Cornell Mniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Sage 189QI Ae MALES EOD asivisiinniripnesinriog AYE M... oo University Library SB 45.W in aT mann GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE HARDIEST AND MOST BEAUTIFUL ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS HARDY HERBACEOUS AND BULBOUS PERENNIALS HARDY WATER AND BOG PLANTS FLOWERING AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS -CONIFERS ;s HARDY FERNS; HARDY BAMBOOS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL GRASSES ALSO THE BEST KINDS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES THAT MAY BE GROWN IN THE OPEN AIR IN THE BRITISH ISLANDS WITH FULL AND PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS AS TO CULTURE AND PROPAGATION By JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.HLS. LATE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, HORTICULTURAL LECTURER TO THE MIDDLESEX COUNTY COUNCIL, FORMERLY OF THE ROYAL GARDENS, KEW, ETC. ‘Then let the learned gardener mark with care The kinds of stocks, and what those kinds will bear; Explore the nature of each several tree, And, known, improve with artful industry. And let no spot of idle earth be found, But cultivate the genius of the ground’—ViRGIL (Dryden's translation) WILTED 163 TLLUSTRATIONS LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CoO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1901 All rights reserved PREFACE In adding a ‘ PRAcTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN Pants’ to the literature of Gardening my chief aim has been to produce a book that will be unique and of real use not only to Amateur Gardeners, for whom it is particularly intended, but also to those engaged professionally in Horticulture. The work is the result of many years’ experience among all kinds of Plants, gained in various nurseries and gardens in this country and on the Continent under many different conditions. It deals thoroughly with the description, cultivation, and propagation of all plants—F lowers, Fruits, and Vegetables—that may be grown more or less successfully in the open air in the British Islands, and it cannot be regarded in any sense as a botanical treatise or text-book. Tender plants which require the protection and artificial warmth of green- houses have been excluded, with the exception of a few that may be grown in the open air during the summer months. Due regard has been given to the different climatic conditions prevailing throughout the British Islands, and the reader is advised as to whether any par- ticular plant will flourish out of doors in all parts of the Kingdom, or only in a few favoured spots like Devonshire, Cornwall, and the South of Ireland, ARRANGEMENT The work has been divided into Four Parts for the sake of con- venience. In Part I. the Life History of Plants from start to finish is dealt with in such a way, and without the use of technical expressions, so as to give the reader a good idea of the work carried on by the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits &c. of plants in general. The Propagation of Plants by means of Seeds, Cuttings, Budding, Grafting, Layering &c. is also discussed from a general point of view, so that the reader may be better able to grasp the details given later vi PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS on under each particular genus and species. The various kinds of Soils, Manures, and Plant-foods have also regeived a good deal of notice, chiefly because the importance of such subjects is as a rule not fully grasped by amateurs. Intimately connected with Soils and Manures are the various operations for the improvement of the soil, such as Digging, Trenching, Hoeing, Raking, Mulching, Drainage &c., all of which are explained to the reader. The management of Lawns and Pathways is also dealt with in this portion of the work. Part II. is devoted entirely to the Flower Garden, that is to say, to the Description, Culture, and Propagation of all the most beautiful Harpy ANNUALS and BIEnNIALS; Harpy HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS; Butsous Puants; Rock GARDEN Pants; Harpy WATER and BoG PLaANtTs ; ORNAMENTAL and FLOWERING TREES and SHRUBS, including ConIFERS ; Harpy Bamsoos, and other ornamental GrasszEs ; besides Harpy Frerns, Horsetains, CLUBMOSSES &c. This important part of the work includes almost everything worthy of a place in the garden. As many as 133 Natural Orders, containing over 1000 Genera and several thousand Species, have been described and fully dealt with in regard to Culture and Propagation in every case. The plants have been arranged on a systematic basis, and that laid down by Bentham and Hooker in their standard work, the ‘Genera Plantarum,’ has been followed in the main. The natural orders, beginning with the Crowfoot Order (Ranunculace@), and ending with the Clubmosses (Lycopodiacee), follow each other according to their natural relationship, and the genera in each order are arranged in the same way. The species belonging to each genus, however, follow each other in alphabetical order for the sake of convenient reference. The value of arranging all the flowering plants thus in their natural groups is fully discussed at p. 120 under the article on the ‘ Classifica- tion of Plants,’ and need not be further referred to in this place, except to say that it is hoped the arrangement on such a basis will at once commend itself to every reader interested not only in growing plants, but also in studying them, and comparing their characteristics one with another. So that the reader may be able to see at a glance some of the choicest plants belonging to the various groups referred to above, a careful selection has been made from each of them. Thus there will be no difficulty in choosing any Annuals or Biennials, Hardy Herba- ceous Perennials, Flowering Trees and Shrubs &c. one may wish to cultivate in his or her garden. As colour plays a very important part in artistic gardening nowa- days, lists are also given of Hardy Plants, having flowers of white, red, blue, yellow, purple, and other shades. These lists will be valuable for PREFACE vii the purposes of massing in herbaceous borders to produce effect by means of contrast in floral colouring. As the height is given to almost every plant described it is scarcely necessary to make out a list of plants with various heights. Under the ‘Trees and Shrubs’ at p. 107 the list has been so arranged as to enable the reader to see immediately which kinds are in blossom at any particular month of the year, from January to December. Part III. is devoted to the Description, Culture, and Propagation of the best Hardy Fruits for our climate, and Part IV. is in the same way devoted to Vegetables. The Culture plays an important part in these two groups, and is fully described in simple language. The methods recommended are not those of any particular gardener, but such as are generally practised in the best gardens in the kingdom. Sometimes more than one way of growing a plant is mentioned, but the reader should always remember that while the principles of cultiva- tion are usually the same, there may be many differences in detail. He should, therefore, use a wise discretion, by taking into consideration the nature of the soil, situation, aspect, altitude &c. of his own particular garden, and then by means of the information given, mixed with a little common sense (one of the best plant foods known), there will be little difficulty as a rule in growing his plants, flowers, fruits, or vegetables. As a reminder of the various operations to be performed during the year, a short calendar of work has been added to the Flower, Fruit, and Vegetable sections of the book. THE GLOSSARY Although it is always a difficult task for a technical writer to de- scribe the objects and operations connected with his own profession in ordinary language, I have endeavoured to avoid as far as possible the use of all technical gardening and botanical expressions throughout the work, except where such were inevitable. Simple language has been used throughout, but technical words are to be found here and there in the descriptions of the various natural orders and genera. These terms, however, are comparatively few, and occur many times over under similar circumstances, so that the reader will soon regard them as ordinary language. With a view, however, of making their meanings quite clear, all technical expressions have been grouped to- gether in a ‘Glossary,’ and numerous thumbnail sketches have also been given to further elucidate the meanings of many. vili PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS PLANT NAMES One of the greatest complaints amateurs have against gardeners and botanists is that they will use ‘ such long Latin names ’ for their plants. And there are some even—very few it is to be hoped—who use this as an argument, not only against the study, but also the cultivation of beautiful plants. ‘If you would only give your plants English names,’ they say, ‘we could understand them better and take more interest in them.’ This may be very true, but such people seldom find difficulty with names like Begonia, Gloxinia, Campanula, Passiflora, Colchicum, Crocus, Primula, Geranium, Pelargonium, Zinnia, Phlox, Coreopsis, Nemophila, and many other botanical names which practice has rendered familiar. As a matter of fact it is simply impossible to give every plant an English name, and efforts to do so have resulted in some very peculiar if not really awkward and inappropriate appella- tions, which are often worse than the proper botanical name. There is no need to say anything against the use of proper English names for plants in all cases where they can be appropriately used and are gene- rally accepted. Such English names are a help to the amateur, and throughout this work they have been used on every possible occasion, even to the extent of adopting popular names such as Buttercup, Poppy, Daisy &c. to represent the various natural orders to which ‘they belong. No attempt, however, has been made to coin new or awkward popular names ; and it must be pointed out that one and the same English name is often applied to two or more plants belonging to totally different families, as may be seen by reference to the copious InDEX at the end. The scientific names adopted throughout the work are those generally accepted by botanists throughout the world. ILLUSTRATIONS The illustration of species has not been attempted, as a satisfactory representation of each one would have necessarily increased the bulk of the book and its cost to the purchaser beyond what is thought desirable, and anything short of this would be of little practical value. As faithful a word-picture of a plant as possible has been given in the descriptions, and it is hoped that this will be of real practical value to the reader, and enable him to recognise any particular plant. Illustrations, however, have not been altogether abandoned. The ‘Glossary of Technical Terms’ at the beginning of the book has PREFACE ix been freely illustrated, as have also such operations as Budding (p. 58), Grafting (p. 52), Layering (p. 59), Pruning (p. 1033), Tree-planting (p. 1032) &c. The differences between the branches bearing flower- buds and leaf-buds in most of the fruit trees have also been illustrated for the benefit of those amateurs who like to do their own pruning but are often not quite sure as to whether they are cutting away fruit-bear- ing branches or not. Such, in brief, is an outline of the work ; and I may add in conclu- sion that I am indebted for many hints and suggestions to numerous friends, among whom special mention may be made of Mr. Jamus’ Britten, F.L.8., of the Botanical Department, British Museum ; Mr. Guo. NicHotson, F.L.8.; Mr. W. Watson, and Mr. W. J. Bzan, of the Royal Gardens, Kew; Mr. Gxo. Tespurt, of Mogden Gardens, Isleworth ; and Mr. W. H. Divers, Head Gardener to the Duke of Rutland, Belvoir Castle, who has kindly read the proofs of the Fruit and Vegetable portions of the work, and whose assistance may be regarded as an extra guarantee of accuracy and sound practical advice. JOHN WEATHERS. IsLEWORTH-ON-THAMEs : September 1900. CONTENTS PREFACE GLOSSARY OF TERMS INTRODUCTION PART I LIFE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: GROWTH . THE SEED Tue Root THe STEM Tue Leaves THe FLOWER FERTILISATION AND HYBRIDISATION THE FRUIT INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON VEGETATION PROPAGATION OF PLANTS: By SEEDS By Curtines By GRaFTING . By Buppine By Laynrine . By Divipine tue Rootsrock . ; By Suckrrs THE SOIL, ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION IMPROVING THE SOIL PLANT FOODS AND MANURES . PART II THE HARDY FLOWER GARDEN . ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER. PAGE 19 21 24 26 29 32 36 37 38 40 41 42 48 52 58 59 60 60 61 63. 69 7 18 80 xii PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS PAGE LIST OF CHOICE HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS 86 PLANTS FOR SHADY PLACES i ‘ ‘ 88 TRAILING AND CLIMBING PLANTS 89 HARDY PLANTS WITH WHITE FLOWERS 90 . 3 5 RED FLOWERS 91 5 3 » BLUE: OR! BRURPLE FLOWERS 92 ‘a 5 5 YELLOW FLOWERS 93 PLANTS IN FLOWER FROM SEPTEMBER TO MAY 94 BULBOUS AND RHIZOMATOUS PLANTS 5 . 95 THE ROCK GARDEN . é ‘ 96 ALPINE AND ROCK GARDEN PLANTS 102 ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS 104 AUTUMN TINTS . ‘ ‘ " - 110 EVERGREEN TREES AND SHRUBS 111 HARDY WATER AND BOG PLANTS. - “112 LAWNS ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ sq« 118 GARDEN WALKS AND PATHWAYS . ‘ 117 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ‘ , 120 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS OF PLANTS 121 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, PERENNIALS, ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS &c. A ‘ 181-956 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF GRASSES, HARDY BAMBOOS AND SEDGES ‘ ‘ 4 . 956-972 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF CONIFERS . 972-1008 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF HARDY FERNS, HORSE- TAILS, CLUBMOSSES . be Bea ‘ A 1008-1024 CALENDAR OF WORK FOR THE FLOWER GARDEN ; 1025-1027 PART III THE HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. * i p . 1038-1102 PART IV THE VEGETABLE GARDEN ‘ ‘ i ; 1108-1169 INDEX ‘ : ‘ : » 1171 GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TECHNICAL TERMS USED SPARINGLY IN THIS WORK Lixe every other profession, Gardening has its own peculiar terms and expressions, which are readily understood by the skilled practitioner. To the amateur, however, such technical terms and expressions are often bewildering when not explained in simple language or with- out illustration. To meet this difficulty, and to encourage the amateur to take a keener interest in the plants he may have in his garden, the technical terms used in this work are explained in the following glossary. In all cases where there is likely to be some doubt as to the meaning, an illustration has been given. It must, however, be understood that as regards form, it may often be necessary to use two or more terms to convey an accurate idea. Thus a leaf may be called ‘ ovate-lance-shaped’ which means that its shape is somewhat between ovate and lance-shaped—it is broader than lanceolate (fig. 68) and narrower than ovate (fig. 75). And so on with other expressions. As arule the mere botanical expressions have been avoided as far as possible in the body of the work, wherever a suitable English one could be substituted without inaccuracy. ’ the seed s appears. The stigma is shown at st. The right-hand drawing shows a feathery achene of Clematis. The fruit is at f, and the awn ata. 7 Achlamydeous, flowers without sepals or petals, as with most of the plants de- scribed from p. 759 to p. 805. Acicular, needle-shaped, as in the case of Pine leaves (fig. 2). FIG. 2,—ACICULAR. Acinaciform, — scimitar- Abortive, Abortion, imperfectly formed or rudimentary, as is often the case of stamens and petals. Acanthus, spiny. Acaulescent, Acaulis, apparently stemless, as in Primroses and other plants where the spaces between the joints are very short. Accrescent, growing after flowering is over, as with the calyx of Physalis Francheti (p. 691). Accumbent, lying against a thing, applied to the seed leaves or cotyledons in the seed. Acerosus, needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines, &e. (see Acicular). Achene, Achenium, a hard dry one-seeded superior fruit, as in Buttercup, Clematis, Strawberry. In fig. 1 the left-hand drawing shows a magnified achene of a Buttercup with a section of the ovary, within which FIG, 1.—ACHENE. shaped, like leaves of some Mesembryan- themums. Acrogenous, growing from the apex, as in the case of Ferns. Aculeate, armed with prickles, as the stems of Roses, Brambles &c. (fig. 3). Acuminate, drawn out into a long point; taper-pointed (fig. 4). Acute, sharp ; forming an angle less than a right angle at the tip. Adelphia, a brotherhood. Stamens are B Jy 2 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS monadelphous,’ as in the Mallows (p. 270), diadelphous,’ as in the Labiate family vIG. 3.—ACULEATUS, FIG, 4.—ACUMINATE. (p. 742), or ‘polyadelphous,’ as in the Hypericums (p. 265); according as they are arranged in one, two, or more fas- cicles or bundles. Adnate, one organ united to another, as an ovary to the calyx-tube, or stamens to petals. Adpressed, pressed close to anything, but not united with it, like the hairs on stems and leaves. Adventitious, accidental, out of the usual place. Roots are said to be ‘ adventitious’ when developed from any part of a plant except the ‘radicle’ or first downward growth from the seed. Eruginous, verdigris coloured. €stivalis, produced in summer. stivation, the arrangement of the parts of a flower (te. sepals, petals, stamens, pistils &c.) when in bud. The term ‘ pre- floration ’ is used in America. Agrestis, growing in fields. Alabastrum, a flower-bud. Ale, the wings or side petals of a papiliona- ceous flower, represented in fig. 5 at w. Alate, alatus, winged, as the stems of Thistles- and various seeds—e.g. that of the Elm. Albescens, albescent, turning white, or whit- ish. Albumen, nutritious mat- ter contained in the seed to feed the young plant until it has de- veloped roots and leaves (see p. 25). Alburnum, the sap-wood, or outer rings of wood in dicotyledonous trees. Albus, white. a Alliaceous, with a Garlic or Onion-like odour. Alpestris, sub-alpine. ; Alpine, a term applied to plants native of high mountains, beyond the forest range. Alternate, leaves arranged on the stem one after another (fig. 6). Petals are alternate with the sepals, or the stamens with the petals, when they stand over the spaces between them. FIG, 5,.—ALE, Alveolate, honey-combed like; with hollows or depressions in regular order, as on the bare fiower heads or receptacles of many of the Composite (p. 492). FIG, 6.—ALTERNATE. FIG. 7.—AMENTUM. Amentaceous, a term applied to plants having the flowers in catkins, like the Willow and Hazel (fig.7). A female flower is shown at f, and the male ones at m. Amplexicaul, said of leaves when clasping the stem with the base (fig. 8). Ampullaceous, swelling out like a bottle or bladder. Anastomosing, forming a network, as the veins of leaves and fronds. Ancipital, two-edged, as in the flower-stems of many Iridaceous plants. Andreecium, the male organs or stamens of a flower collectively (figs.9, 55, 56, and 109). Anemophilous, wind-loving—said of wind- fertilised flowers, like Willows, Conifers &c., the pollen of which is blown about by the wind and is thus carried to the stig- matic surface of the carpels in the female flowers. Anfractuose, bent hither and thither. Angios, covered, hidden. Angiospermous, having the seed enclosed in an ovary (p. 121). Anisos, unequal. Anisomerous, parts un- equal in number in the same flower. Annual, flowering and fruiting the first sea- son of being raised from seed, and of one year or season’s duration only (p. 78). Annulus, the name given to the ring of tissue around the upper portion of the stalk in Mushrooms and other Fungi. Also applied to the row of strong cells in spore cases of Ferns. Anther, the essential part of the stamen which contains the pollen. In fig. 9 the anther is shown by the letter a. FIG, 8.— AMPLEXICAUL FIG, 9.—ANTHERS. GLOSSARY 3 Antheridium, the organ in Ferns correspond- ing to the stamens in flowers (p. 1009). Apetalous, without petals, as with Ane- mones, Clematis &c. Apex, the end furthest from the point of attachment, as in the case of leaves. Aphylious, leafless, like the stems of many exotic Huphorbias and Cacta- ceous plants. Apiculate, having a very small hard point at the end or apex of a leaf, as in fig. 10. Apocarpous, when _ several pistils or carpels in the same flower are separate, as in the Strawberry and many Ranun- culacex. Apterous, without wings. Aquatic, aquatilis, living or growing in water. Arachnoid, cobwebby, like some of the Houseleeks (p. 44). Arboreus, arborescent, growing into a tree. Archegonium,: the organ in Ferns corre- sponding to the carpels or pistils in flowers (p. 1009). Arcuate, curved like a bow. Arenarius, arenose, growing in sandy soil. Argenteus, silvery. Araillose, argillaceous, growing in clayey soil. Argos, Greek for silvery white—as in argo- phyllus, white-leaved. Argutus, very sharply toothed. Arillate, seeds furnished with an aril or fleshy growth from the base, asin the Yew, Euonymus &c. (fig. 11). At a@ is repre- oS the fleshy aril, and at f the fruit or seed. Fig. 10.— APICULATE, rie. 11.—ARL. FIG. 12.—ARISTATE. Aristate, awned or bearded, like Barley (fig. 12). Articulatus, jointed. Arvensis, growing in cultivated grounds. Ascending, curving upwards into a vertical, from a more or less horizontal or prostrate position. Asper, asperous, rough; furnished with harsh hairs. Assimilation, the process of manufacturing food by the leaves (see p. 34). Ater, deep black ; used in combinations such as _atropurpureus, atrococcineus, atrosan- guineus éc. Atratus, becoming black. Attenuate, narrowing gradually to a point. Aurantiacus, orange-coloured. Auratus, golden-yellow. Aureus, golden. Auriculate, Auricled, having auricles, or ear- like appendages at the base of the leaves (fig. 13). Awn, a long-pointed bristle- like appendage, as the beard of many kinds of grasses, like Barley, Oats &c. Axil, the upper angle formed by the union of the stem and leaf. Axile, proceeding from the j i Fig. 13,— centre or axis. This termis ,yricutars. used in connection with the way seeds are arranged on the placentas in the ovary shown at a in fig. 86. Axillary, produced in the axils of the leaves or other organs. Axis, the main ascending stem and descend- ing root of a plant. Azureus, sky-blue. Baccate, having a more or less succulent or pulpy seed-vessel or berry as in the Fuchsia, Aucuba, &c. Barbatus, bearded, having tufts of soft hair. Bearded, having long bair like a beard, as the ‘ crests’ of many Irises (p17 ). Berry, a pulpy fruit containing several seeds imbedded in the juice, as the Currant, Gooseberry, Orange &c. (fig. 14). EF FIG. 14.—BERRY. FIG. 15.—BIFID. Bifid, divided half-way down into two parts (fig. 15). Bijugate, having only two pairs of leaflets, as shown in fig. 16. FIG. 16.—BIJUGATE, FIG. 17,—BIPIXNATE. Bipartite, divided nearly to its base into two parts ; nearly the same as Bifid, B2 4 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Bipinnate, when the pinne or divisions of a pinnate leaf are themselves again pinnate, as shown in jig. 17. Bipinnatifid, when the divisions of a pinnati- fid leaf are themselves pinnatifid (fig. 18). FIG. 19.—BITERNATE. FIG. 18.—BIPINNATIFID. Biternate, when the divisions of a ternate leaf are themselves ternate (fig. 19). Blade, the lamina or flat part of a leaf (fig. 98, 6). Bracteatus, furnished with bracts. Bracteoles, minute bracts attached to the base of the pedicels. Bracts, small leaves somewhat different from the others, seated on the flower stalks (peduncles) (fig. 89, 6). Bulb, a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually placed underground. In fig. 20 a repre- sents the scaly bulb of a Lily, and 6 the tunicated bulb of a Tulip. Bulbiferous, bearing bulbs. FIG, 21.—BULBILS. Bulbiis, small bulbs, produced in the axils of the leaves of many Lilies (fig. 21, 6). Bulbous, having bulb-like stems or roots. Bullate, blistered or puffed up, like the leaves of Savoys. Caducous, dropping off, as the petals of Poppies. ° Czruleus, pale blue. Cesius, ash-grey. Cespitose, in close dwarf tufts, like many Dianthus (p. 238). Calcarate, furnished with a spur, like the flowers of Larkspurs, Columbines, Tropr- olums é&e. (fig. 22). Calceolate or Calciform, having a pouch or slipper, as in Calceolaria and the Lady’s Slipper Orchid (fig. 23). Calyx (Sepals), the outer and usually greenish whorl of leaf-like organs of the flower below FIG. 22—CALCARATR. FIG. 23,—CALCEOLATE. the corolla (petals). The calyx is shown atc, and the petals at p, in fig. 22. Cambium-layer, see p. 30. Campanulate, bell-shaped, as in the Campanulas, p. 562 (fig. 24). Campestris, fields. Candidus, pure white. Canescens, greyish-white. Capillary, like very slender threads. Capitate, Capitular, Capi- tulum, growing in heads or close clusters, as with most flowers of the Composite order (fig. 25). AIS growing in FIG, 24.— CAMPANULATE. eo FIG. 25,—CAPITULUM. FIG. 26.—CAPSULE, Capsule, a dry usually many-seeded seed- vessel, as in Poppy (fig. 26). Carcerule, the name applied to the fruits of many of the Mallow and Hollyhock tribe (fig. 27). Carneus, flesh-colour, Carpel, the free or united divisions of the ovary or capsule. Cartilaginous, tough and hard, often applied to the margins of leaves. Caruncle, an outgrowth or excrescence at the scar (hilum) of some seeds, such as the Castor Oil plant (Ricinus) and the Viola (fig. 28). Catkin, a spike of closely crowded flowers of one sex, in which the perianths are replaced FIG. 27.—CARCERULF. FIG, 28.—C ARUNCLE, GLOSSARY 5 by bracts, as in Alders, Birches, Hazels, Willows (fig. 7). Caulicle, a little stem ; the name sometimes given to the rudimentary stem in dicotyle- donous seedlings. Cauline, belonging to or produced from the stem. Cell, see p. 22. Centrifugal, applied to those forms of in- florescence whose terminal or central flowers open first. Centripetal, flowering from the base or circumference towards the centre or tip, as in Wallflowers. Cernuus, drooping, pendant. Chaffy, covered with minute membranous scales. Channelled, hollowed somewhat like a gutter on the upper surface of leaves or down the stem. Chlorophyll, see p. 33. Chryso, in compounds, signifies golden- yellow, as Chrysanthus. Cilia, Ciliate, hairs placed like eyelashes on the edge of leaves, petals &c. (fig. 111). Circinate, rolled up from the top towards the base like a cro- sier, as with the unfolding fronds of Ferns (fig. 29). Circumscissile, divided by a circular slit or opening round the sides, as shown in fig. 90. Cladodes, leaf-like branches, as in Butcher’s Broom, p. 810. Clavate, club-shaped, a body which is slender at the base and gradually thickening upwards. Claw, the narrow and suddenly contracted base of a petal (fig. 30). ¢ represents the claw proper, b the blade, and s the scales often seen in many flowers of the Pink order (p. 238). Cleft, deeply cut, but not to the midrib. Coccineus, scarlet or carmine tinged with yellow. FIG. 29.— CIRCINATE, “Ss FIG, 30.—CLAW. FIG. 31.—coccl. Coccus, Cocci, the separable carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit, as in Pelargoniums and Ge- raniums (fig. 31, shown at s). Cohering, the attachment of similar parts, as the petals forming a gamo- or mono- petalous corolla ; and when the filaments of stamens are united. Column, a term more particularly used to denote the united sta- mens and pistils in the Orchid family (p. 890). In fig, 82 st represents the stig- matic surface in a hollow on to which the pollinia (one of which is shown at ») must be placed to produce seeds. Ata is shown the covering or lid over the pollinia. Comose, furnished with hairs at the end, as some seeds like those of the Composite order. Compound, formed of many similar parts, as the leaves of Thalictrums, Aquilegias, Horse Chestnut, Acacia &c. Compressed, flattened laterally. Conical, narrowing to a point from a broad circular base. FIG. 32,—COLUMN, Connate, when two similar parts are slightly connected round the stem, as the leaves of some Loni- ceras (fig. 33). Connective, the rib or part of the filament between the anther- cells, often produced, asin Paris quadrifolia (fig. 9, ¢). Contorted, in estivation, when one edge of a petal or sepal is covered and the other free or exposed ; twisted. Convolute, in zestivation or vernation, when one part is rolled up within another lengthwise. Cordate, with two rounded lobes at the base, heart-shaped (fig. 34). Coriaceous, leathery, tough. FIG. 33,—CONNATE. FIG. 35,—CORM. FIG, 34,—CORDATE. Corm, # fleshy bulb-like, solid, not scaly, underground stem, as in Crocus, Gladiolus, Cyclamen. See fig. 35, which represents the corm of a Crocus, the young one (yc) being above the old one (oc). Corolla, the whorl of floral leaves, called 6 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS petals, between the calyx and stamens, usually coloured. Figs. 5, 22, 28, 36, 40, 49, 58 &c. show many kinds of corollas. Corona, a term applied to the crown or trumpet in the centre of most Narcissus and Daffodil flowers (fig. 36, c). FIG. 36.—CORONA, FIG. 37.—CORYMB. Corymb, a raceme with the pedicels becom- ing gradually shorter as they approach the top of the flower stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly on a level (fig. 37). Corymbose, in the form of a corymb. Costate, ribbed. Cotyledons, the seed lobes, often forming the first leaves of the plant (fig. 48, c). Crassus, thick and fleshy. Cremocarp, the name given to the half-fruits or carpels of the Umbellifer family, which split apart when ripe (fig. 38). FIG. 38.—CREMOCARP, FIG. 39.—CRENATE, Crenate, with rounded teeth on the margins of leaves. See fig. 39, which represents a heart-shaped (cordate) reniform (kidney- shaped) leaf with a crenate margin. Crenulate, minutely crenate. Crested, having an appendage like a crest, as in the cultivated forms of many Ferns and in Cockscombs (p. 762). Crinitus, furnished with tufts of shaggy hair. Cruciform, four parts, as petals, arranged so as to form across, as in Arabis, Wallflower, and most of the Crucifer order (fig. 40). Ap q Fria, 41,—CUCULLATS. Fig. 40,—CRUCIFORM. Cryptogamous, see p. 121. Cucullate, hooded, as the spathe of Arum italicum (fig. 41), See Spathe. : Cuneate, like a wedge, but attached by its point, usually applied to the shape of leaves or petals. ; Cuspidate, abrupt, but with a little point at the end; something like apiculate but larger (fig. 42). FIG, 42,—CUSPIDATE. FIG. 43.—CYME. Cyme, inflorescence formed of a terminal flower, beneath which are side branches each having a terminal flower and branches again similarly dividing, and so on, as in many plants of the Pink Order (fig. 43). Cymose, arranged in a cyme. Dealbatus, covered with a greyish-white powder. Deca, in compounds signifies ten—as deca- petalus, ten-petalled. Deciduous, falling off, said of the leaves of large numbers of trees and shrubs in autumn ; Caducous has the same meaning but is applied to the sepals and petals of most flowers after expansion. Declinate, bent downwards, like the stamens in many flowers. Declining, straight, but pointed downwards. Decompound, subdivided more than three times, as the leaves of many Umbelliferous plants, Thalictrums &c. Decumbent, said of stems lying on the ground, but tending to rise at the tips. Decurrent, when the limb of a leaf is pro- longed down the stem, below the point of attachment of the midrib, as in the case of the common Comfrey, many Thistles &e. (fig. 44). FIG. 44,—DECURRENT, FIG, 45.—DECUSSATE, Decussate, opposite leaves in four equal rows, as in many Veronicas (fig. 45). GLOSSARY 7 Deflexed, curved downwards or towards the back. Dehiscence, the mode in which an ovary or fruit opens to shed its seeds. Fig. 46 shows & > ‘28 ” a 6 ae o various ways in which the pods open; a is called loculicidal, and b septifragal dehi- scence. Deltoid, fleshy with a triangular transverse section. Dentate, @ith’. shert FIG. 46.—DEHISCENCE. triangular teeth, as on the margins of many leaves. Denticulate, finely toothed, like the Camellia leaf. Depressed, when flattened at the top, like many Apples, Onions. Di, in compounds, signifies two, as diandrous, 2 stamens. Diadelphous, stamens in two bundles or fascicles, as in some Legu- minous flowers (fig. 47). Dichlamydeous, having both calyx and corolla, as in most of the flowers described between p. 131 and p. 759. Dichotomous, when a branch, stem, or flower- stalk is much forked in pairs. Diclinous, the same as Unisexuai, when stamens and. pistils are in different flowers. Dicotyledonous, said of plants having two seed-leaves, and afterwards net-veined leaves &c., as explained at p. 122. Fig. 48 shows a seedling dicotyledon: 7 shows the true roots; h the hypocotyl or part between the true root and true stem; c the cotyledons or seed-leaves; a, the first pair of true net-veined leaves, and p the first true bud after the original one called a plumule. FIG. 47,— DIADELPHOUS. FIG. 48,—DICOTYLEDON. FIG, 49. —DIDYNAMOUS, Didynamous, having four stamens, two shorter than the others, as in many plants of the Labiate order (fig. 49). Digitate, fingered leaves or lobes all start- ing from the top of the petiole, as the leaves of the Lupin, Horse Chestnut &c. (fig. 50). Dimidiate, the two halves of an organ very PIG, 61.—DIMIDIATE, FIG. 50.—DIGITATE. unequal in size, like the leaves of Begonias, Lime trees &c. (fig. 51). Dicecious, with the different sexes on different plants: stamens on one plant, pistils on another, as in Willows, Aucubas, Hippophaé &e. Disc, a fleshy surface from which the stamensand pistils spring. The term ‘disci- florw’ has been applied to a large class of plants having these characters (p. 123). Dise florets are the central flowers in Com- posite plants like Daisy, Marguerite &c. Dissected, deeply divided into many narrow lobes, like the leaves of Umbelliferous plants, Thalictrums &c. Dissepiments, the partitions of an ovary or fruit, as shown in fig. 46. Distichous, arranged in two opposite rows, as the leaves of Taxodium distichum (p. 988). Divaricate, spreading at an obtuse angle. Drupe, a fleshy fruit having a hard stone (putamen or endocarp, shown at s), as the Cherry, Plum, Peach &e. (fig. 52). m repre- sents the fleshy edible portion called meso- carp, and e the skin or epicarp. See Pome, fig. 88. FIG. 52,—DRUPE. Duramen, the heartwood or centre of Dicotyledonous trees, and the outer part of the stem of Monocotyledo- nous. Echinate, clothed with spines or prickles, like the fruit of the Sweet Chestnut. Elliptic, oval, but pointed at each end. Elongate, much lengthened. Emarginate, slightly notched at the end, as in the case of many leaves (fig. 53). Embryo, the germ of a plant in the seed (see p. 24). 8 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Ensiform, sword-shaped, as the leaves of Tris, Gladiolus &c. Entire, said of leaves, petals, sepals not toothed nor lobed, nor divided at the edge. FIG, 53.—EMARGINATE. FIG. 64.—EPICALYX. Epicalyx, the term applied to the secondary calyx or sepals, as seen in Strawberries and Mallows. In fig. 54, e shows the epicalyx ; c, the calyx (or sepals) proper; and p the petals. Epidermis, the skin of a leaf or stem im- mediately underlying the cuticle. Epigynous, when the parts of a flower are apparently seated on the ovary (fig. 55). FIG, 55,—EPIGYNOUS, BIG. 56,—EPIPETALOUS, Epipetalous,when the stamens are seated on the petals or corolla, as in Primroses &c. (fig. 56). Equitant, overlapping each other, as the leaves of the Iris. Erose, irregularly cut, as if gnawed, some- what as represented in fig. 95. Eterio, a fruit composed of several drupels, as in the Blackberry. Exogenous, growing by additions to the circumference. This term was formerly used instead of Dicotyledonous. Exserted, projecting beyond, as stamens protruding beyond the corolla or petals, as in figs. 55 and 56. Exstipulate, without stipules. Extrorse, applied to anthers which shed the pollen outwards, or away from the pistil. Falcate, sickle-shaped, applied to leaves like some of the Eucalyptuses. Fasciated, a term applied to stems which become abnormally flattened, and bear an extraordinary number of flowers or leaves, as is often seen in Asparagus and in Lilium auratum. Fascicle, a cyme or crowded cluster of flowers placed on short pedicels of nearly equal length, as in Sweet William and other Pinks. Fasciculate, when several similar parts are collected into a bundle and spring from the same spot. Fastigiate, applied to the branches of a tree when they are erect and close, like a tapering birch broom, as in the upright Cypress and Lombardy Poplar. Fimbriate, fringed at the margin, like the petals of Carnations, Sweet Williams, and other Pinks, as shown in fig. 30. Fistular, applied to the hollow stems and leaves of plants, as in many of the Umbelli- fer. Flaccid, weak, flabby, as when leaves droop for want of water. Flavus, flavidus, pale yellow. Flexuose, zigzag, usually changing its direc- tion at each joint, like the branches of many trees, the Beech &c. Floccose, with little tufts like wool. Florets, the small flowers of Composite plants (fig. 25, f). Fluitans, floating. Fluviatilis, aquatic. Follicle, an inflated 1-celled carpel, opening by a suture to which several seeds are attached, as in Trollius, Delphinium, Pe- onia (fig. 57). Free, separate, not joined together or with any other organ. Frond, the leaf-like part of Ferns, whether simple or divided. Fruit, the seed-vessel or ovary with its ripe contents (seeds) and any external appendages. Frutex, Frutescent, Fruticose, a shrub, shrubby; a woody plant destitute of a trunk, and branching from the base, or nearly so. Fugacious, soon falling off, like the cap on the flower-bud of Eschscholtzia, the sepals and petals of Poppies &c. Fulvus, dull yellow, buff. Funnel-shaped, tubular below, but gradually enlarging upwards, like the flowers of some Convolvuluses (fig. 66). Furcate, forked. Fuscus, brownish. Fusiform, spindle-shaped, thick tapering to each end, like the root of a long Radish. FIG. 57.— FOLLICLE. Galbalus, the fleshy and ultimately woody cone of Junipers and Cypresses. Galeate, shaped like a helmet, as the upper a of the flower of Monkshood (fig. 58). GLOSSARY 9 Gamopetalous, when the petals are united together, as in Canterbury Bells, Laures- vig, 58,—GALEATE, vid, 59.—GAMOPETALOUS, tinus, Forsythias, and most of the plants described under Gamopetale in this work, p. 477, see figs. 59, 60, 63, 66, 67. Gibbous, swollen on one side, like the flower of Valerian (fig. 60). Glabrous, without hairs or down on the surface, as the leaves of Camellias, Aucubas, Cherry Laurels &e. Gland, Glandular, a wart- like cellular secreting m6. 60.—c18B008. organ usually raised above the surface, as on the leaves of many Peaches. Glandular-hairy, having hairs tipped with glands. Glans, a name applied to the fruit of the Oak. In fig. 61,c represents the cupule, without the seed, and g the entire fruit. Glaucous, sea-green with a whitish-blue lustre, like the thick fleshy leaves of Echeveria secunda, and many Aquilegias &c. Globose, round like a globe, used in connection with in- florescences, like the heads of flowers of Hchinops MG. 61.—aLans, Ritro, as well as of single bodies like fruits, capsules &c. Glumes, the scales enclosing the spikelet of flowers in Grasses. Graveolens, possessing an intense odour, as in Ruta graveolens, the Rue. Gymnos, in compounds signifies naked, as ‘Gymnospermous,’ naked-seeded, applied to the Conifere (p. 972). Gynandrous, stamens and styles consoli- dated, as in the case of the Orchid family (p. 890), shown under Column (fig. 32). Gyncecium, the female organs, that is, car- pels or pistils collectively. Habit, the port or aspect of a plant. Hastate, a leaf enlarged at the base into two lobes pointing outwards nearly hoyri- zontally (fig. 62 Head, a close terminal collection of flowers surrounded by an invo- lucre, as in composite flowers; the same as a capitulum. Herbaceous, the parts of | plants which are not woody; also organs, or parts of them, of a green colour. LAL) Hermaphrodite, _ flowers having both stamens and pistil, as in figs. 49, 55, 60 &e. Hesperidium, a hard-rinded berry, like the Orange and Lemon. Hirsute, with long soft hairs. Hispid, covered with stiff hairs. Hoary, with greyish-white down. Hooded, flowers formed into a hood at the end, like the Aconites. See Galeate (fig. 58). Humilis, dwarf, low. Hybrid, see p. 37. Hypo, in compounds, signifies under, as hypo- gynous stamens, below the pistil, as shown in fig. 109. Hypocotyl, the part of the young stem below the seed leaves, as shown at h, fig. 48. Hypocrateriform, salver-shaped, said of flat corollas (fig. 63). At ¢ is shown the ‘ tube’ of such flowers. FIG, 62,—HASTATE, FIG, 63.—HYPO- CRATERIFORM. Igneus, bright scarlet. Imberbis, destitute of hairs. Imbricate, arranged over each other like the scales of flower and leaf buds. Impari-pinnate, pinnate, with an odd terminal leaflet, as shown in fig. 63, in which | indicates one of the 5 leaflets com- posing the whole leaf, p the stalk or petiole, and st the stipules. This is the same as oddly- pinnate. Incised, deeply cut, as the leaves of the Haw- thorns. Included, not extending beyond the organs surrounding it; said of stamens which do not project beyond the mouth of the corolla. Incomplete, some part wanting, as calyx, corolla &c. Plants belonging to the In- complete section are described from p. 759 to p. 805. Incurved, curved inwards. Indefinite, many, but uncertain in number, FIG. 64.—IMPARI- PINNATE, 10 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS said of stamens when more than 20 in number, as in Buttercups, Wild Roses &c. Indehiscent, not bursting, said of fruits which do not open spontaneously when fully ripe. Induplicate, when the edges of organs arranged in a valvate manner are folded inwards. Indusium, the membranous covering of the spores-cases of many Ferns, as shown in fig. 65; im _ repre- sents the indusium, and sp the spore- cases. A solitary spore-case burst and scattering spores is shown in fig. 105. Inferior, applied to an ovary when the calyx tube is adnate to it; and to the calyx when it is quite free from the ovary and below it, in which latter case the ovary is superior. Inflexed, curved inwards. Inflorescence, the arrangement of the flowers upon the stalk or peduncle. Inflorescences are spoken of as racemose, cymose, spicate, capitate, corymbose, paniculate &c.,accord- ing as to whether they are borne in the manner described by those terms. Infundibuliform, funnel- shaped (fig. 66). Internode, the space between two nodes or joints of a stem. Interruptedly pinnate, when pairs of small pinne alternate with large ones. Introrse, said of anthers which open inwards towards the pistil or carpels. Involucels, the involucres of secondary umbels. Involucre, the whorled bracts at the base of an umbel, head, or single flower, as in figs. 25, and 113, in. Involute, rolled from the back of anything, as towards the upper side of a leaf. Irregular, petals or sepals unequal in size, or different in form in the same flower, as shown in figs. 5, 22, 23, 49. FIG. 65.—INDUSIUM. FIG. 66.—INFUNDI- BULIFORM. Jugum, applied to a pair of leaflets; thus a leaf may be unijugate, bijugate, or multi- jugate according as there are one, two, or many pairs of leaflets (figs. 16, 17). Keel, the name given to the lower pair of petals of Papilionaceous or Pea-like flowers. In fig. 5 the keel is shown at k. Labellum, the same as ‘lip,’ q.v. Labiate, lipped, as the flowers of many plants of the Labiate family ; a corolla or calyx divided into 2 unequal por- tions (fig. 67). Laciniate, divided into nar- row irregular lobes. Lacteus, white, with « faint tinge of blue. Lacustris, growing in lakes. Lamina, the blade of a leaf, as shown at 6 in fig. 98. Lanceolate or lance-shaped, natrowly elliptic, and tapering to each end, as shown in fig. 68, in which @ represents a lance- shaped leaf proper, and b an oblanceolate leaf, or a lance-shaped leaf re- versed. Lancet-shaped, shortly and bluntly lanceolate. Lax, loosely arranged, often used in connection with the arrangement of flowers on the stems. Leaflets, the subdivisions of compound leaves, as shown in figs. 16, 17, 50, 64. Legume, a 1-celled and 2- valved seed vessel with the seeds arranged along the inner angle, as in the Pea, Bean &c. (fig. 69). Ligulate, strap - shaped, used in connection with the shape of leaves, and also of the ‘ray’ or outer spreading florets in plants of the Composite order Fic. 69.—LEGUME. (p. 492). Ligule, a membrane at the base of the blade of the leaf of Grasses. Limb, the flattened expanded part of a leaf or petal, as shown at figs. 70, 72, 73 &. Linear, very narrow and long. Lingulate, tongue-shaped, long, fleshy, con- vex, blunt. Lip, this term (and also the Latin equivalent labellum) is used particu- larly to designate the largest and most conspic- uous segment of an Orchid flower, as shown in fig. 70. Here 2 is the lip, col. the column, more highly shown at fig. 32, p the petals, s the sepals, and us the upper sepal. Littoralis, growing on the sea-shore. Lobate, cut into rather large divisions, as with many leaves. FIG. 67.— LABIATE. Uh FIG. 68.— LANCEOLATE. Fig. 70,—LIP. GLOSSARY 11 Lobule, a small lobe. Loculicidal (dehiscence), splitting down the back between the divisions, as shown in fig. 46, a. Lucidus, shining. Lunate, shaped somewhat like the new moon, but not so regular in outline. Lutetss, yellow. Lyrate, a pinnatifid leaf with the lobes successively and gradually enlarging upwards from the petiole, and ending in one larger than the others (fig. 71). Fie. 71.— LYRATE, Macros, in composition, long, large, as macrophylla, large-leaved. Marcescent, withering, but remaining in its place, like the calyx and corolla of many flowers. Medulla, botanical name for pith. The medullary rays (see p. 30) are the ‘silver grain ’ of the wood of Dicotyledons. Membranous, of the texture of membrane ; thin and flexible ; more or less papery. Micropyle, the orifice in the ovule (see . 24 Midrib, ‘the large vein extending along the middle of a leaf from its petiole nearly or quite to the other end, as shown in the leaves in figs. 4, 34, 72 &c. Mono, in compounds signifies one, as mono- cotyledon, one seed-leaf. Monocarpic, flowering and fruiting only once, like some of the American Aloes (Agave) (see p. 21). Monochlamydeous, the term given to flowers which have only one set of floral envelopes—either petals or sepals (see p. 126). Monocotyledonous, having one sheathing cotyledon or seed-leaf, as in the Oat, Wheat, Barley, Onion, Lily, and most of the plants belonging to the Monocotyledo- nous group, described between p. 805 and p. 972. Moneecious, with the stamens and pistils in separate flowers but on the same plant, as in Cucumbers, Marrows, Begonias, and Filberts. At fig. 7, f represents the female flowers, and m the male flowers of the Filbert on the same branch. Monosepalous, monopetalous, when the sepals or petals are joined by their edges so as apparently to form one, the same as gamosepalous and gamopetalous (fig. 59). Mucronate, abruptly tipped with a short point of the same texture. Multi, in compounds signifies many, as multifiorus many - flowered, multicolor, many-coloured. Multifid, divided into many parts. Muricate, covered with sharp short points. Mutabilis, changeable. Mycelium, the ‘spawn’ of Fungi (see ‘ Mush- rooms,’ p. 1167). Nectary, an organ which secretes honey. Nectaries are found at the base of the petals in Buttercups; in the Hellebores (p. 152) &e. the petals are reduced to nectaries, and in the Parnassia (p. 428) there is a radiating fringe of nectaries at the base of each petal. Netted, covered with veins or nerves con- nected together like network, as shown in figs. 34, 39, 98, 101 &c. Niger, black. Nitidus, smooth and shining. Nivalis, from snowy regions. Niveus, snowy-white. Node, a point in a stem where a leaf is pro- duced. Nucleus, the name given to the central and denser mass in the protoplasm (see p. 22). Nudus, naked. Nut, a hard dry 1-seeded seed-vessel. Nutans, drooping, nodding. Ob, in conjunction with terms means in- verted; thus obcordate (fig. 72) means a heart-shaped leaf attached to the stalk by BIG. 72.—OBCORDATE. FIG. 73.—OBOVATE. the narrow end; obovate (fig. 73) means ovate with the attachment at the narrow end, and the same with ob- lanceolate (fig. 68, b). Oblong, long oval, equally broad at each end. Obtuse, rounded or blunt. Ocrea, a tubular mem- branous stipule surround- ing the stem, as in many of the Polygonums (fig. 74). Odes, Oides, a termination denoting similarity, resemblance. Opposite, when two similar organs, as leaves, for example, grow one on each side of some body; or different organs are opposed to each other with a stem between them. FIG. 74.—OCREA. 12 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Orbicular, nearly round and flat, as in fig. 79, which shows an orbicular and peltate leaf of Tropeolum majus. Oval, an ellipse; not broader at one end than at the other, and about twice as long as broad. Ovary, the immature seed- vessel. Ovate, egg-shaped ; a short flat figure rather broader below the middle of its length (fig. 75). Ovoid, the same as ovate, but applied usually to solid, and not flat, bodies, e.g. Apples, Pears, Plums. Ovule, the name applied to the young seed before it has been fertilised by the contents of the pollen-tube. FIG, 75,— OVATE, Palate, the prominent part of the base of the lower lip which closes the mouth of a personate corolla, as shown in the flower of Snapdragon at fig. 84, p. Palea, the leaf-like parts of the flower of Grasses, inclosing the stamens, pistils, and hypogynous scales. Paleaceous, furnished with chaffy scales, as the receptacle of some Composites. Palmate, spreading like the fingers of a hand from the same point. Palmate-lobed, palmate with lobes, asin the leaves of the Maple. Palmatifid, palmate, with the lobes extend- ing to the middle of the leaf, as in the Castor Oil plant (fig. 76). Palmatisect, palmate, with the divisions ex- tending to the bottom of the leaf. Paludosus, Palustris, growing in marshy places. Panicle, a raceme with branching pedicels (fig. 77). FIG, 76.—PALMATIFID, FIG, 78,—PraPPus. FIG. 77,—PANICLE, Papilionaceous, like the flower of a Pea (fig. 5). Pappus, the crest of the fruit in Composites, formed of the altered limb of the calyx. In fig. 78,a shows a sessile or stalkless pappus, and ba stalked or stipitate pappus ; J is the fruit. Parasitic, living on another plant, like the Mistletoe (p. 781). Parenchyma, the soft cellular tissue of plants, the green pulpy material between the ribs and veins of leaves. Parietal (placentation), on the sides or walls of the carpels, as shown in fig. 86, p. Paripinnate, pinnate with an equal number of leaflets, as shown in fig. 85. Patent, spreading widely, a term often used by botanists in connection with the petals of a corolla. Pectinate, scalloped, crenately incised, like the teeth of a comb. Pedate, palmate with three lobes and the lateral lobes having similar large lobes on their outer edge, as the leaves of Helle- borus. Pedate-lobed, pedate, with rounded divisions or lobes. Pedatifid, pedate, with the divisions reach- ing to the middle of the leaf. Pedatipartite, pedate, with the divisions nearly reaching to the bottom of the leaf. Pedatisect, pedate, with the divisions ex- tending nearly to the midrib. Pedicel, the branch of a peduncle, otherwise the stalklet of an individual blossom, as shown in fig. 91, ped; here the peduncle or main flower stalk is shown at p, and the bracts are shown at b. Peduncle, flower stalk. fi \ FIG, 80.—PELORIA, FIG. 79.—PELTATE. Peloria, the term applied to the regular form of a usually irregular flower like the Common Toad- flax (fig. 80). Peltate, when the point of attachment is on the face, not at the edge, of a leaf or other organ (fig. 79). Penninerved, Penniveined, when the veins of a leaf radiate obliquely and re- gularly from the midrib (fig. 81). Pentagonal, with five angles having convex spaces between them. FIG. 81,—PENNI- VEINED, GLOSSARY 13 Pentangular, with five angles and five flat or concave faces. Perennial, of three or more years’ duration, and flowering and fruiting each year. Perfoliate, when the leaf completely sur- rounds the stem so that the latter seems to pass through it, as shown in fig. 82. Perianth, the floral whorls when the calyx and corolla are not distinguishable, as in Tulips, Lilies, Or- chids, Irises, Snow- drops &c., and many plants belonging to the Monocotyledons (p. 127). Pericarp, seed-vessel, including adhering calyx if present. Perigynous, growing upon the throat of the calyx around or above the ovary, as shown in fig. 83. Perisperm, another name for the albumen of the seed (see p. 25). FIG. 82.—PERFOLIATR. FIG, 84,—PERSONATE. FIG, 83.—PERIGYNOUS. Persistent, not soon falling off, as the leaves of evergreens. ; Personate, a gamopetalous two-lipped corolla of which the lower lip is pressed upwards so as to close the opening, as in the Snapdragon (fig. 84). At the ‘palate’ is represented. : Petals, the divisions of the corolla. Petal-like, resembling petals in texture and colour as in Clematis, Hellebores, Marsh Marigold &c., in which the sepals have assumed the functions and appearance of petals. Petiolate, having a petiole or leafstalk. Petiole, the stalk of a leaf as shown at p in figs. 64 and 98; Petiolule, the stalk of a leaflet. Pheznogamous, Phanerogamous, having manifest flowers (p. 121). Phylloclades, branches assuming the form and functions of leaves (see Cladodes). Phyllum, in composition, a leaf. Pileus, the ‘cap’ of a Mushroom and other Fungi. Pilose, with scattered rather stiff hairs. Pinnz, the segments of a pinnate leaf (fig. 85). Pinnate, when leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of a common stalk (fig. 83). Pinnatifid, a leaf deeply cut into segments nearly to the midrib (fig. 18). Pinnatipartite, pin- nate,with the divisions acute, andalmost free, as in the leaves of the Corn Poppy. Pinnatisect, pinnate, with the divisions reaching nearly to the midrib, as in the leaves of Water Cress. Pinnules, the segments of pinnate leaves and fronds. Pistil, the ovary, style, and stigma taken to- gether. In fig. 55 ov represents the ovary, st the style, and stig the stigma. In fig. 109 the style—or portion between the ovary and stigma—is absent or very short. Pith, the cellular tissue in the centre of Dicotyledonous stems. Pitted, covered with small depressed spots. Placenta, the process or body which bears the ovules in the ovary (fig. 86). (No ) PIG. 86.—PLACENTAS. FIG. 85.—PINNATE. FIG. 87,—PLAITED. Plaited, Plicate, folded in the manner of a closed fan, like many leaves before they are unfolded (fig. 87). Plumose, feathery. Plumule, the first or embryonic bud repre- sented in fig. 48 at p. Pod, a 1-celled and 2-valved seed-vessel with the seeds arranged along the inner angle. See Legume (fig. 69). Pollen, the dust in the anther which serves to fertilise the ovules (fig. 9, p). Pollination, the application of the pollen to the stigma, as described at p. 24. Pollinium, the waxy pollen mass in Orchids (see fig. 32, p). Polycarpic, fruiting more than once, several times (see p. 22), Polygamous, a term applied to those plants having male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers intermixed on the same individual. Polygonal, with many angles. Polypetalous, with free, distinct, and separate petals, as in Buttercups, Roses, and most of the plants described from p. 131 to p. 477. 14 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Polysepalous, with separate sepals. Pome, the name given to such fruits as the Apple and Pear. In fig. 88 st represents the remains of the stamens in the ‘eye’ (e) of the fruit; ct shows the calyx tube ; en the endocarp (core) within which are the seeds s; the fleshy edible part is repre- sented at m (meso- carp), and ep the epi- FIG. 88.—POME, carp. Pores, small, often roundish, holes. Przecox, flowering early. Pratensis, growing in meadows. Prickles, hardened epidermal appendages resembling thorns, but not woody (see aculeate, fig. 3). Procumbent, Prostrate, lying on the ground. Prothallium or Prothallus, the flat deep green body resulting , from the germination of a fern spore, and bearing male and female organs as ex- plained at p. 1009. In fig. 89 the prothallium is shown at p, from the under surface of which are given off the rhizoids or root- like hairs, 7”; and the first fern frond f, after fertilisation has taken place. Protoplasm, the living jelly-like contents of plant cells (see p. 22). Pubescence, Pubescent, with closely ad- pressed down. Pulverulent, covered with fine powdery matter. Pumilus, short and dense in habit. Punctate, having minute spots on the sur- face. Putamen, the hard part or shell of stone fruit, like the Almond, Peach, Cherry, Plum (fig. 52, s). Pyramidal, nearly in the shape of a pyramid, as shown at p. 1035. Pyriform, Pear-shaped. Pyxidium, a seed-pod or capsule opening hori- zontally by means of a lid, as in many plants of the Primula and Sola- num orders. In fig. 90, o represents the oper- culum or lid; s the . weeds; and c the calyx supporting the capsule. FIG, 89.— PROTHALLIUM. FIG. 90.— PYXIDIUN. Quadrifoliate, with four leaflets diverging from the same point, as in Paris quadri- folia (p. 880). Quinate, arranged in fives, as the leaflets of Akebia quinata (p. 179). Raceme, a spike with stalked flowers, as that of the Laburnum, Currant, Wallflower &e. (fig. 91); 6 repre- sents a bract; ped the stalklet or pedicel of the individual flower; and p the peduncle or main stalk of all the flowers in the raceme. Racemose, flowering in a raceme. Rachis, the central stem of some kinds of inflo- rescence. The stalk of the frond of Ferns above the lowest pinne. Radical, springing from just above the root, said of the leaves of many low-grow- ing tufted plants. Radicle, the first root of a young plant emerging from the seed (fig. 48, 7 ). Ramosus, much branched. Ray, parts diverging in a circle from a cen- tral point. Ray-florets are the outer strap- shaped ones, as in the Daisy and many other Composite plants. Receptacle, the dilated top of the stalk bearing the flowers in Composites (see Torus). Recurved, bent moderately backwards. Reflexed, bent considerably backwards. Regular, all the parts of each series of a flower alike, as in figs. 40, 59, 63, &c. Reniform, transversely oval, but broadly cordate at the base; kidney-shaped (fig. 92). Repens, creeping. Reticulate, forming a network. FIG. 91.—RACEME, FIG, 92,—RENIFORM. FIG. 93.—RETUSE. Retuse, abruptly blunt with a notch in the middle (fig. 93). Revolute, rolled back, as towards the under side of a leaf. Rhizome, a thickish prostrate more or less subterranean stem producing roots and leafy shoots, as in Irises, Solomon’s Seal &e. GLOSSARY 15 Ringent, a 2-lipped widely open or gaping corolla, like that of the Dead Nettle (fig. 65). Riparius, growing on the banks of streams or lakes. Rootstock, a thick short rhizome or tuber. The term is loosely applied by gardeners to mean the clump, set, or mass of roots of an herbaceous perennial plant. Rosette, a collection of leaves growing close together, and radiating from the main stem. Rosulate, disposed in the form of a rosette. Rotate, a monopetalous corolla with a short tube and very spreading limb (fig. 94), as in Potato and other flowers of the Solanum order. Ruber, red of any tint. Ruderalis, growing amongst rubbish. ‘ FIG. 94.—ROTATE. FIG, 95.—RUNCINATE, Rugose, covered with a net of lines enclos- ing convex spaces, like the leaves of Rosa rugosa. Rugulose, finely rugose. Runcinate, where the lobes of leaves are directed towards the base (fig. 95). Runner, a prostrate shoot rooting at its end, as in the Strawberry. Rupestris, growing on rocks, Sabulosus, growing in sandy places. Sagittate, like the barbed head of an arrow, the auricles or lobes pointing backwards (fig. 96) not outwards as in Hastate (fig. 62). Salver-shaped, a corolla with a long slender tube and flat limb, the same as hypocra- teriform (fig. 63). FIG. 96.—SAGITTATE, FIG. 97,—SAMARAS. Samara, applied to such winged indehiscent fruits as the Ash, Elm &c. (fig. 97). Saxatilis, growing on rocks or stones. Scaber, scabrid, scabrous, rough to the touch. Scales, minute rudimentary leaves or appen- dages to petals, as in many Pinks &c. Scandens, climbing. Scape, a leafless flower stem springing from the root, like that of Tulips, Hyacinths, Daffodils. Scarious, with a thin, dry, shrivelled appear- ance. Scorpioid, rolled up in a somewhat crosier- like fashion. See Circinate. Secund, all turned towards one gide. Sempervirens, evergreen. Sepals, the division of the calyx. Septicidal (dehiscence), separating through the dissepiments (fig. 46, 6). Septum, the partition of an ovary or fruit. Sericeus, silky. Serotinus, late. Serrate, toothed like a saw, like the margins of many leaves (fig. 98). Serratures, teeth like those of a saw. Serrulate, with very small saw-like teeth. Sessile, without a stalk, like many leaves. Seta, a bristle; a bristle tipped with a gland; a slender straight prickle. Setaceous, like a bristle. Setose, bearing bristles or sets usually ending in glands. Sheath, the lower part of a leaf or its petiole, which forms a vertical sheath surrounding the stem. Silicle, a silique about as long as it is broad (fig. 99). ) FIG. 99,—SILICLES. ret. FIG. 98.—SERRATH. FIG. 100.—SILIQUEs. Silique, a long pod-like fruit of Crucifers having its edges connected by an internal membrane (fig. 100). Simple, not compound; not branched, lobed, or divided. Sinuate, having many large blunt lobes, as in Oak leaves (fig. 101). Sinus, the recesses of a lobed organ, as shown in the leaf at fig. 101. Fic. 101.—sSINUATE. 16 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Smooth, free from all kinds of roughness. Solitary, growing singly, said of flowers when only one is borne on the stalk. Spadix, a succulent spike bearing many sessile closely placed flowers, as in fig. 99, where b.s¢ represents the barren stamens ; f.st the fertile stamens; bp the barren pistils ; and fp the fertile ones capable of producing seeds. Spathe, alarge bract often inclosing a spadix, as shown in fig. 41; s is the spathe and sp the spadix. FIG. 104.—SPIKE. FIG. 103.— SPATHULATE, FIG. 102.—SPADIX, Spathulate or Spatulate, oblong, with a long and narrow base; spoon-shaped (fig. 103). Spike, a long simple axis with many sessile flowers like a raceme except that the individual flowers have no stalks; see fig. 104, representing the flower spike of Plantain. Spikelet, the small group of flowers in Grasses enclosed within one or more glumes. Spine, a stiff, sharp, woody, persistent thorn, as seen in Gooseberries, Barberries, Black- thorns &c. Spinose, furnished with spines. Spinulose, with small, often very minute spines or prickles. Sporangium, a single spore case which con- tains the spores or seeds of Ferns. In fig. 105 sp represents the dust-like spores falling from the ruptured case; and w represents the stiffer ringed midrib or annu- lus (see Indusium). Spur, a tubular exten- sion of the lower part of a petal or monopetalous corolla, as seen in Columbines and Tropmolum (fig. 22). Squamatus, clothed with scales. Squarrose, rough with projecting or deflexed scales. Stamen, the male organ of a flower, usually formed of a filament and anther. In fig. 9, f represents the filament; a the anther shedding the pollen »; and c the con- nective or midrib between the 2 anther FIG. 105,— SPORANGIUM, lobes. The connective is produced in one case, as in the stamens of Paris quadrifolia. Staminode, rudimentary organs next to the stamens; usually barren or antherless stamens. Standard, the upper or posterior petal of a Pea-flower which is outside the others in the bud, shown at st in fig. 5. Stellate, radiating from a centre like a star; applied to flowers of which the petals are narrow and distant and radiate like the rays of a star. Stellulate, like minute stars. Stigma, the cellular part at the top of a carpel or style to which the pollen adheres, shown at st in fig. 1, and s¢ig in figs. 56, 109. Stipe, the stalk of Fern fronds up to the lowest pinne. Stipitate, stalked; applied to carpels which are more or less slightly elevated on a stalk. A stipitate pappus is shown in fig. 78, b. Stipules, leaf-like appendages at the base of the petiole, shown at st in figs. 64, 98, 111 (s). Stolon, an offset or runner producing roots at intervals, as in Strawberry. Strap-shaped, not very narrow nor long, and with nearly parallel sides; the same as ligulate. Striate, with slender streaks or furrows. Strobilus, a flower-head or cone consisting of several overlapping scales, as seen in many members of the Conifer order (p. 972). Style, the slender termina- tion of a carpel bearing the stigma, shown in fig. 83. Sub, in composition means almost or nearly, some- what; thus sub-rotund means nearly round; swb-shrubby, some- what shrubby; swb-orbicular, roundish & c. Subulate, awl-shaped, tapering from the base to a fine point, a long narrow triangle. Sucker, a leafy stem produced at the end of an underground shoot, as with Plum trees, Lilacs &c. Suffruticose, rather shrubby. Sulcate, furrowed, like the stems of many Umbelliferous plants. Superior, above anything ; a calyx is superior when its tube is wholly attached to the ovary; half superior when attached only to the lower half of it; an ovary is superior when wholly free from and above the calyx. Le GLOSSARY 17 Supra-decompound, subdivided many times. Sylvaticus, Sylvestris, inhabiting woods. Syn, signifies union or growing together, as syncarpous, when the carpels are consoli- dated, as shown in fig. 27, or syngenesious, when the anthers are united, as in most flowers of the Composite order. Tap roots, roots with stout tapering bodies developed direct from the seed, like Carrots and Turnips (fig. 107). Tendril, a twisting slender organ for laying hold of objects. Tenuis, slender, thin. Terete, applied to round or nearly round stems, like an ordinary lead pencil sig. 107—rar-roots. or goose quill. : Ternate, growing in threes, as shown in the portions of fig. 19, and in fig. 108, like the leaves of Choisya ternata (p. 296). Testa, the outer skin of a seed. VIG. 109.—1TETRA- DYNAMOUS. FIG. 108.—TERNATE, Tetradynamous, having six stamens, of which two are shorter than the other four, as in the Wallflower (fig. 109) and most plants of the Crucifer order. Tetragonous, with four angles and four convex faces, like the stems of Dead Nettles and many other plants of the Labiate order. Thalamus, the receptacle or torus of a flower. Thorn, an abortive branch with a sharp point; distinguished from a Prickle by being woody. Throat, the orifice of the tube of a gamo- petalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx. Thyrsoid, having a close-branched raceme of which the middle is broader than the ends. Tomentose, covered with cottony entangled hairs, forming a matted shagginess called tomentum ; felted. Toothed, having small tooth-like divisions on the margin. Torus, the part on which the divisions of a flower or fruit are seated; the same as receptacle. Tri, in compounds, signifies three. Triangular, with three angles and three flat faces. Trichotomous, in forks of three prongs successively repeated. Trifid, when leaves are divided about half way down into three parts, as shown in fig. 110. Fic. 110.—TRIFID. ric. 111.—TRIFOLIATE. Trifoliate, composed of three leaflets, as the leaves of Clover shown in fig. 111, where the leaflets are ciliated on the margins; the stipules at the base are shown at s. Trifoliolate, having three leaflets proceeding from the same point, as in fig. 19. Trigonous, with three angles and three convex faces. i Tripartite, divided into three parts nearly to its base; more than trifid. Tripinnate, three times pinnately sub- divided, as if the leaflets in fig. 17 were again divided. Triquetrous, having three angles and three concave faces. Tristis, dull-coloured. Truncate, blunt as if cut off at the end, like the leaf of the Tulip tree (fig. 112). Tube, the pipe formed by the cohesion of the petals in a gamopeta- lous corolla, as shown in fig. 63, ¢. Tuber, a thickened and underground _ fleshy part of the stem, as the Potato and Jeru- Fc. 112.—rruncats, salem Artichoke. Tubercles, little round knobs. Tubercular, tubercled, tuberculate, covered with little knobs. Tuberous, like a tuber, but not part of the stem. Tubular, hollow and nearly cylindrical, something like fistwlar. Turbinate, top-shaped, conical and attached by its long point, like many Pears. Uliginosus, inhabiting swampy places. Umbel, when many stalked flowers spring from one point and reach about the c 18 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO same level, as in fig. 113. Partial umbels are umbels seated upon the branches of an umbel, the whole forming a compound umbel. Umbrosus, growing in shady places. Unarmed, where stems and leaves are destitute of spines or prickles. Undulate, having a wavy margin. ru. 113.—UMBEL. Fig. 114.—URCEOLATE. Unilateral, turned to one side. Urceolate, like a pitcher contracted at the mouth, like the flowers of many Heaths, as shown in fig. 114. Urens, stinging, as the hairs of the common Stinging Nettle. Veins, the nervesin leaves and their ramifications, Valvate (zstivation), sepals or petals meet- ing at the margins, but not overlapping each other, as shown in fig. as shown in figs. 34 &e. J Velutinous, velvety, as the surface of leaves. SS Ventral, the anterior part wie. 115,—vatvarr. of an organ. 115. Ventricose, swelling unequally on one side, GARDEN PLANTS somewhat like the corolla of Valerian shown in fig. 60. Vernalis, produced in spring. Vernation, the arrangement of the leaves when in bud. Verrucose, warty. Versatile, affixed in the middle, applied to anthers like those of Lilies which swing backwards and forwards with the move- ment of the air, In fig. 9 a versatile anther is shown in the middle. Verticillate, arranged in whorls. Villous, shaggy with loose long soft hair. Virens, green. Virgatus, twiggy. Viridis, clear full green. Viscous, clammy. Volubilis, twisting. Wedge-shaped, like a wedge, but attached by its point. Whorl, whorled, similar organs arranged in a circle round an axis, as the leaves of Galium, Asperula (fig. 116), and of some Lilies. Winged, having leaf-like or membranous expansions, like the stems of many Thistles. Wings, the lateral petals of a Pea-flower,as shown at w in fig. 5; the flat mem- branous appendages of some FIG. 116.— seeds. WHORL, Zygomorphic, said of a flower which can only be bisected in one plane so as to show two similar halves. Most Orchid flowers bisected vertically are zygomorphic, as are also many flowers of the Labiate family (p. 742), the Aconite (p. 162) &c. INTRODUCTION THE cultivation of plants at the present day has been brought almost to the highest point of perfection. Far greater attention is now given to the problem as to how the finest Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables can be produced in the best way at the least cost than at any previous period in our history. The whole country is alive to the importance and necessity of making the land produce as much as possible in the best possible way. County Councils are lavishing money to have gardening taught either in schoolrooms or in gardens, but as yet have not decided upon any definite plan whereby those taught are likely to obtain any or much benefit from -what they learn. And yet, it is a curious fact that, although we know a good deal more about plants now than our ancestors did, and though thousands of plants, natives of all parts of the world, are grown in our gardens that were quite unknown to them, still there has been practically but little change in the principal methods of cultivation. The importance of tilling and manuring the soil and bringing it into a state of fertility has been recognised from the earliest ages, while little or nothing was known of its nature and composition, or the chemical changes that take place in it, or that are produced by rain, heat and cold, &e. The proper times for Digging, Planting, Sowing seeds, and various other operations were also well known, and modern gardeners still continue to work on the same old lines. The ancients were also acquainted with the arts of Budding, Grafting, Layering, Pruning, Thinning Out, Transplanting &c., and all these operations were alluded to as commonplaces by the poet Virgil before the Christian Era in his well-known Bucolics. It thus appears that, notwithstanding the march of time, the principles of cultivation remain the same in all ages, and gardeners have only to c2 20 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS apply them with a fair amount of common sense, and attention to details necessitated by the nature of any particular plant. Although, unhappily, a good knowledge of plants, their structure and requirements, does not necessarily mean that a person with this knowledge is also a good cultivator, it is nevertheless true that a gardener who turns such knowledge to practical use has a much better chance of producing fine flowers, fruits, and vegetables than he who is not so well equipped in this respect. Many gardeners—amateur and professional—are like poets: they are born and not made; they seem to know instinctively and exactly how to cultivate any particular plant; or if they do not, it is not very long before they find out. Without knowing it, such gardeners carry out the true principles of cultivation, which after all are in strict accordance with natural laws, and therefore the more one studies the nature of a plant and its requirements the sooner will he be able to grow it to perfection in his garden. Before one can hope to grow a plant of any kind satisfactorily it is obvious that at least some knowledge is required in regard to the functions of the various parts of plants, the soil and its composition, and treatment, and many other details. An attempt has been made in this direction with a view to giving the reader information that may be of use to him in the garden. It is most important to have a clear idea as to the functions of the Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds, as this will prevent many mistakes in cultural treatment. A doctor who did not understand the anatomy of his patient, and what he required to keep him in good health, would be asorry practitioner. So with the person who would grow plants successfully. He must under- stand them, he must know something about their relationship to each other, the countries in which they grow wild, the kind of soil that suits them best, whether they prefer sunshine or shadow, moist or dry situations, and how best they may be increased so that they shall not die out of cultivation altogether, either through old age, ill-treatment, or other causes. GROWTH 21 PART I THE LIFE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS From a gardening point of view cultivated plants may be said to be constructed on a common plan, although there is a vast variation in details. Speaking generally, most plants are characterised by having Seeds, Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit, and may be annual or biennial herbs, or herbaceous or woody perennial plants. Whatever group they belong to, their corresponding parts are constructed on the same principle and perform the same functions. As the good cultivation of plants depends to a very large extent upon a more or less intimate knowledge of their nature, it may be useful if a brief account is given of the various organs mentioned above. GROWTH OF PLANTS Perhaps one of the first things people notice about plants is that they grow. Plants, somewhat like human beings and animals, are living objects, and are affected in much the same way by heat, cold, moisture &c. They also are to be found in all parts of the world, and according to the climate in which they grow are looked upon as being more or less hardy or tender. They pass from what may be called the infant or seedling stage to maturity, and then more or less slowly or quickly begin to decay and ultimately die. They have a complete cycle of existence, and this cycle is completed by some in a much shorter time than others. Annuals and biennials for example complete their cycle of existence in one or two years, but others like herbaceous perennials, trees and shrubs &c., exist for several years before the individual becomes exhausted. And yet while an individual plant may pass from the seedling stage to death in one or more years, according to its nature, as a rule it makes provision for reproducing itself again before actually dying. This process of reproduction is naturally carried on by means of seeds. Some plants like annuals and biennials bear only one crop of seeds and then die. Plants with these characteristics—that fruit only once—are said to be monocarpic. 22 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Other plants, however, which may live for very many years, like some of the American Aloes, also fruit or produce seeds only once in a life- time and then die. These are also said to be monocarpic. Nearly all our hardy herbaceous perennials, and woody perennials like trees and shrubs—Apples, Pears, Plums, Oaks, Ashes, Beeches &c.—fruit or produce seeds year after year for several generations, and are therefore said to be polycarpic. It little matters, however, whether plants be annuals, biennials, or perennials, whether they produce only one crop of seed or many, they are all governed by the same laws of Growth. Plant-cells.—To give the reader a better idea of how this process called growth takes place, it is necessary to point out that plants are imade up of cells and tissues. Some plants, indeed, like the green Protococcus seen on damp walls, the mould on old leather &c., are very simple in their structure and often consist of one cell only. Andit is in the contents of the individual cells, the presence of which was discovered in 1667 by Robert Hooke, that we must look for the origin of growth. Protoplasm.—Every plant cell in a young stage is filled with a slimy jelly-like substance to which the name of Protoplasm was given in 1846 by a German botanist, Hugo von Mohl. This protoplasm is practically the seat of life. It is constantly undergoing more or less rapid changes in composition, absorbing new food, digesting it, and expelling all waste or worn-out materials. "When the cells are young they are completely filled with it, but as they grow old the protoplasm begins to break up into strands, leaving spaces in between which become filled with watery sap absorbed and drafted up by the roots. By-and-bye the protoplasm recedes from the centre of the cell to line the cell walls, and ultimately vanishes altogether with age, the refuse from it going to make the cell walls thicker and harder, and producing what we know as wood or fibre. Before this stage is reached, however, the protoplasm, or rather the central portion of it called the nucleus, divides and forms a new cell. This, like its parent, becomes surrounded with a cell wall, and then becomes practically an independent individual working out its own life history in the same way. When it is remembered that plants are made up of millions of these cells containing protoplasm, and that with the advance of age each mass of protoplasm is capable of pro- pagating itself by division, it is not so very difficult to account for what we understand as growth—how plants often attain enormous heights, and the trunks of trees great diameters—according to their nature. Although each mass of protoplasm is as it were completely enclosed within its own cell walls, it is not, however, cut off from all communi- PROTOPLASM 23 cation with the protoplasm in the neighbouring cells. It is supposed that thin microscopic strands of protoplasm pass through the cell walls from one protoplasmic mass to another, and also that the fluid from a well-filled or turgid cell is diffused through the cell walls into a comparatively empty one by a process which has been termed osmosis or endosmosis, and that in this way the cell-sap is drafted to the outer- most points of the shoots of plants no matter how tall. As the proto- plasm in each cell is therefore dependent for its support on the food dissolved in the cell-sap it naturally follows that no solid substance can possibly enter as such into the system of a plant. The protoplasm is formed, or forms itself, out of the food which has been absorbed in a liquid state, and it then proceeds to build up the various tissues of the plant which we know as shoots, stems, leaves, flowers &c. When the liquid or watery sap in the cells becomes excessive it is exhaled or breathed out into the atmosphere in the form of vapour by means of the pores of the leaves referred to below under ‘Transpiration’ at p. 34, and fresh supplies as wanted are absorbed by the roots, but only under favourable climatic conditions. To sum up, the whole plant is dependent on the work of the protoplasm, and so long as this continues to perform its functions, so long will the plant live and produce in due course its flowers and fruits. Anything therefore that tends to interfere with the work of the protoplasm, such as too much heat or cold, too much drought or moisture, too much light or shade, also stops the growth of the plant, and until proper conditions are restored the plant is likely to die because the protoplasm cannot perform its work in a satisfactory manner. The great aim of the gardener, therefore, is to choose the most favourable conditions for his plants so that there will be no interference or check to the mysterious work carried on within the cell walls by the protoplasm. Ifa plant comes from a tropical climate, he endeavours to imitate the natural warmth by growing it in a hothouse, as he very soon discovers by the drooping and withering leaves and stems that a cool temperature will be injurious. In the same way plants from cold regions will be injured by excessive heat. As this work, however, only deals with plants which will grow in the open air in our own climate, the reader need not concern himself much about artificial heat, although he will find many cases in which he is advised to use hotbeds for raising seeds &c., and to place his plants in the warmest and sunniest, in the coolest and shadiest, in the driest or dampest positions in his garden; but these instructions are all based upon this one principle of placing a plant under the circumstances most favourable to the work to be performed by the protoplasm in the cells. 24 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS THE SEED It has been stated above that the growth of a plant takes the form of a cycle, and it is therefore difficult to take any one organ and say ‘ growth begins here.’ This cannot be said of the root, as it is the out- come of the seed ; it cannot be said of the leaves, as they are outgrowths of the stem; and it cannot even be said of the seed, which is produced by the ripened fruit. As, however, for practical purposes it is necessary to start somewhere, the most logical beginning from a gardening point of view seems to be the Seed, which we will therefore consider. Many years ago, the late Dr. Lindley described a seed as being ‘a living body, separating from its parent and capable of growing into a new individual of the same species. It is a reproductive fragment, or vital point, containing within itself all the elements of life, which, how- ever, can only be called into action by special circumstances.’ As popularly understood, seeds are only produced by Flowering Plants or ‘Phanerogams’ (p. 121). They are the result of the ovules (either naked, as in the Pine order ; or enclosed in carpels, as in most other Flowering Plants) being fertilised by the pollen tube. ach fer- tilised seed contains an embryo, or the rudiments of a young plant. When placed ina suitable temperature, with moisture, they are capable of reproducing all the characters of their parents. The so-called ‘seeds’ or spores of Ferns differ very much from those of Flowering Plants, and the way in which they are reproduced is explained at p. 1009. The process of forming seeds takes place somewhat in this way. When the grain of dust or pollen from an anther in the flower falls on to the stigmatic surface of the carpel, the grain of pollen begins to grow much in the same way as a seed in the soil, with the exception that all the growth is downwards. A microscopic thread called the pollen tube makes its way from the pollen grain downwards through the tissue of the carpel, and eventually reaches the ovule contained within the walls of the ovary. At one end of the ovule there is a small hole called the micropyle. The pollen tube enters this and comes in contact with a cell much larger than the others called the embryo-sac. Within the embryo-sac and close to the micropyle are three other cells, one of which called the egg-cell or embryonic vesicle receives the contents of the pollen tube and is thus fertilised. This operation, sooner or later, results in the production of what is commonly known as a seed. After fertilisation, the nuclei in the masses of protoplasm in the cells divide as explained above and form new masses, and thus fill up the interior of the embryo-sac. Eventually the embryo, or young plant, THE SHED: GERMINATION 25 fills up the entire space within the seed coats as in the case of the Pea, Bean, Horse-Chestnut, Oak &c.; or it may occupy only a very small space as in Wheat, Onion &c., and remain imbedded in a substance at one time called albwmen, but now more generally called perisperm. When the embryo occupies the whole seed, as in the case of the Bean &c., all the reserve material for the purpose of nourishing the young plant is stored up in the fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, and it is from these that food supplies are drawn until the young root has developed sufficiently to absorb food from the soil, after germination has taken place. In the case of other seeds, however, like those of the Wheat and Onion, the young plant is fed upon the albumen or peri- sperm, and not on the seed leaves, until roots are formed. Germination.—Seeds germinate as the result of a certain amount of heat, moisture, and air. The seeds of some plants germinate in a much lower temperature than others, but there is a certain point called the ‘ optimum’ at which seeds of any given plant will sprout more readily than at a point below or above it. The best or ‘optimum’ tempera- ture for germination varies according to the nature of the plant or species, and the gardener learns by experience which temperature is most suitable for raising the seeds of any particular plant. He knows for instance that the seeds of many plants will sprout sooner if they are sown upon a hotbed than if they are sown in the open ground where the temperature may be 10° or 20° lower. He also knows that a certain amount of moisture is absolutely necessary, and that the free circulation of air between the particles of soil shall not be impeded, as he usually takes particular care to have the soil well drained, so that the water and consequently the air shall pass through it freely. Speaking generally, the seeds of most of the plants described in o work germinate readily either out of doors in autumn or spring ; cold frames without artificial heat ; or in the gentle heat of a faite d os or greenhouse, say 60° to 70° F. or even less. Heat and Cold.— When a seed ‘ sprouts’ or germinates as a result of the suitable conditions referred to above it is obvious that growth is taking place. It undergoes a change from the apparently dried condition in which it was before its contact with moisture or suitable heat. In fact, heat is the prime mover of life in the seed; hence by the use of hotbeds or frames or greenhouses several degrees more heat are obtained than out of doors. Chemical changes take place in the seed; water is absorbed from the soil through the seed coats ; the latter are soon unable to contain their swollen contents and consequently burst. The first seed- leaves are pushed upwards through the soil, and the tiny rootlet down- wards intoit. These signs are simply an indication of the work that is 26 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS being done by the protoplasm in the cells as already explained. From the water absorbed through the seed-coats, the protoplasm receives a supply of food and proceeds to manufacture it, with the result that the nuclei in the masses of protoplasm divide and produce other nuclei, and these again in due course carry out the same process, not only until a plant is fully developed but until it dies. Vitality of Seeds.—Some seeds retain their vitality for several years—that is, their power of germinating does not appear to be much injured by being kept a long time—while others very soon lose it. Tor practical purposes it is preferable to obtain fresh and thoroughly ripened seed to secure the best results. The stories as to the germi- nating power of mummy-wheat 2,000 years old are fables, but many seeds will retain their vitality and produce good plants after careful storing for 5 to 10 years. THE ROOT To the ordinary observer every part of a plant which happens to grow naturally underground is regarded as a ‘root.’ This looseness of expression is not altogether confined to the uninitiated, as the term ‘roots’ is also applied by florists and nurserymen to entire plants, such as Pansies, Violas, Sweet Williams, Foxgloves, Double Daisies, and many other plants in which a large trade is done during the spring months. At present, however, we are chiefly concerned with real roots, and it is necessary that the gardener should have a clear idea as to their origin and function. The first Root is the downward growth from the lower end of the ‘caulicle’ or basal portion of the embryo. It usually breaks through the seed coat at germinating time, before the cotyledons emerge to the light, the object in view by nature evidently being that the young plant should be provided with roots as early as possible after growth has commenced in the seed. When the first root persists and continues to grow it becomes what is known as a tap-root, and is present in all Dicotyledonous plants (p. 131 to p. 805) raised from seed. Good examples are seen in the Carrot, Parsnip, and Beetroot as represented at fig. 107 in the Glossary. As the tap-root in many plants has a tendency to grow down into uncongenial and sterile parts of the soil, it may be prevented from developing in a downward direction by more or less frequent transplanting; this injures the tip, stops its growth, and causes the more desirable fibrous roots to develop from the sides. Roots branch in all directions and apparently without system, and become finer and more threadlike towards the tips. They usually ROOTS 27 avoid the light, bear no leaves or buds, and are generally of a pale or whitish colour although sometimes with coloured juice. Functions.—The main function of the root is to obtain liquid food from the soil. The tips of the root are chiefly concerned in this work, the older portions merely serving as holdfasts for the plant, and as channels for conveying the food to the stems and leaves. The extremity of each root-fibre is covered with a cap, formerly called a ‘spongiole,’ which protects a mass of young and active cells forming the ‘growing point.’ As the roots push their way in a somewhat corkscrew-like fashion through the soil, the outer layers of the root- cap wear out and are replaced from within by the discarded layers of the growing point. The contents of the cells of the growing point are very sensitive to heat, cold, and moisture, and under favourable conditions absorb water and whatever plant food is dissolved in it in large quantities. During the spring and summer they are most active, gradually subsiding towards autumn and becoming almost inactive in winter. When plants are moved during the active state of growth most of the root-tips are injured or broken, and the supply of food and water is cut off from the plant until new roots are formed. Sometimes plants moved at this period never recover from the shock to the roots and, being unable to produce new ones quickly enough, die, practically of starvation and drought. Many roots have root-hairs. These are developed chiefly on land plants to assist in obtaining water more quickly from the soil. In water-plants root-hairs are usually absent. But the roots of such plants (¢.g. the Watercress) grown on land soon develop root-hairs. From the above remarks it is obvious that one of the chief things necessary to enable roots to perform their work properly is water. Without moisture in the soil the roots are useless, and the entire plant collapses in consequence. From a gardening point of view, therefore, the greatest attention should be paid to the watering of plants, some requiring more and some less, according to their nature. Whether the water which is absorbed contains plant food or not depends a good deal upon the operations of the gardener. It is possible that many of the foods referred to at p. 70 are in the soil, but they must be readily soluble in water, and also be in a fit state to benefit the plant. Besides the substances absorbed in the water, root-tips and hairs absorb substances otherwise insoluble in water, and cling tenaciously to particles of minerals. They exude an acid secretion which dissolves the mineral matters, and these are thus modified so as to become digestible, and readily pass through the cell-walls into the protoplasm referred to above. 28 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Root-pressure.—It is well known—indeed obvious—that the tallest tree in the world has water drafted to its highest point. This is an extraordinary fact when it is remembered that the Giant Sequoia of California and the Gum Trees of Australia often reach the great height of 400 to 500 ft. The tips of branches being naturally the youngest and tenderest parts of a plant are always well supplied with water. How the water gets to the outermost tips is a debatable matter and many theories have been suggested; but the fact remains that it gets there, and the propelling force has been termed ‘root-pressure.’ It is sup- posed that the water from the fully charged lower cells diffuses or filters through the partitions or walls into the upper cells by a process called ‘osmosis,’ referred to above under the chapter on ‘Growth.’ It can hardly, however, be a mere physical process, as each living cell in a plant contains the living substance called protoplasm already referred to. As each cell containing protoplasm is more or less supplied with watery juice from the roots, it is evident that a vast quantity of moisture is thereby taken from the soil, and passes from cell to cell by root- pressure. When trees and shrubs are cut in spring during the period of great absorption, large quantities of water are sometimes forced from | the cut surfaces, and constitute what gardeners call ‘bleeding.’ This, if carried to excess, would be injurious, if not fatal, to the plant ; but the surplus overflow as a rule soon becomes checked by the development of fresh leaves, the cells of which must be supplied with sap, and serve to stop the overflow from any wounds. Kinds of Roots.— Roots, while all performing the same functions, differ a good deal in appearance. Broadly speaking they may be classified as fibrous, fleshy, and tuberous. All grasses and many annuals, biennials, and herbaceous plants have fibrous roots, while the Dahlia may be taken as an example of a plant with fleshy roots. What are termed ‘ adventitious’ or accidental roots are those developed from any part of the plant except the seed. The roots of cuttings, layers, stems, &c. are therefore all adventitious. In the case of Monocotyledonous plants (see p. 127) the primary root from the seed soon ceases to grow, and all the roots afterwards developed are from the stem, and are hence mostly adventitious. Their functions, however, are precisely the same as those of the true roots developed directly from the seedling. The tubers of Potatoes and Jerusalem Artichokes, the rhizomes or rootstocks of Irises, the corms of Crocuses and Gladioli, and the bulbs of Onions and Lilies, although all naturally growing in the soil are not really roots at all but modified stems, and are referred to below. THE STEM 29 THE STEM The stem is the axis of the plant which bears leaves, flowers, and fruit so that each shall be in the most favourable position for performing its functions. The leaves are separated from each other by greater or less distances called internodes. Sometimes these inter- nodes are so short that the plant appears to be stemless or almost so, as in the Primrose and Houseleek. Stems always originate in a bud, the first one arising between the seed-leaves from the small bud known as the plumule. Branches arise also from buds in the axils of leaves, and this gives the spreading habit so characteristic of trees and shrubs, all belonging to the Dicotyledonous and Gymnospermous groups of plants (see p. 122). Among the Monocotyledons (p. 127) and Ferns (p. 1008) buds at the end of the stem only are developed, hence the usually unbranched character of their stems. In the lower orders of plants, such as Seaweeds, Liverworts, Mushrooms &c., stems are unknown. The first trace of a stem appears in the Mosses, and becomes more marked in the Clubmosses (p. 1024), Horsetails (p. 1023), and Ferns (p. 1008); but the stem as generally understood attains its greatest development in the plants belonging to the flowering groups, as seen in the Oak, Apple, Beech, Elm, Pine &c. Whether they are herbaceous, that is, soft, tender, and deciduous as in annuals and biennials (p. 78), and herbaceous perennials (p. 86), or woody as in trees and shrubs (p. 107), the stems of all flowering plants have their origin in the ‘plumule’ or first bud of the embryo plant. STRUCTURE OF STEMS Besides the differences in stems referred to below, it may be mentioned here that there is a very marked difference in the structure of the stems of Dicotyledonous plants (p. 122) and those of Monoco- tyledons (p. 127). An examination of the stem of a Willow, Apple, Fuchsia, Wallflower, or any other plant belonging to the Dicotyledonous group will show in transverse section that it consists of three distinct parts, viz. (.) the pith in the centre; (ii.) then the wood; and (iii.) the bark or rind outside. The bark is readily peeled off, especially when the sap is flowing upwards in spring, and it leaves the white wood exposed to view. On the outside of the wood and next the bark is a very important layer of quick-growing and actively dividing cells 30 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS called the ‘cambium layer.’ As long as ever a Dicotyledonous plant lives, this cambium layer has the power of doing two wonderful things: it adds by division of the cells a layer of wood on the inside every year, and a layer of bark on the outside, and it is by this process, which goes on year after year in woody stems, that the latter increase in bulk. It thus happens that the youngest part of the wood of a tree trunk is on the outside beneath the bark, and not in the centre near the pith ; while the youngest bark is next to it and not on the extreme outer surface. Itis the addition of a layer of wood each year to that already existing that gives the ringed appearance to tree trunks, each ring representing one year’s growth. If a strip of bark be taken off all round the trunk or branch of a tree without injuring the wood, it will be found that the leaves do not shrivel up or wither, as one might expect, as a result of the operation. - It is evident, therefore, that the sap from the roots ascends by the vessels in the cambium and young wood, and not by means of the bark, nor yet by means of the pith or the old inner wood, as is indeed obvious when one sees a huge Elm, Willow, or Oak with all the interior scooped out of the trunk. It will also be noticed that, if a branch has a string tied round it firmly, the portion above the string will become swollen. This shows that the elaborated or assimi- lated food made by the leaves returns down the stem by the outer cells, and as these are compressed at the tie the descent of the nutritive material is checked at that point and the cells above become gorged. There are many other kinds of cells and vessels in the stems of Dicotyledonous plants, some being spiral, like compressed watch-springs, some cylindrical with slits or holes in the sides, or only at the base where they join another vessel, and so on ; and running through them all from the central pith or ‘ medulla’ to the circumference are rays known as ‘medullary’ rays, popularly known as the ‘ silver grain’ in wood. All the cells and vessels in a stem are not of the same nature : some are very tender like those of the cambium, some tough like those of the bast cells, and others fibrous or woody. The latter are seen in the principal nerves or veins of leaves, and are gathered together into bundles. Each leaf is connected with the stem by means of these fibrous bundles, and as the leaves are arranged all round the stem it is obvious that the fibre-bundles from them collect and form a circle round the stem. The traces of these fibre-bundles from the leaf into the stem are well seen in the scars left by the fallen leaves in autumn, as in the Horse-Chestnut and other trees. Such are briefly the main points in the structure of the stems of - Dicotyledonous plants, and they are referred to here chiefly because a STEMS 31 knowledge of them is necessary for the operations of Budding and Grafting described further on. In the stems of Monocotyledons we find a different structure, the most striking feature being the absence of real pith, wood, and bark. There is no cambium layer, and consequently no concentric rings of wood and bark as in Dicotyledons, and the fibrous bundles are chiefly collected on the outer portions of them, and give them the hard texture so well known in the stems of Bamboos and Canes. As it is the presence of the cambium layer which enables grafting or budding to be done at all, it therefore follows that these operations cannot be performed satisfactorily on Monocotyledons which have no cambium layer in their stems. KINDS OF STEMS Stems are usually regarded as being above the soil, but there are certain modified kinds which perform their work beneath the surface, and are popularly looked upon as roots. Those above the surface are classified as follows :— 1. Herbaceous. These are stems which die down to the ground every year after blooming, as in the case of most hardy herbaceous perennials (see list, p. 86). 2. Sub-shrubby, more or less woody below but herbaceous above. 3. Shrubby, arborescent, or arboreous, woody, and living from year to year, and attaining considerable size as in the case of trees and shrubs, a list of which is given at p. 107. Stems assume various directions in growth, some being erect and ascending, others more or less trailing or prostrate on the ground, others creeping and developing roots at the joints, where they touch the soil; and others climbing or twining by tendrils, as in the Passion Flower and Virginian Creeper ; by twisted leaf-stalks, as in the Clematis, or by aerial rootlets, as in the Ivy. Stolons are stems or branches which recline on the earth and take root. Many plants are naturally increased in this way and the process of layering was no doubt suggested by seeing stems throw out roots when in contact with the soil. , An Offset is a short stolon with a tuft of leaves at the end, from which roots also develop, as seen in the common Houseleek. Runners, as in the Strawberry, are similar in their nature, being long slender stolons which when fully grown develop roots at the tip, and afterwards buds and leaves to form a new plant. Tendrils are branches modified for climbing purposes, and are either ‘simple or branched, but are useless for propagating purposes. 32 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Spines or Thorns are also modified branches or leaves; but the prickles of the Rose and Blackberry are merely excrescences or cellular outgrowths of the stem. Underground Stems.—Perhaps the best known form of an under- ground stem is that of the Flag Iris (p. 917) and Solomon’s Seal (p. 811). They look like real roots but the leaf-like scales and buds show them to be stems by nature. Many plants have underground and more or less creeping stems, as in Lily of the Valley (p. 813), Mint (p. 744), and Couch- grass, the latter on this account spreading rapidly and becoming a nuisance, especially when chopped by hoeing &c. Underground stems are often thickened and serve as storehouses for food during the winter in many plants with herbaceous stems. They take many shapes, among which may be mentioned: The Tuber, as in the Potato (p. 1133), the Jerusalem Artichoke, the ‘eyes ’ of which are leaf-buds from which stems arise (p. 1140); the Corm or Solid Bulb, as in the Cyclamen (p. 626), Crocus (p. 936), and Gladio- lus (p. 947); the Bulb, as in the Madonna Lily (p. 846), the Tulip (p. 860), Hyacinth (p. 833), Onion (p. 1148) &c. In some plants the stems are so modified in form and structure that they perform the functions of the foliage. The stems of many cacta- ceous plants are of this nature, and also the branches of the Common Butcher’s Broom (see p. 810) which resemble leaves in appearance. THE LEAVES From definite points (called nodes or joints) of the stem and branches leaves are developed and arranged more or less horizontally, vertically, or drooping so as to obtain a greater or less amount of sunshine, and to throw water towards or away from the main axis of the plant, accord- ing to the nature of the species. It will be noticed for example that the leaves of Rhubarb (p. 770), Arum Lily (p. 955) and other plants have the tips of the leaves uppermost. They are more or less channelled down the centre, and water is by this means transferred towards the centre of the plant, and down the stem to the roots. In such plants it will generally be found that the roots do not spread over large areas but are confined in a small space beneath the centre of the plant. Many other plants on the contrary, like most of our trees and shrubs and flowering plants, have the leaf- tips pointed outwards and downwards so as to throw the water chiefly around the circumference of the plant and away from the centre. In plants with these peculiarities the roots spread out and away from the STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 33 centre in all directions, and usually go beyond the circumference of the foliage. In this way the active fibrous roots secure the full benefit of the rain which is thrown off the leaves. A complete leaf consists of a flattened portion, called the blade; a stalk or petiole, and a pair of more or less scaly or leafy appendages called stipules, all of which characters are illustrated in the Glossary at fig. 98. The stalk and stipules are frequently absent, leaving the blade attached to the stem by the base, when it is said to be sessile. As a rule, when fully developed, leaves cease to increase in length or breadth, and remain unchanged in form until death, when they are removed by natural decay, as in most Monocotyledonous plants (p. 127), or by breaking off at a joint, as in most Dicotyledons (p. 122). Some leaves develop and die in one season, and are called deciduous ; others persist for two or more seasons before falling off, new ones in the meantime being formed, thus giving the plant an evergreen appear- ance. The tissue of the blade is traversed by a framework of stronger ribs or veins more or less netted in Dicotyledons, as shown at fig. 48 in the Glossary, p. 7, and parallel or curved in Monocotyledons, as shown at fig. 96 in the Glossary. The beautiful arrangement of the veins is well seen in leaves which have been skeletonised—that is, when the more perishable tissue (called parenchyma) between the veins has decayed through artificial or natural agencies. These veins serve not only to strengthen the leaf-blade, but also as channels through which the sap from the root is distributed to the cells composing the blade. Structure of Leaves.—Ordinary leaves consist of an upper and under surface between which are layers of cells more or less irregular in shape and filled with grains of green colouring matter known as chlorophyll floating about in the protoplasm (see p. 22). The cells near the upper surface are much more compactly arranged than those beneath, hence the more intense green of leaves above. "Where leaves receive an equal amount of light, as in Irises, Gladiolus, and many other Monocotyledons, there is not a great difference in colour between the two sides. The skin, cuticle, or epidermis of the leaf is studded with small openings or breathing pores, known as stomata. These are more numerous on the under.surface, and it has been computed that there are as many as 60,000 of them to the square inch in a Lily leaf, and about 100,000 to the square inch on that of an Apple leaf. The leaves of water plants present a striking difference from those of land plants. Those under water are more or less divided and are so thin in texture that they D 34 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS can absorb the necessary food or throw off surplus gases through the walls of the cells instead of through stomata. Those floating on the surface have stomata above, but none or very few beneath. Functions of the Leaf.—The most important work of the leaf is to construct, manufacture, ‘elaborate’ or make digestible food for the plant out of the raw materials in the sap, and to give off through its pores surplus gases and watery vapour. It is only under the light of the sun that the living protoplasm in the cells of leaves is capable of changing mineral matters and gases into plant food. From the air carbonic acid gas is taken in through the pores in the leaf and is absorbed through the cell walls by the proto- plasm in the cells. The carbon is retained and the oxygen is given off. This process of manufacturing food is called assimilation, and may be likened to what is known as digestion with human beings and animals. By its means starch, sugar, oils and various other substances found in plants are obtained, and constitute the food of man and animals. The absorption and liberation of gases by means of the pores is known as respiration, owing to its being somewhat akin to the breathing of animals, the great difference, however, being that plants breathe out oxygen during the day instead of carbonic acid gas, and thus keep the air in a purified state. Transpiration.—Almost every part of a living plant is continually giving off vapour from its tissues, although the quantity varies with atmospheric conditions. "When in active growth the roots often absorb more water from the soil than is actually needed, and the surplus is given off into the air by means of the stomata in the leaves and minute pores in the stems. This continual discharge of watery vapour is known as transpiration, and according as the cells become emptied by evaporation they absorb fresh supplies from contiguous cells by means of the process already referred to as Osmosis, see p. 23. Whether large or small quantities are given off depends a good deal upon the wetness or dryness of the atmosphere, and upon heat and cold —that is, practically on the state of the weather. It is not merely a mechanical process of evaporation, as the amount given off is regulated by the plant itself. When too much vapour is being given off, the stomata begin to close, as if realising that the loss of great quantities of water means injury to the plant asa whole. So long as the supply of water from the roots exceeds that given off by the leaves, the latter remain plump and fresh, as the cells composing them are turgid or full of watery sap. But as soon as the leaves throw off more water than is supplied by the roots, the cells of the leaves gradually become emptied ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES 36 and collapse. As a consequence the entire leaf droops or, as gardeners say, it ‘ flags.’ In hot dry summers many thin-leaved plants may be seen to ‘ flag ’ during the day, although the roots may be well supplied with water, and only recover their freshness in the cool of the evening, when the transpiration current is not so great. This current of water from root to leaves continues as long as ever a particle of moisture remains near the roots. And it even continues for some time after plants and flowers have been severed from the roots and placed in water. This explains why in a cut state stems and flowers often last a long time fresh in water. If the base of the stems is cut from time to time, and under water if possible, the freshness may be extended for several days. ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES Leaves are arranged upon the stem in definite order and may be _alternate—that is, one after the other with only one leaf to each joint as shown in the Glossary, fig. 6; opposite, when there are two leaves to each joint, one on each side and opposite each other (Glossary, fig. 45); whorled or verticillate, when more than two leaves spring from a joint and form a circle (Glossary, fig. 116). In the case of Pine-trees it looks as if several leaves sprang from one joint, but such is really not the case: they are single leaves on a branch the joints of which are very close together. The blade of a leaf may be in one piece, when it is called simple, as shown in the Glossary, figs. 4, 8, 10 &c.; or cut up into separate leaflets, when it is compound, as in figs. 17, 19, and 50 in the Glossary. Simple leaves assume roundish, elliptic, oval, or linear shapes with intermediate variations, and may be either sharp or blunt or slightly notched or pointed at the apex. The margins may be entire, wavy, serrate, toothed, lobed, or variously cut, and the base may-be prolonged below the insertion of leaf-stalk, the lobes uniting and producing a peltate or shield-like form, as in the Indian Cress (Tropeolum) shown at fig. 79 in the Glossary. When the leaf-stalk (petiole) is absent the leaf is sessile, and when stipules are absent a leaf is said to be exstipu- late. When the lobes of a sessile leaf are produced downwards to clasp the stem, leaves are said to be amplexicaul, as in fig. 8 of the Glossary ; and if the lobes of opposite sessile leaves unite, they become connate as in fig. 33; or if single and surrounding the stem perfoliate, as In fig. 82. Compound leaves may have the component parts called ‘leaflets ’ radiating from the end of the stalk, as in the Horse Chestnut, when they D2 36 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS are termed palmate or digitate (Glossary, fig. 50); or from opposite sides of the midrib like a feather, when they are pinnate (fig. 85). ‘The leaflets of pinnate ieaves may be divided once, twice, or more times. When the leaflets arise from one another on each side of the middle lobe, they are called pedate, as in the Christmas Rose (Helleborus). There is great variation, and as a rule two or more terms are employed to describe the shape of a leaf, but the main forms will be found illus- trated in the Glossary, pp. 1-18. THE FLOWER The botanist regards the parts of a flower as so many leaves specially modified for certain purposes. An ordinary flower is composed of (i.) sepals (the calyx) ; (ii.) petals (the corolla) ; (iii.) stamens (androe- cium) ; (iv.) carpels or pistil (gyncecium). The sepals and petals are often absent altogether: sometimes one, sometimes another. Asarule they form the most conspicuous and showy part of the flower, and their natural duty is supposed to be to attract insects to search for honey and thus disturb the pollen and fertilise the pistils or carpels. Thestamens and carpels are the essential parts of the flower, without which it is impossible to obtain seed. The stamens contain pollen in the little sacs or bags at the apex called anthers shown at fig. 9 in the Glossary. Insects are useful in brushing this pollen against the sticky top (the stigma) of the pistil. The pollen is sometimes ripe before the stigma, and vice versa, and it thus happens that flowers are not often fertilised with their own pollen. In this way the pistils m one flower may be fertilised with pollen from another, and if the species are different a ‘hybrid’ has been effected, or a ‘cross’ if the plants are of the same species. Seeds obtained from a plant thus crossed do not exactly reproduce the characters of the parents, although the differences may be very slight. Sometimes the same flower contains both stamens and pistil, when it is said to be hermaphrodite. When a flower contains stamens only or pistils only on the same plant, it is said to be monecious, as in the Cucumber (p. 1156), Marrow (p. 1155), Begonia (p. 462). But when male and female (or staminate and pistillate) flowers are borne on dif- ferent plants, they are said to be diwcious, as in the Aucuba (p. 475) and Willow (p. 802). Very often flowers are without stamens and pistils, and are termed newter or sterile, as in the cultivated forms of the Guelder Rose (p. 480) and the Hydrangea (p. 429). Double Flowers.—Cultivation often plays havoc with the stamens and pistils. These become more or less suppressed, and (as showing FERTILISATION AND HYBRIDISATION 37 them to be really modified leaves) they are replaced by petals, asin the garden Rose (p. 382), Carnation (p. 240), Hollyhock (p. 272), Double Begonia (p. 462) and Chrysanthemum (p. 531). The more the stamens and pistils become suppressed or modified by cultivation, the less chance is there of obtaining seeds from such flowers, and plants bearing them are with difficulty increased by seeds. Hence the adoption of other methods of propagation in such cases. FERTILISATION AND HYBRIDISATION Since the functions of the stamens and pistils have been better understood, gardeners have taken full advantage of them by transferring the pollen from the stamens of one flower to the pistils of another with a view to raising new races or ‘strains’ as they are called. When ina reciprocal state, fertilisation is usually effected, the pollen grows on the sticky surface of the pistil (called the stigma) and seeds are ultimately borne in the way described at p. 24. The plants raised from such seeds may combine the characters of both parents in a more or less even degree. When two species of the same genus are thus fertilised a ‘hybrid’ is the result. When two species belonging to different genera are fertilised, the product is called a ‘bigeneric’ hybrid. But when forms of the same species are fertilised with each other, they are simply called ‘ crosses,’ and chiefly differ in the colour and size of the flower. Of late years hybridisation has been carried on to an enormous extent among all classes of plants, and some very fine garden flowers have been thus obtained. It must be remembered, however, that only plants having a natural relationship to each other are likely to produce hybrids. The more distantly related they are, the less likely are they to be fertilised or produce seeds. As most of the plants described in this work are arranged according to their natural relationships to each other, it will be easy to see which are the most likely ones to use for hybridising purposes. Unlike animals, it is a remarkable fact that most plant hybrids are capable of producing fertile seeds, and are as perfect in every detail as the species from which they were originally derived. Occasionally a hybrid is met with, which only with difficulty can be fertilised and made to produce seed. In such a case as with ‘double ’-flowered plants it must be increased by other means than seeds. It may be appropriate to mention here that certain flowers, like Prim- roses (p. 617), Auriculas (p. 618), Oxalis (p. 292), Loosestrife (p. 451) &e. have the stamens and pistils alternately long in some flowers and short 38 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS in others, and Darwin has pointed out that pollen from long stamens in one flower is naturally adapted for fertilising the long pistils in another; and the same with the short forms. Many flowers are fertilised by bees and various insects, but many others, like the Pine trees (p. 972), Willows (p. 802), Alders (p. 796), Poplars (p. 803), Birches (p. 793) &c., depend upon the wind to have their pollen blown about and transferred to the ovules (as in the Pines) or pistils (as in the others). FORMS OF FLOWERS Flowers are usually said to be ‘regular’ when their sepals and petals are similar as shown in figs. 24, 40, 54, 59, 63, and 66 in the Glossary ; or ‘irregular,’ when one or more sepal or petal differs in size or shape from the others as shown in figs. 5, 22, 23, 58, 60, and 67. The petals may be quite free from each other, when they are called polypetalous (see p. 122), or may be united, when they are said to be gamopetalous (see p. 125). In the Glossary figs. 23, 24, 59, 68, 65, and 67 are examples of Gamopetalous flowers, while figs. 5, 40, 54, and 58 are examples of Polypetalous flowers. The stamens and pistils may also be either free or united. These characters are of great use for the purposes of classification, and are more systematically detailed at p. 120. THE INFLORESCENCE The way in which flowers are borne is termed the inflorescence. Flowers may be at the ends of the branches or in the axils of the leaves, and may have stalks (peduncles) branched or unbranched forming racemes, panicles, corymbs, umbels, or cymes &c.; all of which terms are explained and illustrated in the Glossary (p. 1). When without stalks they may form spikes, as in the Plantain, or heads, as in Clover, or catkins, as inthe Birch. There are various modifications of these, as in the Arum Lily, where the flowers are in a fleshy spike (spadiz) enveloped in a large and showy leaf called a spathe. THE FRUIT In popular language the term ‘Fruit’ is very vaguely used. Strictly speaking, the ripened carpels, whether hard or soft, constitute the fruit, or, in other words, the seed vessel or ovary. All flowering plants which produce seeds enclosed in an ovary are termed Angio- sperms (see p. 121) and include both Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. THEHE FRUIT 39 The Pine trees and Cycads have their seeds quite naked on scales, and are termed Gymnosperms (p. 122). Development of the Fruit.—Soon after the stigma of a carpel has been fertilised it withers, and the ovary begins to enlarge, the ovules which it contained now developing into seeds as the result of fertilisation. Sometimes an ovary (or fruit) contains only one seed, sometimes many, and there may be many ovaries in one flower, as in the Strawberry (p. 1089), Raspberry (p. 1085) &c., each containing only one seed; or there may be few ovaries or only one, each containing several seeds. In any case the ovary consists of one or more carpels either separate and distinct, or united. When ripe, some fruits open naturally and shed their seeds, and are said to be dehiscent; others never open, and the seeds are only liberated by the rotting of the ovary walls. Such fruits are called indehiscent. As many kinds of fruits are mentioned in the pages of this work it may be as well to briefly define those best known. SOFT OR FLESHY FRUITS The Berry is a fruit which is soft throughout, the seeds being imbedded in a pulp, as in the Gooseberry (see Glossary, fig. 14), Currant, Grape, Tomato, and Orange (the latter having a leathery rind). The Pepo or Gourd is a hard-skinned berry, such as the Cucumber, Marrow, Melon. The Pome is a fleshy fruit like the berry, but the calyx is the thickened edible portion in which is imbedded the cartilaginous ovary known as the ‘core’ in Apples, Pears, and Quinces (see Glossary, fig. 88). The Drupe is the name of the fruit of Cherries, Peaches, Plums, Almonds and Nectarines. The outer layer, often merely the skin, is called the epicarp ; the middle layer or flesh the mesocarp; the inner layer or ‘stone’ the endocarp (see Glossary, fig. 52) In the Blackberry and Raspberry the fruit consists of a collection of small drupes and is called an eterio. The fruit of the Mulberry, like that of the Blackberry in appearance, is the product not of one flower but of several crowded on a short stalk. HARD OR DRY FRUITS The Achene is a small dry indehiscent one-seeded fruit, well seen in Buttercups and Strawberries. In the latter they are popularly regarded as ‘seeds.’ The juicy edible pulp is in reality the swollen top or receptacle of the flower stalk (see Glossary, fig. 1). 40 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS The Pod or Legume, familiar in the Pea, Bean, Scarlet Runner &c., is a fruit splitting into two valves, bearing the seeds on the edges (see Glossary, fig. 69). A Lomentum is a pod constricted between the seed breaking transversely into distinct joints. A Samara or Key Fruit, like that of the Elm, Ash, or Maple, is an indehiscent fruit furnished with wings (Glossary, fig. 97). A Follicle, as seen in the Peony, Larkspur &c., is a simple carpel opening on one side only (Glossary, fig. 57). The Capsule is a dehiscent fruit composed of more than one carpel usually with many seeds (Glossary, figs. 26, 27). The Stlique and Stlicle are the long and short pods respectively of the Crucifer order (p. 201) (Glossary, figs. 99, 100). The Cone is the peculiar multiple fruit of the Pine-tree family (p. 972). The cones consist of flat scales overlapping each other, and bearing the seeds at the base (Glossary, fig. 106). The Cremocarp is the name of the fruit of the Umbellifer family (p. 464). It consists of two achenes which split apart when ripe (Glossary, fig. 38). A Nut is a dry indehiscent fruit usually with one seed surrounded by a bony wall, as the Hazel or Cobnut (p. 797). Inthe Oak, the nut or acorn is fixed in a cup called the cupule, the whole fruit being called a Glans (Glossary, fig. 61). INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON VEGETATION All plants having green leaves or stems can only properly develop and perform the function of assimilation or digestion by the aid of sunlight. Mushrooms (see p. 1166) and other Fungi carry out their functions with and without the aid of light. Some plants like as much sunlight as possible ; others only a little, preferring a diffused light or deep shade ; and others again seem to thrive better under intermediate conditions, some leaning towards light rather than shade. Light is essential in any case to secure the formation of chlorophyll, the name given to the green pigment found in the cells of leaves. But this substance also requires a suitable temperature, and will not develop in very cold weather. The absence of chlorophyll is noticeable by the pale or yellowish appearance of the plants. Sometimes gardeners are not anxious that it should develop at all; hence the reason of blanching Celery (see p. 1180), Seakale (p. 1121) &c. by covering the leaf-stalks over with soil, pots, boxes &c. The exclu- sion of light prevents the formation of the green colouring matter, and the stems are in consequence more palatable when eaten. PROPAGATION 41 In the absence of light the leaves will not absorb carbonic acid gas, which is essential to the welfare of the plant. The latter must there- fore live on whatever reserve material it has stored away in the stems or roots. All observant gardeners know the difference between plants grown in light and plants grown in darkness or deep shade. Those under the latter conditions grow rapidly, and plants that are naturally sturdy will assume a weakly, more or less climbing habit, being anxious to reach the sunlight. And every cottager knows that the leaves and shoots of the ‘Geranium’ in his window always turn towards the glass and not towards the centre of the room. On the other hand plants grown in plenty of light do not develop so rapidly, but each part performs its own function properly and steadily, with the result that the plants are more sturdy, and the stems and shoots become better matured and produce better flowers and fruits. Light may therefore be said to have a dwarfing and ripening effect upon plants, while darkness has an elongating and weakening effect. Apart from this may be mentioned the fact that the leaves of many plants of the Leguminous order (p. 322), such as the well-known Sen- sitive Plant, go to ‘sleep ’—that is, droop—during the night time, and only regain their spreading position in daylight. From a cultural point of view, therefore, it is important to notice the effect of light, shade and darkness in plants. Very often a plant which has been grown in strong sunlight will not thrive under the best of treatment ; but when it is shaded or partially shaded, it soon begins to show that it appreciates the altered conditions by the way in which it puts forth new growths. At p. 88 a selection of plants is given which will flourish in shaded or partially shaded situations, while many others are mentioned in various parts of the work. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS PROPAGATION is the term applied to any method by means of which plants are increased or multiplied in number. Some plants can only be increased in one way, others in several; but as a rule the gardener usually and not unnaturally selects the method which gives him the quickest and what he considers also to be the best results. In the case of annuals and most biennials (see p. 78) he has no other choice as a rule but to raise them from seeds. This is also Nature’s method of 42 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS increasing most plants, but the process is often too slow to be regarded with satisfaction by the gardener. He therefore also has recourse to the other methods of propagation described below. 1. Propagation by Seeds As just stated above, most plants growing in a natural state are increased by seeds. From a garden point of view, however, it is not always advisable to adopt this means, although many hundreds of plants may be very easily raised thereby. When it is desired to keep any particular plant true to its variety—that is, so that the progeny may faithfully reproduce all the features of the parent, in regard to habit, foliage, flowers, colour, fruit, flavour &c.—it is not wise to increase or propagate such a plant by means of seeds. For this reason : that pollen from the flowers of an inferior, or at least undesirable, variety may have fertilised the pistils in the flowers of the plant which it is desired to propagate. The characters of the original variety would in this way be tampered with, and the seedlings, although very similar to it, may have inherited some of the undesirable qualities of the strange parent, and lost the most desirable ones of the other. It is therefore almost impossible for any seed to reproduce all the characters and qualities of its mother parent with absolute fidelity. Where little or no importance is attached to this fact, seeds will be found one of the readiest methods by which large numbers of plants may be produced. Plants raised from seed offer immense variety, and where novelties are required either as hybrids or crosses (see p. 37) it is a most interesting occupation raising them from seeds. SEED SOWING The best time for sowing seed is either in the autumn when thoroughly ripe, or in spring, when the earth’s natural heat is favour- able to germination. Ina state of nature, as soon as seeds are ripe they fall to the ground and perhaps remain dormant during the winter, or else germinate sufficiently early to be strong enough to withstand the rigours of winter. All our annual weeds and a good many of our choice hardiest annuals if left alone would reproduce themselves in this way. And so would the hardy biennials and perennials, as witness the Evening Primrose, Horse Chestnut, Ash, Oak, &. From a gardening point of view, however, it is found convenient to make spring the chief seed-sowing season, as there are so many other matters to attend to in the autumn. Other periods, when preferable for any particular plant, will be found noted in the following pages. SHED SOWING ¢ée. 43 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR SOWING SEEDS Seeds are sown out of doors, either in beds, or in rows or ‘ drills’ as they are often called. In whatever way they are sown the ground must first of all be specially prepared for their reception. It should as a rule be well dug or trenched some time previously, so that it will have had sufficient time to settle down afterwards. The surface must be made fine, and should be quite free from clods or lumps. As a rule seed beds are level, but they may under certain circumstances, where the soil, for instance, is naturally heavy and wet, be raised, with alleys about a foot wide between them, the better for thinning out, weeding &c. afterwards. Under south walls, the beds may be slightly inclined so as to catch more benefit from the sun’s rays in early spring. The soil being thus warmed naturally excites growth, and the seedlings appear rather earlier than if sown under other conditions. The necessity for a fine surface is obvious when it is remembered that the seeds of a vast number of plants are very small. If the soil were in a rough state and somewhat lumpy, the small seeds would sink down much too deep, and the young plants would probably never see the light of day; or if they did it would be in such a weak and exhausted state that they would recover only with very great difficulty. The upper surface of the soil may be made fine in various ways. It may be sifted and afterwards levelled with a rake; or, if it isina good friable condition, any lumps in it may be readily crushed with the spade or fork, before levelling properly with the rake. The soil also may be trodden down well with the feet or a very light roller. This will secure evenness and consistency throughout, and will afford a much better run for the roots than if it is left very loose and powdery. COVERING SEEDS There is a vast range of variation in the size of seeds—some being like dust and scarcely discernible, while others, like the Pea, Bean, Horse Chestnut &c. are large enough to be handled quite easily. The well-known seed of the Coco-nut Palm is one of the largest seeds known, while those of our British and exotic Orchids are among the very smallest. Similar to these latter are the spores or ‘seeds’ of Ferns, while those of Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and many other plants of the Heath order (p. 574) are very little larger. Such a difference in size naturally suggests a difference in treatment in regard to covering seeds. The rough and ready principle usually adopted is to cover seeds with soil equalling their own depth or diameter, and for all practical purposes this is found to work very well. Minute seeds, 44 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS like those of Rhododendron, therefore, are simply sown on the surface of the prepared soil, the fineness of which should as a rule correspond to the fineness of the seeds sown. Larger seeds may be covered with soil to a depth varying according to their size. WATERING SEED-BEDS Water is just as essential to growth as heat. Hence the soil in which seeds are sown must be in a more or less moist condition according to the nature of the plant. Some seeds require to be moderately moist, while others—such as those of marsh plants, a list of which is given at pp. 112, 113—require to be sown almost or quite in a wet muddy soil. In the case of the fine seeds already alluded to, where there is no covering of soil, great attention to watering is necessary for some time. Being not only minute, but also tender and likely to be shrivelled up by drought, the soil on which these tiny seeds rest should before sowing be thoroughly soaked with water. Afterwards they may be kept moist with a sprinkling from a very fine-rosed watering-pot, or the pots or pans in which they are sown may be stood half their depth in water. In this way the soil will absorb moisture upwards from the bottom, and thus avoid the necessity of watering with a can. Very often, when the latter is used carelessly or thoughtlessly for fine seeds, these are washed into a heap at one side, and thus are too dense to permit any good growth in the seedlings. RECEPTACLES FOR SOWING SEEDS It is often more convenient to sow seeds in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; or the quantity to be sown may be so small that it is not worth while sowing it in the open border. Under such circumstances flowerpots, pans, or shallow wooden boxes are generally used. Whatever receptacle is used it is first of all necessary to see that it is well drained before filling it up with soil. ‘CROCKING’ OR DRAINING POTS In the case of flowerpots, these must be * crocked,’ as gardeners say. A flattish piece of broken pot, having about the same diameter as the bottom of the pot, is placed over the hole in the centre. Over this large ‘crock’ smaller ones are placed, sometimes as much as half way up or more, when particularly good drainage is required. Where large quan- tities of crocks are used, they should become gradually smaller towards the top. Over them all is placed a layer of moss, or fibre of some sort, DRAINAGE 45 such as that shaken out of peat, or turfy loam. This prevents the soil from being washed down among the crocks, and thus choking up the spaces between them required for the free passage of water and air. NECESSITY OF DRAINAGE Too much importance cannot be attached to the proper drainage of soil, whether it is held in a pot or box, or whether it is in the open garden. Unless the water can pass away from the soil readily, it becomes more or less stagnant in it, causes sourness, prevents the circulation of air, lowers the temperature round the roots, and generally interferes with the health of the plant. Under the chapter on soils the question of drainage is more fully treated (see p. 66). Whether boxes, pans, or other receptacles are used, the question of drainage must be first attended to as with flowerpots. Having attended to the drainage, the soil, which must be of a nature suitable to the plants to be grown, may be placed over the moss and crocks, and pressed down more or less firmly with the fingers or a small piece of flat board, and brought to within half an inch of the top of the rim asa rule. Where very fine seeds, like those of Begonia, are to be sown the soil may be raised in the centre, forming a shallow dome, but in such cases the soil must be light and easily permeable by water. HOW TO SOW SEED As a general rule, it may be said that seeds of all kinds of plants are sown too thickly, with the natural consequence that the seedlings spring up very close to each other, and if they are not ‘ pricked out’ or ‘thinned out,’ as described below, they soon stifle each other, and very few, if any, good plants are obtained. Where the seeds are fairly large and easily handled there is no excuse for sowing them thickly. It may take a little longer time to sow them at more or less regular intervals, but the time spent then will be saved, and more than saved, later on when they have germinated. In the event of other work requiring attention, thinly sown seedlings may be allowed to stand longer in the seed-pots without injury than those which have come up too close to each other. With tiny seeds it is very difficult to avoid sowing them thickly, and great care must be exercised in handling them. Some of them are so small and so light, that hundreds of them may be blown away and lost for ever by a slight puff of wind, or evenacough. Such seeds therefore should not be sown in a draughty place for this reason. 46 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS To avoid sowing them too thickly, it is a good plan to sift some dry sand through fine muslin or a hair sieve, and mix the seeds thoroughly with it. The sand and seeds may then be sown as thinly as possible over the surface, treating the grains of sand as if they were seeds—and the seedlings will as a rule not be so close together as if sown without this artificial aid. The sowing of Fern spores has been dealt with separately at p. 1008. THINNING OUT SEEDLINGS This will be necessary when the seedlings are large enough to handle, so that those intended for bloom will have ample space to fully develop without having had their roots disturbed. Thinning out is best done in dull showery weather when the seeds have been sown in the open air. Failing this, the seed bed should be watered before or after the work. PRICKING CUT SEEDLINGS This operation is almost equivalent to thinning the seedlings and to transplantation. It consists in transferring the seedlings from pots, pans, or places in which they developed from the seed, to similar receptacles or places, only much further apart according to kind. The plants have thus more room and air and become sturdy. They also produce more fibrous roots, as the removal usually injures the first central main or tap root, and its place must be taken by new fibrous ones developed from the sides. Many plants are improved in growth by pricking out or transplanting, but a few are injured by the process, and these are mentioned in their proper places. As a rule it is safer not to transplant or prick out any plants which are grown chiefly for the sake of their tap-roots, such as the Carrot (p. 1128), Parsnip (p. 1129), Turnip (p. 1119), Radish (p. 1120), Beet &c. (p. 1151). If transplanted very young they may develop fairly regular-shaped roots, but as a rule they do not, hence are usually thinned out in the seed beds instead of being transplanted. Hotbeds As hotbeds and cold frames are most useful for raising seeds and for many other purposes in the garden, they may be referred to here. A hotbed when well made is an extremely useful adjunct to a gar- den, and especially a garden without greenhouses. It may be erected in some out of the way part where its presence is not too noticeable. By its aid all kinds of tender plants may be raised in early spring or COLD FRAMES 47 protected in winter ; cuttings of bedding and other plants will quickly root on it, and many other uses may be found for it. For making hotbeds the best stable manure should be used, to- gether with plenty of leaves, those of the Oak or Chestnut for choice. Stable manure by itself heats too quickly and dies out too rapidly. By adding leaves, heat is not generated so quickly but is more lasting and suitable for plants. The whole should be well mixed and turned over (any dry portions being thoroughly wetted) every other day for about a week or so, to allow the rank steam to escape. In making the hotbed, the litter and leaves should be placed evenly layer after layer, and in such a way as to be 6 to 12 inches longer and wider than the frame intended for it. Asthe bed proceeds it should be evenly and firmly trodden down, the better to secure a uniform heat. When finished and settled down the hotbed should be 3 to 4 feet high, sloping from the back to the front, and facing south. The surface may be covered with a layer of well-rotted manure, and upon this may be a covering of prepared soil or coco-nut fibre, varying in thickness according to particular requirements. It is advisable to tilt the ends of the lights at first to allow the escape of rank steam. Shading may be done, if necessary, by mats, canvas, or whitening the glass. ‘When any plants described in this work require the assistance of a hotbed, the fact will be found mentioned. Cold Frames Besides hotbeds, cold frames are very convenient, more particularly for raising seeds of rather tender hardy plants, or for protecting peren- nial plants in winter that have been grown in the open air during the summer and autumn months. In very severe winters the frames may be banked round with litter, and covered with one or more layers of Russian mats if needed. In fine mild wintry weather the lights should be taken off or well propped up during the warmest portion of the day, when not frosty, and should be closed early enough to retain a fair proportion of sun heat for the night. Cold frames are of various sizes and makes to suit different kinds of plants ; but they are rather expen- sive. The amateur, however, can easily improvise a frame good enough for practical purposes. See page 100. Labelling After seeds of annuals, biennials, or indeed any plant, have been properly sown, it is important that each kind should be distinctly labelled. Wooden labels varying from 3 to 12 inches long may be 48 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS used. The surface should be slightly and evenly covered with white paint (Continental growers like yellow) and written upon while still damp. With the sharpened end of the label pointing to the left, the generic name should be written above the specific. The date of sowing should also be recorded, and to prevent it becoming obliterated by being pushed too far into the soil, this is best done on a space ruled off by a line at the top of the label. Several labels may be ruled at once, and there is nothing lost by a little neatness and clearness in writing. When special seeds are sown, the name of the sender, country &c. are worth while recording. Where many kinds of seeds are sown, it will be interesting to note how much longer it takes some seeds to germinate than others under equal conditions. In the Flower Border and Rock Garden it must be admitted that labels often look far from picturesque, especially when the plants they represent have disappeared perhaps for ever. In such cases they have not inaptly been termed tombstones, and should be removed when all hope of the plant beneath the surface is abandoned. On the whole, however, a good case can be made out for labels in the flower garden, whether of wood or zinc, especially when many species are grown, unless one has an extraordinary memory. In the case of deciduous herbaceous plants labels mark the spot in winter and prevent the plant being accidentally uprooted and thrown away. The size of the label, however, should always be more or less in proportion to the size of the plant, as nothing looks more ridiculous than to see a tiny plant an inch or two high hidden behind a label a foot long and 9-3 in. broad. ; 2. Propagation by Cuttings Perhaps there is no operation in which the amateur gardener takes so keen a delight as in increasing any choice plant in his stock by the readiest means, and sometimes by unusual means, for the sake of ex- periment. Apart from increasing plants by the natural method of sowing seed, that of making cuttings is most popular, and many amateurs whose enthusiasm knows no bounds endeavour to make a new plant out of every part of an old one, whether suitable or not. As a rule, these enthusiasts make the best gardeners, as every failure is a lesson, and the more failures they can reckon the greater the extent of their knowledge. Cuttings consist of detached portions of a plant—either root, stem, or leaves—from which separate and distinct plants with roots of their own are obtained, and lead an independent existence. Although some plants are more difficult than others to raise from cuttings, it may be CUTTINGS 49 taken as a general principle that plants having buds, bark, and more or less pithy stems are capable of being increased by this means. This practically includes all the Dicotyledons except annuals (see p. 78) and excludes many Monocotyledons (p. 127) and Ferns (p. 1008). Plants are often increased by cuttings simply because there is no other way—but chiefly because seeds will not ripen or cannot be procured. Special varieties are also increased by cuttings, as, if raised from seeds, the distinguishing characters may be lost or blended with those of another variety, as already explained at p. 42. Selecting Cuttings.—Cuttings should always be selected from healthy plants and the best varieties. When herbaceous, they are taken from the young plump shoots. A few of the lower leaves are stripped off, and the stem is cut away to a joint. Herbaceous cuttings may be put in whenever they can be obtained, but spring and autumn are perhaps the best seasons. If cuttings of choice plants are placed in a little heat, as on a hotbed (p. 46), and kept shaded for a few days, they root or ‘strike’ much more quickly than if left unprotected in the open air. But cuttings of a vast number of herbaceous plants and of trees and shrubs root easily in a shady border or in a cold frame. Until a cutting makes roots of its own, it must continue to live somehow. It is well known that plants with roots will suffer from want of water, and that very hot sunshine will often cause the leaves to wither even when the roots are well supplied with water. How, therefore, is a piece of a plant which cannot absorb water, as it has no roots, and cannot prevent the evaporation of the moisture already in it, going to exist for any length of time, and not only exist, but produce roots and eventually develop into a large plant from which several other cuttings may betaken? Itis well known that portions of plants placed in water often keep fresh and healthy for a long time, especially if kept shaded from bright sun. This fact is taken advantage of in regard to cuttings. They are usually placed in damp, sandy soil, and are kept shaded from the sun. Air is also excluded for a time. In this way evaporation is checked, the cuttings retain a good deal of their plump- ness, and the cells of the cut surface when cleanly cut with a sharp knife have the power of taking up and transmitting from one to another a certain quantity of water. The roots have still to be formed, otherwise the cuttings die, as they cannot live indefinitely in a rootless condition. In making cuttings they are usually cut clean across just beneath a joint with a sharp knife. The reason for this is that at every joint is one bud or more, usually in a dormant condition. These buds become plumper and plumper on the plant until they burst into leaf or flower. They evidently have the E 50 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS power of attracting or drawing to themselves, therefore, a greater amount of nourishment than the part of the stem between the joints. When a cutting is severed just beneath this seat or storehouse of nourish- ment, the injured cells of the cut surface endeavour to heal their wounds and keep alive by drawing away some of this nourishment. When this takes place a cushion or ring is formed round the cut sur- face, and protects the inner cells from further injury. From this ring or cushion, which gardeners call the ‘ callus,’ roots are soon developed— they are drawn out as it were by the moisture of the soil, and at once begin to absorb food in a soluble state at their tender tips. Once this stage has been reached a change is seen above the soil in the cutting. The young bud at the tip is no longer inactive, but begins to grow and put forth leaves, and these also begin to work in conjunction with the roots, and thus add to the size and weight of what is now an indepen- dent plant. Henceforth it must be treated like its parent and get the benefit of light, air, moisture and heat in the same way, according to its requirements. A large number of plants may be obtained from cuttings, but there are also a vast number which cannot be increased in this way, such as ‘annuals’ for example. The same may be said of most biennials, that is, plants which take two years to fully mature before dying down. To these may be added such plants as Grasses, Bamboos, Palms, and many other plants like them having leaves with parallel or curved veins, and no rind or bark, as in the Willow, Apple, Pear, Plum &c. Cuttings may be divided into two main groups—soft-wooded or herbaceous, and woody. In the Zonal Pelargonium, for instance, not only will the ends of the branches ‘ strike’ or produce roots but almost every joint, always provided the stems are not too sappy. And here it may be as well to mention as a general rule that all cuttings should be taken from fairly well-ripened and firm parts of the plants. Cuttings of stems too young and watery are apt to rot very soon, and those from very old and dried wood do not root, chiefly because there are no young cells full of life left. Cuttings of most herbaceous plants and of many trees and shrubs all require pretty much the same treatment. They should be inserted in sandy soil, a hole having first been made with a blunt-pointed dibber about twice as thick as an ordinary lead-pencil. The soil should be pressed firmly but gently round the base so as not to crush the tissues, but at the same time firmly enough to prevent the cuttings coming out readily when gently pulled with the finger and thumb. Pots, pans, shallow boxes, or any other receptacle may be used for putting the cuttings in, but whatever receptacle is used it should CUTTINGS 61 always be well drained as explained under ‘Seed Sowing,’ p. 43. No particular heat is required for the plants mentioned, but in others which do not come within the scope of this work a very high temperature is necessary both above and below to make them throw out roots. Cuttings of woody plants differ a good deal from those of soft- wooded or herbaceous plants. In them we have a quite different kind of cutting. The most notable thing is the absence of leaves, but dor- mant buds are shown at the joints where the leaves have fallen away. There are a large number of plants which are easily increased by cuttings of thiskind. ‘When the leaves have fallen off naturally in the autumn, the thoroughly ripened stems may be cut into various lengths and put into the soil, allowing them to remain during the winter. In spring the dormant buds will burst into leaf, and in the course of the summer new branches will be developed. All this is a sign that work is being done under the surface of the soil. Beneath the hard woody bark is a layer of green tissue, with a mass of green young cells full of the active growing material called protoplasm. During the winter the temperature has been too low to start the living matter in the cells into growth, and so they remain idle or dormant. But when the tempera- ture reaches a certain point in the spring it happens to be just suitable for the protoplasm, and the contents of every cell in consequence become active. A ‘callus’ is formed at the cut end of the stem in the soil, and by-and-by young roots are developed exactly as in the soft-wooded cuttings, and the process of taking up nourishment from the soil begins in earnest. A large number of trees and shrubs, with net-veined leaves, can be increased in this way, among them being the Virginian Creeper, and its relation, the Ampelopsis Veitchi, which clings to walls, the Willow, Gooseberry, Currant, Mock Orange, Rose, Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry &c. Of all these it is better to have a shoot about eight or nine inches long, so that about half of it may be inserted in the soil, although cuttings of many others need be only 2-3 in. long. Root Cuttings.—Tops of branches and portions of the stems are the usual parts of a plant used for making cuttings. But there are other parts which are equally useful for the same purpose. The root, for instance, of some plants like the Japanese Windflower (Anemone japonica) and the Japanese Quince (Cydonia japonica), Sea Kale, the Rose, and many others, if cut into pieces a couple of inches long, and ‘sown’ in the soil as if they were seeds, will produce young plants. As a rule root cuttings are usually best put in a little heat. Only those plants the roots of which have a tendency to develop buds are increased in this way. A distinction must be made between these roots and underground stems. E2 52 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Leaf Cuttings are employed in the case of plants in the Crassula order, and tender plants like Begonias and Gloxinias. The leaves are placed on fine sandy soil or coco-nut fibre, and the main nerves are cut through with a sharp knife. The sap from the cut surface forms a callus, and from this comes a little bud above and roots below. After a time the body of the leaves decays, leaving the plantlets, which are potted up singly into small pots, in fine rich sandy soil. Preparing Soil for Cuttings.—The soil for cuttings should always bespecially prepared, particularly for those of flowering plants. What- ever soil the plant grows in best should be used, with more than the usual mixture of sand; and it should always be well drained, as stag- nant moisture would very soon rot the rootless stem. The more tender or difficult the plant, the more care should be taken in watering, shading, and airing the cuttings. 3. Propagation by Grafting ‘ A graft is somewhat like a cutting, but instead of its being placed to root in the soil it is inserted in the stem of another living plant which is already provided with roots. Only trees and shrubs and sometimes herbaceous plants of the Dicotyledonous group can be grafted. The cut surface of the graft or ‘scion’ and the stock should fit neatly together, in such a way that the layer of the inner bark in each should be in contact. This layer is called the ‘cambium,’ and consists of thin-walled cells, which are always at work adding a layer of wood on the inside and a layer of bark on the outside, thus adding to the diameter of the plant stem, as already explained at p. 30. 0 Fig. 117.—wuie ria. 118.— ware ¥I@. 119.—wuir Fie. 120.—waip GRAFTING. GRAFTING. GRAFTING. GRAFTING. Varieties of Grafting.—There are various ways in which a graft is attached to the stock, the chief being :— GRAFTING 53 (a) Whip Grafting —This is most generally practised. It consists in making an oblique cut in both stock and scion in such a way that they will fit exactly as shown in figs. 117 and 118. A tongue (t) is also cut in each so as to fit one into the other. Where there is a difference in size the scion must be inserted nearer one edge to secure the meeting of the inner bark. When neatly fitted, as in fig. 119, the whole should be bound with woollen thread or raffia so as to keep the scion from moving about, and clay or grafting wax should be at once plastered all round to exclude the air and prevent drying. Fig. 120 shows a completed graft tied up, the dotted lines representing the clay or grafting wax around the joined portions. (b) Cleft Grafting.—This method consists in splitting or cleaving the head of the stock open by a chisel or small chopper. The end of the scion is cut wedge-shaped and inserted in the cleft so as to make the inner edges of the bark meet. This may also be called Market- garden Grafting, as it is usually employed in furnishing the tops of old, worn-out fruit trees. The objection to it is that in splitting the stock, perhaps in three or four places, a much larger space than is required for the scion is made, and may take a long time to heal, if it ever does. There are variations of this method. (c) Saddle Grafting.—In this method the stock and scion must be of equal thickness. The stock, as shown in fig. 121 a, is cut upwards on two opposite sides to make a wedge. The scion, as shown in fig. 121 8, is split up the centre and , hollowed so as to fit on top of the } stock. The reverse method, of in- serting a wedge-ended scion into the stock, is called Wedge Grafting. (d) Crown or Rind» Grafting. — This system is generally practised in spring, when the bark easily separates from the wood. The scion is cut A obliquely, but a square shoulder is made at the base by a transverse cnt. It is pushed in between the bark and wood of the stock until the shoulder ee ro eee _ rests on the top of the stock. Several slender grafts may be inserted by this means round the edge of a large trunk, as shown in fig. 122. An improved method of Grafting is shown in figs. 123, 124, and 125. It is not exactly new, as something similar was practised about 54 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS ninety years ago; but specimens from which the drawings were made were exhibited a few years ago in London to show the difference between the ordinary system of grafting and the improved one. Fig. 123 shows a graft inserted in a much thicker stock. The rind or bark, however, is not cut away from the graft, but is carried over the head of the stock, and is inserted under the bark on the opposite side. This is the only difference in the two operations, the tying up and waxing or claying being done as usual. The result of the union is shown, how- ever, in fig. 124. This shows that a cushion of tissue and bark has formed over the head of the stock, and has thus protected it from decay owing to possible moisture, fungoid diseases &c. In fig. 125 oe Fic. 123. Fic. 124, Fig. 125. the result of inserting a graft in the ordinary way is shown. The union is perfect enough, but the central cylinder of wood in the stock has not been covered over by the bark, and is thus left exposed to the weather, and may sooner or later decay. This, of course, means danger to the graft, although it may not take place for several years. (e) Side Grafting consists in inserting a graft sideways into the branch or trunk of a tree chiefly to fill up a vacant space. The scion may have either shooting buds on last year’s growth and be inserted in April, or may have dormant buds on the current year’s wood and be inserted about August or September, to develop the following year. The practise of inserting dormant fruit-buds has been tried in France and England, and the advocates of it claim that magnificent fruit has been obtained thereby. (See figs. 180, 131, p. 59.) (f) Veneer Grafting is practised in spring or autumn, preferably the , former, chiefly with evergreen trees and shrubs. The corresponding sides of the stock and graft are cut obliquely about 1 in. long, fitted together, tied, and placed in a closeframe. The leaves of the scion are GRAFTING 55 not stripped off at the top, and the top of the stock need not be cut off till after the union has taken place. (9) Grafting by Approach or Inarching.—This is rarely practised except on Vines. It consists in bringing the stems of two plants together, cutting away a portion of the bark of each, fitting the cut surfaces together and tying. Here both stock and scion have roots, but the scion is not severed from its parent until it has been completely united to the foreign stock. (h) Root Grafting.—Many plants are grafted on roots of their own or an allied species, chiefly when the sap begins to flow in spring. Unless carefully performed the union will be imperfect and the plants useless after a time. Clematises were and still are grafted in this way, but sooner or later they nearly all die unless the operation is neatly per- formed, and it is therefore better to obtain plants from cuttings or seeds. Whichever kind of Grafting is practised, the main point to remember is that the cambium-layers—seated just between the inner bark and the young wood—of both the stock and scion must come in contact with each other. Itis useless placing the hard wood of the one against that of the other, as the cells in that portion have long ceased to be in a living state. The cells of the cambium-layer in the stock unite with those in the cambium-layer of the scion, the contents as it were intermix or fuse together by the reciprocal action of the protoplasm (see p. 22), and a union between the two is effected. As plants of the Monoco- tyledonous group have no cambium-layer it naturally follows that they cannot be grafted; but nothwithstanding this, numerous attempts have been made, and all have failed. Selecting the Grafts or Scions.—In selecting a branch for graft- ing due consideration must be given not only to the relationship exist- ing between stock and scion referred to in the preceding paragraph, but care should be taken to select well-ripened shoots of the previous year containing several buds. Attention should also be given to the buds to see that they are leaf-buds and not flower-buds. The main object in grafting being first of all to produce branches, it is obvious that this may be effected more readily by means of shoots having leaf-buds instead of flower-buds. In the various fruit trees described in this work the difference between the wood or leaf-buds and the flower-buds is shown in the illustrations, so that readers may not mistake one for the other. When grafting is practised only scions of really choice and fruitful varieties should be selected. The scions should be 6-8 in. long, and are best taken from the side shoots rather than those of the uppermost and strongest growing branches. It is not essential to unite a scion 56 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS to the stock immediately it is detached from the tree. Indeed, a few days are allowed to elapse so that movement of the sap shall become slower in the scion than the stock. The shoots, however, must not be allowed to dry or shrivel up, but may be placed in the soil in a shady place. If they are to be sent away any distance it is a good plan to stick the ends into a Potato tuber or moist clay, or to pack them in damp moss. When, however, the scion is about to be inserted in the stock the end should always be cut so as to have a fresh surface. Time to graft.—Except where. otherwise mentioned grafting is usually performed about March. About this time the sap is beginning to rise from the action of the roots, and the bark is more readily opened. The process of uniting also goes on slowly at first and becomes more rapid with the flow of the sap. The shooting of the buds on the scion usually indicates that union has taken place, and the ties should be looked at frequently afterwards, and loosened later on if necessary. Relationship of Stock and Graft.—It is important to remember that plants cannot be promiscuously grafted one on another. They must at least belong to the same Natural Order, and should as a rule be closely related. As all the plants described in this work are arranged according to their close relationship with one another it will be easy to avoid making mistakes in grafting one species on to another with which it has no near affinity. It is improbable, for example, that a Barberry (p. 178) could be successfully grafted on an Apple tree (p. 1042), and vice versd. At the same time such practices cannot be prevented, and if they should succeed it would indeed be a wonderful thing. Exclusion of Air.—This is another essential point to remember when grafting. If the air is allowed to circulate around the cut surfaces the latter are soon dried up, a film is formed over them, and an effective barrier is thus placed between the cells of the two cambium-layers. Various composts are used to exclude the air, but those referred to below are perhaps the best and most generally useful. Grafting Clay and Wax.—This is made of clay well worked up with a little chopped hay and horse or cow manure. If a hole is made in the centre of the heap, water poured in will keep it moist for a long time. It is an easy way of obtaining a good material for placing round grafts. In France a mixture of 28 parts black pitch, 28 Burgundy pitch, 16 yellow wax, 14 tallow, and 14 sifted ashes, is generally used instead of clay. Three parts each of resin and bees-wax and two parts of tallow also make a good wax, which can be used lukewarm for grafts of small or delicate plants. The wax known as ‘ Mastic homme Lefort’ is a clean preparation sold in tin boxes. It may be applied cold and is GRAFTING . 57 called ‘French Cold Grafting Wax.’ Although soft, it hardens with exposure to the air. ADVANTAGES OF GRAFTING Some authorities condemn grafting altogether on the ground that the plants sooner or later lose their vitality and become little better than scarecrows. Where the operation has been unskilfully performed this is undoubtedly the case, but there are hundreds, if not thousands, of examples of grafted trees in the rudest vigour throughout the country. It seems as if the constitution of a plant goes a long way towards proving whether grafting is a success or a failure, and it is scarcely advisable to argue general principles from isolated examples on one side or the other. It is claimed for grafting (i.) That it increases and accelerates the fruitfulness in fruit trees owing to the check of the elaborated sap at the junction of the stock and scion in its downward course. (i.) That old and unfruitful trees with strong and healthy stems and roots may be rendered fruitful in two or three years by having scions of fruitful and healthy trees grafted on their tops. (u1.) That naturally tall-growing varieties may be dwarfed by grafting on a less vigorous stock, and the reverse may also be attained. When there is too great a disparity between the stock and scion, the device of double or treble grafting is often adopted, so as to equalise matters as much as possible. That is, one or two kinds intermediate in vigour may be grafted on the stock before the required scion is ulti- mately grafted on to one of them. (iv.) That a naturally deep-rooting tree, like the Pear, may be prevented from sending its roots down into cold and uncongenial soil by grafting it on a naturally shallow-rooting stock, like the Quince ; and (v.) That by means of grafting, choice varieties of fruit, the innate qualities of which cannot with any certainty be transmitted to their progeny by seeds, are preserved and multiplied with greater certainty and quickness, ‘ And in short space the laden boughs arise, With happy fruit advancing to the skies. The mother plant admires the leaves unknown Of alien trees, and apples not her own.’ Influence of Stock on Scion.—It is curious that notwithstanding the growth of one species on another, and the influence exerted in regard to fertility &c., yet each kind undergoes no change in its 58 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS botanical structure. A Quince stock will produce Quince suckers, and the Pear grafted on it will produce only the leaves, flowers, and fruits of the Pear. In the same way, a Peach grafted on an Almond or a Plum will remain a Peach. While it is true generally that neither stock nor scion is affected by the other structurally, there is one remarkable exception afforded by Laburnuwm Adami, known as a graft- hybrid, and described at p. 327. 4. Propagation by Budding The process of propagation by budding consists in detaching a ripened bud from one plant and inserting it beneath the bark in the stem of another closely related. It is confined almost entirely to woody Dicotyledons, for the same reasons as Grafting, viz. because they have a cambium-layer (see p. 30), and is usually performed about the end of May or June to the end of July, when the sap is in rapid circulation, and the bark readily separates from the wood. Almost all Roses, Stone-fruit Trees, as well as many ornamental trees, like Maples &c., are budded, and the practice is now being extended to many other trees and shrubs. Budding may be done in various ways, but the method usually practised is known as shield or T-budding. The bark of the stock should havea cut made lengthways and cross- ways like the letter T as shown in the sketch fig. 126. A bud is then carefully selected (in most cases care should be taken to select a leat- } Lad (termite ay SSE TA cos <4 NV Fia. 126. Fig. 127, Fic. 128. Fig. 129. bud, not a flower-bud) by passing the knife behind the bud so as to secure a piece of bark or a ‘shield’ about 4 inch long above and below it as shown in fig. 127, but without any wood behind. By allowing a leaf-stalk to remain beneath the bud, a handle is supplied, which enables one to easily insert the bud between the lips of the T-cut in the bark when gently pressed open by the thin bone handle of the budding-knife. The bud must then be carefully and firmly—but not tightly—tied with woollen thread or soft matting, gently bringing the edges of the cut together. In a month or so the bud will have begun to swell, and the thread or matting if not already burst or BUDDING AND LAYERING 59 decayed should be loosened or removed altogether. Fig. 128 shows the bud inserted halfway in the slit, and fig. 129 shows it completely inserted and securely tied. About November the budded shoot will have grown a good deal, and should be cut back to within 5 or 6 inches of the insertion of the bud ; in the following March or April the shoot may be still further shortened back close to the bud itself before growth commences. Where much budding is done, care must be taken to keep the buds from being dried up by the sun and air. A good plan is to have them in a jar or water-pot with some wet moss to keep them fresh. Budding is often performed later in the season than August, with the object of keeping the bud from shooting until the following spring. It is also done in spring just at the beginning of growth, but the same principles underlie the operation no matter when performed. Sometimes a dormant fruit-bud as shown in figs. 130, 131 is inserted in autumn, and is said to produce larger and finer fruits than the other fruit-buds. Fig. 130. ric. 131. 5. Propagation by Layering This operation is extensively practised to increase trees and shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants which cannot be so readily pro- pagated by other means. It con- sists in bending down to the soil a branch and fixing it by a peg (as shown in figs. 182 and 133), and covering it with a mound of earth (represented by the dotted Fic, 132,—LAYERING HERBACEOUS STEMS. Fic. 183.—LAYERING WOODY STEMS. lines) until such a time as it has developed roots of its own, the layer in the meantime being fed by the parent plant. Very often the branch layered is cut halfway through lengthwise at the part to be placed in the soil, and a tongue or heel is formed, as shown near the pegs in the illustrations. The cut is kept open by the 60 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS soil, a small peg, or a pebble, and this induces a callus to form and roots to develop more quickly. Where the branches to be layered are near the ground, as in Carnations, Strawberries &c. there is little difficulty in performing the operation. Occasionally, however, branches of trees a few feet above the ground have to be layered. They must be carefully bent down, firmly pegged at the point of contact, and covered with soil. As a rule when the branches are fleshy or woody they may be notched or slit, but they are also simply twisted so as to bring the cells closer together at the twist, and thus arrest the down- ward course of the elaborated sap. Principle of Layering.— Layering is practised on the principle that any injury which prevents or checks the return of the elaborated sap down the stem greatly facilitates the production of roots. This check is brought about by slitting the stem, removing a portion of the bark, notching &c. on the under side. As in a cutting, a ‘callus’ is formed on the cut surface by the returning sap, and roots are eventually developed. Sometimes, instead of making an incision in the stems, a ligature of some kind, say wire, is bound round it tightly. This checks the return of the sap, and the stem above the ligature increasesin size. If placed in the soil roots will be emitted, but if exposed to the air the effect in the case of fruit trees is generally seen in much larger and finer fruits. 6. Propagation by dividing the Rootstock In the case of hardy herbaceous perennials (¢.e. plants which live for several years, but the stems of which die down annually) dividing the roots in autumn or spring is found to bean easy means of propaga- tion. The more carefully the work is done, the less injury is caused, and the sooner the plants recover. Chopping up with a spade in the case of Phloxes, Perennial Sunflowers, Larkspurs &c. is not to be recommended, as too much needless damage is caused thereby. Wherever shoots spring from the base or around the old rootstock they may be carefully detached either with the fingers or a sharp knife, and if inserted in good soil and kept shaded for a time, will produce good plants. 47, Propagation by Suckers Many plants throw up from the root numerous leafy branches called suckers. It is often found useful to detach these carefully by means of a sharp knife or other instrument with as much root as possible attached. By transplanting to a shady place, they soon recover and are then practically established plants leading an indepen- dent life. THE SOIL, ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION 61 THE SOIL, ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION Som is the term applied to the upper crust of the earth’s surface which has been ground and powdered into a more or less fine state by the action of man and the weather. It consists of particles of various kinds of rock mixed with decayed or decaying animal and vegetable matters. Beneath the soil in which the roots of plants grow is what is termed the subsoil. This may be a bed of clay, sand, limestone, gravel &c., and is generally not in a condition to supply the roots of plants with the food they require until it has been tilled and mixed with the surface soil. Soil absorbs and radiates heat and moisture and is gradually being broken up into smaller fragments by the action of heat, cold, moisture, and the gases of the air. Frost plays an important part in breaking down particles of rock and converting them into soil. The frozen water (ice) pushes the particles asunder and with the increase of temperature they fall apart. The absorption of heat by day and its radiation by night also reduce the soil to a finer condition. And the roots of plants themselves have the power of breaking up particles of rock, and even of dissolving by their action mineral substances not readily soluble in water. In fact a change is always going on in the soil, and the gardener simply hastens the process by his operations. It is as well, however, that he should always bear in mind that it is the upper layer of the earth’s surface, and not that two, three, or more feet below it, that is likely to contain available food for the plants he grows. And although the under layers constituting the sub-soil may be broken up when occasion requires or opportunity permits, they should never be brought to the surface as a medium for the roots of plants to grow in. Kinds of Soil.—Soils for gardening purposes are usually spoken of as sandy, clayey, loamy, peaty, chalky, and gravelly. A mixture of these is on the whole better than any one of them by itself; although for certain plants it may be better if one or other sometimes predominates. Sandy and Gravelly Soils are of little value by themselves, but may be improved by the addition of clay, vegetable matter or humus and lime or chalk. By this means a loose gravelly soil is rendered more adhesive, and the roots are enabled to perform their functions without being torn about by the wind. Clayey Soils are too sticky and retentive of water to be of any use to plants. They require to be broken up and mixed with sand, ashes, lime, humus, &c., until they are rendered sufficiently porous and at the same time capable of retaining moisture in the particles. 62 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Loam is a well-balanced mixture of clay, sand, and humus, and is termed ‘ sandy ’ or ‘ clayey’ according as one or the other predominates. For garden purposes a loamy soil is best, as it can be most readily cultivated to suit the majority of plants. Chalky or Limestone Soils are those in which chalk or limestone is present in appreciable proportion, say over 20 per cent. The presence of lime may be detected by adding vinegar or any other weak acid to the soil. If the lime is present in any great quantity it will cause a froth, owing to the carbonic acid being released. Wet chalky soils are as bad as clay, but in a hard state the particles are of great benefit in keeping the soil open, and preventing the accumulation of noxious acids in it. For this reason lime (or strictly speaking carbonate of- lime) is added to wet sour soils to drive off the carbonic acid gas, which is injurious. Peaty soils by its aid and good drainage may be rendered more or less fertile in time. Clayey soils by a similar process are brought nearer the ideal of what is required for the growth of plants. Although lime is a great fertiliser of the soil and is always more or less essential in one form or another for a large number of plants, it is however injurious in the soil in which Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Kalmias and certain other plants belonging to the Heath family (p. 574) are grown. Vegetable Soil or Humus contains an excess of organic material— that is, something which has been in a living state at one time either as plants or animals. This kind of soil, recognised by its dark colour, readily absorbs and retains water. It is useful for light sandy soils, which it binds more closely ; and for heavy soils, which it renders more porous. It also has the power of retaining plant foods to a great degree, and by its slow decay or rotting generates carbonic acid gas, which is a powerful dissolvent of mineral matters in the soil. Wherever organic decay or rotting takes place heat is generated, and this is well instanced by farmyard manure, leaves &c. ; and when this heating process takes place in the soil, the latter becomes changed and rendered more fertile, and also warmer as a consequence of the fermenting processes which have taken place. Humus, although very valuable, is not alone a suitable medium in which to grow plants, being too light, spongy and loose, and devoid of much mineral matter. It is most useful in conjunction with the other soils, and is chiefly obtained from farmyard manure, and the leaves of trees. The latter should be collected every autumn and stored in heaps. The action of the weather, rain-water, and an occasional turning over will soon reduce them to what is termed ‘ leaf-mould.’ IMPROVING THE SOIL 63 In leaf-mould the gardener has a most valuable agent in rendering his soil suitable for the cultivation of plants. When well-rotted a little leaf-mould may be mixed with almost any soil used for the production of flowers, fruit, or vegetables, and some kinds are particularly fond of it as arooting medium. Its use is frequently mentioned in the cultural operations in the body of the book. IMPROVING THE SOIL No matter how rich or how poor a soil may be, it can always be improved and rendered more fertile by various tillage operations. By digging or trenching the soil it becomes not only finer in texture and better mixed, but portions that were underneath before become exposed to the action of the weather-—rain, frost, heat, cold &c., all of which produce important changes in it, making it as it were more digestible and acceptable to the roots of plants. "Wet land cannot be successfully improved until means have been taken to drain away the water by furrows, ditches or pipes, or in the case of flower borders by having the bed filled with bricks, stones, rubble or some rough material through which the water will pass. An excess of wetness in the soil causes it to be cold, and the heat of the sun, instead of being used to promote the growth of the plant, is absorbed by the water. Stagnant water in the soil prevents the free access of air; hence acids are generated and bring about what is known as a sour condition. Digging.—This is one of the most important and necessary opera- tions for bringing the soil into a fertile condition. It is usually done with a spade or a fork, the object in view being to turn the upper layer of the soil completely upside down, so that what was under- neath shall be exposed to the action of the sun and air, frost, snow, rain &c.,and thus become more broken up and finer in texture. Digging requires the exercise not only of physical strength but also of intelligence. Merely scraping the surface of the soil with the spade or the fork is not digging at all, and is of very little benefit, although to the uninitiated it may look quite as well on top as ground that has been properly dug. The object aimed at, however, is the improvement of the soil by crushing it, breaking it up, and completely inverting it. The spade or fork should therefore be driven straight down, almost at right angles, to the full length of the blade or tines, as the case may be, so that a good ‘spit’ or spadeful may be obtained. Where an odd man is employed for digging purposes it should be seen that he drives the tool straight down into the soil, as the more slanting the cut the quicker the ground is got over, and the less good is done to it. Where, however, 64 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS the owner of the garden can perform the digging himself it would be an excellent substitute for exercises such as rowing, cricket, lawn-tennis &e. Best time for digging.—Ground may be dug whenever itis not ina wet sticky condition, and when free from frost and snow. During the autumn and winter months, however, the work is seriously taken in hand after the crops have been cleared from the ground. The fresh upturned soil is then exposed until spring to the action of the weather, and owing to the rest given and the chemical changes that have taken place, it will be in a much improved condition either for sowing seeds or planting out fresh crops. How to dig.—The novice usually regards digging as a simple opera- tion until he has tried his hand at it for half an hour or so. In that short period he not only secures a serious backache and can hardly stand upright, but he has also got into difficulties in disposing of the soil which he has been trying to dig up. Instead of having a clean open furrow always in front of him into which to turn the next ‘spit,’ he finds he has nowhere to place it except back in the spot from which he has lifted it. To give some idea as to how the work is to be done, let the reader imagine this page to represent a piece of ground which is to be dug. If it is only a small area the first furrow—represented by the top line of type—may be taken out from the top and transferred to the bottom outside where the last furrow or line of type stands. Furrow (or line of type) number two may then be dug a spade deep and turned into the space left open by the first one taken out. And so on, digging each row from left to right or vice versa, and pushing it forward into the vacant furrow, until the last one is reached. The furrow here may then be filled with the soil taken from the first opening, and thus the whole surface will not only have been turned over, but will stand on a different bottom from what it did before. Should the piece of ground be too large to dig across it at once, it may be divided into two or more convenient portions. Let the reader imagine it divided into two portions like some pages of this book. The soil from the first furrow—represented in the columns by the top line of type—may then be placed over at the top right-hand side or column. Then the various rows (as represented by the lines of type) may be dug one after the other as before until the end is reached. The workman then turns right about face to begin plot number two—as it were from the bottom of the page. The soil from the furrow (represented by the bottom line of type in the right-hand column) is transferred to the furrow at the bottom of the first plot on the left and thus completes it. IMPROVING THE SOIL 65 Plot number two is then dug in the same way as number one, until the top is reached. And here the soil taken out when the work was begun is used to fill the last furrow. If the work is properly done, the surface, although perhaps cloddy, will be fairly even and be without hills and hollows. Before proceeding to dig each line or row, all weeds on the surface, and also manure, if any, should be turned into the bottom of the open furrow, after which the soil is placed upon it or them. The surface may be left as turned over, with the exception of any particularly big clods which are easily reduced with a slap of the spade or fork. If the surface is thus left rough for the action of the winter frosts and rains the clods will gradually fall asunder and by the spring the surface will be in a beautifully mellow condition, requiring only slightly forking over more for the sake of appearance perhaps than anything else. Double digging.—As the name indicates, this means digging the soil two spits deep. The first spit is taken out in the usual way described above, but the subsoil is simply dug and inverted without being removed from its original position. This is an excellent practice where the subsoil happens to be rather poor. It also opens the soil better and allows the water to drain away more readily from the roots of the plants. And while it is better than ordinary digging it is not nearly so hard as trenching. Ridging up.—This operation is performed by digging in a straight line and putting the soil from the furrow up on the left or right to form a ridge. The base of the ridge may be two spits wide and may have a spadeful of soil from a furrow on each side placed on top of it. Or it need only be one spit or spade wide, so that there shall be twice as many ridges and furrows, thus exposing more soil to the action of the weather. If the ridge on which the soil is placed has been dug before- hand it will be all the better. Ground thus treated may be left during the winter months to become mellowed and fertilised for spring cropping. A modification of ridging is to turn up a spit and invert it in the same place. Then on top of this place the next spit, leaving a corresponding hollow. The ground treated in this way will be a series of little hillocks and hollows. In the spring time, before planting, the ridges are forked down and made level, and it will be found that the texture of the soil has been wonderfully improved by the treatment. Trenching.—This is a much more serious operation than digging, and is also far harder work. Consequently it is not done more often than is absolutely necessary. The work is usually performed at the F 66 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS end of autumn or early winter. The object is to turn up a much greater depth of soil than can be accomplished by simple digging as described above, and to loosen and leaven the subsoil. As the latter, however, is generally much less fertile than the upper layer of soil, care must be taken that it does not completely replace that when the work is finished. Should it do so, more harm than good has been done, as the fertile soil has been placed at the bottom of the trench, where the roots cannot reach it; or if they do they have to work in a lower temperature, and this in itself may be detrimental to the roots. Unless they work in a proper temperature, the protoplasm (see p. 22) in the tender cells is unable to become active, with the result that water and the food it contains cannot be absorbed. Hence the leaves cannot assist in assimilating the food necessary to build up the tissues of the plants and to produce flowers, fruits &c. Opening a Trench.—A piece of ground 3 to 4 feet wide should be marked off with a line. This is dug out about 3 or 4 feet—the width and depth of the trench usually correspond—and is wheeled to the other end of the ground, where the work is to finish. Indeed the work is laid out precisely in the same way as for digging, but there is of course much more soil to remove. The first trench being open, the next piece of ground, the same width, is marked off and dug into it. The soil, however, should not be completely inverted as in digging, especially if the subsoil is poor, but should be placed in the trench in such a way that it is always more or less on an inclined plane. To secure this the soil from one trench may be allowed to invade the other, thus keeping the worst soil always at the bottom, and the best on top. Manure should be placed or mixed with the lower layers of soil, which in due course will become improved in texture and fertility. Trenching may be repeated about every third or fourth year. But whenever it is done, the soil should, if possible, be trenched at right angles to the direction on the previous occasion, so as to secure greater distribution and change. The same may be said in regard to digging. If the soil is dug from north to south on one occasion, it should be dug from east to west on another, or in any other different direction. Drainage.—The necessity and importance of thoroughly draining the soil used in seed pots, pans &c. have been mentioned at p. 45. For the cultivation of outdoor crops, whether flowers, fruits, or vegetables, the necessity for a well-drained soil is no less important. Indeed the success of any crop depends very largely upon whether the scil is in such a porous state that water will readily pass away after IMPROVING THE SOIL 67 wetting it, and not remain in pools either on the surface or some little distance below it. Even in the case of plants which grow naturally in marshy or boggy situations stagnant water is injurious and means should be taken to prevent its accumulation. Farmers are often obliged to drain their land by laying pipes at various depths, or by having trenches or ditches made at various inter- vals so that the water may be carried away from the soil in which their crops are growing. In the cultivation of flowers, fruits and vegetables perfect drainage is often secured by thoroughly trenching the soil, deeply digging it, and ridging it up as explained. I have seen neglected kitchen-garden ground so sodden with water that the surface became covered with the green slime so characteristic of stagnant moisture. But after it had been well trenched and left exposed during the winter months it became quite porous, and now bears good crops annually. The soil, therefore, cannot be turned up too much, and if the subsoil is too poor to bring to the surface occasionally it may be at least turned over as explained under ‘ Double digging.’ In wet heavy soil all the stones and rougher portions may be placed at the bottom to act as drainage much in the same way as ‘ crocks’ in a flower-pot. Flower borders very often require to be thoroughly drained with a layer of brickbats, clinkers, stones, mortar-rubbish &c. at a depth of three or four feet when devoted to the cultivation of certain plants, such as Oncocyclus Irises (p 918), Mariposa Lilies (p. 872) and other plants which readily succumb to stagnant moisture at the roots in our climate. The reason why wet ground is so injurious to plant life is because the temperature is lower than in drained land, and the passage of air gases through the soil is prevented. As long as the soil is in a wet condition so long will the heat of the sun be used to evaporate the water instead of warming the soil. Even in the hottest summer, the warm water will come to the surface, while the cold will sink down and chill the roots and retard, if not altogether stop, their absorptive process as described at p. 27. And thus the plants suffer perhaps in the midst of an abundance of plant food which is not placed at their disposal in a proper state owing to bad drainage. LIMING THE SOIL Besides digging and trenching the soil, it may, if in a wet condi- tion, also be improved by the addition of lime, which is a most important agent in fertilising the soil. It not only ‘sweetens’ sour wet land, but makes it drier and more porous, and thus increases its temperature. ¥2 68 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS It also frequently liberates potash (one of the most important plant foods locked up in the soil), and it is also a great preventive of vermin in the shape of slugs, snails, caterpillars and grubs of all kinds. At the rate of from 10 to 20 cwts. per acre or 4 1b. to 11b. per square yard may be applied during the winter months in a powdered state, when the soil is free from vegetation. But while there can be no doubt as to the fertilising properties of lime care must be taken not to be continually dressing the soil with it. It is a bad plan, not only with lime, but with all other fertilisers, to apply one kindonly. A change is beneficial, and chemical changes take place between one and the other, but all the changes are more or less useful to the soil. See p. 1030. Gas Lime also may be applied during the same season, but must be given in smaller quantities, say at the rate of 1 to 2 cwts. per acre, as ina fresh state it is very injurious to plant life. It is, however, a deadly enemy to insect pests. The fresher the gas lime the smaller the pro- portion of it should be used ; about two or three ounces to the square yard would be quite sufficient. The longer it is exposed the less injurious to plant life does it become, as many of its poisonous gases escape into the atmosphere. HOEING AND RAKING Next to the spade and the fork the hoe is perhaps the most impor- tant tool used in garden cultivation. It is made in many forms, shapes and sizes, but that known as the ‘Draw Hoe,’ which the gardener pulls towards him as he walks forwards, and that known as the ‘ Dutch Hoe,’ which he pushes from him as he walks backwards, are the best known and most used. Whatever the shape, however, the object in view is the same. The hoe plays many parts in the garden. It is used for drawing drills for seeds, Potatoes or other tubers, for breaking and loosening the soil, for thinning out seedlings, for cutting up weeds, and for keeping the sur- face of the soil generally clean and in goodcondition. Like everything else connected with gardening, hoeing requires a good deal of intelli- gence and knowledge of the crops, otherwise the workman may soon do far more harm than good. The rake also plays an important part in the improvement of the soil. It is indispensable for levelling the ground in the preparation of seed-beds, clearing the weeds and rubbish generally from borders, shrubberies, lawns &c., and its use in the hands of an intelligent work- man can never be a drawback in keeping a garden in good order. PLANT FOODS AND MANURES 69 MULCHING The reader will find this expression used many times in connection with the cultural directions given for the various plants described in this work. It is therefore advisable to explain its meaning and value. A ‘mulch’ or ‘mulching’ in gardening language means an extra covering of soil, rotten leaves, or manure, either separately or combined, placed over the roots of plants either after the latter have been newly planted, or at any period during their growth when it may be considered advisable. The advantages of mulching may be summed up as follows :— (i) During the hot and dry summer months it prevents excessive evaporation from the soil and thus not only preserves the moisture for the roots to absorb, but it also prevents the soil from becoming excessively hot by day, and cold by night, thus maintaining a more regular temperature. (ii.) In winter it protects the roots from frost and also keeps the soil warmer. Gii.) When a rich mulch is applied to newly planted trees and shrubs, it not only has the above advantages, but the manurial matters contained in it are washed down into the soil and enrich it with food for the benefit of the newly formed or forming roots. (iv.) A good mulching of rich manure to all kinds of fruit trees after they have set their fruits is highly beneficial in assisting them to swell rapidly and ripen more quickly. Once a plant—no matter whether a tree, shrub, or annual—begins to develop fruit and seeds, a demand is made upon its reserve materials. If these are not quite sufficient to meet the demand, it is easy to conceive that the extra food supplied by means of a good mulching will supply the deficiency. PLANT FOODS AND MANURES BrsipEs being a rooting medium for plants, the soil may also be regarded as a storehouse containing some of the particular kinds of food required to build up the stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of plants in conjunction with other foods obtained from the air. A soil is said to be fertile when it contains an abundance of plant food, and sterile or barren when this food is scarce or altogether absent. The great object a gardener has in view therefore is to treat the soil in such a way that it shall always be in a more or less fertile condition, and never be deficient in any of the essential plant foods. 70 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Plants require at least twelve different kinds of food to develop properly, and to bring their flowers or fruits to perfection. These foods are: — Oxygen Sulphur Inme Carbon Phosphorus Soda Hydrogen Potash Magnesia Nitrogen Iron Chlorine These are present in all cultivated plants in greater or less quantities, besides many other things which are said to be non-essential. As a rule all the foods except Nitrogen, Potash, and Phosphorus are readily obtained from the air, soil, or water by the plants themselves. Lime is often present in sufficient quantities, and is very important for fruit or leguminous crops. Only a small trace of Iron is necessary, yet without its aid the green colouring of leaves cannot be developed. The air supplies Oxygen and Carbon, which are absorbed in a combined state by the leaves of plants and are afterwards split up—the Carbon being retained to build up the frame of the plant, while a large amount of the Oxygen is liberated by the pores of the leaves (see p. 38). All the mineral substances are provided by the roots, but they must first of all be dissolved by water. Salt (chloride of sodium) is generally found in plants which grow naturally near the sea, and where these have been brought under cultivation, dressings of salt may be given to the soil occasionally, as in the case of Asparagus (p. 1145) and Seakale (p. 1121) &c. Three important plant foods The good growth of plants practically depends upon the presence of Nitrogen, Potash, and Phosphorus in such a state that they can readily enter into the plant and assist the other foods in building it up. The absence of any one of these three foods cannot be made good by an extra supply of the others. The gardener need not often worry himself in regard to the nine other foods mentioned above, with the exception of Lime; but he should always satisfy himself that his soil is not deficient to any great extent in any of these three foods, the peculiarities and properties of which are referred to below. Nitrogen.—Although so abundant in the atmosphere—being four- fifths of the whole—this gas is very shy of uniting with others, or of being absorbed by the leaves of plants like carbonic acid gas. There PLANT FOODS 7] is an exception in the case of Leguminous plants (see pp. 322-355). Té bas been found that plants of this order have the peculiarity of developing small nodules on their roots. These nodules are supposed to be the work of bacteria which possess the power of absorbing large quantities of nitrogen from the air, thus bringing it into contact with and fertilismg the soil. For this reason it is unnecessary to give Leguminous crops, such as Peas, Beans, Lupins &c., nitrogenous manures. Indeed dressing the soil growing such crops with nitro- genous manures is likely to do a good dealof mischief. The plants get as it were surfeited with a food which they are capable of obtaining easily for themselves. They may require potash and phosphatic manures but never or rarely ever nitrogenous ones. And soil poor in nitrogen may be enriched by the cultivation of Leguminous plants, afterwards digging or ploughing them into the soil. Uses of Nitrogen.—Nitrogen promotes the growth of plants, giving the leaves a deeper colour and making them larger and more luxuriant. It is chiefly obtained from farmyard manure, and the droppings of various animals—pigs, horses, cows, chickens &c.—but never in a free state. Guano—the excreta of seabirds in South America—nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of ammonia are the principal arti- ficial sources which supply nitrogen. The manures containing it require to be used in very small quantities. Nitrate of Soda is a mineral salt found in Chili, Peru, and Bolivia, and has of late years become very popular as a quick-acting manure for all kinds of crops. It resembles dirty common salt in appearance, and like that substance readily dissolves in water. Care should there- fore be taken when storing it to deposit it in a dry place, otherwise it will lose much of its value. Care must be exercised in its use for garden crops. If too much is given the leaves of the plants will shrivel up as if they had been boiled. About 1 1b. to forty square yards is usually considered to be a safe dressing, and it may be applied with advantage to such crops as Potatoes, Cabbages and other Cruciferous crops (p. 1113), Beet, Tomatoes &c. Owing to its fleeting character, and the ease with which it is washed out of the soil, it is obvious that nitrate of soda is only of real value to the roots of any crop of plants in an actively growing state. It should therefore be used to hasten the growth of young plants, or to bring others more quickly into a state of full growth. As a rule it is best used by itself and not in conjunction with other manures, such as superphosphate which decomposes it. If mixed with armyard or other organic manures which have the power of extracting 72 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS and destroying all its value, it is so much waste, and at the same time there is little use in applying it to any soil which is not actually well supplied with phosphates and potash—the two other important manures referred to above. Sulphate of Ammonia.—This is very similar in appearance to Nitrate of Soda, but is if anything a little dirtier in colour. It is manufactured from the ammonia liquor of gas works, and is somewhat stronger and more durable in its action than Nitrate of Soda; conse- quently it need not be used in such large quantities. Although it may be mixed with Superphosphate, Sulphate of Ammonia should never be used in conjunction with lime or chalk, ashes, or a manure known as ‘ Thomas’s phosphate’ or ‘basic slag,’ as these drive off the ammonia from it. Gas Liquor.—This contains a good percentage of ammoniacal manures, and is stronger in action than Sulphate of Ammonia, A gallon of it should be diluted with at least four gallons of water, and may be used as a liquid manure. , Soot.—This is not only a good nitrogenous manure but also con- tains a certain amount of phosphoric acid and potash, and may there- fore be said to be more or less ideal as it contains the three most important plant foods. It is valuable not only for its manurial properties but also for its great value in keeping away slugs, snails, and other vermin. Other Nitrogenous Manures.—Under this heading may be placed almost all refuse which has been in a living state at one time or another. The refuse from slaughterhouses, such as dried blood, and meat, hoof-parings, old rags, hides, leather &c., are all more or less of manurial value, but they do not yield up their food until in a thoroughly decayed state. They are therefore rather slow-acting in the soil, but are nevertheless valuable for perennial crops. Phosphatic Manures.—These are derived from phosphates, and have a marked effect in the production and early ripening of fruit, and all garden crops benefit by their presence, as they are compounds of potash, lime, and ammonia—all valuable plant foods. Superphosphate of lime, bones, phosphate of ammonia, and phosphate of potash, are the chief phosphatic plant foods used. Superphosphate of Lime.—When in a good condition this is a fine greyish powder, dry and friable to the fingers, and not wet and sticky. It has a peculiar smell and tastes very sour or ‘limy.’ About 1 cwt. of it contains 12-14 lbs. of phosphoric acid, or more than is yielded by a ton of good farmyard manure. It should be used carefully, about 1 lb. to every 4 or 5 square yards being sufficient for vegetable and MANURES 73 fruit crops. A smaller quantity, however, is safer for the flower border, applied in spring and lightly forked into the soil as the plants are about to begin growth. The best time as a rule for dressing the soil with superphosphate is in spring when seeds are being sown. If the soil is in a poor condition, superphosphate by itself will not be of much use, and the ground should have had a good dressing of farmyard manure the previous autumn to make it valuable. Bones.—The value of Bones as a phosphatic manure has long been recognised, and many gardeners are very partial to having a sprinkling of ‘ bone-meal’ or ‘ bone-flour’ always mixed with soil when repotting or replanting. Bones are, however, a very slow-acting manure, but the process of decomposition and consequent quicker action may be assisted by having them finely crushed. In the form of bone-meal, unadulterated and unsteamed bones contain about 45-50 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and also a small quantity—4-5 per cent.—of ammonia salts. Steamed or boiled bones contain about 60 per cent. of phosphate of lime, but not so much ammonia. The phosphate of lime, however, is not soluble in pure water, but when acted upon by the carbonic acid in ordinary water, rain &c. it gradually dissolves and fertilises the soil. A manure called dissolved bones or bone superphosphate is produced by mixing a certain quantity of sulphuric acid (or oil of vitriol) with raw bone-meal—about 9 cwts. of sulphuric acid to 20 cwts. of bone- meal. About one-third of the insoluble phosphate of limein the bones is changed by the chemical process into a soluble condition, and is thus more readily available for the roots of plants. A reasonable dressing for fruit and vegetable crops is about 1-2 Ibs. to every ten square yards, and may be given in winter or spring. Basic Slag—This is a dark coloured powdery substance also known as ‘Thomas’s phosphate’ and ‘basic cinder.’ It contains a good deal of oxidised iron (commonly called ‘rust’), but not to any injurious extent. Its chief value lies in the amount of lime it contains in the form of a phosphate, and it is particularly valuable for improv- ing soils which are destitute of lime or chalk, and also vegetable or animal remains called humus. It is best applied in autumn or winter at the rate of 4-8 ounces to the square yard, or 10-20 cwts. to the acre, more or less according to the poverty of the soil in regard to lime and humus. It is good for fruit trees and most garden crops, but will give disappointing results if applied in spring instead of autumn or winter as recommended. Potash.—While nitrogenous food increases luxurious growth, and phosphatic food large crops of fruit, potash increases the quality and 74 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS flavour by manufacturing the sugary ingredients so noticeable in Apples, Pears, Plums, Grapes, Beetroot &c. Garden soil is rarely lacking in potash, and a supply may always be liberated by the addition of lime. Soil which has been well manured with dung for years is very rich in potash, and in such cases it is scarcely necessary to trouble about obtaining special artificial manures. Where, however, the soil is poor in potash, it will be improved by lime, basic slag, and kainit—the latter a cheap and economical manure containing sulphate of potash, common salt, sulphate of magnesia (Epsom Salts) and chloride of magnesia. Besides these, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, and phosphate of potash all yield potash, as do also the ashes of all vegetables and plants generally. Most fruit and vegetable crops, and particularly those belonging to the Cruciferous group, are improved by the addition or presence of potash manures in the soil. Other manures.— Besides the above manures, which are all more or less artificially manufactured and brought into a more or less soluble condition so as to be available as plant-food, it is now necessary to refer to others which may be termed natural manures. Of these the best known is certainly :— Farmyard manure.—This consists of the refuse of litter, solidand liquid excreta of all animals, &c. from stables. To be fitfor use in the garden it should be turned over constantly and well watered, to pre- vent the escape of the volatile ammonia. The water however should not be allowed to drain away and be lost for ever, but means should be taken to secure it and use it as a liquid manure. Good farmyard manure contains about 10-12 lbs. of nitrogen, 10-15 lbs. of potash, and 4-9 lbs. of phosphate, that is only 24-36 lbs. or less than 4 cwt. altogether of essential plant foods out of a ton of material. The remaining 194 cwts. of straw or litter however are not absolutely valueless. The material has been alive at one time, and has been produced by the soil and air. When returned to the soil therefore it acts as a kind of tonic to the mineral particles in the soil, it retains moisture in hot weather, and keeps out cold in winter, and has other useful properties that make it on the whole an excellent and popular manure. Some gardeners have an inclination to do without farmyard manure altogether, and rely a good deal upon the chemical or artificial productions referred to above. It is a mistake, however, as mentioned before, to be always dressing soil with the same kinds of manures, and a medium course is best adopted. While farmyard manure may not give such good or clean results as chemical manures for some crops, such as Potatoes for example, that are subject to fungoid MANURES 75 diseases, the use of chemical manures entirely would leave the soil in the course of time impoverished owing to the absence of all humus, and this as already mentioned is a very important ingredient of most soils. Peat-moss litter, now largely employed for bedding down animals, is also a good manure, but its heating qualities, although rapid, are not so lasting as ordinary stable manure. It however soaks up liquids from the stables much better and holds it in the tissues. Poultry manure.—Where fowls are kept it is a mistake to waste the cleanings from their pens. A ton of chicken manure yields 18-25 lbs. of nitrogen, 12-24 lbs. of phosphate, and 6-12 lbs. of potash. The excreta should be used with care and should always be well mixed with soil, or made up in bags or sacks and sunk in tanks of water to yield a good liquid manure. Pigeon manure is even richer in manurial value than that of chickens. A ton contains about 72 lbs. of nitrogen, 48 Ibs. of phos- phates, and 25 lbs. of potash. It may be used with care in the same way as chicken manure. Indeed the excreta of all animals make excellent manures and are well worth saving for garden purposes. A few experiments in using them will soon enable the gardener to find out the most useful quantities to use. Guano.—This is the excreta and decayed bodies of the sea-birds that frequent the rocky islands near the coast of Peru. In a saleable state it is a dark brownish or snuff-coloured powder, with a peculiar smell of its own, and weighs about 70 lbs. to the bushel. As a manure its value depends mainly on the amount of ammonia, soluble and insoluble phosphates, and alkaline salts which it contains. One ton of good Peruvian Guano is considered to be equal in manurial value to either 333 tons of farmyard manure; 20 tons of horse-dung; 884 tons of cow-dung ; 223 tons of pig-dung; or 142 tons of ‘ night soil’ or human excrement. Looked atin another way it may be stated that out of © 1 cwt. (112 lbs.) of good Guano, there is about 8 Ibs. of nitrogen, 18 Ibs. of phosphoric acid, and 33 lbs. of potash—the quantity of each per ton of course being 20 times as much. For garden purposes about 2-4 cwts..per acre, or 1-2 ozs. to the square yard, is a reasonable dressing, but care should be exercised in its use, and it is better to give smaller amounts to most crops until the action has been tested. Asa liquid manure it is very valuable, about a tea-spoonful—more or less— to a couple of gallons of water being a good stimulant for flowers. It is better not to wet the foliage of plants with liquid manures of any kind owing to their rather vigorous action. When buying Guano or any other high class manure it is always 76 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS advisable to obtain a warranty as to the amount of available nitrogen, {or ammonia), phosphates, and potash contained in them. Fish Guano.—This is the dried and powdered refuse from cod and -herring and other fish factories, and may be regarded as containing a fair amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. According to the kind of fish used, this guano may contain from 7 to 14 per cent. of nitrogen in the form of ammonia; 13-30 per cent. of phosphate of lime; and only 2-3 per cent. of potash. To be of much value as a fertiliser the oily matters should have been extracted as far as possible, as the presence of oil retards the action of the manure and gives unsatisfactory results. The action of Fish Guano is somewhat similar to that of Peruvian Guano, but it may be used a little more freely, say about 2-10 cwts. per acre, or at the rate of 1-4 ozs. to the square yard. The above are the principal manures in use, but in various seaside localities seaweed is much valued, chiefly owing to the potash salts contained in it. A ton of fresh seaweed contains about 10 lbs. of nitrogen, 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 30-45 lbs. of potash, and about 50 lbs. of common salt. It may be turned over several times in a heap and allowed to decompose like ordinary farmyard manure, and in this state may be dug into the soil in the same way. Old rags, rapecake dust, meat refuse, horn shavings and almost any vegetable remains free from fungus diseases may also be used for manuring the soil. _ Coal ashes, which are often recommended in ignorance, should never be applied to any decent soil, as they do more harm than good. If used at all, it should be only to make sticky clayey soil more porous. THE HARDY FLOWER GARDEN 77 PART II THE HARDY FLOWER GARDEN THE modern Flower Garden embraces the cultivation of such a variety of plants that it may be as well to enumerate the different groups or sections in which they are usually placed. Thus, many gardens have a place set apart purposely for the cultivation of rock-plants and alpines ; also specially prepared borders for choice herbaceous perennials of all sorts; streams, pools, or lakes for water and marsh plants ; and also sufficient space for the cultivation of ornamental trees and shrubs. Although the plants belonging to the various groups are described in their natural orders in the following pages, and may easily be found by referring to the Index, there is a certain convenience in having a list of them all together for ready reference. To facilitate obtaining further information about them, the page at which any particular plant is described is given immediately after the name. Should the reader, therefore, wish to have a list of the best Annuals, Herbaceous Perennials, Rock Plants, Water Plants, Bulbous Plants, Ornamental and Flowering Trees and Shrubs &c., he has only to con- sult the lists given below. If he does not know any plant mentioned, he will find a description of it with cultural information at the page quoted after the name. At the same time should there be a plant in his or her garden the name of which is unknown it will be possible to ‘run it down’ or determine to which natural order or genus it belongs by means of the ‘Key’ given at p. 121. Although the lists are fairly exhaustive the author does not recommend the cultivation of all of them in every garden. This would indeed be impossible in most cases, but a selection should be made according to the taste of the reader, and the known capability of his soil, and what it will grow. As a rule it is more satisfactory to grow a few different kinds of plants well, and study their peculiarities and tastes, their likes and dislikes for certain soils and situations &c., than to fill a garden with many kinds that may be quite unsuitable, or cannot be properly attended to. 78 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS ANNUALS are plants which spring from seed, flower, produce seed, and die in one year or season of growth. Many biennial or even perennial plants are treated as annuals, as it is less trouble to raise them from seeds every year than to house or protect the roots during the winter. ‘Hardy’ annuals are those plants which may be sown and grown from start to finish in the open air. ‘Tender’ or ‘half hardy’ annuals, on the other hand, require to be raised in gentle heat, and must not be planted out until all danger from frost is past ; or if sown outside, the operation must be performed later than for hardy annuals. Hardy annuals may be sown either in pots or pans, or in the places outside in the garden in which they are intended to bloom: whether in rows or patches of course depends on the grower. The soil should be well prepared, raked over, and levelled. The seed should be sown very thinly, and only slightly covered, and gently patted down with a flat board or the back of a spade, and the general instructions given from p. 42 to p. 46 must be borne in mind. When flowers are required in summer or autumn, hardy annuals may be sown out of doors in March and April. If required in early stummer or late spring, then the seeds should be sown early in Septem- ber. When thinned out, the sturdy seedlings may be afterwards trans- planted to their flowering positions, sufficiently early to become established before winter. For further particulars the reader is referred to the article on seeds and seed sowing, pp. 24, 42. Biennials.—These are plants which usually require two years or seasons of growth to develop fully from seed before they die naturally. The seeds of hardy biennials are usually sown from June to August, and pricked out or transplanted in the autumn to the places in which they are to bloom the following year. Tender biennials must be sown in autumn in a frame or cool house, and the plants must be sheltered in these places until about the end of the following May, when they may be planted out. The following is a selection of the best annuals and biennials, or plants that may be treated in the same way. ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS 79 LIST I A Selection of the most Ornamental Annual and Biennial Plants, or those that may be treated as such The page at which description and cultural information for each are given appears Abronia umbellata, p. 760. Acroclinium roseum, p. 508. Adonis autumnalis, p. 145. Alyssum maritimum, p. 210. Amberboa moschata, p. 551. odorata, p. 551. Antirrhinum, vars., p. 710. Aphanostephus ramosissi- mus, p. 497. Arabis arenosa, p. 206. Asperula azurea setosa, p. 487. Baeria coronaria, p. 524. Balsam, p. 294. Brachycome iberidifolia, p. 497. Calandrinia discolor, p. 262. grandiflora, p. 262. Calendula officinalis, p. 544, Callistephus hortensis (the type) and various China Asters, p. 499, Campanula Loreyi, p. 567. macrostyla, p- 566. Medium, p. 566. sibirica, p. 568. spicata, p. 568. Candytuft, p. 218. Canterbury Bells, p. 566. Carnations, Marguerite, p. 241. Celosia, p. 762. Centaurea cyanus, p. 550. moschata, p. 551. Centauridium Drummondi, p. 496. Centranthus macrosiphon, p. 489. Cheiranthus, p. 204. China Aster, p. 499. Chrysanthemum carinatum, p. 581. coronarium, p. 531. Clarkia elegans, p. 452. pulchella, p. 453. Clintonia pulchella, p. 555. Cockscomb, p. 762. Collinsia bicolor, p. 717. after the name. Collinsia verna, p. 718. Collomia coccinea, p. 663. Convolvulus tricolor, p. 686. Coreopsis Drummondi, p. 518. Cosmidium burridgeanum, p. 522. Cosmos bipinnatus, p. 522. Datura, p. 692. Delphinium, annual vars., p. 158. Dianthus sinensis, p. 243. Digitalis purpurea, vars., Dimorphotheca annua, p. 544. KEcklonis, p. 544. Dracocephalum, vars., p. 751. Erysimum alpinum, p. 214. Perofskianum, p. 215. Eschscholtzia, vars., p. 197. Eucharidium grandiflorum, p. 455. Eutoca viscida, p. 669. Forget-me-not, p. 677. | Foxglove, p. 722. Gaillardia amblyodon, p. 527. picta, p. 527. Gaura Lindheimeri, p. 457. Gilia achillesfolia, p. 664. coronopifolia, p. 664. densifiora, p. 664. dianthoides, p. 664. liniflora, p. 665. micrantha, p. 665. tricolor, p. 665. Glaucium, vars., p. 196. Godetia Whitneyi, p. 454. Gypsophila elegans, p. 248. viscosa, p. 249. Helianthus annuus, p. 515. petiolaris, p. 517. Helichrysum arenarium, p. 508. bracteatum, p. 508. Honesty, p. 207. Iberis coronaria, p, 218. umbellata, p. 220. Ionopsidium acaule, p. 216. Ipomopsis elegans, p. Kaulfussia amelloides, p. 498. Kochia scoparia, p. 766. Lamarckia aurea, p. 961. Lasthenia californica, p. 524. Lathyrus odoratus, p. 348. Lavatera trimestris, p. 274. Layia elegans, p. 523. platyglossa, p. 324. Leptosiphon densiflorus, roseus, p. 665. Leptosyne calliopsidea, p. 519. maritima, p. 519. Stillmani, p. 519. Limnanthes Douglasi, p. 292. Linaria aparinoides, p. 708. bipartita, p. 708. multipunctata, p. 709. reticulata, p. 709. spartea, p. 710. Linum grandiflorum, p. 283. usitatissimum, p. 284, Lunaria biennis, p. 207. Lupinus affinis, p. 324. Hartwegi, p. 825. luteus, p. 325. Menziesii, p. 325. mutabilis, p. 325. nanus, p. 325. pilosus, p. 325. subcarnosus, p. 326. Malcolmia maritima, and var. alba, p. 214. Malope grandifiora, p. 271. malacoides, p. 271. trifida, p. 271. Malva crispa, p. 275. mauritiana, p. 275. Marigold, p. 544. Martynia fragrans, p. 735. proboscidea, p. 735. Matthiola annua, p. 201, incana, p. 202. Mentzelia Lindleyi, p. 458. Michauxia campanuloides, p. 560. Mignonette, p. 222. 80 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Mina lobata, p. 684. Morning Glory, p. 683. Myosotis alpestris, p. 677. dissitiflora, p. 677. Nemesia strumosa, p. 707. versicolor, p. 707. Nemophila atomaria, p. 667. aurita, p. 667. insignis, p. 667. maculata, p. 667. Nicotiana, vars., p. 695. Nigella damascena, p. 155. hispanica, p. 155. Nolana atriplicifolia, p. 686. Nycterina selaginoides, p. 718. Cnothera, vars., p. 453. Omphalodes linifolia, p. 671. Oxalis rosea, p. 293. Oxyura chrysanthemoides, Palava flexuosa, p. 271. Papaver croceum, p. 191. glaucum, p. 191. Rheeas, vars., p. 192. somniferum, vars., p. 192. Petunia, p. 697. Phacelia, vars., p. 668. Pharbitis hispida, and vars., Phlox Drummondi, p. 660. Picotees, p. 240. Pinks, p. 246. Platystemon californicus, p. 190. Polygonum orientale, p. 770. Poppies, p. 191. Reseda odorata, p. 222. Rhodanthe Manglesii, p. 508. Salpiglossis sinuata, p. 700. Sanvitalia procumbens, p. 512. Saponaria calabrica, p. 249. Scabiosa caucasica, p. 491. Schizanthus pinnatus, p. 699. retusus, p. 700. Senecio elegans, p. 541. Silene Armeria, p. 251. Atocion, p. 251. compacta, p. 251. pendula, p. 253. quadrifida, p. 254. Snapdragon, p. 710. Specularia speculum, p. 569. Sphenogyne speciosa, p. 544. Statice spicata, p. 603. Stocks, p. 201. Suworowi, p. 603. Sweet Pea, p. 348. Scabious, p. 491. Sultan, p. 551. William, p. 238. Tagetes erecta, p. 526. patula, p. 526. signata, p. 526. Tobacco, p. 695. Trifolium incarnatum, p. 334. Tropeolum majus, p. 290. minus, p. 291. peregrinum, p. 291. Venidium calendulaceum, p. 545. Verbascum pheeniceum, p. 702. Verbena hybrida, p. 740. Viola, vars., p. 228. Virginian Stock, p. 214. Viscaria oculata, p. 257. Wallfiower, p. 204. Whitlavia grandiflora, p. 669. Xeranthemum annuum, p. 547. Zaluzianskia, p. 718. Zauschneria californica, p. 452. Zea Mays, p. 964. Zinnia elegans, p. 512. THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER In the flower garden proper, the hardy herbaceous border is un- doubtedly the most important feature. Its beauty and variety depend almost entirely on the taste of the owner, and a knowledge of the plants used. Some herbaceous borders nearly always present a bright and attractive appearance owing to a good and tasteful selection of plants arranged with due regard to their various heights, their period of blossoming, and the contrasts produced by the colour of their flowers. Other borders, however, which receive but little or no attention present anything but an attractive appearance. Many things have to be considered in the making of a good flower border—such as site, aspect, soil, habit, height, colour, and general requirements of each species, and whether they are better grown as _ individual specimens or in large or smal] masses or groups to produce the best effect. Indeed it may be said that the chief object in view in making a hardy herbaceous border is to secure a pleasing natural picture with plants and flowers of different habits, heights, colours &c. The nature of the locality must always be taken into consideration, THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER 81 and only those plants should be grown that will flourish with ordinary good care and attention. It must be borne in mind that some plants thrive in one locality and make glorious pictures in the flower border, while in other districts—perhaps not many miles distant—they prove to be utter failures, notwithstanding every attention to cultural details. Unfortunately, this is one of the peculiar things that puzzle gar- deners not a little. Many, of an experimental turn of mind, resolve to makea difficult plant grow by hook or by crook if good cultivation can do it. Very often they are highly successful, and very often not. And curiously enough, many of these so-called difficult plants to cultivate, when they fail under what is considered the best treatment, often astonish the disgusted cultivator by growing vigorously and flowering profusely when they have been neglected and left to shift for them- selves. A writer in the ‘Garden’ has illustrated this point very clearly in connection with Tropgéolum speciosum (see p. 291). He says :— This species was planted in many positions, care being taken to afford @ porous root-run and a sufficiency of shade, for in the south it is almost impossible to establish this Tropeolum in a situation exposed to the full rays of the sun. After the planting was concluded a certain quantity of roots remained over, and these were placed in holes dug at the foot of a spreading young yew tree, the soil not being disturbed further than was necessary for covering the roots. After this was effected, these latter were not given another thought, as they were not ex- pected to succeed, and had only been roughly planted as an alternative to being thrown away. In course of time all the carefully planted and tended Tropzeolums disappeared, and for a couple of years the forgotten roots beneath the yew did nothing to advertise their existence. In the third year, however, a vivid splash of vermilion on one of the branches of the yew drew attention to the fact that the plants were not only alive, but in the best of health, in which state they have since remained, garlanding the sombre foliage during the summer months with an opulence of colour that year by year increases in extent.’ The moral of this is that the reader must not be discouraged if he should fail to grow a plant under one set of conditions. Should this unfortunately happen, then he should at least try totally different condi- tions in his garden before finally rejecting the plant as unsuitable. Site of Herbaceous Borders.—Where a large and varied selection of plants from all quarters of the globe is to be grown in the same border, the best general site is one facing any point of the compass between east and west. There are several choice plants—Tropeolum speciosum, mentioned above, for example—that will flourish facing north or east; but the great majority of choice border plants require a position G 82 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS sheltered from the bleak cold winds of the east and north. This shelter is better and more picturesque if given by means of ornamental trees and shrubs, or thick evergreen hedges. When herbaceous borders are made against walls and outside greenhouses care should be taken not to have the back portion choked up with vegetation with an idea of hiding the wall. The latter object can be secured by training various plants and climbers like Ivies, Vitis, Smilax, Choisya, Clematis, Jasmine, Bignonia &c. over them. But there is no necessity whatever to have beautiful flower borders near buildings or walls of any sort, or even fringing shrubberies, although all these situations are valuable if properly utilised. The flower border may stand alone in the grass and may be so arranged that sufficient shelter is afforded from a distance by hedges, trees, buildings &c. Width.—The width of flower borders is often so great that the plants towards the back are so placed as to be too far off to be properly attended to without constantly walking over the border and treading the soil down into a perfectly hard state. Five to six feet wide is quite enough for any border, and it should be so arranged that it may be viewed from both sides. Where flowers are largely cut for room decoration this will be found a convenient width, as it will admit of the flowers being cut from the centre of the bed without trespassing on the soil or the intervening plants. Where very broad stretches of ground may be used for the flower border, pathways of grass about 2 ft. wide may be left between the borders. This will allow for the erection at intervals of trellises, arches, pergolas &c., over which climbers from each side may be trained up. Where herbaceous borders run parallel with greenhouses or conserva- tories, as they frequently do, a pathway at the back by the walls will be a great convenience, and will also allow a freer circulation of air among the plants. The taste of the cultivator, however, will always decide where the borders are to be made, how they are to be planted, and the kinds of plants to be used. Soil.—For general purposes a rich loamy well-drained soil is best. It may be leavened by the addition of manure, leafsoil, peat and sand, as may be required for any particular plant grown in it. It should be from 2 to 8 feet deep and, before planting, well dug or trenched as occasion demands, In the following pages there is frequent reference to ‘ordinary good garden soil.’ This means any soil which is well- drained and consists of loam, sand, leaf-mould and other vegetable and animal refuse, clay, peat é&c., all of which have been thoroughly worked with the addition of manures for years past. It would be difficult without analysis to say of what such a soil was composed. THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER 83 Planting.—As the herbaceous border is usually intended to last for several years, care should be exercised in selecting and arranging the plants properly at first, to avoid subsequent alterations. If the borders are arranged as recommended it will not be necessary to have all the tall plants at the back, the others sloping downwards to the dwarf ones in front, thus giving a painful air of symmetrical arrangement. Many of the taller kinds may be placed in the centre, and behind or in front of them the dwarfer ones may be planted, according as to whether they require plenty of sunshine or shadow. In fact, the plants should be maide to assist each other as much as possible in this respect. A tall plant may be readily used for shading a dwarfer one by its shadow during the hotter and sunnier portion of the day. In the same way a tender plant may be sheltered from the winds if arranged near another of a more hardy constitution. Massing or Grouping.—It often happens that one plant by itself fails to produce a good effect. It may be straggling in habit and small in flower, and is lost amid more showy- surroundings. It is somewhat similar to a solitary soldier in a more or less gay uniform, and a whole battalion dressed in the same way. The individual looks common- place and excites no comment, but when he is one of a thousand he con- tributes his share to the brilliant effect of the whole. So it is with many plants. When they are ineffective as single specimens they become handsome and desirable subjects in a flower border when grown together in large masses. If Violets, Primroses, Saxifrages, Asters, Aubrietias, Larkspurs, Anemones, Campanulas, Coreopsis, Gentians, Phloxes, Pentstemons &c. were grown simply as single plants at a great distance from each other, they would never produce the effect, or be so much appreciated as they are when grown in masses and groups. Colour and Time of Flowering.—This is an important point to con- sider in arranging the plants. In the following lists some of the best flowers are arranged according to the principal predominating colour, so that the reader will find no difficulty in making a selection for him- self. The period of blooming should also be taken into consideration, with a view to obtaining flowers in the open air for as long a period as possible. In this way the flower border will continue to maintain its interest from one year’s end to another. As it is often useful to know what plants are likely to bloom in the dullest months of the year, a list of those which blossom between September and May is given at p. 94. It is scarcely necessary to give a detailed list of those which flower from May to September, as during this period there are so many, and there is no difficulty in finding them. In regard to the trees and shrubs, however, a list of which is given at p. 107, some pains have been taken a2 84 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS to give the months in the year at which representatives of most of them are usually in blossom. General Arrangement of the Flower Border.—This has been treated so well by Miss Jekyll, of Munstead, in a paper read before the Horticultural Society that I take the liberty of reproducing her remarks here :— - ‘ An essential feature in a garden of hardy flowers is a well-arranged mixed border. It is here that we can show the true summer flowers at their best, but it is here, more than anywhere else, that the “art of many sacrifices ’’’ must be put in practice. For the main spaces plants should be chosen of bold and striking beauty, but as a border of all large plants would have a kind of monotony, certain spaces, chiefly towards the front, but also running back in many parts among groups of taller things, should be planted with those of lower growth. The chief plants for such a border are Oriental Poppies (p. 191), Paonies (p. 165), the boldest of the Inises (p. 917), Day-Lilies (p. 815), Herbaceous Spireas (p. 364), Ginotheras (p. 453), a few of the best Campanulas (p. 562), Delphiniums (p. 158), Lilies, (p. 842), three or four of the best perennial Sunflowers (p. 515), the tall blue Sea-Holly (p. 465), Tritomas (p. 817), Mulleins (p. 701), Thalictrums (p. 137), Dahlias (p. 519), Hollyhocks (p. 272), and a few others. These are the plants that will form the great effects of the border. The nearest parts, and some spaces between the taller growths, should have groups of plants of lower stature, and yet of a somewhat bold form of foliage. Of these the broad-leaved Saxifrages (p. 415), and Funkias (p. 816), are among the best. Still dwarfer plants, such as Pinks (p. 238), and Pansies (p. 283), are suitable for the extreme edge. ‘Hach kind of plant in the mixed border should stand in a bold group, and the groups, differing in size and shape, according to the aspect of the plant, should follow one another in a carefully arranged sequence of colour, keeping plants of a colour together, such as Mulleins with CAnotheras, and Tritoma with Oriental Poppy. In the case of the last named, it is convenient to actually intergroup the two kinds, for the foliage of the Poppies dies away early and the blank space it would have left becomes covered by the later-growing leaves of the autumn- blooming Tritoma. ‘Groups of red, orange and strong yellow follow well, and help each other by forming a rich colour harmony. Flowers of a strong blue colour, like Delphiniums, seem to ask for a contrast, such as that of white Lilies (p. 846) or the pale yellow of Cnothera lamarckiana (p. 453), and Verbascum phlomoides (p. 702), the best of the Mulleins. In practice it is perhaps best to exclude bulbous plants from the mixed THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER 85 border, “especially in light soils that need frequent enrichment,” as the disturbing of the ground, occasioned by division of the plants and manuring, is perilous to the bulbs, the foliage of which has usually disappeared by autumn, and whose places are probably forgotten unless marked by unsightly labels. But exception should be made in favour of the three common Lilies, the White (p. 846), the Orange (p. 848) and the Tiger (p. 857). Labels must be absolutely abolished in the ornamental garden. (See p. 47.) ‘Some families of plants, especially those whose beauty is in infinite variety, may best be enjoyed in places almost by themselves, where the eye would be undisturbed by the consideration of other kinds of flowers. A garden of Lilies may be made of great beauty, the groups of Lilies appearing among dwarf and moderate sized shrubs and hardy Ferns. The Peony family (p. 165) is another example of a large range of summer flowers that deserve such treatment in addition to their use in other places. A whole wealth of garden beauty exists im this one tribe alone, for, apart from those best known—namely, the double varieties of the old garden kind, the Chinese herbaceous (p. 168) and the old Tree Peony (p. 171)—there are many other kinds, both species and their cultivated varieties, that are happily available for garden use. ‘Many a beautiful garden picture may also be made by the placing of quite a small number, or even a single example of some stately plant in a quiet place by itself, such as a group of Liliwm giganteum (p. 849) with its noble flower spikes and its broad glistening leaves. A group of this grand Lily, in partial shade and backed by trees or small shrubs, shows one of the stateliest forms that can be seen of a flowering plant of one year’s growth. ‘Such another example is offered by the California Tree Poppy (Romneya Coulteri, p. 190) which, when well established, will grow in one season into a bush 7 feet high and as much through. It is a remarkably beautiful plant and to an eye trained to harmonies of colour singularly pleasing in the relation of its large milk-white flowers and pale blue-green leaves. It delights in a sunny well-sheltered place in a light soil. ‘Old walls are easily made beautiful by sowing a few seeds of Wall- flowers (p. 240), Snapdragon (p. 710), Red Valerian (p. 490), and Rock Pinks (p. 245), and even a heap of hungry sand will grow to perfection the handsome Lyme Grass (p. 959) and the beautiful Sea-Holly (p. 465). ‘There is no end to the interest of this kind of gardening, and the harder the problem the greater the triumph when, for instance, a difficult or ugly piece of ground has been compelled into beauty, and what was before unsightly is made delightful to the eye, and with such 86 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS skill that the result looks, not as if it had been done, but as if it had happened. ‘It should be remembered that a beautiful garden is a place of pleasant labour and happy restfulness, and that the more it can be filled with perfect pictures, the more it gives delight to the eye and solace to: the mind, and the nearer it approaches to the making of an earthly paradise.’ The following is a list of the best Herbaceous Perennial Plants for cultivation in the flower border. After each name the page at which information in regard to description, culture &c. is given is indi- cated in figures. Acanthus latifolius, p. 736. longifolius, p. 736. mollis, p. 736. spinosissimus, p. 737. spinosus, p. 737. Achillea egyptiaca, p. 528. asplenifolia, p. 528. Eupatorium, p. 528. Ptarmica, fi. pl., p. 529. tomentosa, p. 529. Aconitum, vars., p. 162. Adonis vernalis, p. 144. Athionema cordifolium, p. 216. Alstroemeria, vars., p. 914. Althea rosea, p. 271. Alyssum saxatile, p. 210. Anchusa italica, p. 675. Anemone, vars., p. 139. Anthemis tinctoria, p. 530. Anthericum, vars., p. 825. Aquilegia, vars., p. 155. Arnebia echioides, p. 679. Arum italicum, p. 954. Arundo Donax, p. 958. Asclepias tuberosa, p. 647. Asphodelus luteus, p. 823. ramosus, p. 823. Aster, vars., p. 500. Astilbe, vars., p. 414. Astragalus monspessulanus, Baptisia australis, p. 323. Betonica grandiflora, p. 755. Bocconia cordata, p. 195. Buphthalmum grandiflorum, p. 611. salicifolium, p. 511. speciosum, p. 611. LIST II Calceolaria alba, p. 704. Kellyana, p. 705. Calla palustris, p. 955. Callirhoé involucrata, p. 276. ' Calystegia dahurica, p. 684. pubescens, p. 684. Campanula abietina, p. 563. alpina, p. 563. carpatica, p. 563. dahurica, p. 564. glomerata, p.564, grandis, p. 565. lactiflora, p. 565. latifolia, p. 565. mirabilis, p. 566. nobilis, p. 566. persicefolia, p. 566. pyramidalis, p. 567. rotundifolia, p- 568. Trachelium, p. 568. turbinata, p. 563. Van Houttei, p. 565. Carbenia benedicta, p. 551. Cassia marilandica, p. 354. Catananche bicolor, p. 553. cerulea, p. 553. Centaurea americana, p. 549. babylonica, p. 549, macrocephala, p. 550. ragusina, p. 551. Centranthus ruber, p. 489. Cephalaria alpina, p. 491. Chelone glabra, p. 712. obliqua, p. 712. Chrysanthemum, vars., p. 531. Chrysobactron Hookeri, p. 826. Chrysogonum virginianum, p. 511. Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 164.. Clematis recta, p. 135. Cnicus, vars., p. 548. Columbine, p. 155 Commelina celestis, p. 807. Convallaria majalis, p. 813. Convolvulus althzoides, p. 685. Soldanella, p. 684. Coreopsis grandiflora, p. 518. lanceolata, p. 518. tenuifolia, p. 519. ' Coronilla iberica, p. 345. varia, p. 345. Corydalis lutea, p. 200. nobilis, p. 200. Crambe cordifolia, p. 221. pinnatifida, p. 222. Cypripedium Calceolus, p. 892. spectabile, p. 893. Dahlia, vars., p. 519. Delphinium, vars., p. 158. Dicentra eximia, p. 198. spectabilis, p. 199. Dictamnus Fraxinella, p. 296. Dodecatheon integrifolium, p. 626. Jeffreyanum, p- 626. Meadia, p. 626. Doronicum caucasicum, p. 540. plantagineum, p. 540. Dracocephalum argunense, p. 751. austriacum, p. 751. grandiflor- um, p. 751. ruyschian- um, p. 752. Echinops Ritro, p. 547. ruthenicus, p. 547. Epilobium angustifolium, p. 452. rosmarinifolium, p. 452. Epimedium pinnatum, p. 184. Eranthis hyemalis, p. 154. Eremurus, vars., p. 824. Krigeron speciosus, p. 506. Erodium Manescavi, p. 287. Eryngium, vars., p. 465. Erythronium, vars., p. 869. Ferula communis, p. 468. glauca, p. 469. tingitana, p. 469. Funkia, vars., p. 816. Gaillardia aristata, p. 527. grandiflora, p. 527. Galega officinalis, p. 337. iana Andrewsii, p. 653. asclepiadea, p. 653. lutea, p. 655. Geranium, vars., p. 285. Geum, vars., p. 374. Gillenia trifoliata, p. 369. Gunnera manicata, p. 446. scabra, p. 447. Gypsophila paniculata, p. 249 Steveni, p. 249. Hacquetia Epipactis, p. 467. Hedysarum, vars., p. 345. Helenium autumnale, p. 526. nudiflorum, p. 527. Helianthus, vars., p. 515. Helichrysum arenarium, p. 508. Helleborus, vars., p. 152. Hemerocallis aurantiaca major, p. 815. flava, p. 815. fulva, p. 815. minor, p. 816. Hesperis matronalis, p. 213. Heuchera sanguinea, p. 427. Hibiscus militaris, p. 279. palustris, p. 279. roseus, p. 279. Iberis, vars., p. 218. Inula glandulosa, p. 510. Hookeri, p. 510. Iris, vars., p. 917. Jeffersonia diphylla, p. 184. Kniphofia, in variety, p. 817. Larkspur, p. 158. Lathyrus grandiflorus, p. 348. latifolius, p. 348. rotundifolius, p. 349. splendens, p. 349. Liatris elegans, p. 495. spicata, p. 495. squarrosa, p. 495. Lilium, vars., p. 842. Linaria, vars., p. 707. Lindelofia spectabilis, p. 672. Linum alpinum, p. 283. arboreum, p. 283. flavum, p. 283. narbonense, p. 284. perenne, p. 284. Lobelia cardinalis, p. 556. fulgens, p. 557. splendens, p. 557. Lupinus nootkatensis, p. 326. polyphyllus, p. 326. chalcedonica and vars., p. 255. coronaria, p. 255. diurna fl. pl., p. 256. fulgens, p. 256. haageana, p. 257. Lagascer, p. 257. vespertina fl. pl., p. 257. Viscaria, p. 258. Lysimachia clethroides, p. 629. punctata, p. 629. Lythrum Salicaria, p. 451. virgatum, p. 451. Malva campanulata, p. 276. moschata, p. 275. Meconopsis cambrica, p. 194. nepalensis, p. 194. Wallichi, p. 194. Medicago falcata, p. 333. Melittis Melissophyllum, p. 754. Menyanthes trifoliata, p. 657. Mertensia sibirica, p. 676. virginica, p. 676. Monarda didyma, p. 750. fistulosa, p. 750. Monkshood, p. 162. Morina longifolia, p. 490. Myosotis dissitiflora, p. 677. palustris, p. 678. sylvatica, p. 678. Nepeta Mussini, p. 750. (Enothera, vars., p. 453. Omphalodes verna, p. 671. Onobrychis montana, p. 346. Lychnis HERBACHOUS PERENNIAL PLANTS 87 Ononis aragonensis, p. 332. rotundifolia, p. 332. Orobus cyaneus, p. 350. flaccidus, p. 350. lathyroides, p. 350. variegatus, p. 351. vernus, p. 351. Ostrowskya magnifica, p. 559. Ourisia coccinea, p. 723. Peonia, vars., p. 165. Pansy, p. 233. Papaver bracteatum, p. 191. lateritium, p. 191. nudicaule, p. 191. orientale, p. 191. pilosum, p. 192. Pentstemon, vars., p. 712. Phlomis ferruginea, p. 757. fruticosa, p. 757. herba-venti, p. 757. Russelliana, p. 757. Phlox, vars., p. 658. Phygelius capensis, p. 711. Physalis Francheti, p. 690. Physostegia imbricata, p. 754. virginiana, p. 754. Phyteuma comosum, p. 561. Phytolacca decandra, p. 767. Plagianthus Lyalli, p. 277. Platycodon grandifiorum, p. 559. Plumbago Larpente, p. 604. Podophyllum Emodi, p. 185. peltatum, p. 185. Polemonium ceruleum, p. 665. confertum, p. 665. humile, p. 666. pulchellum, p. 666. Polyanthus, vars., p. 620. Polygonatum multifiorum, p. 811. Polygonum cuspidatum, p. 759 sachalinense, p. 770. spherostachy- um, p. 770. vaccinifolium, p- 770. Potentilla, vars., p. 376. Primula, vars., p. 604. Prunella grandiflora, p. 754. webbiana, p. 754. Pyrethrum achilleefolium, p. 535. roseum, p. 536, uliginosum, p. 535. 88 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Ranunculus aconitifolius, p. 146. acris fl. pL, p. 146. amplexicaulis, p. 146. asiaticus, p. 147. Lyalli, p. 149. monspeliacus, p. 149. montanus, p. 149. spicatus, p. 150. Rheum, vars., p. 770. Rhexia virginica, p. 449. Romneya Coulteri, p. 190. Rudbeckia, vars., p. 514. Salvia argentea, p. 747. patens, p. 748. Santolina Chamecyparissus, incana, p. 530. Saponaria ocymoides, p. 249. Saxifraga cordifolia, p. 419. crassifolia, p. 419. Scabiosa caucasica, p. 491. Scutellaria alpina, p. 753. macrantha, p. 753. Sedum kamtschaticum, p. 439. populifolium, p. 440. Sedum Sieboldi, p. 440. spectabile, p. 441. Senecio, vars., p. 540. Sidalcea candida, p. 276. malveflora, p. 277. Silene alpestris, p. 251. Elisabethe, p. 252. maritima, p. 252. Schafta, p. 254. Silphium laciniatum, p. 511. Sisyrinchium gyrandiflorum, p. 943. Solidago, vars., p. 496. Spigelia marilandica, p. 649. Spirea Aruncus, p. 364. lobata, p. 364. palmata, p. 365. Stachys lanata, p. 755. Statice latifolia, p. 602. speciosa, p. 603. tatarica, p. 603. Stokesia cyanea, p. 493. Symphyandra Hoffmanni, p. 570. pendula, p. 570. Wanneri, p. 570. Symphytum asperrimum, p. 673. caucasicum, p. 673. LIST III Thalictrum, vars., p. 137. Thermopsis fabacea, p. 323. lanceolata, p. 323. Tiarella cordifolia, p. 426. Tradescantia virginica and vars., p. 807. Tricyrtis hirta, p. 879. Tritoma Uvaria, p. 818. Trollius, vars, p. 151. Tropeolum pentaphyllum, polyphyllum, p. 291. speciosum, p. 291. Veratrum album, p. 881. nigrum, p. 881. viride, p. 881. Verbascum Chaixi, p. 702. olympicum, p. 702. phlomoides, p. 702. Veronica, vars., p. 724. Vicia argentea, p. 347. Cracca, p. 347. Vinca herbacea, p. 645. Viola, vars., p. 228. Zauschneria californica, p. 452. A Selection of Herbaceous Plants etc. that will grow in more or less Shady Places. Acanthus, vars., p. 736. Achillea Ptarmica fl. pl., p. 529. Aconitum, vars., p. 162. Actea, vars., p. 164. Ajuga reptans, p. 759. Anemone, vars., p. 139. Aquilegia vulgaris, p. 158. Aralia edulis, p. 470. nudicaulis, p. 470. racemosa, p. 470. Aristolochia, vars., p. 773. Artemisia, vars., p. 538. Arum Dracunculus, p. 954. italicum, p. 955. Arundinaria, vars., p. 965. Asclepias, vars., p. 647. Asperula odorata, p. 487. Asphodelus ramosus,- p. 822. Aster, vars., p. 500. Astilbe, vars., p. 414. Astrantia, vars., p. 466. Baneberry, p. 164. ' Baptisia, vars., p. 323. Betonica grandiflora, p. 755. ' Borago orientalis, p. 674. Bromus, vars., p. 959. Buphthalmum grandiflorum, p. 511. salicifolium, p. 511. Calystegia vars.. p. O84. Campanula, vars., p. 563. Centaurea montana, p. 551. Chelidonium majus, p. 196. Clematis, vars., p. 131. Convallazia majalis, p. 813. Coreopsis lanceolata, p. 518. Cortusa Matthioli, p. 624. Corydalis nobilis, p. 200. Crambe cordifolia, p. 221. Cyclamen, vars., p. 626. Cynoglossum Omphalodes, p. 672. Cypripedium, vars, p. 892. Delphinium, vars., p. 158. | The description, culture, and propagation will be found at the page mentioned after the names. Dicentra spectabilis, p. 199. Digitalis, vars., p. 722. Dodecatheon, vars., p. 626. Doronicum Pardalianches, p. 540. plantagineum, p. 540. Dracocephalum Ruyschia- num, p. 752. Echinops, vars., p. 547. Elymus arenarius, p. 959. Epigea repens, p. 578. Epilobium angustifolium, p. 452. Epimedium, vars., p. 184. ,Equisetum sylvaticum, p. 1024. Telmateia, p. 1023. Eranthis hyemalis, p. 154. Eryngium alpinum, p. 465. Erythronium, vars., p. 869. ' Eupatorium, vars., p. 494 i Ferula, vars., p. 468. TRAILING AND CLIMBING PLANTS 89 Fragaria, vars., p. 376. Fritillaria, vars., p. 857. Funkia, vars., p. 816. Galanthus nivalis, p. 906. plicatus, p. 906. Gaultheria, vars., p. 575. Gentiana septemfida, p. 656. Geranium, vars., p. 285. Geum, vars., p. 374. Gillenia trifoliata, p. 369. Hedysarum, vars., p. 345. Helianthus, vars., p. 515. Helleborus, vars., p. 152. Helonias bullata, p. 878. Hemerocallis, vars., p. 815. Heuchera, vars., p. 427. Hieracium aurantiacum, p. 553. Hop, p. 788. Humulus Lupulus, p. 788. Hypericum, vars., p. 265. Inula Helenium, p. 510. Iris, vars., p. 917. Lamium, vars., p. 756. Lathyrus, vars., p. 348. Lavatera, vars., p. 274. Leucojum, vars., p. 907. Liatris spicata, p. 495. Lilium, vars., p. 842. Linnea borealis, p. 482. Lupinus polyphyllus, p. 326. Lychnis diurna, p. 256. vespertina, p. 257. Lysimachia, vars., p. 629. Lythrum, vars., p. 451. Malva, vars., p. 275. Meconopsis nepalensis, p. 194. Wallichi, p. 194. Medicago, vars., p. 333. Melittis Melissophyllum, p. 754. Mertensia, vars., p. 676. Mimulus moschatus, p. 720. Mitchella repens, p. 488. Monarda, vars., p. 750. Mulgedium alpinum, p. 554. Myosotis, vars., p. 677. Narcissus, vars., p. 893. Génothera, vars., p. 453. Omphalodes verna, p. 671. Onopordon Acanthium, p. 548. Ornithogalum, vars., p. 842. Peonia, vars., p. 165. Panicum altissimum, p. 962. capillare, p. 962. virgatum, p. 962. Phlomis, vars., p. 757. Physostegia, vars., p. 754. Podophyllum, vars., p. 185. Polemonium reptans, p. 666. Polygonatum multiflorum, p. 811. Polygonum affine, p. 768. cuspidatum, p. 769. Primula, vars., p. 604. Pyrola, vars., p. 598. Ranunculus aconitifolius, fi. pl., p. 146. Rubus, vars., p. 371. Rudbeckia californica, p. 514. hirta, p. 514. laciniata, p. 514. triloba, p. 515. LIST IV ’ Ruscus aculeatus, p. 810. racemosus, p. 810. Sanguinaria canadensis, p. 195. Saponaria officinalis, p. 249. Saxifraga cordifolia, p. 419. crassifolia, p. 419. Fortunei, p. 421. Geum, p, 421. umbrosa, p. 426. | Scilla, vars., p. 838. Sedum spectabile, p. 441. Smilacina bifolia, p. 813. stellata, p. 813. Spigelia marilandica, p. 649. Spireea, vars., p. 364. Symphytum, vars., p. 673. Thalictrum, vars., p. 137. Tradescantia virginica, p. 807. Trillium grandiflorum, vars., Trollius, vars., p. 151. Tulipa, vars., p. 860. Tussilago fragrans, p. 539. Uvularia grandiflora, p. 879. Valeriana, p. 488. officinalis, p. 489. Phu, p. 489. Veratrum album, p. 881. nigrum, p. 881. Vernonia, vars., p. 493. Vinca, vars., p. 645. Viola, vars., p. 228. Xerophyllum asphodelioides, p. 878. Trailing and Climbing Plants, for covering Bowers, Trellises, Railings, Old Trees, Stumps, Rockwork, Banks, Walls cc. Abobra viridiflora, p. 462. Actinidia polygama, p. 267. Adlumia cirrhosa, p. 199. Akebia quinata, p. 179. Apios tuberosa, p. 351. Aristolochia Sipho, p. 773. tomentosa, p. 773. Bignonia capreolata, p. 731. Bryonia dioica, p. 461. Calystegia dahurica, p. 684. pubescens, p. 684. Cissus davidiana, p. 309. japonica, p. 309. platanifolia, p. 309. viticifolia, p, 310. Clematis, vars., p. 181. Convolvulus arvensis, p- 685. mauritanicus, p. 685. Eccremocarpus scaber, p. 734 Grammatocarpus volubilis, p. 459. Hablitzia tamnoides, p. 765. Hedera, vars., p. 471. Holbeellia latifolia, p. 179. Humulus Lupulus, p. 788. Ipomea, vars., p. 683. Jasminum nudiflorum, p. 636. officinale, p. 637. revolutum, p. 637. Lapageria, vars., p. 810. Lardizabala biternata, p. 179. Lathyrus, vars. (Sweet Peas), p. 348. Lonicera Caprifolium, p. 488. confusa, p. 483. flava, p. 483. japonica, p. 484. Periclymenum, p. 484. Lycium europeum, p. 692. Menispermum canadense, p. 178. Mina lobata, p. 684. Mutisia decurrens, p. 551. 90 Periploca greeca, p. 647. Polygonum baldschuanicum, p. 768. | Passiflora cerulea, p. 460. | dumetorum, p. 769. | Smilax, vars., p. 808. ' Solanum jasminoides, p. 689. Stachyurus precox, p. 268. Tamus communis, p. 884. | Tecoma radicans, p. 732. ‘ Thunbergia alata, p. 735. LIST V PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Tropxolum, vars., p. 290. Virginian Creeper, p. 309. Vitis, vars., p. 307. Wistaria sinensis, p. 338. A Selection of Hardy Plants with White Flowers Achillea Clavenney, p. 528. Ptarmica pl., p. 529. serrata pl., p. 529. umbellata, p. 529. Aconitum Napellus albus, p. 163. Acta spicata, p. 164. Allium neapolitanum, p. 831. Alyssum maritimum, p. 210. Ammobium alatum, p. 509. Androsace Chamzjasme, p. 622. Anemone alba, p. 139. alpina, p. 140. japonica alba, p. 142. narcissiflora, p. 142. nemorosa, p. 142. sylvestris, p. 144. thalictroides, p. 138. trifolia, p. 144. vitifolia, p. 144. Antennaria dioica, p. 507. Anthemis Biebersteini, p. 530. Antirrhinum majus album, p. 710. Aquilegia vulgaris alba, p. 158. Arabis, vars., p. 205. Arenaria montana, p. 260. verna, p. 260. Argemone grandiflora, Asperula odorata, p. 487. Asphodelus ramosus, p. 823. Astilbe japonica, p. 414. rivularis, p. 414. a hypoglottis albus, . 343. Bellium, vars., p. 498. Calla ethiopica, p. 955. palustris, p. 955. Callistephus hortensis, vars., p. 499. Campanula cespitosa alba, 5 p. 563. Campanula carpatica alba, p. 563. glomerata alba, p. 564. lactiflora, p. 565. lamiifolia, p. 565. latifolia alba, p. 565. Medium alba, p. 566. nitida, p. 566. persicefolia alba, p. 566. pyramidalis alba, p. 567. rotundifolia alba, p. 568. speciosa, p. 568. Trachelium alba, p. 568. Cardamine trifolia, p. 207. Centranthus ruber albus, p. 489. Cerastium, vars., p. 258. Chrysanthemum Leucanthe- mum, sinense, numerous white-flowered vars., p. 531. Clematis Flammula, p. 133. montana, p. 134. recta, p. 135. Convallaria majalis, p. 813. Crambe cordifolia, p. 221. pinnatifida, p. 222. Crocus, white vars., p. 936. Cynoglossum linifolium, p. 671. Dahlia, white vars., p. 519. Dianthus Caryophyllus, white vars., p. 240. deltoides albus, p. 244. plumarius albus, . 246. Dictamnus Fraxinella alba, p. 296. Digitalis, vars., p. 722. Dryas octopetala, p. 374. Epilobium angustifolium album, p. 452. Erinus alpinus albus, p. 723. Erythronium Dens-canis album,p. 870. giganteum, p- 870. grandiflorum, p. 871. Hartwegi, p. 871. Eupatorium ageratoides, p. 494. aromaticum, p. 494. Fritillaria Meleagris alba, Funkia grandiflora, p. 817. Galanthus, vars., p. 906. Galega officinalis alba, p. 387. Gentiana asclepiadea alba, p. 653 Geranium pratense album, p. 286. sylvaticum album, p. 287. Gladiolus Colvillei albus, p. 950. Gypsophila elegans, p. 248. paniculata, p. 249. Helleborus niger, p. 153. Hepatica triloba alba, p. 141. Hesperis matronalis alba plena, p. 213. Hoteia japonica, p. 414. Hutchinsia alpina, p. 220. Hyacinthus, vars., p. 833. Iberis corifolia, p. 218. correfolia, p. 218. saxatilis, p. 219. semperflorens, p. 219. Ivis florentina, p. 922. germanica alba, p. 923. pumila albida, p. 929. Isopyrum thalictroides, p. 154. Jeffersonia diphylla, p. 184. Lamium maculatum album, p. 756. WHITH-FLOWERED HARDY PLANTS 91 Lathyrus latifolius albus, p. 348. Leucanthemum lacustre, p. 534, Leucojum estivum, p. 907. vernum, p. 907. Libertia formosa, p. 942. Lilium Browni, p. 845. candidum, p. 846. japonicum, p. 850. longiflorum, p. 851. speciosum album, p. 855. washingtonianum, p. 857. Linum monogynum, p. 284. perenne album, p. 284, Lupinus polyphyllus albus, p. 326. Lychnis vespertina fl. pl., p. 257. Malva moschata alba, p. 275. Michauxia campanuloides, p. 560. Muscari botryoides alba, p. 832. Myosotis sylvatica alba, p. 678 Narcissus poeticus, p. 903. Nicotiana affinis, p. 695. Nierembergia rivularis, p. 698. Nympheea alba, p. 186. Nymphea hybrids, p. 187. Céinothera eximia, p. 454. speciosa, p. 454. taraxacifolia, p, 455. Onosma, albo-roseum, p. 681. Ornithogalum arabicum, p. 842. pyramidale, p. 842. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Oxalis Acetosella, p. 293. Peonia, vars., p. 165. Pansy, vars., p. 233. Paradisia Liliastrum, p. 823. Phlox, numerous white hy- brids, p. 662. subulata alba, p. 662. Platyecodon grandiflorum album, p. 559. Polianthes tuberosa, p. 915. Potentilla alba, p. 377. Primula involucrata, p. 610. Munroi, p. 610. nivalis, p. 612. pubescens alba, p. 614. Prunella grandiflora alba, p. 754. Pyrethrum Parthenium fi. pl., p. 536. roseum album, p. 587. serotinum,p.535. Ranunculus aconitifolius ple- nus, p. 146. alpestris, p. 146. amplexicaulis, p. 146. Romneya Coulteri, p. 190. Sagittaria sagittifolia plena, p. 806. Sanguinaria canadensis, Saxifraga ajugefolia, p. 417. burseriana, p. 418. cexspitosa, p. 419. ceratophylla, p. 426. Cotyledon, p. 419. diapensioides, p. 420. granulat fi. pl., p. 421. LIST VI Saxifraga Hosti, p. 421. hypnoides, p. 422.. lactea, p. 422. longifolia, p. 423. Mertensiana, p. 423. nivalis, p. 424. pallida, p. 424. rocheliana, p. 425. Scabiosa caucasica alba, p. 491. Scilla bifolia alba, p. 839. campanulata alba, p. 840. festalis alba, p. 839. Sedum album, p. 439. Sidalcea candida, p. 276. Silene alpestris, p. 251. maritima, p. 252. Zawadskii, p. 254. Sisyrinchium grandiflo album, p. 943. Smilacina bifolia, p. 813. Spirea Aruncus, p. 364. Filipendula, p. 364. Ulmaria, p. 365. Statice Limonium album, p. 602. Tiarella cordifolia, p. 426. Tradescantia virginica alba,. p. 807. Trillium grandiflorum, p. 880. Triteleia uniflora, p. 830. Tulipa, white vars., p. 860. Verbascum pheeniceum album, p. 702. Verbena, white vars., p. 740. Vinca minor alba, p. 646. Viola cornuta alba, p. 229. Yucca filamentosa, p. 821. gloriosa, p. 821. Zephyranthes Atamasco, p. 909. candida, p.910. A Selection of Hardy Plants with Red, Crimson, Scarlet, or Acena microphylla, p. 381. Achillea asplenifolia, p. 528. Millefolium roseum, p. 529. AXthionema, vars., p. 216. Allium acuminatum, p. 831. Althea rosea, p. 271. Amaryllis Belladonna, p. 912. Androsace carnea, p. 621. Anemone coronaria, vars., p. 140. Pinkish Flowers Anemone fulgens, p. 141. hortensis, p. 144. japonica, p. 142. pavonina, p. 141. Anomatheca cruenta, p. 944. Antennaria dioica, p. 507. Anthyllis montana, p. 334. Antirrhinum majus, p. 710. Apocynum androsemifolium, p. 646. Aquilegia canadensis, p. 156. Aquilegia Skinneri, p. 157. Arabis blepharophylla, p. 206. Armeria Cephalotes, p. 603. dianthoides, p. 603. maritima, p. 603. Asclepias tuberosa, p. 648. Aster, vars., p. 500. China, vars., p. 499. Astragalus monspessulanus, p. 343 92 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Begonia, vars., p. 462. Bellis, vars., p. 498. Betonica grandiflora, p. 755. Brodiza coccinea, p. 827. rosea, p. 829. Bryanthus erectus, p. 582. Butomus umbellatus, p. 806. Calandrinia umbellata, p. 262. Callirhoé digitata, p. 275. involucrata, p. 275. Calystegia pubescens pl., p. 684. Centranthus ruber, p. 489. Chrysanthemum, vars., p. 531. Colchicum, vars., p. 875. Coronilla varia, p. 345. Cortusa Matthioli, p. 624. Dahlia, vars., p. 519. Daphne Cneorum, p. 778. Delphinium nudicaule, p. 161. Dianthus, vars., p. 238. Dicentra eximia, p. 198. spectabilis, p. 199. Dictamnus Fraxinella, p. 296. Digitalis purpurea, p. 722. Dodecatheon, vars., p. 626. Epilobium angustifolium, p. 452, Erica, vars., p. 580. Erinus alpinus, p. 723. Erodium Manescavi, p. 207. Erythreea littoralis, p. 651. Fuchsia, vars., p. 455. Geranium Lamberti, p. 286. macrorhizon, p. 286. Geum coccineum, p. 374. sanguineum, p. 286. Gladiolus, vars., p. 947. Hedysarum coronarium, p. 345. multijugum, p. 346. Helianthemum, vars., p. 226. Hepatica triloba rubra, p. 141. Hibiscus militaris, p. 279. moscheutos, p. 279. roseus, p. 279. Incarvillea Delavayi, p. 733. Olge, p. 733. Ipomopsis elegans, p. 664. Kniphofia Uvaria, vars., p. 818. Lathyrus, vars., p. 347. Lavatera Olbia, p. 274. trimestris, p. 274. Liatris, vars., p. 495. Lilium Catesbei, p. 847. chalcedonicum, p. 847. tenuifolium, p. 856. thunbergianum, p. 848. tigrinum, p. 857. umbellatum, p. 857. Linum grandiflorum, p. 283. Lobelia fulgens, p. 557. Tupa, p. 557. Lunaria biennis, p. 207. Lychnis, vars., p. 255. Lythrum, vars., p. 450. Malva, vars., p. 275. Matthiola, vars., p. 201. Menziesia empetriformis, p. 582. Mirabilis Jalapa, p. 760. Modiola geranioides, p. 277. Monarda, vars., p. 750. Montbretia crocosmieflora, p. 946. Ononis rotundifolia, p. 332. Ourisia coccinea, p. 723. Oxalis, vars., p. 292. Peonia, vars., p. 165. Papaver, vars., p. 191. Pelargonium __ endlicheria- num, p. 288. Pentstemon barbatus, p. 713. campanulatus, p. 714. gentianoides, p. 715. Phlox, vars., p. 658. LIST VII Phygelius capensis, p. 711. Potentilla, vars., p. 376. Primula cortusoides, p. 607. japonica, p. 610. viscosa, p. 617. Pulmonaria, vars., p. 675. Pyrethrum roseum, vars., p. 535. Rhexia virginica, p. 449. Salvia coccinea, p. 747. splendens, p. 749. Saponaria cespitosa, p. 249. calabrica, p. 249. ocymoides, p. 250. officinalis, p. 250. Saxifraga biflora, p. 418. cordifolia, p. 419. crassifolia, p. 419. ligulata, p. 422. oppositifolia, p. 424. purpurascens, p. 425. Schizostylis coccinea, p. 943. Sedum Ewersii, p. 439. pulchellum, p. 439. Sieboldi, p. 440. spectabile, p. 441. spurium, p. 441. Silene Armeria, p. 251. ‘ Elisabethe, p. 252. pendula, p. 253. pennsylvanica, p. 253. Pumilio, p. 253. Schafta, p. 254. virginica, p. 254. Sparaxis pulcherrima, p. 943. Spigelia marilandica, p. 649. Spirea lobata, p. 364. palmata, p. 365. Symphytum bohemicum, p. 674. Tigridia Pavonia, p. 936. Troprolum speciosum, p. 291. Tulipa, vars., p. S60. Zauschneria californica, p. 452. A Selection of Hardy Plants, with Blue, Bluish, or Purplish Flowers Aconitum, vars., p. 162. Adenophora, vars., p. 569. Agapanthus umbellatus, p. 826 Ageratum, vars., p. 493. Allium azureum, p. 831. Anchusa, vars., p. 675. Anemone apennina, p. 140, blanda, p. 140. Anemone Hepatica, p. 141. Pulsatilla, p. 143. Aquilegia, vars., p. 155. Aster alpinus, p. 501. Amellus, p. 501. levis, p. 501. Shortii, p. 503. Stracheyi, p. 503. Townshendi, p. 503. Aster turbinellus, p. 504. Aubrietia, vars., p. 208. Baptisia australis, p. 323. exaltata, p. 324. Borago orientalis, p. 674. Brodiwa congesta, p. 828. grandiflora, p. 828. laxa, p. 829. Callistephus hortensis, p. 499. YELLOW-FLOWEHERED HARDY PLANTS 93 Camassia esculenta, p. 841. Campanula, vars., p. 562. Catananche ceerulea, p. 553. Centaurea Cyanus, p. 550. montana, p. 550. Chionodoxa Lucilie, p. 837. » grandiflora, p. 837. Clematis, vars., p. 131. Commelina celestis, p. 807. Crocus, vars., p. 936. Cyananthus lobatus, p. 560. Delphinium, vars., p. 158. Dracocephalum, vars., p. 751. Echinops Ritro, p. 547. ruthenicus, p. 547. Edraianthus Pumilio, p. 558. Erigeron speciosus, p. 506. Eryngium alpinum, p. 465. amethystinum, p. 465. oliverianum, p. 466. Funkia ovata, p. 817. Galega orientalis, p. 337. Gentiana, vars., p. 652. Geranium armenum, p. 285. ibericum, p. 286. pratense, p. 286. sylvaticum, p.287. Globularia, vars., p. 737. Hepatica angulosa, p. 140. triloba, p. 141. Hyacinthus amethystinus, p. 836. Hyacinthus azureus, p. 836. Iris, vars., p. 917. Kaulfussia amelloides, p. 498. Linaria alpina, p. 707. purpurea, p. 709. Lindelofia spectabilis, p. 672. Linum, vars., p. 282. Lithospermum, vars., p. 678. Lobelia, vars., p. 556. Lupinus, vars., p. 324. Mertensia dahurica,*p. 676. lanceolata, p. 676. virginica, p. 676. Mulgedium alpinum, p. 554. Plumieri, p. 554. Muscari, vars., p. 832. Myosotis, vars., p. 677. Nemophila insignis, p. 667. Omphalodes Lucilix, p. 672. verna, p. 672. Ophiopogon spicatus, p. 889. Orobus cyaneus, p. 350. flaccidus, p. 350. vernus, p. 351. Parochetus communis, p. 333. Passiflora cerulea, p. 460. Pentstemon azureus, p. 713. glaber, p. 714. Jaffrayanus, p. 715. Phacelia, vars., p. 668. ' LIST VIII Phyteuma, vars., p. 561. Platycodon grandiflorum, p. 559. Mariesi, p. 559. Plumbago Larpente, p. 604, Polemonium, vars., p. 665. Prunella, vars., p. 754. Pulmonaria angustifolia, p. 675. mollis, p. 675. sibirica, p. 676. Puschkinia scilloides, p. 837. Salvia azurea, p. 747. patens, etc., p. 748, Scilla, vars., p. 838. Sedum ceruleum, p. 439. Stokesia cyanea, p. 493. Symphytum caucasicum, p. 673. Trachelium ceruleum, p. 570. Tradescantia virginica, p. 807. Verbena venosa, p. 740. Veronica, vars., p. 724. Vicia, vars., p. 347. Vinca, vars., p. 645. Viola, vars., p. 228. Whitlavia grandiflora, p. 669. A Selection of Hardy Plants with Yellow Flowers in Various Shades Achillea egyptiaca, p. 528. Eupatorium, p. 528. tomentosa, p. 529, Aconitum Anthora, p. 162. barbatum, p. 162. Lycoctonium, p. 163. Adonis vernalis, p. 144. Allium Moly, p. 831. Alstroeemeria aurantiaca, p. 914. Alyssum, vars., p. 210. Anemone palmata, p. 143. ranunculoides, p. 143. sulphurea, p. 140. Anthemis tinctoria, p. 530. Argemone mexicana, p. 193. ochroleuca, p. 193. Arnebia cornuta, p. 680. echioides, p. 680. Arnica montana, p. 539. Asphodelus luteus, p. 823. Baeria coronaria, p. 524. Bartonia aurea, p. 458. Buphthalmum egrandiflorum, p. 511. salicifolium, p. 511. Calceolaria amplexicaulis, p. 704. kellyana, p. 705. Caltha palustris, p. 150. Cassia marilandica, p. 354. Celsia cretica, p. 702. Centaurea babylonica, p. 549. macrocephala, p. 550. ragusina, p. 551. suaveolens, p.551. Centauridium Drummondi, p. 496. Cheiranthus Cheiri, p. 204. Marshallii, p. 204. Chelidonium majus, p. 196. Chlora grandiflora, p. 651. perfoliata, p. 651. Chrysanthemum, yellow vars. p. 534, Chrysobactron Hookeri, p. 826. Cistus formosus, p. 226. Coreopsis, vars., p. 518. Coronilla Emerus, p. 345. iberica, p. 345. juncea, p. 345. Corydalis in var., p. 199. Crepis aurea, p. 553. barbata, p. 553. Crocosma aurea, p. 945. Crocus in var., p. 936. Dahlia, yellow vars., p. 519. Delphinium Zalil, p. 162. Dendromecon rigidum, p. 196. Digitalis lutea, p. 723. Dondia Epipactis, p. 467. Doronicum, vars., p. 540. Draba aizoides, p. 211. 94 Draba Aizoon, p. 212. cuspidata, p. 212. tridentata, p. 213. Dryas Drummondi, p. 374. Epimedium pinnatum, p. 184. Eranthis hyemalis, p. 154. Erigeron aurantiacus, p. 506. Erysimum, vars., p. 214. Fritillaria imperialis lutea, p. 858. Gaillardia, vars., p. 527. Gazania, vars., p. 546. Genista, vars., p. 328. Geum macrophyllum, p. 375. montanum, p. 375. pyrenaicum, p. 375. reptans, p. 375. rheticum, p. 375. rivale, p. 375. Helenium, vars., p. 526. Helianthemum, vars., p.'226. Helianthus, vars., p. 515. Helichrysum arenarium, p. 508. Helipterum humboldtianum, p. 508. Hemerocallis, vars., p. 815. Hunnemannia fumariefolia, p. 197. Hypericum, vars., p. 265. Inula, vars., p. 510. Tris flavescens, p. 922. germanica, vars., p. 923. Monnieri, p. 927. ochroleuca, p. 927. Pseudacorus, p. 929. xiphioides, vars., p. 934. Xiphium, p. 935. Kniphofia Macowani, p. 819. Lathyrus odoratus, vars., p. 349. Layia elegans, p. 523. platyglossa, p. 524. Lilium canadense, p. 845, croceum, p. 848. Hansoni, p. 850. monadelphum, p. 853. Parryi, p. 853. testaceum, p. 856. Limnanthemum nymphe- ides, p. 658. Linaria vulgaris, p. 710. Linosyris vulgaris, p. 502. Linum arboreum, p. 283. campanulatum, p.283. flavum, p. 283. Lotus corniculatus, p. 335. Lupinus luteus, p. 325. Menziesii, p. 325. Lysimachia lanceolatea, p- 629. Numumularia, p. 629. Medicago falcata, p. 333. Narcissus, vars., p. 893. Nuphar luteum, p. 185. Cnothera, vars., p. 453. Onosma tauricum, p. 681. Orobus aurantius, p. 350. Papaver alpinum var., p. 191. croceum, p. 191. nudicaule, p. 191. Phlomis fruticosa, p. 757. russelliana, p. 757. Potentilla, vars., p. 376. Primula Auricula, p. 606. elatior, p. 608. imperialis, p. 610. luteola, p. 611. Palinuri, p. 613. sikkimensis, p. 616. vulgaris, p. 617. LIST Ix PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Ranunculus, vars., p. 146. Rudbeckia, vars., p. 514. Sanvitalia procumbens, p. 572. Saxifraga Cymbalaria, . 420. sancta, p. 425. Sedum acre, p. 438. kamtschaticum, p. 439. Senecio, vars., p. 540. Silphium, vars., p. 511. Solidago, vars., p. 496. Sphenogyne speciosa, p. 544. Statice Bonduelli, p. 602. Fortunei, p. 602. Sternbergia, vars., p. 908. Tagetes, vars., p. 525. Thermopsis fabacea, p. 323. lanceolata, p. 323. Trollius, vars., p. 151. Tropeolum peregrinum, p. 291. polyphyllum, p. 291. Tulipa, vars., p. 864. Venidium calendulaceum, p. 545. Verbascum Chaixii, p. 702. phlomoides, p. 702. Vesicaria, vars., p. 209. Viola pubescens, p. 231. tricolor, vars., p. 234. Waitzia aurea, p. 507. Waldsteinia fragarioides, p. 376. geoides, p. 376. trifolia, p. 376. Zinnia, vars., p. 512. Plants that flower between September and May. The Dates are approximate only. For Trees and Shrubs see p. 107. September and October Abronia umbellata, p. 760. Aconitum japonicum, p. 163. Alyssum maritimum, p. 210. Amaryllis Belladonna, p. 912. Ammobium alatum, p. 509. Anemone japonica, p. 142. Aster, vars., p. 501. Bulbocodium autumnale, p. 877. Calandrinia Menziesi, p. 262. , umbellata,p. 262. Callistephus hortensis, Chrysanthemum, vars., p. 531. Colchicum autumnale, p. 876. speciosum, p. 876. variegatum, p. 876. Coreopsis, vars., p. 518. Cosmos bipinnatus, p. 522. Dahlia, vars., p. 519. Erianthus Ravenne, p. 960. Erigeron aurantiacus, p. 506. Gaillardia, vars., p. 527. Gazania, vars., p. 546. Gladiolus, vars., p. 947. Gynerium argenteum, p. 960. Gypsophila elegans, p. 248. Heuchera sanguinea, p. 427. Lobelia fulgens, p. 557. Lychnis haageana, p. 257. Mohtbretia crocosmiefiora, p. 946. Gnothera, vars., p. 453. HARDY BULBOUS PLANTS 95 Pentstemon, vars., p. 712. Phlox, vars., p. 658. Phygelius capensis, p. 711. Pyrethrum Parthenium fi. pl. p. 536. vars., p. 536. Rudbeckia, vars., p. 514. Saponaria calabrica, p. 250. Sternbergia, vars., p. 908. Tagetes, vars., p. 525. Tritoma, vars., p. 817. Venidium calendulaceum, p. 545. Verbena, vays., p. 740. Zauschneria californica, p. 452. Zinnia, vars., p. 512. November to January Colchicum autumnale, p. 876. Cyclamen, vars., p. 626. Galanthus nivalis, p. 906. Helleborus niger, p. 153. Tris stylosa, p. 933. Petasites fragrans, p. 539. Viola, p. 228. February and March Anemone angulosa, p. 140. apennina, p. 140. Hepatica, p. 142. Aubrietia deltoidea, p. 209. Bulbocodium vernum, p. 877. Cheiranthus, p. 204. Chionodoxa Luciliex, p. 837. Eranthis hyemalis, p. 154. Erica mediterranea, p. 581. Galanthus, p. 906. Helleborus, p. 152. Tris persica, p. 928. Leucojum vernum, p. 908. Narcissus, vars., p. 893. Scilla sibirica, p. 840. Viola, p. 228. LIST X April Adonis vernalis, p. 144. A&thionema grandiflorum, p. 217. Anemone fulgens, p. 141. Aquilegia cerulea, p. 156. Auricula, p. 618. Caltha palustris, p. 150. Centaurea montana, p. 250. Convallaria majalis, p. 813. Dielytra spectabilis, p. 199. Doronicum, vars., p. 540. Fritillaria imperialis, p. 858. Gentiana, vars., p. 652. Hoteia japonica, p. 414. Kaulfussia amelloides, p. 498. Peonia, vars., p. 165. Primroses, p. 604. Reineckia carnea, p. 814. Tulips, p. 860. A Selection of the finest Hardy Bulbous and Rhizomatous Plants for the Outdoor Garden. Most of these belong to the Orders Ama- ryllidee (p. 893), Liliacee (p. 808), and Iridee@ (p. 916), but a few to other Orders. Acis autumnalis, p. 908. Agapanthus umbellatus, p. 826. Allium, vars., p. 830. Alstroemeria, vars., p. 914. Amaryllis Belladonna, p.912. Anomathéca cruenta, p. 944. Anthericum, p. 825. Antholyza, vars., p. 914. Arum crinitum, p. 953. Dracunculus, p. 954. italicum, p. 954. Asphodelus, vars., p. 822. Brodiwa coccinea, p. 827. congesta, p. 828. grandiflora, p. 828. Bulbocodium vernum, p. 877. Calla palustris, p. 955. Calliprora lutea, p. 829. Calochortus, vars., p. 872. Calopogon, p. 891. Calypso borealis, p. 890. Camassia, p. 841. Chionodoxa, p. 891. Colchicum, vars., p. 875. Crinum, p. 911. Crocosma aurea, p. 945. Crocus, vars., p. 936. Cypripedium acaule, p. 892. Calceolus, p. 892. guttatum, p. 892, spectabile, p. 893. Eremurus, vars., p. 824. Erythronium, vars., p. 869. Fritillaria, vars., p. 857. Funkia, vars., p. 816. Galanthus, vars., p. 906. Galtonia, vars., p. 831. Gladiolus, vars., p. 947. Hemerocallis, vars., p. 815. Hippeastrum, p. 910. Hyacinthus, vars., p. 833. Iris, vars., p. 917. Ixiolirion, p. 913. Kniphofia, vars., p. 817. Leucojum estivum, p. 908. vernum, p. 908. Lilium, vars., p. 842. Lycoris, p. 912. Merendera Bulbocodium, p. 877. Montbretia crocosmiefiora, p. 946. Muscavi, vars., p. 832. Narcissus, vars., p. 893. Ophrys, vars., p. 892. Orchis, vars., p. 891. Ornithogalum, vars., p. 842. Polianthes tuberosa, p. 915. Polygonatum, vars., p. 811. Puschkinia scilloides, p. 837. Richardia africana, p. 955. Schizostylis coccinea, p. 943. Scilla, vars., p. 838. Sisyrinchium, vars., p. 943. Sparaxis pulcherrima, p. 943, Sprekelia, p. 910. Sternbergia lutea, p. 909. Tigridia Pavonia, p. 936. Tricyrtis hirta, p. 879. Trillium grandiflorum, p. 880. Triteleia uniflora, p. 830. Tritoma, vars., p. 817. Tritonia, p. 946. Tulipa, vars., p. 860. Watsonia, vars., p. 945. Xerophyllum, p. 878. Zephyranthes Atamasco, p. 909. candida, p. 910. 96 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS THE ROCK GARDEN THIS is one of the most important and picturesque features in the modern flower garden. Although many of the plants recommended for the Rock Garden will grow perfectly well in the flat flower border, still they appear in a different light and often to better ad- vantage when cultivated among the plants usually associated with alpine heights. The rockery is an attempt to imitate nature on a small scale by arranging masses or boulders of rock and earth more or less artistically and growing upon them, or between the chinks, plants usually found at high elevations on the mountains of Europe and other parts of the globe. It is only within the last twenty-five or thirty years that the formation of beautiful rockeries has been seriously taken in hand. Before that time all kinds of material did duty for a rockery, but usually not the slightest attempt at copying nature or studying the interests of the plants was made. And it was not until Mr. Robinson, in his valuable little book dealing with ‘ Alpine Plants,’ opened the eyes of the public to a better and more rational method of building rockeries and growing alpine plants upon them, that anything like a good rock garden was to be found in the kingdom. Now there are many good and several bad ones, but as the light is spreading we may hope to see the latter dwindling in number every year. Formation of a Rock Garden.—The Rev. C. Wolley-Dod, of Edge Hall, Malpas, Cheshire, who has for very many years been an expert cultivator of all kinds of hardy herbaceous and alpine plants, writing about the formation of a rockery a few years ago in the Royal Horti- cultural Society’s ‘Journal,’ made the following observations, which deserve every attention :— ‘The forms in which the rockery, usually so called, can be con- structed may be divided into three: (1) the “ barrow-shaped ” rockery, (2) the “ facing rockery,” and (3) the “sunk rockery.” The first may be raised anywhere, the other two depend partly upon the configuration of the ground. No wood or tree roots should be used to supplement any of them; they must be all stone. The kind of stone is seldom a matter of choice; everyone will use what is most handy. The rougher and more unshapely the blocks the better. The size should vary from 40 to 50 lbs. to 3 or 4cwt. No mortar or cement for fixing them together must ever be employed; they must be firmly wedged and THE ROCK GARDEN 97 interlocked, and depend upon one another, and not upon the soil between them, to keep them in their places. This rule is of the utmost import- ance; if it is neglected, a long frost or an excessive rainfall may cause the whole structure to collapse. Each successive part of the stone skeleton must be put together before the soil is added. This applies to all rockeries. ‘Size, Aspect, &c.—The most convenient size for the barrow- shaped rockery is about 4 ft. high, and 6 or 7 ft. through at the base. The length is- immaterial. If the long sides face north-east and south- west it will afford perhaps the best variety of aspect; but the amount of sunshine each plant gets will depend on the arrangement of each stone as much as upon the main structure. ‘There cannot be too many projections, and care must be taken to leave no channels between the stones by which the soil can be washed down to the base. Overhanging brows beneath which plants can be inserted are very useful; large surfaces of stone may here and there be left exposed, and irregularity of form is far better than symmetry. A formal arrangement of flat pockets or nests offends the eye with- out helping the cultivator, as the tastes of alpine plants as regards slope of surface and moisture at their roots are very various. ‘ As for the degree of slope from base to the summit of the barrow, it will not be uniform. In some places there will be an irregular square yard of level on the top, bounded by large cross key-stones, for which the largest stones should be reserved. In other parts the sides will slope evenly to the ridge; or the upper half may be perpendicular, leaving only wide crevices to suit the taste of certain plants. ‘If the blocks are very irregular in form, and their points of contact as few as possible, providing only for secure interlocking, there will be plenty of room for soil to nourish the plants. Hver-changing variety of stone surface, both above and below the soil, is the object to be aimed at, and any sort of symmetry must be avoided. ‘The “ Facing Rockery.”—The second form, or “facing rockery,”’ is dependent upon the natural shape of the ground surface. Wherever there is a steep bank facing south or east, it may be utilised for the growth of alpine plants. The stones, as before advised, should be large and unshapely, and be buried to-two thirds of their bulk, and form a very uneven surface, all being interlocked from top to bottom as de- scribed. ‘Rockeries of this form are less liable to suffer from drought; if the surface covered is large, access to all parts should be provided by con- venient stepping stones, because, although every stone in the structure ought to be capable of bearing the weight of a heavy man without H 98 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS danger of displacement, it is better not to have to tread upon the plants. ‘The “Sunk Rockery.’’—This is perhaps the best of all, but entails rather more labour in construction. "Where subsoil drainage is perfect, a sunk walk may be made, not less than 10 to 12 feet wide, with sloping sides. The sides may be faced with stones, as described in the “ faced rockery,”’ and all or part of the excavated soil may be made into a raised mound, continuing the slopes of the excavated banks, above the ground level, and thus combining the facing rockery and the barrow rockery. ‘If the outer line of this portion above the ground be varied by small bays, every possible aspect and slope may be provided to suit the taste of every plant. However, unless drainage is perfect, a sunk walk, rising to the ground-level at each end, would not be feasible. Buta broad walk, excavated into the side of a hill and sloping all one way, could be adapted to a structure nearly similar to that described ; or the ground may be dug out in the form of an amphitheatre to suit the taste or circumstances. ‘But whatever the form of the rockery adopted, let the situation be away from the influence of trees, beyond suspicion of the reach of their roots below, or their drip, or even their shade, above. Trees which shelter from only high winds are so far serviceable, and so are walls and high banks. There are few alpine plants for which a storm-swept surface is good, but trees are objectionable where they lessen the light, which is an important element in the welfare of most mountain plants. The shade and shelter afforded by the stones and form of the structure itself is the best kind of shade and shelter. ‘Soil for Alpine and Rock Plants.— We now come to the subject of soil, which is very important, though I attach less importance to it than others do who have written on the subject. I hold that where atmo- spheric and mechanical conditions are favourable, the chemical combina- tion of the soil is of secondary consideration. ‘It is true that in nature we find that the flora of a limestone moun- tain differs in many particulars from that of a granite mountain, and on the same mountain some plants will thrive in heavy retentive soil, while others will be found exclusively in peat or sand. But for one who is beginning to cultivate alpine plants to have to divide them into lime-lovers and lime-haters, lovers of sand and lovers of stiff soil, is an unnecessary aggravation of difficulties. ‘So large a proportion of ornamental plants are contented with the soil which most cultivators provide for all alike—even though in nature they seem to have predilections—that where an amateur has only one rockery it would be too perplexing to study the partiality of every plant, ALPINE PLANTS FROM SEED 99 and to remember every spot where lime-lovers or their opposites had been growing. While saying this, I confess that I have some rockeries where both soil and rock are adapted exclusively for lime plants ; others from which lime is kept away, and where both soil and rock are granitic ; but the great majority of plants thrive equally well on both... . ‘ With regard to soil, then, we must take care that it does not retain stagnant moisture and yet it must not dry up too readily. Plants must be able to penetrate it easily with their roots, the lengths of some of which must be seen to be believed. Good loam, with a little humus in the form of leaf-mould or peat, and half or three-quarters of the bulk composed of stone riddlings from the nearest stone quarry, and varying in size from that of rape seed to that of horse beans, make up a soil with which most alpine plants are quite contented... . ‘Where you are convinced that lime is useful, it may be added as pure lime, not planting in it till thoroughly slaked by mixture with the soil. Rough surface dressing is a thing in which all alpine plants delight, as it keeps the top of the soil sweet and moist and prevents their leaves being fouled. Use for this purpose riddled stone, which is better than gravel, as round pebbles are easily washed off the slope by rain or in watering. ‘Raising Alpine Plants from Seed.—A few words may be in place here about raising alpine plants from seed; for constant succession is necessary, the duration of their life in cultivation being, for many ob- vious reasons, far shorter than in their native home. Reproduction from seed, where seed can be obtained, ensures the healthiest and finest growth ; and there is no better way of getting seed than saving it your- self. ‘In several cases the first hint I have had that a plant has ripened fertile seed has been the recognition of a seedling near the parent; and this experience has taught me always to look carefully for seed after the flowering of rare specimens. ‘I need not say, therefore, that I disapprove of the practice of cutting off flower-heads as soon as they wither; in some cases the seed-head is nearly as ornamental as the flower; but I have before said that discre- tion must be used even in this, as seedlings of some things are trouble- some from their number. ‘When ripe seed is gathered I recommend its being sown at once. It is then more likely to come up quickly ; and as all such plants as we grow on rockeries are better sown in pans, there is seldom difficulty in keeping small seedlings through the winter. The greatest enemy we have in the process is the growth of Lichen, the worst being the Marchantia or Liverwort, which completely chokes tender growth. H2 100 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS A coating of finely sifted burnt earth on the surface, and a piece of glass laid over the pan, especially if no water is used for them unless it has been boiled, reduces this trouble to a minimum. But sowings of choice and rare seed should be carefully watched, and the Liverwort picked off at the first appearance. ‘Division and Cutting.—Many alpines seem never to ripen seed in cultivation, and must be reproduced by division or cuttings. The skill required to do this varies greatly with different subjects: where a shoot can seldom be found more than half an inch long, as in the case of two or three hybrid alpine Pinks, the “striking” needs delicate manipulation. Other things grow very slowly, though not long-lived, and a constant succession from cuttings must be ensured. Some of the terrestrial Orchids—such as Bee, Fly, and Spider, excellent subjects for rockery-—we must be contented to keep as long as they choose to live, as they never seem to increase in cultivation at all, though they may flower well year after year. ‘But there are not a few plants which refuse to be tamed, and from the time they are planted in our gardens seem always to go from bad to worse, and are never presentable in appearance for two seasons to- gether. Of these I may instance Gentiana bavarica (p. 653) and Eritrichium nanum (p. 673), which I believe no skill has ever kept in cultivation without constant renewal, and which perhaps are never likely to repay the trouble of trying to keep them alive on an English rockery. In all alpine gardening there will be (even where equal skill is exerted) different degrees of success according to the surrounding conditions, and it must not be expected that the same soil and treat- ment which keeps a hundred rare alpines in perfect health at Edin- burgh will be equally fortunate at Kew. ‘Cold Frames.—Where the area of rockery is considerable a cold frame (see p. 47) should be assigned for keeping up the supply of plants for it—cuttings and seedlings—in pots. The best treatment of these plants in winter has been much discussed in gardening jour- nals. I may say that I think all attempts to imitate natural conditions, such as snow and long rest, by unnatural means are mistakes. During warm winters, mountain plants will grow and must be allowed to grow, and to keep them unnaturally dark or drying when growing is fatal to their health. Even in severe frosts air must be given abundantly in the daytime and the frames must not be muffled up. Stagnant air, whether damp or dry, is their worst enemy; but if the weather is warm enough to set them growing, they may easily die for want of moisture. I will not say more than this, for experience is the best guide, and every one thinks he can manage his frames better ALPINE PLANTS ON WALLS 101 than his neighbour; but of the use of frames for flowering alpines in pots I must add a few words. ‘There are certain very early flowering alpines upon which a mix- ture of admiration and lamentation is bestowed at the end of every winter. Their flowers are often beautiful in a treacherous fortnight at the beginning of February, and are suddenly destroyed by a return of winter in its severest form. I may mention, among others, Sazifraga burseriana and sancta, and their near relatives and hybrids, Primula marginata and intermedia, Androsace carnea, Chamajasme, and Lag- geri, several dwarf species of Alyssum and Iberis, and there are a good many more. Pots or pans containing these may be grouped together in an open sunny spot, and plunged in sand or coal-ashes, in a rough frame made for them, so that the lights may be not more than three or four inches above the pots. These lights should be removed in the daytime when the weather is fine, and air should be admitted, accord- ing to the temperature, at night. Such a sheet of elegant beauty, lasting, if well ranged, through February, March, and April, may be obtained in this way that I often wonder why amateurs attempt to flower early alpines in any other fashion. ‘With me April is the earliest month in which I can expect to have anything gay on the open rockery without disappointment. I am obliged to disfigure the slopes with sheets of glass and handlights to preserve through winter at all Omphalodes Lucilia, Onosma. tauricum, Androsace sarmentosa, and others which cannot endure winter wet, and the real pleasure of the rockery begins when the frame alpines are waning. I recommend those masses of covered pots in early spring to all cultivators of alpines. ‘Alpines on Walls.—A few years ago I was driving through Dorking, and I noticed a smooth and by no means ancient brick wall covered, above the reach of boys’ hands, with Erinus alpinus. Rough stone walls I had often seen well clothed with alpines, but from that time I became aware that there is hardly any garden wall, of whatever material, of which the parts otherwise bare might not be made orna- mental with flowers. I do not suggest that such things should super- sede climbing Roses and wall-fruit, but how often we see bare walls on which nothing is grown at all! The capabilities of rough stone walls for growing mountain plants are very great. Falls of Aubrietia and Iberis, groups of Saxifrage, and similar subjects may make many a corner gay instead of bare. Some very pretty things I grow on walls which have defied all my attempts to cultivate them elsewhere. I may specify Lychnis Lagasca, a fragile evergreen plant of shrubby growth, easily multiplied by seed, which alternate snows and thaws generally 102 e PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS crush up, but in this way it continues to thrive, and is covered during early summer with crimson flowers.’ LIST XI Selection of Alpine and other Plants suitable for the Rock Garden Those marked with an asterisk (*) make suitable carpets or masses of green on the *Aceena microphylla, p. 381. Acantholimon glumaceum, p. 601. * Achillea, vars., p. 528. Aconitum Napellus, p. 163. Actea spicata, p. 164. @thionema, vars., p. 216. *Alchemilla alpina, p. 381. Alyssum maritimum, p. 210. montanum, p. 210. pyrenaicum, p. 211. saxatile, p. 211. serpyllifolium, p. 211. spinosum, p. 211. Andromeda, p. 578. Androsace, vars., p. 621. Anemone, vars., p. 139. *Antennaria, vars., p. 507. Anthemis Aizoon, p. 530. Anthyllis montana, p. 334. Antirrhinum, vars., p. 710. Aquilegia pyrenaica, p. 157. *Arabis albida, p. 205. androsacea, p. 206. mollis, p. 206. procurrens, p. 206. rosea, p. 206. Aralia, vars., p. 469. *Arenaria, vars., p. 259. Armeria, vars., p. 603. Arnebia echioides, p. 680. Artemisia frigida, p. 538. Arundo Donax, p. 958. Asperula odorata, p. 487. Aster alpinus, p. 501. Astragalus monspessulanus, p. 343. *Aubrietia, vars., p. 208. Azalea sinensis, p. 595. Bambusa, dwarf kinds, p. 968. Bellis crerulescens, p. 498. Berberis Darwini, p. 181. empetrifolia, p. 181. stenophylla, p. 182. Bulbocodium, p. 877. Buxus, vars., p. 783. Calandrinia umbellata, p. 262. : Callirhoé involucrata, . p- pedata, p. 276. surface of the soil. Calystegia dahurica, p. 684. pubescens pl., 4 Campanula abietina, p. 563. ; Allioni, p. 563. crespitosa, p. 563. » alba, p. 563. Elatines, p. 564. fragilis, p. 564. garganica, p. 564. isophylla, p. 565. Mariesii, p. 559. portenschlagi- ana, p. 567. pulla, p. 567. Raineri, p. 567. rotundifolia, p. 568. waldensteini- ana, p. 569. &e. &e. Cerastium Biebersteini, p. 258. grandiflorum, p. 258. tomentosum, p. 259. Chimaphila, vars., p. 598. Choisya ternata, p. 296. Clematis (the new varieties of the lanuginosa section, and many species), p. 131. Colchicum, vars., p. 875. Convolvulus arvensis, p. 685. mauritanicus, p- 685. Cornus canadensis, p. 474. Coronilla iberica, p. 345. varia, p. 345. Cotoneaster horizontalis, p. 410. integerrima, p. 410. microphylla, p. 411. thymifolia, p. 411. Crategus Lalandi, p. 409. Crocus, vars., p. 936. Cyananthus lobatus, p. 560. Cyclamen, vars., p. 626. Cypripedium, vars., p. 892. Cytisus kewensis, p. 331. Cytisus purpureus, p. 332. Daphne blagayana, p. 777. Cneorum, p. 778. fioniana, p. 778. rupestris p. 778. *Dianthus alpinus, p. 239. cesius, p. 239. deltoides, p. 244. Knappi, p. 245. neglectus, p. 245. petreus, p. 245. &e. &e. Diotis maritima, p. 530. Diplopappus chrysophyllus, p. 509. *Draba, vars., p. 211. Dracocephalum, vars., p. 751. Dryas Drummondi, p. 374. octopetala, p. 374. Edraianthus tenuifolius, p. 559. Empetrum nigrum, p. 805. Epigea repens, p. 578. Epilobium obcordatum, p. 452. Erica, vars., p. 580. Erinus alpinus, p. 723. Erodium, vars., p. 287. Erpetion, vars., p. 229. Erythrea diffusa, p. 651. Erythronium, vars., p. 869. Euonymus radicans var., p. 302. Euphorbia Myrsinites, p. 783. Fragaria indica, p. 376. Fritillaria, dwarf vars., p. 857. Galanthus, vars., p. 906. Gaultheria, vars., p. 575. Genista andreana, p. 332. germanica, p. 329. pilosa, p. 329. sagittalis, p. 329. tinctoria, p. 329. Gentiana, vars., p. 652. *Geranium argenteum, p. 285. *cinereum, p. 286. subcaulescens, p. 285. Geum miniatum, p. 374. Globularia, vars., p. 738. ALPINE PLANTS FOR ROCK GARDEN 103 *Gypsophila cerastioides, p. 248. repens, p, 249. Haberlea rhodopensis, p. 731. Hedera, vars., p. 471. Helianthemum, vars., p. 226. Helleborus, vars., p. 152. *Herniaria glabra, p. 761. *Heuchera sanguinea, p. 427. Hippocrepis comosa, p. 345. Houstonia cerulea, p. 487. *Hutchinsia alpina, p. 220. Hypericum *Coris, p. 266. japonicum, p. 266 moserianum, p. 266. nummularium, p. 267. perforatum, p. 267. Iberis petrexa, p. 219. Pruiti, p. 219. saxatilis, p. 219. Isopyrum thalictroides,p. 154. Jamesia americana, p. 434. Lathyrus grandiflorus, p. 348. latifolius, p. 348. e albus, p. 348. tuberosus, p. 350. Ledum thymifolium, p. 585. Leontopodium alpinum, p. 507. Ligustrum coriaceum, p. 643. Linaria alpina, p. 707. anticaria, p. 707. Cymbalaria, p. 708. hepaticefolia, p. 708. Linnea borealis, p. 482. Linum alpinum, p. 283. Lithospermum Gastoni, p. 678. graminifo- lium, p.679. petreum, p. 679. Lithospermum prostratum, p. 679. Lotus corniculatus, p. 335. Lychnis alpina, p. 255. Lagase, p. 257. Lysimachia nemorum, p. 629. Nummularia, p. 629. Malva campanulata, p. 276. Margyricarpus setosus, p. 381. Meconopsis, vars., p. 193. Medicago falcata, p. 333. Micromeria Piperella, p. 745. Muehlenbeckia complexa, p. 771 Myosotis rupicola, p. 677. Narcissus, vars., p. 893. Nepeta Glechoma, p. 750. variegata, p. 750. | Nierembergia rivularis, p. 698. Cnuothera missouriensis, p. 454. taraxacifolia, p. 454. Olearia Haasti, p. 504. Omphalodes Luciliz, p. 672. verna, p. 672. Ononis fruticosa, p. 332. Natrix, p. 332. Onosma tauricum, p. 681. Orchis, vars., p. 891. Orobus, vars., p. 350. Oxytropis Halleri, p. 344. montana, p. 344. pyrenaica, p. 344. Paronychia serpyllifolia, . 761. Pentstemon, vars., p. 712. Pernettya, vars., p. 575. Petrocallis pyrenaica, p. 212. Philadelphus microphyllus, p. 433. Phlox ameena, p. 660. divaricata, p. 660. reptans, p. 661. Phlox Stellaria, p. 661. subulata, p. 662, Plumbago Larpente, p. 604. Polemonium, vars., p. 665. Polygala Chamebuxus, p. 237. Polygonum Bistorta, p. 768. vaccinifolium, p. 770. Potentilla alpestris, p. 377. Calabra, p. 378. hopwoodiana, p. 379. nitida, p. 380. Primula, vars., p. 604. Ramondia pyrenaica, p. 730. Ranunculus, vars., p. 146. Rhododendron, vars., p. 585. Rhus cotinus, p. 319. Rodgersia podophylla, p. 415. Rosa, vars., p. 382. Rubus arcticus, p. 372. Salix, vars., p. 802. Samolus repens, p. 632. Sanguinaria canadensis, p. 195. Santolina Chamecyparissus, p. 529. Saponaria ocymoides, p. 250. *Saxifraga, dwarf vars., p. 415. Schizocodon soldanelloides, p. 600. Scilla, vars., p. 838. *Sedum, vars., p. 438. Sempervivum, vars., p. 441. Spirwa, vars., p. 363. Thalictrum, vars., p. 137. *Thymus, vars., p. 745. *Tiarella cordifolia, p. 426. Trillium grandiflorum, p. 880. Triteleia uniflora, p. 830. Tulipa, vars., p. 860. Tunica Saxifraga, p. 247. Vaccinium, vars., p. 572. Veronica, dwarf vars., p. 724. Viola, vars., p. 228. 104 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OnE can hardly imagine a garden of any size which does not contain a flowering or ornamental tree or shrub of some kind or another. And yet until comparatively recent years the cultivation of this particular class of plants was more or less neglected, while a vast amount of time and labour was spent on that gaudy and ephemeral work known as ‘carpet-bedding.’ Fortunately, a more rational and natural view of plants in general is now taken, and there is no part of a garden which is not eminently suitable for the cultivation of some plant or another, either native or exotic, and whether tree, shrub or herb. In the British Islands we are of course confined to the cultivation of those kinds of trees and shrubs which are natives of temperate climates like our own, but a perusal of the list given below will show that there are already a very considerable number which can be grown suc- cessfully in various parts of the kingdom. They come from all parts of the world, from Chinaand Japan, North and South America, Europe, Asia and New Zealand, and with few exceptions they adapt themselves to our climate with the greatest ease. A visit to Kew Gardens at any season of the year will give some idea of the great beauty and variety of the trees and shrubs which may be used to beautify the landscape. Planting for Effect—The arguments used in favour of massing herbaceous plants in borders apply with equal force to the planting of flowering shrubs, but not to large trees. The latter, on account of their size, are best planted in advantageous positions so that they will give the best possible effect to the landscape. Shrubs, on the other hand, which grow from two or three to ten or twelve feet high—like Dog- woods, Forsythias, Cotoneasters, Diervillas, Mock Orange, Viburnums, Andromedas, Azaleas, Rhododendrons, Barberries, Ceanothus, Dabcecia, Deutzias, Ericas, Spireeas &c.—may be grown in masses on the lawn, in the pleasure ground, or wilder parts of the garden. In what is usually called the ‘shrubbery ’’ many choice shrubs are spoiled and distorted by being crammed in anyhow, asif the chief object of the planter was to hide the ground altogether, and prevent any chance of the plant’s natural development. They are pushed away in holes and corners under large overhanging trees, and often smothered with the vigorous-growing Snowberry (p. 481), and when by chance they survive, they only manage to stretch forth a lean and almost leaf- less branch to obtain a little sunshine. ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES dé. 105 Even in shrubberies, plants would look much better in groups or masses not too close together; and as much thought and attention should be given to the soil and position in which they are placed as one would bestow on choice fruit trees, Roses, or rock-plants. Planting.—Trees and shrubs are usually best planted in the autumn when the sap is in a more or less quiescent state. Many, however, which do not begin to grow until the usual time in spring may be planted up to the end of February. Mild open weather should always be chosen for performing the work, and the soil should be in a dryish and easily workable condition. Ifthe ground is covered with frost or snow, the work is best suspended uniil a more favourable oppor- tunity presents itself. The actual planting itself should be done as carefully as if a fruit tree were being placed in the soil. The opera- tion is explained at p. 1032, to which the reader is invited to turn. Pruning and Training Ornamental Trees.—If there were no more trouble taken over the pruning and training of fruit trees than is usually taken over that of flowering trees and shrubs, the fruit garden would not only very soon present a neglected appearance but also show a big falling off in the returns of the fruit crops. All our Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries &c. are more or less regularly attended to in the matter of training, pruning, thinning out &c.; but their cousins, which are valued chiefly for their beautiful flowers and ornamental appearance, are often left to look after themselves, sometimes maybe for years, until they almost cry out for some little attention to be given them. Matters, however, in this respect are gradually becoming better, and trees and shrubs, other than those grown for their fruits, are receiving a proper share of attention in the way of training and pruning. The chief principles of pruning are the same as detailed for fruit trees at p. 1031. There is, however, far more variety in trees and shrubs, and the gardener should exercise his intelligence when dealing with any particular species. Its nature may be readily gleaned from its relation to others with which he may be well acquainted. Being arranged in botanical families in this book, that will still further aid him in his practical work. For instance, all the Hawthorns (Crategus, p. 408), Almonds (Prunus, p. 356) &c. in the main follow the same principles of growth as other trees in the Rose Order (p. 355), such as Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries &c., and require almost the same kind of pruning—due attention being given to the special peculiarities of any particular species. As a general rule the main point is to keep up a good supply of the younger wood, and gradually cut away the old and useless branches. On the branches that are left there are usually two kinds of buds, some 106 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS plumper than the others, and these are generally the ones that produce the flowers. As the proper time for pruning is mentioned under each class of plants described it is unnecessary to discuss the matter further here. The way in which cuts are to be made when pruning fruit trees is explained and illustrated at p. 1033. It will be noticed, however, that , the buds on most of the branches are arranged not exactly opposite each other, but usually in an alternate manner so that there is little danger of injury to the buds when making acut. In some trees, however, like the Lilac (fig. 184), the Ash (fig. 135), Forsythias, and many others, the budsare usually arranged opposite each other as shown in the sketches. In such cases, when pruning, the branch should be cut where the buds or joints are not situated exactly opposite each other. In fig. 185 of the Ash taken from nature the thin trans- verse lines show where a shoot may be cut across so as to leave the bud immediately beneath the cut to develop and carry on a branch almost in line with that below it, and thus add to the symmetry of the tree. The following is a list of the best trees and shrubs worth growing in the open air either for their beautiful flowering qualities, or their ornamental appearance. The generic name only is given, as the species follow in alphabetical order at the pages indicated. It often happens that a list of ornamental trees and shrubs that bloom at any particular period of the year is required, and to supply this want an asterisk (*) has been placed after the names in the list to show the months when plants belonging to any particular genus may be found in blossom. As might be naturally expected, there are a very large number of trees and shrubs in bloom during April, May, June, and July, but it will also be seen that every month in the year has some particular plant in blossom. By means of the list, therefore, it will be possible to make a selection so as to have flowers in the border or shrubbery all the year round. It may be noted that species are not mentioned, but a reference to the page given after each genus will enable the reader to find what species belonging to it bloom dur- ing the months under which an asterisk appears. It may also be remarked that many trees and shrubs are more remarkable for their beautiful bright coloured berries, rather than their blossoms, such as Aucubas, Euonymus, Pernettyas, Sea-Buckthorn, Skimmias, while many others are remarkable for both flowers and fruit, such as the Cherries, Cotoneasters, Barberries, Hawthorns, Med- vie. 134. Fie. 135. LILAC. ASH. ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES ec. 107 lars, Roses, Viburnums &c. An obelisk (f) has been placed in front of those genera which are remarkable for their beautiful fruits as well as flowers. LIST XII Ornamental and Flowering Trees and Shrubs Aug. Oct. a3 | * a | | sary 2 Abelia, p. 481 . ae Acanthopanax, p. 470 . _ Acer, p. 313. a oe Actinidia, p. 267 . = Adenocarpus, p. 327 = A&sculus, p. 311 «| Ailanthus, p. 299. % a= * «| «| » | April ell ld ** Akebia, p. 179 tAlnus, p.796 . P tAmelanchier, p. 413 . Amorpha, p. 336 . Amygdalus, p. 357 Andromeda, p. 578 Aralia, p. 469 a ‘ ‘ tArbutus, p. 574 . “ Arundinaria, p. 965 Asimina, p.177 . fi Aucuba, p. 475. ‘ Azalea, p. 593 Azara, p. 235 j Bambusa, p. 968 . ‘ “fo Benthamia, p. 474 S 2|— Berberidopsis, p.180 . -[ tBerberis, p. 180 . F zl ¥ Betula, p.793 . 5 ot Bignonia, p. 731 . A od Bryanthus, p. 582 ‘i wie Buddleia, p. 649 . a of = Buxus, p. 783. : == Cassalpinia, p. 353 i -|— Calycanthus, p. 172 Camellia, p. 269 . _ Carpenteria, p. 484 = Carpinus, p. 797 . = Carya, p. 790 7 = Caryopteris, p. 742 = Cassandra, p. 576 = Cassiope, p. 576 . ad Castanea, p. 800 . cs Catalpa, p. 732 . a Ceanothus, p. 305 oo tCerasus, p. 359 . — Cercis, p. 355. ae * xx x| | «leet tel lit | *| *| * 7 { shalt i atl etal eal el | [ay * CTE Lea eee Pa | ew LET eke DT ee A cel ee eT Bae 4 Pe ep aE Se Peel ew PLP t dd eee Pel] eel | || ell] dl atl deel weet tl el td ws belt et el leet ott ll been ht +l | | ee a bey | *e«l |] | «| | Chimonanthus, p. 172. Chionanthus, p. 642 Choisya, p. 296 Cistus, p. 223 5 Clematis, p.131 . Clerodendron, p. 741 Clethra, p. 598" Colutea, p. 340 . 2 Conifers, p.972 . . o|- Se Lobel tT ely we| «| e| ee eel | | | wee | xe eal [ x «| *«*] J tl] «l «ltl dl «e«*t || | June Pet) ep eh Lael | [w! Lt] PLT Itt «tf Pld d «ft #1 | lL] | ee] e| «eel | «| | «x | eeexael [owe] | | | [eel eewel | | eeel [Tt aeel | weal fb aap oP PAE | el felt wel of | eee eee] | | [| #*| | | | | | 108 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Cornus, p. 473 . Coronilla, p. 344 . Corylopsis, p. 444 4 Corylus, p. 797 . : +Cotoneaster, p. 410 +Crategus, p. 408 Cydonia, p. 406 . Cytisus, p. 330 Dabeecia, p. 582 . Daphne, p. 777 . ‘ Daphniphyllum, p. 784 Desfontainea, p. 650 . Deutzia, p. 431 . Diervilla, p. 485 . Dimorphanthus, p. 470 Direa, p. 779 . Elwagnus, p. 779 . & Embothrium, p. 776 Epigea, p.578 : Erica, p. 580 : . Eriobotrya, p. 412 Escallonia, p. 434 Eucryphia, p. 371 tHuonymus, p. 301. Eurybia, p. 505 . ‘ Exochorda, p. 369 ‘ Fabiana, p. 695 . . Fagus, p. 801 ‘ . Fatsia, p. 471 : . Forsythia, p. 637 . Fraxinus, p. 640 . Fremontia, p. 280 Fuchsia, p. 455 Garrya, p.476. . Gaultheria, p. 575 Genista, p. 328 . . tGleditschia, p. 354. Gordonia, p. 268. °. Halesia, p. 634. - Halimodendron, p. 341 Hamamelis, p. 445 tHedera, p. 471 . Helianthemum, p. 226 Hibiscus, p. 279 . : t+Hippophaé, p. 781 . Hydrangea, p. 429 ker mananthen, p. 234 tHypericum, p. 265 . Idesia, p. 236. . Tlex, p. 299 « w . Indigofera, p. 336 . Itea, p. 435 . ‘ Jamesia, p. 434. a Jasminum, p. 636 fJuglans, p. 791 . Kalmia, p. 583 . Kerria, p. 370. : Kolreuteria, p. 310 Laburnum, p. 327 : }Laurus, p.775 . STL1 1 TL el bi tU eli tll avid iit aialililiie CEE CTT et ETA ci tael lite yi tet i Pelt TALI Titi ld bet lilt ddett ell eat # lee iesiiokibiibetl SUT elt al ieee er eld ee) Mar. * £\2 A q a * * * * * * nama * * * « * x] * sae hy ae —|* —|* * * * * —_|* —j| * * * * — —| * a | ox EN ee a | * —| * * * —| * sank * * * * * — * * * * * * * | ox * * * * June wel bell al | +e) eesti ali eel ol bi eeet tl aol [eeel eel oe | «| «| ee | July cegel wel ei (el) eleeet ml PPTL) eel ep onl 4) el eee el J x#| #] lelitolit tt eecetd atetl etised eb LUE [ane etaeeel 8 Pb UT eV Vall te) oe at Dele Eat eth «tel wel (ol ot eel TL] al Sept. LCi als aia Pda tel dat beet EET ial lade a el ball wid ddd PPL PETE pee Lt ol eat) eel pipes x | (eC Peth el LLL ELLE EL [ar | De. Tilia tie at ee ee se eh oe ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES ée. Jan. Feb. Ledum, p. 584. . Lespedeza, p. 346 Leucothoé, p. 577 tLeycesteria, p. 485 Ligustrum, p. 642 Liriodendron, p. 176 Lonicera, p. 482 . Loropetalum, p. 445 Lycium, p. 691. Lyonia, p. 578 Magnolia, p. 174 . +Mahonia, p. 180. tMespilus, p. 406. ‘ Myrica, p. 793 +Myrtus, p. 448 . Negundo, p. 315 . Neillia, p. 368 F Notospartium, p. 340 . Nuttallia, p. 363 . Olearia, p.504 Osmanthus, p. 641 Ostrya, p. 797 Oxydendrum, p. 577 Ozothamuus, p. 507 Peonia (tree), p. 171 Paliurus, p. 303 Parrotia, p. 444 Paulownia, p. 712 ~ Pavia, p. 311 P tPernettya, p. 575 Philadelphus, p. 432. tPhillyrea, p. 641 : Phlomis, p. 757 Photinia, p. 411 . a Phyllostachys, p. 969 . Pieris, p. 579 : . Piptanthus, p. 322 _ Platanus, p. 789 . Populus, p. 803 tPrunus, p. 356 Ptelea, p. 297 ‘ ‘ tPterocarya, p. 792 Pterostyrax, p. 634 tPyrus, p. 405. tQuercus, p. 798 . +Rhamuus, p. 304 Rhaphiolepis, p. 412 . Rhododendron, p. 585 . Rhodora, p. 591 . Rhodotypos, p. 370 Rhus, p. 319 ; Ribes, p. 436 Robinia, p. 338 tRosa, p. 382 +Rubus, p. 371 Salix, p. 802 , tSambucus, p. 477 tShepherdia, p. 781 +tSkimmia, p. 297. Sophora, p. 352 4 ‘ CEE as ae Peel} tablili} bo EA EEE TAA I | I | bitterest lili itt» [apa Ll | Lt] #] eee ae] | ee el ee] «| | | eel] eee eel] eo] ee] el] el | we] | | el ee el | eel ee] | June Lit | alll Iti d =| el el lll ell Ltd dL [mar «| eal | | *| | weaexe| | «el «| ef ee ee] | aw] el] ef] *] x| «| | «| | «] « | May Il «tt | x| eee eee eel | weal xl eee e| | | eeaeannel x «| ba a 3 BK eel eel el aed a Pod al al ee] x1 | «| | lll] #«| aE ell it] [| | «lL «eal «| ap 3 4 | PPP ELOEUUEE £01 #10 & [een oat eel] i lel il al eee habel POLST Vl -aeab eT all lll «lf ell ll weed | x | LLL LL [xen Cea lleltttl 110 PRACTICAL ‘GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Oct. Feb. | April May | Sept. Spartium, p. 330. Spirea, p. 363. Stachyurus, p. 268 tStaphylea, p. 318 Stauntonia, p. 179 3 Stephanandra, p. 369 . Stuartia, p. 268 . . tStyrax, p. 635. , tSymphoricarpus, p. 48 Syringa, p. 638. Tamarix, p. 264 . Tecoma, p. 732 Tilia, p. 281 ae Trachycarpus, p. 956 . Ulex, p. 330. : : Ulmus, p. 785 =. Vaccinium, p. 572 Veronica, p. 724 . Viburnum, p. 478 Vinea, p. 645 Virgilia, p. 352 Weigela, p. 485 . Wistaria, p. 337 . ‘ tXanthoceras, p. 312 . Xanthorhiza, p. 164 Yucea, p. 820 Zenobia, p. 578 . PEIUrecse ee eeene seer serra... PEED UT aCe er ht Py ee Oe Let ae Eh peat he eeUT TT et ee LTT) ah fae »*| |o#| *| | wel «| eel eel ial #| + x | Aug, Pelt ltl yl sat et Lf el eh Pt t ye LL | #e eee een] | | we] «| fo«l [ «| + # | Jane eel |u| ee eel el eae] eee e| x | 4 x | July EUG SOUP ELL [te PPe EO el PPI Cee ee [ll eee eee eee xl | |] wl |e! eal «| LLa} s7 wef laep ltl al] af ef fo AUTUMN TINTS While the spring-time is remarkable for the beautiful and brilliant greens of the foliage of the numerous trees and shrubs which have awakened from their winter sleep, the autumn is no less remarkable for the great change of colouring that has come over this same foliage. In a few short months from May to October, the leaves have been hard at work assimilating food and building up the tissues of the plants. When they burst from their protecting winter buds, either from the branches or the seeds, they proceed to perform their natural functions with the greatest energy. But as the hot summer approaches, and then the autumn with its shorter days, the energy of the protoplasm (see p. 22) within the cells gradually subsides and ultimately ceases altogether in the case of those leaves which are termed ‘ deciduous,’ or that remain on the branches but one season. It is unnecessary to dilate here upon the scientific reasons as to the falling of the leaves in autumn; but it may be remarked that all the food manufactured for the plants is not wasted by the dropping of the foliage. Before this it has been drafted down the stems and to the roots in the case of perennials and root crops by means of the fibre bundles referred to at p. 30 as composing the main nerves and veins AUTUMN TINTS 111 of the leaves. During the process of withdrawal a change in colour comes over the foliage. The more or less brilliant greens are gradually replaced by yellow, orange, red, purple, and a variety of intermediate shades until most beautiful pictures are produced upon the landscape by thisautumnal colouring. The masses of gold presented by the stately Elms, the deeper amber yellow of the Horse Chestnuts, the beauti- ful russety-brown of the Beech and Oaks, the purple-red of the Virginia Creeper, and the tints of all our native trees and shrubs are sufficiently well known and never fail to call forth our admiration dur- ing the autumn. But there are many other trees and shrubs natives of other climes quite as remarkable for their vivid colouring at this period, and they are well worthy of a place in gardens where they can be grown to produce an effect in conjunction with the various hues of the numerous evergreens of the Conifer Family, the Common Holly &c. It has been noticed in connection with autumn colouring that leaves covered with hair or down undergo but very little change in colour, and it therefore looks as if the change in the cells was due to the light. While all deciduous trees and shrubs are more or less beautiful in the colouring of their foliage in autumn, some are particu- larly fine and deserve especial mention in the following list. The name of the genus only is mentioned, as the species can easily be found at the page referred to after the name. LIST XIII Trees, Shrubs, and Climbers remarkable for the Autumnal Colouring of their Foliage Acer, p. 313. Corylus, p. 797. Prunus, p. 356. Actinidia, p. 267. Crategus, p. 408. Pterocarya, p. 792. Aisculus, p. 311. Enkianthus, p. 579. Quercus, p. 998. Akebia, p. 179. Eucryphia, p. 371. Rhexia, p. 449. Amelanchier, p. 413. Euonymus, p. 301. Rhus, p. 319. Aralia, p. 469. Fagus, p. 801. Ribes, p. 436. Azalea, p. 574. Hamamelis, p. 445. Salix, p. 802. Berberis, p. 180. Kélreuteria, p. 310. Sambucus, p. 477. Betula, p. 793. Leucothoé, p. 577. Spirea, p. 363. Carya, p. 790. Liquidambar, p. 445. Stephanandra, p. 369. Castanea, p. 800. Nyssa, p. 476. Stuartia, p. 268. Cercis, p. 355 Oxydendrum, p. 577. Styrax, p. 635. Clerodendron, p. 741. Parrotia, p. 444. Ulmus, p. 785. Cornus, p. 473. Pavia, p. 311. Viburnum, p. 478. LIST XIV Evergreen Trees and Shrubs Arbutus Unedo, p. 574. Bambusa, vars., p. 968. Berberis stenophylla, p. 182. Arundinaria, vars., p. 965. Berberis Aquifolium, p. 180. wallichiana, p. 182. Aucuba japonica, p. 475. Darwini, p. 181. Buxus sempervirens, p. 783. Azara microphylla, p. 235. nepalensis, p. 181. Ceanothus, vars., p. 305. 112 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Conifers, p. 972. Cotoneaster, vars., p. 410. Crategus Pyracantha, p. 409. Daphne pontica, p. 779. Daphniphyllum glaucescens, | p. 784. | Eleagnus, vars., p. 779. i Empetrum nigrum, p. 805. Escallonia illinita, p. 434. | punctata, p. 435. | Garrya elliptica, p. 476. Gaultheria, vars., p. 576. | Hedera, vars., p. 471. Tlex, vars., p. 299. Kalmia, vars., p. 583. Ledum latifolium, p. 584. Leucothoé axillaris, p. 577. Ligustrum, vars., p. 642. ' Loiseleuria procumbens, p. 582. Lonicera aureo-reticulata, p. 484. fragrantissima, p. 483. Lyonia paniculata, p. 578. Magnolia grandiflora, p. 175. Myrtus communis, p. 448. Olearia Haasti, p. 504. Osmanthus, vars., p. 641. Pernettya, vars., p. 875. HARDY WATER AND BOG Phillyrea, vars., p. 641. Phyllostachys, vars., p. 969. Pieris, vars., p. 579. Pittosporum crassifolium, p. 236. Prunus Lauro-cerasus, p. 360. Quercus Ilex, etc., p. 800. Rhododendron, vars., p. 585. Rhodotypos kerrioides,p. 370. Skimmia, vars., p. 297. Smilax, p. 808. Umbellularia californica, p. 775. Veronica, vars., p. 724. Viburnum, vars., p. 478. PLANTS Ir is only of late years that any particular attention has been given to seriously utilising pieces of water in gardens. The common white Water Lily (p. 186) and the yellow Brandy Bottle (p. 185) were looked upon more or less as beautiful aquatic weeds. But the numerous hardy and brilliantly coloured hybrids that are now in cultivation (see p- 187) have revolutionised former ideas in regard to the use of water in the garden, and have served to call attention not only to Water- Lilies but to many other ornamental plants which may be grown with advantage either in water or on its banks. The following is a list of the best water and bog plants. The descriptions, cultural information &c. will be found at the pages given after each name. LIST XV A Selection of Ornamental Water and Bog Plants Carex paniculata, p. 971. Limnocharis Humboldti, pendula, p. 971. p. 806. Lobelia cardinalis, p. 556. Menyanthes trifoliata, p. 657. Myosotis palustris, p. 677. Acorus Calamus, p. 954. gramineug, p. 954. Alisma, vars., p. 805. Cyperus longus, p. 971. Aponogeton distachyon, Glyceria aquatica, p. 963. p. 805. Hottonia palustris, p. 604. Butomus umbellatus, p. 806. | Hydrocharis Morsus-rane, Caladium virginicum, p. 883. : Nuphar, vars., p. 185. _p. 954. Limnanthes Douglasi, p. 292. | Nymphaea, vars., p. 186. Calla palustris, p. 955. Limnanthemum nymphe- | Orontium aquaticum, Caltha palustris, p. 150. i oides, p. 658. p. 955. HARDY WATER AND BOG PLANTS Parnassia, vars., p. 428. Peltandra virginica, p. 954. Polygonum affine, p. 768. Bistorta, p. 768. Pontederia cordata, p. 882. Ranunculus aquatilis, p. 147. Ranunculus Lingua, p. 149. Richardia africana, p. 955. Rumex Hydrolapathum, p. 768. Sagittaria sagittifolia fl. pl., p. 806. 113 Scirpus lacustris, p. 972. Sparganium, vars., p. 953. Stratiotes aloides, p. 883. Thalia dealbata, p. 884. Typha in var., p. 953. Water Lilies, p. 186. A Selection of Plants thriving in Marshy or Boggy Ground Arundo Donax, p. 958. Bamboos, Hardy, p. 964. Butomus umbellatus, p. 806. Calla palustris, p. 955. Caltha, vars., p. 150. Carex pendula, p. 971. Chrysobactron Hookeri, p. 826. Coptis trifolia, p. 154. Cornus canadensis, p. 474. Crinum capense, p. 911. Cypripedium spectabile, Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, p. 626. Meadia and var. alba, p. 626. Drosera, vars., p. 444. Eomecon chionantha, p. 195. Epilobium album, hirsutum, &e. p. 451. Eupatorium, vars., p. 494. Galax aphylla, p. 600. Gentiana Pneumonanthe, p. 655. Gunnera scabra, p. 446. Helonias bullata, p. 878. Houttuynia californica, p. 774. cordata, p. 774. Tris foetidissma, p. 922. fulva, p. 923. graminea, p. 923. Kempferi, p. 925. Monnieri, p. 927. ochroleuca, p. 927. Pseudacorus, p. 929. Iris sibirica, p. 931. Juncus spiralis, p. 882. Leucanthemum lacustre, p. 534, Leucojum estivum, p. 908, Hernandezii, p. 908. Liatris pycnostachya, p. 495. spicata, p. 495. Lilium canadense, p. 845. carolinianum, p. 856. pardalinum, p. 853. superbum, p. 856. Linnea borealis, p. 482. Lobelia cardinalis, p. 556. Lychnis Flos-Cuculi fi. pl., p. 256. Lysimachia clethroides, p. 629. Nummularia, p. 629. thyrsiflora, p. 630. vulgaris, p. 630. Lythrum, vars., p. 450. Monarda didyma, p. 750. Myosotis palustris, p. 678. Nierembergia rivularis, p.6 Nyssa aquatica, p. 476. Orchis, vars., p. 891. Osmunda palusiris, p. 1022. regalis, p. 1022. Oxycoccus, vars., p. 573. Parnassia, vars., p. 428. Phormium tenax, p. 816. Pinguicula, vars., p. 728. LAWNS : Polygonum compactum, p. 769. Sieboldi, p. 769. Primula denticulata, p. 607. farinosa, p. 608. involucrata, p. 610. japonica, p. 610. Munzroi, p. 610. Parryi, p. 613. Reidi, p. 614. rosea, p. 615. sikkimensis, p. 616. Pyrethrum uliginosum, p. 535. Bhexia virginica, p. 449. Rodgersia podophylla, p. 415. Sagittaria, vars., p. 806. Samolus littoralis, p. 632. Sarracenia purpurea, p. 189. Saxifraga Hirculus, p. 421. peltata, p. 424. Scirpus zebrina, p. 972. Senecio pulcher, p. 542. speciosus, p. 543. Spigelia marilandica, p. 649. Spirea Aruncus, p. 364. astilboides, p. 364. kamtschatica, p. 364. palmata, p. 365. Ulmaria, p. 365. Swertia perennis, p. 657. Symplocarpus feetidus, p. 955. Thalictrum anemonoides, p. 138. flavum, p. 138. Tradescantia ' virginica, p. 807. AuL other things being equal, there is nothing that lends a greater charm and repose to a garden than a well-kept lawn. Where such exists it should always be carefully attended to, as once a lawn is allowed to become wild, it takes a long time to bring it back toa really good condition. 114 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS In the pages of this work many plants are mentioned as being suitable for lawn decoration. It must not, however, be taken for granted that each and every plant thus mentioned is to be grown on the lawn. It would be far better to leave the lawn quite free from all except its natural vegetation than to spoil it by dotting groups of plants, or solitary specimens, all over it in a meaningless kind of way. The lawn should not be treated as if it were an orchard or a shrubbery, and anything that tends to interfere with its repose, or jars upon the taste, is to be avoided. Making a Lawn.—Lawns are made in two ways—either by sowing seed or laying turf. Both ways are good, but some have a preference for one rather than the other. When a lawn has been made by sowing grass it takes about three years before a really good foundation has been made, and during that period numerous rollings, cuttings, and waterings must have been given. The advantage of making a lawn with turf is that a good one can be obtained practically in one season—with the aid of frequent cuttings, rollings, and waterings. If the turf is good and free from weeds it is on the whole a better and quicker method of producing a lawn. Whether seeds or turf are used, the first and all-important point is to have good soil with a surface properly levelled and quite free from hillocks and hollows, however slight. The soil should be well dug and manured and afterwards trodden down with the feet, orrolled; but the roller should not be too heavy—one weighing about one cwt. will be sufficient, or the ground will be pressed into a caked condition, more or less impervious to the passage of water. Levelling.—This is readily accomplished by means of a spirit level attached to the edge of a level board. Special implements are used for the purpose, but a stout quadrangular pole, about 8 ft. (or half a rod) long will do equally well, provided its edges are perfectly level. Where the lawn is to be of some size, wooden pegs must be driven into the soil at such intervals that the levelling rod can reach from one to the other. Having fixed one peg at what is to be the ultimate height and level of the lawn, all other pegs must be fixed or driven into the soil until the top of each peg is on a level with that of the next. This can be easily ascertained by means of the spirit level. The ground itself should also be carefully gone over with the level, resting the rod in all directions with a view to finding any risings or depressions. Where such occur they must be reduced or filled up by means of the rake until the entire surface is as flat and as level, but not necessarily as smooth, as a billiard table. LAWNS 115 This point having been reached, and the soil having settled down properly, seeds of the best lawn grass may be sown during mild showery weather in March or April, as it then germinates in a very short time. Seeds may also be sown under similar circumstances in September, so that the seed shall germinate and the young grass become established before the setting in of winter. To ensure a thick and even sward, from 60 to 80 lbs. (or 3-4 bushels) of grass seed will be required to sow an acre of ground. The seed should be sown broadcast and as evenly as possible. The soil is afterwards raked over lightly and a light roller may also be used to bring the seeds and soil in closer contact, and give.a finish to the work. If the weather is not showery, a good watering is also necessary and may be repeated from time to time if necessary. When the grass has grown sufficiently long, it should be cut with a scythe—not with a mowing machine, as the latter is apt to tear roots and all up at first. It is as a rule safer to have the first few cuttings done with a scythe, so that the grass may become strong and tufted, and thus better able to stand the mowing machine afterwards. When turf is used, the chief point to remember is : keep the surface level. Each turf is about 3 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, and an inch or so thick. The thickness, however, varies a good deal, and where thin turves are used a little fine soil should be placed beneath to bring them to the proper level. As three turves go to a square yard it is easy to estimate the number required for any particular piece of ground. The turf cutters, however, ‘generally cut a shade under rather than over the dimensions, and. it is therefore always safer to have a few extra ones in case of necessity. When the turves have all been laid down neatly edge to edge, a little fine soil is sprinkled over the surface, and brushed into the crevices. The whole surface may then be thoroughly beaten with a turf beater (a thick flat-faced piece of wood, with a long handle let in obliquely in the centre at the back) so as to reduce any slight inequalities. Failing this, beating the turf with the back of a strong spade will be almost equally efficacious. The first cuttings should be done with a scythe, and frequent rollings and waterings will soon make a fine ‘greensward. General Treatment.—Once well established, a lawn should never be neglected. If looked after regularly, it will last in good condition for years, but if not, it will in the course of a few years show signs of wearing out. Weeding.—This should be done regularly in spring and autumn so as to keep such plant pests as Plaintain, Daisies, Dandelions, and other a2 116 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS weeds down. Frequent cutting with the machine will prevent them flowering and ripening seed. Where, however, they take a strong hold they may be eradicated by dropping a little vitriol (sulphuric acid) or arsenic down the centre of each with a pointed skewer. The latter should be pushed down into the weeds, as some of them have tap-roots which, unless killed, will throw forth other shoots after the first ones have been destroyed. An intelligent lad can do this work easily, but great care must be taken in using the poison. Where the use of poison is feared or disliked, the only safe way to destroy weeds on lawns is to grub them up with an old knife or ‘ daisy- grubber.’ It takes a long time, but if done systematically is very effective. An excellent plan is to strain two white lines about 2 feet apart on the grass and proceed to root up all the weeds between them. In this way the work is done systematically and in such a narrow space there is little chance of overlooking the weeds. When one portion has been cleaned, one line may be taken up and stretched 2 feet from the other on the opposite side, proceeding with the work in the same way. Manuring Lawns.—In the course of time the grass will begin to look poor, and lack vigour and freshness in growth, unless it has some plant food put into the soil in some way. Covering the lawn with short well-rotted manure is practically out of the question in most cases, owing to its unsightliness. Liquid manures of cow-dung, guano, sulphate of ammonia &c. may, however, be given at frequent intervals, -care being taken that they are not too strong, otherwise the grass may be ‘ burnt’ and present a brownish appearance. About 6-8 lbs. of basic slag and 3-4 lbs. of kainit, mixed together, may be used in the autumn or winter months, and will sprinkle over about 40 square yards. About 3 or 4 lbs. of superphosphate of lime will also cover the same area and -may be applied, not with the basic slag and kainit, but the following spring. Rape-dust or fine bone-meal at the rate of about 4 lbs. to about 40 sq. yds. may also be used. Mossy Lawns.—Moss-covered lawns are very unsightly, and some- times very difficult to clean. The moss should be well raked out with a good rake in moist weather during the autumn. The lawn should be gone over in two or three different directions, and although the grass will have the appearance of being torn up by the roots, it will in reality be injured very little. After being well cleared of moss, some fine rich soil and wood ashes may be strewn over the surface, and a little basic slag and kainit, as recommended above, may also be added. The surface is then levelled and lightly rolled. In spring any vacant spot should be sown with grass seed, so as to bring the whole surface into a green state. GARDEN WALKS AND PATHWAYS 117 Renovating old Lawns.— Where lawns, notwithstanding every care, show unmistakable signs of decay, there is only one thing left to be done. That is to lift the turf in autumn, and give the soil beneath a thorough digging and manuring as if about to lay turves in the first place. After the preparation and levelling of the soil in the way indicated above, the turves may be replaced, beaten down and rolled, and receive the same treatment generally as a newly made lawn. LIST XVI Ornamental Plants suitable for large Lawns, Parks éc., and for Subtropical Gardening Abutilon, p. 278. Cordyline australis, p. 822. Paulownia, p. 712. Acanthus, p. 736. Cortaderia, p. 960. Phormium tenax, p. 816. Agave, p. 916. Eucalyptus globulus, p. 447. | Phyllostachys, p. 969. Aralia, p. 469. Ferula, p. 468. Polygonum, p. 768. Arundinaria, p. 965. Funkia, p. 816. Rhus, p. 319. Arundo, p. 958. Grevillea robusta, p. 776. Ricinus, p. 784. Bambusa, p. 968. Gunnera, p. 446. Sambucus aurea, p. 478. Bocconia, p. 195. Gynerium, p. 960. Solanum, p. 687. Canna, p. 885. Melianthus, p. 317. Trachycarpus, p. 956. Catalpa, p. 732. Molopospermum, p. 467. Wigandia, p. 669. Chamerops excelsa, p. 956. Montanoa, p. 513. Yucca, p. 820. Cineraria maritima, p. 541. Musa Ensete, p. 888. Zea Mays, p. 964. GARDEN WALKS AND PATHWAYS WHILE it is an excellent thing to have beautiful Lawns, Flower Borders, Rock Gardens, and patches of Fruits and Vegetables in a garden, it is no less excellent to be able to reach any or all of these particular spots by means of pleasant walks, paths, or roadways. In designing any garden, therefore, it is a matter of the greatest importance to allow a proper amount of space for walks and pathways. Whether these are perfectly straight or more or less curved, wide or narrow, will depend a good deal upon individual taste and the size of the garden. Some people seem to have a mania for making walks in every possible place, and this results in cutting the surface of the garden up into a kind of patchwork, with little triangles here, circles there, horse-shoes, rectangles, and many other fantastic and useless shapes for flower beds &c. dotted about here and there. As few footpaths as possible should be in the garden, and space given only to those absolutely necessary. This will not only allow of more space for flowers, fruit, or vegetables, but will not necessitate so much labour in the up-keep of the pathways. 118 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Gravel Paths.—As these are undoubtedly the most important, it is necessary that they should be well made at first, as nothing will give so much trouble and inconvenience afterwards as badly constructed gravel paths. The main object in making a good pathway is to secure a firm and pleasant surface for walking upon in all weathers and seasons. The surface should be such that it will not work up into large pebbles in summer or sticky mud in winter. Pathways should always have a gentle slope away from dwellings or other buildings, and the highest point should be a few inches at least below what builders call the ‘damp course’ in houses. Drainage.—To secure a good pathway it is first of all necessary to consider the question of drainage, and also the nature of the soil beneath the surface. In wet heavy soils the drainage requires to be in a more perfect condition than when walks are constructed on a gravelly bottom. At p. 44 the drainage of flower-pots &c. for sowing seeds has been mentioned. Almost precisely the same principle must be carried out with pathways. In heavy soils there should be 1-2 ft. of old brickbats, rubble, clinkers &c. well rammed down and made perfectly hard without being mixed with any finer materials. Above this layer some finer rubble, stones, clinkers &c. may be placed and also rammed down firmly and evenly. This will give a perfectly porous layer between the surface and the soil beneath, and if the drainage is to be made still more perfect, as is often necessary with important walks and drives in public gardens, provision must be made at first to have drain pipes laid at the sides to receive the surface water in times of heavy rain or sudden downpours. The drainage having been made perfect, the surface may then be covered 2-4 in. deep—more or less—with the best yellow gravel. Care must be exercised in selecting this, as some kinds have far too much clayey matter, and others too much sand and grit, to bind properly when rolled. What is technically known as ‘hoggin’ in the London neighbourhood is an excellent gravel for pathways. It binds well, has a good colour, and when properly rolled down and watered gives a neat and finished appearance to the garden. In some large parks and gardens the gravel walks are covered with ground shells. These make a good sur- face for walking on in dry weather, although at first the colour is some- what trying to the eyes, and in wet weather they are not an improvement on good gravel. Pathways made of gravel should havea slightly convex top, so that the sides slope gently away from the centre. This will throw the rain off towards the sides, and give a good foothold in the centre, even in very wet weather, on well-constructed pathways. Weeding ¢c.—Pathways, like lawns, require constant attention to keep them free from weeds and neat in appearance. It becomes GARDEN WALKS AND PATHWAYS 119 necessary occasionally to have the surface pricked up all over, and raked into proper positions so as to get rid of any hollows caused by wear and tear. Frequent rolling is also necessary to keep a good surface. Weeds if not eradicated by the hoe or hand may be destroyed by one of the many weed killers now on the market. Great care should be exercised in using these, and the instructions given by sellers may be followed out to avoid accidents to other vegetation and animals. Asphalt Paths. —Of late years Asphalt as used for making pave- ments has been used a good deal for garden paths, and when well made they seem to be very satisfactory, especially between tiled edgings. They have a smooth and agreeable walking surface in all weathers, and when constructed with a slightly convex surface—arching from the centre to the sides—the rain is readily drained away. They have another advantage in being nearly always quite free from weeds. This is a double-barrelled boon—it saves labour and the cost of weed-killers. Notwithstanding these advantages, however, the gravel pathway still holds its own in most gardens, chiefly perhaps on account of its colour, and because when the grass edgings adjoining asphalt paths are cut they leave a conspicuous narrow border of soil between the asphalt and the turf; and asphalt cannot be so readily laid as gravel to cover unsightly spaces. Grass Walks.—There is nothing to equal the pleasure derived from walking on a beautiful greensward, whether it be a well-kept lawn or an alley between the flower borders. In small gardens it may be, and of course is in many cases, impossible to have grassy walks; but in large parks and gardens many parts now covered with gravel might be more appropriately covered with grass. A visit to the Royal Gardens, Kew, will give one a good idea of how well grassy avenues, vistas, and pathways may be made, and how beautiful they look between the trees, shrubs, and flower beds. Years ago a long vista from the Palm House to the banks of the Thames facing Syon House was an ugly and very pebbly broad walk which no one ever walked upon unless obliged to by wet weather. The gravel, however, has vanished, and the greensward has taken its place, much to the advantage of the gardens and the comfort of visitors. This might be imitated with advantage in other gardens. The only disadvantage a grass walk can have is in wet weather, but at such a time there is but little inducement to use pathways at all—whether gravel or grass— only in the case of necessity. The short time during the year that grass may be unfit to walk upon should not, however, prevent its being used when possible for walks during the greater portion of the year. 120 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS Ir is a natural and almost unconscious process to place any two or more plants similar in appearance and character into the same group and say that they are more or less closely related, although they differ from each other in minor details. This is practically classifying plants according to their relationship to each other into natural groups, and by such a process the gardener is enabled to deduce many points that may be of importance to him in the actual work of cultivation. It would, for instance, be a very poor observer indeed who could not see the difference between, say, a Buttercup and a Lily, but it might be somewhat difficult for him to explain in words exactly the points where- in they differ. Just imagine for a moment a person who had never seen a Buttercup or a Lily asking what they were and how he was to distinguish one from the other, and some idea will be gained as to the difficulty in giving the information in such a way that the Buttercup or Lily will not be mixed up with an Orchid, or a Rose, or a Tulip, or any other plant. When plants are so common that they are grown by almost every- body, their general features or characteristics become impressed on the mind, and the names which botanists have given them usually come tripping off the tongue with ease. But when a strange plant appears without a name, an effort is at once made, almost unconsciously, to place it near some plant already known. The roots, stems, leaves, flowers fruits &c. are carefully and critically examined and compared one by one, and the plant is said to come near such and such a species but differs from it in many respects. If the cultivator of such a plant has even only a slight knowledge of the way in which plants have been grouped more or less naturally by botanists, he may, by the aid of his books, run the unknown plant very close, if not quite, to its own group, from the characters he sees. But if his books have the plants arranged simply in alphabetical order according to their names and not according to their relationship, he may as well give up his search at once, unless he has the time and in- clination to wade through every name from AtoZ. Indeed, descriptive plant-books arranged in purely alphabetical order are only of value when the proper name of the plant about which information is required is already known. This is a sine qua non to the use of such books. ‘To call a Rose by any other name’ would in such cases probably lead to unlooked-for and perhaps not altogether satisfactory results when the cultural details came to be applied. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 121 For these reasons chiefly, and also because the majority of amateurs often find a difficulty in remembering the botanical names of plants, it has been considered best to have the plants described in this work arranged in their natural groups or Orders, so that in the event of a cultivated plant being nameless, it may with very little trouble soon be found by means of the ‘ Key’ given below. Where the name of a plant is already known, a reference to the Index at the end of the work will at once give the page at which description, culture, propagation and other information may be found concerning it. The amateur and the profes- sional gardener will both find it an excellent and interesting proceeding, however, to try to place or determine any particular plant into its proper group by means of examining the characters of the flowers, leaves, stems, roots &c. The ‘ Key’ to the natural Orders of Plants described in this work will be found useful in trying to place a plant whose name is unknown in its proper group, and, it is hoped, will ultimately lead to its identifica- tion. Although an attempt has been made to dispense as far as possible with botanical or technical terms, the use of some was unavoidable. Such terms will be found explained in the Illustrated Glossary at p. 1. KEY to the NATURAL ORDERS of PLANTS described in this work The Vegetable Kingdom may be divided into two Great Groups or Sub-Kingdoms, namely :— I. FLOWERING PLANTS, or PHANEROGAMS. These are trees, shrubs or herbs with more or less conspicuous flowers provided with stamens and pistils in the same or separate flowers, and seeds containing a distinct embryo, as in annuals and biennials, herbaceous plants, trees, shrubs &c. II. NON-FLOWERING PLANTS, or CRYPTOGAMS. These include the Ferns (Filices), HonsETatts (Equisetum), CLUBMOssEs (Lycopodium), MusHRooms (Agaricus), and all the lower vegetable organisms. Flowering Plants (or Phanerogams) are divided into Two Classes :— (.) ANGIOSPERMS.—This group includes all the flowering plants popularly known as annuals, biennials, herbaceous peren- nials and trees and shrubs, described in this work from p. 131 to p. 972. They are characterised by having roots, stems, leaves, and flowers, and have their seeds enclosed or hidden in an ovary, 122 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS seed vessel, or fruit. It is this latter characteristic that gives the name to the group, the word ‘angiosperm’ being derived from ‘angios,’ hidden, and ‘ sperma,’ a seed. (i. GYMNOSPERMS.—In these plants the flowers are strictly unisexual, that is either all female or all male, and the perianth, ovary, and styles are absent. The ovules are naked (not enclosed in carpels), and are fertilised by direct contact with the pollen, and not by means of a pollen tube (see p. 24). Cotyledons (seed-leaves) 2, or sometimes in whorls of 3 or more. Natural Orders with these Characters.—GNETACEA, p. 972, Cont- FER, p. 972. The Angiosperms (or plants having their seeds enclosed in an ovary) are also divided into two main groups or sub-classes, viz. :— 1. DicotyzEpons (p. 131) and 2. MonocoryLEpons (p. 805), the characters of which are given below with the various groups belonging to them. Sub-Class I. DICOTYLEDONS (p. 181 to p. 805). ‘The plants belonging to this group are described in this work from p. 181 to p. 805, and are characterised by having stems with bark, pith, and wood, and when perennial, increasing in diameter by an annual layer of wood added to the outside of the old wood, and another of bark to the inside of the old bark. Leaves usually with netted veins. Flowers with the parts usually in fours or fives, and usually with a distinct perianth. Ovules in closed carpels, through the tissues of which the pollen tube passes to effect fertilisation as described at p. 24. Embryo with 2 cotyledons or seed leaves. Dicotyledons are subdivided into 8 main divisions, viz. :—1. Poly- petale; 2. Disciflore; and 3. Calyciflore, each of which is again subdivided into series, cohorts, and natural orders as below. Division I. POLYPETALZ (p. 181 to p. 477). Flowers with both calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals). Petals free or distinct from each other. Series I. THALAMIFLOR& (p. 181 to p. 284). Sepals usually free. Petals definite, often numerous. Stamens inserted on a torus or receptacle, hypogynous, numerous or definite. Carpels free (apocarpous) or united (syncarpous). Cohort 1. Ranauzs (carpels usually free).—Stamens numerous. Perianth consisting of calyx only, or of calyx and corolla. Natural Orders with these Characters.—RANUNCULACES (p. 181), CanycanTHAcEs® (p. 172), MaGnoiacE& (p. 178), Ano- CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 123 NACE (p. 177), MENISPERMACEZ (p. 178), BERBERIDEZ (p. 178), NymMpH@ace# (p. 185). Cohort 2. ParinTauEs (placentas parietal).—Stamens nu- ‘merous or definite in number. Ovary 1-celled or with spurious dissepiments. Ovules usually many. Natural Orders with these Characters.—SARRACENIACE (p. 188), PAPAVERACE (p. 189), FUMARIACEZ (p. 198), CRUCIFERE (p. 201), ReEsEDAcE@ (p. 222), CISTINEHZ (p. 223), VIOLARIBA (p. 227), BrxInEZ (p. 235). ‘Cohort 8. PonyGaLinEz#.—Sepals and petals 5, rarely 4 or 38. Stamens equal to or twice as many as the petals or sepals. Carpels usually 2, cohering in a more or less perfectly 2-celled ovary. Flowers regular or irregular. Natural Orders with these Characters.—PITTOSPOREZ (p. 236), POLYGALEA (p. 237). Cohort 4. CARYOPHYLLINEZ (placentas free central).—Sepals 2-5, rarely 6, free or united. Petals equal in number, or more, or fewer by abortion. Stamens as many as petals, or twice as many, rarely more or fewer. Ovary usually 1-celled. Natural Orders with these Characters —FRANKENIACEE (p. 238), CARYOPHYLLE (p. 238), PoRTULACE (p. 261), Tama- RISCINE (p. 264). Cohort 5. GUTTIFERALES (stamens numerous, calyx imbri- cate).—Sepals 2-5, often 4 or 5, rarely numerous. Petals as many as sepals, rarely more. Ovary usually 3- or more celled. Flowers regular. Natural Orders with these Characters,—HYPERICINEA (p. 265), TERNSTR@MIACEZ (p. 267). Cohort 6. Matvauzs (stamens numerous, calyx valvate).— Calyx lobes or sepals 5, rarely 2-4. Petals usually 5, rarely none. Stamens free or united in one bundle. Ovary usually 3- or more celled. Natural Orders with these Characters.—MaLvVAcE& (p. 270), STERCULIACEH (p. 280), TILIACEz (p. 280). Series II. DiscrFnor# (p. 284 to p. 322). Flowers regular with parts usually in fives. Calyx usually free from the ovary. Stamens often definite inserted below or above or around a disc. Ovary usually superior or immersed in the disc. Carpels usually united. Cohort 1. GrRaNIaALEs.—Disc often beneath the stems or ad- nate to the staminal column, or reduced to glands alternating with the petals. Ovary entire or often lobed, or with almost free carpels. Natural Orders with these Characters—Linzm (p. 282), GERANIACEH (p. 284), Rurace# (p. 295), SIMARUBEH (p. 298). 124 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Cohort 2. OnacaLEs.—Disc cup-shaped or ringed, free, or bearing the stamens and petals, or divided into glands. Ovary entire. Leaves simple. Natural Order with these Characters.—ILICINES (p. 299). Cohort 8. CELASTRALES.—Disc cushion-like or adnate to the calyx. Stamens inserted around or on the margins of the disc. Ovary usually entire. Leaves simple or rarely compound. Natural Orders with these Characters.— CELASTRINEZ (p. 301), ReAMNES (p. 308), AMPELIDEZ (p. 307). Cohort 4. SapinpatEes.—Disc various. Stamens inserted beneath, above or around it. Ovary entire or often lobed. Leaves pinnate, or rarely simple or digitate. Flowers often polygamous dioecious. Natural Orders with these Characters ——SAaPINDACE® (ACER- INEZ) (p. 810), ANACARDIACES (p. 319), CoRIARIEH (p. 321). Series III. CanyciFLon# (p. 322 to p. 477). Calyx tube enclosing the ovary or adnate to it. Petals in one series enclosed by the calyx tube. Stamens many or definite, inserted on the calyx tube. Ovary inclosed by calyx tube or inferior. Cohort 1. Rosatzs.—F lowers regular or irregular, often herm- aphrodite. Carpels solitary or numerous, free or united at the base. Styles usually distinct. Leaves variously compound, or simple. Natural Orders with these Characters.—LEGUMINOSE (p. 322), RosacEz (p. 355), SAXIFRAGEA (p. 414), CRAssULACEH (p. 437), DROSERACE (p. 448), HAMAMELIDE® (p. 444), HaLoracGE& (p. 446). Cohort 2. MyrtTaLes.—Flowers regular or nearly so, usually hermaphrodite. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or enclosed by calyx tube. Style undivided. Leaves simple, entire, rarely toothed. Natural Orders with these Characters.—MyntacE& (p. 447), MELASTOMACE (p. 449), LYTHRARIEH (p. 449), ONAGRARIEZE (p. 451). Cohort 3. PassIFLORALES.—-Flowers regular or nearly so, rarely irregular. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or superior, usually enclosed by the calyx tube, l-celled. Styles more or less divided or entire, or distinct from the base. Leaves entire, lobed, or dissected. Natural Orders with these Characters—LoasEz& (p. 457), PASSIFLOREZ (p. 459), CucurBiTacEa (p. 460), BEGoNnrIAcE (p. 462). Cohort 4. Ficorpanes.—Flowers regular or nearly so, with numerous petals and stamens. Ovary syncarpous, half superior or CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 125 superior, 1- or more celled. Styles free, or divided at the apex. Leaves entire, or absent on fleshy stems. Natural Orders with these Characters——CacTEz (p. 463), FIcoIDEz (p. 464). Cohort 5. UmMBELLALES.—Flowers regular. Ovary inferior, 2- or more celled. Styles distinct or united at the base. Stamens usually definite. Natural Orders with these Characters. UMBELLIFERZ& (p. 464), ARALIACES (p. 469), CORNACEZ (p. 478). Division Il. GAMOPETALZA or MONOPETALE (p. 477 to p. 759). Flowers with both calyx and corolla. Petals more or less united into a 2- or more lobed corolla. Series I, Epicyn (p. 477 to p. 571). Ovary inferior. Stamens usually equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Mostly herbs, often with milky juice. Shrubs in Capri- foliaceez and a few Composite. Cohort 1. Rupiaues.—Leaves usually opposite or verticillate. Stamens attached to the corolla (epipetalous). Ovary 2- or more celled, each cell with 2 or more ovules. Natural Orders with these Characters. — CAPRIFOLIACE (p. 477), RusiacEs® (p. 486). Cohort 2. ASTERALES.—Stamens attached to the corolla. Ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled. Natural Orders with these Characters.—VaLERIANEZ (p. 488), Dirsacez (p. 490), Composit (p. 492). Cohort 38. CAMPANALES.— Stamens usually free from the corolla. Ovary 1- or more celled, each with 1 or many ovules. Natural Order with these Characters. — CAMPANULACEH (p. 555). Series II. Hypocynm (p. 571 to p. 759). Ovary often superior. Stamens free from the corolla, opposite the lobes, or twice or more than twice as many in number. Cohort 4. HricaLes.— Flowers regular, hermaphrodite. Stamens twice as many as the lobes of the corolla, or equal in number and alternate with them. Natural Orders with these Characters.— VACCINIACES (p. 571), ERICACEs (p. 574), DIAPENSIACEZ (p. 599). Cohort 5. PrimunaLes.—Flowers regular, hermaphrodite or polygamous by abortion. Stamens equal in number to lobes or petals of the corolla and opposite them. Ovary 1-celled. Natural Orders with these Characters. — PLUMBAGINE® (p. 600), PrimuLace (p. 604). 126 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Cohort 6. EBENALES.—Trees or shrubs. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite or unisexual. Stamens equal in number to, or twice as many as, or more than, the corolla lobes. Ovary 2- or more celled. Natural Orders with these Characters.—_EBENACEZ (p. 632), STYRACES (p. 633). Cohort 7. GENTIANALES.—Leaves usually opposite. Corolla regular. Stamens alternate with the corolla lobes and equal in number, or if fewer often alternate with the carpels. Natural Orders with these Characters.—OLEACE (p. 636), APOCYNACEE (p. 644), ASCLEPIADE® (p. 646), LoGaNIAcEa (p. 648), GENTIANEZ (p. 650). ***Ovary usually superior. Carpels 2, or rarely 1 or 3. Cohort 8. PoLEMONIALES.—Leaves usually alternate. Corolla regular. Stamens alternate with the corolla lobes and equal in number. Natural Orders with these Characters. — POLEMONIACE (p. 658), HyDROPHYLLACEH (p. 666), BoraGiInE# (p. 670), CoNVOLVULACE (p. 682), SOLANACEZ (p. 687). Cohort 9. PrERsoNALES.—Corolla often irregular or oblique. Upper stamen smaller than the others, or often reduced to a staminode or absent. Natural Orders with these Characters—ScROPHULARINEE (p. 701), LENTIBULARIEH (p. 728), GESNERACEZ (p. 729), BiGno- NIACEZ (p. 731), PEDALINE (p. 734), ACANTHACEZ (p. 735). Cohort 10. Lam1ates.—Corolla often irregular, oblique or 2-lipped. Upper stamen often reduced to a staminode or absent. Carpels 1-ovuled or collaterally 2-ovuled. Fruit often enclosed by the calyx, indehiscent. Natural Orders with these Characters.—SELAGINE (p. 787), VERBENACES (p. 788), Lapiatz (p. 742). Division III. MONOCHLAMYDEZ, INCOMPLETZ, or ACHLAMYDES (p. 759 to p. 805). Flowers in which the corolla is usually and the calyx often absent. (a) Flowers hermaphrodite, or unisexual or polygamous in a few genera. Natural Orders with these Characters—NYcTAGINEE (p. 759), ILLECEBRACEZ (p. 761), AMARANTACE (p. 761), CHENOPODIACE (p. carp 765), PHYTOLACCACEAE (p. 766), PoLyGonacEs& (p. 767). (b) Herbs or shrubs. Ovary apocarpous, syncarpous or mono- ous. Natural Orders with these Characters.—ARISTOLOCHIACEE (p. 772), ‘PIpERACEZ (p. 778). CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 127 (c) Ovary usually monocarpous. Trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs. Flowers often hermaphrodite. Stamens perigynous. Natural Orders with these Characters.—LAvURINEZ (p. 774), PROTEACES (p. 776), THYMELHACES (p. 777), ELHAGNACES (p. 779). (ad) Trees or shrubs, sometimes herbs. Flowers usually strictly unisexual. Perianth calyx-like, minute or none. Ovary syncarpous or monocarpous. Natural Orders with these Characters.—LORANTHACEZ (p. 781), EUPHORBIACES (p. 782), URTICACE (p. 785), PLATANACEZ (p. 789), JUGLANDEE (p. 790), Myricacez (p. 792), CUPULIFERZ (p. 793), SALICINEA (p. 802), EMPETRACEZ (p. 804). Sub-Class II. MONOCOTYLEDONS (p. 805 to p. 972). The plants belonging to this class have stems without bark, pith, or concentric rings, and do not increase in diameter by annual layers of wood. Leaves usually with parallel veins, but net-veined in AROIDEH (p. 9538) and SMILACINE (p. 808). Flowers with the parts mostly in threes or fours, never in fives. Embryo with a single seed- leaf (cotyledon). TF irst-formed leaves alternate ; radicle not branching, but throwing out adventitious roots. Division I. PETALOIDEZ(p. 805 to p. 952). Flowers hermaphrodite, rarely unisexual. Perianth rarely absent, usually in two series; the inner series or corolla usually petal-like ; the outer series or calyx often also petal-like. Series 1.—HypocyNaE.—Ovary superior, carpels more or less free and distinct from each other, or completely united. Natural Orders with these Characters—NataDAcEz (p. 805), ALISMACEH (p. 805), CoMMELINACE® (p. 807) Liniace (p. 808), JUNCACES (p. 882), PONTEDERIACEZ (p. 882). Series 2.—Hpicynz.—Ovary inferior. Flowers regular, irregular, or zygomorphic. Stamens in threes or sixes, sometimes reduced to one only, and sometimes in waxy pollen masses. Natural Orders with these Characters.—HYDROCHARIDES (p. 883), DioscornEAcE (p. 884), SCITAMINEZ (p. 884), HamopoRAcE (p. 889), ORCHIDE# (p. 890), AMARYLLIDE® (p. 893), IRIDEz (p. 916). Division II. SPADICIFLOR (p. 952 to p. 956). Flowers small, usually on a spadix, sometimes solitary, frequently unisexual, but sometimes dicecious. Perianth often ‘wanting, never petal-like. 128 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Natural Orders with these Characters.—TYPHACEH (p. 952), AROIDEH (p. 953), PauME@ (p. 955). Division III. GLUMIFLOR (p. 956 to p. 972). Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, and then mostly moneecious, usually in heads or spikelets invested by imbricate bracts. Perianth absent or scaly. Ovary superior, 1- or more celled. Natural Orders with these Characters.—GRAMINEX (p. 956), CYPERACES (p. 971). SUMMARY OF THE ABOVE Sub-Kingdom I. FLowrrine Puants (p. 131 to p. 1008). Class I. AnciospeRMs (p. 181 to p. 972). Sub-Class I. Dicotyledons. Sub-Class II. Monocotyledons. Division (i). Polypetale (p. 131 to | Division (1). Petaloidee (p. 805 p. 477). to p. 952). Series (a) Thalamiflore (p. 131 Series (2) Hypogyne (p. 805 to to p. 284). p. 883). » (0) Disciflore (p. 284 to » (0) Epigyne (p. 883 to p. 822). p. 952). » (¢) Calyciflore (p. 322 to | Division (ii). Spadiciflore (p. 952 p. 477). to p. 956). Division (ii). Gamopetale (p. 477 | Division (11). Glumiflore (p. 956 to p. 759). to p. 972). Series (a) Epigyne (p. 477 to p. 571). » (6) Hypogyne (p. 571 to p. 759). Division (iii). INcoMPLET& (p. 759 to p. 805). Class II. GymMnosPERmMs (p. 972 to p. 1008), including GNETACE% (p. 972), and ConIFER (p. 972). Sub-Kingdom II. Non-FLowerine Puants (p. 1008 to p. 1024). Ferns (p. 1008), Horseraizs (p. 1023), CLuBmosszs (p. 1024). How to use the ‘ Key.’—It may perhaps be as well to give an idea as to the way in which the ‘ Key’ is to be used for finding out the order, genus, and species to which any particular plant may belong. First of all, the plant should be carefully examined in regard to the roots, stem, leaves, flowers &c., noting size, shape, colour &c., and the ‘ Key’ should then be used in the following sequence, as shown in the summary CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 129 above. 1. Sub-Kingdom. 2. Class. 3. Sub-Class. 4. Division. 5. Series. 6. Cohort or subordinate group of each series. 7. Natural Order. 8. Genus. 9. Species. For the sake of example, let the reader assume that he has a Wall- flower but does not know that itis a Wallflower. He is then to proceed as follows to find out what it is from the ‘ Key.’ 1. He consults the two sub-divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom ((1) ‘ Flowering’ and (2) ‘ Non-Flowering’ Plants) and decides that it belongs to the flowering one, as it has flowers and is therefore what botanists call a ‘Phanerogam.’ 2. He then refers to the two ‘Classes’ of Flowering Plants (Angio- sperms and Gymnosperms), and having discovered that the flowers have (i) a distinct perianth, and (ji) ovules (young seeds) enclosed in carpels or pods, the plant is regarded as belonging to the group called ‘ Angio- sperms,’ or plants with seeds hidden or concealed within an ovary or fruit. 3. The two sub-classes of Angiosperms, 7.e. ‘Dicotyledons’ and ‘Monocotyledons,’ are next referred to, and as it has (i) net-veined leaves, (ii) bark or rind to the stem, and (iii) the parts of the flower arranged in fours or fives, he places it down as a ‘ Dicotyledon.’ 4, There are three divisions of Dicotyledons: namely, Polypetale (p. 122), Gamopetale (p. 125), and Incomplete or Monochlamydee (p. 126); and it is found that the Wallflower belongs to ‘ Polypetale,’ (i) because the flowers have ‘ both calyx and corolla,’ and (ii) because the petals are ‘free or distinct from each other.’ 5. Polypetale is divided into three groups or ‘series ’"—Thalami- florae (p. 122), Discifloree (p. 123), Calycifloree (p. 124), and it will be found that the Wallflower belongs to Thalamiflorz, because (i) the stamens are hypogynous and are inserted on a torus, thalamus, or receptacle, and not on the calyx tube as in Calyciflore, and (ii) the flowers are not in fives as in most of the Disciflorer. 6. When a series is divided into ‘ cohorts’ or sections the characters of each of these are examined in the same way. The Wallflower evidently does not belong to the cohort ‘ Ranales,’ (i) because the car- pels are not free, and (11) because the stamens are not numerous. But owing to the ovary, or seed pod, being 1-celled, and containing many ovules or seeds, it may be safely assumed to belong to the ‘ Parietales ’ group, which has such characters. 7. Under this group there are eight distinct natural orders men- tioned. The point now is to find out to which one of them the Wall- flower belongs. They are taken in rotation, and the characters of each will be found at the page given in brackets. Itis unnecessary to K 130 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS detail the reasoning process with each order, but the reader may take it for granted or reason it out as above that the Wallflower belongs to the natural order ‘ Cruciferee,’ because it agrees in the main with all the essential characters of the order as set forth at p. 201, and it cannot be made to fit into any other order. 8. Having found the order, the genus or surname of the plant has next to be found. The genera in each Order follow in natural (not alphabetical) order, and the reader will find that his Wallflower will not fit into the first genus, ‘ Matthioli’ or Stock (p. 201), nor into the second, ‘Parrya’ (p. 203), but it agrees in almost every detail with the characters of the third genus, ‘ Cheiranthus’ (p. 204). It is therefore placed under that genus and bears its name. 9. The last step in the identification of the plant is to discover what species it is. As there are generally only a few of these in each genus, they have been described in alphabetical order, for the sake of con- venience. The characters of each species have been given in sufficient detail to enable the reader to decide for himself which specific (or as it were christian) name he is to apply to the plant. He may regard species in the same light as brothers and sisters, differing from each other in details, but all having the same family or surname. 10. Varieties.—Besides the above nine steps to be followed in tracing or running down any plant, it may be added that there are often many ‘varieties ’ or forms of one species (see, for example, Clematis heracleefolia, p. 133). These varieties usually agree in almost every detail with the species, but often have flowers of a different shade of colour, or the leaves may be broader or narrower, hairy or smooth, and so on. Where such characters are constant, a varietal name, often describing the peculiarity, such as alba, rosea, purpurea, tomentosa, is sometimes given. 11. Florists’ Varieties —What are known as florists’ varieties, how- ever, are quite distinct from natural varieties. The custom now is to give popular fancy names to florists’ varieties, and they represent often only the slightest variations in colour shades, which may differ with good or bad cultivation, shadow or sunshine &c., and can in no way be kept constant if the plants are increased from seeds. It therefore matters little what name is given to florists’ varieties of such plants as Clematis, Paonia, Carnation, Pink, Polyanthus, Primrose, Violet, Pansy, Phlox, Pentstemon, Hollyhock, Rose, Dahlia, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, and many others, although for the sake of convenience one must use them when they represent really fine garden plants. THE HARDY FLOWER GARDEN DESCRIPTION, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF THE MOST DESIRABLE HERBACEOUS AND ALPINE FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS, BAMBOOS, FERNS, &c., SUITABLE FOR THE OPEN AIR IN THE BRITISH ISLANDS. Division I. POLYPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONS Series ].—THALAMIFLOR& (see p. 122), I. RANUNCULACEA:—Crowfoot or Buttercup Order Chiefly herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, with alternate or opposite (as in Clematis) and generally much-divided leaves, the stalks of which are dilated at the base, forming a sheath half clasping the stem. Flowers regular or irregular, with 3-6 hypogynous deciduous sepals, usually imbricate in bud. Petals 3-15, hypogynous, in one or more rows, sometimes assuming very remarkable forms, as in Larkspur (Delphiniwm), Columbine (Aquilegia), and Monkshood (Aconitum). Stamens usually numerous, hypogynous. Carpels numerous, one-celled, free, or occasionally united into a many-celled pistil. Fruit either consists of dry, indehiscent achenes, as in Buttercup; or berries, as in Baneberry ; or follicles, as in the Pony. The order contains about 1,000 known species, chiefly natives of damp, cold climates. CLEMATIS (TRaAvELLER’s Joy; THE Virein’s Bower).—A genus of shrubs which creep or climb by their leaf-stalks, and have opposite compound leaves, with- out stipules. Calyx consists of 4 petal-like sepals (garden forms have more) usually valvate.. There is no corolla, and the fruit is a head of sessile or stalked achenes, with long, generally feathered awns or styles, which give the plants a beautiful appearance even in winter. Culture and Propagation. — Clema- tises like a rich loamy soil with a certain amount of chalk or lime, and are benefited A few are found in the tropics, but at very high elevations. by a mulching of good rotten manure in autumn. The plants are very ornamental trained over walls, trellises, arbours, &c. They may be propagated by sowing the seeds in spring in light sandy soil, in gentle heat; or in cold frames as soon as ripe, afterwards pricking the seedlings out and giving more space for a sturdy devel- opment. Planting out may take place in spring or early in autumn. Clematises may also be increased by layers outside put in at any time, but care must be taken that they are not separated from the parent plants until well rooted. K2 132 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CLEMATIS. Cuttings may also be made from the young shoots, cut almost to every eye and placed in a hotbed in sandy soil early in spring. The garden hybrids are generally grafted in spring on the roots of such species as C. Vitalba, C. Viticella and C. Flammula, but unsatisfactory results often follow owing to an imperfect union between stock and scion, and also perhaps because growth in spring begins, or tries to begin, in one before the other. , If the scion, for example, would natur- ally start into growth on its own roots a week or so in advance of the stock, it is easy to see that trouble would arise from this cause; and the same with the stock starting into growth before the scion was naturally ready to absorb the sap. Increase by cuttings and layers is now more general in many places, but many kinds also admit of being divided at the root in spring or autumn in favour- able weather. C. ethusifolia. — A graceful climber, 4-6 ft. high, from N. China, with small twice or thrice pinnatisect leaves with narrow linear lobes. The bell-shaped or tubular flowers are half an inch or more long, yellowish-white, and are produced in great profusion in summer. The variety latisecta is distinguished from the type by its larger leaf segments. Culture dc. as above. C. alpina (Atragene alpina; A. aus- triaca; A. sibirica).—A pretty climber from the mountains of Europe. The biternate leaves have ovate-lance-shaped, pointed, serrate leaflets. Flowers in May vary from blue to white; petals 10-12, linear at the base, dilated at the apex. There is a white-flowered variety named alba. Culture éc. as above. C. apiifolia.—A vigorous species about 10 ft. high, native of China and Japan. It has ternate leaves, and dull white flowers, 3-4 in. across, in August and September. C. brevicaudata (or C. Pieroti), with pinnate or twice ternate leaves, and small white flowers, is very near this. Culture &c. as above. C. aromatica (C. caerulea odorata).—A slender sub-shrubby species, 4-6 ft. high, probably of hybrid origin between C. antegrifoa and C. recta. The leaves have five shortly stalked or almost sessile lobes more or less ovate-oblong in shape. The sweet-scented solitary flowers appear in summer and are about 2 in. across and of a deep violet-blue. Culture éc. as above. C. cerulea (C. azwrea grandifiora).— A Japanese species with spreading hairy ternate leaves, having ovate-acute entire leaflets. The large violet-coloured flowers with deep purple stamens are produced about June and July. Many garden forms have originated from this species. Culture dc. as above. C. calycina (C. balearica, A. Rich).— This species—a native of Corsica and Minorca—is hardy only in the south of England and the milder parts of the British Isles. The ternate leaves have 8-lobed stalked and deeply toothed leaflets, which in winter assume a fine bronzy tint. The greenish-yellow bell- shaped flowers are about 2 in. across, and heavily spotted with reddish-purple. They are produced from January to April in clusters of four or five and look very attractive at that season. Culture and Propagation. — This species should be sheltered by growing on a south wall. It likes a rich loamy soil, and is best left to ramble about at will, as it dislikes the use of the knife. The foliage is evergreen, and during the autumn and winter months may be used for room decoration with flowers, owing to its rather attractive tints. C. campanifiora. — A Portuguese climber, 12-18 ft. high, having biternately cut leaves, subdivided into about twenty- four entire or 3-lobed leaflets. The pale violet or white bell-shaped flowers are about one inch across, and are freely produced in June and July. Culture éc. as above. C. cirrhosa (C. balearica, Pers.).—An evergreen climber 8-10 ft. high. Natiye of Spain, Algiers, and the mountains of N. Africa. Leaves ovate, somewhat heart- shaped, toothed. Flowers dull white or cream-coloured, about 14 in. across, downy outside, smooth within, produced in droop- ing clusters about March and April. Culture dc. as above. C. coccinea (C. terensis).—A beautiful species from Texas, with stems 6-10 ft. high, which in this country usually die down in winter. The flowers vary in colour from crimson to scarlet, and are swollen at the base, the tips of the 4 leathery sepals being recurved. They CLEMATIS BUTTERCUP ORDER 133 CLEMATIS appear during the early summer months and at once attract attention by their vivid colour. This species has been used in the production of various hybrids. The variety major has larger flowers than the type. Of late years several beautiful hybrids between this and some of the leading hardy kinds have been raised by Messrs. Jack- man, of Woking, the most notable being ‘Countess of Onslow,’ ‘ Duchess of York,’ and‘ Duchess of Albany.’ All were figured in the ‘Garden’ for October 16, 1897. Culture éc. as above. C. connata.—A beautiful Himalayan climber with woody stems and coarsely toothed leaflets 3-5 in. long, and some- times more or less 3-lobed. Flowers in autumn, bell-shaped, clear yellow, re- curved at the tips. Culture dc. as above. C. crispa (C. cylindrica ; C. Simst).— A hardy evergreen from N. America, 3-4 ft. high, with purplish stems. Leaves entire, 3-lobed or ternate, acute. The nodding pale lilac, white, or purple fragrant flowers appear from June until the autumn. There seems to be great variation in the leaves and colour of the flowers of this species. Culture dc. as above. C. Douglasi. — Although discovered many years ago on the Rocky Mountains, this species is not yet well known in British gardens. The flowers are about an inch long, bell-shaped, and recurved at the tips, deep purple within, paler outside. They are produced in summer. Culture dc. as above. C. Flammula.—This native of Southern Europe is one of the oldest Clematises in cultivation, and at the same time one of the most vigorous and free-flowering of climbers. Leaves pinnate, smooth, with roundish, oval, oblong, or linear entire or 38-lobed deep green leaflets, which remain on the plants well into the winter. The creamy white, fragrant flowers are less than an inch across, and appear in late summer and autumn, giving place to white and feathery fruits. Culture de. as above. C. florida. —A Japanese species 9-12 ft. high, with ternately decompound leaves, and ovate-acute entire leaflets. When fully open the creamy white solitary flowers, consisting of 6 or 8 oval lanceolate sepals, are from 2-4 in. across with purple ‘Stamens in the centre. They appear from April to September. : There is a well-known and beautiful form with double flowers. Culture dc. as above. C. Fortunei.—A splendid species, also from Japan, with leathery trifoliate leaves, and roundish heart-shaped leaflets. The white fragrant flowers, about an inch across, consist of numerous oblong-lanceo- late stalked segments, and appear during the summer months. Culture éc. as above. C. Fremonti.—A dwarf species 1-2 ft. high, from North America. The rarely branched stems bear numerous unstalked leathery leaves, 3-4 in. long, and drooping purple flowers recurved at the tips pro- duced during the summer. The tails or awns of the fruits are downy when young. Culture dc. as above. C. fusca.— A somewhat shrubby species from N. Asia with prostrate rather than climbing stems, 6-8 ft. long. The reddish-brown bell-shaped flowers appear in summer and are covered with a short thick brownish wool. The hairy fruits form a globular head about one inch in diameter. Culture dc. as above. C. Hendersoni (C. ertostemon).—This is supposed to be a hybrid between C. Viticella and C. integrifolia, and origi- nated at Mr. Henderson’s nursery, St. John’s Wood, in 1885. It reaches a height of 8-10 ft. and produces from June to September deep blue, faintly perfumed flowers over two inches across. Culture de. as above. C. heracleefolia (C. tubulosa).— Hya- cinth Clematis.—A dwarf, sturdy species from N. China, with more or less trailing stems, large lobed leaves, and short stalked corymbs of purplish-blue tubular flowers, like those of a Hyacinth, produced during the summer and early autumn months. The variety davidiana is often re- garded as a species. It has trailing stems 4-5 ft. long, and large ovate leaflets often about 6 in. long. Flowers tubular, bright lavender-blue, about 2 in. long, the tips of the petals reflexed. The variety Hookeri has large pin- nately 3-foliolate leaves with elliptie acute toothed leaflets, and tubular lilac flowers. Culture de. as above. The plants are readily increased by division of the roots in spring. 134 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CLEMATIS C. indivisa. — A charming New Zea- land species growing several feet high, having dull green or purplish stems and ternate leaves, the latter being composed of 8 oblong ovate leathery deep green smooth leaflets 24-3 in. long. The pure white starry flowers, about 8 in. across, and consisting of 6-8 oblong sepals surrounding a cluster of greenish or yellowish-white stamens, appear out of doors in April and May, but in February if the plants are grown in greenhouses. They are borne in loose panicles, some- times as many as 20 in one truss. The variety lobata has flowers exactly like those of the type, but it is readily recog- nised by means of its more or less lobed or sinuated leaflets. Culture and Propagation.—Unfortu- nately this fine species is hardy only in the mildest parts of the south and west, but in other parts of the kingdom it is well worth growing in a cool greenhouse for the sake of its attractive flowers. It likes a rich sandy loam and warm situa- tions out of doors, and is usually in- creased by grafting upon stocks of the Common Traveller’s Joy (C. Vitalba). Cuttings of the half-ripened shoots, how- ever, will root readily in early summer if placed in sandy soil in gentle bottom heat in a hotbed or greenhouse. Amateurs will probably find it more convenient to obtain established plants from a nursery- man. Pruning, if necessary, is best done immediately flowering has ceased, and not while new growths are being made. C. integrifolia.—A European species with erect stems 2-3 ft. high. Leaves unstalked, 2-4 in. long, entire, ovate- lanceolate. The drooping blue flowers are borne singly from June to August near the top of the stems in the axils of the united and cup-shaped leaves. The variety Durandi has 5-nerved leaves 4-5 in. long, with a purplish downy margin, and purple beneath. Flowers deep violet-purple, each sepal with a pro- minent deeper coloured keel behind. Stamens in a thick cylindric silky cushion, white and yellow. Culture dc. as above. C. lanuginosa.—A fine Chinese species 5-6 ft. high. Leaves usually simple, broadly heart-shaped, acute, smooth above, with a greyish wool on the under surface. The solitary flowers appear early in summer, lasting till autumn, and are 6-7 in. across, with 6 or 8 spreading and overlapping sepals of a pale lavender, pure white or deep rich purple colour. The variety pallida has flowers 9-10 in. across. C. lanuginosa is the parent of many of the most beautiful garden hybrids described below. Culture &c. as above. C. ligusticifolia.—A species with stems about 30 ft. long, from North America. Leaves composed of 5 leaflets, each 13-3 in. long, 3-lobed or very coarsely toothed. Flowers white, about 3 in. across, are produced in summer, the pistillate or female flowers being on one plant, and the staminate or male on another. Culture éc. as above. C. montana (C. anemoneflora).—This beautiful and well-known species is a native of the Himalayas. Its stems will cover walls to a height of 20 ft. or more, and are furnished with smooth ternate leaves, with oblong toothed and pointed feaflets. During April and May the large white flowers are produced in great profusion, either singly or several to- gether, and almost cover the foliage with a sheet of white. Culture &éc. as above. This species will flourish under almost any circum- stances and in any soil. C. ochroleuca.— A native of the Eastern United States, with stems 1-2 ft. high, and entire ovate leaves, the younger ones being silky beneath. Flowers in summer, solitary, cream- coloured within, yellowish outside. Culture &c. as above. C. orientalis.—A native of India and W. Asia, requiring some protection in this country during severe winters, especially in the less favoured parts. The stems climb from 12 to 80 ft. Leaves pinnate with smooth wedge-shaped leaflets having pointed lobes. Flowers in August and September, greenish-yellow, sweet- scented, tinged with russet, and borne in great abundance. The fruits have elegant silky tails. This species is also known as C. graveolens, a name having reference to the rather heavy odour of the blossoms. Culture dc. as above. creased by cuttings or seeds. _ C. Pallasi.— A pretty plant 3-4 ft. high with trailing stems, pinnate leaves Easily in- CLEMATIS BUTTERCUP ORDER CLEMATIS 135 and shortly stalked, ovate, lance-shaped, acute, leathery leaflets 1-14 in. long, with sunken veins. Flowers in June, white with greenish-yellow stamens, and oblong spoon-shaped sepals. Culture éc. as above. C. paniculata. —A Japanese species the stems of which attain a length of about 30 ft. Leaves pinnate with entire oval heart-shaped acute leaflets. From July to September the dullish white flowers, which resemble those of C. Flammula, and have a Hawthorn- or Daphne-like fragrance, are produced in many-flowered panicles. Culture and Propagation.—This plant does best trained against a sunny wall, or for covering old tree stumps, pillars &c., in warm southern parts. The stems may be cut down to within a foot or so of the ground in winter to keep the plant within bounds. C. patens.—Also a native of Japan, 6-10 ft. high with leaves composed of 8-5 segments smaller and narrower than in C. lanuginosa to which it is akin. Flowers in May and June, with 6-8 delicate mauve sepals. Many garden varieties, some of which are mentioned below, have larger flowers with white, deep blue, or violet sepals. Culture &c. as above. C. Pitcheri (C. coloradensis).—A pretty and distinct plant 9-12 ft. high, native of Colorado and Western America. Its leaves consist of 3-9 ovate or heart- shaped, entire or 38-lobed leaflets, the uppermost leaves being often simple. The dull purplish, bell-shaped flowers, each about lin. long and 2in. wide at the swollen base, appear during July and August, and have narrow recurved sepals, the tips of which are often yellow. The reddish-purple fruits have thread-like tails slightly silky. The variety lasiostylis is distinguished by the recurved sepals being tipped with deep purple-blue and by the deeper coloured and more hairy fruits; and Sargenti is a small-flowered form of the type. Culture &c. as above. C. recta (C. erecta).—A species with erect herbaceous stems 2-3 ft. high, native of Southern and Eastern Europe. The pinnate leaves have entire, ovate, pointed, stalked leaflets. Flowers from June to August, numerous, in dense corymbs, white and sweetly scented, each about an inch across. The variety flore pleno is not often seen. It differs in having double flowers in rather denser clusters. Culture &c. as above. This species may be increased by dividing the roots. C. reticulata. — A climber from the S. United States with leathery pro- minently net-veined leaves; the upper ones simple elliptic; lower ones pinnate with 7-9 variable leaflets. Flowers in September, dull green outside, purple within, solitary, drooping on long stalks. Sepals united, recurved at the tips, and thick and fleshy in texture. Culture dc. as above. C. rhodochlora.— A garden variety with simple broadly oval, or somewhat heart-shaped shortly stalked leaves. Flowers about 2 in. across, with 2 small wine-red sepals and 2 large green ones. Culture &c. as above. C. Robertsiana.— This species has only recently been discovered 10,000- 11,000 ft. up on the mountains of Afghanistan, and is probably not yet in cultivation. Flowers solitary, 8-5 in. across, pale lemon-yellow, closely re- sembling C. alpina in shape. Culture éc. as above C. Stanleyi.— A remarkable species 2-3 it. high, native of S. Africa. It is shrubby rather than climbing in habit, and the stems die down to the ground every winter, new ones sprouting up in spring. The leaves are twice pinnate with variously cut lobes, and are mostly covered with soft silky white hairs, although a few leaves are greenish but hairy. The flowers are produced during the summer months in the axils of the leaves, and vary from 2 to 3 in. across, the sepals being at first cup-shaped, but after- wards spreading out flat. They vary in colour from deep violet or puce to rose- purple, and almost white, and are in strong contrast to the large bunch of bright yellow stamens in the centre. When in fruit the plants present an elegant appearance, owing to the long silvery-white tails resembling miniature ostrich feathers. Culture and Propagation.—In mild winters this species is fairly hardy as far north as the Thames Valley, but it is 136 safer to protect the roots with a layer of dry leaves, litter, bracken &c. in the event of severe weather. Seeds are freely produced and may be sown in cold frames aS soon as ripe, although they may not sprout freely until the following spring. The seedlings must be pricked out and grown on until the following spring, so that strong sturdy plants will be ready for planting out. Established clumps may be carefully divided at the roots. C. Stans.—A striking Japanese species with herbaceous stems 4-5 ft. high and dark green downy leaves, with roundish toothed leaflets, more or less 3-lobed. Flowers in September and October in terminal panicles or clusters in the axils of the leaves, each about 3 in. long, pale blue, more or less bell-shaped, and Hyacinth-like. Culture dc, as above. C. verticillaris (Atragene americana). A native of N. America with stems 10 ft. or more in length. Leaves whorled, in fours, with stalked heart- or lance-shaped pointed leaflets, somewhat’ lobed or serrated. Flowers in May, 2-3 in. across, purplish-blue, with acute sepals. Culture dc. as above. C. Viorna (Leather Flower).—This N. American species attains a height of 10 to 12 ft. and is not a particularly vigorous grower. The smooth pinnate leaves have entire 3-lobed or ternate leaflets, ovate- acute in shape. About June the droop- ing balloon-shaped flowers appear, having thick leathery connivent sepals of a dull reddish-purple, and reflexed at the tips. Closely related to this species is C. Addisoni, a native of the Alleghany moun- tains. It has dark violet-purple sepals, with reflexed yellow tips. Culture dc. as above. C. virginiana.—This is the common Virgin’s Bower of the United States and Canada. Its stems reach a length of 15 to 20 ft., and bear ternate leaves with heart-shaped, acute, largely toothed or lobed leaflets. The small white fragrant flowers appear from June to August, and like C. ligusticifolia the male and female flowers are borne on separate plants. Culture dc. as above, C. Vitalba (White Vine; Old Man's Beard; Traveller's Joy, dc.).—This is the only Clematis really indigenous to PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CLEMATIS England, but does not appear to be a native of Scotland or Ireland. It climbs luxuriantly in hedges and thickets, and is most common on chalky soils. The pinnate leaves have ovate, heart-shaped, entire toothed or lobed leaflets. The greenish-white scented flowers are about an inch across, and are produced from July to September. The fruits have a white feathery tail an inch or so in length, and these give the plants a very attractive appearance late in the year, and during the winter months. In the Duke of Rutland’s garden at Belvoir Castle there is a specimen 20 ft. high and 30 ft. in diameter. Culture &c. as above. C. Viticella (Vine Bower).—An ele- gant twiner 8-12 ft. high, and native of S. Europe and Western Asia. The leaves are entire or ternately decompound with entire lobes. The drooping blue, purple, or rose-coloured flowers, each about 2 in. across, are borne in summer. There are now many varieties of this species with many shades of colour, and most of them are superior to the type. The form called magnifica hag purple flowers about 44 in. across. Culture éc. as above. HYBRID CLEMATIS.—By means of fertilising the carpels of one species with the pollen from another, gardeners have succeeded in raising a vast number of hybrids or cross-breeds, many of them being of the greatest value for the flower garden, and superior to any of the species found in a state of nature. (See Hybridi- sation, p. 37.) It is, however, not only impossible but quite unnecessary to give a long list of the various hybrids here, as new names are continually being added, often without any justification, whenever the slightest change of colour is noticed. Special mention must be made of the beautiful Clematis Jackmanni and its many forms. This fine hybrid was raised by Mr. George Jackman of Woking, and first flowered about 1862. It is one of the earliest and best, and its large deep violet-purple flowers with 4-6 sepals are produced during the summer and autumn. The two gee concerned in its produc- tion were C, Viticella and C. lanuginosa, natives of widely different parts of the Old World. The species chiefly con- erned with the other garden varieties are CLEMATIS given below in sections, and it will be seen that only a few have yet been utilised by the hybridiser out of the many kinds described above. The following is a list of the best kinds for the flower garden. They are arranged in the botanical sections to which they belong, and the usual period of flowering is given, so that a succession of kinds may be arranged. The culture and propagation are as described above under the genus, p. 181. ‘ FLORIDA’ SECTION The following produce large handsome double flowers in summer from the old or ripened wood. Care must therefore be taken, when pruning or thinning, not to cut the ripe wood away. Belle of Woking, beautiful silver-grey, June, Countess of Lovelace, bright bluish- lilac, very fine, June. Duchess of Edinburgh, pure white, deliciously scented, June and July. John Gould Vetich, lavender. Lucie Lemoine, white, with the centre in the form of a rosette. ‘ JACKMANNI’ SECTION These are all summer and autumn bloomers, flowers mostly large, produced in masses on the current year’s shoots. ‘i Alexandra, pale reddish-violet, very ee. Gypsy Queen, dark velvety purple, attractive. Jackmamnt, intense violet-purple, a universal favourite. Jackmanni alba, a tinted white var., very beautiful. Jackmanni ‘ Snow White,’ pure white, free. Jackmanni superba, very dark violet- purple, larger and of deeper colour than Jackmanm, very profuse bloomer. Madame Ed. André, afree and distinct variety with velvety-red flowers. Madame Grange, flowers crimson- violet, with red bar in centre, a rich colour, sepals prettily crimped at the edges. Prince of Wales, deep purple. Star of India, reddish-violet, with purple tinge and red bars. ‘ LANUGINOSA’ SECTION These flower summer and autumn, producing their large flowers in succession on short lateral shoots. BUTTERCUP ORDER THALICTRUM 137 Alba Magna, a very large white-flow- ered variety of free growth. Beauty of Worcester, double and single flowers of a lovely bluish-violet, with white stamens. Blue Gem, pale blue. Excelsior, rich deep mauve. Fairy Queen, pale flesh with pink bar. Henryi, large creamy white, finely formed, one of the best white autumn- flowering Clematises. La France, deep violet-purple, dark anthers, large and vigorous. Lady Caroline Neville, delicate bluish- white with mauve bars, large and finely formed. Marie Lefebvre, a fine mauve variety with single flowers. Mme. Van Howtte, white suffused mauve, free-flowering and a strong grower. Mrs. Hope, silvery-mauve. Nivea, large white, fine. Otto Frebel, greyish-white. Princess of Wales, deep bluish-mauve, with satiny surface, very fine. Purpwrea elegans, deep purple. ‘PATENS’’ SECTION These produce their large flowers in spring and summer, on the old ripened wood, a fact to be borne in mind when thinning out. : Lady Londesborough, bluish-lilac, with pale purple bar. Miss Bateman, white, chocolate-red anthers. Mrs. George Jackman, satiny white with a creamy bar, flowers large and produced in profusion spring and autumn. ‘ VITICELLA ’ SECTION These varieties flower during the summer and autumn in profuse masses. hybrida Sieboldii, lavender. Lady Bovill, flowers greyish-blue, cup- shaped, fine. rubra grandiflora, bright claret-red, profuse bloomer. THALICTRUM (Mezapow Rus).— A genus embracing about fifty species of hardy herbs with perennial stems, nearly all natives of the North temperate and frigid regions. The leaves are ternately decompound, and usually elegant in ap- pearance; when present on the stems, alternate. Flowers green, yellow, purple, or white, often polygamous, borne in panicles or racemes, usually small, with the stamens conspicuously protruding. 138 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS THALICTRUM Involucre and petals absent. Sepals 4-5, petal-like. Carpels numerous. Fruit an achene, often stalked and compressed. Culture and Propagation. — The Meadow Rues will grow well in any ordinary garden soil, and are easily multi- plied by dividing the rootstocks in autumn or spring. When grown in masses or clumps in the border or rock garden, they lend a light and feathery grace to the surround- ings. For cutting purposes the foliage and flowers are very useful when mixed with larger and more showy blossoms. Seeds may be sown out of doors or in cold frames as soon as ripe, or in spring, afterwards pricking the seedlings out in mild, showery weather. T. alpinum.—This is a native of the British Isles, although somewhat rare in Ireland in a wild state. It will thrive in marshy or boggy places and requires peaty soil. The foliage is glaucous beneath, and the purplish flowers with drooping stamens appear in July and August. Culture dc. as above. T. anemonoides (Rue Anemone).— This N. American species has a stem about 6 in. high arising from a cluster of thickened tuberous roots. The white flowers appear in April and May, and have yellowish stamens. The leaves are 2-8-ternate with roundish 3-lobed leaflets on long stalks. A useful rock plant. There is a double variety with smaller flowers. Culture dc. as above. This species is often called Anemone thalictroides. It is as a rule best raised from seeds, owing to the fact that if established clumps are divided they often take a long time to recover themselves. A partially shaded situation in the rockery, such as under a jutting boulder of rock, and a deep moist peaty soil suit it admirably. somewhat T. angustifolium. — A pretty species 3-4 ft. high, native of W. Europe, having masses of light and graceful, deeply cut foliage. The clear greenish-yellow flowers are produced in feathery clusters in June and July, and give the whole plant a fine effect. Culture éc. as above. T. aquilegifolium (Feathered or Tufted Colwmbine).— A native of Europe and Asia with purple mealy pipe-like stems 1-3 ft. high. Leaves like those of the Columbine, thrice pinnate with rounded, smooth deeply toothed leaflets. Flowers in early summer. Sepals white, fleeting ; stamens usually purple, sometimes white. The variety atropurpwreum has dark purple stamens and stems; the variety formosum dark purple stamens, dilated at the apex; and the variety rosewm has rose-coloured sepals. Culture dc. as above. T. Chelidoni.—A pretty little species about 6 in. high, native of Thibet. The twice ternate leaves are divided into downy and roundish 3-lobed and toothed leaflets each 4-3 in. across, and the lilac-purple flowers with a bunch of yellow stamens in the centre droop from thread-like stalks in August, like those of T. Delavayi. Culture dc. as above. This is a pretty rock plant, but to be effective should be grown in bold masses. T. Delavayi.— A charming Chinese species 2-4 ft. high, with pinnate leaves ternately divided into roundish and some- what 3-lobed and toothed leaflets. The flowers appear during the summer months gracefully drooping or nodding from the ends of slender thread-like stalks. They are lilac-purple in colour with a large bunch of yellowish stamens in the middle, and in conjunction with the elegantly cut foliage look extremely handsome. Culture dc. as above. T. flavum (False Rhubarb; Fen Rue).—A native of the British Islands, growing in wet places, and worthy of a place among marsh or bog plants in the garden. The stout stems arise 2-4 ft. high from a yellow creeping rootstock, and bear ternately 2-3-pinnate leaves, with 3-lobed leaflets 1-1}in. long. Flowers pale yellow, anthers bright yellow, produced in July and August. Culture dc. as above. T. foetidum (Fetid Meadow Rue).— A native of Europe and Asia, about 1 ft. high. Leaves decompound clothed with a clammy pubescence, 2-3-pinnate, with roundish heart-shaped leaflets, 3-5-lobed at apex. Flowers small, nodding, pro- duced in early summer in an erect, spreading panicle. Sepals reddish out- side ; anthers yellow. Culture éc. as above. T. glaucum.—A South European species, with round, erect, striped and mealy stems 2-5 ft. high. The leaflets are THALICTRUM ovate, rounded, 8-lobed, the lobes deeply toothed. In June and July the flowers, having four or five yellow sepals, are borne on erect, compound panicles. Culture dc. as above. T. minus (Maidenhair Meadow Rue). A native of the British Isles, growing in dry places. The stems vary from 6 in. to 4 ft. high, stout, rigid, often zig- zag, striped more or less throughout, and usually furrowed when dry. Leaves Fern-like, cut into numerous small smooth roundish glaucous leaflets, toothed at the apex. Flowers in summer, small, and drooping in a loose panicle. Sepals yellowish-green or pale purple with white edges. Owing to the beautiful frond-like foliage of this plant, it is suitable for rockeries, borders, and even as a pot- plant. For mixing with cut flowers in vases, the foliage is very ornamental, and lasts much longer than Maidenhair Fern. Culture dc. as above. T. petaloideum.—A Dahurian species with round almost naked stems about 18 in. high. Leaves ternately cut, with smooth, ovate, obtuse, entire or 3-lobed leaflets. Flowers produced in corymbs in June and July, with white, nearly round sepals, flesh-coloured filaments, and yellow anthers. Culture &c. as above. T. rhynchocarpum.—A very remark- able and handsome species, about 3 ft. high, native of the Transvaal. The foliage resembles some of the finer forms of the Maidenhair Fern. The flowers are borne in large panicles during the summer months, and are succeeded by the fruits, which are borne on long stalks and present a novel and attractive appearance. Culture and Propagation. — This species likes a warm, moist, and shaded spot in the rockery, and will not flourish in strong sunshine. The soil must be well drained, and a little protection in winter may be necessary. Increased by seeds and division. T. tuberosum. — A Spanish species about 12 in. high, with 2-3-pinnate crowded leaves, and smooth roundish 3- lobed leaflets. Flowers borne in loose corymbs in June, and having 5 white oval, blunt sepals. Culture &éc. as above. BUTTERCUP ORDER ANEMONE 139 ANEMONE (Winp Fiowrr).—The generic name is derived from anemos, the wind, in allusion to the light and feathery seeds of some species which are easily blown about by the wind. A genus of about 70 species of orna- mental hardy perennials, with radical leaves much cut or lobed. There is an involucre of 8 cut leaflets some distance from the flower. Sepals 4-20 petal-like. Petals absent, or consist of the outer stamens changed into stalked glands. The sub-genus Hepatica is now in- cluded in Anemone, and may be distin- guished by having an involucre of 3 entire leaflets just under the flowers, and a calyx of 6-9 petal-like sepals. Culture and Propagation. — Anemo- nes are best grown in a rich sandy loam, but most of them will thrive in ordinary garden soil. Where special treatment is required for any particular species, direc- tions will be found in the proper place. There are various methods of increas- ing Windflowers, and although division of the rootstock and cuttings of the roots are employed in autumn or early spring, most of the species may be obtained from seeds. These should be sown as soon as ripe in pans or boxes, and may be pro- tected ina cold frame. The other direc- tions given under Seed Sowing at p. 42 will be found useful. A. alba.—A Siberian species about 6 in. high, with ternate or quinate leaves, purple on the underside; segments deeply toothed at top. Flowers in June, white, rising singly above the leaves, and having 5 obovate, concave sepals. May be used in borders or rockeries, in deep fibrous loam. Increase by seed or division. Culture éc. as above. A. albana.—A handsome and distinct dwarf species 4-6 in. high, found in a wild state from the borders of Armenia across Central Asia to Siberia, growing on the mountain sides. The nodding cup-shaped flowers are produced very freely in April and May, and although only of a dullish yellow, they look very handsome over the green carpet of foliage. After the flowers have withered, the seed-heads present a very ornamental appearance. Forms with purple or violet flowers have been recorded,. but do not appear to be in cultivation. Culture and Propagation. — This species grows well either in the ordinary flower border, or in the rockery in ordinary 140 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS ANEMONE garden soil. It prefers an exposed sunny spot, ang will live for several years with- out being disturbed. Seeds ripen freely and may be sown as soon as ripe in cold frames. The young plants are pricked out and grown on but will not begin to flower until the third year, according to Mr. Wolley Dod. A. alpina (Pulsatilla alpina).—A very handsome alpine species from the moun- tains of Central Europe, growing from 6 to 24 in. high. Leaves biternate with pinnate and deeply serrated lobes, some- times smooth, and sometimes covered with long crowded silky hairs. Flowers produced in May, with 6 spreading ellip- tic sepals varying in colour from white to cream, white and purple, and yellow. The variety sulphwrea has soft yellow cup-shaped flowers, 2-3 in. across when fully expanded, the sepals having a silky down outside. The white-flowered form of A. alpina is a vigorous plant and delights in rich loam, peat and leaf soil, with the addition of a little lime rubble. Culture dc. as above. The best way to increase this variety is to sow seed as soon as ripe in a rather moist peaty bed and allow the seedlings to remain for one or two seasons, and then transplant in the spring to a fully exposed, well-drained and moist position. A little lime rubble or old mortar mixed with the soil is usually beneficial to A. alpina and its varieties. A. angulosa (Hepatica angulosa).— A beautiful species from Transylvania, 6-12 in. high, with leaves 3 in. broad, palmately 5-lobed, the lobes coarsely toothed. Flowers in February and March, 2 in. across, of a fine sky-blue, with numerous black anthers surrounding a tuft of yellow styles. Suitable for par- tially shaded places in the rock garden, margins of borders, shrubberies &c., in deep rich soil. There is a fine variety called atrocerulea with large deep purple- blue flowers. Culture dc. as above. seed or division. A. apennina (Apennine Windflower). A tuberous blackish-rooted species from 8. Europe, growing about 6 in. high. The leaves of the stem are in whorls of 3, ternate with long blunt lobes, all some- what pubescent ; the root-leaves biternate. Flowers about 2 in. across, bright sky- blue, appear on single stalks in March. Increase by There is a white (alba) and also a rose- coloured (rosea) variety. Culture dc. as above. This species prefers sandy loam or peat, and_ thrives under the partial shade of trees. It makes a beautiful carpet of blue, and should be grown for this purpose in large patches. Increased by division. A. baldensis.—A rare tuberous-rooted species about 6 in. high, native of Switzer- land. The leaves are twice ternate with many-parted linear-lobed segments. The solitary flowers appear in May, and have 8-10 oblong oval sepals, white, hairy out- side, and reddish tinged with blue. Culture dc. as above. Shady parts of the rockery suit it best. A. blanda (Blue Winter Windflower). A lovely tuberous-rooted species from Greece. It grows about 6 in. high and closely resembles A. apennina. Leaves 3-partite or cut, with stalked or sessile 8-partite, cut segments; those of the in- volucre deeply cut and stalked. The deep blue flowers, each nearly 2 in. across, appear in winter or early spring, having 9-14 oblong linear sepals. The variety scythinica from N. Kurdistan has pale blue and white flowers. Culture &c. as above. This species likes a rich, light, and well-drained loam and a warm sheltered place in rockeries sunny banks, or warm grassy slopes. Increase by seed or division. A. coronaria (Poppy Anemone).—This is an important species, inasmuch as it has given rise to the many single and double florists’ varieties which appear in such abundance in the early spring and summer, are so varied in colouring, and so popular in price. The typical species grows about 6-9 in. high, and has ternate deeply cut leaves with numerous narrow pointed segments. The flowers have 6 oval rounded sepals varying from red to white, purple and pink. It is a native of 8. Europe. Culture and Propagation. — The Poppy Anemone thrives in warm deep loam. The roots of the more select varieties may be taken up when the leaves wither, and planted at intervals in September and October or from January to March to secure a succession of flowers. If allowed to remain in the ground, how- ever, it often happens that the warm rains of late summer will cause the plants to ANEMONE BUTTERCUP ORDER ANEMONE 141 grow and flower again later in the year if the weather is mild. Seeds, which should be selected from the finest varieties, may be sown as soon as ripe in a spot where it will be possible to afford shade and moisture—the essen- tials to @ rapid germination. The seed- lings may be allowed to flower where sown or transplanted in September or October. Among the many forms of the Poppy Anemone the following deserve special mention : 1. The Chrysanthemum - flowered Anemone.—This is a fine race of double- flowered Anemones, having the appearance of some Chrysanthemums or China Asters. There are many varieties, chiefly distin- guished by colour, which varies a good deal, the principal tint being lilac-rose, deep violet, crimson, carmine, rose, purple, &c. 2. Caen Anemones.—These are well known by their vigorous growth, the great size of their flower stalks, and their large and brilliantly coloured flowers. Both single and double varieties are represented. The ‘Cardinal’s Hat’ and ‘Double Nice’ Anemones are particularly fine forms, the first being deep scarlet with slight variations, the second of a beautiful rosy flesh colour. A. decapetala.—A distinct N. Ameri- can Windflower 12-18 in, high, with deep green 3-parted leaves, the lobes of which are cut into numerous linear segments. The creamy white or pale primrose flowers about 1-2 in. across appear in May and June. Culture dc. as above. This pretty species, although perhaps not so orna- mental as many of the other Windflowers, is valuable for planting in shady places. A, Fannini. — A very beautiful and remarkable Windflower, native of Natal, where it grows at an elevation of 8,000- 4,000 ft. Ina wild state it attains a height of about 5 feet, and the roundish, angled, Rhubarb-like leaves a width of 2 ft. or more. In a cultivated state, however, it grows only about 2 ft. high, and the leaves rarely measure more than a foot in dia- meter. The beautiful sweet-scented star- like flowers are quite as large as in wild specimens. They appear in April and May and are 2-3 in. across, the oblong acute segments being at first greenish. yellow, but afterwards a pure snowy white within, surrounding a mass of yellow stamens in the centre. Culture and Propagation. — This species seems to be perfectly hardy at least as far north as Kew, when grown in rich and well-manured loamy soil in warm positions facing south. It is best left undisturbed for several years so that it may become thoroughly established. The leaves die down every winter and during that period the plants may be mulched with a layer of rich manure, and in the event of severe weather some litter or dry leaves may be placed over the crowns. The plants may be increased by carefully dividing the roots in spring or by sowing imported seeds under glass, afterwards pricking the young plants out. A. fulgens (Scarlet Windflower).— This is a native of 8. Europe, growing about 1 ft. high, with bright green 3-lobed cut and toothed leaves. The large soli- tary flowers which appear in May are 2 in. or more across, and of a brilliant scarlet-crimson colour, sometimes with a paler zone at the base around the jet black bunch of stamens in the centre. Culture and Propagation. — This plant does best in rich loamy soil with a dash of lime in it, and is suitable for the partially shaded spots in the rockery or flower border. Stagnant moisture at the roots is fatal to it, hence the necessity for good drainage. The roots may be planted almost at any time, but during early autumn is the best time. Increased by dividing the roots, or from seeds. A. fulgens major is a fine form, and A. Pavonina (the Peacock Anemone) is a double form. A. Halleri (Pulsatilla Hallert). — A Swiss plant about 6 in. high, with pinnate hairy leaves, cut into lance-shaped pointed divisions. Flowers in May, the 6 oval lance-shaped sepals being of a purple or deep lilac colour, and in strong con- trast to the conspicuous bunch of yellow stamens in the centre.