully twice as broad as the milk teeth. The interval between the appearance of the succeeding pairs is rather variable, depending on the precocity or early maturity of the individual and also on the breed and the way in which the animal has been kept. Young cattle that have been ill- kept, and whose general development has been delayed, will have their dentition delayed, and will show a young mouth for their age. The interval between the appearance of each two pairs of teeth is seldom less than nine months, so that the age of the animal at the time each pair is up and in full wear may be reckoned as follows : Z "337 338 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Monrtus First, or middle pair . . eae EAE. cop Use te, cue oh Rat we Second, or first intermediate pair Spe We Mr a es CRO. eS es Third, or second intermediate ae ai se Oe ee ae we ee Ge 186 Fourth, or outer pair. . . Ste tae pete ke ap es ee eeu a ee Sh If there is any variation from the foregoing, the animal is likely to be older rather than younger than the teeth indicate. After the teeth are up and in full wear, there is comparatively little change in their appearance for several years. The teeth are broad, flat, and white in color, and their edges should almost or quite meet. They are never firmly fixed in the jaw, as in the case of the horse, but rather loosely imbedded in a thick, cartilaginous pad or gums. The looseness of the teeth should not therefore be taken by the novice as an indication of unsoundness or of advancing age. After the animal has reached an age of eight or nine years, the teeth become narrower through wear. They shrink away from each other and often become more or less discolored and finally drop out one by one. A vigorous old cow will often do very well, especially if fed liberally on grain and succulent food, after the last incisor tooth has disappeared. And so long as the teeth are all present and reasonably close together, the animal is said to have a good mouth. This condition may remain up to ten or twelve years of age, and occasionally even longer. The horns also afford a means for estimating the age of cattle, especially of cows. During the first two years, the horns grow rapidly and the greater part of the total growth is made in this time. Afterward, the growth is slow from year to year, and each year’s growth is marked by a more or less distinct ring. The first ring appears when the animal is about three years old, and the age may be reckoned by adding two to the number of rings present. Sheep. Sheep have two sets of incisor teeth, on the lower jaw only. The first or middle pair of temporary teeth is replaced by permanent ones when the lamb is thirteen to fifteen months old, and thereafter the succeeding pairs of permanent teeth appear at intervals of a little less than a year. Most shepherds reckon a year for each pair, so that when the last pair is fully up and in wear, the sheep is four years old. AGES OF SHEEP, PIGS, AND HORSES 339 As age advances, the teeth grow narrower and slimmer until advanced age, eight or nine years, when they often shorten rapidly from wear, and finally disappear. So long as the teeth remain strong and fairly firm, the sheep may be said to be in good working condition. Swine. While swine have two sets of teeth, temporary and permanent, as in the other domestic animals, the dentition is so irregular as to be of little service in determining the age of the animal. Moreover, the dif- ficulty of catching, holding, and examining the animal is so great that the teeth are seldom, if ever, used to determine the age of swine. In market stock, the age does not play an important part, as the value depends entirely on the weight and condition of the animal, except in the case of old sows and stags (castrated mature males). The former are easily distinguished by evidence of having suckled pigs, and the latter by the tusks and the development of the “shield ’’ — a coarse heavy fold of muscle under the skin on the shoulder. In breeding animals, the age is always indicated on the certificate of registry of pure-bred stock. Horse’s teeth at different ages (Roberts). GPS 1-2 weeks old. 4-6 weeks old. 8-10 mos. old. Side view of the The lower nippers at two Lower nippers at three teeth of a four- years old. years of age. year-old. 340 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Lower nippers at four years of Lower nippers of a five-year-old. age. \ Side view of the teeth of a Side view of the teeth of a five-year-old. six-year-old horse. Lower nippers of a six-year-old. Lower nippers of a seven-year-old. AGES OF HORSES 341 Side view of the nippers of a The lower incisor, or nipper, teeth seven-year-old, of an eight-year-old. Cross section to show shape of in- Side view of the teeth cisor tooth at 4, 9, The lower incisor teeth of of an eight-year-old. 14, and 20 years, an old horse. ; Showing, at the upper end, the wear- A side view of the nippers ox ing away of the cusps at 3,4,5,6,9, an old horse. ' and 20 years. 342 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Gestation and Incubation Figures The period of gestation is the time between the impregnation of the ovum and the birth of the young. In egg-laying animals it is the period of incubation. The length of this period is subject to con- siderable variation, determined by various causes not well understood. In general its length is in relation to the size of the animal. The following list, and remarks, represents only a few animals and the period of gestation of each (F. B. Mumford) :— Elephant . . . . . 1. ee ee ee 6+ )«620 to 30 months Giraffe... .. Roe 6 oe ce « oe 4 months Buffalo. . . . ... 2. ee ee) 610 to 12 months Ass. 4 a 8 8 we ee we ee el Um heh 6 612 months Mare. 2 # & ae * » . . »« 11 to 12 mo Cow. . am ells ‘ oe ee ew ee 9tODKH ene (285 days) Bear. . ee pane 3 . . . »« 6 months Sheep and goat Aig ea, a . . . . 6 months (21 weeks) Sow. . i OE ie Ge en ee! . . . « 4 months Beaver... . i a0 Bo =e em 2 & ce 4emonths Lion . toe ee el ee we) 6 684% months Dog, fox, or wolf. ie pe ey ee ae, GR 2 months Cat ox i Mog th Be Oe ee 2 OO days’ Rabbit . | 5M wt Ca ae AP ah tec cw Sev BOP dave Squirrel and rat . oe * w@ «@ » » 2B days The period of incubation extends as follows for domestic fowls: — Turkey . . . . 1 + ee es se ew es + «626 to 80 days Guinea . . . 1. 1 eee ee ew ee ee) «6225 to 26 days Pea hen. . tee ee we ww ww ee) «628 to 80 days Ducks . ... 2. ee ew ee el ee.) «6225 to 82 days Geese. . Oe G6ESES ee soe Gee eG RA Me ee Be ee ye GLOSS Hen... al, Wl a SORES Gage sh ton LPO Bates ae Ser Mente ee Be RL Pigeon . 2 Co sy ee oe ee a wee ae ee SED 344 LIVE+STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Other Characteristics Average temperature of farm animals. Horse, 100° F. ; ox, 101° to 102.5° ; sheep and swine, 103°; dog, 102.5° and very changeable. It is lowest about 4 a.m., and highest at 6 p.m. The liver, of all the organs, has the highest temperature, 106.2° F. Poultry 105° to 106°. The pulse of farm animals (Harger). The pulse is a dilatation of the elastic wall of an artery at the moment of the heart-beat. Its character is some indication of the state of health. It is felt in the horse on the lower jaw-bone ; in the ox on the jaw, the inside of the elbow and cannon, and the base of the tail; in the dog on ‘the inside of the thigh. Number of pulse-beats per minute : Horse, 36 to 40 ; ox, 45 to 50 ; sheep and pig, 70 to 80 ; dog, 90 to 100 ; camel, 28 to 32 ; elephant, 25 to 28. It is slower in the male than in the female. It is more rapid in the young than in the old, as for example, in the foal, 100 to 120 ; in the calf, 90 to 130. The daily work of the heart is estimated at 1,539,000 foot-pounds, or one-third of a horse-power. Period of heat in farm animals (Mumford). The beginning of puberty in the female is characterized by the ripening of a mature egg, and external symptoms which together are called the period of heat, or, in some wild animals, the rutting season. This period is accompanied by various manifestations. The external genitals become swollen and red, and this is accompanied by the dis- charge of a reddish mucus. There is frequent urination, and some- times a swelling of the mammary glands. The female is often restless and utters loud cries. The duration of heat varies, but normally continues in the mare two to three days, in the cow twelve to twenty-four hours, in the sow one to three days, and in the ewe two to three days. The frequency with which the heat recurs in different animals varies within rather narrow limits. The period of heat in the mare recurs rather irregu- larly, but most stallioners,agree that the mare will come in heat nine COLD STORAGE OF ANIMAL MATERIALS 345 days after delivery and each two or three weeks thereafter. The cow comes in heat forty to sixty days after delivery, if suckling the calf, and twenty to thirty days if the calf is taken away at birth. After the first appearance of heat in the cow, the period recurs with con- siderable regularity each three weeks thereafter. The sow invariably shows signs of heat three days after weaning the pigs, and recurs every nine to twelve days. The mare and ewe come in heat regularly during the spring and autumn months. At other seasons, the period is irregular and often entirely absent. ' (All dates and periods of this kind are exceedingly variable.) Quantity of blood in the bodies of farm animals (Harger). In the horse, 7s (6.6 per cent) ; ox, 7s (7.7 per cent); sheep, rz (8.01 per cent) ; pig, 2 (4.6 per cent) ; dog, zs to rz (5.5-9.1 per cent) (Sussdorf). An average horse has about 66 pounds, or nearly 50 pints, of blood. In bleeding horses, about one pint of blood for every hundred pounds of body weight is removed. Temperatures for Cold Storage of Animal Products (Hygeia Refrigerating Co., Elmira, N. Y.) Hams, pork loins, poultry, and all meats that are to be held for a long carry, should be put into the freezer at a temperature of 10° above zero or lower, and after they are thoroughly frozen they may be transferred to a temperature from 15° to 18°. Meats to be held for a short time only may be carried at 30° to 32°. Eggs 30°. Condensed milk is carried at 32°; fresh milk at a point just above freezing, where it can be carried, of course, only a short time. Con- densed milk can be successfully carried several months ; cheese at 31° to 32°; dried fruit, nuts, groceries, etc., at 35°; butter from zero to 10° below zero. The success of storage depends not alone on the control and accuracy of temperature maintained, but on control of humidity, and in some cases on pronounced circulation of air. For temperatures for fruits, see page 149. Advanced Registry The herd-book conserves the purity of a breed, being based upon purity of blood, any animal being eligible to registry whose sire and dam have been recorded. An Advanced Register is a herd-book within 346 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS a herd-book based upon individual merit, and designed as an aid to improvement within the breed. Advanced registry is especially adapted to the improvement of the dairy breeds of cattle. The registry is made on the report of an official test as to milk yield and butter-fat, conducted by an Experiment Station. The Advanced Registry system has had marked effect in discovering and publishing the good animals, eliminating the poor animals, and standardizing the performance. The four leading dairy breeds in America — Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, and Ayrshire — now have well- authenticated records as a result of this system. As illustrating the nature of the test to warrant Advanced Registry, the following set of general rules of the Holstein-Friesian Association of America is inserted : — 1. The Station representative shall be present at the last regular milking preceding the beginning of the test and shall satisfy himself that the cow is milked dry at that time. He shall note the hour at which this milking is made; and the final milking of the test, whatever its length, must be at exactly the same hour. 2. He must be present at each and every milking during the test, and satisfy himself that at the close of each milking the pail contains nothing but the milk drawn from the cow under test. 3. Under no circumstances can more cows than one undergoing test be milked at the same time. The Station representative must in every case be in position to observe the milker during the whole milking. 4. Immediately after the milk is drawn at each milking, he will take charge of the pail and contents, will weigh the same to pounds and tenths on scales provided by his State Experiment Station, and enter the exact weight of milk at once in his note-book. He will then take a correct sample of the milk, sufficient for his own tests and for the composite sample to be sent to the Station, in accordance with the following directions: 5. As soon as the milk has been weighed it is to be thoroughly mixed by pouring it from one pail to the other, or by means of a dipper; and a pint fruit jar is to be immediately filled about two-thirds full of milk for the test samples. The Station representative takes charge of and is personally responsible-for this sample. It should be kept under lock and key until tested. The test is proceeded with as soon as con- venient, after the milk has cooled to ordinary room temperature. ADVANCED REGISTRY RULES 347 6. Fat determinations are always made in duplicate, and the average of the two determinations recorded on the record sheet. The sample taken of any one milking is not to be thrown away until a perfectly satisfactory test of the milking has been obtained. On completion of each test, the Station representative will at once indelibly enter in his note-book the results obtained. In making entries of fat, the super- visor shall use three decimal places. If the figure in the fourth place be a 5, or greater than 5, he shall count it as one of the next higher order; but if it be less than a 5, he shall drop it. 7. If any of the milk or the test sample from a milking be acciden- tally lost, the missing weight of the milk or fat credited to this milking is to be obtained by taking the average of all corresponding milkings during the whole test; that is, if e.g., the evening milk is lost, or the test sample therefrom, the average of the weights of milk and of fat of all evening milkings during the test is taken as the yield of milk and fat for the milking lost. It must be stated on the report that data so obtained are estimated and not actual. 8. Composite-Test Sample. At the time the test of the milk is made, a sample, comprising as many cubic centimeters of milk as the number of pounds in the milking, is placed in a pint fruit jar, con- taining a small quantity of preservative, for the composite-test sample to be sent to the Station when the test is completed. A 25 c.c. glass pipette for taking this sample is furnished in each outfit. Each and every milking must contribute to the composite-test sample in proportion to the amount of milk yielded each time, which will be accomplished by strictly following the directions. The Station representative will be responsible for the proper care of the composite sample, and will send it to the Station by express immediately on the completion of the test. 9. In selecting official test periods of not less than seven consecu- tive days for report, the test periods so selected may begin with any milking made at the regular hour for that milking; provided the pre- vious milking, as well as the last milking of the test period selected, are also made at the regular hour. When any official test period forms a portion of any semi-official test, a detailed report of the whole official test period must be made; but the Superintendent of Advanced Regis- try will only report as A. R. O. record, or records, such consecutive portion, or portions, of the test as the owner may select. 348 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS The Station representative shall fill out all blanks furnished by his Station, or by the Holstein-Friesian Association, and shall make oath before a notary public to such reports as, in conjunction with the authorities of the Holstein-Friesian Association, are required by the Station. 10. The Station representative is not at iiechy? to decide as to which stipulations contained in the rules are essential and which are not, but is required to observe directions in all details. He shall re- port to the officer of his Station in charge of tests of dairy cows any irregularity or unusual occurrence in connection with the test which he may observe, and shall, in general, take all possible means to conduct a fair and equitable test of the cows placed under his supervision. Schedule of charges for supervising records of cows As an illustration of the costs involved in the testing of cows, a statement is here given of the charges made by one of the colleges of agriculture for such work. Something like one-half of all Hol- stein cows in the United States with advanced registry are tested according to this schedule. Of course the schedule applies to any breed. A uniform flat rate is charged for supervising records of cows. This flat rate covers the entire cost of supervision to the breeders so far as the college of agriculture is concerned, and includes per diem of supervisor’s traveling and hotel expenses, expressage, postage, etc. The owners and breeders supply the sulfuric acid, pay notary fees, arrange for conveyance to and from the nearest railway station, and provide for living expenses at the farm during the test. No super- visor will be allowed to remain more than 30 days at one place. The schedule is as follows : — Idayrecord ss 2 ese we & eR Re Ss te wo oe ee ee 136.00 Qidayrecord.. . « ¢ < & 4 4 eH ww 2 ee ew 's a w $9.00 7ormore days . +e ow & «© » « w SEQ Herday For each 7-day or 30-day record reporied $1.00 A single supervisor will not be required to test more than 6 cows milked 4 times a day; 8 cows milked 3 times a day; or 15 cows milked twice a day. HOLSTEIN RULES AND RECORDS 349 Supervisors will be sent to suit the convenience of owners as far as possible, but we cannot promise a supervisor for any definite date. Between October and June, application for supervisors should be made at least three weeks in advance, in order to be reasonably sure of a supervisor at the time desired. An application for a supervisor may be canceled or a date deferred at any time up to three days before the man is due. Supervisors will be sent to waiting owners in order of date of application. Holstein-Friesian records. The Holstein-Friesian Association has four prize divisions, with seven classes in each division. Following are the leading records for each class in three of the divisions, — the 7-day, 30-day, and the semi- official or yearly division. Breeders are not usually satisfied to have their cows merely qualify, but strive to see how much they can exceed the minimum requirements, which are as follows: — If the cow calves at two years of age or under, 7.2 lb. fat in seven consecutive days. If the cow calves at three years of age, 8.8 lb. fat in seven con- secutive days. If the cow calves at four years of age, 10.4 Ib. fat in seven con- secutive days. If the cow calves at five years of age or older, 12.0 lb. fat in seven consecutive days. If the cow calves between two and three years, or between three and four years, or between four and five years old, every day of in- creased age adds to the requirement of the year .00439 of a pound of fat. Leading Cows in the 7-day Division % a HB a at |Pounps a P eeee x ; Ne IME OF OF ER Serene INUMBER| C,Lyine | Mite |Cenr purr: K. P. Pontiac Lass woe ee «6+ | 106812 | 5 : a 585.9 | 6.03 | 35.343 Valdessa Scott 2d_. . . » «| 7281118 694.6 | 4.82 | 33.500 Johanna De Kol Van Beers . . . .| 75131|8 7 7 663.4 | 4.83 | 32.059 Pontiac Lady Boradise te ee «6+ | 692700) 5 11 24 | 601.4 | 5.06 | 30.422 Pontiac Pet . » « « «| 69710)7 5 10] 590.7 | 5.10 | 30.142 Tweede White Lady - . . .| 83186]7 3 23 | 504.7 | 5.94 | 29.963 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol2d . . .| 69991/6 10 24 | 646.1 | 4.60 | 29.766 Agatha Pontiac . ~ oe « « «| 99818}4 9 15] 575.8 | 5.13 | 29.520 Lady Oak Fobes De Kol . . . .1104269|6 O 11! 623.0! 4.68 | 29.155 350 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Leading Cows in the 7-day Division — Continued HB Ace at | Pounps Av. P OgNPS S i IME OF OF ER Name or Cow NumBer|] Girvree | Max |Cenr Hosmer: Gerben Queen ...... .. .| 68164/8 212 654.6 | 4.45] 29.111 Aaggie Pauline Sarcastic . . . .| 86737] 5 11 24 619.9 | 4.69 | 29.079 Sadie Vale Korndyke . . . . .| 9512715 7 16 655.7 | 4.42] 28.961 Fairmont Zerma Segis Pietje . . .|107672/4 1 11 608.4 | 4.68] 28.484 Pietertje Maid Ormsby . . . . .| 78051]6 414] 535.4] 5.81 | 28.450 Semi-official Division (Yearly) Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . .|121083]5 4 4 | 28403.7 | 4.11 | 1176.47 Finderne Holingen Fayne . .| 144551]}3 4 14 | 24612.8 | 4.53 | 1116.05 Banostine Belle De Kol . . . .| 90441}5 2 22 | 27404.4 | 3.86 | 1058.34 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d . .| 69991 | 6 10 24 | 25318.0 | 4.02 | 1017.28 High-lawn Hartog De Kol . .{ 84319]5 11 12] 25592.5|3.90| 998.34 Colantha 4th’s Johanna ae .| 48577|8 1 19 | 27432.5 | 3.64} 998.26 Lothian Maggie De Kol. . . . .| 90209] 6 10 14 | 27967.6 | 3.54 | 990.80 Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog . | 143950|}5 2 1 | 25106.3|3.93] 986.11 Crown Pontiac Josey . . . . . .|101812/6 O 20] 28752.3 | 3.42] 982.23 Maple Crest Pontiac Spotted Annie | 141164]5 1 1] 21393.0} 4.59] 981.02 Caroline Paul Parthenea . .| 77784|9 4 23 | 25072.6/ 3.86} 966.55 Daisy Grace De Kol -| 98228|)4 3 13 |21718.3 | 4.43 | 962.80 Tilly Alcartra. . . . | 123459|5 1 6|30451.4) 3.12] 951.23 Lindenwood Hope . . . -|115655|4 8 O | 20404.7| 4.56] 931.45 Buckeye De Kol Pauline 2d . . .| 94346|6 2 0O|20784.3|4.46| 927.61 Ayrshire records. A cow is eligible for Advanced Registry in the Ayrshire’ Breeders’ Association as follows : — No cow shall be admitted to Advanced Registry unless she shall have been previously recorded in the Ayrshire Record. Two-year-old form. — Year’s record. If her record begins the day she is two years old, or before that time, she shall, to entitle her to record, give not less than 6000 pounds of milk in 365 consecutive days from the beginning of the test and 214.3 pounds of butter fat, and for each day she is over two years old at time of beginning the test there shall be added 1.37 pounds of milk to the 6000 pounds and .06 pound of butter fat to the 214.3 pounds. i Three-year-old form.—Tf her record begins the day she is three years old, she shall, to entitle her to record, give not less than 6500 pounds of milk in 365 consecutive days from the beginning of the test and 236 pounds of butter fat, and for each day she is over three years old at the time of beginning the test there shall be added 2.74 pounds of milk- to the 6500 pounds and .12 pound of butter fat to AYRSHIRE RECORDS 351 the 236 pounds, which addition shall be made in each succeeding form to maturity. Four-year-old form. — Year’s record — 7500 pounds of milk and 279 pounds of butter-fat. Mature form. — Year’s record — 8500 pounds of milk and 322 pounds of butter-fat. Leading Records in each Class to June 1, 1915 Cuass Name or Cow Ls. Mik % Fat Ls, Far Over 5 years euehenbrals Brown Kate 4th .| 23,022 3.99 917.60 4i to 5 years| Miss Nox 3 15,015 8.84 576.94 4 to 4% years| Agnes OF ioe of Maple Grove 17,657 4.65 821.45 33 to 4 years| Elizabeth of Juneau 15,122 3.55 536.15 34 to04 years| The Abbessof Torr . . . .| 14,582 4.39 640.72 3 to 34 years} Ethel of South Farm : -| 15,056 3.91 589.20 24 to 3 years} Henderson’s Dairy Sent . | 17,974 4.11 738.32 2 to 2% years| Jean Armour 3d_ oi2 14,987 4, 599.91 Ten Leading Records in the Mature Class Ls. Is. Ls. Name or Cow Mick | Far |Burrer no 27943 Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 547 . + | 23,022] 917.60) 1080 | 3.99 Re be by Percival Roberts, Jr., Nar- ert! 27950 Garclaugh Aoettie, 772 ~ . «. «2 . «| 22,589] 816.25) 960 | 3.61 Owned by John R. Valentine, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 22269 Lily of Willowmoor, 299 22,106) 888.70} 1046 | 4.02 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 36910 Auchenbrain Yellow Kate od, 1356 . . «| 21,123) 888.33) 1045 | 4.21 Owned Oe Percival Roberts, Jr., Nar- berth, P 23853 Gerranton Dota 2d, 663 *| 21,023] 804.79} 947 | 3.83 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 25487 Jean Armour, 635 . | 20,174) 774.73] 912 | 3.84 Owned by W. P. Schanck, Avon, N.Y. 25295 Rena Ross 2d, 438 . 18,849] 713.56) 840 | 3.79 Owned by John R. “Valentine, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 23985 Netherhall Brownie 9th, 371 . 18,110] 820.91} 966 | 4.53 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 26013 Keepsake 2d, 330 17,410) 711.27} 837 | 4.09 Owned by John R. “Valentine, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 24673 Nether Craig Spicy Queen, 240 . 17,074] 692.69) 803 | 4.06 Owned by Geo. H. McFadden, “Rose- mont, Pa. 352 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Guernsey records. All animals admitted to the Advanced Register must previously be entered in the Herd Register of The American Guernsey Cattle Club. Any such will be admitted into the Advanced Register under any of the following conditions : — Bulls having two daughters in the Advanced Register. Cows having equalled or exceeded the following requirements: — If record is commenced the day the animal is two years old, or pre- vious to that day, she must produce within one year from the date 250.5 lb. butter-fat. For each day the animal is over two years old at the beginning of her year’s period the amount of butter-fat she will be required to produce in the year will be established by adding .1 (one tenth) of a pound for each such day, to the 250.5 Ib. required when two years old. This ratio is applicable until the animal is five years old, when the required amount will have reached 360 lb., which will be the amount of butter-fat required of all cows five years old or over. These yearly standards are based upon one complete year’s record from time of beginning, regardless of the time lost by being dry or calving during that period, should such be the case. Butter-fat.— The per cent of butter-fat shall be determined by the Babcock test for two full and consecutive days in each month in the yearly records. Re-entry. — An animal having been admitted to the Advanced Regis- ter may be re-tested for purpose of giving a better record, and if suc- cessful so admitted and record published as ‘‘Entry of Additional Record,” using the original number assigned the animal and giving reference to previous record. Five Leading Cows in the Several Classes of the A. R. as they appeared Sept. 15, 1915 Class A. —5 years and over AGE Ls. Per Cent Ls. Mirx | Borrer- | Butrer- Yr. Mo. FAT FAT Murne Cowan 19597, A. R. 1906, Re-entry 8 9 | 24008.00 | 1098.18 4.57 May Rilma "22761, ‘A. R. 1726, Re- : entry . 6 4 | 19673.00 | 1073.41 5.46 Spotswood Daisy “Pearl 17696, “AR. 790, Re-entry . 7 5 | 18602.80 957.38 5.15 Julie of the Chéne 30460, ‘ALR. "9752, f Re-entry . 6 1 | 17661.00 953.53 5.40 Imp. Daisy Moon III. 28471, A. R. 1909, Re-entry. . . 6 4 | 18019.40 | 928.39 5.15 GUERNSEY RECORDS 353 Class B. — 43 to 5 years AGE Ls. Per Cent Name or Cow Ls. Mitx | Burrer- | Burrer- Yr. Mo. FAT PAT Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656, : A. R. 843, Re-entry 4 8 | 17285.30 910.67 5.27 Julie of the Chéne 30460, A, R. 2752 4 10 | 15174.20 827.26 5.45 Lady Lesbia 25142, A. R. 1348, Re- entry . 4 10 | 18582.75 787.03 5.79 Pandora's Valentine of Rich’ Neck 27622, A. R. 1742, Re-entry . 4 9 | 14341.60 784.22 5.47 Glenanaar of the Glen ae019, Ae R. 1907 4 7 | 16813.10 | | 780.66 4.64 Class C. — 4 to 44 years Azucena’s Pride 2d 24957, A. R. 1469, Re-entry 4 1 | 16203.90 855.70 5.28 Governor’s Pauline "30472, ‘A. R. : 2441, Re-entry 3 4 3 | 14930.00 844.47 5.66 Imp. Dora II. of Les Marais 37737, A. R. 1999, Re-entry 4 1 | 15434.90 770.38 4.99 Imp. Beauty. ane the Coutanchez 28465, A. R. 2081 4 5 | 13513.90 748.81 5.54 Stella’s Favorite 2d 29167, A. R. 2283, Re-entry 4 O | 14529.60 719.23 4.95 Class D. — 33 to 4 years Dolly Dimple 19144, A. R. 628, Re- entry 3 9 | 18458.80 906.89 4.91 tadewntar Dorothy 27944, ‘A. R. 1822, Re-entry : a 9 | 16099.70 781.65 4.86 Imp. Princess of the Blicqs 28485, A.R.1908 . . 3 8 | 12608.80 774.16 6.14 Rose of Langwater 24204, ALR. 1445, Re-entry 3 11 | 15008.20 751.62 5.01 Imp. Ma Gharmante 6th 31925, A. R. 1995. 3 8 | 15149.80 740.20 4.89 Class E. — 3 to 34 years Jehanna Chéne 30889, A. R. 2588 3 5 | 16186.70 | 863.36 5.33 Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656, A. R. 843, Re-entry sha 1 | 14562.40 860.26 5.91 Masher’ s Elsie 24986, A. R. 1967 «| 3 6 | 14458.70 745.75 5.16 Miranda of Edgewater 30970, A. R. 2363. ao O | 14617.30 730.49 5.00 Sweet Maria 25151, A. R. 1803 3 0 | 12542.50 682.86 5.44 2A 354 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Class F. — 2} to 3 years AGE Ls. Per Cent Name or Cow ———_| Ls. Mix | Borrer- | Borrer- Yr. Mo. FAT FAT 7 | 15078.80 773.59 5.13 9 | 12633.30 706.46 5.59 7 | 12966.50 | 669.89 5.17 11 | 10623.30 659.71 6.21 7 | 11981.76 653.02 5.43 Langwater Hope 27946, A. R. 1978 | 2 Azucena’s Pride 2d 24957, A. R. 1469 | 2 Rose of Langwater 24204, A. R. 1445 | 2 Imp. Buttercup II. of Beauregard 35799, A. R. 2638 . 2 May Belle - Linda Vista 29679, A. R. 2134 2 Class G. — 2 to 24 years Cherry of Edgewater 38413, * a 3361 Nella Jay 4th 38233, A. R. 3 Dolly Dimple 19144, A. R. a8 J Golden Elsie 2d 33422, A. R. 2274 Princess Deasie 36703, A. R. 2275 13454.20 732.97 5.4 14772.70 726.32 4.9 14009.13 703.36 5.0! 13409.00 672.94 5.0! 11943.10 666.22 NNnwnwy wonnes The average of these 35 leading Guernsey Cows is 15152.52 lb. milk; 795.46 lb. butter-fat. Average per cent of butter-fat, 5.25 Jersey records. The regulations of the American Jersey Cattle Club governing “authenticated fat tests’ are as follows :— Seven, fourteen and thirty days’ tests. — (1) In the case of tests for seven, fourteen or thirty days, the Babcock method must be applied to a sample of the milk of every milking during the test, and the milk of every milking must be weighed. No record will be accepted of a test of less than twelve pounds of butter-fat in seven consecutive days. No record will be accepted of a test for a period of ninety con- secutive days or any shorter period down to seven days unless the butter-fat amounts, on the average, to one and seven-tenths pounds per day. Year’s tests. — (2) Year’s tests must be authenticated by applying the Babcock test to a sample of the milk of every milking during two consecutive days in each month. If a test for the period of one year is commenced the day the cow is two years old, or previous to that day, she must produce, within one year from the date the test begins, 250.5 pounds butter- is JERSEY ‘RECORDS 355 fat. For each day the cow is over two years old at the beginning of her year’s test, the amount of butter-fat she must produce in the year is fixed by adding 0.1 (one-tenth) of a pound for each such day to the 250.5 pounds required when two years old. This ratio of increase applies until the cow is five years old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount will have reached 360 pounds, which will be the amount of butter-fat required of all cows five years old or over. These standards are based upon one complete year’s record from the time of beginning, regardless of any time which may be lost by being dry or calving during that period. The production of butter-fat for each month is to be estimated from the results obtained by the official application of the Babcock test. The milk of every milking during the continuance of a test must be weighed, and, in reporting the test to the Club, must be set forth in detail and certified to on a form provided for the purpose. “ Authenticated milk tests” of the American Jersey Cattle Club are as follows, (authentication consists of a check by the tester for two successive days per month, on which days he shall weigh the milk of every milking and report the same to the Club. Such milk yields as meet any of the following requirements may be received and published as authenticated milk yields) : — If a test for the period of one year is commenced the day the cow is two years old, or previous to that day, she must produce within one year from the date the test begins 6,000 pounds of milk. For each day the cow is over two years old at the beginning of her year’s test, the amount of milk she must produce in the year is fixed by adding 3.65 pounds for each such day to the 6,000 pounds required when two years old. This ratio of increase applies until the cow is five years old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount will have reached 10,000 pounds, which will be the amount of milk required of all cows five years old or over. These standards are based upon one complete year’s record from the time of beginning, regardless of any time which may be lost by being dry or calving during that period. A cow meeting the requirements as to year’s milk yield as stated above is eligible to the Register of Merit. 356 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS HIGHEST YIELDS OF JERSEYS Sept. 1, 1915 (with H. R. Best Five Records in Year’s Tests at Various Ages. Lucky Farce 298177... Lass 64th of Hood Farm 266735 King’s Golden Diploma 252638 Northern Beauty 2d 296337 Ruby’s Bonnie Lass 264498 Ciass 2. — Cows Pearly Exile of St. Lambert -205101_~—C«; Lass 66th of Hood Farm 271896 Corinne of Roycroft 247303 Lass 54th of Hood Farm 257375 Majesty’s EminentLady 265699 Cuiass 3. — Cows Lass 73d of Hood Farm 277540 Salem’s Golden Lucy 271911 Sayda’s Tina of Meridale 274725 Agatha’s Elista 252719 : Mary Golden Letta 240917 Ciass 4. — Cows Lass 74th of Hood Farm 281203 : Tonona Pogis’ Azalia 261480 Lass 63d of Hood Farm 266734 Successful Queen 278743 . . Landseer’s Pacific Pearl 205097 Cuass 5. — Cows Lass 66th of Hood Farm 271896 Figgis 97th of Hood Farm 273502 Lass 40th of Hood Farm 223642 Lass 47th of Hood Farm 240327 Lass 30th of Hood Farm 214511 Lass 64th of Hood Farm 266735 Flying Fox’s Maid 265318 . . Golden Massey Polo 3d 234393 St. Mawes Zoe 2534385 . . Mabel’s Raleigh’s Snowdrop 243890 cay te Edith Marigold 247304 ‘i Olympia’s Fern 252060 . . Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748 «sw ee Hes Rosaire’s Olga 4th’s Pride 179509. Lou 2d of Hood Farm 250505 Lass 30th of Hood Farm 214511 No. of Cows) Ciass 1.— Cows UNDER 2 YEARS MILK BurtERr-FatT Lb. Oz. Lb. oz. 14260 635 11.8 9830 5. 606 10.1 9749 6.4 5590.13 10214 11.2 5438 8.9 88231. 5392. 2 YEARS AND UNDER 24 YEARS 123458. 816 1.27 145132. 720 8. 11115 11. 640 15.3 14160 5. 628 1.5 11730 10. 626 14. 2} YEARS AND UNDER 3 YEARS 10953 6.4 659 «6.5 11891 1.6 609 9.0 9178 591 2.3 10147 588 14.1 9295 5. 557 7.8 3 YEARS AND UNDER 3} YEARS 18713 12.8 747 10. 13339 11.2 702 3.1 12694 15. 690 6.9 13088 6.4 682 7.5 9045 15. 659 6.6 8} YEARS AND UNDER 4 YEARS 17793 11.2 910 9.6 14796 14.4 750 9.1 153621. 747 5.2 11410 9. 685 12.6 119905. 684 13.9 Crass 6.— Cows 4 Years AND UNDER 43 YEARS 13444 10 817 13 14315 9.6 785 14.7 12426 11.2 747 15.6 11299 8 685 5.1 12936 1.6 653 13.8 11842 695 8 Cuass 7.— Cows 44 YEARS AND UNDER 5 YEARS 16147 13.6 9387 13.3 14373 3. 854 13.7 14104 13.6 836 15.8 12458 3.2 708 «8.6 11413 13. 664 Borr ‘ER, 85 %Far 747 713 657 639 634 1071 883 879 806 805 962 879 806 769 819 1103 1005 984 781, oz. 14 10 10 FAST HORSES 357 Ciass 8.— Cows 5 YEARS AND OVER BurtEr MILK Burrer-Fat 85 % Far Lb. OZ. oz. oz. Sophie 19th of ‘Hood Farm 189748 17557 12. 999 2.2 1175 7 Spermfield Owl’s Eva 193934. . 16457 64 993 4.06 1168 8 Eminent’s Bess 209719 . . ‘ 18782 15.6 962 13.2 1132 12 Jacoba Irene 146443 . 17253 3.2 952 15.4 1121 2 Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748 15099 «6. 931 15.5 1096 7 Best Records in Year’s Tests at Various Ages. October 1, 1914 Crass 1.— Cows UNDER 2 YEARS MiLtkK Burren var 87% BUTTER b. oz. 0%, Lb. Lucky Farce 298177 . . . 14260 635 11.8 747 4 Cuiass 2. — Cows 2 YEARS AND UNDER 23 YEARS Pearly Exile of aa Lambert 205101... m8 1234588. 816 1.27 960 1 Cuass 3. me Coes 24 YEARS AND UNDER 3 YEARS Sayda’s Tina of Meridale 274725 Ce ee 9178 591 2.3 695 6 Cuass 4. — Cows 3 YEARS AND UNDER 33 YEARS Tonona Pogis’ Azalia 261480 . 13339 11.2 702 «3.1 826 1 Cuass 5. — Cows 33 YEARS AND UNDER 4 YEARS Lass 40th of Hood Farm 223642 15362 —s 1. 747 = 5.2 879 3 Cuass 6.— Cows 4 YEARS AND UNDER 43 YEARS St. Mawes Zoe 253435 . . . 11299 8 . 685 5.1 806 4 Cuass 7. — Cows 43 YEARS AND UNDER 5 YEARS Olympia’s Fern 252060 . . 16147 13.6 937 13.3 1103 5 Cuass 8. — Cows 5 YEARS AND OVER Sophie 19th of Hood Herm 189748. . . . 4 17557) 12. 999 2.2 1175 7 Fast Horse Records! Trotters Arranged according to record to close of 1910 Uhlan, bl. g., by Bingen, 29567. . 1:58 | The Abbott, b. g., by Chimes, 5348 . e 033 Lou Dillon, ch. m., by Sidney Dillon, Alix, b. m., by Patronage, 4143 . .2:033 2315) 1:58} | Highball, b. g., by Dr. Hooker, 24518 2: 034 Major Babiana: g., by Delmar, 13313 1: 593 | Nancy Hanks, br. m., by Happy Me- The iar eeeiarebr: h., by Walnut Hall, dium, 400 . 04 1641. 2:01 | Jack Leyburn, ch. g., by Alto Ley- Hamburg Belle, b. m., by “Axworthy, burn, 38399 1044 2:01}| Penisa Maid, b. m., by Pennant, oe ie b. m., by McKinney, 1968 2: 044 818. 2:02 | Sonoma Girl, b. m., by ‘Lynwood Ww. 32835 04} Gresceus. ch. hs by Robert. McGregor, 1 Abbreviations are as fiollows : — . ch., chestnut in color br., brown. g., gelding. bl., black. gr., gray. m., mare. b., bay. p., pacer. h., horse. 2: 02% | Bob Douglas, gr. h., by Todd, 33822 2: 04} 358 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Pacers Arranged according to record to close of 1910 Dan Patch, br. h., by Joe Patchen, 30239 Minor Heir, b. h., by Heir-at-Law, 14035 Audubon Boy, ch. h., by J. J. Audubon, 16995 Star Pointer, b. h., by Brown Hal, 16935 Prince Alert, b. g., by Crown Prince . Dariel, b. m., a Alcander, 6617 ‘ John R. Gentry, b b. h., by Ashland Wilkes, 9291 | Lady Maud C., ch. m., by Chitwood, 5212 é Bolivar, b. g., by Wayland W., 22516. The Broncho, b. m., by Stormcliffe, 11674 . Copa de Oro, bh by Nutwood Wilkes, 22116 Hedgewood Boy, ch. h., by Chitwood, 5215. Joe Patchen, bl. h., by Patchen Wilkes, Aad x Little Boy, b. g., by Kenton, 6779. : Robert J., b. g., by Hartford, 3574 Fastest records for one mile To Sulky — Race Evelyn W., b. m., by The Spy Minor Heir, D., br. h., by Helmatdiaw To Sulky — ee Time Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen ‘To Wagon — ae Angus Pointer, p., b. g., by Sidney Pointer To Wagon — Against Time Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen e # Under Saddle Country Jay, ch. g., by Jayhawker Team Record — In a 1 Baws Charles B., p., bl. g., by Octoroon } Bobby Hal, p., b. g., by Octoroon Team Record — Against Time Minor Heir, p., b. h., by Heir-at-Law } George Gano, p., b. h., by Gambetta Wilkes Team, Three Abreast — Against Time Globe, b. g., by ‘Almont Jr. Belle Hamlin, b. m., by Almont Jr. Justina, b. m., by Almont Jr. Team, Four-in-Hand — Against Time Belnut, ch. ee by Nutmeg Maud V, ch. m., by Nutmeg Nutspra, ch. m., by Nutmeg With Running Mate — Races Frank, b. g., by Abraham Damania, ch. m., by on. With ee Mate — ~ Aséeitist Time Uhlan, bl. g., by Bingen . . ;* %* & 2 ® % Flying Jib, p., b. g., by Algona . ae a ee ee 1912 1901 1905 1904 1903 1909 1900 1912 1891 1896 1883 1913 1894 NNNNNYNNYNYNNHEHE Ree op 2: : 003 : 002 : 554 : 043 > 57% : 083 213 : 02 :14 : 380 083 : 549 : 58} FAST HORSES Fastest records for two miles In Harness — Race Monette, bl. m., by Monon In Harness — Against Time The Harvester, br. h., by Walnut Hall To Wagon — Race Dexter, kr. g., by Hambletonian 10 oe To Wagon — Against Time Ed Byran, b. g., by Little Corporal . ee x To Road Wagon — Against Time Temple Hope, b. h., by Norval . ele es Under Saddle George M. Patchen, b. h., by C. M. Clay Fastest records for three miles In Harness — Race Fairywood, b. g., by Melbourne In Harness — Against Time Nightingale, ch. m., by Mambrino King ‘ Fastest records for four miles In Harness — Race Longfellow, p., ch. g., by Red Bill . In Harness — Against Time Joe Jefferson, p., br. h., by Thomas Jefferson Fastest records for five miles In Harness — Race Zambra. b, g., by McKinney In Harness — Against Time Pascal, bl. g., by Pascarel Fastest records for six miles In Harness — Against Time Long Time, b. g., by Jack Rowett For ten miles In Harness — Race Controller, b. g., by May Boy ey In Harness —- Against Time John Stewart, b. g., by Tom Wonder . , For eighteen miles In Harness — Race Bill, ch. g., pedigreeunknown . . ... - 1894 1910 1865 1907 1905 1863 1895 1893 1869 1891 1902 1893 1893 1878 1867 1885 10: 10: i: i235 16: 27: 28 : 58: 359 : 144 : 56 34} 10 24 45 08 10 360 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS For twenty miles Capt. McGowan, roanh., pedigree unknown . .- . . 1865 58: 25 For thirty miles Gen. Taylor, gr.h., by Morse Horse . . . . . . . . 1857 1:47:59 For thirty-two miles Chancellor, gr.h., by Chancellor . . . . . . . . . £1831 1:58:00 For fifty miles Black Joke, bl. g., pedigree not traced . . . . . . . £1885 8:57:00 For one hundred miles Conqueror, b.g.,by Bellfounder . . . . . . . . ©. 1853 8:55:53 Fastest records at different decades since 1800 Yankee i ‘ . . 1800-1810 2:59 Boston Horse, ch. g F 1810-1820 2: 484 Bowery Boy, p., pediones unknown ‘ 1820-1830 (2 miles) 5: 04% Drover, p., b. g., pedigree unknown . 1830-1840 2:28 Unknown, p., ch. g., breeding unknown 1840-1850 2:23 Pocahontas, p., ch. m., by Cadmus r 1850-1860 2:172 Billy Boyce, p., b. g., by Corbeau. 1860-1870 2:14} Sleepy Tom, p., ch. g., by Tom Rolfe . 1870-1880 2:12} Johnston, p., b. g., by "Joe Bassett. 1880-1890 2: 064 Star Pointer, Du, b. h., by Brown Hal . . 1890-1900 1: 592 Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen . . 1900-1910 1: 553 Profit-and-loss Figures Profit or loss in dairy cows (Conn. Agric. Coll.) The cow is charged with the cost of food eaten at regular market rates, in the locality where the herds were tested. The prices for the year averaged as follows : Hay $16 per ton, silage $3.50 per ton, and grain $30 per ton. Besides the cost of food, each cow was sub- ject to a fixed charge of $45 for conducting the business, obtained as follows :— Bedding for one year. . . . 6 2 ee ee ew we we ww ew ee) $2.00 Service‘ofbull . . 3 6 & & eS a SR es wow we % » w & 1.00 Labor . pS, ee ES wa ae, a ee ee « « » B00 Interest on investment | 1 1) 1) eb a Re a we km ee «600 Taxes... oi hee ae Wah oe SG ee) elas Mage gE ae eg) lg ae 8S 60 TMstrances | up — ses Mes tea: ade ap dy So ke eet ce ere. Ge ait cap das Se 40 Depreciation. « « 3 & = % @ en @ 6 # & w # 2 @ a ¥.'S =. 8:00 $45.00 It was estimated that one good man would do the work for 20 cows, including milking, feeding, handling of the milk, and delivering it to the depot, washing all utensils used about the barn, etc. Such PROFIT AND LOSS WITH ANIMALS 361 a man would be kept busy caring for twenty cows. If his wages were $45 per month, it would therefore make a labor bill of $27 per cow per year. The next item is one of interest on investment. Allowing $60 as the value of the cow, and $60 as each cow’s share of the investment in barn, tools, etc., the total investment per cow is $120. Interest at 5 per cent equals $6 per cow. Taxes at ten mills on one-half” valuation calls for 60 cents, and insurance for at least 40 cents. These interest charges must not be overlooked in any careful reckoning. The last item in the general bill of expense is one of $8 per year for depreciation in the value of the cow. Unfortunately money put into cows is not a permanent investment. The period of usefulness of dairy cows will not average over four or five years. A large num- ber turn out to be poor milkers not worth keeping, and must be sold at aloss. Others are ruined by accident and by sickness, so that prob- ably five years covers the average milking period of dairy cows. Summary for one herd of 16 cows for the year, February to February Tora. Cost FOR THE ToTaL YzEaR, Ls. oF VALUE OF |INCOME FOR CHARGING |NeET PRorit ‘Aan or | Mux |Averace| Mixx ror | rae Year,| Cost or | $45 PER or Loss Cow GIVEN |PERCENT| THE YEAR | counTING |Foop ForR| Cow FoR | FOR THE FOR THE Far jat 4 Cents| Manure |THE YEarR|Lasor, DzE-| YEaR PER YEAR PER QUART| AND CALF PRECIATION, Cow WORTH $12 TAXES, INSURANCE, Etc. 3 3289 5.0 $61.18 $68.18 $34.68 $57.18 $11.00 10 4312 3.6 80.23 86.39 35.69 54.44 31.95 3 3209 4.2 59.69 65.85 32.93 51.68 14.17 3 2634 4.0 49.00 54.33 31.56 46.56 7.77 9 4507 3.1 83.84 95.84 62.94 107.94 — 12.10 8 7685 3.1 142.98 154.98 71.67 116.67 38.31 9 6735 3.0 125.40 137.40 69.70 114.70 22.70 9 7493 3.6 139.40 151.40 75.85 120.85 30.55 9 7853 2.9 146.10 158.10 71.00 116.00 42.10 —_— 6454 3.2 120.07 132.07 70.15 115.15 16.92 10 5678 4.3 105.64 117.64 63.40 108.40 9.24 8 5439 3.6 101.20 113.20 58.13 103.13 10.07 9 1804 4.3 33.57 39.73 25.66 44.41 — 4.68 6 6214 3.7 115.52 127.52 68.29 113.29 14.23 10 5738 5.1 106.76 118.76 61.98 106.98 11.78 8 7023 2.9 130.6 14.96 59.14 96.64 44.32 362 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Profit or loss in fattening steers (Nebraska Bulletin 116) 84 days’ feeding Initial cost of 1043-pound steer @$5.00 percwt. $52.15 Cost of 1680-pounds corn. . . @ 52c per bu. 15.60 Cost of 640-corn-stover ae) a @ 4.00 per T. 1.28 Cost of 570-alfalfa hay ot a . . . @ 7,00 per T. 2.00 Risk, labor, and shelter . eR 5.00 Totalcost . . . . 76.03 Selling price, 1274-pound steer * 3 6.02 per cwt. 76.70 Value of manure. . ie we ee 5.00 Trieowe " ‘ 81.70 Total cost of steer . 76.03 Total profit. . . . 5.67 Profit per $ 1.00 invested eee ge 1 .08 Profit or loss in fattening sheep (Ohio Bulletin 187) 96 days’ feeding s Initial cost of 50-pound lamb % 2 . . « @$6.00 perecwt. $3.00 Cost of 184 poundscorn. . me 12 @ 40c per bu. 96 Cost of 125 pounds cloverhay. . .. . . @ 12.00 per T. ao Risk, labor and shelter 4% 5g -50 Total see ‘ 5.21 Selling price, 74-pound mmp ‘ : - @ 7.00 per cwt. 5.18 Value of manure . . , 4 * @- 4 -60 Income. . 5.78 Totalcost . . . . 5.21 Profit % A we 57 Profit per$1.00 invested . . . . . . Al Profit or loss in fattening swine (Indiana Bulletin 137) 60 days’ feeding Initial cost of 115-pound hog P @ $5.25 perewt. $6.04 Cost of 214 pounds corn-meal . . @ 18.00 per T. 1.93 Cost of 214 pounds middlings i . @ 25.00 per T. 2.67 Risk, labor, and shelter " Bo ca ae, ad Total cost % * 11.39 Selling price, 234-pound aa , cs om ws Or 526 12.29 Value of manure . . me, ohn ee, -50 Total i income. . . . 12.79 Total cost % di 11.39 Profit . ins. Jee 3 1.40 Profit per$1.00invested . 2. . 2... 12 Cow-testing Associations (Cornell Station) All evidence goes to show that the dairy business maintains a fairly profitable status only because good individual cows make up for the deficiencies of the poor ones. The elimination of poor producing COW-TESTING ASSOCIATIONS 363 animals is undoubtedly the first step toward improvement, and this elimination cannot be successfully brought about unless records of in- dividual production of each cow are systematically kept, and along with such records of production, it is also, if not absolutely essential, at least highly desirable, that a record of food consumed as well be kept. There is no reason why any dairyman should not himself keep the records that are necessary for this selection, but the fact that most dairymen do not keep such records has led to the formation of cow- testing associations, so that the ordinary dairyman by codperative effort may secure information at small cost that in most cases he would not take the trouble to secure for himself. Cow-testing Associations may be organized in various ways and under various plans, and each association should be organized with due regard to its own local conditions. The essential feature in any organization is to secure a good, reliable, trustworthy, and painstaking man to do the work. Such organizations have now been in successful operation in other states for several years, and it would seem that the time is ripe for the dairymen of New York State to avail them- selves of these organizations in order to make their business more satisfactory and more profitable. The most feasible method of organizing such associations seems to be for twenty-five or twenty-six dairies to associate themselves into a cow-testing association, each owner agreeing to weigh the milk of each cow every day, and the tester to test the milk of each cow at least for one day each month. This may be done by the tester himself visiting the individual farms in turn and taking the samples and making the test ; or it may be done by the owners themselves taking the samples and carrying them to a central point to be tested. In either case the tester makes the tests, calculates the production of fat for the cow for the month, and makes record of the same and of the food consumed, and reports regularly to the owner on blanks furnished for the purpose. The details of carrying out this work may be varied to suit con- ditions. In any case it would require the services of a reliable man for his whole time, and this man will have to be paid a fair salary. Experience has shown that an assessment of one dollar for each cow represented in the association will cover the expense of the work for a year, and in some cases it has been done for somewhat less than this. 364 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS Apparatus required. Babcock tester, not less than 10-bottle size, and if to be used in a creamery where steam is available, at least 24-bottle size. Babcock glassware (state brand). At least twice as many test bottles as the capacity of the machine, with acid measure, pipettes, thermometer, etc. Sulfuric acid, -— about a pint or two pounds per cow per year. Sixty-pound spring balance scales, graded to tenths. As many wide-mouth sample bottles as there are cows in the largest herd to be tested. Each bottle should be supplied with a numbered metal band, or otherwise plainly and durably labeled. A supply of record blanks, ruled so that the whole record for a cow for a year can be entered upon it. The cost of the above should be approximately as follows : — Wages of man one year at $50 per month . » « « « « $600.00 10-bottle Babcock tester, $10, 14 eee cost. reach year Bah ret, 2.50 Extra glassware and breakage als ee SF one 10.00 125 gal. sulfuric acid at 55 cents s gal. ela =e. e ee Ge @ ¢ 67.75 1 set spring balances . . Aad Se Se SES RE ea ee GR 5.00 4dozen sample bottles . . . . 1... ee we ee we 10.00 Record: blanks’. s. @ «we we ewe ie we Og 20.00 $715.25 Value of cow-testing associations in Virginia (Virginia Bulletin 190) hd & a mM Bw a fa) 5 & g BER . ag BE 6 a8 s) Z| ak] © [| sg08| sae8) 52 | GREE a af “8 a aces ae Zo ng sk & BI Ee | Ge) & |acee|aics| B. | fess) 2 |! o| ame | 29 -0390 177 -0133 ™ ‘ 3.0 .0397 -181 .0136 ne 5 3.1 .0404 .184 -0138 ‘ : 3.2 .0411 -187 .0140 - j 3.3 .0418 -190 .0142 i 3.4 .0425 .194 .0145 ‘ “ 3.5 .0432 .197 .0147 - . 3.6 .0439 -200 .0149 fe ‘i 3.7 | .0446 -204 .0152 x ‘ 3.8 .0453 -207 .0154 a ‘ 3.9 .0460 -210 .0156 : . 4.0 -0467 .214 ,0159 . 4.1 .0474 -217 .0161 a 4.2 .0481 .220 .0163 7 4.3 .0488 .223 .0165 a 44 .0495 -227 .0168 4.5 0502 -230 0170 i 4.6 0509 233 0172 : 4.7 0516 .237 0175 re 0523 -240 0177 THE HAECKER STANDARDS 411 Net nutrients used by mature cows — Continued Carsony-| ErTaer PROTEIN | “Drares | EXTRacr Milk testing . 5.0 | .0537 .247 .0182 i 5.1 .0544 .250 -0185 i 5.2 -0551 .253 -0187 . 5.3 0558 -256 .0189 bs 54 | .0565 | .260 | .0192 ce 5.5 -0572 -263 .0194 c 5.6 | .0579 | .266 | .0196 a 5.7 -0586 .270 -0199 ms 5.8 .0593 273 -0201 ie 5.9 .0600 .276 -0203 es 6.0 .0607 -280 -0206 as 6.1 .0614 .283 -0208 . 6.2 -0621 .286 -0210 3 6.3 -0628 -289 .0212 . 6.4 .0635 -293 -0215 a 6.5 .0642 -296 -0217 % 6.6 -0649 -300 .0219 - 6.7 .0656 303 .0222 ‘ 6.8 -0663 .306 -0224 £ 6.9 .0670 .3809 -0226 ee eg aay hh > caer Sea SE ea wg ARO .0677 318 .0229 Coefficients for food of maintenance! per cwt. .07 7.7 .O1 “Given the daily yield of milk in pounds, its percentage of butter- fat, and the weight of the cow expressed decimally, it is an easy matter to determine the required ration. As an illustration, suppose a mature cow weighs 825 pounds, gives 20 pounds of milk daily testing 4 per cent butter-fat. One pound of 4 per cent milk re- quires of protein .0467, carbohydrates .214, and of ether extract .0159; multiplying these factors by 20 it is found that for the production of milk the cow needs .934 of protein, 4.28 of carbohy- drates, and .318 of ether extract. For food of maintenance, mul- tiply .07 protein, .7 carbohydrates and .01 of ether extract (main- tenance formula) by 8.25, which gives protein .578, carbohydrates 5.78, and ether extract .082; adding to this the nutrients required for milk production, we have 1.51 of protein, 10.06 carbohydrates, and 40 ether extract, the nutrients required in the ration. They should be supplied in such manner with reference to bulk that the ration will satisfy the appetite. A ration like this should be largely made up of roughage.” (Haecker.) For a cow weighing 850 pounds and yielding 40 pounds of 4 per 1 Maintenance standards not detailed here. 412 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS cent milk daily, the required ration would be (P=protein; C. H. = carbohydrates) : — P. C.H. Fat P. C.H. Fat (.0467 .214 .0159)x 40=1.868 8.56 .636 (.07 7 01 )x8.50 = .595 5.95 .085 Ration required, 2.463 14.51 .721 A ration like this should be largely composed of grain so that it will not contain so much bulk that the cow will go off her feed, and yet furnish the nutrients required. Cows do not require a uniform nutritive ratio, but the ratio varies according to the quantity of milk and weight of cow. To illustrate, let us suppose a cow weighing 1200 pounds and yielding 20 pounds of milk daily, and one weighing 850 pounds yielding 40 pounds of milk, both testing 4 per cent fat: P. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 1 lb. of 4 per cent milk, .0467 .214 .0159 Nutrients for 1 cwt., maintenance, .07 vs -O1 For cow weighing 1200 lbs. and yielding 20 Ibs. of 4 per cent milk: P. C.H. Fat Nutrients for 20 lbs. milk, -93 4.28 82 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance, 84 8.40 tt Ration required, 1.77 12.68 44 Nutritive ratio, 1:7.7 For cow weighing 850 lbs. and yielding 40 lbs. of 4 per cent milk : P, C.H Fat Nutrients for 40 Ibs. of milk, 187 8.56 .64 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance, .59 5.95 .08 Ration required, 2.46 14.51 72 Nutritive ratio, 1:6.5 But if the cow weighing 12 cwt. yields 40 lb. of milk per day and the cow weighing 8.5 ewt. yields 20 pounds, the nutrient require- ments for their respective rations according to table will be as follows: P. C.H Fat Nutrients for 40 lbs. of 4 per cent milk, 1.87 8.56 64 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance, 84 8.40 12 Required ration, 2.71 16.96 .76 Nutritive ratio, 1:6.8 P. C. H. Fat Nutrients for 20 lbs. of 4 per cent milk, .93 4,28 82 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance, .59 5.95 .08 Required ration, 4.52 10.23 -40 Nutritive ratio, 1:7.3 THE GERMAN STANDARDS 413 Computing the Balanced Ration by the Wolff-Lehmann Standards The usual method of computing rations, however, is by the use of the German standards (Table I) as a basis, and then determining from the composition tables (Table II) how the various feeds may be compounded so that they will produce approximately the ratio of the feeding standards. Feeding standards have not been sufficiently worked out for poultry. In the following dairy ration, the nutritive ratio is much too wide as compared with the standard: — Mecey | Seon) So) roe, | ee 20lb.hay . .. . .| 17.40 0.560 9.300 9.860 —— 4lb.oats . .... 3.56 0.368 2.772 2.640 ——— 4lb.corm . .... 3.56 | 0.316 3.056 3.372 Total «2» » «| B52 1.244 14.628 15.872 1:11.7 Feeding standard .| 24.00 2.5 13.4 15.9 1:5.4 The following table shows the ration more nearly balanced by the substitution of buckwheat middlings for the corn: — Sheen Proremw | © ples Toran 20 lb. timothy hay . . . . . «| 17.40 0.560 9.300 9.860 AUD OATS ie tee cee ae 3.56 0.368 2.212 2.640 4 1b. buckwheat middlings . . , 3.48 0.880 1.824 2.704 Total 3 ‘ gia oe. aaN sera XS 3.56 0.368 2.272 2.640 4 1b. buckwheat middlings . . . 3.48 0.880 1.824 2.704 2lb. cottonseed meal. . . . . 1.84 0.744 0.888 1.632 Total . . ..... =. | 24.54 2.496 13.354 15.850 . Nutritive ratio 1:5.3 414 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS In computing the ration, proper consideration must be given to the digestibility (Table III), and also, as determined by experience, to bulk and palatableness. The fertilizing value of the manure differs with the different feeds, as is indicated in Table IV. An exact mathematical method of equating rations is worked out by Willard in Bull. 115 of the Kansas Exp. Sta., and condensed in Cyclo. Amer. Agric. III, pp. 103-105. It rests on finding the pro- tein-equating factor. The Feeding-Standards The relation between the protein, on the one hand, and the carbo- hydrates and fat on the other, is known as the nutritive ratio : thus 1:11.9 means protein 1 part to carbohydrates and fat nearly 12 (11.9) parts. Avratio less than 1:5 is usually said to be narrow ; one more than 1:7 is said to be wide. TaBLe I. Frepinc-STANDARDS A. — Per day and 1000 lb. live weight.? DIGESTIBLE Dar sua MartTTrer Carbo- Protein jhydrates| Total Ranig and Fat Pounds | Pounds | Pounds | Pounds Oxen at restin the stall . . . . . «| 17.5 0.7 8.3 9.0 | 1:11.9 Wool sheep, coarser breeds . . . . .| 20.0 1.2 10.8 | 12.0 1:9.0 Wool sheep, finer breeds . . . . . .| 22.5 1.5 12.0 | 13.5 1:8.0 Oxen moderately worked . .. . .| 24.0 1.6 12.0 | 13.0 1:7.5 Oxen heavily worked . . . . . . «| 26.0 2.4 14.3 | 16.7 1:6.0 Horses lightly worked . .. . . .| 20.0 1.5 10.4 | 11.9 1:6.9 Horses moderately worked . . . . .| 21.0 1.7 11.8 | 13.5 1:6.9 Horses heavily worked . & ix os 3 280 2.3 14.3 | 16.6 1:6.2 Milch cows, Wolff’s standard . » .| 24.0 2.5 13.4 | 15.9 1:5.4 Milch cows, when eas daily — a 11 Ib. milk . » . «| 25.0 1.6 10.7 | 12.3 1:6.7 16.6]lb.milk . . ..... . .! 27.0 2.0 11.9 | 13.9 1:6.0 22.0 lb. milk . . 1. «. « « « « «| 29.0 2.5 14.1 | 16.6 1:5.7 27.5 lb. milk . . . «| 32.0 3.3 14.8 | 18.1 1:4.5 Fattening oxen, preliminary period » | 27.0 2.5 16.1 18.6 1:6.4 Fattening oxen, main period . . . | 26.0 3.0 16.4 | 19.4 1:5.5 1The tables are abbreviated from Cyclo. Amer. Agric.; and nos. II, III, and V there adapted from Henry. 2 The fattening rations are calelated for 1000 lb., live weight, at the begin- ning of the fattening. ACCEPTED FEEDING-STANDARDS 415 Taste I. Frepinc-Stanparps — Continued DIGESTIBLE Dry Norri- Carbo- TIVE MORREEH gst avetrstea| egal | Reanta and Fat 7 sale i Pounds | Pounds | Pounds | Pounds Fattening oxen, finishing period . . 25.0 2.7 16.2 | 18.9 1:6.0 Fattening sheep, preliminary period . 26.0 3.0 16.3 | 19.3 1:5.4 Fattening sheep, main period . ‘ 25.0 3.5 15.8 | 19.3 1:45 Fattening swine, preliminary period . 36.0 5.0 27.5 | 32.5 1:5.5 Fattening swine, main period . 31.0 4.0 24.0 | 28.0 1:6.0 Fattening swine, finishing period . 23.5 2.7 17.5 | 20.2 1:6.5 Growing cattle: ¢ Average live weight Age (months) per head 2-3 150 lb. . 22.0 4.0 18.3 | 22.3 1:46 3-6 300 lb. . 23.4 3.2 15.8 | 19.0 1:49 6-12 500 Ib. . 24.0 2.5 14.9 17.4 1:6.0 12-18 700 Ib. . 24.0 2.0 13.9 15.9 1:7.0 18-24 850 Ib. . 24.0 1.6 12.7 | 14.3 1:8.0 Growing sheep: 5-6 56 Ib. . 28.0 3.2 17.4 | 20.6 1:5.4 6-8 67 lb... 25.0 vir 14.7 17.4 1:5.4 8-11 75 |b. . 23.0 2.1 12.5 14.6 1:6.0 11-15 82 lb. . 22.5 1.7 1L.8 | 13.5 1:7.0 15-50 85 Ib. . 22.0 1.4 11.1 12.5 1:8.0 Growing fat pigs: 2-3 50 Ib. . 42.0 7.5 30.0 | 37.5 1:4.0 3-5 100 lk. . 34.0 50 25.0 | 30.0 1:5.0 5-6 125 lb. . 31.5 4.3 23.7 | 28.0 1:5.5 6-8 170 Ib. . 27.0 3.4 20.4 | 23.8 1:6.0 8-12 250 Ib. . 21.0 2.5 16.2 18.7 1:6.5 B. — Per day and per head rowing cattle: ae — 150 lb. . *. 3.3 | 0.6 2.8 3.4 1:4.6 3-6 300 Ib. . 7.0 1.0 4.9 5.9 1:4.9 6-12 500 lb. . 12.0 lg 7.5 8.8 1:6.0 12-18 700 lb. . 16.8 | 1.4 9.7 Lid 1:70 18-24 850 Ib. . 20.4 14 /|11.1 12.5 1:8.0 i h : STE eee 56 Ib 1.6 | 0.18 | 0.974] 1.154] 1:5.4 6-8 67 lb. 1.7 | 0.18 | 0.981} 1.161) 1:5.4 8-11 75 lb 1.7 | 0.16 | 0.953] 1.113] 1:6.0 11-15 82 Ib. 1.8 | 0.14 | 0.975} 1.115] 1:7.0 15-20 85 Ib, 1.9 | 0.12 | 0.955) 1.075| 1:8.0 ne: Growing si 50 Ib. 2.1 0.38 | 1.50 1.88 1:4.0 3-5 100 lb. 3.4 | 0.50 | 2.50 | 3.00 1:5.0 5-6 125 lb. 3.9 | 0.54 | 2.96 | 3.50 1:5.5 6-8 170 lb 4.6 | 0.58 | 3.47 | 4.05 1:6.0 8-12 250 lb 5.2 | 0.62 | 4.05 | 4.67 1:6.5 416 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS Proteid requirements From the results of a considerable number of fattening experi- ments with cattle, Armsby has formulated the approximate proteid requirements, comparing them with those for growth formulated by Kellner; and these are here followed by proteid requirements of sheep and swine : — Approximate proteid requirements, in pounds, of cattle, per 1000 pounds live weight AMERICAN RESULTS GerMANn Resutts (Kellner) Lb. Age 1 month 4.80 Lb. Age 2 months 4.00 | Age 2-3 months . 4.50 Age 3 months 3.50 | Age 3-6 months . 3.50 Age 6-12 months. 2.80 Age 1-1) years. . 2.00 | Age 1-144 years . 2.20 Age 1-114-2 years 5 1.50 Age 2 years 1.75 Age 2% years 1.50 Mature, fattening 1.60 Proteid requirements for sheep, per 1000 pounds live weight (Kellner) Woo. Brerps Mortron Breeps Age 5- 6 months. Age 6- 8 months. Age 8-11 months. Age 11-15 months. Age 15-20 months. heen 00 wma@mo ¢ Noi MAoOKinG F Proteid requirements of swine, per 1000 pounds live weight (Kellner) FAatreninG BREEDING ANIMALS ANIMALS Lb. Lb. Age 2- 3 months 6.2 me Age 3- 5 months 4.0 $3 Age 5- 6 months 3.0: 3.5 Age 6- 8 months 23 3.0 Age 9-12 months 1.7 2.4 FEEDING-STUFFS 417 Average weights of different feeding-stuffs (Mass. Sta.) Corn, whole . Cottonseed meal - Distillers’ dried grains Germloimeal . . Gluten feed Gluten meal . - Hominy meal . .. . Linseed meal, new process Linseed meal, old process Malt sprouts. . . .... . Mixed feed (bran and middlings) . Oat feed (a variable mixture) 3 Oat middlings . .... Oats, ground 5 Ferpina Sturr One Quart One Pounp WEIGHS — MBASURES — Lb. te Barley meal . 9 Barley, whole. ‘ 7 Brewers’ dried grains . “ 7 Corn-and-cob meal é 7 Corn-and-oat feed . 4 Corn bran a ge ges 0 Cornmeal ...... 7 6 7 0. S Ny 7 i» Oats: wholé. i. 6 acca aw es Rye feed (a mixture of rye bran and rye middlings) Ryemeal. ... . 3 oe eo, Rye bran (Conn. Sta.) Rye, whole ee # Wheat bran. . i Wheat, ground. . ... + Wheat middlings (flour). . . .- . . =. = Wheat middlings (standard) .. . « o Wheat, whole . . .. .. oo Mixed wheat feed (Conn. Sta.) COPPOPERORSSOOHPOSOONF Oreo © NDORNWHNOHORON Sroow~s AIWOROD CHOPPOPORERORPOOOPOEErHORREOOHOrE DOD NANAMAWONTDAAEHOHNWRAANAMANRAGE F Sample rations. The following twelve rations for milch cows are given as samples of the systems of feeding to be recommended in different parts of the country. (1) Hay, 20 lb. ; oats, 3 Ib. ; corn-and-cob meal, 3 lb ; oil-meal, 2 Ib. (2) Hay, 10 lb. ; corn-stalks, ad lib. ; wheat bran, 3 lb. ; corn meal, 2 lb. ; cottonseed meal, 2 lb. . (3) Roots, 60 lb. ; stover, ad lib. ; oats, 3 Ib. ; bran, 3 lb. ; gluten feed, 3 Ib. 25 418 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS (4) Corn fodder, ad lib. ; corn silage, 40 lb. ; shorts, 2 lb.; dry brewers’ grains, 2 lb. ; oil-meal, 2 lb. (5) Silage, 40 lb. ; hay, ad lib. ; bran, 4 lb.; oats, 2 lb. ; gluten meal, 2 lb. (6) Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; hay, ad lib. ; oats, 4 lb. ; oil-meal, 2 lb. ; cottonseed meal, 1 Ib. (7) Corn silage, 35 lb. ; clover hay, ad lib. ; bran, oats, and corn meal, 2 lb. each. (8) Clover silage, 25 lb. ; hay, 5 lb. ; corn-stalks, ad lib. ; oats, 3 3 lb. ; corn meal and oil-meal, 2 lb. each. (9) Clover or alfalfa silage, 30 lb. ; hay, ad lib.; bran, 41b.; mid- dlings, 3 lb. ; oil-meal, 1 Ib. (10) Alfalfa hay, 20 Ib. ; oats, 4 Ib. ; corn meal, 2 lb. (11) Hay, 20 lb. ; cottonseed hulls, 10 lb. ; cottonseed meal, 4 lb. ; wheat bran, 2 lb. (12) Corn silage, 30 lb.; cottonseed hulls, 12 lb.; bran, 6 lb.; cottonseed meal, 3 lb. Henry, in his “ Feeds and Feeding,” gives the following rations, from various sources, aS a guide in determining the amount of feed that should be allowed the horse under various conditions : — Ration CHARACTER OF ANIMAL AND WORK REQUIRED Concentrates Roughage Trotting horse. — (Wood- ruff.) Colt, weaning time. . | 2 lb. oats Hay unlimited allowance Colt, one year old . .| 4 Ib. oats Hay unlimited allowance Colt, two yearsold. .| 6 lb. oats Hay unlimited allowance Colt, two years old, in training . . . .| 8b. oats Hay, allowance limited Colt, three years old, in training. . . . .| 8-12 lb. oats Hay, allowance limited Trotting horse. — (Splan.) Horse on circuit. . .| 10 lb. oats Hay, fair amount ie ‘ 15 lb. oats, in excep- Horse on circuit. . . tional cases (as with } Hay, fair amount Rarus) Horse variously used. —: (Stonehenge.) Race horse . . . .|15 1b. oats 6-8 lb. hay Hack .... . .| 8b. oats 12 lb. hay COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 419 Ration CHARACTER OF ANIMAL AND WorkK RequiRep Concentrates Roughage Horse variously used. — (Fleming.) Pony 4 lb. oats (eee : mrodbtate allow- Hunter, small 12 lb. oats 12 lb. hay Hunter, large. 16 lb. oats 10 lb.“ hay Carriage, light work 10 lb. oats 12 lb. hay The draft horse.-—(Sidney.) 13 lb. oats | Heavy, hard work . 6 lb. beans 15 lb. chaffed clover hay 3 lb. corn J Farm horse. — (Settegast.) Light work 6-10 lb. oats ae nhs Medium work 10 lb. oats ue ie Ee Heavy work . 13 Ib. oats a 1p ee Composition Tables Tasie II. AvERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING-STUFFS (Henry) PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION F é : pe et 'EEDING-STUFFS Nitro- analy- «| Crude Ether ses Water | Ash _ | Protein fiber eens extract CoNCENTRATES Corn, dent 10.6 1.5 10.3 2.2 | 70.4 5.0 86 Corn, flint . 11.3 1.4 10.5 1.7 | 70.1 5.0 68 Corn, sweet 8.8 1.9 11.6 2.8 | 66.8, 8.1 26 Corn meal . 15.0 1.4 9.2 1.9 | 68.7 3.8 77 Corn cob . 10.7 1.4 2.4 | 30.1 | 54.9 0.5 18 Corn-and-cob meal | 15.1 1.5 8.5 6.6 | 64.8 3.5 7 Corn bran . 9.4 1.2 11.2 | 11.9 | 60.1 6.2 6 Corn germ . 10.7 4.0 9.8 4.1 | 64.0 TA 3 Hominy chops 9.6 2.7 10.5 4.9 | 64.3 8.0 | 106 Germ meal 8.6 2.4 21.7 3.8 | 47.3 4.2 23 Dried starch and sugar feed 10.9 0.9 19.7 4.7 | 54.8 9.0 4 Starch feed, wet z 65.4 0.3 6.1 3.1 | 22.0 3.1 12 Gluten meal 9.5 1.5 33.8 2.0 | 46.6 6.6 12 Gluten feed . 9.2 2.0 25.0 6.8 | 53.5 3.5 | 102 Wheat, all analyses « 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 | 71.9 2.1 | 310 Flour, high grade 12.2 0.6 14.9 0.3 | 70.0 2.0 1 Flour, low grade . 12.0 2.0 18.0 0.9 | 63.3 3.9 1 420 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS Taste II — Continued PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION No. of FEEDING-STUFFS : us Nitro- a analy- : Trude er ses Water | Ash | Protein fiber genre extract Flour, dark feeding 9.7 4.3 19.9 3.8 | 56.2 6.2 1 Bran, all analyses 11.9 5.8 15.4 9.0 | 53.9 4.0 88 Middlings . 10.0 3.2 19.2 3.2 | 59.6 4.8 | 106 Shorts 11.2 4.4 16.9 6.2 56.2 5.1 94 Wheat screenings 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 | 65.1 3.0 10 Rye. . : 8.7 2.1 11.3 1.5 | 74.5 1.9 57 Rye flour 13.1 0.7 6.7 0.4 | 78.3 0.8 4 Rye bran . . 11.6 3.4 14.6 3.5 | 63.9 2.8 29 Rye shorts and bran 12.4 3.2 15.7 4.1 | 61.5 3.1 21 Barley ; 10.8 2.5 12.0 4.2 | 67.8 1.8 22 Barley meal . . 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 | 66.3 2.2 3 Barley screenings . 12.2 3:6 12.3 7.3 | 61.8 2.8 2 Brewers’ grains, wet Th7 1.0 5.4 3.8 | 12.5 1.6 15 Brewers’ grains, ae 8.7 3.7 25.0 | 13.6 | 42.3 6.7 53 Malt-sprouts . 9.5 6.1 26.3 | 11.6 | 44.9 1.6 47 OTF gs we x 11.4 3.2 11.4 10.8 | 59.4 4.8 | 126 Oatmeal 7.9 2.0 14.7 0.9 | 67.4 7.1 6 Oat feed 7.0 5.3 8.0 | 21.5 | 55.3 2.9 } 110 Oat dust 6.5 6.9 13.5 | 18.2 | 50.2 4.8 2 Oat hulls TA 6.7 3.4 | 30.7 | 50.5 1.3 11 Rice. . . 12.4 0.4 74 0.2 | 79.2 0.4 10 Rice meal . 10.2 8.1 12.0 5.4 51.2 13.1 2 Rice hulls . 8.8 | 15.6 3.2 | 36.2 | 35.2 1.0 17 Rice bran . 9.7 9.7 11.9 | 12.0 | 46.6 | 10.1 24 Rice polish 10.8 4.8 11.9 3.3 | 62.3 7.2 21 Buckwheat 13.4 2.0 10.8 | 11.7 | 59.7 2.4 33 Buckwheat flour 14.6 1.0 6.9 0.3 | 75.8 1.4 4 Buckwheat hulls 13.2 2.2 4.6 | 43.5 | 35.3 11 2 Buckwheat bran . 8.2 49 12.6 | 32.9 | 37.9 3.5 4 Buckwheat shorts i 11.1 5.1 27.1 8.3 | 40.8 7.6 2 Buckwheat saiddings ‘ 12.8 5.0 26.7 44 | 44.3 6.8 40 Sorghum seed. ; 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 | 69.8 a6 10 Broom-corn seed 12.8 2.8 9.9 7.0 | 64.3 3.2 4 Kafir seed . 9.9 1.6 11.2 2.7 | 71.5 3.1 19 Millet seed s ‘ 12.1 2.8 10.9 8.1 | 62.6 3.5 6 Hungarian-grass seed . 9.5 5.0 9.9 7.7 | 638.2 4.7 1 Flax seed 9.2 4.3 22.6 7.1 | 23.2 | 33.7 50 Linseed meal (old process) 9.8 5.5 33.9 2s | 2aa 7.8 | 191 Linseed meal (new progens) 9.0 5.5 37.5 8.9 | 36.4 2.0 52 Cottonseed . 10.3 3.5 18.4 | 23.2 | 24.7 | 19:9 5 Cottonseed roasted | 6.1 5.5 16.8 | 20.4 | 23.5 | 27.7 2 Cottonseed meal 7.0 6.6 45.3 6.3 | 24.6 | 10.2 | 319 Cottonseed hulls. 11.1 2.8 4.2 | 46.3 | 33.4 2.2 20 Cottonseed Rewnels (with- out hulls). v| 62 4.7 31.2 3.7 | 17.6 | 36.6 2 Cocoanut cake 10.3 5.9 19.7 | 14.4 | 88.7 | 11.0 _ Palm-nut meal 10.4 | 4.3 16.8 | 24.0 | 35.0 9.5 | 600 Sunflower seed 8.6 2.6 16.3 | 29.9 | 21.4 | 21.2 2 COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 421 Tasie IIl— Continued PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION FEEDING-STUFFS ia soe Water | Ash _ | Protein Crnde gen-free ae Bes Sunflower-seed cake . 10.8 6.7 82.8 | 13.5 | 27.1 9.1 —_ Peanut kernel (without . hulls) 7.5 24 27.9 7.0 15.6 | 39.6 e Peanut cake 10.7 4.9 47.6 Sea || Hane 8.0 |2480 Rape-seed cake 10.0 Ta 31,2 | 11.3 | 30.0 9.6 | 500 Pea meal 10.5 2.6 20.2 14.4 | 51.1 1.2 2 Soybean 11.7 4.8 33.5 4.5 | 28.3 | 17.2 16 Cowpea 14.6 3.2 20.5 3.9 | 56.3 1.5 2 Horse bean lia 3.8 26.6 7.2 | 50.1 10 1 RouGHaGE Corn forage, field-cured — Fodder corn . 42.2 2.7 4.5 | 14.3 | 34.7 1.6 35 Corn stover (ears removed) 40.5 3.4 3.8 | 19.7 | 31.5 Lol 60 Corn forage, green — Fodder corn, all varieties .| 79.3 1.2 1.8 5.0 | 12.2 0.5 | 126 Dent, kernels glazed . .| 73.4 1.5 2.0 6.7 | 15.5 0.9 7 Flint, kernels glazed 77.1 1.1 2.7 4.3 | 14.6 0.8 10 Sweet varieties TOL 1.3 1.9 44 | 12.8 0.5 21 Leaves and husks 66.2 2.9 2.1 8.7 | 19.0 1.1 4 Stripped stalks 76.1 0.7 0.5 7.3 | 14.9 0.5 4 Hay from grasses — Hay from mixed grasses 15.3 5.5 7.4 | 27.2 | 42.1 2.5 | 126 Timothy, all analyses - wl) Bee 4.4 5.9 | 29.0 | 45.0 2.5 68 Timothy, cut in full bloom | 15.0 4.5 6.0 | 29.6 | 41.9 3.0 12 Timothy, cut soon after bloom. 14.2 4.4 5.7 | 28.1 | 44.6 3.0 11 ea cut when nearly . 14.1 3.9 5.0 | 31.1 | 43.7 2.2 12 Orchard eras 9.9 6.0 8.1 | 32.4 | 41.0 2.6 10 Red-top, cut at “different stages. 8.9 5.2 7.9 | 28.6 | 47.5 1.9 9 Red-top, cut in bloom ; : 8.7 49 8.0 | 29.9 | 46.4 2.1 3 Kentucky blue-grass . .| 21.2 6.3 7.8 | 23.0 | 37.8 3.9 10 Kentucky blue-grass, cut when seedisinmilk . .| 24.4’| 7.0 6.3 | 24.5 | 34.2 3.6 4 Kentucky blue-grass, cut when seed is ripe . 27.8 6.4 5.8 | 23.8 | 33.2 3.0 4 Hungarian-grass . tt 6.0 7.5 | 27.7 | 49.0 2.1 13 Meadow fescue 20.0 6.8 7.0 | 25.9 | 38.4 2.7 9 Italian rye-grass . 8.5 6.9 7.5 | 30.5 | 45.0 1.7 4 Perennial rye-grass . 14.0 7.9 10.1 | 25.4 | 40.5 2.1 4 Rowen (mixed) 16.6 6.8 11.6 | 22.5 | 39.4 3.1 23 Mixed grasses and clovers . 12.9 ao 10.1 | 27.6 | 41.3 2.6 17 Barley hay, cut in milk 15.0 4.2 8.8 | 24.7 | 44.9 2.4 1 422 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS Tasie II — Continued PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION . aves 'EEDING-STUFFS Nitro- | analy- Water | Ash | Protein Gauls senate pet Eee Oat hay, cut in milk 14.0 5.7 8.9 | 27.4 | 41.2 2.8 4 Swamphay ... . .| 11.6 6.7 7.2 | 26.6 | 45.9 2.0 8 Salt-marsh hay . . . .| 10.4 1.7 5.5 | 30.0 | 44.1 24 10 Wild-oat grass . «| 143 3.8 5.0 | 25.0 | 48.8 3.3 1 Buttercups 9.3 5.6 9.9 | 30.6 | 41.1 3.5 2 White daisy 10.3 6.6 7.7 | 30.0 | 42.0 3.4 2 Johnson-grass 10.2 6.1 7.2 | 28.5 | 45.9 2.1 2 Fresh grass — Pasture grass. . . . -| 80.0 2.0 2.5 4.0 9.7 0.8 — Kentucky blue-grass . .| 65.1 2.8 4.1 9.1 | 17.6 1.3 18 Timothy, different stages .| 61.6 2.1 3.1 | 11.8 | 20.2 1.2 56 Orchard-grass, in bloom .| 73.0 2.0 2.6 8.2 | 13.3 0.9 4 Red-top,in bloom . . .| 65.3 2a 28 | 11.0 | 17.7 0.9 5 Oat fodder .. . . .| 62.2 2.5 3.4 | 11.2 | 19.3 1.4 6 Rye fodder... . .| 76.6 1.8 2.6 | 11.6 6.8 0.6 7 Sorghum fodder. . . .| 79.4 1.1 1.3 6.1 | 11.6 0.5 11 Barley fodder . . . «| 79.0 1.8 2.7 7.9 8.0 0.6 1 Hungarian-grass. . . .| 71.1 17 3.1 9.2 | 14.2 0.7 14 Meadow fescue, in bloom .| 69.9 1.8 2.4 | 10.8 | 14.3 0.8 4 Italian rye-grass, coming into bloom. . . . .| 73.2 2.5 3.1 6.8 |; 13.3 1.3 24 Tall oat-grass, in bloom .| 69.5 2.0 2.4 94 | 15.8 0.9 3 Japanese millet . . . .| 75.0 1.5 2.1 7.8 | 13.1 0.5 12 Barnyard millet . . . .| 75.0 1.9 2.4 7.0 | 13.1 0.6 2 Hay from legumes — Red clover. . . . 15.3 6.2 12.3 | 24.8 | 38.1 3.3 38 Red cloverin bloom. . 20.8 6.6 12.4 | 21.9 | 33.8 4.5 6 Red clover, mammoth . 21.2 6.1 10.7 | 24.5 | 33.6 3.9 10 Alsike clover . 3 9.7 8.3 12.8 | 25.6 | 40.7 2.9 9 White clover . 9.7 8.3 15.7 | 24.1 | 39.3 2.9 7 Crimson clover 9.6 8.6 15.2 | 27.2 | 36.6 2.8 7 Japan clover . 11.0 8.5 13.8 | 24.0 | 39.0 aa 2 Alfalfa . 8.4 7A 14.3 | 25.0 | 42.7 2.2 21 Cowpea. 10.5 | 14.2 8.9 | 21.2 | 42.6 2.6 17 Soybean 11.8 7.0 14.9 | 24.2 | 37.8 4.3 12 Pea vine 15.0 6.7 13.7 | 24.7 | 37.6 2.3 1 Vetch 11.3 7.9 17.0 | 25.4 | 36.1 2.3 5 Flatpea . . . ss . 8.4 7.9 22.9 | 26.2 | 31.4 3.2 5 Peanut vines (without nuts)| 7.6 | 10.8 10.7 | 23.6 | 42.7 4.6 6 Fresh legumes — ‘ Red clover, different stages 0.8 O41 44 8.1 | 13.5 1,1 43 Alsike clover . acces co | WARS 2.0 3.9 74 | 11.0 0.9 4 Crimson clover . . . .| 80.9 1.7 3.1 5.2 8.4 0.7 3 Alfalfa . oe 4 71.8 2.7 4.8 7A |} 12.3 1.0 23 Cowpea. . 3.6 1.7 2.4 4.8 71 0.4 10 COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 423 Tasie II — Continued PreRcenTAGE CoMPosITION No. of FEEDING-STUFFS Nitro analy- : «| Crude _,| Ether ses Water | Ash _ | Protein fiber ee extract Soybean ‘ 75.1 2.6 4.0 6.7 10.6 1.0 27 Horse bean 84.2 1.2 2.8 4.9 6.5 0.4 2 Straw — Wheat . 9.6 | 4.2 3.4 | 38.1 | 43.4 1.3 7 Rye 7.1 3.2 3.0 | 38.9 | 46.6 1.2 7 Oat . 9.2 5.1 4.0 | 37.0 | 42.4 2.3 12 Barley . . 14.2 5.7 3.5 | 36.0 | 39.0 1.5 97 Wheat chaff 14.3 9.2 4.5 | 36.0 | 34.6 1.4 _ Oat chaff . . . 14.3 | 10.0 4.0 | 34.0 | 36.2 1.5 _ Buckwheat-straw 9.9 5.5 5.2 | 43.0 | 35.1 1.3 a Soybean 10.1 5.8 4.6 | 40.4 | 37.4 |- 1.7 4 Horse bean 9.2 8.7 8.8 | 37.6 | 34.3 1.4 1 Silage — Corn (immature) . 79.1 1.4 1.7 6.0 | 11.0 0.8 99 Sorghum . és 76.1 11 0.8 64 | 15.3 0.3 6 Red clover 72.0 2.6 4.2 8.4 | 11.6 1.2 5 Soybean 74.2 2.8 4.1 9.7 6.9 2.2 1 Cowpea vine. . . . .| 79.3 2.9 20 6.0 7.6 1.5 2 Barnyard millet and soy- bean. . . . .. «| 79.0 2.8 2.8 7.2 7.2 1.0 9 Corn and soybean . 76.0 2.4 2.5 7.2) 11.1 0.8 4 Hye . « % 4 80.8 1.6 2.4 5.8 9.2 0.3 1 Roots and tubers — Potato i 79.1 0.9 21 0.4 | 17.4 Ot 41 Beets, common 88.5 1.0 1.5 0.9 8.0 0.1 9 Beets, sugar . 86.5 0.9 1.8 0.9 9.8 0.1 19 Beet, mangel . 90.9 1.1 1.4 0.9 5.5 0.2 9 Turnip... 90.1 0.9 1.3 1.2 6.3 0.2 8 Rutabaga . 88.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 7.5 0.2 4 Carrot 88.6 1.0 1.1 1.3 7.6 0.4 8 Parsnip. . 88.3 0.7 1.6 1.0 10.2 0.2 —_ Artichoke . 79.5 1.0 2.6 0.8 15.9 0.2 2 3Sweet-potato . 68.3 1.1 1.9 1.1 | 26.8 0.7 48 MISCELLANEOUS Cabbage .. . 90.0 0.8 2.6 0.9 5.5 0.2 1 Sugar-beet leaves 88.0 2.4 2.6 2.2 44 0.4 — Pumpkin (field) . 90.9 0.5 1.3 1.7 5.2 0.4 _ Prickly comfrey . 88.4 2.2 2.4 1.6 5.1 0.3 41 Rape ... .- 84.5 2.0 2.3 2.6 8.4 0.5 2 Apples ; 80.8 0.4 0.7 1.2 | 16.6 0.4 3 Cow’smilk ... . 87.2 0.7 3.6 _ 4.9 3.7 | 793 Sow’s milk, colostrum . 74.6 1.6 17.6 — 2.7 3.6 42 3kim-milk, gravity . . 90.4 0.7 3.3 — 4.7 0.9 96 3kim-milk, centrifugal . 90.6 0.7 3.1 — 5.3 0.3 97 424 COMPUTING TaBiE II — Continued THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION e x Ho, ot EEDING-STUFFS itro- analy- «| Crude Ether Water | Ash | Protein en-free ses fiber aon ot | extract Buttermilk . 90.1 0.7 4.0 _— 4.0 1.1 85 Whey .. 93.8 0.4 0.6 —_— 5.1 0.1 46 Dried blood 8.5 4.7 84.4 — — 2.5 3 Meat scrap 10.7 4.1 71.2 _ 0.3 13.7 | 144 Dried fish . . 10.8 | 29.2 48.4 —_— — 11.6 6 Beet pulp (wet) 89.8 0.6 0.9 2.4 6.3 _ 116 Beet molasses 20.8 | 10.6 9.1 — 59.5 _ 35 Apple pomace 83.0 0.6 1.0 2.9 | 11.6 0.9 6 Sorghum bagasse 83.9 0.6 0.6 8.2 | 11.72) — 2 Distillery slops 93.7 0.2 1.9 0.6 2.8 0.9 1 Dried sediment from dis- tillery slops ece 5.0 | 11.3 27.4 8.0 | 36.1 | 12.3 1 1 Includes fat (sorghum bagasse). Tasie III. — DicestrisL—E NUTRIENTS IN 1 LB. oF THE More Common FEEDING-STUFFS (Calculations by J. L. Stone) Pounps oF DIGESTIBLE Toran NUTRIENTS Monat Kinp anp AMOUNT OF FEED ae Carbo- om. TER | Protein hyde Total 2,25) Sotling fodder — Foddercorn . . ..., 20 .010 | .125 135 | 1: 12.5 Peas-and-oats . 16 .018 | .076 .094 | 1:4.2 Peas-and-barley . 16 .017 | .077 -094 | 1:4.5 (Practically the same as s peas-and-oats) Red clover .29 .029 | .164 -193 | 1: 5.6 Alfalfa . .28 .039 | .138 177) :1:3.5 Hungarian-grass .29 .020 | .169 -189 | 1:84 Corn silage pel .009 | .129 138 | 1:14.3 Roots and tubers — Potatoes é 21 .009 | .165 174 | 1:18.3 Beet, mangel . .09 -011 | .056 .067 | 1:5.1 Beet, sugar 13 O11} .104 -115 | 1:9.4 arrot .— ll -008 | .082 .090 | 1: 10.3 Flat turnip 10 | .010| .077 087 | 1: 7.7 Hay and straw — Timothy . . 87 028 | .465 493 | 1: 16.6 Mixed grasses and clover. 87 -062 | .460 522 [1:74 Hungarian hay . 92 045 | .546 591 | 1: 12.1 Red clover hay . 85 068 | .396 464 | 1:5.8 DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING-STUFFS Tasup III — Continued 425 Pounps or DiIGEsTIBLB Toran NUTRIENTS “i UTRI- Kinp anp Amount or FEED eee Carbo- mvs TER | Protein ero Total aTIO 2.25) Alfalfa hay -92 -110 423 -533 | 1:3.8 Corn fodder 58 025 | .373 .398 | 1: 14.9 Corn stover -60 017 | .340 357 | 1: 19.9 Pea-vine straw : ‘86 | .043| 1341 | (384]1:7.9 Bean-straw . .. . . ‘95 | 1036] :397 | .433]1:11.0 Wheat-straw . ‘90 | .004| (372 | .376] 1:93 Oat-straw . 91 .012 | .404 -416 | 1: 33.6 Grain — Corn PVEIeEe! by R .89 .079 | .764 .843 | 1: 9.7 Wheat . . as, ot 2S -90 102 | .7380 -832 | 1: 7.2 Rye. . Se. as ee 88 .099 | .700 -799 | 1:7.1 Barley . .89 -087 -692 -779 | 1: 7.9 Oats .89 .092 | .568 -660 | 1: 6.2 Buckwheat 87 .077 | .533 -610 | 1: 6.9 Peas ... -90 .168 | .534 -702 | 1:3.2 Mill products — Corn-and-cob meal .85 .044 | .665 -709 | 1: 15.1 Wheat bran. . 88 122 453 -575 | 1: 3.7 Wheat middlings .88 128 | .607 -735 |-1: 4.7 Dark feeding flour . .90 135 | .658 .793 | 1:4.9 Low-grade flour . 88 082 | .647 .729 | 1:7.9 Rye bran . . .88 115 548 -663 | 1: 4.8 Buckwheat bran |. -90 .074| .347 A421 | 1:47 Buckwheat middlings . 87 .220 | .456 676 | 1: 2.1 By-products — Malt-sprouts -90 186 | .409 .595 | 1: 2.2 Brewers’ grains, wet 224 039 | .125 164 | 1:3.2 Brewers’ grains, dry .92 157 | .478 635 | 1:3 Buffalo gluten feed -90 232 .699 931 | 1:3 Chicago/gluten meal . "i 88 322 | .468 .790 | 1:1.5 Distillers’ dried grains, Bile’s XXXX .92 248 | .552 .800 | 1: 2.2 Hominy chops . ‘ : .89 075 | .705 .780 | 1: 9.4 Linseed all (old process) _ 91 293 | .485 78 | 121.7 Linseed meal (new process) , .90 282 | .464 .746 | 1:1.6 Cottonseed meal . . - + + = .92 372 | .444 816 | 1:1.2 Miscellaneous — Cabbage . 15 018] .091 .109 | 1:5. Sugar-beet, leaves. 12 017 | .051 .068 | 1:3 Pea-vine silage . 27 025] .141 -166 | 1:5.6 Sugar-beet pulp . .10 006 | .073 .079 | 1:12 Beet molasses 79 091) .595 .686 | 1: 6.5 Apple pomace 233 O11 | .164 175 | 1:14.9 Apples 19 007 | .188 .195 | 1: 26.8 Skim-milk, ‘centrifugal .094 029 | .059 .088 | 1:2 Buttermilk ‘ 10 039 | .065 104 | 1:1.7 426 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS TaBLe IV. AVERAGE FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN FEEDING-STUFFS FERTILIZING ConsTITUENTS IN ‘BS. Nau or Freep Nitrogen pense Potash CoNcENTRATES : Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn, allamalyses . ....... +: 18.2 7.0 4.0 Corn cob . Boe. oo ees OS 3.9 0.6 6.0 Corn-and-cob meal AP) ace. The a il At Ae tae 13.6 5.7 4.7 Corn bran. . OE GR a Se OS 17.9 10.1 6.2 Gluten meal 1. » « « # 4 # © 4 # & 54.8 3.3 0.5 Germmeal . ....... te a te 34.7 3.9 2.1 Starch reise 5 5 ee ee eR eH 7.6 2.9 1.5 Grano-gluten . . . . 2. 1 ee eee 49.8 5.1 1.5 Hominy chops... ....... 16.8 9.8 4.9 Glucosemeal . . . ... se. eee 57.7 —— —. Sugarmeal . . . . 2. 1. 6 se eee 36.3 41 0.3 Gluten feed. . . . 2... 2 ee ee 40.0 3.7 0.4 Wheat .. So a ee EL ee Ge aa 19.0 5.5 8.7 High-grade flour... 1... ll, 19.2 5.7 5.4 Low-grade flour ........ s 28.9 5.6 3.5 Dark feeding flour ......... 29.4 21.4 10.9 Wheatleal 5 6s @ eS we em ee 24.6 26.9 15.2 Wheat shorts . . ........ 2. 28.2 13.5 5.9 Wheat middlings . . . . 2. 2... 26.3 9.5 6.3 Wheat nes oo Been 8 re ee 20.0 11.7 8.4 Rye ... Be ee Sl eo we 18.1 8.6 5.8 Rye PSC a ve we ae ew ce ce 23.3 22.8 14.0 Rye Shorts. 4.) 0 al osc ee OR de a 18.4 12.6 8.1 Barley. Soe GALE), add. le OS. iene 19.2 7.9 48 Malt-sprouts ‘ Ad em tay DNS ean So 42.1 17.4 19.9 Brewers’ grains, wet . ee eo OM ee RO 10.7 4,2 0.5 Brewers’ eaing, dried 40.0 16.1 2.0 Oats . 18.2 7.8 4.8 Oat feed or shorts 12.8 6.1 7.2 Oat hulls : 5.3 1.6 4.9 Rice. 11.8 1.8 0.9 Rice hulls 5.1 1.7 1.4 Rice bran. 19.0 2.9 2.4 Rice polish . 19.0 26.7 TL Buckwheat . 17.3 6.9 3.0 Buckwheat hulls 7.3 4.3 14.7 Buckwheat bran . . 20.2 4.2 12.7 Buckwheat muddiags. 42.7 12.3 11.4 Sorghum seed 14.6 8.4 3.4 Broom-corn ness 15.8 7.2 5.2 Millet 17.4 6.5 3.3 Flax seed. 36.2 13.9 10.3 Linseed meal (old process) . 54.2 16.6 13.7 Linseed meal (new proce! 60.0 17.4 13.4 Cottonseed 29.4 10.5 10.9 Cottonseed meal 72.5 30.4 15.8 FERTILIZING VALUES IN FEEDING-STUFFS 427 Taste IV — Continued Name or Foop Ferrti.izine CoNSTITUENTS IN Les. Nitrogen Phosghone Potash CoNncENTRATES Lbs Lbs. Lbs Sottonseed hulls 6.7 4.3 10.4 Cocoanut cake . 31.5 16.0 24.0 Palm-nut cake . 26.9 11.0 5.0 Sunflower seed. . . 26.1 122 5.6 Sunflower-seed cakes . 52.5 21.5 11.7 Peanut cake 76.2 20.0 15.0 Rape-seed cake 49.9 20.0 13.0 Peas 37.9 8.4 10.1 Soybean . 53.6 10.4 12.6 Horse bean . 42.6 12.0 12.9 RovcGHaGE Fodder corn — ; Fodder corn, green. . 2.9 1.1 3.9 Fodder corn, field-cured 7.2 5.4 8.9 Fresh grass — Pasture grasses . “ 5.6 2.6 TA Kentucky blue-grass. . 6.6 — — Timothy, different stages 5.0 2.6 7.6 Orchard-grass, in bloom . 4.2 1.6 7.6 Red-top, in bloom 4.5 —— — Oat forage in milk . 5.4 1.3 3.8 Rye forage . . 4.2 2.5 71 Sorghum fodder... . 2.1 0.7 3.4 Meadow fescue, in bloom 3.8 —. —— Hungarian-grass 5.0 1.2 4,2 Hay — Timothy (all analyses) 9.4 3.3 14.2 Orchard-grass . . - 12.9 3.7 16.9 Red-top . ...- - 12.6 3.6 10.2 Kentucky blue-grass . 12.5 4.0 15.7 Hungarian-grass 12.1 4.3 15.4 Mixed grasses . 11.9 2.7 15.5 Rowen (mixed) 18.6 4.3 14.9 Meadow fescue .. - 11.2 4.0 21.0 Mixed grasses and clover 16.2 — — Soybean hay .. . 23.8 6.7 10.8 Straw — 5.0 2.2 6.3 lara 5.0 2.5 8.6 ae 5.8 3.0 17.7 Fake 4s 7.0 2.0 10.6 Wheat chaff 7.2 3.8 8.2 428 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS TasLte IV — Continued NaME oF Foop FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN Nitrogen Phosphevic Potash Fresh legumes — RoveHaca Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Red clover, different BiAeed 7.0 1.5 4.8 Alsike, bloom 3 i 6.2 1.1 2.0 Crimson clover 5.0 1.2 4.0 Alfalfa 7.7 1.3 5.6 Cowpea . 3.8 1.3 4.6 Soybean . aS 6.4 1.4 5.6 Legume hay and straw — Red clover, medium . 19.7 5.5 18.7 Red clover, mammoth 17.1 5.2 11.6 Alsike clover ° 20.5 5.0 13.9 White clover 25.1 7.8 13.2 Crimson clover . 24.3 4.0 13.1 Alfalfa 21.9 5.1 16.8 Cowpea . . 14.3 5.2 14.7 Soybean straw . 17.5 4.0 13.2 Pea-vine straw . 14.3 3.5 10.2 Silage — Corn s 6 4 % 6 4% % * & 4.3 1.1 3.7 Roots and tubers — Potato 1. # & & © & & 3.4 1.6 5.8 Beet,common. ..... 2.4 0.8 48 Beet, sugar . 2.9 0.8 3.7 Beet, mangel 2.2 0.9 3.8 - Flat turnip . 2.1 0.9 3.4 Rutabaga 1.9 1.2 4.9 Carrot 1.8 0.9 2.6 Parsnip 2.6 2.0 44 Artichoke Bok ab 4,2 1.4 4.7 MISGELLANTONS Cabbage . Rs ees 4.2 1.1 4.3 Spurry . y 3.8 25 5.9 Sugar-beet leaves | 4.2 1.5 6.2 Pumpkin, garden . 2.9 1.6 0.9 Prickly comfrey 3.7 1.2 7.6 ape . 4 3.5 1.2 3.5 Dried blood 135.0 13.5 7.7 Meat scrap . 114.0 81.1 — Dried fish . . TTA 140.0 3.0 Beet pulp, wet . 1.4 0.3 11.4 Beet molasses 14.5 0.5 56.3 Cow’s milk . 5.8 1.9 1.7 Cow’s milk, colostrum 28.2 6.6 et Skim-milk, ’eravity 5.6 2.0 1.9 Skim-milk, eee 5.0 2.1 2.0 Buttermilk ‘ 6.4 1.7 1.6 Whey . 1.0 11 2.0 CHAPTER XXIII EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS THE many diseases of farm live-stock cannot be treated in a book f this kind, and very brief advice might be more dangerous than useful ; yut the ticks, lice, fleas, and similar things that infest animals may be ncluded. The spraying of live-stock is as important, in many cases, as he spraying of plants. Handling the cattle-tick, or Texas-fever tick (Margaropus annulatus) (H. W. Graybill, Bur. Animal Ind., U. 8. Dept. Agric.) On the pasture there are three stages of the tick —the engorged emale, the egg, and the larva ; and on the host are four stages — the arva, the nymph, the sexually mature adult of both sexes, and the mngorged condition of the female. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated vith an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be ‘otated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have lropped.. Dips for cattle-ticks, their preparation and use Crude petroleum.— Various kinds of crude petroleum have been ised with more or less success in destroying ticks. The heavier rarieties of oil are very injurious to cattle. On the other hand, the rery light oils are so volatile that their effect lasts but a short time hus rendering them less efficient. The petroleum known as Beau- nont oil, obtained from Texas wells, has given the best results. The vest grade of this oil to use is one that has a specific gravity ranging rom 223° to 243° Beaumé, containing 14 to 13 per cent of sulfur, ind 40 per cent of the bulk of which boils between 200° and 300° C. Che oil may be applied by employing a spray pump or a dipping vat. Animals that have been dipped in crude oil, especially during warm 429 430 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS weather, should not be driven any great distance immediately after- wards, and should be provided with shade and an abundance of water. Unless these precautions are observed serious injury and losses may result. Emulsions of crude petroleum.—In the majority of cases the best agent to use is an emulsion of crude petroleum, preferably Beaumont crude petroleum. The use of the emulsion makes the treatment less expensive than when the oil alone is used. The emulsion is not so injurious to the cattle and is almost if not quite as effective as the oil alone. The formula for preparing an emulsion of crude petroleum is as follows :— Hard soap . . eS we OO a Oe ee Se ea ee ee we SE, Soft or freestone water «+ «6G. © a we aoe S & 8 Bla « 1 gal. Beaumont crude petroleum ...... 2. + + «+ «© © « «+ « 4gal. Making five gallons of 80 per cent stock emulsion. When a greater quantity of stock emulsion is desired, each of the quantities in the above formula should be multiplied by such a number as to furnish the required amount. For example, if it should be con- venient to mix 10 gallons at one time, the quantities would have to be multiplied by 2 and if 15 gallons were desired, they would have to be multiplied by 3, and so on. In preparing the emulsion the soap should be shaved up and placed in a kettle or caldron containing the required amount of water. The water should be brought to a boil and stirred until the soap is entirely dissolved. Enough water should be added to make up for the loss by evaporation during this process. The soap solution and the required amount of oil are then placed in a barrel or some other convenient re- ceptacle, and mixed. The mixing may be effected by the use of a spray pump, pumping the mixture through and through the pump until the emulsion is formed. A convenient and time-saving method is to do the mixing in a barrel by first pouring in one part of hot soap solution and then four parts of crude petroleum, and repeating this until the barrel is filled. The oil should be poured in with as much force as pos- sible, and the mixture stirred constantly with a long paddle until the oil is completely emulsified. The mixing is facilitated also by dipping up the mixture and pouring it back with a pail. If made properly, this stock emulsion is permanent, and will keep indefinitely. eer TEXAS TICKS 431 To prepare the stock emulsion for use, it is diluted with water to a 20 or 25 per cent emulsion. In order to obtain a 20 per cent emulsion of oil, it is necessary to use one part of the stock emulsion to three parts of water, and for a 25 per cent emulsion, one part of stock emulsion to 2} parts of water. The stock emulsion is permanent, but the diluted emulsion does not remain uniformly mixed, so that if allowed to stand it should be thoroughly mixed by stirring before using. Only rain or freestone water should be used for diluting, and if this is not available, the water should be “ softened ” by adding a sufficient amount of con- centrated lye, sal soda, or washing powder. Care should be observed in this process not to use an excess of these preparations. An 80 per cent stock emulsion is on the market, and much time and labor can be saved by obtaining this instead of making the emulsion. To prepare it for use, it should be diluted in the same manner as in- dicated above for the home-made stock emulsion. The arsenical dip. — This dip is used considerably, on account of its cheapness and the ease with which it is prepared. In general, it has proved very effective in destroying ticks, and is less likely than crude petroleum or emulsions of the same to injure cattle when dipping has to be done in hot weather. Some injury to the skin is, however, likely to occur when the arsenical mixture is used, and this injury, which will be so slight as to be scarcely noticeable if the cattle are prop- erly handled, is liable to be serious if the cattle are driven any distance, especially if allowed to run while being driven within a week after treatment. The formula given below for making an arsenical dip is the one most commonly used in this country : — Sodium carbonate (sal soda) brik Ge GEA GB On ee as es 2b Arsenic trioxid (white arsenic) . . . . . . 1 ee ee se es) 8b, Pine tar Goel Roe SO owe a, | Dygale Sufficient water to make 500 gallons. If a stronger arsenical dip is desired, ten pounds of arsenic may be used in place of eight pounds, but in general the stronger solution should not be used. In warm weather particularly it is not advisable to use a solution stronger than that given in the above formula, if the animals are to be treated every two weeks. In preparing the dip, a large caldron or galvanized tank is required for heating the water in which to dissolve the chemicals. Thirty or forty gallons of water should be placed in the caldron or tank and 432 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS brought to a boil. The sodium carbonate is then added and dissolved by stirring. When this is accomplished, the arsenic is added and dissolved in a similar manner. The fire is then drawn and the pine tar added slowly in a thin stream and thoroughly mixed with the dip by constant stirring. This strong stock solution is diluted to 500 gallons before using. The diluted arsenical solution may be left in the vat and used re- peatedly, replenishing with the proper quantities of water and stock solution when necessary. When not in use, the vat should be tightly covered with a waterproof cover to prevent evaporation on the one hand and further dilution by rain on the other hand. Securely cov- ering the vat when not in use also lessens the risk of accidental poison- ing of stock and human beings. On account of the fact that arsenic is a dangerous poison, great care must be observed in making and using the arsenical dip. From the time the arsenic is procured from the druggist until the last particle of unused residue is properly disposed of, the most scrupulous care should be taken in handling this poison. Guessing at weights or measures or carelessness in any particular is liable to result in great damage, and not only may valuable live-stock be destroyed, but human beings may lose their lives as well. In the use of arsenical dips care should be taken not only to avoid swallowing any of the dip, but persons using the dip should also bear in mind the possibility of absorbing arsenic through cuts, scratches, or abrasions of the skin, and the possibility of absorbing arsenic by in- halation of vapors from the boiler in which the dip is prepared or by the inhalation of the finely divided spray when the spray pump is used. It should be remembered that the absorption of even very small quan- tities of arsenic, if repeated from day to day, is liable ultimately to re- sult in arsenical poisoning. Cattle should always be watered a short time before they are dipped. After they emerge from the vat they should be kept on a draining-floor until the dip ceases to run from their bodies ; then they should be placed in a yard free of vegetation until they are entirely dry. If cattle are allowed to drain in places where pools of dip collect, from which they may drink, or are turned at once on the pasture, where the dip will run from their bodies on the grass and other vegetation, serious losses are liable to result. Crowding the animals before they are dry should TEXAS TICKS 433 also be avoided, and they should not be driven any considerable dis- tance within a week after dipping, especially in hot weather. If many repeated treatments are given, the cattle should not be treated oftener than every two weeks. In addition to protecting vats properly containing arsenical dip when not in use, another precaution must be observed when vats are to be emptied for cleaning. The dip should not be poured or allowed to flow on land and vegetation to which cattle or other animals have access. The best plan is to run the dip in a pit properly protected by fences. The dip should not be deposited where it may be carried by seepage into wells or springs which supply water used on the farm. The same precautions should be observed when animals are sprayed as when they are dipped. Method of spraying. Spraying is probably the most practicable and convenient way of treating cattle on the majority of farms. A good type of pail spray pump, costing from $5 to $7, will be found to be satisfactory for treating small herds. About fifteen feet of three-eighths-inch high-pressure hose is required, and a type of nozzle furnishing a cone-shaped spray of not too wide an angle will be found satis- factory. A nozzle with a very small aperture should not be used, because the spray produced is too fine to saturate properly the hair and skin of the animals without consuming an unnecessary amount of time. The animal to be sprayed should be securely tied to one of the posts of a board or rail fence, or better still, when convenient, to the corner post in an angle of the fence. This will facilitate the spray- ing by preventing the animal from circling about to avoid the treat- ment, and will reduce the amount of help necessary. Every position of the body should be thoroughly treated, special attention being given to the head, dewlap, brisket, inside of elbows, inside of thighs and flanks, the tail, and the depressions at the base of the tail. Crude oil alone may be used, but in general a 20 to 25 per cent emulsion will be found more satisfactory. All the cattle on the place should be sprayed every two weeks with this emulsion. The horses and mules should be kept free of ticks by picking or other means. 2F 434 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS Disinfectant for ticks in infested stables. Eradication will be much facilitated if at the beginning of the work all litter and manure are removed from stables, sheds, and yards that have been occupied by the cattle, and deposited on land where cattle are not permitted to run. After this is done, the buildings should be thoroughly disinfected to destroy any eggs or ticks that may be there. For this purpose the following substances may be used : 1. A mixture made with not more than 13 pounds of lime and } pound of pure carbolic acid to each gallon of water. 2. Any coal-tar creosote dip permitted by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture in the official dipping of sheep for scabies, diluted to one-fifth of the maximum dilution specified for dipping sheep. A spray pump should be used to apply the disinfectant, and the walls, floors, and various fixtures of the buildings should be thoroughly sprayed. Other External Parasites of Farm Animals (Crosby) The insecticides. Following are the leading insecticidal substances used against fleas, lice, ticks, and other pests of farm live-stock :— Lime-and-sulfur dip. Unslaked lime. 2 2 @ @ % = & Boe So ee ow ee we 8 Ib. Flowers of sulfur. a i. 6 & ee &@ ee © » “Seb, WAGER, (ay eo sae ee ae ea ae a a ae ea a en ge a LOO w al; Slake the lime in a little water and add the sulfur, stirring constantly. Transfer the mass to 25 gallons of hot water, and boil for two hours, adding water to replace that boiled away. Let the solution stand until all sediment has settled and then draw off the clear liquid and dilute to 100 gallons. (U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) Nicotine solutions. — There are now on the market nicotine solutions with a guaranteed strength of from 5 to 40 per cent of nicotine. For use they should be so diluted as to give a solution containing 180 of 1 per cent of nicotine, and 163 pounds of flowers of sulfur should be added to each 100 gallons of the liquid. Eradication of ticks by rotation of fields (Graybill.) FIELD NO2B OCT 12. MOVE THEHERD_]_,, TO FIELD NO.3. OATS FouoWED BY FIELO NO. TORPEAS UM OTHER ~ 7 CORN. FUELD NGS, FORAGE. | WPEAS. Pre ‘OR CRIMSON: CLOVER. FIELD NO.2A, SEPT.22. MOVE THE NOU MOVE ERO HERD TO FIELD no2e8. MNT fcuse dun | | t ! PASTURE: BERMUDA , VET,CH,AND BUR CLOVER. 0.1 A YUNE IS. move ve eno TOFIELQ NOG, KEEP OUT ALL ANIMALS Beare THIS OATE UNTIL NOV. t,WHEN THIS FIELD WILL BE’ FREE OF TICKS. Arete, NO! SEPT. 2 MOVE THE HERO eT ‘FIELO NO.2A. fee QUT ALL ANIMALS REE areata JPORARY oust FEE: MAY BE Cae Fic. 13.— Rotation plan for freeing planta- tion in South from ticks in 43 mos. FIELD NO.2. FIELD NO.3. FIELD NO.%. OATS. ‘CORN COTTON, GOWPEAS AND COWPEAS. } GURCLOVER, Tater LEGUMES, MOVE ae ve FIELD CATTLE WALL BE FREE MARLILMOVE THE HERD OF TecKsiay ey pe. ze TO FIELD NO. 1A, AND FEBR.15 HERD TO FI nae Te | PERMANENT PASTURE, FIELD NO.1B. NOTA. —— JUULY LMOVE HERD TO PASTURE NO.! 8, . $ : ‘ ' ' O€T.IS. MOVE THE HERD TOFIELD | NO.2. 1 TKEEP ALL ANIMALS OUT OF THIS ! ! ' ‘ i FIELD UNTIL MAR, WHEN IT, WILLBE FREE OF TICKS. ae Fig. 15.— Plan requiring 8 mos. fet NO.4: COL/PEAS. FIELD NO.2. FIELD N03. MELO NOA CORN. COTTON FOLLOWED OATS. COWPEAS. BY CRIMSON CLOVER, VETCH, COW PERS, | v BUR CLOVER OR RYE. ‘BUR CLOVER. ' FIELD NOOA. FELD W038. —- —_ Ie co isiaiea DRILLED CORN.FOR SOILING CROP MOVE THE HERD FROM =| FEBRIS,MOVETHEHERD | BECOMES THE NEW on i THIS FIELD TO FIELD TO FIELD NO. 4 PASTURE. — MILLET AND COWPEAS. 4 : = Nts] ull ite sere LNOULAETURN HERD TO PASTURE, — | AUG fate ieagyalcor| \neao re FIELD NOJA) NO.2. ~~ ss oe nape : ao COWPEAS. i , FIELD _NO.E ASTURE, = Move HERD 1 LOT NO.?. 15. MOVE HER, CT. 1S: MOVE HERD TO FIELD NO.2. KEEP ALL ANIMALS OUT Soe THIS FIELD UNTIL ND U1, WHEN mm | PLANT i CATS ANO FOLLOW WITH COWPEAS JE FREE OF TI Fig. 14.—Plan requiring 4 mos., with new Fic. 16. — Feed-lot or soiling method of elimi- pasture. 435 nating ‘ticks. 436 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS Commercial dips. — There are a large number of these proprietar dips on the market, many of which contain as the active agent coa tar derivatives. Use only those that have the approval of th United States Department of Agriculture, and follow closely th directions given on the container. Crude oil emulsion (for spraying stock). Soap: « ¢ # «+ « & 3 oa oo we Re Re Oe ee eS @ a “Eb EPPO de a es de tie me ee ee a oe Ce ae) ae a ae Water .... ee ae 1 ga Dissolve the soap in hot water, and while still hot add the oil slowl and agitate into an emulsion by pumping the mixture back into itseli For use, dilute with water so as to secure a 20 or 30 per cen emulsion (see p. 430). Lice powder. Gasoline: ¢ 2 3 4 6 4% Bo ew a: ew wow a a Boparl Crude carbolic acid (90-95 per cent strength). . . . . . . . . I pari Mix these together, and then stir in enough plaster of Paris to tak up all the moisture. If properly made, a dry pinkish powder will b the result. If good crude carbolic acid of the proper strength canno be obtained, cresol may be substituted, but will not give quite as goo: results. Store in a closed can or jar. Cresol disinfecting soap. — Measure out 31 quarts of raw linsee oil in a four or five-gallon stone crock ; then weigh out in a dish pound 6 ounces of commercial lye or ‘“ Babbit’s potash.” Dis solve this lye in as little water as will completely dissolve it. Star with 3 pint of water, and if this will not dissolve all the lye, ack more water slowly. Let this stand for at least three hours until the lye is completely dissolved and the solution is cold ; then add the cok lye solution very slowly to the linseed oil, stirring constantly. No less than five minutes should be taken for the adding of this solution o lye to the oil. After the lye is added, continue the stirring until th: mixture is in the condition and has the texture of a smooth, homoge neous liquid soap. This ought not to take more than a half hour Then, while the soap is in this liquid state, and before it has a chance to harden, add with constant stirring, 83 quarts of commercis cresol. The cresol will blend perfectly with the soap solution an od INSECTICIDES FOR ANIMALS 437 make a clear, dark brown fluid. The resulting solution of cresol soap is then ready to use. This cresol soap will mix in any pro- portion with water and yield a clear solution. Use a 20 per cent solution for disinfecting chicken houses, incubators, etc. The kinds of parasites (Crosby). Following are the leading external parasites of cattle, horses, sheep and swine (for parasites of poultry, see page 377). Cattle. Ox BOT-FLY OR WARBLE-FLY (Hypoderma bovis and H. lineata). — Large lumps or warbles along the animal’s back filled with pus, within which a large, thick-bodied maggot develops. When full grown these maggots, about an inch in length, work their way out through the skin, fall to the earth, and there after a time transform to a large blackish fly with yellow markings. The flies glue their eggs to the hair of the host, usually around the heels and flanks. The eggs are licked off by the animal, hatch in the mouth or cesophagus, and the larva bores its way through the tissues until it comes to lie under the skin along thé back. The cattle have an instinctive dread of the flies, and are thrown into a panic by their presence. Badly infested animals lose flesh, and the flow of milk is greatly reduced ; the holes made in the skin also decrease the value of the hide. Treatment. — Squeeze out and crush the grubs and disinfect the sore. The practice of killing the grub under the skin by the application of grease or kerosene is more liable to cause an infection from the de- caying maggot and produce a serious sore. Horn-Fiy (Hematobia serrata). — Flies considerably smaller than the house-fly, which they closely resemble in shape and color. They at- tack cattle in great numbers, clustering on any part of the body and sucking blood. They have the peculiar habit of resting in dense clusters on the horns. The eggs are laid and the maggots develop in fresh droppings, and the transformation to the fly takes place in the ground. Treatment. — Spread out or mix with lime the manure as soon as de- posited, to prevent the development of the maggots. Let hogs run with the cattle; scatter the manure. Spray the animals with crude oil emulsion often enough to prevent attack, or apply train oil or a mixture of two parts of crude cottonseed oil and one pint of pine tar. The last two may be applied with a large brush, and remain 438 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS effective for four or five days. Where the flies have produced sores, treat, them with a weak solution of carbolic acid. On the range where large numbers of animals are to be treated, dip them in a dipping vat provided with a splash-board which will throw the spray down on the animal and kill most of the flies. Use any of the oily dips recommended for the Texas-fever tick. Carrie Lice (Hematopinus spp. and Trichodectes scalaris).— Cattle are especially liable to become infested with lice during the winter and early spring. They acquire a generally unthrifty look, and the flow of milk is greatly lessened. On young stock the injurious effects are more noticeable ; lousy calves are thin and do not make the proper growth. Treatment. — When the weather will permit, spray or wash infested animals with a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or the nicotine-and-sulfur sheep dip as used for sheep scab. SOUTHERN BUFFALO-GNAT (Simulium pecuarum).— A small black gnat or punkie occurring in the lower Mississippi Valley, where it causes immense loss to the live-stock interests. The larve are aquatic, and are able to develop only in swiftly running waters. The gnats appear in great swarms in early spring and attack cattle, mules, horses, sheep, and other animals in countless numbers. They feed by sucking the blood and at the same time inject a poison into the wound, causing great distress and producing an acute inflammation. Animals in poor condition from exposure or lack of food are frequently killed. Treatment. — Protect the animals by smudges producing a dense smoke, or keep them in dark stables until the swarms of gnats have disappeared. Working teams can be protected by using train-oil or the cotton-seed oil and tar mixture advised, under Horn-Fiy. To reduce the irritation caused by the bites, rub the animal thoroughly with water of ammonia and give internally a mixture of 40 to 50 grains of carbonate of ammonia in a pint of whiskey, and repeat the treatment every three or four hours until relieved. ScrEw-worm FLY (Chrysomyia macellaria). — Whitish maggots, three-fourths inch in length when full grown, infesting sores and wounds of animals in the Southern States. The eggs are laid on the wounds in masses of 100 or more by a bright, metallic green fly a little larger than the house-fly. The maggots enter the wound, feed on the putrid matter within, and as they increase in size burrow into the flesh, fre- CATTLE AND HORSE PARASITES 439 luently excavating a large cavity. The purulent discharge from uch sores attracts other flies to lay their eggs, more maggots enter he wound, and unless aid is rendered the animal dies. A slight scratch . r merely a mass of blood from a crushed tick may serve as a starting- ioint for the trouble. The flies also breed in decaying carcasses. Treatment. — Prevent the deposition of eggs by washing all wounds S$ soon as noticed with a disinfectant, and then apply a dressing of vine tar or tar and grease. When wounds are found infested, dislodge he maggots by injections of carbolic acid diluted with 30 parts of vater, or one of the coal-tar sheep dips may be used. After the maggots 1ave been removed and the sore thoroughly disinfected, dress the vound with a coating of pine tar. Deep sores should be packed with terilized absorbent cotton. By careful attention to the destruction of garbage, carcasses, and other ilth in which the maggots breed in enormous numbers, much loss may »e avoided. Carcasses left to decay exposed to the air about pastures wwe constant sources of danger. Horse. Horse sot-riy (Gastrophilus equi).— The light yellow ‘ges are glued to the hairs on the shoulders, forelegs, and under side of the body by a brownish fly about three-fourths inch in length. 3y licking these parts the egg-cap.is removed and young maggots taken nto the mouth. On reaching the stomach they attach themselves io the walls and remain there until the following spring. When abun- lant they may nearly cover the whole inner surface of the stomach, nterfere with the secretion of the digestive juices, and by collecting iear the pyloric opening prevent the natural passage of the food from he stomach. When mature they loosen their hold and are voided vith the excrement in late spring. These full-grown bots are tbout three-fourths inch in length ; they burrow into the ground vhere the pupal stage is passed. The flies emerge thirty or forty lays later. Treatment. — Remove the eggs within a week after they have been leposited by clipping the hair, or destroy them by washing with a solu- jon of carbolic acid in 30 parts of warm water. When only a few rots are present in the stomach, they do not seem to cause the animal neonvenience ; when very abundant, they may cause fretting and ‘olic, and the horse may loose flesh. In such cases consult a veteri- larian. 440 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS Sheep. SHEEP BOT-FLY or HEAD-MAGGoT ((stris ovis). — T dark brownish parent flies, somewhat larger than the house-fly, emer during Juneand July, and deposit living maggots in the nostrils of shee The animals have an instinctive fear of the flies, and are thrown in a panic by their attack. The maggots work their way up the nost1 and find lodgment in the frontal sinuses, where they feed on t mucus. Their presence causes great irritation and the discharge purulent matter. Sometimes the maggots penetrate into the bra cavity, and death may result. Treatment. — It is almost impossible to dislodge the maggots by t. injection of any substance, and such treatment is not advised. Nev try to extract them with a wire. To prevent the flies from depositii their young, smear the sheep’s nose with tar and grease. This is mc easily done by placing in the pasture logs in which holes have be bored. Salt is placed in the holes, and the edges smeared wi grease and tar. In trying to get the salt the sheep will keep their nos covered with the tar. SHEEP scaB (Psoroptes communis). — The cause of this disea is a minute mite which lives on the skin under a scab or crust and caus the wool to fall out in large irregular patches. The irritation caus intense itching, the sheep become restless, lose in weight and vitalit and in severe cases die. The disease is contagious and may be trar mitted either directly from animal to animal or by means of infest quarters, cars or pasture fields. Treatment. — Dip the infested or suspected animals in some reliak sheep dip at the temperature of about 100° Fahrenheit ; hold t sheep in the liquid two or three minutes, and immerse the head on or twice just before the sheep is released. Soften thick scabs befa dipping by wetting with some of the dip and by rubbing with a smoo stick, taking care not to draw blood. Repeat the dipping in ten da or two weeks to kill any mites which may have hatched from eggs sin the last treatment. After dipping do not return the sheep to the sar field in less than thirty days, to avoid reinfestation. When itisnecessa to return the sheep to the same barn or pen, these quarters should thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with cresol or some other coal-t dip, used at the rate of one part to 50 parts of water. The additi of whitewash to the disinfectant will serve as a marker and show wh the work has been thoroughly done. Avoid introducing the dises SHEEP AND SWINE PARASITES 441 by having all sheep brought from infested regions dipped before delivery. SHEEP Tick (Melophagus ovinus).— Reddish or gray brown, flat- tened, wingless flies that’ infest sheep of all ages, but are most in- jurious to lambs. They remain on the sheep throughout their whole life cycle. The young are nourished within the mother until full grown, and are ready to pupate when born. Treatment. — The nicotine-and-sulfur dip has given the best results in the control of this pest ; many of the commercial cresol and coal-tar creosote dips are also effective. The lime-and-sulfur dip will not kill the ticks. When only a few are to be treated, kerosene emulsion may be used as a spray and rubbed into the wool. Swine. Hoe Louse (Hamatopinus suis). — Lousy hogs are likely to be in a stunted, unthrifty condition, and when badly infested the skin becomes covered with scales and sores. Treatment. — Clean and whitewash the pens and sleeping quarters, adding 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to each 4 gallons of the white- wash. Spray or dip infested animals with 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or use the tobacco-and-sulfur sheep dip. Repeat the ap- plication in two weeks to kill any lice that may have escaped. A wallowing trough containing five to eight inches of water on which is floated a thin layer of crude oil is frequently used with success. CHAPTER XXIV Mitx anp Mixtx Propucts; Darry Farms DarryING comprises two occupations, — dairy husbandry, or the producing of milk ; and dairy industry, or the marketing and manufacturing of milk and milk products. This chapter is designed to compass chiefly some phases of the latter subject. Composition of Milk Composition of cow’s milk EXTENT OF VARIA- ConstirvENTs se ee TION N (ORMAL Per Cent Fat 4.0 2.5-8.0 Casein 2.6 2.0-3.5 Albumen . 0.7 0.6-0.9 Sugar . 5.0 4.0-6.0 ASE ~ ee wo ac RR ak 0.7 0.6-0.8 Water . . e oe ee e BEE ¢ 87.0 84.0-88.0 Fat in milk is in the form of minute globules having a diameter of rsso0 tO ze50 Of aninch. These float in the milk, forming an emulsion. When highly magnified, these fat globules may be easily seen. In any milk, many different sizes of globules are found, but the average size of globules in Jersey and Guernsey milk is much larger than the average size of globules in the milk given by other breeds. As the specific gravity of the fat is .93 and the specific gravity of the remainder of the milk is about 1.04, the fat globules always tend to rise. They are more or less entangled by other constituents of the milk, and great numbers of the smallest sized globules fail to reach the top, or the cream layer (Pearson). Milk-fat is a mixture of several different fats which are combinations 442 COMPOSITION OF MILK 443 of glycerine and fatty acids. The principal fats and their proportion in milk-fat are as follows: — Palmitia;. 994. we ae a a dA ako RS eR a ee gi a DIGI es es a ch) es ae. se fe ee ay gh @ aoe BA Myristin . ‘ BS oer nas fai cat. Ske Rea dey rexel Ol Butyrin . Se PY el i rss ee 18 A few others ‘vary from i to 3 ‘per cent ‘each, . Butyrin is the characteristic butter-fat, and is absent from butter substitutes, such as oleomargarine. The melting-point of milk-fat is about 92° F. (Pearson). Average composition of milk of various kinds (U. 8. Dept. Agric.) Carso- Fue Kino OF ly op_| TOTAL PROTEIN Far [#¥DRaTEs|Minerat|Vatue MILE Soups - - (Mix |Martrers} Per Casein [Albumin Total Suear) Pounp Per Cent| Per Cent|Per Cent| Per Cent |Per Cent|Per Cent| Per Cent | Per Cent |Calories Woman | 87.58 | 12.6 | 0.80 1.21 2.01 | 3.74 6.37 0.30 | 310 vow. .| 87.27 | 12.8 | 2.88 0.51 3.39 | 3.68 4.94 0.72 | 310 xoat .| 86.88 | 13.1 | 2.87 0.89 3.76 | 4.07 4.64 0.85 | 315 Sheep .| 83.57 | 16.4 | 4.17 0.98 5.15 | 6.18 4.73 0.96 | 410 3uffalo 82.16 | —— | 4.26 0.46 — | 7.51 4.77 O34 | —— (Indian) Zebu. .| 86.13 | — — — 3.03 | 4.80 5.84 0.70 — Yamel .| 87.13 | —— | 3.49 0.38 — | 2.87 5.39 O74 | a dlama .| 86.55 | —— | 3.00 0.90 — | 3.15 5.60 0.80 — teindeer | 67.20 | —— | 8.38 1.51 — 17.09 2.82 149 | — Aare .| 90.58 9.9 | 1.30 0.75 — 1.14 5.87 0.36 — \ss . .| 90.12 | 10.4 | 0.79 1.06 — 1.37 6.19 0.47 215° Average composition of typical cow’s milk (Conn. Sta.) Per Cent ToraL Soiips AUTHORITY Soups Fat | yor Fat oe ane Inglish (Richmond, 1906) » owe ca) 2270 a.fe 8.97: 29.37 A ene 1907) at verte ay eau], E264 3.71 8.93 29.35 (Richmond, 1908) x « « « »| 1269 3.75 8.94 29.56 (Vieth) oo. = «= # « » « « «| 12,90 4.10 8.80 31.78 vanadian (McGill) . . . . . . . «| 12.62 3.80 8.82 30.11 terman (Koenig) ... .. . . -| 12.83 3.69 9.14 28.76 terman (Fleischmann). . . .. . .| 12.25 3.40 8.85 27.25 Jutch (Fleischmann) ... . . =. «| 12.00 8.25 8.75 27.08 merican (Van Slyke) . . . . . - «{ 12.90 3.90 9.00 30.23 (Van Slyke, cheese factory). .| 12.60 3.75 8.85 29.76 (Voorhees, Ayrshire) . . . .| 12.70 3.68 9.02 29.05 (Voorhees, Guernsey). . . .| 14.48 5.02 9.46 34.66 (Voorhees, Holstein) . . . .| 12.12 BOL 8.61 28.96 (Voorhees, Jersey). . . . «| 14.84 4.78 9.56 33.33 (Voorhees, Shorthorn) . . .| 12.45 3.65 8.80 29.32 444 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS ; DAIRY FARMS The milk of different breeds. The analyses of large numbers of samples of milk given by differen breeds have been made by the New York Agricultural Experimen Station, and the averages of fat for the different breeds are : — Pe Holstein-Friesian . Ayrshire . Shorthorn Devon . Guernsey Jersey gr oT wm Go Co F Woman Composition of milk solids from six breeds of cows (Van Slyke) Brerep oF Cow Fat Casein | SuGcar AsH Piolsteita.«. o 9 « % % e « a « 4 28.0 27.4 39.1 5.93 American Holderness . . . . . . 28.1 26.8 39.7 5.53 Devon: «= » 3 2 #8 * = 4 . . {| 80.1 27.3 36.8 5.52 Ayrshire. . . oa a oe a oe 27.3 26.3 40.8 5.34 Guernsey e & C' & » & 35.1 24.7 35.0 5.16 Jersey 36.4 25.4 33.4 4,82 Ash in cow's milk and its products (Simon) Wiholewille: i 4 ee ee a em et eee ed tee ee a we OOF, Skim milk .. hie ok eo ee we ee ee ee © & « 007 Cream 4 5 4 ew OR eS Re we ee Ree we Se ew wo 2006 Buttermilk . 2 0. 0. 1 ee ee ee ee ew ww ww we 006 Whey. x @ ¢ % woe =: we 2a eS oe Se e 2 we x = =» 1000 Mineral constituents in milk (Abderhalden) PHos- aie Sovicm — Iron ee Foca teoe. | Aux Species us Parts per hundred Human. . . . | .066 | .190 | .047 | .0006 | .0385 | .004 | .025 | 0.20 Dog. . . . «| -L15 | .058 | .166 | 0014] 325 | .012 | .222 | 1.33 Swine .. . .{| .078 | .058 | .076 | .0028] .178 | .010 | .135 | 0.80 Sheep .. . . {| .810 | .064 | .130 | .0029]} .175 | .090 | .128 | 0.84 Goat. . . . . | .108 | .046 | .102 | 0025} .141 | .090 | .124 | 0.78 Cow... . . | .148 | .072 | .137 | .0015| .119 | .014 | .083 | 0.70 Horse . . . . | .087 | .010 | .031 | .0014] .089 | .008 | .057 | 0.40 Rabbit . . . . | .209 | .147 | .135 | .0014] .637 | .033 | .485 | 2.50 COMPOSITION OF MILK 445 7ariation in average composition of 574 samples of market butter samples collected each month for a period of one year (Illinois Experiment Station). , NuMBER PERCENT Monta Co.uectep SAMs Monta Water Fat Salt peaend March 2 2 © » = « 47 13.59 82.73 — — RTI Se. ae ont an! gs 49 12.94 83.34 — — May woe Ye 49 13.48 82.97 — — UNe€ 4 os s & sz 49 13.23 83.58 — — uly air gre Mh ie, eae © a 40 13.92 82.83 — — hugtish ss « % 2 « » 37 13.64 83.57 — — ‘eptember. . . . . 54 13.31 83.64 2.33 0.74 Yetober . . . . 49 14.05 82.73 2.36 0.85 Yovember. . .. . 50 13.31 83.53 2.34 0.82 Jecember. . . .. 41 13.35 83.56 2.09 0.94 ‘amuary ..... 53 14.16 82.59 2.25 0.99 ‘february . .... 56 13.54 83.29 2.14 1.04 kverage . .... — 13.54 83.20 2.25 0.90 Vutrients and energy in 1 pound of the water-free edible portion of several food materials in comparison with milk (United States Depart- ment of Agriculture). Carsouy-| MINERAL| Fue. Foop MarTsriALs PROTEIN Fat Spares | Marren | Vicud Pound Pound | Pound Pound | Calories Vhole milk . . ..... 0.25 0.31 0.39 0.05 2,475 kim milk (0.3 per cent fat) . 36 03 55 .06 1,835 tuttermilk . . .... =. 33 06 53 -08 1,845 WiGO8G . 2 & # © Se & YF 39 52 -03 -06 2,990 jeef, round . ..... =. 57 .40 —. .03 2,750 moked ham ae ier a -26 .66 —— .08 3,276 Vheat four . « - « «© «© # ahs 01 85 01 1,865 Vheat bread; . . . .. . 15 02 82 01 1,865 MOtatOeS ke ww 10 -01 85 .04 1,790 SOPleS: so: tee test se .03 03 92 .02 1,885 446 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS Average composition of milk products and other food (U. S. Dept. Agric. Pro- CarsBo- MATERIAL Rervuse| WATER TEIN Fat HY- AsH DRATES Per cent|Per cent|Per cent| Per cent|Per cent|Per cer Whole milk . 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 | 0.7 Skim milk — | 90.5 3.4 3 5.1 | 0.7 Cream. — | 74.0 2.5 | 18.5 4.5 | 0.5 Buttermilk . — | 91.0 3.0 5 4.8) 0.7 Whevic 3. se ed ke ws — | 93.0] 1.0 3 5.0 | 0.7 Condensed milk, unsweetened —_| 713 74 8.5 11.1 1.7 Condensed milk, sweetened — | 26.0 8.2 9.6 | 543] 1.9 Butter 4 wo we. & — | 13.0 1.0 | 83.0 | —— ]| 3.0 Cheese, American Cheddar —— | 33.5 | 26.0 | 35.5 15}; 3.5 Cheese, cottage $ —— | 53.0 | 19.6 | 23.2 2.1 21 Cheese, Swiss . . . . . . .| ——| 81.4 | 27.6 | 34.9 1.3 4.8 Milk powder (from skimmed milk) | —— 3.0 | 34.0 3.1 51.9 | 8.0 Kephir . ...... . .{ ——| 89.6 3.1 2.0 4.51 0.8 Koumiss. . . .... . ./ ——| 90.7 22 2.1 4.14 0.9 Infant and invalid foods, farina- 3 ceous . . . . . . ee] 9.4 9.4 0.4 | 79.93 3.9 Infant and invalid foods contain- ing milk and starches - 2. | — 4.3 9.6 3.8 80.24 2.1 Infant and invalid foods, malted preparations . . . . . .{ —— 4.2 | 12.0 1.0 79.85 3.0 Beef, sirloin steak a -| 12.8 | 54.0 | 16.5 | 16.1 | ——] 0.9 Eggs as purchased . . . . .| 11.2 | 65.5 | 11.9 9.3 | — | 09 Wheat flour, patent roller process | —— | 12.0 | 11.4 1.0 7.51 0.5 Wheat bread, white. . . . .| —— | 35.3 9.2 1.3 | 53.1 1.1 Beans, baked . . . . — | 68.9 6.9 2.5 19.6 | 2.1 Potatoes, as purchased 20.0 | 62.6 1.8 0.1 14.7 | 0.8 Apples, as purchased 25.0 | 63.3 03 0.3 10.8 | 0.3 1 Including 2.1 per cent alcohol and 0.8 per cent lactic acid. 2 Including 1.7 per cent alcohol and 0.9 per cent lactic acid. 3 Including 6.62 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). 4 Including 49.05 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). 5 Including 48.39 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). Milk, Butter, and Cheese Tests Babcock test for butter-fat (Pearson). A measured sample of milk is mixed with strong sulfuric acid, whick dissolves all of the milk constituents except the fat. The mixture o! milk and acid is then subjected to centrifugal force in a specially con- structed machine, by which the fat is separated from the heavy liquid, and, after the addition of water, the fat is brought into a part of the bottle where it can be quickly measured. The entire test can be made in fifteen to twenty minutes. MILK TESTS 447 In detail the test is made as follows: The milk to be sampled is thoroughly mixed by pouring it several times from one vessel to another. By means of a milk pipette, or measure, graduated to hold 17.6 cc., this quantity of milk is transferred to a special form of bottle, which has a capacity of a little more than one ounce and a long neck with graduations or per cent marks from 0 to 10. The cubic capacity of the neck, from 0 to 10, is exactly 2 cc. This is the volume of 1.8 grams of melted fat, which is the substance to be measured on the scale. As the bottle is so graduated that 1.8 grams represents 10 per cent, it is necessary to use a sample weighing ten times as much, or 18 grams, and it is found that the 17.6 cc. pipette will deliver approximately this weight of milk. There is then added 17.5 cc. of concentrated commercial sulfuric acid, having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83. The acid and milk are mixed by a rotary motion. The action of the acid on the water and solids of the milk generates considerable heat. The sample is promptly placed in a centrifugal machine and whirled for five minutes. Hot water is then added to bring the fat to the base of the neck. It is then whirled two minutes, and more hot water is carefully added until the fat rises in the neck so that it is opposite the graduations. The sample is then whirled one minute, to insure collecting as much fat as possible in the neck. While the fat is still warm, its percentage is ascertained by reading the marks at its upper and lower levels and taking the difference between them. The cost of a small complete outfit for testing milk is $6 to $10. Computing total solids of milk. Babeock and Richmond have proposed formule for computing the total solids of milk. One of the best is : — L +1.2 F+.14 = total solids. 4 L represents the second and third decimal figures of the specific gravity, or the Quevenne reading, and F represents the percentage of fat. This formula is used largely, and for practical purposes agrees closely enough with results of gravimetric analysis. Test for acid in milk (Pearson). It is not practicable to isolate lactic acid from milk and measure it as milk-fat is measured. But its quantity can be easily determined by 448 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS slowly adding to a known weight of milk an alkali of known strength until all the acid is neutralized. The neutralization is indicated by phenolphthalein, which was previously added to the milk and which causes the milk to turn pink as soon as it begins to show an alkaline reaction. It is customary (Mann’s test) to use deci-normal alkali solution, 1 cc. of which will neutralize .009 gram of lactic acid. The equipment includes, besides the neutralizer and phenolphthalein, a burette for measuring the neutralizer, cup and glass rod. If twenty grams of milk is used and it requires 6 cc. of alkali to neutralize the acid, it is known that the milk contains 6X .009 or .054 gram of lactic acid, or .27 per cent. Alkali tablets (Farrington’s), each capable of neutralizing .034 gram of acid, are on the market. They may be used in solution instead of the deci-normal solution. Test for boiled milk. It is sometimes desirable to determine whether milk has been sub- jected to 176° F. or higher heat. A successful test has been devised by Storch. To 5 cc. of the suspected milk add a few drops of potassium iodid and a similar quantity of starch solution, also a few drops of hydrogen peroxid. If the milk has not been cooked, an enzyme which is present will decompose the hydrogen peroxid, setting free oxygen. This combines with the potassium salt, and thus iodine is in turn set free and with the starch it forms a purple color. If the milk has been heated so that the enzyme is killed, no color will result. Another test for cooked milk is given by Arnold, as follows : Tincture of guaiac is added, drop by drop, to a little milk in a test-tube. If the milk has not been heated to 176° F., a blue zone is formed between the two fluids. If it has been heated, there is no reaction. The guaiac- wood tincture is said to be more reliable than other tinctures, and it should not be used when fresh, but when at least a few days old and its potency has been determined. The lactometer test for specific gravity in milk (Pearson). As the specific gravity of milk is markedly changed when it is adul- terated by the addition of water or the removal of cream, the lactometer is an important instrument to indicate such adulteration. It is of little use if both kinds of adulteration have been practiced on the same sample of milk, as the increase in weight due to removal of cream can be offset by the addition of water, which is lighter than MILK TESTS 4A9Q skimmed milk. In connection with the Babcock test, the lactometer is most valuable, and several formule are in use by which the solids not fat or the total solids of milk may be closely computed from the specific gravity and the fat test. The lactometer is a form of hydrometer adapted especially for use in milk. Several styles are in use, the Quevenne being the most con- venient because its readings indicate the specific gravity without the necessity of more than a simple mental calculation. The readings on the stem of the Quevenne lactometer are from 15 to 40, and they represent the second and third decimal figures of the specific gravity, the preceding figures always being 1.0 ; thus, a reading of 29 represents a specific gravity of 1.029. This instrument should be used in milk at a temperature of 60° F. If the temperature varies therefrom, a cor- rection of the reading must be made, .1 of a lactometer degree being added to the reading for each degree of temperature of the milk above 60° F. or if the temperature is below 60° F, .1 of a lactometer degree is subtracted from the reading for each degree of temperature of the milk below 60° F. Thus, if the lactometer reads 31 at a tem- perature of 65° F., the corrected reading for 60° F. would be 31.5, and the specific gravity of this milk at 60° F. would be 1.0310. Special tables for making corrections for different temperatures are published in books treating on the subject. By the rule given, it is not advis- able to attempt to correct for a variation of more than 10° from 60° F. Another style of lactometer in common use is known as the New York Board of Health lactometer. Its graduations are from 10 to 120. The instrument stands at 100 in milk having a specific gravity of 1.029, and it would stand at 0, if graduated to that point, in a fluid having a specific gravity of 1. Thus, 100° in the B of H lactometer equals 29° on the Quevenne lactometer, and it is a simple matter to compute the equivalent reading of one lactometer for any given reading on the other by the formula : — Q=.29 B of H, or Bof H=2 Test for boric acid or borax used as preservatives (Van Slyke). Add lime-water to 25 ce. of milk until the mixture is alkaline to phe- nalphthalein ; evaporate to dryness and burn to an ash in a small por- celain or platinum dish. Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid 2a 450 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS to the ash, care being taken not to use too much acid, then add a few drops of water, and place a strip of turmeric paper in this water solution. Dry the paper, and if either borax or boric acid is present, a cherry- red color will appear. This test is confirmed by moistening the red- dened paper with a drop of an alkali solution, when the paper will turn to a dark olive color, if borax or boric acid is present. Test for formaldehyde in milk. This test can be performed in connection with the Babcock test. Measure into the Babcock test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Add five or six drops of ferric chloride solution and shake thoroughly. Add 17.5 cc. of sulfuric acid, but do not mix the acid and milk. If formaldehyde is present, a lavender-colored ring will appear at the point of contact of the acid and milk. If the contents of the bottle are mixed slowly, the entire mass of curd will turn a lavender color. This test will not work if the sample is too old. Standardizing milk (Pearson). Standardized milk is that which has been changed in its composition to cause it to contain a required amount of fat. This is usually ac- complished by adding cream or skimmed milk. A convenient rule for determining the amount of ingredients to make a mixture testing a cer- tain per cent of fat, is as follows, supposing cream and milk are to be used (in most States it is unlawful to add skimmed milk): — Draw a rectangle, placing the per cent of fat in the cream at the upper left-hand corner, and the per cent of fat of the milk at the lower left- hand corner. Place the desired per cent of fat in the center. The dif- ference between the numbers in the center and at the lower left-hand corner should be written at the upper right-hand corner, and the dif- ference between the numbers in the center and at the upper left-hand corner should be written at the lower right-hand corner. These right- hand numbers represent the proportions of the substances represented at the corresponding left-hand corners, which must be mixed to produce a milk testing the desired amount of fat. Thus : To raise the fat test of a 3.8 per cent milk to 4 per cent by the use of cream testing 25 per cent, by completing the figure as explained, it will be seen that for every 21 pounds of 3.8 per cent milk there should be used .2 of 1 pound of 25 per cent cream. MILK TESTS 451 Butter moisture-test (Cornell test). The apparatus used in the Cornell moisture-test is an alcohol lamp, stand, asbestos sheet, “hot-pan lifter, aluminum cup for holding the sample, and a special moisture scale. The scale is especially adapted for moisture work, but may be used as a cream scale in operating the Babcock test. The scale has a tare weight for balancing the cup and a large and small weight for weighing the sample and obtaining the percentage of moisture. The beam has two rows of figures, which give readings with the larger weight. The lower row gives readings in grams and the upper row in percentages. The smaller weight gives readings in grams when the weight is moved from 1 forward. Each notch repre- sents .02 gram, the total value of the small scale being .2 gram. When the small weight is moved from 0 backward, each notch represents a loss of .1 per cent of moisture when 20.2 grams of butter are used. The small weight is intended to be used only in moisture work. In using the scale for Babcock work, the small weight is not used, but is left at rest on the figure 1. Then when the scales are balanced, the small weight is negligible. Care must be taken not to let any draft of air, as from an open window, strike the scales when in use, as they are so sensitive that a very slight current of air would throw them out of balance. The scales will give readings in percentages only when 20.2 grams of butter have been weighed, or, in other words, when the large weight is on 20 (of the gram scale) and the small weight is on zero. Thecup used is of cast aluminum, and is durable and perfectly smooth. The absence of creases or crevices allows it to be cleaned and dried thoroughly. Taking the sample. — It is necessary that a representative sample be taken for a moisture-test. If the butter is sold in tubs, the sample should be taken from the tub with a butter-trier, after the butter has been packed. It is best to take three drawings — one from near the edge, one from the middle, and one half-way between the edge and the middle. Some butter-makers test the butter as soon as it is worked. This is a mistake, since considerable moisture is lost in the process of printing and packing. 452 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS Operation of the test.— After the cup is thoroughly cleaned and dried, it is placed on the scales and balanced by means of the tare weight on the round bar attached to the beam of the scales. The large weight should rest on the zero mark (of the gram scale) and the small weight on 1 while the cup is being balanced. The cup should not be balanced until it is about the same temperature as that of the room. After the cup is balanced, the larger weight is moved to the 20 mark (of the gram scale) and the small weight to the zero mark. Butter from the prepared sample is then added to the cup until the scales are accurately balanced. The alcohol lamp is then placed under the iron stand and the asbestos sheet placed on the stand. The lamp is lighted and the cup placed on the asbestos sheet. It is well to light the lamp at least two or three minutes before placing the cup on the asbestos in order to heat the asbestos and save time. The heat of the flame may be in- creased or diminished by raising or lowering the wick. The cup should always be handled with the hot pan lifter, as by so doing it will be kept clean and errors in weight due to dirt on the cup will be avoided. While the sample is heating it should be shales: from time to time, as this breaks up the blanket of casein on the surface and hastens ie escape of moisture. As soon as the casein has lost its snow-white color, the cup should be removed from the flame. When the moisture has all been driven from the sample, a slightly pungent odor may be noticed. This may also be used as a guide to tell when the sample has been heated enough. The foam begins to subside at this point. Often one or two small pieces of casein are slow to give up their moisture. This is indicated by the snow-white color of the pieces. Evaporation can be hastened by shaking the sample with a rotary motion and thoroughly mixing these pieces with the hot liquid. If this is not done, one might have to heat the sample so long that some of the fat which had already given up its moisture would volatilize. After all the moisture is driven off, the sample is allowed to cool to room temperature. While cooling, the cup should be covered with something (a sheet of paper will do) to prevent the sample taking up moisture from the atmosphere. After cooling, the cup is placed on the scales. The sample is lighter than before heating, because it has lost its moisture. The bar of the scales will therefore remain down. The weights are then reversed until the scales just balance. MILK TESTS 453 Each notch that the larger weight is reversed has a value of 1 per cent (reading on the upper scale), and each notch that the smaller weight is reversed has a value of .1 per cent. If, for example, after heating, the scales just balance when the larger weight rests on 15 (upper scale) and the smaller weight rests on .2, it would mean that the sample contained 15.2 per cent moisture. Test for salt in butter (Ross). Weigh out accurately, from a well-mixed sample, 10 grams of butter. Add to the 10 grams of butter 100 cc. of hot water, and thoroughly mix the butter with the water. Then cool to harden the fat, and pour off into a clean dish the 100 cc. of water. Repeat this operation until 300 cc. of water has been used. Thoroughly mix the 300 cc. of water, and meas- ure out 17.5 cc. into a glass beaker or white cup, and add five or six drops of potassium chromate. This will turn the solution a lemon- yellow color. Run in from a burette an = normal solution of silver nitrate. Thoroughly mix the solution as the silver nitrate is added. When the solution turns to an orange-yellow color, enough silver ni- trate has been added to neutralize all of the salt. The number of cc. of silver nitrate solution added equals the per cent of salt in the butter. For example, if it requires 2 cc. of silver nitrate, there is 2 per cent of salt in the butter. If more or less than 10 grams of butter are used and more or less than 17.5 cc. of the solution are used for the test, the burette will not give readings directly in terms of per cent. Care should be taken not to run in too much silver nitrate. If too much silver nitrate is used, the color will be a dull brick-red, and incor- rect results will be obtained. An 7 normal solution of silver nitrate, which is accurate enough for the purpose, may be made by dissolv- ing 17.5 grams of silver nitrate in 200 cc. of water and then making the solution to 1000 cc. or 1 liter. Test for salt in cheese (Ross). Burn to a gray ash in a porcelain dish 5 grams of the cheese. Care should be taken to keep the contents in the center of the dish. If this is done, it will make it easier to reduce the cheese to an ash. 454 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS, DAIRY FARMS Cool and dissolve the ash in 20 ce. of pure, clean water. Transfer the 20 cc. of the ash solution to a glass beaker or a white cup. Add five or six drops of a water solution of potassium chromate. This will turn the solution a lemon-yellow color. Run in from a burette an a normal solution of silver nitrate. Thoroughly mix the solution as the silver nitrate is added. When the color of the solution turns to an orange-yellow, enough silver nitrate has been added to neutralize all the salt. Then multiply the number of cc. of silver nitrate used by 00585. Divide this result by 5, the number of grams of cheese taken, and multiply the quotient by 100. This is the per cent of salt in the cheese. Care should be taken not to run in too much silver nitrate. If too much silver nitrate is used, the color will be a dull brick-red, and in- correct results will be obtained. An = normal solution of silver nitrate, which is accurate enough for the purpose, may be made by dissolving 173 grams of silver nitrate in 200 cc. of water and then making the solution up to 1000 ce. or one liter. Over-run in butter-making (Pa. Sta. and U. 8. Dept. Agric.). Over-run in butter is the amount of water, casein, and salt incor- porated in the butter-fat in making butter. Creamery over-run, how- ever, should always be computed from the number of pounds of butter- fat received and the pounds of butter sold. The formula for calculating over-run in percentage is as follows : Pounds of butter made — pounds of butter-fat received x 100 pounds of butter-fat received = per cent over-run. In a whole-milk creamery it is possible to obtain from 18 to 20 per cent over-run and have only 14 to 143 per cent moisture in the butter, while in a creamery where hand separator cream is received, 20 to 22 per cent over-run can be obtained. This is shown by the following two examples : — MILK TESTS ABS Example : 10,000 pounds 4 per cent milk contains 400 pounds butter-fat. 10,000 pounds 4 per cent milk gives 1600 pounds 24+ per cent cream and 8400 pounds skim milk. 1,600 pounds of cream testing 24+ per cent contains 391.6 pounds butter-fat. 8400 pounds skim milk, loss (maximum) .1 per cent, is 8.4 pounds butter-fat. 1600 pounds cream less 391.6 pounds butter-fat, leaves 1208.4 pounds buttermilk. 1208.4 pounds buttermilk at .2 per cent loss is 2.4 pounds butter-fat, the loss in churning. 8.4 pounds butter-fat, loss in skim milk, and 2.4 pounds butter- fat, loss in buttermilk, gives 10.8 pounds butter-fat loss in both. 10.8 pounds butter-fat from 400 pounds butter-fat leaves 389.2 pounds of butter-fat to be churned into butter. If 389.2 pounds butter-fat is churned into butter containing 14 per cent water and 4 per cent salt and casein, it will make 474.6 pounds of butter. 474.6 pounds less 400 pounds gives 74.6 pounds of butter, which is the over-run. 74.6 pounds of butter times 100 makes 7460, divided by 400 gives 18.6 per cent over-run. Spoon-test for oleomargarin and renovated butter. Place in a tablespoon a piece of the sample, about the size of a hickory-nut. Hold the spoon over the flame until the sample is melted, and stir frequently while melting. Then lower the spoon into the flame. Oleo and renovated butter will boil with a loud crackling noise, and there will be almost no foam on the surface of the sample. Genuine butter will boil quietly and the surface will be covered with foam. ‘ The test for moisture in cheese (Ross). Obtain a representative sample of cheese as directed in the test for fat in cheese. Then in a flat-bottom dish at least three inches in diameter weigh out 3 grams of cheese. If no glass dish is at hand, a tea saucer 456 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS will answer the purpose. Heat the sample in a water oven at the tem- perature of boiling water for eight hours. Cool the dish, weigh and divide the loss in weight by the three grams of cheese taken. Multiply the quotient by 100. This quotient is the percentage of moisture in the cheese. Care should be taken to place the cheese in the dish in as thin a layer as possible. This will make it easier for the moisture of the cheese to escape. The Babcock test for fat in cheese (Ross). Secure a representative sample of the cheese. This is best done by means of a cheese trier, taking a plug from the center of the cheese one- half way between the center and the outside of the cheese and one very near the outside of the cheese. Using a knife, mince these three plugs as fine as possible and mix them thoroughly. After the sample is minced very fine and thoroughly mixed, weigh out on a set of cream. balances in a cream bottle 4 grams of the cheese. Add 5 cc. of warm water and shake thoroughly for one or two minutes. Then make the sample up to approximately 18 grams by the addition of water, and add 17.5 cc. sulfuric acid. After the acid is added, shake the sample thoroughly for from two to three minutes. The purpose of this shaking is to dissolve all of the cheese curd. If this is not done, the fat column will be cloudy. Then place the bottles in the machine and proceed with the test in the ordinary way. : Test for determining casein in milk (Van Slyke and Bosworth). A given amount of milk, diluted with water, is made neutral to phe- nolphthalein solution by addition of a solution of sodium hydroxid. The casein is then completely precipitated by addition of standardized acetic acid ; the volume of the mixture is made up to 200 cc. by ad- dition of water, thoroughly shaken, and then filtered. Into 100 cc. of the filtrate a standardized solution of sodium hydroxid is run until neutral to phenolphthalein. The solutions are so standardized that 1 ce. is equivalent to 1 per cent of casein when a definite amount of milk isused. The number of cubic centimeters of standard acid used, divided by 2, less the amount of standard alkali used in the last titration, gives the percentage of casein in the milk examined. When one uses 17.5 cc. (18 grams) of milk, the amount used in the Babcock milk- MILK TESTS 457 fat test, the standard acid and alkali solutions are made by dilut- ing 795 cc. of tenth-normal solutions to one liter. By using 22 cé. of milk, tenth-normal solutions can be used directly ; or by using 20 cc. of milk and tenth-normal solutions, adjustment is made by multiplying the final result by 1.0964. Wisconsin curd-test. This curd-test may be of use to creamerymen in detecting milk which is giving trouble on account of odors, taints, gas, and so forth. Sometimes the milk from a certain cow contaminates the milk of the entire herd. In such a case, the dairyman may find this test useful. Sterilize as near as possible by immersing in boiling water for 30 minutes as many pint glass fruit-jars as there are samples to be tested. Cool the jars at the same time, keeping them covered to prevent contamination. Then fill the jars two-thirds full of the milk to be examined. Set the jars in a tank of water, the temperature of which is about 100° F., and allow the milk to come as near as possible to the temperature of the water in the tank. The temperature of the milk may be taken with a thermometer that has been held for at least one minute in boiling water; the thermometer should be thus treated after taking the temperature of each sample to prevent car- rying contamination from one sample to another. When the temperature of the milk has reached about 95° F. to 98° F., add to each jar of milk about 10 drops of rennet and shake thor- oughly. The rennet will coagulate the milk in about 20 minutes, and the whey should then be poured off. The whey will separate more readily from the curd if the latter is broken up with a knife or other instrument which has been dipped for at least one minute in boiling water. As much of the whey as possible should be drawn off. The jars should then be set in the tank and kept at a temperature of about 100° F. for 6 to 8 hours. Examination of odor and condition of the curd may be made every 30 minutes. The condition of the curd may best be told by cutting it with a sharp knife and examin- ing the freshly cut surface for gas pockets. Great care should be exercised in the entire process to have every- thing which comes in contact with the milk as near sterile as pos- sible. 458 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS Propagation of Starter for Butter-making and Cheese-making (Guthrie) 1; Take three one-quart milk bottles or fruit jars. 2. Use fresh, clean milk (either whole milk or skimmed milk) which must have a nice flavor. 8. Fill the containers one-half to two-thirds full of milk. 4. Protect the containers with regular covers (caps or tops). 5. Pasteurize by heating to 180°-200° F. for thirty minutes or longer, and then cool to ripening temperature of 60°-75° F. 6. After pasteurization the milk is ready for inoculation. Inoculate in a quiet place where the wind cannot blow dirt and bacteria into this clean seed bed. 7. Incubate at about 60°-75° F. The first inoculation from the commercial culture should be incubated at about 70°- 85° F. 8. The starter is ripe when a curd forms. This curd should be soft and like custard in appearance. 9. After the starter is ripe, hold it at 50° F. or a few degrees lower until time to use. For best results a starter should not be held longer than a few hours. 10. Upon examination the curd should be smooth and compact, without gas pockets. Gas shows the presence of undesirable bacteria. Farm Butter-making (Trueman, Conn. Exp. Sta.) The farmer will not ask, is it more scientific to make butter than to sell milk, or is it less trouble, or does it take less time and work, but, does it pay? That question can best be answered by a comparison of the amount received for 1000 pounds of milk by each method. One thousand pounds of milk equals 465 quarts. At 33 cents per quart, its value is $16.27. The value of the same amount of milk made into butter will depend upon the richness of the milk. If it will test 4 per cent of fat, then the 1000 pounds will contain 40 pounds of fat. Under ordinary conditions this will make about 44.5 pounds of butter. This at 35 cents per pound is worth $15.57. Add to this the value of 800 pounds of skim milk and 150 pounds of buttermilk, a total of 950 pounds at 25 cents per hundredweight, equal to $2.37, a total of $17.94 for the 1000 pounds of milk when made into butter. This gives a balance of $1.67, in favor of making butter, to say nothing of the value FARM BUTTER-MAKING 459 of the fertilizer material in the skim milk and the profit in having healthy, rapid-growing calves. It will readily be seen that the side on which the profit will appear will depend wholly on the prices received for milk and butter. If the milk is sold at the farm at four cents per quart and the butter must be sold at 30 cents per pound, then the margin of profit would amount . to $2.88 per 1000 pounds of milk, in favor of selling by the quart, provided the milk tests 4 per cent as in the first case. If, however, the herd in question consisted of well-bred Jerseys, giving milk testing 5 per cent on the average, the result would be some- what different : 1000) Tbs Wks esis eases sda g aaa letras Bates a oes 465 quarts ABS QUATts Qe. oo cerewisss es eieeon marescane pense aie ee esereee $18.60 1000 Ib. milk testing 5% ...... 0... cece ee ee eee eee 50 Ib. fat SODA fats asaccccapanuiea By 4a kbaonbiueend eee wees 57 lbs. butter 57 lb. butter'@ 80¢. wesscccecseoeees vey eessa nas $17.10 950 lb. skim milk and buttermilk @ 25% per cwt. ...... 2.37 Totaly <.c.%sasnckee cea ues FGA a Oosawa han eae aes $19.47 This leaves a balance of 87 cents per 1000 pounds of milk, in favor of making butter. Bitter milk and cream. Milk may have an acrid, bitter taste, caused by the cows eating ragweed, an herb which is common in pastures late in the summer. Flavors produced by what the cows eat are most noticeable when the milk is first drawn from the udder, while flavors produced by the growth of bacteria get worse as the milk gets older. The only remedy for rag- weed flavor is to remove the cows from the pasture containing the weed. Bitter milk is sometimes given by cows that are advanced in their period of lactation and giving a small quantity of milk. Such cows should be dried up at once. Certain bacteria that develop at low temperatures may produce bitter flavors in the ripening cream. In this case the cream is all right when fresh but gradually develops the bitter flavor. This can be stopped by using plenty of steam or boiling water to sterilize thor- oughly all utensils, and by using a good active starter to hasten the development of lactic acid. The cream should not be allowed to get old and the temperature should be kept up to 70° F. or 75° F. during ripening. 460 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS Why butter will not “ come.” One of the most common complaints is that the butter will not come This generally happens in the fall in herds where the cows freshen in thi spring or early winter. When fall comes, these cows have been milk ing a long time and are not giving much milk. The character of th milk changes as the lactation period advances. The per cent of fa; and of solids-not-fat, increases. This makes the cream more viscous and more inclined to “whip,” or to froth up and fill the churn. Wher this happens, and the churn is full of frothy cream, about the onl; thing to do is to add hot water to warm up the fat and to destroy the viscosity of the cream. Such treatment will not make the best of but. ter, but is better than churning all day and finally becoming so dis. couraged that the whole churning is thrown out. This trouble may be avoided by using more starter, ripening at < higher temperature, say 75° F. to 80° F., and churning at a higher tem. perature, say 65° F. This again will not make the best of butter, but will enable one to handle successfully that kind of cream. Sometimes the butter will not come because the cream is too thin The fat globules are not crowded closely enough together in the milk serum to cause them to stick together when the cream is agitated Cream should contain over 20 per cent of fat in order to make it churr easily, and 30 per cent is better. Sweet cream does not churn as easily as sour cream. Souring tends to reduce viscosity and prevent whipping. Frequently the butter will not come because the cream is too cold The thermometer should be used, and if below 60° F. warm up by add. ing hot water, or by taking out some of the cream and warming it anc then returning it to the main lot in the churn. Unless the cream is already too thin, hot water, added carefully, will generally be founc satisfactory. Cream may become too cold from churning in a colc room, especially if a metal or crockery churn is used. Too thick cream will sometimes stick to the sides of the churn and the butter will not come from lack of concussion. Water or skim milk of the proper temperature may be added to reduce the thickness of the cream If the churn is too full, the proper amount of concussion is not pre duced and the butter fails to come. Take out part of the cream anc make two churnings. FARM BUTTER-MAKING 461 Old cream makes poor-flavored butter. Probably the most common cause of poor-flavored butter is cream that has grown stale before being churned. Fine, fresh-tasting butter, with delicate flavors and aroma, cannot be made from old cream. Three days should be the limit of age, if the best quality is to be produced. White specks in the butter. These are caused by dried cream, and by lumps of coagulated casein. The cream should be stirred frequently while ripening and always strained through a fine-mesh wire strainer, when put in the churn. Mottled butter. “Mottles”’ are caused by an uneven distribution of the salt. The action of the salt on the casein causes light streaks and spots to show all through the butter. The remedy is to wash well until the water is clear, and to work a little longer until the salt is evenly mixed with the butter. The proper point at which to stop working can be learned only by experience. Effect of feed on butter-fat. We have not much definite knowledge about the effect of feeds upon texture and flavor of butter. Strong-flavored feeds, such as turnips, garlic, cabbage, silage, etc., may be fed immediately after milking and they will then have little or no effect upon the flavor of the milk. Gluten feed, oil meal and soy beans are known to produce softer butter than corn meal and cotton-seed-meal, the latter being especially noted for the production of a hard, tallowy fat. Butter from Whey The quantity of butter that can be made from the whey from 100 pounds of milk is somewhat variable, depending on the amount of fat that is lost in the whey during the process of cheese-making. This loss depends on a great many conditions, but on the average about 5 ounces of butter can be made from the whey from 100 pounds of milk, 462 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS, DAIRY FARMS Milk, Butter, and Dairy-farm Scores Score-card for market milk (U.S. Dept. of Agric., Dairy Division) NUMERICAL SCORE Appearance of Perfect package and score, 10C€ Flavor, 40 | Composition, 25| Bacteria, 20 |Acidity, 5 contents, 10 Judge’s score. DESCRIPTIVE SCORE Flavor Composition Bacteria Acidity ee teen a Excellent . . .{| Perfect Perfect Perfect Perfect Good... . — Hate . . . .| Fat, — percent | Total,—— | —percent | Foreign matter a wi tat a —— — Flat . . . .| Solids not fat, —/ Liquefiers — —_ Metal parts Bitter . ‘ per cent — —— Weedy — —_—_ — Unattractive Garlic . — ak fo 159.01 295.26 | 295.26 Total cost of material in beri. - « « « «| $1045.66 | $1424.43 | $1634.57 Actual money saved. . ....... 378.77 588.91 Proportional cost . . . . . so ae 100% 186% 156% Wire Fence On the model form of woven-wire fence, the tensile strain figures to a very small degree. What the manufacturer aims to accomplish is to produce a hard wire without having this of spring-steel grade, so that it will stand more or less abuse and still not be so hard but that it can be spliced. Some types of fence are of rather weak construction, and for top and bottom wire high carbon steel is used to hold up the fabric. 478 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS . z 1 Acre : 1 Acre @ = Acre Requires =| cauares, Beauley Sh ea 2] 50 Rods 56 Rods — i 2 10 ft. of of " © Rods of 2 ‘ 2o Fence [3 Fence s Senge 2 12rods 1C1t. 9in 10 rods 8 rods 16 rods 22 rods 2 Acres 3 Acres Reauires |, 2| Reauires 88 Rods T2 rods of ° ~~ of Fence Fence 3 € ee N a nN 20 rods 4 Acres 25 rods 5 ft. Requires 104 Rods of F 5 ; eat i st 4 Acres 3 3 Requires 101 Rods fe o 3% feet of 3 Fence a wy nN Fic. 17.— Dimensions of 1, 2,3, and 4 acre lots, and fence required to enclose them. Dimensions given are exact, so that in buying fence, sufficient allow- ance should be made to cover fence taken up in wrapping around end and corner posts. WIRE FENCING 479 Gauges, sizes, and weights of plain wire DIAMETER OF Gavcn Tw toe GATE, Wear ON M=3,/ Peer ro Pounp 1 -2830 1128.0 4:681 2 -2625 970.4 5.441 3 -2437 836.4 6.313 4 .2253 714.8 7.386 5 -2070 603.4 8.750 6 «= & e e Bs -1920 519.2 10.17 ar oe ae .1770 441.2 11.97 :, ane ann oe aa -1620 369.6 14,29 De ee Hb ode a 8 -1483 309.7 17.05 og es wee eS -1350 256.7 20.57 NS sé. idol wy as Re .1205 204.5 25.82 Bes Gow Gee -1055 156.7 33.69 18 2 4 & & & & -0915 117.9 44.78 14 ar 0800 90.13 58.58 15 0720 73.01 72.32 16 0625 55.01 95.98 17 0540 41.07 128.6 18 0475 31.77 166.2 19 0410 23.60 223.0 20 0348 17.05 309.6 Barb-wire. In barb-wire fencing, it is reasonably safe to estimate that four- point cattle barb-wire (which means barbs approximately five inches apart) weighs about one pound to the rod ; and that four-point hog barb-wire (barbs about three inches apart), measures about thirteen feet to the pound. Galvanized coiled spring-steel wire. Coiled or wavy wire is employed in making fences in various forms, although it is not used to any great extent. It is so coiled that it will retain its springiness against all expansion and contrac- tion due to weather conditions. GavuGE FEET PER Pounp GavuGE Fret PER Pounp NG a 3 HS 11.00 No. 10 20.00 No. She ny a We wD 13.33 No. 11 24.61 Noo « «© » & « 16.70 No. 12 32.00 480 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 4 mile or 80 rods 40 reds e s 3 BoE oe & § ® Js < 4 313 © 2 : laa & 8 8 x e Se s 80Acres_ .|107d* 8 6 5 © Requires 1% milese| ¢ 4 mile or 80 rods : oc 480 rods of fence’f = | to enclose « Fy * Mo e ® 40 Acres ©& a © Requires 1 mile & 3 § 3 or 320 rods of § - A fence to enclose | f a =x RS (| 14 mile or 80 rods 4 mile or 80 rode “ K % mile or 180 rods & - © = wd e 3 E 2 ° ° © © a 160 Acres . 7 Requires 2 miles or 640 rods ° 4 of fence to enclose 3 aN w % mile or 160 rods Fia. 18.— Number of rods of fence required to enclose fields of different sizes, ROPES. TILE-—DRAINING Tensile Strengths of Ropes 481 Maniia Ropg 3 STRANDS, 36 1N. LONG Maniwa Rope 4 STRANDS, 36 IN. LONG Cast-sTezL Wire Ropn 6 STRANDS Circum- | Breakin Circum- | Breakin ircum- | No. of i ference load . ference load = moe mires 10 ape strand in. 1b. in. Ib. in. 1b. 1.625 1,750 2.825 4,250 1.062 6 6,285 2.25 3,680 3.375 6,050 1.375 19 11,850 2.375 4,750 3.75 7,700 1.563 19 12,590 2.812 5,400 4,25 11,140 1.595 19 19,500 3.188 6,800 4,825 14,020 1.780 19 19,150 3.625 7,635 5.375 16,550 1.938 19 21,510 4.375 8,980 3.188 7,700 4.75 11,870 3.125 7,630 5.125 15,100 2.562 2,850 3.033 4,930 4.188 11,650 Number of feet of drain tile required per acre when placed Tile-draining distances apart (Fippin) the specified 20 feet apart . ‘i ees + « « « 2180 feet 25 feet apart . ; a Ske 48 « © « « 1748 feet 30 feet apart . " ae a - » 1452 feet 40 feet apart . ‘ ea sm * 1090 feet 50 feet apart . ‘ . ae ap fer ae, be 872 feet 100 feet apart . » @ ae - '$ ‘ 436 feet 150 feet apart . ‘ a + + « « « 290 feet 200 feet apart . , ag Be - 2 « « « 218 feet Limit of size of drain tile to grade and length (Elliott) Minimum Limit oF Size or Titz in Incazs Cee LENGTH Freer In Freer 2 does PS ng : : .10 600 3 ete ee am a8 3 F .09 800 4 A eae hay Alo ew : . .05 1600 5 ee eis : .05 2000 6 Paes ly oc o 5 é 05 2500 Bo ge han eis nee 05 2800 Be cs a oe Rey ee 105 3000 Oe an he fam : 105 3500 10 ore eo : 04 4000 11 ie : ; 104 4500 122 = : (04 5300 482 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS These limits are based on perfectly laid tile, which is seldom achieved. The lay of the land, the nature of the earth, the occur- rence of rocks and trees and other obstructions, the necessity of making detours, and other conditions, all influence the theoretical limits of efficiency. Conditions that determine the size of the drains, particularly the mains (Elliott) :— 1. The depth of water to be removed in twenty-four hours over the area of the drainage system. 2. Rapidity with which the water is brought to the main, that is, the number, size, and fall of the laterals. 3. The existence of emergency surface drainage. 4, The texture and physical condition of the soil, that is, whether it is open and porous or dense and retentive. 5. The grade of the ditch. Number of acres from which 4 inch of water will be removed in 24 hours by outlet tile-drains of different diameters and different lengths with dif- ferent grades (adapted from Elliott) Grape In INcueEs PER 100 FEET 1 Suid: 2 3 6 9 ETER : Thee Lenets or Drain IN FEET Tren 1000 | 2000 |; 1000 | 2000|| 1000} 2000]; 1000} 2000 |} 1000 2000 Acres oF LAND DRAINED BY DirFERENT S1zE8 oF TILE 5 19.1) 15.7]| 22.1] 19.4]| 25.1] 22.7]/ 32.0] 30.3 37.7 36.3 6 29.9] 24.8]! 34.8) 30.5]|| 39.6] 35.9]| 50.5] 47.8 59.4 57.3 < 44.1) 36.4]! 31.1] 44.8]/ 58.0] 52.8]| 74.0] 70.1 87.1 84.1 8 61.4| 50.7|) 71.2} 62.6|/ 80.9] 73.6||/103.3| 98.0]} 121.4] 117.3 9 82.2| 68.1|/ 95.3] 83.8]/ 108.4] 89.6]| 138.1 | 131.3]] 162.6] 157.1 10 106.7 | 88.5 | 123.9 | 108.9 |] 140.6 | 128.1 || 179.2 | 170.5 || 211.1] 204.4 12 167.7 | 139.3 || 194.6 | 171.6 |] 221.1 | 201.8 || 281.8 | 268.6|| 331.8] 321.7 14 245.3 | 204.3 || 284.9 | 251.7 || 323.5 | 296.1 || 412.9 | 393.9 || 485.8] 472.1 16 341.4 | 284.6 || 369.3 | 350.4 || 449.9 | 412.2 || 573.7 | 548.8]| 675.2] 657.3 18 456.4 | 381.3 || 529.1 | 470.1 || 601.8 | 552.5 || 767.4 | 733.1 |) 902.3| 880.5 20 591.5 | 245.9 |) 686.3 | 610.5 || 780.0 | 718.2 || 994.5 | 954.6 || 1170.0 | 1144.0 TILE-DRAINING 483 Average list price per one thousand (1000) feet of drain tile quoted by dealers in New York (Fippin). Subject to large discounts DIAMETER OF TILE ae ets | DIAMETER oF TILE fit a 2 inches. . . . . $13.50 6inches . . . $62.00 243inches. . . . 16.50 8inches . . . , 95.00 3 inches. . . . , 21.00 10inches . . . 165.00 4 inches. . ..., 34.00 12inches . ... 230.00 5 inches. . . . , 44.00 Prices, weights, and average carload of tile (Wis. Sta.) PRICE PER 1000 au, INCLUDING 'REIGHT AT DIAMETER Ratza [PREVALL- Jee AVERAGE Car Loap Souruern Har oF WISCONSIN Inches Feet Rods 4 oe a 2 es $18.00 6 6500 390 DF cx Os, Cin 9 -aee hod SOP eat oa 26.00 8 5000 300 6. ie) Ges Take "Se. “yet GS da, Se Me 35.00 11 4000 240 Cx ® « o Boe 45.00 14 3000 180 Bs Te is te ea ow 60.00 18 2400 144 NOE sc aden acm 53 Racers ae bide Pe hoes tae 80.00 25 1600 96 12. ae ae ae a a 120.00 33 1000 60 TAS ele) yy Ss LO 185.00 43 800 48 De hs edt ah “ati tS a, dey Nyse | has a Ye 200.00 50 600 36 16. Ba clay ast “ease wath, Meee 225.00 53 500 30 VS ss ee | He Oe we 310.00 70 400 24 BO? ag se is ag ie a as | ee ne Wee 400.00 83 330 20 DOB Sin ar so at ae ize) fas dd AA ates 500.00 100 320 19 ek Re HS 550.00 112 300 18 Lhe igs = Fi ee las tah te tee key dg ad 800.00 150 240 15 OS ar, diss). ie Cant odes Seb ree ge AL eal 1000.00 192 160 10 Cost per rod of digging the trench, laying the tile, and blinding with four inches of earth (Wis. Sta.) Fret in DEepTa Size or Tite 3 4 | 5 6 Inches 4 PO ee Ss Boel) FORO $0.50 $0.80 $1.25 5 ode ws 135 ‘5 0.85 130 6 : ‘40 60 0.90 1.35 8 45 65 0.95 1:40 10 150 70 1.00 1.45 12 "55 75 1.05 1.50 484 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Drainage points (Fippin). 1. Surface or open ditches are: Of low efficiency, Wasteful of land, Expensive to maintain, Harbor weeds, Interfere with cultural operations. 2. Stone drains are: Not permanent, They have a small capacity, Therefore, are expensive. Ten good rules Use dense, hard-burned tile. Water enters through the joints. Round or hexagonal shapes are best. An even grade is essential. Avoid tile smaller than three inches on low grades. Hill land may need drainage. Ditching plows are very useful. Carefully construct and protect the outlet. Depth in heavy clay, two to three feet. Depth in loam and sandy loam, three to four feet. PF OAN OTP WN —_ Don’ts in land drainage (Jones, Wis. Sta.). 1. Don’t dodge the wet spots in cultivated fields. A few dol- ‘lars spent in drainage will make these spots yield valuable crops and will make the cultivation of the-whole field more convenient. 2. Don’t be content with raising marsh grass on muck and peat marshes. Drainage is the step that begins their adaptation to tame grasses and other farm crops. 3. Don’t condemn the muck and peat marshes on which timothy has died out once. Drain thoroughly and then apply barnyard ma- nure or commercial fertilizers, as is done on uplands. In other words, give the marshes a square deal. 4. Don’t wait for nature to drain the wet lands without assist- TILE-DRAINING 485 ance. Nature alone did not remove the stumps and stones from the wooded, stony lands. Neither does she irrigate the arid lands of the West without the aid of man. 5. Don’t let damaging water get on to land, if it can be pre- vented. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure in drainage. 6. Don’t think it takes a wizard to lay tile properly. Have a survey made sufficient in detail to show that there is sufficient fall. An intelligent use of this fall will then insure success. 7. Don’t install a part of a drainage system to which the re- mainder of the system cannot later be joined with advantage. 8. Don’t let the waste banks of ditches grow up to weeds. Get them sodded, and make them both valuable and attractive. 9. Don’t let outlet ditches remain idle when they should be working. Have surface ditches and tile to keep them busy. 10. Don’t spend a dollar for small ditches or tile on a marsh until an outlet is assured. 11. Don’t fail to give land drainage the attention and thought it deserves, “Our marshes and pot-holes are evils that tell : Where corn shocks are thickest the land is drained well, But justice to drainage demands first of all, That we should drain wisely, or not drain at all.” Road-drags Use of the King road-drag (Chase). ’ The use of the drag is more satisfactory if the road has first been crowned with a blade grader, but whenever this is not convenient and the traffic is not too heavy, the road may be gradually brought to a crown oy means of the drag (Fig. 19).. The surface of the average country road should be covered in one ound with the drag. One horse should be driven on the inside of the wheel track and the other on the outside, the drag being set, by means of the chain, so that it is running at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the wheel track and working the earth toward the center of the ‘oad. In the spring, when the roads are more likely to be rutty and oft it is generally better to go over the road twice and in some places nore times. 486 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS The drag should be floored with boards which are separated by open spaces of sufficient width so that the dirt which falls over, will rattle through, and yet they should be close enough so that the driver can move about upon the drag quite freely. To insure the successful operation of the drag, it is necessary for the driver to use careful judgment. Sometimes it is essential that the blade be held down so that the drag will cut roots and weeds, while at other times the front edge should not bear too heavily upon the surface, as it will dig out a soft place which would be better if left undisturbed. This regulation of the cutting edge can be accomplished by the driver moving back and forth or to the right and left on the drag. Vea : Se Fic. 19.— Road drag. It is faced part of the length on the front with a steel plate. If the road is to be crowned with the drag, it is often well to plow a light furrow along the sides and work this loosened dirt to the center. On roads with heavy traffic the drag should be used much oftener and with more care than on roads with light traffic. The distance from the drag at which the team is hitched affects the cutting. A long hitch permits the blade to cut deeper than a short hitch, likewise a heavy doubletree will cause the cutting edge to settle deeper than a light one. Strange as it may seem, the heavier the traffic over a properly dragged road the better the road becomes. When to use the drag. — There are very few periods of the year when the use of the drag does not benefit the road, but it does the best work ‘when the soil is moist and yet not too sticky. This is frequently within a half-day’s time after a rain. When the earth is in this state ROAD-DRAGS 487 it works the best, and the effects of working it are fully as beneficial as at any other time. The Nebraska soils, when mixed with water and thoroughly worked become remarkably tough and impervious to rain, and if compacted in this condition they become extremely hard. This action of the soil in becoming so hard and smooth not only helps to shed the water during a rain, but also greatly retards the for- mation of dust. What may be expected from the use of the drag. —It often takes a whole season for the road to become properly puddled and baked to withstand the rains and traffic. After a road has been worked with a drag only a short time, it is not well to expect it to stand up to heavy traffic during a continued damp spell without being affected. However, it will take far heavier traffic than most earth roads receive to more than scuff up the surface. It is not well to consider the benefits from a good road as solely con- fined to heavy traffic, for there is no doubt but that the time saved to light vehicles and the greater pleasure derived from their use over good roads far surpasses the economy in heavy hauling. While driving over a well-crowned-smooth road, the team does not have to follow the usual rut, no slacking has to be made for irregular- ities in the surface, and it matters not whether one or two horses are being driven. The split-log road-drag (D. W. King). Two mistakes are commonly made in constructing a split-log drag. The first lies in making it too heavy. It should be so light that one man can easily lift it (Fig. 20). The other mistake is in the use of squared timbers, instead of those with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is lost and the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the irregular- ities in the surface of the road. These mistakes are due partly to badly drawn illustrations and plans of drags which have occasionally appeared in newspapers, and partly to the erroneous idea that it is necessary that a large amount of earth shall be moved at one time. A dry red cedar log is the best material for a drag. Red elm and walnut when thoroughly dried are excellent, and box elder, soft maple, or even willow are preferable to oak, hickory, or ash. The log should be seven or eight feet long and from ten to twelve 488 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS inches in diameter, and carefully split down the middle. The heaviest and best slab should be selected for the front. At a point on this front slab 4 inches from the end that is to be at the middle of the road locate the center of the hole to receive a cross stake, and 22 inches from the other end of the front slab locate the center for another cross stake. The hole for the middle stake will lie on a line connecting and halfway between the other two. The back slab should now be placed in position behind the other. From the end which is to be y BY Fic. 20.— The split-log road-drag. at the middle of the road measure 20 inches for the center of the cross stake, and 6 inches from the other end locate the center of the outside stake. Find the center of the middle hole as before. When these holes are brought opposite each other, one end of the back slab will lie 16 inches nearer the center of the roadway than the front one, giving what is known as “‘set back.” The holes should be 2 inches in diameter. Care must be taken to hold the auger plumb in boring these holes in order that the stakes shall fit properly. The hole to re- ceive the forward end of the chain should be bored at the same time. The two slabs should be held 30 inches apart by the stakes. Straight-grained timber should be selected for the stakes, so that each stake shall fit snugly into the two-inch hole when the two slabs are in the proper position. The stakes should taper gradually: toward the ends. There should be no shoulder at the point where the stakes enter the slab. The stakes should be fastened in place by wedges only. When the stakes have been placed in position and tightly wedged, ROAD-DRAGS. WATER FIGURES 489 a brace two inches thick and four inches wide should be placed diagon- ally to them at the ditch end. The brace should be dropped on the front slab, so that its lower edge shall lie within an inch of the ground, while the other end should rest in the angle between the slab and the end stake. A strip of iron about 33 feet long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and 3 of an inch thick may be used for the blade. This should be attached to the front slab, so that it will be 3 inch below the lower edge of the slab at the ditch end, while the end of the iron toward the middle of the road should be flush with the edge of the slab. The bolts holding the blade in place should have flat heads, and the holes to receive them should be countersunk. If the face of the log stands plumb, it is well to wedge out the lower edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give it a set like the bit of a plane. A platform of inch boards held together by three cleats should be placed on the stakes between the slabs. These boards should be spaced at least an inch apart to allow any earth that may heap up and fall over the front slab to sift through upon the road again. Data on Water So 1 US. gallon = 231 cu. in. 1 US. gallon = 84 lb. uu. 1 cu. ft. water = 62.5 lb. 1 cu. ft. water = 7.48 gal. Feet-head of water, and equivalent pressure = 8 Pounps ies i ae Sa. Is. Feet-Heap is In. | Feat-Heap PER Sa. In. 1 A3 60 25.99 200 86.62 2 87 70 30.32 225 97.45 3 1.30 80 34.65 250 108.27 4 1.73 90 38.98 275 119.10 5 DAT 100 43.31 300 129.93 6 2.60 110 47.64 325 140.75 7 3.03 120 51.97 350 151.58 8 3.40 130 56.30 400 173.24 9 3.90 140 60.63 500 216.55 10 4.33 150 64.96 600 259.85 20 8.66 160 69.29 700 303.16 30 12.99 170 73.63 800 346.47 40 17.32 180 77.96 900 389.78 50 21.65 190 82.29 1000 , 433.09 490 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Pressure and equivalent feet-head of water Pounps Pounps Bs FeetHzap | ponSq. in. | FEETHEAD | pen Sq. in. | FEEt-Heap 1 2.31 40 92.36 170 392.52 2 4.62 50 115.45 180 415.61 3 6.93 60 138.54 190 438.90 4 9.24 70 161.63 200 461.78 5 11.54 80 184.72 225 519.51 6 13.85 90 207.81 250 577.24 7 16.16 100 230.90 275 643.03 8 18.47 110 253.98 300 692.69 9 20.78 120 277.07 325 750.41 10 23.09 125 288.62 350 808.13 15 34.63 130. 300.16 375 865.89 20 46.18 140 323.25 400 922.58 25 57.72 150 346.34 500 1154.48 30 69.27 160 369.43 1000 2308.00 Table of equivalents for moving water ’ 42-GALLON BARREL MINER'S eee IncHEs oF | Cusic FEET GALLons aay Gat. per| per Minute | per Hour MINUTE Bsis. PER| BBLS. PER Bsus. 24 Minute Hovr | Hovrs 10 1.11 1.3368 600 24 14.28 342.8 20 2.22 2.6733 1,200 48 28.57 685.7 25 2.66 3.342 1,500 59 35.71 857.0 27 3.0 3.609 1,620 -64 38.57 925.0 35 3.88 4.678 2,100 83 50.0 1,200.0 36 4.0 4.812 2,160 86 51.43 1,234.0 40 44 5.348 2,400 95 57.14 1,371.0 45 5.0 6.015 2,700 1.07 64.28 1,543.0 75 8.33 10.026 4,500 1.78 107.14 2,581.0 80 8.88 10.694 4,800 1.90 114.28 2,742.0 90 10.0 12.031 5,400 2.14 128.5 3,085.0 100 11.1 13.368 6,000 2.39 142.8 3,428.0 125 13.8 16.710 7,500 2.98 178.6 4,286.0 150 16.6 20.052 9,000 3.57 214.3 5,143.0 175 19.4 23.394 10,500 4.16 250.0 6,000.0 180 20.0 24.062 10,800 4.28 257.0 6,171.0 225 25.0 30.079 13,500 5.35 321.4 7,714.0 250 26.7 33.421 15,000 5.95 357.1 8,570.0 270 30.0 36.093 16,200 6.33 385.7 9,257.0 360 40.0 48.125 21,600 8.57 514.3 12,342.0 400 44.4 53.472 24,000 9.52 571.8 13,723.0 450 50.0 60.158 27,000 10.7 642.8 15, 428.0 WATER FIGURES 491 Table of equivalents for moving water — Continued . 42-GaLLON BaRREeL MINER’S GaBione oe or | Cusic Fest | Ga.ions MINUTE MincEE? PRE, -MINGTE | (run: Hous. Bais. PER | BBLS, PER Bsus. 24 MINUTE Hour Hours 500 55.5 66.842 30,000 11.9 714.3 17,143.0 540 60.0 72.186 32,400 12.8 771.3 18,512.0 600 66.0 80.208 36,000 14.3 857.1 20,570.0 630 70.0 84.218 37,800 15.0 900.0 21,600.0 675 75.0 90.234 40,500 16.0 964.0 23,143.0 720 80.0 96.25 43,200 17.0 1028.0 24,685.0 800 88.8 106.94 48,000 19.05 1142.0 27,387.0 900 100.0 120.31 54,000 21.43 1285.0 30,857.0 1000 qt auT 133.68 60,000 23.95 1428.0 34,284.0 1350 150.0 180.46 81,000 32.14 1928.0 46,085.0 1500 166.0 200.52 90,000 35.71 2142.0 51,427.0 1800 200.0 240.62 108,000 42.85 2571.0 57,713.0 2000 222.0 267.36. 120,000 47.64 2857.0 68,568.0 2500 266.0 334.21 150,000 59.52 3571.0 85,704.0 2700 300.0 360.93 162,000 63.33 3857.0 92,572.0 3000 333.0 401.04 180,000 71.48 4285.0 102,840.0 Foot-loss by friction of water through pipes, by gravity (Ogden) The spring or other source used for a water-supply would have to be as much higher than the highest fixture is as shown in the table, in order to provide the pressure required to overcome the friction in the pipe. The table shows the force required to keep the water moving through a small pipe, expressed in number of feet of head, when the water flows by its own weight and is not forced by a pump :— Heap 1n Fser .ost sy Friction 1n Eaca 100 Freer Fiow 1n GALLONS PER or LeneTu MINUTE 44-inch pipe 1-inch pipe 0.5 4 1.0 7 0.3 2.0 17 0.7 4.0 54 16 7.0 140 5.3 10.0 224 9.3 492 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Friction-loss in pounds of water in pipes Pounds pressure per square inch for each 100 feet of length in different size clean iron pipe, discharging given quantities water per minute. GaL- Sizes oF Pips —InsipE DIAMETER LONS PER Min- UTE 10 in, | 12 in, o 5 00 B lin. | lin. | 1din.| 2in. | Bin, | 4 in. in. i he mee Bb [|| Ltt LEIP TTT PLETE POD wy Oo Nabe DiS goin Co OPRNOW PWN SON SS Nae: COoOnowor@ 00 wWNre GNOMAMWN MOSS CROKE HONADORR CU CLOUN ANN ON PEOORANIN ANY & HORE LCE w ° So wpe SLO OLN Wi OOOO Oo UHbLORWRO@VOARNHS ON AGS RATNIRNOS MT LENT | i z PAU Ne OO OOO eo WNTOMMOWNWNRPREEHO NePMOOSS SSS SoSo ASONOBMAWNOOSOS DON OOH WR ONTO Odo esoooess WHER OSOO NO NRO NTOUG eseeo eooooo ONTO DO oss oO0 Hh OO oO le = Q > r eo B » 5 a = B oa na 5 x re 5 in. 10 in, | 12in. | 16 in. | 20 in, | 24 in. | 30 in 8 ip Oo a oO oS wONre PETE LITE tees noubs e SS Oe ORONO Wewo YNrSOSS DBNNOWOHN Oe NOr OS Ln) OO ROw rossssssoso NONPWRE RK COOCO WAOCONWWONOAAH o So @ LEE oe my TN Soo roo One & yerRo P< HELL SSe8855 @QaReRNHOW oCouoowmea OUne LITT LTE EE TTT PELTED EU Ma So nN N esse bo BS iN eos eoo WATER FIGURES 493 Friction-head in feet in clean wrought-iron pipe for each 100 feet of length when discharging various quantities of water from a windmill (Fuller) If the water is to be carried some distance fom the pump to a res- ervoir in the use of windmills in irrigation, then the pipe-line convey- ing the water to the reservoir will offer friction to the flow, and this friction expressed in feet should be added in determining the total head against which the pump must operate. FRICTION-HEAD IN PipE, WITH DIAMETER OF — Size or Pipe GaL- TO USE LONS FOR PER Eco- Mov) gin. | 1 in. | 14 in. [13 in,| 2in, [2g in,| 3in, [4 in,|5 in.|6 in,|7 in.|3in,} 20 | 12 | Nomr- Dis- TRIBU- TION Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet|Feet|Feet|Feet| Feet) Feet| Feet) Inches 5 7.60| 1.93] 0.71) 0.27] 0.07] — | — |—]|—|—|]—]—]—]—]| 15 10 29.95| 7.28] 2.42) 1.08) 0.28] 0.07} — |—|—}]—]—]—]—]|—]| 2.0 15 66.12! 16.08] 5.48] 2.23) 0.62) 0.14 — |—|—]—]—]—|]—]|—]| 2.0 20 |116.12| 28.33] 9.37] 3.82} 0.97] 0.30] 0.07} —|—|—|—]|—|—|]—] 2.0 25 |179.71| 43.77| 14.74] 6.03] 1.53] 0.48} 0.23} — | —|—]—|]—|—|—] 2.5 30 _ 63.36) 21.08] 8.64] 2.09] 0.69] 0.28)0.07/) —|—]—|—|—|—]| 2.5 35 _— 85.24| 28.56/11.63] 2.90] 0.96) 0.32/0.11] —|—]—]—|—|—]| 2.45 40 — |110.59] 37.09]15.02| 3.68] 1.17] 0.39/0.13] —|—]—]—|—|—] 3.0 45 _ — | 46.54/18.77] 4.63] 1.42] 0.62/0.16] —|— |—]—|— |—] 3.0 50 _ _ 57.37|23.04| 5.62] 1.86] 0.80/0.20]0.07) —|—|—|—|—] 3.0 75 _— — |129.25/51.61/12.25] 4.14] 1.70/0.48/0.13/0.07; — |—|—|—]| 4.0 100 _ = — |89.85|21.79| 7.37| 3.01/0.76|0.27/0.11] —|—]—]|—| 5.0 125 _ _ _ — |34.33|11.26] 4.58/1.17|0.39|0.16] — | —}|—|—| 5.0 150 _ _ eee — 1|48.84119.12] 6.56/1.58/0.57|0.23] — |0.05) — | — | 6.0 175 _— _- _ — 164.74/21.76| 8.87/2.18/0.7810.32|0.07/0.07| — | —]| 6.0 200 _ _ = — |186.40'28.73111.56!2.80!0.97,0.39|0.18/0.11/0.02| — | 6.0 250 _ —_ _— — | — [45.29]17.87|4.34]1.49]0.60|0.30/0.16/0.07|0.02| 7.0 300 _ _ _ — | — |64.65/25.80|6.12/2.13]0.85/0.41/0.20]0.09) — | 8.0 Suppose, it is desired to deliver 60 gallons of water per minute through a pipe-line 100 feet long. The table shows that a 3-inch line delivers 50 gallons per minute at a loss of 0.8 foot head, and a Ainch line 75 gallons per minute with 0.48-foot loss. The size desired is therefore between 3 and 4 inches, and as no intermediate size is made in wrought-iron pipe, the 4-inch pipe is best, and the total head to pump against would be 25 + 3+0.48, or a total of 28.48 feet. 494 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Barometric pressure at different altitudes, as affecting pumps With equivalent head of water and the vertical suction lift of pumps EQuivaLENT |_ PRAcTICcAL BAROMETRIC Heap or Suction Lirr ie PRESSURE WATER or Pumps Sealevel . 2... 2... og 14.70 33.95 25 ¢mile, 1320ft. ......2.. 14.02 32.38 24 zmile, 2,640ft. . ....... 13.33 30.79 22 fmile, 3,960ft. . ....... 12.66 29.24 ai 1 mile, 5,280ft. . ....... 12.02 27.76 20 ljmile, 6,600ft. . 2... .... 11.42 26.38 19 1} mile, 7,920ft. . . .... - 10.88 25.13 18 2 miles,10,560ft. . ....... 9.88 22.82 16 Windmill Figures Windmills for pumping (Rayner). Windmills vary in type and efficiency from a four-arm direct-con- nected paddle wheel, erected on a single post, to the modern curved blade, back-geared, steel windmill, erected on a scientifically con- structed steel tower. To select a proper-sized windmill for the purpose required, the speed of the wind in the particular locality should be considered. In the United States, this information can be readily secured from the nearest weather bureau station. When the average speed is above eight miles per hour, throughout the year, the following table may be fol- lowed safely :— 3 Lirr (ft.) 8-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . 8 -inch diameter pump, 40 8-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . 24-inch diameter pump, 70 10-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . 8 -inch diameter pump, 70 10-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . . 2%-inch diameter pump, 120 12-ft. diameter windmill . . +. . . . 8 -inch diameter pump, 100 12-ft. diameter windmill . . +. . . . 2%-inch diameter pump, 180 12-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . . 24-inch diameter pump, 200 12-ft. diameter windmill . . . . . . . . 2 «inch diameter pump, 300 When the average speed of the wind is less than given above, a pro- portionally larger diameter windmill should be chosen. In the lift that is required of the pump, the elevation above the ground to the top of the elevated tank or cistern should be added to the depth of the well. : *(Z9TIN,J) spunod ore uunjoo puey-74311 94} UT SOINsTT SOMPOCTIA FASIOPIP UT SPBOT WOIaYIp YIM ‘][tuIpurA 400}-F] Aq pedojeasp Jamod Moys 07 welseiq] — "TZ ‘ong <9] 7 ‘wim 7 3 \ o Vena FEV a WN N { 495 nds Figures at e Fic. 22.— Diagram to show speed of wheel of 14-foot WINDMILLS 497 Loading and speed of 14-foot power windmill when developing its maximum power (Fuller) Sprep or WHEEL— Horsi-PowER REVOLUTIONS PER MInvrEe Winp VELocity — Mites rer Hour Loap 1n Pounps PER STROKE 0-5 . 0.01 2.0 — 6-10 . 0.27 20.0 4.35 11-15 0.85 29.5 10.35 16-20 1.80 38.0 14.20 21-25 3.45 45.0 26.35 26-30 4.82 51.0 29.20 31-35 5.60 55.0 31.00 Sizes of circular reservoirs and estimated cost for various areas of land to be trrigated from windmills (Fuller) The following table gives the dimensions of circular reservoirs of different capacities ; the quantities of earth in the embankments, if these have inside slopes of three to one and outside slopes of one to one ; the areas which can be irrigated, provided the reservoir full of water is used once in ten days throughout five months and the land receives water to a depth of one foot ; the sizes of mills recommended, and the costs of reservoirs and mills. The lift assumed in choosing the mills is 14 feet : — p> : ia aj it 2 3 ~ + Le) gas 5 3 ~ 9s ‘Sy eae] 2m a 3 Jag Ayn! & ae | Ste) fae] eel Bel oe | 88 |e. gees] 8 S5s| Os) Bas | S28 [gse ss] ass ga 8 $49 [ga93| 8 asslse| #84 Bod sseBe| gam | ge8 | Foe |8oSe) oe 5|o8| 234 | 284 |SE¢| 2 Bs 323 | £38 |e8e Sse| Ae | Aas | des S23] 23 SES | 288 | dda ida) 22 0.07} 4 | 21.30] 45.30/19 | 3 | 212.00] 1 8-foot | $2120] $81 | 1 0.16] 4 |3496| 58.96| 19 | 3 | 281.52| 1 Sfoot | 2815| 88 | 2 0.24| 4 |45.62| 69.62] 19 | 3 | 336.25| 110-foot | 33.62] 113 | 3 032| 4 |54.61| 78.61| 19 | 3 | 381.88| 110-foot | 3818] 119 | 4 040| 4 |62.27| 86.27| 19 | 3 | 422.46 | 112foot | 42.24 | 202 | 5 049| 5 |5858| 88.58| 24 | 4 | 684.71 | 2 10-foot | 6847] 228] 6 0356/5 | 63.64 | 93.64] 24 | 4 | 725.80] 2 12-foot | 72.58| 392 | 7 0'63| 5 |69.00| 99.00| 24 | 4 | 747.75 | 312-foot | 74.77| 550 | 8 0721 5 174.37 |104.37| 24 | 4 | 813.51 | 3 12-foot | 81.35] 561 | 9 0'80| 5 | 79:36 |109.36| 24 | 4 | 854.16 | 3 12-foot | 85.41 | 565 | 10 1 Not including well. 2K 498 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Average cost of windmills of different sizes, and areas irrigated by them in Colorado (Fuller) NuMBER OF MILLS Size or Mitts AVERAGE Cost AVERAGE AREA Se age lam S8,. ee Aah ee 8 $102 0.7 12 Ge AB eS 10 198 1.8 o 2 ¢ ~ ele & 12 195 2.4 Be gece 1a. oe me 14 265 3.8 2 bo x a 4s 16 188 3.6 Machinery and Motors Rules for widths of belting = diameter of either driving or driven pulley in inches. n = number of revolutions per minute of pulley considered. = width in inches of single leather belting or of 4-ply canvas or 4-ply rubber belting. : w, = width in inches of 5-ply canvas or of 5-ply rubber belting. Ws = wie in inches of double leather belting or 6-ply canvas or 6-ply rubber elting. H.P. = Horse-power to be transmitted by belt. Rule: —w, = 3000 P: dn ws = 4 wy , Wy, = fo Wy. Rules for determining size and speed of pulleys or gears The driving pulley is called the Driver, and the driven pulley the Driven. To determine the diameter of Driver, the diameter of the Driven and its revolutions, and also revolutions of Driver, being given. Diam. of Driven X revolutions of Driven Revolutions of Driver To determine the diameter of Driven, the revolutions of the Driven and diam- eter and revolutions of the Driver being given. Diam. of Driver X revolutions of Driver Revolutions of Driven To determine the revolutions of the Driver, the diameter and revolutions of the Driven and diameter of the Driver being given. Diam. of Driven X revolutions of Driven Diameter of Driver To determine the revolutions of the Driven, the diameter and revolutions of the Driver, and diameter of the Driven being given. ; Diam. of Driver X revolutions of Driver Diameter of Driven , If the number of teeth in gears is used instead of diameter, in these calcula- tions, number of teeth must be substituted wherever diameter occurs. = Diam. of Driver. = Diam. of Driven. = Rev. of Driver. = Rev. of Driven. 499 PUMP FIGURES OFO'ZE | 00G"LZ | O8F' FZ | O9L'TS | OFO'GT | OZE'OT | OOO'ET | OFS'ST} OS'OT | O9T'S | 0089 | OFFS | OS2'S | OOT'FIE 06 8ZF'9S | FZO'SS | T28'6T | GIO'LT | OTP'ST | FIZ'ET | STOTT | O16'6 | 6088 209°9 | 90S°S | FOF'H | OSS | OLF'PSS 8st 288°0G | SOF'ZT | S99'ST | P26'ET | PST'ST | EFF'OT | £028 | ZES'L | 7969 Ios | IGF | 18'S | OPLT | B90'LOS oT O9E'ST | OOE'ST | OLL°ET | OFZ ST | OTL'OT | 84T'6 | OS9'L | S889 | OZI'9 O6S'F | Sase | O90'E | O&G'T | STLOLT ST O9T'8 | 0089 | OZI'D | OFFS | 09Z°F | O8O'F | OOF'E | O90'S | 0227s OF0'S | OOLT | O9ET | 089°0 | OFS'8L OT BPEL | ETO | ESS | 80O6F | S6ZF | I89'E | 890'S | 19L'S | FHS OFT | FEST | Laat | E190 | 28802 “6 609°9 | 809°S | LEO'S | 9OFF | OS8E | GOEE | HSL | 6LE'S | COGS sot | LZ4E1T | IOTT | TSs°0 | ZT9°E9 6 LbZ9 | 9089 | G8NF | POT | PPO'E | ESTE | CONS | SHES | 780% I9G'T | TOSI |; TFO'T | OZS'O | SET‘09 YS FOSS | GIG | OSH | 6O6E | SEFE | LEGS | OSHS | OTS | FOE'T SL¥1T | Seat | 6860 | 16%'0 | SFL9g “EB G2t'G | GSE | LIGE | SKE | 9FPOE | TI9S | 9LT'S | SGOT | THAT 90eT | 880°L | 0280 | sero | 99z°0S 8 006% | F80'F | SZOE | LIVE | 8E9S | OSFS | THOS | LEST | EEOT G2o'T | 1Z0'L | 2180 | 80FO | ELTLP YL O6S'F | SZ | EPFE | O9D'E | 829% | S6AS | CIGT | TeLT | O8S'T StIT | 996°0 | $920 | S880 | GLI FF “AL 866'E | ZEEE | 666% | 999% | ZEES | 666 T | 9O9T | G6F'T | EET 6660 | €€8°0 | 999'0 | E80 | S8F'SE L 9IZ€ | 860° | 882% | 6LZFS | 89T'S | SSSI | 6FST | FEET | GEST 6¢6'0 | S220 | 619°0 | 6080 | SBZ'cEe %9 LbPE | E1486 | 689% | 860 | TIOS | 962T | OEFT | 61 | 6FTT 198'0 | 81Z°0 | P2490 | 2820 | ESTEE Ko O8ST's | 999% | O68 | POTS | GEST | €69T | Sse | S6T'T | Z90'T 2620 | ¥99°0 | T8S°O | 9920 | 089°0€ “9 S64 | StFS | 07S | 8S6T | PIZT | 69FT | Fact | SOIT | 626°0 bEL'0 | ZI9'O | 68FO | ShZ':0 | F22'8z 9 969'% | 8h2S | GOS | SEL T | ELST | SET | FSTT | TIOT | 668°0 ¥l9°0 | Z99°0 | 6PF'O | S$az0 | L96°S% YG sore | 220°C | ISST | 9FDT | OFFT | FEST | GOT | 9260 | €28'0 Z19'0 | PISO | TTPO | 9040 | BSL'ee us 87S | FLAVT | O89T | 66FT | ITE LT | FETT | L860 | €48°0 | 0S2°0 @9¢'0 | 69F'0 | SLEO0 | L8T'O | 8bO TS AG OF0'S | OOL'T | O&ST | O9ET | OGT'T | OZO'T | OS8'O | ¢9ZL°0 | 089°0 OIS'O | SZF'O | OFE'O | OLT'O | SE9'6T g TPS T | PEST | OSET | ZEGT | €LO'T | 0260 | 492Z°0 | 069'0 | F190 ooF'0 | F8E°0 | LOE'O | ESTO | 1ZL LT Mer eSOT | ZLET | GEST | ZOI'T | $96°0 | 980 | 689'0 | 6190 | TSg°0 e€IP'O | FFEO | S2z'0 | 8ET'O | FO6ST “Pp €LVT | 88eT | SOT'T | 2860 | 0980 | 4€Z°0 | FI9'O | ESG°0 | T6F'O 89¢'0 | L080 | 9FZ'0 | ESTO | 98T'FT Ay 90€'T | S80°T | 6260 | 0280 | 2920 | 8S9°0 | FESO | 06F0 | SEO 9€8'0- | 22°0 | 8TZ'0 | GOTO | 9992 wid ZbI'T | 9960 | T98°0 | $92°0 | 699'0 | $Z9°0 | SZF'O | O€F'0 | 7880 248z°0 | 6€2°0 | T61°0 | $60°0 | SPO'TT yee 666'0 | €€8°0 | O¢Z°0 | 999°0 | €8S'°0 | 66F'O | LIPO | SLE0 | FEeO 620 | 800 | LZ9T'O | e800 | 1296 Ke 2980 | 8120 | 2690 | SZg°0 | €0S'0 | TEFO | 6Sk'0 | EsE'0 | 2820 STa'0 | 6ZT°0 | FFT'O | G20°0 | 9648 AS FELO | 2190 | ISSO | 68FO | 8ahO | 2980 | 9080 | $Zz70 | SFsO P8TO | EST'O | SaT‘O | 190°0 | 690°L & 2Z19°0 | #1S°0 | €9F'O | ITFO | O90 | 6080 | ZSz°O | TEs'0 | 9020 ¥STO | 6Z1'0 | SOTO | TS0'0 | OF6'S Ke OIS'O | Szb'O | E80 | OFEO | 8620 | SSzO | €1Z'O | T61°O | OZT'O 8210 | 90T°O | S800 | &FO'O | 606'F Zz €lr'O | PFEO | GOFO | SLzZO | ThZ'O | 9020 | SZT'0 | STO | 8ET'O €0T'0 | 980°0 | 690°0 | FEO'O | 926° AZ 9280 | G4Z°0 | SbsO | 8IZ'0 | O6T'O | SOTO | 9ET'O | GaI'0 | GOTO G80'0 | 890°0 | #S0°0 | 220°0 | ZFT's » & 6%2'0 | 8020 | 2810 | OLT'O | 9FT'O | SZT'O | FOTO | ¥60°0 | £80°0 €90'0 | Z90°0 | ZF0'0 | Tz0'0 | SOS Al P8TO | ESTO | SET‘O | Z2I'O | ZOT'O | Z60°0 | 420°0 | 690°0 | T90°0 | 9F0'0 | 8800 | TE0°O | STOO | 2Z92°T At 2210 | 9010 | 960°0 | $80°0 | ¥20°0 | ¥90'0 | €S0°0 | 8F0'0 | EFO'O | ZEO'O | 220'0 | Tz0°0 | T10°0 | Zeer =| At Z80°0 | 890°0 | 190°0 | ¥S0°O | 8F0°0 | I#0'0 | FE0'O | TE0'O | 2Z0°0 | 0200 | ZTO‘O | FTOO | 200°0 | $8Z'°0 T Z90'0 | Z90'0 | 2#0°0 | Zt0'O | 9€0°O | TEO;O | 9Z0'0 | EZ0'O | TZ0°O | 9I0'O | EI0'O | OTO'O | $00°0 | T09°0 %, 9600 | 8800 | FE0'O | TE0'O | 4Z0°0 | €20°O | 6100 | ZT0°0 | STO'O | TI0O | O10'O | 800°0 | F000 | ZbF'0 % ZE0'0 | 2Z0'0 | #200 | T20°O | 610°O | 9T0°O | €10°0 | ZI0‘O | TI0'O | 800°0 | 200°0 | S000 | £00°0 | 208°0 bs 0z0°0 | 210°0 | S100 | FI0'O | Z10°O | OTO'O | 6000 | 800°0 | 2400°0 | 000 | F000 | £00°0 | 2000 | 96T'0 % joarey,y, Seg [BUTINaq 10 suO]]¥H Ul eyoIG Jad AyoedeD © “SN SSHONT | 75 ve | oz | st | or | wr | et | or | 6 | 8 | 9 | ¢ | & | @ | auvoog} “BO ‘VEXV | eRviq SAHON] NI FHOULG AO HLDNAT aseyeo] pue dijs 10} epeul oq ysnu soueMOl[Y —sdwnd uojsid fo hyvavdv9 paynynajv9 fo 9190 J, 500 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Table of power required to operate high-grade triplex pumps The estimates given in the table are made with a liberal allowance of power, The power for other capacities and heights is, approximately, in proportion to that tabulated. By ‘‘ head” is meant the vertical distance from surface of water supply to point of delivery. One foot head is equivalent to .43 pound pressure. The head is increased by the friction of the water in pipes and elbows. ’ General service pumps 50 Feet |100 Freer | 150 Freer | 250 Fseer | 350 Freer DUMETER AND ere Haan OR Hea oes OR aan OR aanae OR ioe eiBap OUNDS| OUNDS OUNDS, OUNDS OUNDB Pump PER MINUTE|Darssure |PRESSURE |PRESSURE | PRESSURE | PRESSURE ( in. gal. h. p. h. p. h. p. h. p. h. p. 14%xX 2 1.8 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 134% xX 2% 4.2 0.50 0.50 0.65 0.85 112 2 x38 6.0 0.50 0.50 0.70 1.05 1.33 24K 4 12.0 0.60 1.0 1.36 1.85 2.33 3 x 4 18.0 0.75 1.1 1.6 2.5 3.15 84x 4 25.0 0.83 1.3 1.8 2.7 3.25 4 x4 32.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 4 xX 6 50.0 1.9 2.5 3.1 4.8 6.25 6 xX 6 75.0 2.0 3.5 4.0 6.25 8.75 a 5 xX 8 90.0 2.5 4.0 5.0 ° 7.5 10.5 S| 5%X 8 | 1100 3.0 45 | 6.0 9.7 | 125 < 6 x 8 132.0 3.6 4.5 7.0 11.0 15.5 3 6 x10 154.0 4.05 6.0 8.0 12.75 17.8 2! 6% x 8 | 153.0 4.25 6.0 | 8.0 12:75 | 178 nD 7 xX 8 180.0 5.0 7.0 9.5 15.0 21.0 7 X10 209.0 5.25 7.8 10.75 17.25 23.33 8 xX 8 234.0 5.85 9.0 12.0 19.5 25.5 8 X10 273.0 7.0 10.5 15.0 22.75 30.0 8 «12 312.0 $8.25 12.0 17.0 26.0 34.0 9 X10 344.0 8.50 13.0 18.0 28.0 387.5 10 x10 428.0 10.6 16.2 22.5 35.0 46.8 Il 10 516.0 12.7 19.5 27.0 42.0 56.2 12 X10 617.0 15.3 23.4 32.4 50.4 67.5 l 84 X 12 352.0 &.5 14.0 19.0 28.0 38.0 9 x12 396.0 9.5 15.6 21.3 31.3 42.5 4 xX 6 94.0 2.4 3.9 5.2 7.5 10.1 44 xX 8 140.0 3.5 5.9 7.8 11,2 15.2 5 xX 8 175.0 4.4 1 9.75 14.0 19.0 bs 5% xX 8 211.0 5.3 8.8 11.7 17.0 22.8 3 6 xX 8 252.0 5.75 10.2 13.5 20.0 27.0 < 6144X 8 297.0 6.75 12.0 16.0 23.5 31.7 2 7 xX 8 346.0 8.5 13.0 18.0 28.0 | 37.0 a 7 X10 411.0 9.35 15.7 21.5 32.5 44.0 A 8 «10 533.0 12.0 20.0 28.5 42.0 58.0 8 x12 612.0 14.0 24.0 33.0 50.0 68.0 844 X 12 684.0 15.7 26.5 36.7 55.0 75.0 9 X12 776.0 18.0 29.8 40.0 62.0 84.0 10 X12 952.0 21.6 36.6 50.0 76.0 103.0 PUMP AND SHAFTING FIGURES 501 Table of theoretical horse-power required to raise water to different heights glppanes should be made for friction; for ordinary pumps, in tal e allow twice the power given 5 | 10 006 |0.012 012 |0.025 -019 |0.037 -025 |0.050 031 |0.062 037 |0.075 043 |0.087 -050 |0.100 -056 |0.112 062 |0.125 075 |0.150 -093 |0.187 -112 |0.225 125 |0.250 156 |0.312 -187 |0.375 -219 |0.437 -250 |0.500 +312 |0.625 375 |0.750 437 0.875 -500 |1.000 +625 |1.250 20 25 30 45 | 60 75 | 100 125 150 175 350 | 400 Horse-power of steel shafting For line-shaft service REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE _ e ° 125 - a ° 175 200 225 250 o 2 oe COOhWNHERe SABSHSORSO ML COMDTWOUNWONWH 113.9 | 1 DOSY OR tS Bo TS Co Grice ROONURDOOARWE DORON e OIMAwwwee PESO OOO es Or Oreo OPPRAROWROHRBN ONaPWHe He OOO CORE A ALS Go or fo ATA oo WOuwwyye SEIN O.00 O CO. DNDOUoORONO 750.3 | 847.5 1126.0 |1280.0; ONO mw H POD PDN OO nr DONHHARON DOhWNRH OD SAD S o RONRDONOH 107.3 964.7 |1071.9 1440.0 /1600.0 NTouUb be SRONOOWN 101. 810.0 1029.0 1286.0 1920.0 OONOrnw 3] 118.2] 135.0 2240.0 |2560.0 502 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS Electric appliances on the farm. Many electrically-operated machines and devices are now on the market. The list is being added to rapidly. The following tabulation will give some idea of the development along these lines, aside from electric lighting and house wiring : — Device Horse-power Required Cream separator . . . . . 1 ee ee ew ew ew we ee ee HHO 4 Milking machine si Sie eee OR A Le a ae au ea ee (AOS Grindstone . « «© 2» 4s # & * Goonies Ke“ ieee a ae oa os DG Bottleswasher <4 2 4 2 6 4 A eo eo we eo ee al aw Water-pump ... . . ee ee we ew ew ew we ew ew ee he) 66 0 10 Shredder .. «© 4 4 «© «2 « © 4% @ ob 4 ee gow -s 4 @ -« 10015 Silage-grinder . 2. 2. 1 ee ee ee ee ww ee ee 610 to 20 Weed-prindey” 20203 4 # & & © @ 8 4 2 8 a oe ee - 5told Threshing ... oe a ee ea R Boe ee eo eo Toe Wood-saw oc: “ap @ g).4s. gb oe lea ae ae ae ae we TR MOL BS Gorn-shell@r is, x ee ve er fae Tey tes pe a ee a eh ee a ee a A to Hay-press. 2 ee Oe 8 ee ee ee we ee LA H0825 Refrigerating . . . ....... ne ee we oe we oe BB TOS The motor power of a stream (Rose). The power of a stream may be calculated by the following formula : P = Avwh, in which A is the number of cubic feet of water falling in one second of time, w is the weight of a cubic foot of water, and h is the head or height through which the water falls. To reduce this to horse- Awhe power the formula should read: H.P. = , in which e represents the efficiency, in percentage, of the type of wheel to be used. The effi- ciencies of the various types of water-motors run about as follows : — Per Cent Undershot water-wheels . . 2. 2. 1. 1 1 1 ee ee ee 35 Poucelet-wheelsi 2. 5 8k ee a ee 60 Breast: wheels:. i) de. ieee we eS 55 High breast wheels . . . . 1 1 we ee ee ee 60 Overshot wheels . . . . .. ot a dee Sat aah dao! aR Mae Sapheneae 5 68 ‘Peltom-wheels: «sow = 2 if & & Se & 6 @ & 3 we 2 8 «@ 75 Turbines. . . bk ee OR! aa a Sad) ey Laas Ge yd: 2 BOERO Water-pressure engines Baa eho A se 1S = Qa oat acts Mecha Ge OS tae ay soy 80 Rams... . $8 ¢ 8 we «ee wo we eS we ee ee 60 These values are only approximate, and may vary either way sev- eral per cent. RAMS AND ENGINES Hydraulic rams (Ogden). 503 The following table gives data as to size, capacity, and cost of hy- draulic rams : — FLow or Ww. Size SPRING Drive |DiscHaras Puuren Cost oF PER Min. PER MIN. Ram gal. gal. No. 2. 1 2 3 q $6.00 No. 4. 5 ly 4 1 8.00 No. 6. 20 24 1 3 15.00 No. 10. 50 4 2 7 35.00 This table is based on the assumption that the length of discharge pipe is not over 100 feet, and that the head against which the ram works is not over five times as great as the fall of the stream. The drive pipe should always be made as short as the conditions will permit. In winter the ram may be kept from freezing by housing it and pro- viding a small coal fire for the coldest weather. Hot-air engines (Ogden). The following table gives data of sizes, capacities, fuel cost, of the hot-air engines commonly used : — DIAMETER Sizz oF Furu Consumption PER Hour Capacity or CYLINDER Pre |———— in GAL. Cosr Gas cu. ft. | Keros’e qt.| Coal lb, inch Bes 3 13 q 2 150 $100 6. 1 16 a 3 300 140 8. 14 20 1 4 500 175 lo. 13 50 2 5 1000 250 CHAPTER XXVI Mason Worx. Cements, Paints, GLUES AND WAXES Any material that sets or hardens when dry is a cement ; and under this general name may therefore be included glues and materials used for mending or sticking together broken articles. As commonly used, however, the word cement now refers to building or construction material, used by masons. The formulas here given are largely for home-made compounds, and many of them are old-fashioned. Building or Mason’s Cement; Gravel, and Pitch Two kinds of building cement comprise the common construction grades in this country, — natural-rock cement (Rosendale), and port- land cement. The former is made from limestone containing much clay; the material is burned at a low heat, and is then ground. It is a quick-setting cement. The portland cement (named from Port- land Island on the south of England) is an artificial mixture of some form of carbonate of lime, with some clay, burnt at white heat and then ground. The natural-rock cements are light-colored, and weigh from fifty to sixty pounds to the cubic foot. The portland cement is dark-colored, and weighs from ninety to one hundred pounds to the cubic foot; it is one-half to twice stronger than natural-rock cements. Approximate estimates of mason-work. Three and one-half barrels of lime are required to cover 100 square yards plastering, two coats. Two barrels of lime will cover 100 square yards plastering, one coat. One and one-half bushels of hair are needed for 100 square yards plastering. One and one-fourth yards good sand are required for 100 square yards plastering. ‘ 504 CEMENT FOR BUILDING 505 One-third barrel of plaster (stucco) will hard-finish 100 square yards plastering. One barrel of best lime will lay 1000 bricks. Two barrels of lime will lay one cord rubble-stone. One-half barrel of lime will lay one perch rubble-stone ( 13 3 10 12 7 20 15 12 2 86 11 6 60 13 75 11 2 62 10 6 12 50 10 2 38 9 5 40 11 25 9 2 14 8 4 80 10 8 1 91 r 4 20 8 75 7 1 67 6 3 60 7 50 6 1 43 5 3 6 25 5 1 19 4 2 40 5 4 95 3 1 80 3 75 3 71 2 1 20 2 50 2 48 1 814 1 2 15 1 70 40 1 7 96 2 1 60 38 i 60 1 25 1 24 934 48 1 80 19 9 45 94 75 18 8 40 83 66 16 7 35 73 58 14 6 30 62 50 12 5 25 52 41 10 4 20 42 33 8 3 15 31 25 6 2 10 21 16 4- 1 5 10 8 2 Legal rates of interest Lescaut Rate Rate ALLOWED BY ; Per Cent Contract. Per CENT Alabama 8 8 Arizona 6 As agreed Arkansas 6 10 California . 7 As agreed Colorado 8 As agreed Connecticut 6 6 Delaware... . 6 6 District of Columbia 6 10 Florida. . ... 8 10 INTEREST TABLE Legal rates of interest — Continued 525 Leaat Rate Per Cent Rate ALLOWED BY Contract. Per Cent Georgia. . Idaho Illinois . Indiana . Iowa. . Kansas. . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine... . “Maryland... Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota . - Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska . Nevada. . . . New Hampshire . New Jersey .. New Mexico . . New York. . . North Carolina . North Dakota Ohio. . . . Oklahoma . Oregon. .. . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee . Texas .=« « + Utah «= 2 « « Vermont ‘ Virginia Washington West Virginia. Wisconsin . Wyoming . Canada British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario . Quebec Scotland England HR OUD OTD OUD OT 0D DDD DAWA ANN AAA IANA RA ARMATNTNWOWRAAMAMARMAMNBMHMBOAT 10 As agreed! As agreed 7 10 10 8 As agreed 10 As agreed As agreed 8 12 6 10 12 6 6 12 6 10 12 As agreed As agreed As agreed 7 or 10 As agreed As agreed As agreed As agreed 1 Maine, 15 per cent by contract unless stipulated. 2 New York, on collateral loans of $5000 and upward, any rate agreed. 526 COMPUTATION TABLES Wage-Tables Day wages (10-hr. day) — Continued on opposite page Fractions oF A Day atT— 75¢ $1.00 $1.25 $1.50 $1.75 $ 2.00 $2.50 $3.00 ‘Tre ADAY | Apay | ADAY | a Day | A pDay | A Day | A DAY | A DAY % hour | .032 05 064 07} 083 10 123 15 De 073 10 -12} 15 17} -20 25 .30 2hours|] .15 20 25 30 35 40 50 -60 3 -223 30 374 45 523 60 75 -90 4% 30 40 -50 -60 -70 -80 1.00 1.20 5 374 -50 -625 15 873 1.00 1.25 1.50 6 45 60 75 -90 1.05 1.20 1.50 1.80 Wee 523 70 873 1.05 1.225 1.40 1.75 2.10 Bi -60 80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 2.00 2.40 eae 673 -90 1.123 1.35 1.57} 1.80 2.25 2.70 Month wages (26 days) When men are employed by the year ata monthly wage, it is customary to calculate by calendar months, whether they contain 25 or 27 working days. Tue | $15 | $18 | $20 | $22 | $24 | $25 | $27 | $30 | $35 | $40 MO. MO. MO. MO. MO. MO. MO. MO, MO. MO. 1 day 58! .69/ .77) .85| 92] .96] 1.04] 1.15] 1.35] 1.54 2days | 1.15] 1.38/ 1.54] 1.69] 1.85) 1.92] 2.08] 2.31] 2.69] 3.08 3 “ | 1.73] 2.08] 2.31] 2.54} 2.70| 2.88] 3.12] 3.46] 4.04] 4.62 4 “ | 2.31) 2.77] 3.08] 3.38] 3.69] 3.85) 4.15] 4.62) 5.38} 6.16 5 “ | 289] 3.46] 3.85] 4.23] 4.62) 4.81] 5.19] 5.78] 6.73] 7.70 6 ‘ | 3.46] 4.15) 4.62) 5.08] 5.54] 5.77| 6.23] 6.92] 8.08] 9.24 7 “ | 4.04) 4.85] 5.38] 5.92] 6.46] 6.73| 7.27] 8.08] 9.42] 10.76 8 “ | 4.62] 5.54) 6.15] 6.77] 7.38] 7.69] 8.31] 9.24] 10.77 | 12.30 9 “ | 5.19} 6.23] 6.92] 7.61] 8.31] 8.65] 9.35 | 10.38 | 12.11 | 13.84 10 * | 5.77) 6.92) 7.69) 8.46] 9.23] 9.62 | 10.38 | 11.54 | 13.46 | 15.38 11 “ | 6.35] 7.62] 8.46] 9.31 | 10.15 | 10.58 | 11.42 | 12.70 | 14.81 | 16.92 12“ | 6.92) 8.31] 9.23] 10.15 | 11.08 | 11.54 | 12.46 | 13.84 | 16.15 | 18.46 13 “| 7.50| 9.00 | 10.00 | 11.00 | 13.00 | 12.50 | 13.50 | 15.00 | 17.50 | 20.00 14 | 8.08] 9.69 | 10.77 | 11.85 | 13.92 | 13.46 | 14.54 | 16.16 | 18.85 | 21.54 15‘ | 8.65 | 10.38 | 11.54 | 12.69 | 14.85 | 14.42 | 15.58 | 17.30 | 20.19 | 23.08 16‘ | 9,23 | 11.08 | 12.31 | 13.54 | 14.77 | 15.38 | 16.62 | 18.46 | 21.54 | 24.62 17 | 9.81 | 11.77 | 13.08 | 14.38 | 15.69 | 16.35 | 17.65 | 19.62 | 22.88 | 26.16 18 | 10.38 | 12.46 | 13.85 | 15.23 | 16.62 | 17.31 | 18.69 | 20.76 | 24.23 | 27.70 19 “| 10.96 | 13.15 | 14.62 | 16.08 | 17.54 | 18.27 | 19.73 | 21.92 | 25.58 | 29.24 20 “| 11.54 | 13.85 | 15.38 | 16.92 | 18.46 | 19.23 | 20.77 | 23.08 | 26.92 | 30.76 21‘ | 12.11 | 14.54 | 16.15 | 17.77 | 19.38 | 20.19 | 21.81 | 24.22 | 28.97 | 32.30 22 "| 12.69 | 15.23 | 16.92 | 18.61 | 20.31 | 21.15 | 22.85 | 25.38 | 29.61 | 33.84 23 | 13.27 | 15.92 | 17.69 | 19.46 | 21.23 | 22.12 | 23.88 | 26.54 | 30.96 | 35.38 24 “| 18.85 | 16.62 | 18.46 | 20.31 | 22.15 | 23.08 | 24.92 | 27.70 | 32.31 | 36.92 25 “| 14.42 | 17.31 | 19.23 | 21.15 | 23.08 | 24.04 | 25.96 | 28.85 | 33.65 | 38.46 THERMOMETERS 527 Wuoter Days at— Tue | 75¢ | $1.25 | $1.50 | $1.75 $2.00 $2.50 | $3,00 A DAY A DAY A DAY A DAY A DAY A DAY A DAY 2days| 1.50 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00 6.00 3% | 2.25 3.75 4.50 5.25 6.00 7.50 9.00 4 “ | 3.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 5 | 3.75 6.25 7.50 8.75 | 10.00 12.50 | 15.00 6 “ | 450 | °7.50 9.00 | 10.50 | 12.00 15.00 18.00 a 5.25 8.75 | 10.50 | 12.25 | 14.00 17.50 | 21.00 8 ‘ ] 6.00 | 10.00 | 12.00°] 14.00 | 16.00 20.00 | 24.00 9 “ | 6.75 | 11.25 | 13.50 | 15.75 | 18.00 22.50 | 27.00 11“ | 8.25 | 13.75 | 16.50 | 19.25 | 22.09 27.50 | 33.00 12 “ | 9.00 | 15.00 | 18.00 | 21.00 | 24.00 30.00 | 36.00 13 “ | 9,75 | 16.25 | 19.50 | 22.75 | 26.00 32.50 | 39.00 14 “ | 10.50 | 17.50 | 21.00 | 24.50 | 28.00 35.00 | 42.00 Thermometer Scales Fahrenheit. —The freezing-point is taken as the thirty-second degree of the scale, and 180 degrees are made between that and the boiling- point, which therefore becomes 212°. The zero of Fahrenheit was sup- posed to represent the absolute zero, or lowest possible temperature. Centigrade or Celsius. — The freezing-point of water is taken as zero, and boiling-point as 100°. Reaumur. — The freezing-point of water is taken as zero, the boiling- point as 80°. A degree Centigrade is therefore greater than a degree of Fahrenheit as 9 is greater than 5; and a degree of Reaumur is greater, as 9 is greater than 4. ° To reduce Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade, subtract 32 from the given degree of Fahrenheit, and multiply the remainder by 5 and divide it by 9; (F. degrees — 32). To reduce Centigrade to Fahr- enheit, multiply the given degree of Centigrade by 9 and divide the product by 5, then to the quotient add 32: (% ©. +32). To reduce Fahrenheit to Reaumur, subtract 32 from the given degree of Fahrenheit and multiply the remainder by 4 and divide by 9: (F.°-82)5. To reduce Reaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply the given degree of Reau- mur by 9 and divide by 4, then add 32: (4 R° + 32). To reduce Reaumur to Centigrade, multiply by 2. 528 COMPUTATION TABLES Miscellaneous Measures, Weights, and Estimates Measures and dimensions of many kinds faninch . . . . . . + + + + «© + « « = aline (American). ae ona a ee “kee Ge aR RE te a line (French). 268.8 cubic inches. dry gallon . . i 277.274 cubic inches. An imperial gallon (British standard) . . ic i An imperial or English bushel . . . . . . . . = 2218.192 cubic inches. ‘U.S. bushel . . . 2. ww we ee . = 2150.42 cubic inches. A U.S. bushel heaped (heaped toa cone 6incheshigh) = 2747.7 cubic inches. 1 pint of water weighs 1.0431 pounds. 1 gallon of water weighs 8.3448 pounds. 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.425 pounds at 39.2° F. 1 stone is ee Oh a oe 14 pounds, 3inches . ee ee eo s =a palm, 4inches . . . = a hand. Qinches. . , + . =a span. 18inches. . . = a cubit. 24% feet... ‘ = a military pace. 3 (or 3.3) feet . es < & oe ae . = @ pace. GiLeCts ic ee ss se sak eee OE - = 1 fathom. 240 yards ... a Noa: Si Pacsaery anttoikeY see de = 1 cable’s length. 12 of any article . = 1 dozen. 12 dozen a . = 1 gross. 20 of any article . 2. 2. 1. 1 ew eye ee = 1 score. a A wine gallon (U.S. standard) . . gg es = 231 cubic inches, An English (statute) mile is . 7 + . . 1760 yards. “A Scotch mile is oe 4 : : . . 1984 yards. Anlrish mileis . . . . + ~ . . 2249 yards, ADutchmileis . ....... . . 8101 yards, ARomanmileis. . .... ae . » « 1628 yards. AGerman mileis . . cd Ghose | Aw . 6859 yards. A Russian mile is oh Sone we we ee ge ge DOO yards; An Arabian mileis . . . . .. 1 2... ss | «62148 yards. A sea (nautical) mile is see ee we ww). 62026 yards (13 mi.). A knot is the traveling speed of aship, reckoned by making 1 sea-mile in 1 hour. 1 tael (Chinese) is Ok Rr 8 a ane ae 3 - 1402. avoir. 1 Danish poundis .... . Se et + «+ « 1.102 Ib. avoir. 1 Russian poundis . . . . . se 6 « w « « 9 Tb. avoirs 1 libra (Spanish) is Ci NM SY RE oye 4 - 1.014 Ib. avoir. 100 pounds nails . . . Batty sa oe ew & 2 & = Tkeg. 196 pounds flour. . i oe Se a - = 1 barrel. 150 pounds potatoes . ......4.+. - . = 1 barrel of frejght, -280 poundsealt . . sos ee « © & » « = 1 barrel woe eee ee = 1 barrel. 200 pounds beef, fish, or pork . is 45 drops of water is a teaspoonful. 1 teaspoonful equals 1 fluid dram, 1 dessertspoonful equals 2 teaspoonfuls, or 2 drams. 1 tablespoonful equals 2 dessertspoonfuls, or 4 teaspoonfuls. 2 tablespoonfuls equal 8 teaspoonfuls, or 1 fluid ounce. 1 common-size wineglassful equals 2 ounces, or ¥ gill. 1 common-size tumbler holds 4 pint. A small tea-cup is estimated to hold 4 fluid ounces, or 1 gill. 1 pound of wheat is equal to about 1 pint. 1 pound and 2 ounces of Indian meal is equal to 1 quart. 1 pound of soft butter is equal to about 1 pint. 1 pound of sugar is equal to about 1 pint. A pet of pure water is about a pound. A barleycorn is 3 inch. An ell is usually 45 inches. A point (in type) is 7; inch. A circle is 3.1415 times the length of its diameter (the ratio being known as pi). FRUIT FIGURES 529 Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel The following varieties, just from the trees in October, gave the following weights for a heaped bushel (Michigan) : — Baldwin. . . 2... . . 50] Fallawater 2. . . . 2... 2 w . 48 Belmont . ae ae eee . . 50 | Golden Russet ye a dt a a 3H. ADS Ben Davis. 3 + + + + 47 | Lawyer Bo wae Qe a oe AT Bunker Hill. . ies . . ». 49 | Nickajack . noe 3 os % SL Cabashae . « « . « . 57] NorthernSpy .. . en Mees Shee AB Esopus Spitzenburgh — ar - . 44] Pennock . . . eS ee tae Seren NET Rambo. » + + « « « 50] Swaar. . eo es we se & OL Rhode Island Greening . . . « 's 52 | Sweet Bough re ae eee ee es |!) Roxbury Teuspst ae ‘ . . « 50] Talman Sweet . 3 ce et ee ES Rubicon . . Sew . 46 | Tompkins King . ....... 44 Stark 2. ke ee . » . 56 | Yellow Bellefleur oe ee ae a ae oxy 48 Dried fruit and cider A bushel of average apples gives from 6 to 74 pounds of evap- orated product. Seven pounds to the bushel is a good average. PRODUCT OF DRIED RASPBERRIES (W. J. Green) Ohio . . ... .. 9 ‘Ibtothebu.| Ada . .... . . 8% lb. to the bu. Gregg. “ - . 844 lb. tothe bu. | Tyler. . . . . . . 8% |b. to the bu. Hillborn. . . . . . 8% |b. tothe bu. | Shaffer . . .. .. 8 Ib. to the bu In general, three and one-fourth quarts (about four pounds) of fresh black-cap raspberries are required for a pound of marketable dried berries. A pound of dried peaches may be made from four or five pounds of fresh fruit, if the variety has a dry flesh ; but six or seven pounds is often required. In California, twenty pounds of grapes produce six or seven pounds of raisins. From seven to twelve bushels of apples are required for a barrel of cider. Various estimates. Raspberries contain from one and one-half to three pounds of seeds to the bushel. A pint of garden blackberries weighs about one pound. Good clusters of American grapes weigh on an average from one-half to three-fourths pound, while extra-good clusters will reach a pound and a half. Clusters have been reported which weighed two pounds. A bushel of sweet corn ears, “in the milk,” with the husks which come from it, weighs from fifty to seventy pounds. 2M 530 COMPUTATION TABLES There are about 5000 honey-bees in a pound. Watermelons are usually sorted into three grades. Of the largest size, about six melons are placed in a barrel. Of medium size, about eight (four melons in each of two layers), and of the smallest size, ten to twelve. A truck-load of melons comprises about 200 fair-sized fruits. A car-load numbers 1000 to 1500. Coconuts are packed for shipment in bags which hold 100. “ Ekimis ” branded upon boxes of Smyrna figs means A. No. 1, or Superior Selected. ‘ Eleme’” means Selected, the second grade. A box 1244 in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 bu. A box 19 in. long, wide, "and deep holds 1 bbl. A box 82 i in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 pk. A box 67, in. long, wide, and deep holds 3 pk. A box 4 i in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 qt. To find the bushels of apples, potatoes, shelled corn, etc., in bins, divide the cubic contents in inches by 2747.7 (the cubic inches in a heaped bushel). If the corn is in the ear, deduct one-third from the result. The cubic contents is found by multiplying together length, breadth, and height in feet, and reducing the product to inches by dividing by 1728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot); or make the original multiplication in inches rather than in feet. A struck bushel (not heaped) contains 2150.4 cubic inches. See p. 528. If the sides of a corn-crib are flaring, it is customary to reckon the width as half the sum of the top and bottom widths. Of course, much will depend on how much it flares. A similar method may be applied to apples, potatoes, and roots in heaps. To find the tons of hay in a mow or stack, divide the cubic contents by about 500, if the hay is not well settled ; or by about 450 to 460, , if the hay is well packed. To figure the cost of hay by the ton, ete the number of pounds by the price (in dollars) per ton, point off three figures at the right, and divide by 2 (point off more figures if there are fractions of a dollar in the price) : — 96 lb.x $11 ton= 1.0056 +2= .528 (528, cents). 96 “ xX $11.30 “ = 1.0848 +2= 54, 1700 “ x $13 i * +2=$1105. 2100“ X$18 “ =37.800 +2=$18.90. 3350 “ xX $10.80 “ =36.180 +2=$1 PIPES, TANKS, AND WELLS 531 At $5 per ton, divide the number of pounds by 4:— 96 Ib. at $5: 96+4= .24 cents. 1350 “ . “ $5: 1850+ 4 = $3.37 At $10 per ton, divide the number of pounds by 2. Capacities of Pipes and Tanks Quantity of water held by pipes of various sizes Diameter of Contents of 100 feet Bore in Length gal. ieee £08 48 .08 : 16.32 24%. 25.50 3. (tw 36.72 4 65.28 5 i 102.00 i « = « 146.90 Number of gallons in circular tanks and wells To find the contents in gallons of circular tanks, square the diameter in feet, multiply by the depth, and then multiply by 5.875. GALLONS WHEN THE DEPTH 18 i 8 ft. Diam- eter 3ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 1] ft. 12 ft. 658.00 | 752.00 1028.13 |1175.00 1480.50 1692.00 2015.13 |2303.00 2632.00 |3008.00 3331.13 |3807.04 4112.52 4700.00 4976.12 |5687.00 5922.00 |6768.00 846.00 1321.89 1903.50 2590.89 3384.00 4282.89 5287.56 6397.89 7614.00 940.00 1468.76 2115.00 2878.76 3760.00 4758.76 |5234.63 5875.04 |6461.52 | 7050.00 7108.76 |7819.63 | 8530.52 8460.00 e806: 00 |10152.00 1034.00 1615.63 2326.50 3166.63 4136.00 1128.00 1762.50 2538.00 3454.50 4512.00 5710.52 376.00 587.50 846.04 1151.50 1504.00 1903.50 2350.00 2843.50 3384.00 470.00 734.38 1057.50 1439.38 1880.00 2379.38 2937.52 3554.38 4230.00 564.00 881.25 1269.00 1727.25 2256.00 2855.26 3525.00 4265.26 2538.00 5076.00 Approximate contents of cylinders Diam. DeptH QUANTITY 134 in. X 3 in. 3% in. X 3 in. 374} in. X 6 in. in. X 6 in. “u in. X 12 in. 14 in. X 15 in. contains 1 gill. contains 1 pint. contains contains contains 1 quart. 1 gallon. 8 gallons. contains 10 gallons. 532 COMPUTATION TABLES Number of gallons in square-built tanks To find the number of gallons in any square or oblong vessel, multiply the number of cubic feet contained in it, by 7.4805; or, to find the contents of a depth not given in this table, multiply the contents of tank one foot deep by the required depth in feet. For other comparable figures, see page 531; for capacities of silos, pages 473 to 477; for capacities of reservoirs, page 497. Various pipe figures may be found in Chapters XI and XXV. Size or TanK 1 Fe. Deep|3 Fr. Deep|4 Fr. Deep| 5 Fr. Deep 4by 4feet. . . . . . . «| 119.68 359.06 478.75 598.44 5by 5feet. . . . ... . «| 187.01 561.03 748.05 935,06 6by 3feet. . . . . . . «| 184.64 403.9 538.5 673.2 6by 4feet. . . 2. . . . «| 179.58 538.5 718.1 897.6 6by 5Sfeet. . . . . . . «| 224.41 673.2 897.6 1122.0 6by 6feet. . . . . . . «| 269.29 807.8 1077.1 1346.4 Thy 4feet. . . . . . . «| 209.45 628.3 837.8 1047.2 7Tby 5Sfeet. . . . . . . «| 261.81 785.4 1047.2 1309.0 Tby 6feet. . . . . . . | 814.18 942.5 1256.6 1570.8 Tby Tfeet. . . . . . . .| 866.54 1099.6 1466.2 1832.7 8by 4feet. . . . . . . .| 239.37 718.1 957.4 1196.8 S8by 5feett. . . . . 2. . .) 299.22 897.6 1196.8 1496.1 8by 6feet. . . . . . . «| 359.06 1077.1 1436.2 1795.3 8by T7feet. . . . . . . .| 418.90 1256.7 1675.6 2094.5 8by S8feet. . . . . . . .| 478.75 1436.2 1915.0 2393.7 Qby Sfeet. . . . . . . .| 336.62 1009.8 1346.4 1683.1 O9by G6feet. . . . . . . .| 403.94 1211.8 1615.7 2019.7 Q9by 7feett. . . . . . . .| 471.26 1413.8 1885.0 2356.3 Q9by 8feet. . . . . . . .| 538.59 1615.7 2154.3 2692.9 Q9by Ofeett. . . . . . . «| 605.92 1817.7 2423.6 3029.6 1Oby Sfeet. . . . . . . .| 874.02 1122.0 1496.1 1870.1 10 by Gfeet. . . . . . . | 448.83 1346.4 1795.3 2244.1 10by 7feet. . . . . . . .| 523.63 1570.9 2094.5 2618.1 10 by 8feet. . . . . . . .| 598.44 1795.3 2393.7 2992.2 10 by Qfeet. . . . . . . .| 673.24 2019.7 2692.9 3366.2 10 by 10 feet. . . . . . . | 748.05 2244.1 2992.2 3740.2 ll by 6feet. . . . . . . «| 493.71 1481.1 1974.8 2468.5 llby 7feet. . . . . . . .| 575.99 1727.9 2303.9 2879.9 ll by 8feet. . . . . . . .| 658.28 1974.8 2633.1 3291.4 ll by Qfeet. . . . . . . .| 740.56 2221.7 2962.2 3702.8 ll by 10 feet. . . . . . . | 822.85 2468.5 3291.4 4114.2 llbyllfeet. . . . . . . .J 905.14 2715.4 3620.5 4525.7 12by 6feet. . . . . . . .| 538.59 1615.7 2154.3 2692.9 12by T7feet. . . . . . . .| 628.36 | 1885.0 2513.4 3141.8 12by 8feett. . . . . . . «| 718.12 2154.3 2872.5 3590.6 12by QOfeet. . . . . . . .| 807.89 2423.6 3231.5 4039.4 12by 10feet. . . 2... - | 897.66 2692.9 3590.6 4488.3 12 by llfeet. . . . . . . «| 987.42 2962.2 3949.6 4937.1 12 by12feet. . . . . . . .| 1077.19 3231.5 4308.7 5385.9 LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL 5383 Legal Weights of the Bushel List of products for which legal weights have been fixed in but one or two states Apple seeds, forty pounds (Rhode Island and Tennessee). Beggarweed seed, sixty-two pounds (Florida). Blackberries, thirty-two pounds (Iowa) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- nessee) ; dried, twenty-eight pounds (Tennessee). Blueberries, forty-two pounds (Minnesota). Bromus inermis, fourteen pounds (North Dakota). Cabbage, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Canary seed, sixty pounds (Tennessee). Cantaloupe melon, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Cherries, forty pounds (Iowa) ; with stems; fifty-six pounds (Ten- nessee) ; without stems, sixty-four pounds (Tennessee). Chestnuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee) ; fifty-seven pounds (Virginia). Chufa, fifty-four pounds (Florida). Cottonseed, staple, forty-two pounds (South Carolina). Cucumbers, forty-eight pounds (Missouri and Tennessee) ; fifty pounds (Wisconsin). Currants, forty pounds (Iowa and Minnesota). Feed, fifty pounds (Massachusetts). Grapes, forty pounds (Iowa) ; with stems, forty-eight pounds (Ten- nessee) ; without stems, sixty pounds (Tennessee). Guavas, fifty-four pounds (Florida). Hickory nuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Hominy, sixty pounds (Ohio) ; sixty-two pounds (Tennessee). Horseradish, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Italian rye-grass seed, twenty pounds (Tennessee). Johnson-grass, twenty-eight pounds (Arkansas). Kafir, fifty-six pounds (Kansas). - Kale, thirty pounds (Tennessee). Land-plaster, 100 pounds (Tennessee). See page 540. Meal, forty-six pounds (Alabama) ; unbolted, forty-eight pounds (Alabama). Middlings, fine, forty pounds (Indiana) ; coarse middlings, thirty pounds (Indiana). [Continued on page 540] 534 Lecat Weients (in Pounps) PER BusHeL IN THE Unirep States (U.S. Bureau or STANDARDS) COMPUTATION TABLES a | See | th Sth TMT Tt wish E Pemeow | lll) eee te VIL) Tia Tiel 8 [rpesuonyog | [AIS] Lilla Sllll Flltl ltl dt | tees | ELIT DUST Va AT Tay - sped tae SN S | wee | sila! sslig gligl gsisel Ble wopneys | gig! [111g sllgl ssisl LE g | seo ar aro) ‘eigt lille (il Itt duit 5) ert. lelel ell eligi eg8i1 11182 mop | Sisll Iilil Jitll tligs ellll aaag xssorg | || 181 Sli| giggl sssgl |isss aomvo | T1111 Iglll Illil Illll gigi wanaxong | 3/1932 agli] slag! ssesel glgeze~ aaag xuoo-noour | 11121 1I111 Liill igtll lilies wver | [lial iatig Rligl lags! lie! aaag ssvuo-garg | || || s11 11 alia! saat lliss sag | [1111 I8tll Titll Iilll gttis A |mbaes | SIIII Illia tlis! ses&l Ilist A wm | 18881 88118 81181 sss8! glass seta | S5S92 S819 seeel Seene Slee. q jetdepu | laixl Iglia slaxl gxxal | lear S| wey | 11181 18118 TIBI ig8ll gigas bet A atesae Gedpehidine wietchaeara Big iy aes Borie aes ashen “G* p ee ee ee at ae 3 wits Gilde faces Goya ci Saazd Saad GHins 25g88 22555 535 LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL “qI OOT ‘uz09 poyjaysun useIn 1 “ayIAA PUB PIY oc ‘sueaq PoC et “pamyeyy or “QI SF *pejoqun Io pe]0q ‘yeeu uioo jeysng qysiom prepueyg I ‘Teor UIOD UIPU] ot “1 0€ ‘Bed paT]eysuN We2IH of ‘W109 PAYIVID pr “AI Sg ‘suBeqAOg er “T “AON 09 T ABW “4189 * “Q102 ‘I ABIL 0} [ “AON ‘189 UI UIOD 27 “189 Ul W109 UBIPU] ‘00d [HUN *q] OL ‘Tea UI TIED 5 "ueIg Vou 2 “| FP ‘OA LU ‘1 3% ‘sseis-onjq Ysiysag or “qoo 043 UI ¢ *I9qJBoIOYY “A Sp ‘UMOIZ J0}j8 4xOu T “suveq O21T MA 9 “QI 82 ‘sueaq qeatea !*q] 09 ‘sueAq PaTETg 3 ‘s[eZuvUl pus s}09q-IEBNG » ‘sojdde uaeIh ¢ “ql 09 ‘suBeq o71A TTBUIG ¢ “peugep ION t 113] 113] PTT] all} Pld PTI TI PLT dl LITT 111381 111s I1118 L111 I1llg Rene PEL 321 | | L101 3311 | 118 a Ill oe 83 0€ III LT TI ISlg Sl iil ISl3 Plt dd Sl ltl | lel ll 9g 9g 9g x a] | | LTT lll Tilt tstt L1i 1g 81111 09 09 09 09 09 «09 TTT Tt a oo SH Hliil glell tl Pll | el Telit l1gl| sllg Tilt ttl 9F oF 909 3109 909 Buro10sé M UISTOOST MM BIUISILA 989M * mO}sUIySe A erUIaIt A * quows9A, qn + sexo, sessouuay, ‘e104eq YING * euljoreD qNog puss] spoqy ‘elueAl[Asuueg ‘008919, su0ge[4O * * oro * eqoyeq YON * BUTjOIRD YWON yo X MON OOIXaTA, MONT * AVslae MONT earysdureyy MONT BpBaoen, ByseiqeN * BsuByuoyy * _Lmosstl IddississtjAy 536 Lecat Wericuts (IN Pounps) PER BusHEL— Continued COMPUTATION TABLES i : cog | T1PLT (itis Sit Nth PErti esanvan | |] TP) LILI Fibet Ttbdb Glee gauovad acuq | IBtSt IBLII @1881 BBRIT IIIT sansa | |] 11] Ili! Lilit still Stills tomvenaevse (OUI ILIILET UIST) Ba Di eat aga svesmmeey | [ETT Lilt Lert SIS Iie g | somo | Lit) Tittt Titit Vitel HI S é 18U01uQ) LOPS SSI TS Sil SS5s:l asses evo | 8898 88118 Sasal AASSi Rass wm | |iigl Illig Il lll ggsgl lilies aww | still (itll tilgl Slat lee eg | poropag | FIITE Titi tial est Tit 2 A comrr | fi ti} S@lil Hilti I@lll llees ngoncemer | (ILI See Mes ET ela ummcema: | Valid Tat fd ese lies seveosourn | || 1 11 (Sill Lilli tilll S18tl agar | | {| i! 111) S1IS] S33sl 11188 eee | ett (ih ehleb 1 et et eawuaaasoon | ||] 11 TIllt Till! Igltl Tllts (aaas glig IBI11 s1gs 1338 | 138 -NI'T) Cagsxv1. Ye) Ne) 6 am | ni AD 1 2D 1 snuusanveg | |] 11] TIIil Fill l Still ttlss sent gt otttes nett ent ees AR Bete n 3 = 2 s o g 0 e ew ¥ 9 hoe a B 6806. sea ha oO Saedi Geese ge 0, g aa aes akaso SCE S ‘don d q Si-4 Oa. Basa 6saSe beass age. SPaee Bases Sages Ghai Geags ages p4d46 SOARE OMSSS Sees SSss5 537 LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL “W@dID) et “q] 92 ‘sized pep ‘'q] gg ‘sieved painqeyy a *BUOTUO PaINyBIA or “pees yo][Iur sessau -U9J, pus LMossiyA[ UBUIIAX) 5 “eyes uotuo doy, , *QINSBOUL OHIIIG g “8398 WOO W10}}0g g “LOL } ‘paqsea ‘qi 8 ‘Iveq Bulieysejd poqsemuy ¢ “eAI WRIA ¢ “QI Z& ‘8388 UOTTO TOWING 1 “OI OF ‘OUAT] PEHBIS s “PPTlP4S » “peugep ION tr — Fe ae ae a es a cd ct ed ae ad I cd cd ed cd * Surm0éM —|—|—|F}—|]—]—|] 28} se} OS| FE] 08 | OL | 9S] 8h | — | FF) 8 | —]} 99} — * UISTOOSIM S| (iam Neca (seat Plame ane | cme eg |F SL cemmepemr nat|nasel ese remem t ree meet cell (cea ine) eae BIUIZIIA 369M. BL eee mee ped a me me ae ee ee moysuryse MA —|& | ze] —| te] oT | 82] zg] og | og] ge] os | —| — | S| at} HF] 8 | —] 9S] — BICIBILA SL Sey |) See mek Pee me gard Ee ae me ee a | UOTE A BS Pf emis ee | Semester ser Set mst ee me tame: fp ree mente a ae qin SS a a | 2S 8) OS | SS | BP | PR | eee | Sexo], 29S | eg | — | OF | EE | FT |n8S Jor9S] Ze | OS | — | 08 | @ | —| 8] —| HF] 8 | BF] 99 | — * sassouuaL Se [te | | 8 | a | 8 | ee et ee eS | eee ‘Bj0Req GINS —{/—f/—f}—!— J — | — | HH Pe J ef ed es er te cd ct Buljorey yyNog —|—|—|0¢|—|=~]|—|]| 0g} ge] og | se} — | 02 | — | og | —| FF] — |] — | 99] — * pugs] epoqy —/|]—|/—}]—}]—]—|]—] o¢| ze} —}] —| —}—] 9¢]/ —] —}—}]—}|—|—-J]— * eraealAsuueg UR gh ae | a Fm ets eee af a] RS ce meh rete EE | Rf Sa Tee Sere ga * * + wose1Q Ni Pe BG) EB I OB Yt a eee [ede OS | * sm0qRTyO = [SS | eS fe BE 8] 0S.) PE] OL. | — | 0S | 1) PF |] | 9S | ‘ott * ogo SS [Sy SBS SE 08, 08) | a | ee Se | ‘81078 THON —|ez}/—!—]|—]—|—]—!2e}/—}]—}—]}]—] 9¢}/—|—}/—|—|]—Is¢s}— seuljorey 4410 SS |] [St 28) ek | SS | 0k. | 99 | | SR) Se 8s ae 10 MON —}—'— J — J — J — J ee ct et ed ef rd ae et re et cc * oorey, MONT —|—!|—]—]—!1—!]—]| z¢| og } —| —| —}|—] 9¢}—]}]—!}—}—|]—] s¢]— . Aesio~ AON, —}/—}]—fJ—|—]—]—}+— | ze} —} —) — ee er ed I eI rd * orrysdureyy MONT —f—/—}— J —}— J —} —} — Fe rt ed ed rd ct ect ct de epeaony — | ps fm | oe | oe] 2e) 8 | OS Oe | 08 }— | — 1 OS | 1 ee) Ss | oe eyxsBiqany SF i | OS ee) 2h Be ne | 08 | ee OF) ee | | oe | eus}uoyy SF | —|—— | PP | OF | PT Be) 26) ce | 08) SE | | | — | Be | — | ee | | | os | tMossty ee |e | emg et 2 | A 1108, BB | 08 | | | || lddtestsst yy 538 COMPUTATION TABLES waem | 88888 S88l8 8888! sssss 8188s 2 sdiuiny yst [soa uomiog CETL Petty I We ery B | wang | 18151 11118 81181 8188) 11181 aaagamomy, | || (S! SILI SIIR) B8991 | 1933 ssownon | [1111 TIiil Tibll tllit Igttl azag monovog | || 121 11118 LII 1) IB8ll 1itts emong | Pf (1 taedtd Vill VIL Viel yeacnsoy | (111 t IRI II 1lISl TIllll eet & 34 aso | [1111 ISlll Flisl Ilisl gist & : weg | [113] SILIS Jill! sgggl lite] o 2 ay | 88884 88118 S88sl sssss sisss ro} § way axa | [ili ISltt Tilil Iilill gist a ie avovevtoy | | {111 ISI11 Till! Tilll Stlig g is ssoo mre | [111] Itttl Fill Pistl tittl a z wr wooo | | {I} Itt Slitl Flitl Tlstl 8 aoraay | [Jit TIL l) Fildl Vitel viss ia 89038300 2 a om | (elit Jolie Bl ial thle) iiise 89! od @ || 3 om IBISt I#11S BIIS! Bess! 11888 5 B ~JBOMG E a eosjog | S{1S| SSIS! |ISl| S888! S8sl| 4 < 3 wea | 82ig! Igit! gsllll Ills! slggs A 2 a]]euSsUN Bleed punar PPh PTR Va ee aera a J punorp eeoquay | | {i} 1 Jill! Slill Jilat tied nee eas des Ge “B- deh Geom Hie ae Se eae “ee 'B : ‘ a pe eh ek 2 3. a8 2258 5 pe ‘wags gages $2884 daceg gigas sees Saese S4a5E BESSs sefk8 Peas SSe43 65020 SS DEQ 8 8 Gime paaz0 SSAAR OMTES Soe§ sasss LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL 539 S888| s3lss seseg gies gi8s ges Nn Pe IT PR ee Pe ae 81881 I1111 S88it Sige 81g8 [13] S335] [1181 98311 S199 8188 [33] 3 a oot PT MTT (ail) Seite ait pi So a S3I8l Tllll Tiltl This titt diet 33 B® TUITE QUIS T LU eth a Pe gg 39 TE re ee 8S ee Ee £6 is PITTT FlIist TihtIS Stl Ttlt tigi 8888! [1111 sigll I1g8 sieges itl 8888| 88188 sessss siss s|sg sss Pldtl SLIST TITTLE Stlt dttt tigi d g Penh TARE ee A Ea 8 23 Qe ee TS SPE ee) See en oe 7 “Oo LETT T SURSH LEPEE TEtd bidd best 34 og 3 Perr? Peli) Fitltl TiS tite tie am ssisl Isis] sssli sise Sirs (1s S8ISl ISIS] SSSil SISS BlIS IIs Mell Sik PISS VILE Met oss g3ss! egisg sssll siss lls Ilsl 3 Bit heb Te ae ad g 2 a Sota UC VETER UGE SE BP 8 ao 5 Begod 2558 RShe sok gases S83o5 36652 aaa SoSs BEEBE 540 COMPUTATION TABLES [Continued from page 633] Millet, Japanese barnyard, thirty-five pounds (Massachusetts). Mustard, thirty pounds (Tennessee). Plums, forty pounds (Florida) ; sixty-four pounds (Tennessee). Plums, dried, twenty-eight pounds (Michigan). Popcorn, seventy pounds (Indiana and Tennessee); in the ear, forty-two pounds (Ohio). Prunes, dried, twenty-eight pounds (Idaho); green, forty-five pounds (Idaho). Quinces, forty-eight pounds (Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee). Rape seed, fifty pounds (Wisconsin). Raspberries, thirty-two pounds (Kansas) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- nessee). Rhubarb, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Sage, four pounds (Tennessee). Salads, thirty pounds (Tennessee). Sand, 130 pounds (Iowa). Spelt or Spiltz, forty pounds (North Dakota) ; forty-five pounds (South Dakota). Spinach, thirty pounds (Tennessee). Strawberries, thirty-two pounds (Iowa) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- nessee). Sugar-cane seed, fifty-seven pounds (New Jersey). Velvet-grass seed, seven pounds (Tennessee). Walnuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee). Other articles. One bushel of house ashes (wood) is calculated to weigh forty-eight pounds; ground gypsum, seventy pounds (see p. 533, under land- plaster); sand, 1223 pounds. For lime, see pp. 78, 536; cement, pp. 504, 505. Legal weights of seeds and grains in Canada. Section 90 of the Inspection and Sale Act of the Department of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada, dealing with the legal weights of farm products, reads as follows :— In contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned articles a bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by CANADIAN WEIGHTS 541 measure is specially agreed upon, and the weight equivalent to a bushel shall, except as hereinafter provided, be as follows :— Ib. Barley | Go.) xe, Arle Vink a sae eae ae ee od. war bel, Sey CR AB Buckwheat . 2. 2. 2... PD DD EE 2. . 48 Blaxseed! Vig ig. ct We de Wy ee ee » . . 56 Indianjcorn’ se ak ee hw ee ek ik tee a ee OG Opite mie 8 CS Be ui cama ok. aca, ek Bagg a oo lg eos age oe ie * « « 24 CaSGr Me th aa aa tn. fee gh dee as ARE eos Mane, Geta, J 60 Venice oo Sak se Stak Oly i eee, oe ant ae ete ae 56 Wheats og oye od re ce Ae ves A es. ae wk. hak a ee 80 Section 337 reads as follows : — In contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned articles, the bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by measure is specially agreed upon and the weight equivalent to a bushel shall be as follows : — Ib. Beans? ys 9k) eo ie Bag Oe Be AOR Ge ep er ee So ae SE 80: BCC ES snot gan Xa crate ce, ae = ay Dep acrwés. Ter ae hak, Se aan as Satan hee bey bed OO): Blue-grass seed 2. ww we ee ee ee ee ee we ee Cd Garrots, ae ae og: ik a, Sl we te OR BS. By ewe OO Castor-beans ae ka ke ee we we ee ee we ew 240 Cloveriseed « 3 4 & % % @ oe Sw Re OE Be ee ee we 100 Hemprseed) s/s. are er Se Se Og wa ew le Malt oe. ic) sie tes ge eee «ape ake oe, Dd Owe ee lue. wale Ste BE Onions 4. % 2 & woe we RR Ge we es a Be we ay 30 Parsnips: ois 9.8) Ge ee ee RE te a ew we Se EO PGtatoOes a) gr ce Geo ae et ca a Ud OR ae Sm ae ON ela ae ee 160 Timothy'seed, + s «@ 3 <4 @ 4 4 @ 2 a & 4 % ee & ww we 48 Murnips: 3s se Ow og ae ee oe ew eg ee oe we eR ee a ws 160 In the province of Quebec, when potatoes are sold or offered for sale by the bag, the bag shall contain at least eighty pounds. Government Townships The word “town” has a variety of meanings. It is commonly loosely used to designate merely a settlement or a community. In New England, however, it is the primary administrative division. It is there very irregular in shape and size, following the lines of contour and of early settlement. In New England, outside of Rhode Island, a township unit was essentially an ecclesiastical unit. In Rhode Island, the township government was separated from church control. In the South, the county came to be the primary 542 COMPUTATION TABLES political unit in most cases, and there is no highly developed town- ship system. The New England type of town spread westward to New York, al- though the full town-meeting form of government did not follow; the townships remained irregular and followed no system of territorial division. When the new public domains began to be surveyed by the federal government, a regular system of townships,-or terri- torial divisions, was laid out. These townships are right-angled, being six miles on a side and containing 36 square miles. They are determined and also divided by the intersection of meridians or range-lines running north and south, and by parallels or town-lines running east and west. The township is subdivided into 36 square miles, each of these square miles being known as a “section” and containing 640 acres. The sections are numbered consecutively from 1 to 36, beginning at the northeast 7|s8 1/91/10] 411) 12 corner of the township and running directly across to the northwest 18 | 17 | 16] 15 | 14 | 18 corner, then back again to the east and back to the west, and so on 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 back and forth until the 36th sec- tion stands at the southeast corner 30 | 29 | 28 ) 27 | 26 | 25 | of the township, as shown in the diagram. In each township, section 16 is set aside for school purposes. The sections are themselves divided into quarter-sections, each containing 160 acres. These quarter-sec- tions are again divided into fours, of 40 acres each; and these 40 acres are the smallest divisions recognized in government surveys. The location of any piece of land is determined by the section number and by the half-section or quarter-section in which it is lo- cated. The township itself is located by its town-line and its range. That is to say, a township in any state might be number 10 south of the base-line that was established by the goverment, and range 9 west of some one of the principal meridians fixed by the govern- ment. A particular quarter-section in this township might be the southwest quarter of section number 27 in township 10 south and range 9 west of the sixth principal meridian. 6 5 4 3 2 1, 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 CHAPTER XXVIII CoLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS FOR CABINETS OR EXat- BITION. PrrFrumery. LaBELs Every good farm establishment should have a room or a cabinet in which the museum materials of the particular farm are collected, — soils, minerals, plants, insects, curiosities, and the like. Collecting and Storing Samples of Soil (Fippin) The farmer should know his soil. The collecting of soils and their preservation and study has been a source of much interest to some persons, — quite as much as the collecting of seeds, plants, or souvenirs. To secure samples that fairly represent a particular soil- formation or soil-region requires much care in selection. Soils usually: vary greatly from point to point. They also vary at different depths. Usually the top soil is more rich in organic matter than the subsoil. It is therefore best to take small samples from a number of points in an area of a few square rods and mix them together, and preserve the desired sample from this composite lot. Some arbitrary depth must be chosen, and one foot is best on the average. Since the subsoil is also of great importance, it is desirable to have a sample taken from one to two feet in the same holes as the top soil. A common wood auger one and one-half inches in diameter with a handle sufficient to make a total length of thirty-six, with an eight-inch pipe cross bar at the top, is most convenient for collecting samples in soils that are not excessively stony. The stem may be made in sections, connecting by means of milled threads. Before being finally stored, the soil samples should be thoroughly dried on a piece of paper in the air. Collection should not be made when the soil is so wet as to puddle, and the sample would preferably not be pulverized after drying. 543 544 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS The amount of the sample must depend on the object of the work. For general study and analysis, one quart is usually abundant, and one pint is often adequate for chemical and physical analysis. For private collections, even smaller samples put up in four- or six-ounce vials of five or six inches in length, straight sides, and metal screw-top, are very convenient. Regular specimen-jars holding about one-third of a pint or more and with cork in the bottom are excellent for small samples. For larger samples, screw-top glass fruit-jars are usually the most convenient form of storage vessel. For shipping samples, a stout canvas bag closely woven and simply labeled on a tag is most convenient, and several such samples may be inclosed in a large bag of the same material. Samples of Seeds and Grains Every farmer should have samples in his study or elsewhere of the common commercial grades of wheat, oats, and other grains, and speci- mens of the seeds of the leading grasses and the most frequent weeds. He can secure the weed seeds from the plants themselves ; or in some cases the Experiment Station will aid him to secure them. Whenever a pernicious weed appears on the plantation, seeds should be saved of it. The farmer should determine how it was introduced, whether with grain or with grass seed ; he will then be on the guard for future invasion. He should have a good hand lens with which to examine all grass seed and clover seed that he purchases. He should have samples of pure grass seed, the different kinds of clover, alfalfa, and similar crops. Samples of the different grades of wheat and other grains, of the leading varieties, and of shrunken or injured grains, would be very useful to persons who are engaged in the growing of grain or in the handling of it. They will serve as standards. In some of the states, the experiment stations supply such seeds ; if they do not supply them, they can put the farmer in touch with the ways of securing them. All seeds should be placed in tight bottles and be thoroughly dried before being put away. In bottles they are easy of examination, and they are also free from weevils and other insects. If they should become affected with insects, the pests may be destroyed by pouring a little bisulfid of carbon into the bottle and quickly corking it up tight. HERBARIUM 545 For samples of corn, buckwheat, rye, rice, and other commercial grains, it is well to use one of the small fruit-jars. The weed seeds may be put up in vials with wide necks. Collecting and Preserving Plants for Herbaria Collect samples of all parts of the plant, — lower and upper leaves, stem, flowers, fruit, and in most cases roots. In small species, those two feet high or less, the whole plant should be taken. Of larger plants, take parts about a foot long. Press the plants between papers or “driers.” These driers may be any thick porous paper, as blotting-paper or carpet-paper, or, for plants that are not succu- lent or very juicy, newspapers in several thicknesses may be used. It is best to place the specimens in sheets of thin paper — grocer’s tea paper is good—and place these sheets between the driers. Many specimens can be placed in a pile. On top of the pile place a short board and a weight of thirty or forty pounds, or a lighter weight if the pile is small and the plants are soft. Change the driers every day. The plants are dry when they become brittle, and when no moisture can be felt by the fingers. Some plants will dry in two or three days, while others require as many weeks. If the pressing is properly done, the specimens will come out smooth and flat and the leaves will usually be green, although some plants always turn black in drying. Specimens are usually mounted on single sheets of white paper of the stiffness of very heavy writing paper or thin bristol-board. The standard size of sheet is 113 by 163 inches. The plants may be pasted down permanently and entirely to the sheet, or they may be held on by strips of gummed paper. In the former case, Denison’s fish-glue is a good gum to use. Only one species or variety should be placed on a sheet. Specimens that are taller than the length of a sheet should be doubled over when they are pressed. The species of a genus are collected into a genus cover. This cover is a folded sheet of heavy manila or other firm paper, and the standard size, when folded, is 12 by 163 inches. On the lower left-hand corner of this cover the name of the genus is written. A label should accompany each specimen upon the separate sheets, recording the name, date of col- lecting, name of the collector, and any notes that may be of interest 2N 546 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS The specimens are now ready to be filed away on shelves in a horizon- tal position. If insects attack the specimens, they may be destroyed by fumes of bisulfid of carbon (see page 293) or chloroform. The bisulfid treatment is probably the best yet devised, particularly for large herbaria. In this case it is necessary to place the specimens in a tight box and then insert the liquid. Lumps of naphthalin placed in the cabinet are useful in keeping away insects. Various poisons have been used on herbarium plants. At one time, the Gray Herbarium used an arsenic solution, but this proved to be injurious to curators. Three corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mer- cury) recipes are as follows : — 1. Place as much corrosive sublimate in alcohol as the liquid will dissolve. Apply with a brush, or dip the plants before they are mounted and dry them between sheets. A common method. 2. Dissolve 13 ounces of corrosive sublimate in one pint of alcohol ; add 23 fluid drams of carbolic acid, and apply with a paint brush. 3. One pound of corrosive sublimate, one pound of carbolic acid, to 4 gallons of wood alcohol. Preserving, Printing, and Imitating Flowers and Other Parts of Plants To Preserve THE CoLor or Drizp Frowers. —1. Immerse the stem of the fresh specimen in a solution of 32 parts by weight of alum, 4 of niter, and 186 of water for two or three days until the liquid is thoroughly absorbed, and then press in the ordinary way, except that dry sand is sifted over the specimen and the packet submitted to the action of gentle heat for twenty-four hours. 2. Make a varnish composed of 20 parts of powdered copal and 500 parts of ether, powdered glass or sand being used to make the copal dissolve more readily. Into this solution the plants are carefully dipped ; then they are allowed to dry for ten minutes, and the same process is repeated four or five times in succession. 3. Plants may also be plunged in a boiling solution of | part of salicylic acid and 600 of alcohol, and then dried in bibulous paper. But this should be done very rapidly, violet flowers especially being decolor- ized by more than an instantaneous immersion. 4, Red flowers which have changed to a purplish tint in drying may have their color restored by laying them on a piece of moistened paper PRESERVING FLOWERS 547 with dilute nitric acid (one part to ten or twelve parts of water), and then submitting them to moderate pressure for a few seconds ; but the solution must not touch the green leaves, as they are decolorized by it. 5. With sulfur (Quin). — Procure a chest about three or four feet square with a small opening in the under part of one side, to be closed by a bar, through which the basin containing brimstone must be put into the chest ; this opening must be covered inside with per- forated tin, in order to prevent those flowers which hang immediately over the basin from being spoiled. Paper the inside to render it air- tight. When the chest is ready for use, nail small laths on two opposite sides of the interior, at a distance of about six inches apart, and on these lay thin round sticks upon which to arrange the flowers ; these should not be close together, or the vapor will not circulate freely through the vacant spaces around the flowers. When the chest is suffi- ciently full of flowers, close it carefully, place a damp cloth on the sides of the lid, and some heavy stones upon the top of it ; then take small pieces of brimstone, put them in a small, flat basin, kindle, and put through the opening in the bottom of the chest and shut the bar. Leave the chest undisturbed for twenty-four hours, after which time it must be opened, and if the flowers be sufficiently smoked, they will: appear white, if not, they must be smoked again. When sufficiently smoked, take the flowers out carefully and hang them up in a dry, airy place in the shade, and in a few days or even hours they will recover their natural color, except being only a shade paler. To give them a very bright and shining color, plunge them into a mixture of ten parts of cold water and one of good nitric acid ; drain off the liquid, and hang them up again the same as before. The best flowers for this process are asters, roses, fuchsias (single ones), spireas (red-flowered kinds, such as Japonica, Douglasi, etc.), ranunculus, del- phiniums, cytisus, etc. The roses should be quite open, but not too fully blown. 6. In sand (Quin). — Dry the plants in clean silver sand, free from organic matter (made so by repeated washing, until the sand ceases to discolor the water). Heat the sand rather hot, and mix with it by constant stirring a small piece of wax candle, which prevents the sand from adhering to the flowers. Have a box not higher than three inches, but as broad as possible ; this box should have instead of a bottom a narrow-meshed iron-wire net at a distance of three-fourths 548 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS inch from where the bottom should be. Place the box on a board and fill with sand till the net is just covered with a thin layer of sand ; upon this layer of sand, place a layer of flowers, on that a layer of sand, then flowers, and so on ; the layers of sand should vary in thickness according to the kind of flowers, from one-eighth to one-fourth inch. “When the box contains about three layers of flowers, it must be removed to a very sunny dry place, the best being close under the glass in an empty greenhouse, exposed to the full influence of the sun. After a week, if the weather is sunny and dry, the flowers will be perfectly dried ; then the box is lifted a little, the sand falls gently through the iron net, and the flowers remain in their position over the net without any disturbance whatever. They should then be taken out carefully and kept in a dry and, if possible, dark place, where no sun can reach them, and afterwards ‘they will keep very well for many years. Care should be taken that the flowers are cut in dry weather, and that while lying in the sand no part of a flower shall touch another part, as this always spoils the color and causes decay. Sand. should be filled in between all the parts of the flower ; therefore it is necessary to insert the double flowers in an erect position, in order to fill the sand between the petals, while most of the single flowers must be put in with the stalks upwards. Printine Puants.— 1. First, lightly oil one side of paper, then fold in four, so that the oil may filter through the pores, and the plant may not come into direct contact with the liquid. The plant is placed between the leaves of the second folding, and in this position pressed (through other paper) all over with the hand, so as to make a small quantity of oil to adhere to its surface. Then it is taken out and placed between two sheets of white paper for two impressions, and the plant is pressed as before. Sprinkle over the invisible image remaining on the paper a quantity of black lead or charcoal, and dis- tribute it in all directions ; the image then appears in all its parts. With an assortment of colors the natural colors of plants may be reproduced. To obtain fixity, rosin is previously added to the black lead in equal parts. Expose to heat sufficient to melt the rosin. 2. The best paper to use is ordinary wove paper, without water- marks ; if it can be afforded, use thin drawing-paper. First select the leaves, then carefully press and dry them. If they be placed in a plant LEAF-PRINTS AND THE LIKE 549 press, care must be taken not to put too great pressure on the specimens at first, or they will be spoiled for printing. An old book is the best for drying the samples to be used. Secure printers’ or proof ink, anda small leather dabber ; work a bit of ink about the size of a pea ona small piece of slate or glass, with the dabber, until it is perfectly smooth. A drop or two of linseed oil will assist the operation. Then give the leaf a thin coating, being careful to spread it equally ; now lay the leaf ink downwards on a sheet of paper and place it between the leaves of an old book, which must then be subjected to a moderate pressure in a copying-press, or passed between the rollers of a wringing-machine. Impressions can be taken with greater rapidity by laying the book on the floor and standing upon it for a few seconds. Soft book-paper is the best. Previous to using it, place a few sheets between damp blot- ting-paper, which causes it to take the ink still more readily. At first you will find that you lay on too much ink. If the impression is too black, use the leaf again. If the midrib of the leaf is too thick, it must be shaved down with a sharp knife. 3. Leaf-prints (Engle).— 1. A small ink-roller, such as printers use for inking type. 2. A quantity of printers’ green ink. 3. A pane of stout window-glass (the larger the better) fastened securely to an evenly planed board twice the size of the glass. A small quantity of the ink is put on the glass and spread with a knife, after which it is distributed evenly by going over in all directions with the ink-roller. When this has been carefully done, the leaf to be copied is laid on a piece of waste paper and inked by applying the roller once or twice with moderate pressure. This leaves a film of ink on the veins and network of the leaf, and by placing it on a piece of blank paper and applying con- siderable pressure for a few moments the work is done, and when the leaf is lifted from the paper, the impress remains with all its delicate tracery, faithful in color and outline to the original. To make the ink of proper consistency, add several drops of balsam copaiba to a salt-spoonful of ink. If the leaf sticks, the ink is too thick. SKELETONIZING Puants.—1. By maceration. Place the leaves in water, and allow them to remain in the same water for from three to four months, until the soft matter decays, and the stem may be taken in the hand and the refuse shaken away. There remains behind a network or skeleton of the original object, which-can be bleached with 550 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS alittlelime. Leaves and pods may both be treated satisfactorily in this manner. The pod of the “ Jimson weed” or Datura Stramonium is a favorite for this purpose. 2. By chemicals.— Chloride of lime, } pound; washing soda, 3 pound. Put the soda into 13 pints boiling water (rain-water is best) and let it thoroughly dissolve. Put the chloride of lime in a large pitcher, and add same quantity of cold water. Stir well and cover closely to prevent the escape of the chlorine. When the soda- water is cool, pour it on the chloride of lime, stir well together and cover tightly, leaving it for an hour or more. Then pour off very gently the clear liquid, which must be bottled tightly. This solution will remove fruit-stains from white goods, and will bleach any vegetable substances. When used for cotton or linen, it must be considerably diluted, and the goods well rinsed afterwards. WatTreRPROOF PAPER FOR ARTIFICIAL FLOwERS. — Waterproof paper, transparent and impervious to grease, is obtained by soaking good paper in an aqueous solution of shellac and borax. It resembles parchment paper in some respects. If the aqueous solution be colored with aniline colors, very handsome paper, of use for artificial flowers, * is prepared. Prepared paraffin paper is now much used. To xeeP Frowrers Fresu.— If cut flowers are not needed im- mediately, wet them and then wrap them in paper and place in a tight box in a cool place. Keep as cool as possible without freezing. The disagreeable odor which comes from flowers in vases is due to the decay of the leaves and stems in the water. Therefore remove all the lower leaves before putting flowers in vases. Flowers that have stood in a vase for a day or so can be greatly refreshed if taken from the vase at night, thoroughly sprinkled and wrapped, stems, blossoms, and all, as closely as possible in a soaked cloth and laid aside until the morning. They will be much fresher than if they had been left in their vases, yet will not have bloomed out so much. Before thus laying them aside, and again in the morning, a bit of each stem should be cut off, as the end soon hardens. This ought also to be done once or twice a day, even if the flowers are kept constantly in their vases. Roses that have drooped before their time — as, for example, when worn on the dress — may be revived if the stems, after being thus cut, are placed for ten minutes in almost boiling water and then removed to cold water. INSECTS — PERFUMERY 551 Collecting and Preserving Insects Flying insects are caught in a net made of mosquito-bar, or cheese- cloth after the fashion of the minnow-net. The material is made into a bag about a yard deep, and about a foot in width at the top. The Opening is fastened upon a wire hoop, which is secured to a pole — as a broomstick. Insects are killed by placing them in a “ cyanide- bottle.” This is prepared by placing two or three lumps of cyanide of potassium the size of a quail’s egg in a wide-mouthed glass bottle, covering the lumps with a layer of fine sawdust held in place by snugly fitted pieces of pasteboard. The insects are quickly killed by the fumes of the poison. Keep the bottle corked. The cyanide is very poisonous, and the fumes should not be inhaled. Bugs and beetles, etc., may be pinned and mounted as soon as they are dead. It is customary to pin beetles through the right wing-cover, and bugs — as squash-bugs — through the triangular space between the wings. Butterflies and moths should have the wings carefully spread. This is done by placing on a “ setting-board.” This apparatus is a little trough with a crack at the bottom. The sides of the trough are made of thin bits of board, three or four inches wide and a foot or morelong. These sides have very little slant. The crack in the bottom of the trough is left about a half-inch wide, and it is covered beneath with a strip of cork. The body of the insect is now placed lengthwise the crack, a pin is thrust through the thorax or middle division of the insect, into the cork, and the wings are laid out on the sides of the trough. The wings are held in place by strips of cardboard or mica pinned over them. Take care not to stick the pins through the wings. In about two weeks the insects will be dry and stiff. Insects must be kept in tight boxes to keep other insects from de- vouring them. Cigar-boxes are'good. Tight boxes with glass covers are generally used by collectors. Place sheets of cork in the bottom of the box to receive the pins. If insects attack the specimens, expose them in a tight box to vapors of bisulfid of carbon or benzine. Larve, and some other soft bodies, may be preserved in 95 per cent alcohol. Making Perfumery at Home Permanent ATTar or Orto or Rosss (Ellwanger). — The roses employed should be just blown, of the sweetest-smelling kinds, 552 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS gathered in as dry a state as possible. After each gathering, spread out the petals on a sheet of paper and leave until free from mois- ture; then place a layer of petals in a jar, sprinkling with coarse salt; then another layer of coarse salt, alternating until the jar is full. Leave for a few days, or until a broth is formed; then in- corporate thoroughly and add more petals and salt, mixing thor- oughly daily for a week, when fragrant gums and spices should be added, such as benzoin, storax, cassia-buds, cinnamon, cloves, car- - damon, and vanilla-bean. Mix again and leave for a few days, when add essential oil of jasmine, violet tuberose, and attar of roses, together with a hint of ambergris or musk, in mixture with the flower ottos, to fix the odor. Spices, such as cloves, should be spar- ingly used. PERFUME-JAR. — 1. One pound of dried rose-petals bought at a drug-store, 4 ounces of salt, and 2 ounces of saltpeter, on which put 8 drops of essence of ambergris, 6 drops of essence of lemon, 4 drops of oil of cloves, 4 drops of oil of lavender, and 2 drops of essence of bergamot. 2. One-half pound of common salt, } pound saltpeter, } ounce storax, one-half dozen cloves, a handful of dried bay-leaves, and an- other handful of dried lavender-flowers. This basis will last for years, and petals of roses and other fragrant flowers gathered on dry days may be added annually, or powered benzoin, chips of sandalwood, cinnamon, orris-root, or musk may be added. LavENDER-BAG. — One-half pound lavender-flowers, one-half ounce dried thyme and mint, one-fourth ounce ground cloves and caraway, one ounce common salt. Tie up in a linen bag, which is hung in a wardrobe. ; Orris-root is a good medium in which to place delicate perfumes for perfumery bags. The Preservation of Fruits for Exhibition Purposes Six Canadian recipes (Frank T. Shutt, Experimental Farm, Ottawa, 1911). Specimens of course not edible. In the preparation of these fluids, it is desirable to employ distilled water, usually obtainable from druggists at a small cost. The alcohol used in these formule may be the ordinary spirits of wine. PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS 553 Fiuip No. 1. — FoRMALDEHYDE Formaldehyde omnelinl « oo Ge ee a OA a 1 part Alcohol . : a) gh es ge, Gi eee, “Swe SH ae UR! gy 5 parts Water, to make ete Bee Ags ee Ae ee Ge ae ce ee ae a aS To prepare one gallon of the fluid 32 ounces of formaldehyde and 16 ounces of alcohol will be required, the remainder of the gallon to be made up with water. The addition of a volume of hydrogen peroxide equal to that of the formaldehyde has been found to somewhat enhance the value of this fluid for red fruits. Fuiurp No. 2. — Boric Acip Boric (boracic) eid ea ee ve oe ee a TR BR Gk 1 t Alcohol . . oy Gar ats aU ae ie Ses OR SR OS. Be 5 bars Water, to MAKE eo ae ee ea) ee ee ah aes 250 parts For one gallon, 33 ounces of boric acid and 16 ounces of alcohol will be required. The powdered form of boric acid is the most convenient to use. There is no necessity to employ hot water, but stirring should be con- tinued until complete solution is effected. Fiurp No. 3. — Zinc CHLORIDE Zine chloride . . 2. 1 8 ee ee ee 3 parts Alcohol . . bog ae ok ee at So le oe ee we ce 10 parts Water, to Gialeer cs Lob ces, oe) Sect’ He aha eee ee ea aes o> LO0Ohparts For one gallon of fluid, 5 ounces of zine chloride and 16 ounces of alcohol will be required. Zine chloride, of good quality, passes readily into solution; any white, flocculent precipitate that may appear is allowed to settle out, and the clear fluid decanted. Fiurp No. 4. — SunFrurovus AcIp Sulfurous acid. 2. - ee ee et tt 1 part” Alcohol . . nage Liam nese een 8h CE RHEL. ee oe Coe Ss L. H. Bailey’s Principles of Agriculture . . « W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern and Western . e J. F. Duggar’s Agriculture for Southern Schools . . . * . G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture . ‘ . T. L, Lyon and E, O. Fippin’s The Principles of ‘Soil Management a. it Hilgard & Osterhout’s Agriculture for Schools on the Pacific Slope * J. A. Widtsoe’s Dry Farming « « «© © «© o© «© eo oe Garden-Making L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening « .« e« «© e« oe «© e L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening . . .© © «© oe oe L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist’s Rule Book . 2. «© © «© e« « L. H. Bailey’s Forcing Book - 8 © © © © © © «2 A. French's How to Grow Vegetables ~« © ce « © e« e e Fruit-Growing, ete. L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book « «© © © © © e« ee « L. H. Bailey’s Fruit-Growing 2. .« «26 «© «© 8 «© @ « L. H, Bailey’s The Pruning Book a ae eee ee F. W. Card’s Bush Fruits . 9 .« . «© +6 «© «© © e« e« J. T. Bealby’s Fruit Ranching in British Columbia .« 2 © «© 6 the Care of Live Stock D. E. Lyon’s How to Keep Bees for Profit. . .« .« « e Nelson S. Mayo’s The Diseases of Animals . © © © « «6 W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals . .« «2 © «© © I. P. Roberts's The Horse . . «© «© «© © © e@ © George C. Watson's Farm Poultry A ae ee ee a C. 8. Valentine’s How to Keep Hens for Profit _ 2 © «© © O. Kellner’s The Scientific Feeding of Animals (trans.) . . . M. H. Reynolds’s Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students ee $1 75 4 00 I 50 I 50 25 50 5° 25 50 25 25 25 75 75 Io 75 HARH HR we ae oe 50° BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE — Continued On Dairy Work Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products . . . « «© « « $150 C. M. Aikman’s Milk os 8 ee le Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry : . . + Ioo W. D. Frost’s Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bapiesolopy . . » 160 I. P, Sheldon’s The Farm and the Dairy . » «Loo Chr. Barthel’s Methods Used in the Examination we Milk snd Dairy Products . . e e . . . . . . . . . I go On Plant Diseases, etc. George Massee's Plant Diseases . . . e ° e 1 60 J. G. Lipman’s Bacteria in Relation to Country Life 7 «© e© «© « 50 E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants . eo 8 © © © «© 125 H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English) Si, = “ele. Clay Sve hie ode I 60 A.S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology . . « « «© « 4650 On Production of New Plants L. H. Bailey’s Plant-Breeding . Cr a a a 2} L. H. Bailey’s The Survival of the Unlike 7 6 © © «© «© «« 200 L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits . . . .« +» 200 W.S. Harwood’s New Creations in Plant Life . .« .© «© «o « 1975 On Economics and Organization J. McLennan’s Manual of Practical Farming . . . « « « 150 L. H. Bailey’s The Stateand the Farmer . .« «© «© © «© «© 2125 Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics 3 . - © © 2 T25 I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook . . .« .« -» I 25 George T, Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare . . +. .« © 125 S. E. Sparling’s Business Organization « . . . ° I 25 In the Citizen’s Library. Includesa chapter o: on Farming Kate V. St. Maur’s A Self-supporting Home . ° . 6 . . 1975 Kate V. St. Maur’s The Earth’s Bounty - " . 175 G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore’s Exercises in Farm Management . 80 H.N. Ogden’s Rural Hygiene « «© +» © © «© « «© « I 50 On Everything Agricultural L. H. Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils. Vol. III. Farm Animals. Vol. Ii. Farm Crops. Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations, Price of sets: cloth, $20 half-morocco, $32 For further information as to any of the above, address the publisher. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York THE RURAL OUTLOOK SET By Proressor L. H. BAILEY Director of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University Four Volumes, Each, cloth r2mo, Uniform binding, attractively boxed. $5.00 net per set; carriage extra, Each volume also sold separately. In this set are included three of Professor Bailey's most popular books as well as a hitherto unpublished one,—‘‘ The Country-Life Movement.” The long and persist- ent demand for a uniform edition of these little classics is answered with the publica- tion of this attractive series. . The Country-Life Movement Cloth, 12mo, 220 pages, $1.25 by mail, $1.34 This hitherto unpublished volume deals with the present movement for the redirection of rural civilization, discussing the real country-life problem as distinguished from the city problem, known as the back-to-the-land movement, The Outlook to Nature (ew and Revised Edition) Cloth, 12mo, 195 pages, $1.25 by mail, $1.34 In this alive and bracing book, full of suggestion and encouragement, Professor Bailey argues the importance of contact with nature, a sympathetic attitude toward which “ means greater efficiency, hopefulness, and repose.” The State and the Farmer crew raition) Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 by mail, $1.34 It is the relation of the farmer to the government that Professor Bailey here discusses in its varying aspects. He deals specifically with the change in agricultural methods, in the shifting of the geographical centers of farming in the United States, and in the growth of agricultural institutions. The Nature Study Idea xew zaition) Cloth, r2mo, $1.25 by mail, $1.34 “It would be well,” the critic of The Tribune Farmer once wrote, “if ‘The Nature Study Idea’ were in the hands of every person who favors nature study in the public schools, of every one who is opposed to it, and, most important, of every one who teaches it or thinks he does.” It has been Professor Bailey’s purpose to interpret the new school movement to put the young into relation and sympathy with nature,— a purpose which he has admirably accomplished. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY A series of books primarily intended for the students in agricultural colleges, but exceedingly useful to any one who is willing to give the subject serious study. NOW READY OR IN PRESS The Principles of Soil Management By T. L. LYON anv E. O. FIPPIN An interesting, easily understood general discussion of soils, drainage, mulch- ing, irrigation, manures, fertilizers, etc. A book which every farmer should study. Souther Field Crops By J. F. DUGGAR Cloth, 12mo, 531 pages, illustrated, $1.75 Dee. cloth, ilustraied, r2mo, 579 pages, $1.75 Plant Physiology By B. M. DUGGAR Dec. cloth, illustrated, r2mo, 516 pages, $1.60 Manures and Fertilizers By H. J. WHEELER TO BE ADDED TO THE SERIES LATER Animal Breeding By F. B. MUMFORD Cotton By R. J. H. DE LOACH VOLUMES ON PLANT BREEDING, PLANT PATHOLOGY, AND SPECIAL PHASES OF FARM LIFE WILL PROBABLY BE ARRANGED FOR AT AN EARLY DAY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Ee ores