ee 5 peer A ara) LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE ITHACA, N.Y. Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library SF 951.U58 1907 Speci il il ll DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTEDINU.S.A Digitized by Microsoft® This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation with Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access fo it (or modified or partial versions of if) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OF BUREAU. SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BY Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD, HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AND ADAMS. « REVISED EDITION. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1907. 2 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS. The examination of a sick horse, Page. By Leonarp Pearson, B.8., V. M. D_. oo. eee ee eee ee eee eee eee 9 Methods of administering medicines, By Cm: By MicHENER, V..8....2sassescc05 ce ceacaad tuna gecccea een 28 Diseases of the digestive organs, By @as Bi MIGHENER, Vi8 ce oocece es oaecciueee cngeeseeesek saeees 34 Diseases of the urinary organs, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S_22 2000 e. eeeeeeeeee 75 Diseases of the respiratory organs, By ‘Ws He FARBAUGE,. Vi. (8.24 cnnteeendasaeoesteieesiccdacciGec oes 104 Diseases of the generative organs, By Jams. Tay, We Re Gz Wie Si ceidesisis aie Get seeoue J ieotdeeetalses zee 142 Diseases of the nervous system, , : By M. R. Trumpower, V. 8..-----..------------ eee eee eee e eee ee eens 190 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics, By M. R. Trumpower, V. 8..-....--.---------- tide se Re seeenee otek 225 Diseases of the eye, By Jame. DAW; He oR. Os Vie Sastcsc canes cele ke eel ean gbeielss easy 251 Lameness, By A, Lisutarp; My Di, V5 Ses ccasssswesciancineec cas cauadsewce seeds 274 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, By A.A. .HorcompBn; DD. Vic8 2c.ce.cckelnced acechendedienceaneeiennte us 369 Diseases of the skin, By Jamss Law, F. R. 0. V. 8.....------------- peace eh tetiib edits 431 Wounds and their treatment, By Gu: B. Micrennn, Ve 8) 2 c22se5..ceeecseeceeeewes eects eee sce 459 General diseases, By Rusu Saippen HuipeKxopmr, M. D., Vet....-...------------------ 482 Surra, By Ca. W.anpeEci, Strives, Phis Discs c seals ome ciseeecioeceoites dee ees Seis 548 Osteoporosis or bighead, By Joan R. Monter, V. Mi Du. .-.. coe cee conse eas seen eee eee 554 Shoeing, By Joun W. Apams, A. B., V. M. D....-.-----2-- +2 - eee ee eee 559 ING OX: saiciw cerca eres eSaidebler coupe cccuiete uietce See dencicacesceeete ce asessme lS 583 5 Digitized by Microsoft® Fia. 13. 14. 16. 16. 17. 18. ILLUSTRATIONS. TEXT FIGURES. . Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the ‘‘regular’”’ form-....-.---- . Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position......-..- . Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position -.---- . Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. . Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a siumpy tote foOtes. <-s qsansstemens +swannete tenets samemsceke ysisen . Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward asa result of too LO P A. LOG Se. racers disis ieetcysieS sia a spemidccceeie sidiemueis seed 6 aioe eeniniece . Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe. -.-- . Side view of hoof and fullered shoe.............-------.-----+------- . An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe..........-.-.---- . A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster...-...----...------ Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and ‘‘three- quarter” Shots ssiewssees os amesysieree dees jan ceakicewa se enen sees . A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with a plain ‘‘ dropped crease’”’ shoe..---.---..----------------------- Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering..........--.. Ground surface of shoe shown in fig. 18...........-.-..--.---------- Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the ‘‘ breaking over’”’ AN *STORGEE Yen sted ends bac Salcawceceestcmess ceesees edeses Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger........-.------------ A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet......... Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action iMsOveteSh scsi slsa ti eaieieccas toe semBsecmmie se oats a deen s eeieyss Digitized by Microsoft® 577 577 578 578 579 579 580 580 581 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISHASES OF THE HORSE. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. By LEONARD Pearson, B. S., V. M. D., Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania. In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method, or system. Ifa definite plan of examination is followed one may feel reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, le at the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ- ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de- gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough- bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several writers. 9 Digitized by Microsoft® 10 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. HISTORY. It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for. The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag- nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food that the horse has, had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged food, such as brewer’s grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has been through a dealer’s stable, we have knowledge of significance in connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous pneumonia. It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. Another item of importance in connection with the history of the case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica- tion that has been employed. ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck, and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse- quently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a little, and when pressed davayagaimst the saighs it springs back to its EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 11 previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo- laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible to relieve the pressure that otherwise would: fall upon the throat. In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the head and the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito- nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison- ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath- ing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist- ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflamma- tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or of the feet in founder, or where the muscles are stiff and beyond con- trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained, - because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be unable to arise. Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front, or may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from pain by lessening pressure, or tension, upon the sensitive structures. Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe the condition, or state, of nutrition; the conformation, so far as it may indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to esti- mate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softness of the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disap- peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominences to stand out; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh, we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted Digitized by Microsoft® XN 12 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food and care. Where an animal is emaciated—that is, becomes thin— there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived under. By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest, allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins should be short—that is, the space should be short between the last rib and the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded, without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight. and their axes are parallel; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms, small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with flat soles. The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nerv- ous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera- ment. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression of the face, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a large extent on the tenipetaamenty Microsoft® EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 13 THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of the skin have been referred to above. There is no part of the body that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of information as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping the coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a result of disease or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen inost readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril. For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted. Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness occurs physiologically in painful conditions, excitement, and follow- ing severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circula- tion is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane. This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity, and occurs in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue when the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxide. This condition exists in any serious disease of the respiratory tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure. The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the body. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold. Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the verge of collapse. . The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse. This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to have a soft, healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of Digitized by Microsoft® 14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as “a staring coat.” When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi- cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio- logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other part of the body. For example, there is the well-known “ stocking,” or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym- phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi- ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor- rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates. the skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de- scribed is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac- ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat- ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog- nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi- tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is stroked or pressed upon. Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 15 afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen- erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt- like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de- termined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are to be studied. The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as follows: Stallion... 22.5252 5 ee ee es eis, 28 to 32 beats per minute. Geldingts222 setae se oe eee sseoe ss 33 to 38 beats per minute. DIR oo ec da ene awe amnaeee 34 to 40 beats per minute, Foal 2 to 3 years old___--------------- 40 to 50 beats per minute. Foal 6 to 12 months old_____-___--__---- 45 to 60 beats per minute. Foal 2 to 4 weeks old_---_------------ 70 to 90 beats per minute. The pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The pulse should be regular ; that is, the separate beats should follow each other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal fullness, or volume. In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great exhaus- tion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the central nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administra- tion of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these con- ditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera- Digitized by Microsoft® 16 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ture or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis- eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter- vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication of heart weakness. In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It exends almost to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed against the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers—two in the left and two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the ‘ lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle), and from here it is sent with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 17 the elbow, or, if the sounds are not heard distinctly, the left fore leg may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this manner. The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is con- tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus- ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open- ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profit- able, in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations. Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the veterinary text-books. TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina- tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther- mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-register- ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but larger, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal is measured in the rectum. The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ- ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old, and is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de- cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem- perature varies from 99.5° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to 102.5° the horse is said to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 104° the fever is moderate; if it reaches 106° it is high, and above this point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108° or 110°. Im the ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106°. A tem- perature of 107.5° and above is very dangerous and must be reduced promptly if the horse is to be saved. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. Tn examining this system of organs and their functions it is custom- ary to begin by noting the frequency of the respiratory movements. This point can be determined by observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the moisture of the warm air as it comes from the lungs. The normal H. Doc. 795, 59-2——2 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 18 DISEASES OF .THE HORSE. rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 16 per min- ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and ts increased by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por- tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; com- pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con- irolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the blood; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the lungs, as in pneumonia; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu- matism or pleurisy; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the flanks heave. The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con- tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in- dication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com-_ posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 19 is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account, has been described as a prune-juice discharge. The discharge may contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis- charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes from the lungs. In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem- ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that disease. Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis- ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the ‘proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw- bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders._ If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen- sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno- sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter- mine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract. Digitized by Microsoft® 20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain- ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air, and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom- panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist; it is dry when these characteristics are not present—that is, when the air in passing out passes. over surface not loaded with secretion. In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus- cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con- tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami- nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy. whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy- ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu- mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear applied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly, especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu- monia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of the beginning of pneumonia. Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 21 By applying the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the ante- rior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing bron- chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are com- pressed by fluid in the chest cavity. Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased condi- tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature and are known as mucous rales. Mucous rales are spoken of as being large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid- ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. They occur in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion. Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. A friction sound is heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing together of ‘roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar to a dry rubbing sound that is caused by rubbing the hands together or by rubbing upon each other two dry, rough pieces of leather. THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes. Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being physio- logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or destroyed. Sometimes there is an appetite or desire to eat abnormal things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutter, Thirst is diminished in a good many mild diseases unaccompanied by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depres- sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after pro- Digitized by Microsoft® 22 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec- tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe- rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and carefully looked for: Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac- ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflammatory conditions, or wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips; paralysis of the mus- cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as “ quid- ding.” Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example, after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid- ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall. In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro- cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of taking food. WW LQ GN 99 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® EMEA HD Ob The adit Haines, del JULIUS BIEN 8 CON ¥ Digitized ‘hy Microsoft® 2 Bots inthe duodenum Digitized by Microsoft® ee Acaa Eel. On i z f PVUINS EGUUL. Sirongy lis ePJULAUS SHIN, @ gs >. isaac Hl Tit, pe pif oh ceca TRAE eters mnt TT ny, oan {a ET TUTTE er rrr ee aT THREE mm i ee Seniesa se ASCaris eguorium Haines, del Digitized by Microsoft® INTESTINAL WORMS. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By James Law, F. BR. C. V. &., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. [Revised in 1903 by the author. ] .USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal- * ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid ex- hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond- ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions, PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains Digitized by Microsoft® m 76 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the urine, which irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the forma- tion of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison the system at large. Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vege- tables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich - in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake, ° cotton-seed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concen- trated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflammation. The right kidney, weighing 234 ounces, is shaped like a French bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards, and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each consists of three distinct parts—(a) the external (corti- cal), or vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface Digitized by Microsoft® PEAS i IV; a,Cortical (or vascular) portion; b, Medullary (or tabular) portion ; uv, Peripheral portion of the latter, d,lntertor of the pelvis; aid; Arms of the pelvis; e, Border of the crest; tIntiundibulum, g, Creter Geo. Marx.delatter D'Arboval p 669 JULIUS BIEN & CONY LONGITUDI Digitized By MicldsoRw° ESD NERY Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 77 of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medul- lary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kid- ney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circu- lar muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through a pink conical papilla. In the mare the,urethra is not more than an inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 44 inches from its external opening. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE, These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, strad- dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. ‘Again, it may be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop- ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges- tive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro- duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kid- neys even may be reached. zs EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. In health the horse’s urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar- Digitized by Microsoft® 78 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ency, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be looked for: (1) Color: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse’s urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reaction, as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or ab- stinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. (5) Jn tts salts, which may crystallize out spontane- ously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be drawn out in threads, but itg presence can always be tested as follows: If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen; if dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu- men is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules (anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma- tion of the lungs and pleure, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of the kidneys, acute or chronic. Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus- pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan- gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood globules or clear refrangent oil globules. They may be even densely opaque from crystals of earthy salts. Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that each cell shows two or three nuclei. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 79 DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE). This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. Causes—Its causes may be any agent—medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous—which unduly stimulate the kidneys; the reckless admin- istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still imperfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma som- nolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and espe- cially in rainy districts. Symptoms.—The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge ‘being pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal—a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to-operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. Treatment.—This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu- lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams) properly diluted, may be resorted to. Digitized by Microsoft® 80 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA). This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, it may be treated here. Causes.—Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super- abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours only; and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com- plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and phlorizin. Symptoms.—The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion Digitized by Microsoft® SACCHARINE DIABETES (SWEET URINE). 81 of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and the presénce in the urine of a sweet princi- ple—grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de- tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F. for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will give indication of the amount of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse’s urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal- lois’s test. vaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis- appears on cooling and reappears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a - run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, beans, vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter- milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by Doctor Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re- sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and general health. H. Doe. 795, 59-2 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. Cause-—As seen in the horse, bloody urine is usually the direct result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub- stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse’s blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni- formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. Treatment.—The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat- ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin- seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 8 drams, acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. HEMOGLOBINURIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form- ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and. dark- colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work, Digitized by Microsoft® BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. 83 even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi- tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise or work. The poisoning is rot present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer- cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi- tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile gelding. Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro- duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani- mals, including horses. Symptoms.—tn the milder forms this affection may appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo- rated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to stand. Prevention.—The prevention of this serious affection lies in re- Digitized by Microsoft® 8&4 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. stricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been con- demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to 1 pound Glauber’s salts), and have graduated exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. Treatment.—The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa- tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in- stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desira- ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre- tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re- sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helped up and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, ac- cording as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup- purative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, ete.; but in a work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic inflammation. Causes.—The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist- Digitized by Microsoft® INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85 ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis- ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom- position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con- sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp- tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car- ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. Symptoms.—The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff- ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented by dram doses of Dover’s powder. Pain may be Digitized by Microsoft® 86 DISEASES OF. THE HORSE. soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per- sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber’s salts. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Causes.—-Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be-the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system—as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges- tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. Symptoms.—The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav- ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer- tion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp- toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87 liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else- where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele- vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta- tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus- tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu- sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- nized during life. PARASITES. To parasites of the kidney belong the echénococcus, the larval, or bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog; also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder worm of an unknown tapeworm; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro- scopic hooklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus equinus or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in the kidney itself. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body Digitized by Microsoft® 88 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. Causes.—The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with- out opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief. . Symptoms.—The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient will often shrink when it is handled. It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre- quent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in ° all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend, or loop, at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil- ient, overdistended bladder. It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard, impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part Digitized by Microsoft® Geo. Marx,after D'Arboval. p 372. 371 Pere EEG, Vi 12 | | | B E. | E LE H Af i 5 i i / 5 6] | fi f 1 8 | i i YW OB i E i E ! qd WY RE 4 ie A A H FNtg | 2 KR A OB Hag \£ y \\ 1 1 fy Hix ff 4 i 4 i t A 7 PL oe LANGA i i f \ H/ {| | AR 8 4 Hy HH so Fy aa | ; PD oo so == sr te ~ SSeS OSS ——— Qo A ——— =e ——— = 63 Structure of the Kidney. Diagranunatic a, Medullary laver; b, Boundary xone,; ¢, Cortical layer, 1, Fecretors tube; 2,Open ing on the summil of renal papilla; 3,lirst branch of bifurcation, % Second brancn of bitiurcation; 5,Third branch of bifurcation ;, 6, Straight collecting tube; 7, June tonal trbidle; &, Ascending portion of THentes loop, 9, Descending portion of Henle s loop; 10, Loop of Henle. Il, Convoliuted tubule; 12, Malpighian corpuscte ;l3,Renal ar tery; 14 Branch supplying the glomeriult, 135, Afferent vessel of the glomeriilt » 16, Branch going directly: to the capillaries, li, Straight arterioles coming directly from the renal artery, 18, Straight arteriole coming tron the atvterent vessel of the glomerulus, 19, Straight artertole coming trom the capitlary placius, 20, Vascilar loop of the pyramids, CL Efferent vessel of the glomerulus going to the capillary plexus, 22,Capittary plecius of the glomerular part of the cortical substance ; 23,Capillary plecus of the pyramids of Ferre; <4 Cortical plextus of the kidney, 25, Venae stetlatae; 206,Vein coming trom the captllartes of the cortesc , 27, Inter lobular veut, 28,Ven recening the verae rectie; 29, Venae rectae Note . The shaded part of the urinary AUCs represent the part in which the epithelium us rodded and of a granidar appearance JULIUS BIEN 8 CO.N ¥ MICOS Digitized By Micrds0ff@K 1D N HY’ Digitized by Microsoft® TRAN TENE Ds Renal Glomerulus. a, Artery of the glomerulus, b, Branch supplying the atterent vessel of the Gglomeruliis, c, Afferent vessel of the glomeritde ; d, Artery gowg directly to the capillary pleats of the cortical SUOSTAILCE » C, capllary plexus ; LE Hlomerulius Renal Glomerulus with its werentvessels and efferents . a, Branch of renal artery; b, Afferent vessel of the glommerilus ; C, Glomerulits ; A, Afferent vessel go- ing into corpuscle eet Matpight b 372 7 JULIUS BIEN & CO. Geo. Marx,afier D Arboval . p 372 371 MICR¢ Widitized by Microsorey KIDNE Digitized by Microsoft® PIA Vil, X 215) Calculus of oxalate of line Siraight Lorceps used mremovtriy CUA, Fiera casts. Sone deprived of epithelium. lwo are deeper colored trom the presence of urate of soda Haines.del after Hurtrel DArboval JULIUS BIEN 8 CON cALCcuLiDigitized byrlicrosoff® oR REMOVAL. Digitized by Microsoft® PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 89 of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu- ating. Treatment.—Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa- thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc- ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press trom before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 34 feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical instrument maker. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and, it may be, of the hind limbs. Symptoms.—The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdomen; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This retained urine is lable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the Digitized by Microsoft® 90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup- pression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course of that duct. Treatment.—Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de- termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity daily may succeed. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER (CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS). Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat- ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac- terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex- tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. Symptoms.—The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. More characteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, result- ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly floc- culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan- ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 91 to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro- duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum or vagina. Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac- uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli- cation of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and nux vomica one-half dram will serve to restore lost tone. IRRITABLE BLADDER. Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty-four hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow- erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares during the period of “ heat.” An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any Digitized by Microsoft® 92 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder should be examined to see that there is ‘no stone or other cause of irri- tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords on its lower surface, or it may be’ prevented getting over the reins by having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those proving troublesome when “ in heat ” may have 4-dram doses of bro- mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba (1 dram). DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. Symptoms.—The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment is eminently unsatisfactory. DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS. This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine is prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre- quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 93 The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis- sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to keep off the flies. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. This can only occur’in the female. It consists in the turning of the organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or it may swell up to the size of an infant’s head. On examining its upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side, a short distance behind the neck. with the urine oozing from them drop by drop. ‘This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression during a difficult, parturition. The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. (See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET). This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders. It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel; by the irri- tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without; by blows on the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare Digitized by Microsoft® 94 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from leucorrhea; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. Symptoms.—The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi- tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the end of the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted will fail to com- plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the mare is liable to follow. Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes 6 drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has appeared. Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from service, as should mares with leucorrhea. STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret- ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful erections. It must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe- ters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax solution and well oiled before it is introduced. URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OR GRAVEL). These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart as a fine powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones, of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ- Digitized by Microsoft® STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95 ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is important to observe the following analysis of the horse’s urine in health: Wailers cos 56 eee OU a Se 918. 5 WGA ot Sao 8 eet tS Se ee Sa en ae 13.4 Urie acid and urates__________________ fies ee te 1 Hippuric acids. 2.8 ee Ee tee 26. 4 Lactic acid and lactates___._______.-_-_--______ ee 1.2 Mucus and organic matter_._______.___________--_-___-_____ 22.0 Sulphates (alkaline) __.-.-____.--_________ ee 1.2 Phosphates (lime and soda) --___________________- 2 Chlorides (sodium) -—----_--_-______-___-----_--___-_____- 1.0 Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime)______________________ 16.0 1000. 0 The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some- times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates—the prod- ucts of the wear of tissues—the carbonates being the result of oxida- tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in many cases is the most abundant constituent. Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor- tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and rabbit that, under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces, oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate cf lime in the urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively, as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tis- sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Weehler and Frer- richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased Digitized by Microsoft® 96 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of the body. An important element of its production is, however, the imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, etc.). This is, above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food gener- ally, potatoes, etc.). Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon- ate of lime—from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids) becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag- nesia derived from the food. The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in the urine in two conditions—(a) when the ration is excessive and specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (b) when, through the morbid destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for- mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag- nesia to form a double salt—phosphate of ammonia and magnesia— which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of this salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much more frequent in that of man and sheep. These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form ingredients in the horse’s calculi, for though iron and manganese are usually present it is only in minute quantities. The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion- ably contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap- proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider- ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva- tion of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of solids is thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when Digitized by Microsoft® STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97 the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi are more common_in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of water by the skin. In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis- tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon- ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Landes, in France; and Munich, in Bavaria. But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu- men, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit- ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess without the formation of stone or gravel; and again ope with dilute urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- mined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres, capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi- fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma- H. Doe. 795, 59-2——T 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 98 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter- mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte- ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro- duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary salts in the form of calculi. CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. These have been named according to the place where they are found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral (urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit- uent, carbonate of lime, owalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi. The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations, while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain. Renal caleuli—These may consist of minute, almost microscopic, deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car- bonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, Digitized by Microsoft® STONE, OR GRAVEL. 99 pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney. These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and without oxalate. Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud- denly, very often in connection with exhiusting work or the drawing of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe- cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid- ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis are added. Uretral caleuli—These are so called because they are found in the passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning. Treatment of renal and uretral calculi—Treatment is unsatisfac- tory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery tuids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella- donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool Digitized by Microsoft® 100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor- tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage of urine with gritty particles, by stiffness of the loins and hind limbs, and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long- continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break- ing down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense flvid by the organic spongelike framework of the calculus causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con- tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys develops, treat as advised under that head. Stone in the bladder (vesical calculus, or cystic calculus). —These may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color. These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic calcul are smooth and white and formed of thin concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out- ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. ‘This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con- sistency and without stratification. Symptoms of stone in the bladder.—The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incon- tinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder Digitized by Microsoft® STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101 can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation is left. In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced through the short urethra. Treatment of stone in the bladder—The treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be feit exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back- ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in- cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood Digitized by Microsoft® 102 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subse- quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such danger is to be apprehended. If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse angle, and having. on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may bé seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way must be washed out as advised below. When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap- parent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacu- ation. To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding. (dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease, wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must’ be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxa- tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and system at large. Urethral calculus (stone in the urethra).—This is less frequent in horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from Digitized by Microsoft® STONE, OR GRAVEL. 103 that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and immediately behind this. Symptoms of urethral calculus.—The symptoms are violent strain- ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis- tended tube fluctuating on pressure. Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine- pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for- ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or bilocular cavity) .— These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and smeared with sweet oil. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By W. H. Harpaueu, V. 8S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8., V. M. D.] The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu- merated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs. The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the diseases under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than 104 Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable to know and study the causes. CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem- perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom- ical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation ; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat- ment. When a horse is hot—covered with sweat—it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over Digitized by Microsoft® 106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccus- tomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent. It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con- siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting “run into,” or by running against something. Occasion- ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con- servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi- tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir- cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons’ silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days, except when at work or eating. TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency. Treatment.—If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out- Digitized by Microsoft® COLD IN THE HEAD (NASAL CATARRH). 107 side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor ; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in- side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated. Symptoms.—The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a watery discharge form the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper- ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called “ blowing his nose.” A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. Treatment.—This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for atime. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of Digitized by Microsoft® 108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This is effected by holding the horse’s head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day, but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild character. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow- dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day asa drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take time, and do it right. If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- - fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con- tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger- ous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRII (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES). This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. Digitized by Microsoft® CHRONIC CATARRH (NASAL GLEET). 109 Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it.” It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors filling up the cavity. Symptoms.—Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This atfection is not contagious. It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis- charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul- jar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem- brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted- will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres- sion where it is pressed upon with the finger. Treatment.—The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri- Digitized by Microsoft® 110 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- tion are of the most value. *‘ For eight days give the following mix- ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in the usual way. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non- professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. Digitized by Microsoft® TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. lil NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar- ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem- brane. The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils with surgeon’s gauze. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath- ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal’s mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re- moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose. Digitized by Microsoft® 112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing—causing a rupture of a small blood vessel—also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, p. 186.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor- rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor- rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water; or ergot, 1 ounce. INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes inte the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases—namely, influenza, strangles, etc.—and is probably always more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with the diseases of the digestive tract. SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some- what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin- uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little con- sequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining Digitized by Microsoft® SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 113 it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign’substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam’s apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis- ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as “ sore throat.” The chief causes are chilling and exposure. Symptoms.—About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem- brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however, does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw- bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces coughing. The head is more or less “ poked out,” and has the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. ppaf Hur. © Om SRT AN ROR REL ETD SS) Zo = a SSS = =) MOPP)UT [PAL BUrsds f \ en ( Schaacks Traction Cord t SHI107 pYyo01) Luoy aduns SAIDAO JOYPOL) JLOYS? PLUG oe SI2IOL IY) 2PDOL OP PISN PUPUNILSUT & ~ SS = P1LOJD YIM LIIAMD) PINALTED = ud rf = LOI = Sree ce) Acie . Sy = BES ae S271] s PIDNYICT JO Jooy pynppds sUyOodjoP iL) JULIUS BIEN & CO.N.Y Haines,del after Flenung Digitized by Microsoft® INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. Digitized by Microsoft® =e Neel ere after Fleming Vertebro- Sacral presentation Lumbe-Sacral presentation Haines del JULIUS BIEN & CO.NY NOR MAT HEMET? 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More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. 2.) Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con- ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back- bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas- sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and fol- lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro- duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS. Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- ment tumors (melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro- trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. Digitized by Microsoft® 168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed by the écraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu- ally tightened until that is torn through. HERNIA OF THE WOMB. The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed to secure delivery. TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn- ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin- ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear- ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner surface. The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169 animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo- sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the equine subject. When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro- duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure 7, may be used. Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru- ment; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces- sary, by rolling the mare as described above. EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL WALLS. This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, during parturition. CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted with forceps. (See “ Lithotomy.”) The large papillary Digitized by Microsoft® 170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tumors which I have met with in the mare’s bladder have been inva- riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed. IMPACTION OF THE RECTUM WITH FECES. In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure upon it will impel the animal te cut short all labor pains. The rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or well-soaped hand. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the ne 6 the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening is left, with rigid margins. Treatment.—The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur- ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac- tion, as advised under “ Prolonged retention of the fetus.” Another mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet loug. Carry the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 test, insert a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm water. FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB. These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry- otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision into the abdomen and extract by the Cesarean operation, or simply to cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel. Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 171 FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA. This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re- mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre- sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc- cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride ts 1,000 parts of water. FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic tisswe sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between -av ‘vomb and fetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one commu- nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted with hope of success. i. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS. It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off- spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives—to induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. / CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around a member of the fetus sometimes leads At8 the amputation of the 172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ‘ Jatter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily delivered. WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS ) OF THE FOAL. This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punc- tured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen- tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward, and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it as above suggested. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES. The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com- pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 173 through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta- tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the flank or between the hind limbs. It’ should be added that moderate dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad- vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the pelvis and passed out where it can expand. GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS. In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com- monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had to embryotomy. SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The hair comes off any part that'may be seized, and the case is rendered the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving a valuable mare that had cariied a colt in this condition for four days. CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per- sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In neither of these cases gan tbe distonterbantehe extended and straight- 174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some- times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, the next resort is embryotomy. TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM. Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel- oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. MONSTROSITIES. Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi- tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun- dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided inte— (1) Monsters with absence of parts—absence of head, limb, or other organ. (2) Monsters with some part abnormally small—dwarfed head, limb, trunk, ete. (3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts—cleft head, trunk, limbs, etc. (4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions—absence of mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits; etc. (5) Monsters through fusion of parts—one central eye, one nasal opening, etc. (6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts—curved spine, face, limb, ete. (7) Monsters through excess of formation—enormous head, super- numerary digits, etc. (8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs— hermaphrodites. (9) Double monsters—double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, ete. Causes.—The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet- Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 175 rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex- ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav- ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac- tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other by corresponding points, naval to naval, breast to breast, back to back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break- ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi- lar way,.acting probably through the same channels. The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented double ; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one fetus has become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations necessary to secure ang, Dre 4p, a missing member may be required. 176 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Cesarean section, by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a monster. (See “ Embryotomy,” p. 182.) ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog- nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog- nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run- ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will proceed in the natural way. TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. Tusomipletsly extended. Flexor tendons short- ened. Fore limbs........ Crossed over the neck. Bent back at the knee. Bent back from the shoulder. Bent downward on the neck. Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. Turned to one side. Turned upward and backward on the back. Anterior pres-Jtyoaq entations. Hind limbs .....-- Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. Transverse......-- Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted ....---.- thar of ie Hone of pelvis. ‘i ; ent on itself at the hock. Posterior pres- Hind limbs --~-.- Bent at the hip. entations. | Transverse..-..-.. Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted ...-...-- Back of foal to floor of pelvis. Transverse presentation of body-. Rin ese gets ieee a. FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. Relief is to be obtained_by forcible extension. A a4 ‘ Digitized by Microson® ~~ ~°P° Wir) @ running ES eee seo en ese LITT thigh and croup PTCSERLALLON: ty | } after Fleming. ) / Anterior presentation Mind -limb deviation. Haines del. JULIUS BIEN & Co.NY ABN OR MppditizdBY Wid/OSOH®T 10 Ns Digitized by Microsoft® PEAS Ty XUN, Anterior presentation. Head turnect On stde Antervor presentation. Head turned on back. Haines de} JULIUS BIEN & CO.NY ABNORMAL PRESENZBATIONS. igitized by Micrésorte Digitized by Microsoft® HOaEWT LTAOWAIG AO St AVO SHORIWA :suorenres erg coLenny AN CO ® NSIS SAMAr ‘Sune eye A Japsourey “2102 JO PO2Y ADYAIIOLP AL SuLMeL; Taye ; ; ‘sTApad PI ULsOfo se eeeseed Sunurapq Lye (PTY IY) JO UONDIAIP PLYMUMOGT UORPYUASIAA LOL PUP < Digitized by Microsoft® (JBUTSLIO ) ‘NWLOJONLQUID LOf ayrily Mie Sov Del Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 177 noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate IX) planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK, With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand introduced into the passage detects the head and one- fore foot, and farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may -bruise and lacerate the vagina. By siezing the limb above the fetlock it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu- rition will proceed normally. FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee o. the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig.1.) First place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XI, fig. 4.) By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the H. Doe. 795. 59-2__Digitized by Microsoft® : 178 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed back by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS. This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can be felt. far back between the fore limbs, or so that only. the upper border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist- ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes the natural position and parturition is easy. When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele- vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be at- tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul- sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the posterior presentation. Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179 HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. (Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be resorted to as advised under the last heading. HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK. This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XIV, fig. 2.) Ifa rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc- ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing’ in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car- rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby toads rr UnscHe of continued failure 180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see “ Embryotomy ”) ; then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re- maining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos- sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes natural. BACK OF THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi- tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore limbs, after which extraction will usually bea easy. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK. In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up ‘into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION: 181 some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open: First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- scribed. (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom- plished, nooses are placed,on the limb farther and farther down until the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort. HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR DOWNWARD. These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and are to be managed in the same way. PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ox- tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above or below. In any such position the object should be to push the body of the fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the use of a propeller. PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet i t f d into th b. AC with nooses and then push the on fee t forwar into the wom Ss 182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. goon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it prove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed back. EMBRYOTOMY. This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or to remove superfluous hincrisirous parts. Some of the simplest opera- tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision _ of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by the skilled anatomist. Amputation of the head.—This is easy when both fore limbs are turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebra (neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached, a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. Amputation of the hind limb.—This may be required when there are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that for removal of a fore Bra, but, Bes more anatomical knowledge. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 183 Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. Amputation of the fore limbs.—This may usually be begun on the fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted-in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en- tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast- bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful - incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is mean- while held tense to render the spud effective. In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the ‘tod 4 last raph. same as described in ihe ast Ay Morb soh® 184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very. difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc- tures were cut with the knife. Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them; then remove the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward beneath it. Reuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with them the hind limbs. The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage and utilize them for traction. Removal of the abdominal viscera.—In case the belly is unduly large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. Removal of the thoracic viscera—To diminish the bulk of the chest it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends overlapping each other. Dissection of the trunk.—In case it becomes necessary to remove other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to protect the vaginal walls against injuries fror: bones while such part is passing. FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- tion. If the blood acctmulates in the flaccid womb, the condition may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness vier eee “Digitized by Microson® & DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185 swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in- troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv- ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the walls generally. EVERSION OF THE WOMB. If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after- pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc- tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. , The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still Digitized by Microsoft® 186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual me- chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col- lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa- tive or binding diet. In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through the opening and their fatal injury by the mare’s feet or otherwise, and peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half ounce, or carbolic acid, 8 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in- flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed ‘continuously with hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium (one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily. Digitized by Microsoft® DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 187 RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA. These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup- ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri- form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice with the vulva. Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at- tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. (See “ Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls,” p. 169.) INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi- tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is likely to occur. Symptoms.—The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and later. it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character- istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning. Treatment.—In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout- chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is fitted. W water should be passed until it comes away clear. To e oe: Digitized By Microsoft® - 188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns . successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu- tion 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice daily. Ffomentation of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi- cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to. LEUCORRHEA. This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin- ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge. Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron, 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection (carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION. This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre- quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS, CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- dation for a tumor of the gland. Treatment.—The treatment is simple so long as there is only con- gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189 oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam- phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and extract of Selladonne. A cose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar- bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic ° acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in- jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer. (Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu- ates must be opened freely: with the knife and the cavity injected daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 parts. TUMORS OF THE UDDER. ‘ As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri- ously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell- ings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine, the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often implicated and has to 32 removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred. SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and sulphate of zine 5 grains. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. R. TRUMBowER, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.J THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebro-spinal system; second, the sympathetic, or ganglionic system. Each is possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. In the first, the center is made up of two portions—one large and expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elon- gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys- tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. - Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- tion of nervous matter, namely, the white or medullary, and the gray or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct forms—nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also 190 Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191 for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath—the neurilemma. Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong: Divided nerves do not retract. . Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. ‘When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts—the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum—and it is cov- ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leav- ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher- ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part join- ing the cord. The pons Varoliz is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. ‘The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical Digitized by Microsoft® 192 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move- meuts; that is, of-so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause “isturbances of the equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. The ceredrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro- spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates ‘posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of nerve trunks—cauda equine. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz: 1. Olfactory. 7 Facial. 2. Optic. 8. Auditory. 3. Oculo-motor. 9. Glosso-pharyngeal. 4, Pathetic. 10. Pneumogastrie. 5. Trifacial. 11. Spinal-accessory. 6. Abducens. 12. Hypoglossal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once, Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bo f th - : Digitized by Microsoft®. ANOO 8 Nata SNIINE TAX TLV id WaALSAS SilOuve aN uruseyy deye jap saureyy snxayd 17705 WAVSAG PHOYPDAUAS onvias ‘DILISD DOUMNIAUT STI09] A LD GUT OLPD.S SNLAL PUIDLT PLO2 VPULAS ANDAT Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 193 nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma- tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in- flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam- mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses— the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain—without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma- tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected, it is called meningitis; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. Since all of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered together. ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEREBRITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES). Causes.—Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over- feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes as sequelee to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation: from neighboring structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. Symptoms.—The diseases here grouped together are accompanied by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso- ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased. sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac- tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condi- tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated, convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be ‘the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will be quick and hard; in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila- tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The H. Doe. 795, 59-2—13 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve- ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral- ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral- ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be- comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik- ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop- ping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may -go through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a circle persistently. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re- tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison- ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encephalitis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If im- provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 195 acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda- tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char- acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct- ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. Lesions.—On making post-mortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en- gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra- nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found em- bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The menin- gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found between the membranes covering the brain. In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a tendency ta softening and suppuration and the formation of Digitized by Microsoft® 196 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur- rounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and some- times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. Treatment.—In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma- tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to Jessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere- britis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan- gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod- ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur- pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given at one dose: Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. The.animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible. When the animal becomes,thirsty half an ounce of bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, in Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN.. 197 20-drop doses, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec- tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus- tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis), we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demand. JIodide of potassium in 2-dram doses should be given three times a day and 1 dram of calo- mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem- branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides cintment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene- fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis- posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess- ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diagnosis is largely presumptive. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passive—active when there is an undue determination of blood or diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. Digitized by Microsoft® 198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Causes.—Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. Symptoms.—Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im- perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi- bility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. Pathology.—In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post- mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through- out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con- gestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found permanently dilated. Treatment.—Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, Digitized by Microsoft® SUNSTROKE. 199 the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber’s salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. Prevention.—Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade; regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex- cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu- sively by exposure to the sun’s rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un- dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun- stroke. Symptoms.—Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F. In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness and -death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. Pathology.—Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital Digitized by Microsoft® 200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart’s action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also changes in the composition of the blood. Treatment.—Under no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water should be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down to 108° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim- ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred, preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva- lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. Prevention.—In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven- tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they want while they are at work during hot weather. An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting causes. . APOPLEXY, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. Causes——Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen- eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. Symptoms.—Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath- ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be- comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited, Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. - 201 sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extrava- sated blood; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain, or sunstroke. Pathology.—In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. Treatment.—Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes.—In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach- noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms.—Impairment of all the special senses and localized paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment.—Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of Digitized by Microsoft® 202 . DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes.—This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often cause concussion of the brain. Symptoms.—Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme- diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im- pairment of some organs remains. Pathology.—Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. Treatment.—The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos- sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed- ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203 this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. Prevention.— Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. Causes.—It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by a blood clot. Symptoms.—Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. Pathology.—The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub- stance softened. ; Treatment.—Removal of the remote cause when possible. General tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN. This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of external and internal hydrocephalus. External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con- sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore- head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The disease is incurable and usually fatal. Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood Digitized by Microsoft® 204 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long- continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre- disposed to this condition. The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and from their nature this disease is sometimes known as.“ dumminess ” or “ immobility.” A horse so afflicted is called a‘ dummy.” Among the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem- ory, etc. The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so afflicted is said to have “staggers.” The outlook for recovery is not good. Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri- tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of small regular doses of Glauber’s salts. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- quently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more common tumors are the following: Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not very uncommon. Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying loose within the cranium. Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc- tures of the brain. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205 Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. Causes.—Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the circulatiom, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonite spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. Spasm of the glottis —This is manifested by a strangling respira- tion; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; pulse very: rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. Spasms of the intestines.—(See “ Cramp colic,” p. 58.) Spasms of the neck of the bladder—This may be due to spinal irri- tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre- quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps.——Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among horsemen as “thumps.” This condition may be distinguished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each other. (See “ Palpitation of the heart,” p. 236.) Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb.—This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors—generally in cold weather—or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex Digitized by Microsoft® 206 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the leg are unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration—a few minutes—or _it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back- ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. Treatment of spasms.—An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro- form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where simgle exter- nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul- phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo- dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv- ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda- num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer- tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it does very quickly. Convulsions.—Although there is no disease of the nervous system which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self- limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move- ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood, the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy. sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil- Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 207 ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE. Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect one of the fore legs, cr the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen occasionally. and is termed “shivering” by horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. Treatment.—In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec- tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 dram; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram; pulverized scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the form of Fowler’s solution is often beneficial. If the cause is con- nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. Symptoms.—No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be- Digitized by Microsoft® 208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return of consciousness. Treatment.—Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction. by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation’ of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and the éncomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and sensibility are affected; the latter those in which only one or the other is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig- nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes.—They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. General paralysis——This can not take place without producing immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half, of the body.—Hemi- plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi- sons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma- tory character, it is seldom complete; it may affect only one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the Digitized by Microsoft® PARALYSIS. 209 primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. Symptoms.—tIn hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of the lips will be relaxed; the tongue may hang out on one side of the mouth; the tail curved around sideways; an inability to swallow food or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes unnaturally warm. in cases wherein the attack is not so severe the animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare. Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities —Pa- ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam- mation affecting the spinal cord. (See “ Spinal meningitis,” p. 211, and “ Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irrigation from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal. irritation or congestion caused by blood poisons, etc. Symptoms.—When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill- conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessitate his destruction. Locomotor atauia, or incoordination of movement.—This is charac- terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are H. Doce. 795, 59-2. 14 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 210 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on | the base of the brain. Local paralysis——This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in diagnosis. Facial paralysis—This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon- gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. Symptoms.—A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring.—This condition is character- ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro- phied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con- dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. Paralysis of the rectum and tail_—This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. This facture would not be suspected were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. Intestinal paralysis—Characterized by persistent constipation; frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud- den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. Paralysis of the bladder.—This usually affects the neck of the blad- der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, ete. Paralysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis.—A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but. does not respond to light. Digitized by Microsoft® SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211 Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. Treatment for paralysis.—In all paralytic affections there may be anesthesia, or impairm.cznt of sensibility, in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be Ayperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to secure the animal in such a way that he can not ‘suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat- ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi- plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em- ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler’s solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING THE SPINAL CORD. Causes——This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebra, rheumatism, etc. Symptoms.—A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or Digitized by Microsoft® 212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para- plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. Pathology.—In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses.. Treatment.—Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con- trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener- ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda- tive products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodide of potassa in 2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened museles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of ‘the vertebrae, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. | 213 MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gitis or ‘njuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may invoive the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or degeneration. Symptoms.—The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. Pathology.—The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con- fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. Treatment.—Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL CONGESTION. This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is almost invariably affected also. Cause.—Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. Symptoms.—The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower- ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter- ference in breathing andthe action of the heart. When in the region of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the Digitized by Microsoft® 214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. Treatment.—Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel- iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of periph- eral irritation of some nerve. Symptoms.—Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in- creased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con- gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. Treatment.—If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re- covers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in- creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec- tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. Treatment.—When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam- matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, and large clots be formed. Digitized by Microsoft® DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 215 Symptoms.—The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com- pression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia, accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi- cates that the spinal cord is compressed. Treatment.—In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be treated as heretofore directed. SPINAL TUMORS. Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco- mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges and the vertebra, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. Symptoms.—Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop- ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the Digitized by Microsoft® 216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. Treatment.—General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. NEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil- tration of serum mixed with pus. Symptoms.—Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. Treatment.—Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor- phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below the ligature. NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval, running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. Symptoms.—Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. Treatment—Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. INJURIES TO NERVES. These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessa- rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a nart is due. Digitized by Microsoft® FORAGE POISONING. 217 It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat- ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United States. It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de- pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers’ grains, oats, etc., or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami- nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis- ease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. In England a similar disease has been called “ grass staggers,” due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn- sylvania it was formerly known by the name of “ putrid sore throat ” and “ choking distemper.” A disease similar in many respects, which is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is commonly known by the name of “ blind staggers,” and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this disease. Symptoms.—The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic, cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses, namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp- toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil- ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. Asa rule, the tem- perature is not elevated—indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto- matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in Digitized by Microsoft® 218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. from four to twenty-four hours from the time the first symptoms be- come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis- ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch- ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be- comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is noeyidence of pain; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be some- what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may ap- pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol- lows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recovers. In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal- lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis may remain for some time, rarely persistent. One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. Treatment.—In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to 6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia Digitized by Microsoft® TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219 vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse consciousness. In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain doses twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. Pathology.—Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely negative, no gross lesions being visible. Hygienic measures needful.Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im- portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. _ This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con- tractions of convulsive violence. Causes.—This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab- sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point © Digitized by Microsoft® 220 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed, and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote from the oxygen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especially dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed—three or four months. In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump- tion is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, ex- citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug- gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. Symptoms.—tThe attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita- bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become consti- pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra- vated until all the muscles are rigid—in a state of tonic spasm—with a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di- lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked; the nervous excitability and rigid- ity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually Digitized by Microsoft® TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 22 diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases we have complete ¢rismus (lockjaw), and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. Prevention. Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder- mic syringe. S I~ Q iS x Sy e iS y 5 ~ 2 ? Ss N Actual thickness of walls of hoor. Loe crack. Wall renvoved to show absorption of coffin bone One effect of Quarter - Crack Cracked walls Haines del JULIUS BIEN & CONY QUART EDigilized by Miers fi@)e MEDI S. Digitized by Microsoft® Le and 3, Sound foot of twovear old PLATE XXXIL a, Nail properly driven Si a Foot of : : S072 10 year’ 6, Nail unproperty driven. oune 1008 of two year old. 2 3 r aa a Section across tig. 2at x. LS Section across tig. 6 atx. 5 Secttole ACTOS S tig. 7 atx. Badly contracted foot. Sound bit flat root. J 'US BIEN & Co. Haines, de] JULIUS BIEN @ NY SOUND _AND CONTRACTED FEET. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® INTERFERING. 373 Crookedfoot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the toes close together. Animals with this deformity are “ pigeon-toed,” and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center plane. When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks from interfering. INTERFERING. An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening of the injured parts. (See also page 362.) Causes.—Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of inter- fering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from defective shoeing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work, and because the chest or hips are too narrow. Symptoms.—Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. Digitized by Microsoft® 374 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment.—When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty con- formation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect. In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the fetlock, or ankle, boot must be used. In many instances interfering may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot to pass by without striking. A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its natural condition. KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES. Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. Causes.—Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed; and time is required, after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them- selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body. ‘Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu- larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom- paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high—a condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the.hind feet. Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory liga- ment or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fetlock joints. (See page 347.) Treatment.—In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- ference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has com- Digitized by Microsoft® WINDGALL. 375 menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten- ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high; or if the foot is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck- ling are to be removed; but since this can not always be done, the time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service, particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief. Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling simply appears as a sequel. WINDGALL. Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt- hood has passed. (See also page 330.) Causes—Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs. Symptoms.—The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are Digitized by Microsoft® 376 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the lime salts. Treatment.—The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is te be secured by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages, until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a blister is to be applied. In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted upon, since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that inter- fere, are particularly liable to this injury. Causes.—Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis- eases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as‘navicular disease, contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum- bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or strug- gles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up inflammation of the joint. Symptoms.—The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. Treatment.—If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few days’ rest are sufficient to effect recovery. Where there is an intense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. When the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be applied. Digitized by Microsoft® RUPTURE OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 377 In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint should be kept completely at rest; and this condition is best secured by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be secured, the patient must be kept in slings. In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage is removed, a new one should be put on. ‘Che swelling, which always remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the firing iron and blisters. A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition ef the injury. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe- cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected. When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great, one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one cr both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga- ment may rupture above the point of division. Symptoms.—The most common injury to the suspensory ligament is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend- ing obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock joint fiexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa- moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and Digitized by Microsoft® 378 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. swelling of the parts at the point of injury, will enable anyone to make a diagnosis. Treatment.—Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages, firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off, blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness; but it is use- less to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain. In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament inca- pacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work. OVERREACH. An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and run- ning horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters are most liable to the injury. Symptoms.—The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot—an accident known among horsemen as “ grabbing ”—the shoe may be torn from the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed to overreaching are often “bad breakers,” for the reason that the pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought back to the trotting gait. Treatment.—If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and a roller bandage. When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made for the protection of the heels and quarters. If there is a disposition to “ grab” the forward shoes, the trouble: may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as Digitized by Microsoft® CALK WOUNDS AND FROSTBITES. 379 possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the hind shoe: When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore feet may be shod with the “ tips” instead of the common shoe, as described in treatment for contracted heels. CALK WOUNDS. Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses, especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive lamine, the extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone. Treatment.—Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro- tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep, and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive lamine, etc., active measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be used, followed by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may ’ be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks. FROSTBITES. Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at large. Symptoms.—When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and Digitized by Microsoft® 380 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. swelling. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an increased sensitiveness to cold remains. In cases more severe irregular patches of skin are destroyed and after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary band is the part most often affected. In many instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. Treatment.—Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil. When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence, unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is in- volved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of . injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulat- ing the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and new horn no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this acci- dent happens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury. QUITTOR. Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that results in the formation of a slough followed by the elimination of the diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four Digitized by Microsoft® QUITTOR. 381 classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quittor, which is known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coro- net; (2) tendinous quittor; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilagi- nous quittor. CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub- cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals by suppuration. Jt is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This pressure not only adds to the patient’s suffering but may at the same time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two- thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters are undoubtedly most liable. Causes——Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the cause of cutaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known _ cause. For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injuri- ous action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country the most mud, accompanied by freezing and thawing weather, is seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons, when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other sea- sons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im- portant factor in the production of quittor.¢ eA recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the author’s observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water by windmills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and Digitized by Microsoft® 382 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. While this disease attacks any and all classes of horses, it is the large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances. Symptoms.—Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move. As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both, and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so in- tense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt be- neath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of skin, varying from 1 to 24 inches in diameter, slough away at once, leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks; but when two or more tumors are developed at once, or where the formation of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the su- ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. October. In these fifty cases all forms of the disease and all possible compli- cations were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks ‘of quittor are common, and the disease is so virulent that it has long been known as the “ Leadville foot rot.” The soil being rich in mineral matters is no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are.muddy from the melting snow and ice. Digitized by Microsoft® QUITTOR. 383 + This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. Treatment.—The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit- tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses, must be avoided as much as possible. Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impreg- nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre- ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleans- ing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quit-_ tor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for treatment. If the case is seen early—that is, before any of the signs of suppuration have developed—the affected foot is to be placed under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this, put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of suf- ficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bot- tom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflamma- tion has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced, the process should be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band. If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary. The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon gives relief to the overtension of the parts. In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre- sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated, and the foot poulticed. Digitized by Microsoft® 384 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open gore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process are many, and, as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or tinctures. In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1 part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied to the wound. Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water; chloride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; and creolin, pure or diluted. If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change the remedies every few days. If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of camphor may do best. When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all that is needed. If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup- purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every twenty-four or forty-eight hours; if the discharge is small in quan- tity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better,. in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore com- mences to skin over, the edges should be lightly touched with lunar caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little exercise daily; but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is entirely healed. Digitized by Microsoft® QUITTOR. 385 TENDINOUS QUITTOR. This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten- dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the bones of the foot as well. Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preced- ing; yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at ariy time during its course become complicated by the death of some part of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coro- nary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient’s life or maim him for all time. Causes.—Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influ- ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery. Symptoms.—When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than in- juries this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no more in trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the next forty-eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness; it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing quick; the temperature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side, with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat, and every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The leg soon swells to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing H. Doe. 795, 59-2—p RB tized by Microsoft® a 386 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the sup- purative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily collecting in a mass. Recently I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense; yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed- ding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of the leg to the knee. The dieting of the hoof took place ‘two or three haut before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu- ration and no hemorrhage The skin from the knee to the foot was thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by col- lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive lamine. The coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu- lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti- lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon near its point of attachment on the coffinbone. Several small collec- tions of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary region; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments; in the sheath of the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in front, and in the coffin joint. But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so comovlicated as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is-slight, and after a few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis- charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to the sensitive lamin and plantar cushion, when the suffering is intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in the hollow of the heel; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint; although in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the Digitized by Microsoft® QUITTOR. 387 tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing of the deeper parts follows. Treatment.—The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to _ prevent suppuration; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the swelling. Whenever openings appear from which pus escapes, they should be carefully probed; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once; for instance, if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble. Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints, and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made with a small syringe, repeated: two or three times a day. As soon as the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity, stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong solution of carbolic acid—t1 to 4—should be used at first. Or strong _ solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic; after which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot. But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imper- fect, hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep slough- ing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immov- able ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place, it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is affected, or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc- ess, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recovery the patient’s suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle Digitized by Microsoft® 388 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in its absence, repeated blistering with the biniodide of mercury oint- ment may largely accomplish the same result. SUBHORNY QUITTOR. This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the outside quarter, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppura- tion, which in most cases extends.to the neighboring sensitive lamine. Causes.—Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. Still cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes. Symptoms.—At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof sepa- rates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the heel. From this opening, wherever it may be, a thin, watery, offensive discharge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus. Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive lamine until the sole is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined. As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally avoided; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved. In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when the slough comes away, and rapid recovery is made. If, however, after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of the foot. In Zundel’s opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a Digitized by Microsoft® QUITTOR. 389 pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course of development. Treatment.—Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres- ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough has come away and the discharge is diminished, when dressings recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis- eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec- tion to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early returned to work. When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichloride of mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty-four hours; but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band. Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as directed under those headings. CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOR. This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved and much surgical skill. Causes.—Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks, burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture, bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of carti- laginous quittor. Besides ee sequel to the other forms of quittor, Digitized by Microsoft® 390 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. it sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker, grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used for heavy draft, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more liable to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they are more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease by increasing liability to injury. Symptoms.—When the disease commences as a primary inflamma- tion of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swell- ing on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is dis- eased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lame- ness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more likely to become affected. Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to one point—the gangrenous cartilage. When cartilaginous quittor happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of injury on the sole. The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and contains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color; it is offensive to the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small greenish colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is followed by the gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess, which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof, over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the disease has upon the coronary band. Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lat- eral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone. Treatment.—Before recovery can take place all of the dead cartilage must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery, and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and sim- Digitized by Microsoft® THRUSH. 391 plest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favor- able cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in from two to three weeks. While the saturated solution of sulphate of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichloride of mercury to 100 parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as - favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But no matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the vari- ous openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum, held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage; the coronary band and lamine should not be injured in the operation. If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week the fistulous tracts are closing up, and the injections are made with much difficulty. If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be described in this connection. THRUSH. Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy mat- ter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than in any other breed—a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the. disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in cities and towns. Causes.—The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to contract the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet. Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly soaked in the bath tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, excite this abnormal, condition VOL othe chrog. Contracted heels, 392 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals which otherwise present a perfect frog. Symptoms.—At first there is simply an increased moisture in the cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a considerable discharge takes place—thin, watery, and highly offen- sive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the patient lame and the foot feverish—cases in which the whole frog is involved in the diseased process. Treatment.—Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow- dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily; otherwise it may be left on two or three days. Where a constitu- tional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a sequel to other diseases, a permanent cure may not be possible. CANKER. Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog,.but, by setting up a chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. Heavy cart horses are more often affected than those of any other class. Causes.—The essential element in the production of canker is the parasite; consequently the disease may be called contagious. But, as in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced. It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply predisposing causes. The condition most favorable to the development of canker is dampness—in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and growth of the parasite; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. Filthy stables and muddy saatsy ve been classed among the causes CANKER. 393: of canker; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irrita- tion and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to induce the disease. For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments— thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with white feet and legs—are especially liable to canker. Symptoms.—Usually, ‘canker is confined to one foot; but it may attack two, three, or all of the feet at once; or, as is more commonly seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been successively affected. .When the disease follows an injury which has exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and de- stroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn, which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid secretion by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses com- posed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury, the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away of the horn of the frog and sole. In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed the lameness is severe. Treatment.—Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted. In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of strip- ping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after all success depends more on the persistent application of simple remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any particular drug. — / Digitized by Microsoft® 394 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the charcoal or a tablespoonful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of horn are to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all may be tried. The list from which a selection may be ‘tide comprises wood tar, gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid; sulphates of iron, copper, and dines chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric acids. In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding 2 ounces of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot is removed it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine 8 parts, to which is slowly added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day, at first. When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which are now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders may prove of most advantage, such as calomel, sulphates df iron, copper, etc. The sul- phates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten of the latter. When-the soft tissues are all horned over, the dress- ings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed. CORNS. A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured and a small amount op blood PR? pes, which, by permeating the horn CORNS. 395 in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character, and the soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside wall of the hoof. In many cases the lamine of the bar, of the wall, or of both are involved at the same time. Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized—the dry, the moist, and the suppurative—a division based solely on the character of the conditions which follow the primary injury. The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for two reasons: First, because they support a greater part of the body; secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first “placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the ground. Causes.—It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these parts are subject; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elas- ticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the heel, and render lacerations more easy; long feet, which by removing the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary moisture, which, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; and weak feet, or those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency ‘to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior wings. either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence are easily bruised; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the dis- placement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn. It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predis- posing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely paring away the sole; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog, which is nature’s main support to the branches of the sole and the heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive Digitized by Microsoft® 396 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, extending it too far back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until the heels rest upon the sole and bars become a direct cause of corns. Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones, hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe. Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard roads, predispose to this disease of the feet. Symptoms.—Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame- ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by no means unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all; but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding behind them at night, and often refuse to lie down for any lengthened rest The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity; but the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight, and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the contents of the hoof is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases, the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences of local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum. If a corn is suspected the foot should be examined for increased sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers, with moderate pressure, will cause more or less flinching, if the dis- ease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances the insensible lamine of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained Digitized by Microsoft® CORNS. 397 with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discolor- ation is less marked than in dry corn and may be entirely wanting. In these cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thick- ness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle, it is gen- erally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn in that the injury is more severe; the parts affected are more or less inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and laminee, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy. A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensi- ble laminz to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone. Treatment.—Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands. As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible, and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advis- able, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make it imperative that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objec- tions; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi- ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some ani- mals to enable them to work. Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon Digitized by Microsoft® 398 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation ; for this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances, or damp dirt floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too dry and hard. As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered until all pressure is removed and, if the patient’s labor is required, the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole and bar. I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn is well softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath and poultice the foot for two or three days. When the granulations look red, dress the wound with oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient returned to work. In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the coronary band and escapes from an openiny between the band and hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist corns. When eomplications arise, the treatment must be varied to meet the indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor; if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must be cut away; if the coffin bone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of Digitized by Microsoft® BRUISE OF THE FROG. 399 the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete cure. BRUISE OF THE FROG. When the frog is severely bruised, the injury is followed by suppu- ration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the plantar cushion. Causes.—A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument or a punctured wound by a blunt pointed instrument may also cause suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries. Symptoms.—Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs. When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels. The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through, a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead, sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be in- volved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious. Treatment.—If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure may be removed, and the foot poulticed. When the pus has loosened the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one- half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion, and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangre- nous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached, the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dress- Digitized by Microsoft® 400 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and band- ages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness has sub- sided, and a thin layer of new horn has covered the exposed parts, the foot may be shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to slow work. Where caries of the coffin bone, ete., follow the injury, the treatment recommended for these complications in punctured wounds of the foot must be resorted to. PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE FOOT. Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than these may be when involving the more important organs contained within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock, giass, wire, knives, etc. A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed instrumient than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is to the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to fol- low. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even where the wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those which happen to the center of the foot, and which involve, in pro- portion to their depth, the plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis, the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint. Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet than in well-made feet, and, as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy draft than in those required to do faster work; for the former may be useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more likely to injure the deeper structures of the foot; in the hind foot, the injury is generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep. Symptoms.—A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the frog and remain for several days without causing lameness; in fact, in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes. Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no Digitized by Microsoft® PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF FOOT. AOL lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be examined for evidence of injury. The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppura- tion, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth. In other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet outstretched; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat. When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with diffi- culty and the wound shows no signs of healing; the whole foot is hot and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its clear amber color. Suppuration generally extends up the course of the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the abscess opens. If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense from the beginning; but the only certain wey to determine the exist- ence of this complication is by the use of the probe, and unless there is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care, else the coffin joint may be opened. If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in- strument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on dif- ferent parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint becoming stiff (anchylosis). When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part of the wound to heal. Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as seri- ous may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof may slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and rihgbones grow. Hi. Doe. 795, 5-2 Tyelhtized by Microsoft® 2 402 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Finally, laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient per- sists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death. Treatment.—In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should be thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products of suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury is not serious, recovery takes place in a few days’ time. Where the wound is deeper, it is better to put the foot in a cold bath or under a stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor. If the bone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron,-may be used until the dead bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an opera- tion. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with creolin or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, oakum balls, and a roller bandage. Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument, like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable. Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be operated on and the life of the patient saved; but the most skillful surgery 1s required and only the experienced operator should under- take their treatment. If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed as directed above. The other complications are to be treated as directed under their proper headings. After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery, and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to; in many cases with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow work or kept for breeding purposes only. “Prick in shoeing” is an injury which should be considered under the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force as to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon Digitized by Microsoft® CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. 403 after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. When lameness follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal. Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi- dence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed, the horn pared out, and creolin or a weak solution of carbolic acid injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed. CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. Contracted heels, or hoof-bound, is a common disease among horses kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It affects the fore feet principally; but it is seen occasionally in the hind feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind foot first strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expan- sion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time; but when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other. Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent impair- ment of the animal’s usefulness. According to the opinion of some of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided into two classes—total contraction, where the whole foot is shrunken in size; and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the quarters backward. (Plate XXXIV, figs. 4 and 7.) Causes.—Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot; for instance, it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and sus- pensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints. Digitized by Microsoft® 404 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Symptoms.—In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing heels, is much shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so hard that it can scarcely be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly and often ridged like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction of the horn fibers. (Plate XX XIII, fig. 10.) When the disease is well advanced, lameness is present, while in the earlier stages there is only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot. Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases, a dry, mealy horn will be found where the sole and wall unite, ex- tending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters. Treatment.—First of all, the preventive measures must be consid- ered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by the use of damp sawdust or other bedding; by occasional poultices of boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and greasy hoof ointments to the sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be mutilated with the knife, nor should galks be used on the shoe except when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exer- cise must be insisted on. As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to make and apply. The method of treatment which I have adopted is not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of the patient’s services for a time is not considered a part of the ques- tion. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little, and the frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a “ tip,” is made by cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper Digitized by Microsoft® SAND-CRACKS. 405 and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a com- mon foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 24 or 3 inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all around the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment; when this is well set, the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the patient can be returned to work in two or three months’ time. The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any inflammation which may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and nor- mal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased concavity of the sole, accompanied by excessive wasting of all the internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected and are rarely secured. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may be effected by these measures. ‘When thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbonea, navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is removed. SAND-CRACKS. A sand-crack is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direc- tion of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part, of the wall, but ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe- cracks; or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known. as quarter-cracks. (Plate XX XIII.) Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the weight of the body. A sand-crack may be superficial, involving only the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath. The toe-crack is most likely to be complete—that is, extending from Digitized by Microsoft® 406 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the coronary band to the sole—while the quarter-crack is nearly always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. Sand-cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in the injury. They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage, inflammation of the lamine, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. Causes.—Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more pro- lific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in ani- mals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are rough and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter-cracks than those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-cracks exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the inside quarter turns under. Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and sup- purative corns, must be included as occasional predisposing causes of sand-cracks. Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quar- ter-cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. Symptoms.—The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence of the disease; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, or by the long hairs of the coronet. Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and follows the direction of the horny fibers; but the trouble can only be positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but when the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quar- ter-crack the opposite is true; the fissure closes when the weight is removed from the foot. As a rule, sand-cracks begin at the coronary band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the Digitized by Microsoft® SAND-CRACKS. 407 horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off, sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end of the toe. In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth protrudes from the narrow opening. When the cracks are deep, and the motion of their edges consider- able, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every move- ment, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the lameness is severe. Ordinarily the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient walks; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand- crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a misstep. Treatment.—In so far as preventive measures are concerned, but little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be pro- portioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding it in place are to be of proper size, and not driven too near the heels; sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses working on slippery roads; and the evils of jumping, fast driving, etc., are to be avoided. When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of veterinary instruments. (Plate XX XIII.) These instruments com- prise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall, one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part Digitized by Microsoft® 408 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be deter- mined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested, etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-crack if the wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the strain. In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary. PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS. These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious, and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp- toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com- mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways. At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness be- come excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pres- sure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance— quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 106° F., the Digitized by Microsoft® 468 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignifi- cant, is now constantly discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid— joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling some- what the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at dif- ferent places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon as- sumes the character above described. Treatment of these wounds is most difficult, and unsatisfactory. We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is seen early—within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly estab- lished the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punc- tured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but small moment, we should, without the least delay, apply. a strong cantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the _ orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways— first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat by cooling lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc, 10 grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum. A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must be to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated prob- ing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after removing them the probe must not again be used. The medicines used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin- ister a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should. give quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day. Digitized by Microsoft® WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 469 WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS. Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there is an escape of synovial fluid, “ sinew water.” Where the tendons are simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat with the flour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious and often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations (proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro- nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress moistened with a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. When proud flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless. GUNSHOT WOUNDS. These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them seems unnecessary. Ifa wound has been made by a bullet a careful examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed through or out of the body. If it has not we must then probe for the ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed, and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the body. The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the bullet’s exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often, softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue. Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone without splintering it. Leaden bullets may split, producing two exit wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such ‘an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gun- shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be Digitized by Microsoft® 470 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. treated the same as punctured wounds, 7. ¢., stop the hemorrhage, remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti- septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend- ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains must be picked out, but as a rule this “ peppering” of the skin amounts to but little. POISONED WOUNDS. These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos- ‘sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem- perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours. Treatment.—Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi- sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thor- oughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver ni- trate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per cent solution of zine chloride, and then apply caustics or the actual cautery. HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS). Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting harness or saddles. Whenachorsenaas hepmaresting from steady work SITFASTS, BURNS, AND SCALDS. 471 for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin, and thus pave the way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity. This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep- seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are com- monly called “ sitfasts” and, while they occur in other places, are most frequently found under the saddle. (See also page 448.) Treatment.—Abrasions are best prevented by bringing the animal gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable. Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on the spine, and the saddle blankets’should be clean and dry. Parts of the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt. The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them ‘may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites of two eggs; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction. If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care- fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics. During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing can not occur. BURNS AND SCALDS. These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occur- rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree, where there is a simple reddening of the skin; second degree, where there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters; third degree, where there is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escapin Bt Digitized by Microsoft® pee 472 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), light- ning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric rail- ways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the ani- mal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of fever—shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness, quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which agent is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practi- cally of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts where there is much movement of the tissues are grave, and, if at all extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree, where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue, even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trolley wires are likely to occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not likely to prove serious. Treatment.—Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the burns are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnine, caffein, and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treat- ment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended. In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflam- mation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy, but a modification of it known as Stahl’s liniment is perhaps better ; this liniment is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts, bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should be applied freely to the scorched surface and covered with a layer of borated gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Re- new the application frequently. Carbolated vaseline may be used in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the fol- lowing solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts, water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear, should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain. Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the sec- ond and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with Digitized by Microsoft® GANGRENE, OR MORTIFICATION. 473 nonpoisonous dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When slough- ing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue removed, and either a dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue (proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate in the form of a caustic pencil. Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the parts with a copious quantity of cold water or‘by the application of whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar should be the first application. Stahl’s liniment is probably the best general application for all burns for the first week; then this should be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings. GANGRENE. Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part, and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pres- sure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gan- grene—dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of some portion of the harness. Symptoms.—tThere is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves. In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan- grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis- turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes cov- ered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic syno- vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its virulence. Treatment.—The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist Digitized by Microsoft® 474 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize-it with a pair of pincers and draw it away. After this treat the patch as an open wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disin- fected with creolin, lysol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of cam- phor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accu- mulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry gangrene. . ULCERATION. An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer. When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer pro- jects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or bloody-white liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard con- nective tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer. Causes.—As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors. Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders. Treatment.—This consists in removing at once the exciting cause. The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu- tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antisep- tic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dress- ings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best re- moved by a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided. ABSCESSES. These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold, or chronic, abscesses. When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the Digitized by Microsoft® ABSCESSES. 475 formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is called a carbuncle. ACUTE ABSCESSES, Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, occurring during the existence of “ strangles,” or “ colt distemper.” The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while becomes soft—fluctuating—at some portion, mostly in the center. From this time on the abscess is said to be “ pointing,” or “coming to a head,” which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with trans- uded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity grad- ually fills up—heals by granulations. Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat- omy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera- tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots— inspissated pus—but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com- plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating anti- septic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per cert permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul and bad smelling, their cavities ‘should first be syringed with 1 part of hydrogen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the injection of any of the abovementioned antiseptics. A476 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. COLD ABSCESSES. Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil. The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur- rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif- fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined. One of the characieristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani- mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi- tion, which after a few days’ rest disappears, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small—often not more than a tablespoonful—and for this reason it can not, in all cases, be detected. Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-con- tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble. Treatment.—The means recommended to bring the acute abscess “toa head ” are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful, too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor (to its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty- four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be iged b i Digitized by Microson® Shas eon ABSCESSES AND FISTULAS. 477 hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the walls remain thickened and indurated. It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass. FISTULAS. Definition.—The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition. Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts, and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas. Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy, and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tend- ency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated forma- tion of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures and also favors its retention among them. Digitized by Microsoft® 478 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Causes.—Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more com- mon causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or, among saddle horses, those that are very low on the withers, the saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not prop- erly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only when the sinus becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the parts, the matter is forced to the surface. : Symptoms.—These, of course, will vary according to the progress made by the fistula. Followingjan injury we may often notice sore- ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of the dorsal vertebra, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging. The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling remains and continues to enlarge. A fistulous ulcer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle. At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness | | | of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ- ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment. 2 Treatment.—In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered Digitized by Microsoft® FISTULAS. 479 saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient. Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water; seda- tive washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform lini- ment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest point. In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues, the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory. Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful ex- amination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sin- uses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape. Rarely’ is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the essential and rational treatment. If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of pur- ulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes, there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to re- place that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash Digitized by Microsoft® 480 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. (fused) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the caustic plug has been in place for twenty-four hours, it may be re- moved and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the in- troduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the ver- tebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally injected. Injections of Villate’s solution or alcoholic solution of cor- rosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below, and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom. Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will often produce a sloughing of the affected parts in a week or ten days, after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested. Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires {ime and patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be opened.at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached. It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deeply or in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes impracticable. In other cases the bones may become attacked in some inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases it is often best to destroy the horse at once. The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not uncommon. The secondary attack in thesc cases is seldom serious. The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every sec- ond or third day until a cure is effected. In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency toward the burrow- ing of pus downward to lower structures, cr in some cases upward toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is always swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain. Digitized by Microsoft® FISTULAS. 481 Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of the foot should be opened at once from below so as to allow free exit to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient in preventing the formation of an abscess. When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated pre- cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body; that is, the sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be irimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages, which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by exclud- ing all dirt from the affected part. H. Doc. 795, 59-2——31 2 Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL DISEASES. By RusH SHIPPEN HvuIDEKoPER, M. D., VET. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8S., V. M. D.] ANIMAL TISSUES. The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as simi- lar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim- ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or a ligament from a fibrous band—the result of disease filling in an old lesion and tying one organ with another—is as complicated as the nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight. All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele- ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may appear at first glance to be widely different. These are (a) amor- phous substances, (6) fibers, and (c) cells. (a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter in solution; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle end to a bone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together, as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impreg- nated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the pro- toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life. (6) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two kinds—white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as 482 Digitized by Microsoft® DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 483 a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form until destroyed by death. (ec) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4) cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves. (1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf- folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the structures of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu- lates, and as the framework of all glands. (2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach- ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. (8) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con- tractile elements. (4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas- cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or cells of this tissue. (5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. (6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the body and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers. When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing away while new cells replace it from beneath. (7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as Digitized by Microsoft® 484 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch- board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires. All of these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quan- tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large amount of blood is required ; if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periph- ery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to their surface by the blood vessels. Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina- tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are small delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every element. In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted to the walls of the vessels and move very slowly. The supply of blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue, and under normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the sup- ply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue or organ receives its proper quantity of blood; the nutritive elements are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achieve- ment of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and oxygen brought by the arterial blood, then by the veins this same fluid passes off, less its oxygen, loaded with the waste products, which are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those which have undergone combustion. The above brief outline indi- cates the process of nutrition of the tissues. Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed. CONGESTION. Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of-blood in a part. Ex- cessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is Digitized by Microsoft® CONGESTION, 485 active or passive. The former’ is produced by an increased sup- ply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented nutrition. ACTIVE CONGESTION, Active congestion is caused by— (1) Functional activity——Any organ which is constantly or exces- ‘sively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened, lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood en- gorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results. Example: The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed or severe work, in damp weather. (2) Irritants—Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair—a hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow. (8) Nerve influence-—This may produce congestion either by act- ing on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve dis- turbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ. (4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament.—F ull-blooded animals are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circula- tion in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in larger quantities. A well-bred full-blooded horse is much more sub- ject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out animal. (5) Fevers.—in fever the heart works more actively and forces the current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a local predisposition to congestion. (6) Warm climate and summer heat.—Warmth of the atmosphere relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion, especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive colics and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter. (7) Previous congestion.—Whether the previous congestion of any organ has been a continuous normal one—that is, a repeated func- tional activity—or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it al- Digitized by Microsoft® 486 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ways leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from a severe drive is apt to have another attack from even a lesser cause. The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels, accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effu- sion of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues which surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by conges- tion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented ani- mals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it becomes swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective tissues; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion ; the part is frequently painful to the animal from pressure of the effu- sion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with. The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished. Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract. The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds. PASSIVE CONGESTION. Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the current of blood from a part. Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circu- lation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood. We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs of the pelvic cavity. Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins, retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the body, causing passive congestion. The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, con- sist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive conges- tion we have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of the rich combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active congestion. The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the exces- sive amount of blood and are relieved; the transuded serum or fluid of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to fu- ture trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations take place, and we have inflammation. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL DISEASES. 487 INFLAMMATION. [Synonyms: Inflammatio, Latin, from inflammare, to flame, to burn; phleg- masia preyuabia, Greek; inflammation, French; infammazione, Italian; In- flamacién, Spanish; Entziindwng, German.] Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by Doctor Agnew, the surgeon, as “a double-edged sword, cutting either way for good or for evil.” The increased nutrition may be moderate and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at first; or it may produce a new growth differing in quality; or it may be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflam- mation is described as acute or chronic, with a vast number of inter- mediate forms. When the phenomena are marked it is termed sthenic; when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflamma- lions are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin, character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited, as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar, in pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflamma- tion are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the initial step of all inflammation. The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflamma- tion .of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the lungs, the intestines, and the lamine of the feet, is more apt to have pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold- blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones, spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc. Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones. The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group of horses exposed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting . Digitized by Microsoft® 488 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. cause of inflammation, the one which has just been eating will be at- tacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflamma- tion of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the lamine of the feet. ; The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some form. This may be a pathogenic organism—a disease germ—or it may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises, injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions, such as an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the tissue. Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been fed is more apt to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same in- fluence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs. Symptoms.—The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion, change of color, due to an increased supply of blood; swelling, from the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding tissues; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain, due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe gpavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked fever. The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion, distention of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagna- tion of the blood; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out as well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or mul- tiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply. Whether the cell in an inflamed part be the white ameboid cell of Digitized by Microsoft® ° PLAT Hi SXeVIT LUnintlamed wing of the bat 2intlamed wing of the bat. Haines, after Agnew JULIUS BIEN & CO.NY Digitized by Microsoft® INFLAMMATION. Digitized by Microsoft® PLATE. AOCXVIIL. 1- Voen=1n/lamed mesen tery Of the frog 400 diameters, reduced 1 a,a, Veniule with red and white corpuscles, bb, Gelatinows nerve fibre ,C Capillary. ad, Dark-bordered nerve fibre, ee, Connective tissue with connective TLSSUE comps cles and temcoevtes scattered sparsely through tt L 2-Inflamed mesentery or the frog, OO diameters, reduced '2; a,b,Veniutle filled with red and white corpuscles, the red in the centre and the white crowding along the walls, ¢,c, Capillary distended with red and white cor- puscles, number of the white mich decreased, d,d, Connective tissie between: vertuleand capitlary tilled with migrated leucocytes; 2,€, Connective CLS STILE with less intiltration ; tL, Dark-bordered nerve tthre, g, Number of nucle. we sheaths uvereased JULIUS BIEN & Co Haines delafter Agnew Digitized By Microsoit® ~- Digitized by Microsoft® INFLAMMATION. 489 the blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half devel- oped, they die, and we then have destruction. of tissue, and pus or matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an interme- diate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in “ proud flesh,” large, soft splints; fungous growths, greasy heels, and thrush. Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intes- tines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in struc- ture, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating ~cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily, and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication, and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious quittor, or fistula. This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet- erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease, and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou- bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely identical. Termination of inflammation.—Like congestion, inflammation may terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs. The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract, and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reas- sumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new Digitized by Microsoft® 490 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or morti- fication. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small stages, each cell losing its vitality after the other in more or less rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes from an ulcerating surface and the débris of broken-down tissue is known as pus, and the process by which this is formed is known as suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough, while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are especially likely to occur when the part becomes infected with micro- organisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus caus- ing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic micro- organisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) with- out forming pus. TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION. The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflamma- tion has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act indirectly. Local treatment consists of— Removal of the cause, as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic thrush; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin; decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors, irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if removed, will frequently allow the part to heal at once. Rest.—Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds an inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles without further treatment. Digitized by Microsoft® INFLAMMATION. 491 Cold.—The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages, douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which inflammation produce? Heat.—Kither dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of blood from the inflamed organ; it also promotes the absorption of the effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part. Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap- plication of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of warm water; or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not, will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to inflammatory troubles in the air passages. - Local bleeding —This treatment frequently affords immediate relief by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood- letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or the leg when acutely swelled. Counterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most com- mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the sides where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the throat or inflammations at any. point demand the treatment applied in the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are used in a similar way. Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis- eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of— Reduction of blood.—This is obtained in various ways. The dimi- nution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the point of inflammation; it diminishes the body temperature or fever ; Digitized by Microsoft® 492 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a con- ductor of irritation in diseases. Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full- blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease. Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu- lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material which may be acting as a poison in the blood. Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis- charge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect on the blood pressure. Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way, but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu- lants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful procedure in many diseases. Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur- rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used much less than formerly. Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera- tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against the exhausting drain of the disease. The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easy digestion de not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges- tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the Digitized by Microsoft® FEVERS. 493 form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened muscles of the jaws and throat. Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory process; they regulate the action of a weakened heart; they promote healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. FEVERS. [Synonyms: Febris, Latin; pyrewia, Greek; fiévre, French; fieber, German; febbre, Italian; calentura, Spanish.] The etymology of the word “ fever,” from the Latin fevere, to boil or to burn, and of pyrexia, from the Greek word zip, fire, defines in a * general way the meaning of the term. Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a de- gree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an acceleration of the heart’s action, a quickening of the respiration, and an aberration.in the functional activity of the various organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces- sive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually preceded by chills as an essential symptom. Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, therefore, to the class of infectious diseases. Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last hort time and terminate by critical phenomena; intermittent maw ae Digitized by Microsot® ; 494 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func- tions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, such as variola, ete. Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma- terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or tuberculosis—the general train of symptoms are much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action on one or another tissue. There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur-' rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of thé peripheral temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist- ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem- perature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees, so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this condition is lable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phe- nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, Digitized by Microsoft® FEVERS. : 495 by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi- tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms: The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F., is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is mod- erate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther- mometer inserted in the rectum. This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos- trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast difference among horses in this regard. With the same amount of elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out- break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mu- cous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivee of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflam- matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which . may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi- tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks Digitized by Microsoft® 496 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excre- tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma- tory process, producing a severe diarrhea. The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and deposits quantities of salts. Ata later period the diminished excre- tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold, or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system. It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin- ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When fever is the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma- tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary bronchitis, or the déath of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the tem- perature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two, is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become compli- cations of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In Digitized by Microsoft® FEVERS. 497 fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions be- come still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, and at the termination of severe pneumonias. Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions, etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance. This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; altera- tions of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the im- portant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy- retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the kidneys; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength ; on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart that will soon weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This is obtained in some cases with advantage where the disease is but starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood, as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives, such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby lessening is volume, without having the disadvantage of impoverish- ing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. Antipyretics given H. Doc. 795, 59-2—382_ / 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 498 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful in many cages, When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, cither in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, antipyrine, mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro- matics, sulphur, and a hest of other drugs, some of which are of known effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, ete., which are household remedies, are always useful, because they act. on the excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the disease. INFLUENZA. [Synonyms: Pinkeye, typhoid fever, epizodty, epihippie fever, hepatic fever, bilious fever, etc.; fievre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdestaube, German; gastro-enteritis of Vatel and d’Arboval; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel; typhus of Delafond.] Definition —Influenza is a. contagious and infectious specific fever of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefac- tion of the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and laminz of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete recovery 1s sometimes followed by serious sequela of the nervous and blood-vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain condi- tions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epi- zootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as, at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, ete. The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Rusius in 1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district. Later, in 1648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711, under the name of “ epi- demica equorum,” it followed the tracks of the great armies all over Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinder- pest was: scourging the cattle of the same regions. The tio diseases were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the Digitized by Microsoft® INFLUENZA. 499. day, allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern counties of England, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758, Robert Whytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and west- ward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially sus- ceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an en- zootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It as- sumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and com- merce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are exposed to its contagion. Etiology—As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; but, aside from this, young horses, especially these about four or five years of age, are much more predisposed to. be attacked, while the older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to: pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected railway cars, and the foul stoekyards and damp stables of dealers in our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed, fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a few months of steady work. Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a “stall miasm.” The at- mosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick ani- mals to healthy ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The Digitized by Microsoft® 500 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 1881, in regard to the con- tagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found that dur- ing a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of horses suffering from influenza into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy, the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year- old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40 feet from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings, and in six days developed the disease. On the morning when the trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had con- tracted the disease. Symptoms.—After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be in- tense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter condition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations only of the blood, or it may become at any period complicated by local inflammatory troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative functions. The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head down, and not back on-the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has Digitized by Microsoft® INFLUENZA, 501 chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty min- utes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and 105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with ex- cessive lachrymation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute, and the pulse is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred, moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of mus- cular force; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as the pinkeye, and the mouth and the natural openings become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it be- comes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares are apt to abort. We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the sub- cutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached its maximum of 105° or 106° F. in from twenty- four to forty-eight hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period of from three to four days without so much variation between morn- Digitized by Microsoft® 502 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ing and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other seri- ous diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of the disease, which is generally from six to ten days, the fever abates, the swelling of the legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the ap- petite returns, the strength is rapidly regamed, the mucous mem- branes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease, a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each twenty- four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea. Terminations —The termination of simple influenza may be death by extreme fever, with failure of the heart’s action; from excessive coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poison- ous effects of the débris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid con- valeseence; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic diseases. Complications—The complications are congestions, followed by inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular lamine of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year, and in certain epizootics, we find 40 and 50 per cent or even a greater ‘percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the intestines; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are com- plicated by troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of the brain, of the laminz, more rarely commence in epizootic form, but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all epizootics. Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzo- otics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted wpon Digitized by Microsoft® INFLUENZA. 503 than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already ele- vated, with the heart’s action driving the blood in increased quantity into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their contractility, with a congestion of all of the vascular organs already established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the con- gestion one step further and produce inflammation. Complication of the intestines—When any cause acts as an irritant to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active reme- dies; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities, or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; the swallowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly; it looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the sur- face of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided con- stipation; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a viscous -varnish or even with false membranes. In from thirty-six to forty hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimen- tary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal be- comes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher. Tf a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the dis- charge becomes arrested in from five to ten days.and a rapid recovery takes place. Complication of the lungs.—Hf at any time during the course of the fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or jn any other way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo- nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The res- Digitized by Microsoft® 504 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid, and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneu- monia. On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubu- lar murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is dis- charge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge may be “rusty,” due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfa- vorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene occurs it is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of tempera- ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene complicating other diseases. Complication of the brain.—At any time during the course of the disease congestion of the brain may occur3 at an early period if the fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it be- comes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens itself. It may become more violent, and rear and plunge. If dis- turbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but is not definite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fas- tened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle Digitized by Microsoft® INFLUENZA. 505 at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction. The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the opposite in the other. The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur- rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin- ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungovernable attacks of violence. Complication of the feet—The feet are the organs which are next in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place in the lamine (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels, and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward, resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized. Pleurisy.—This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one-fourth to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza. It is ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature; the pulse becomes rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become in- distinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked, or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure. Peritonitis, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen- eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis. Digitized by Microsoft® 506 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side of the flanks and belly; distention of the latter, and sometimes the formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation. Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflamma- tion of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses. Diagnosis—The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma; the rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni- tals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it-insensible to pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of respiration points to a complication of the Iungs, but, as we have seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of the feet, or founder, complicatig influenza is frequently not shown on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal, which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface. The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola, and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have no evi- dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctive of the eyes. In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma, dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of the under surface of the belly and legs; but in pneumonia we have the history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for sev- eral days; while in influenza we have the history of characteristic symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without Digitized by Microsoft® INFLUENZA. 507 the’ history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of several days’ standing, complicated by pneumonia, from a case of severe pneumonia of five to six days’ standing, but from a prognostic point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have influenza may aid in the diagnosis. Prognosis.—Infiuenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a compara- tively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases. In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another preponderate; in such imstances the rate of mortality is much increased, Alterations.—The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the di- gestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyers’ patches near the ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained, and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a con- gested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues. _ Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications. Tf the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their intimate nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lami- nitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflam- mation of the brain. Treatment.—While the appetite remains the patient should have a moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran; or even a little fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick horse should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished, allowed freely. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple plan is to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine, and hot water; after which the animal must be immediately dried and blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stupor and relieve the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or of the brain is threatened. Quinine and salicylic acid in 1-dram doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine Digitized by Microsoft® 508 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash re- duces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber’s salts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis can be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when con- valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants; to these may be added 1-dram doses of turpentine. In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics; diarrhea is also relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small doses of laudanum. In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease itself, Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat... It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani- mal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in local bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices. During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to overload the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose the animal to cold. AFTER EFFECTS OF INFLUENZA. ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.—A previous attack of influ- enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears most frequently a few weeks after convalescence is established. It occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it does in those which have made a slower recovery. Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively variable. The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal’s body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca- Digitized by Microsoft® ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA, 509 tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complica- tions may completely mask the original trouble. In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body—on the fore- arm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head. The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen’s egg; not hot, little sen- sitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the sur- rounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the char-- acteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechia, which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color. Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the frenum. If the external swelling has been on the head, the pete- chive of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains nor- mal; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker; the respira- tion is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, apparently in perfect health. In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots which are suppurating. In the nasal fosse the hemorrhagic spots have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh. We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The ther- mometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usu- ally remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F. Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorp- tion of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may sup- Digitized by Microsoft® 510 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. purate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about the head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath- ing. Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines. Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may result from anasarca. Terminations.—The simple form of the disease most frequently terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by resolution or ab- sorption of the effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or without diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times ca- pricious. Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastasis to the intes- tines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again pro- duced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the head. Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora- tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. Alterations.—The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly simple; the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other like those of a hog’s head by the masses of fat. The surface of the skin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous mem- brane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots, sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with each other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines has oc- curred, the membrane is found four or five times its normal thickness, reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions of asphyxia; externally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis. Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of Digitized by Microsoft® ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 511 septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered in anasarca. Diagnosis.—The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard, and pelletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of excessive swelling of the head in anasarea, there may occur an ex- tensive serofibrincus exudation from the mucous membranes of the nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fosse, never having the appearance or typical oily character which it has in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated charaeter which is found in farey. Prognosis —While anasarea is not an excessively fatal disease, the prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia. Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account ef the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy. Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual grav- ity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject. Treatment.—The treatment of anasarea may be as variable as are the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. ‘Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat and hay tea, milk, eggs—anything which the stomach or rectum can be coaxed to take care of—must be employed to give the nutriment, which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues, and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their proper. caliber. Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must bé used to stimulate the emunctories, so that they shall carry off the large amount of the products. of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses, and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity, and the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful. Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diu- Digitized by Microsoft® 512 DISHASES OF THE HORSE. retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sul- phuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics; I doubt if they have any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid, etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash in small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treat- ment are diluted Lugol’s solution injected into the trachea, anti- streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the circulation. No one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent to apply these remedies. Externally —sSponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an extreme of temperature—either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaces, suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the wash. In cases of ‘excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with the hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease so predis- poses to. septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threat- ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of dyspnéa, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; the local inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica- tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with little hope of a good result. After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and there is no predisposition to a return of the disease. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL DISEASES. 513 STRANGLES. [SynonyMs: Distemper, colt-ill, cartarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever, Febris pyogenica.] Definition.—Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, and ass; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and fre- quently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the devel- opment of deep-seated: abscesses, which may prove fatal. Causes.—The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an immunity from previous attacks. At 3,4, or 5 years of age the colt, which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway ears to dealers’ stables, equally unclean, where it meets many oppor- tunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and at last it suecumbs. The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be ex- cessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the “contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain analogy between it and distemper in dogs. “After exposure to infec- H. Doc. 795, 58-2—py/ftized by Microsoft® z 514 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tion there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. Symptoms.—The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when placed in its stable is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten- tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow- ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters, or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the muscles and dryness of the skin. If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breath- ing may be slightly accelerated. At the end ofa couple of days a cough is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis- charge is at first watery; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and increases greatly in quantity. At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the wind- pipe, or the air tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused by ordinary cold. . Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen, somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the func- tion of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the, .throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no symptom may be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particu- Digitized by Microsoft® STRANGLES. 515 lar owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malig- nant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of dis- charge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the: nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condi- tion marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing. This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of the lungs (asphyxia). The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at the sides of the throat and even up as high asthe ears. Roaring may occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous dis- charge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma- tion of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the mesentery. Pathology.—The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, ind consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagu- lated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood, are found. Digitized by Microsoft® 516 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment.—Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be- yond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and pro- tection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive, the horse may receive small quantities of Glauber’s salts (handful three times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in 1-dram doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash, aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri- tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its strength. SCALMA. The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a comparatively recent date has been so slow and so tardily accepted by the majority of practitioners that we have been subjected to con- stantly seeing announced and heralded as news in the daily papers the appearance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace and of the empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease. There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis- ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the name given by Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it in the Adams Wochenschrift, X XIX, in 1885. Etymology.—The term “scalma ” is derived from the old German word scalmo, scelmo, schelm, which indicates roguishness, or knavish- ness, as great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The term “Hetmtuckische Krankheit,” signifying malicious, treacherous, or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I Digitized by Microsoft® SCALMA. 517 am not aware of any name in English or French which has been applied to it. As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases, I will not offer the term “ whooping cough ” as a name, but I will sug- gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma in the horse. Definition—Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx, which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in en- zootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibility of the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from compli- cations. Incubation.—The period of incubation is from six to seven days, but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may delay its appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly, developing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously sick one had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls away. One attack is usually protective. Symptoms.—The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute both in its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the nasal fossee. In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short, rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character. The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse, purulent, or even “ rusty,” if the bronchitis has extended to the neigh- boring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The res- piration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing, or in complicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening. The temperature rises rapidly to 102.2°, 104°, and in some cases even to 107.5° F. The latter temperature usually, but not always, indi- cates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature drops in two or three days after the appearance of the cough. The skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears as an animal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderately reddened. Digitized by Microsoft® 518 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The appetite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglu- tition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause of spasms of coughing, and these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts at swallowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rales are heard, with at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under the complications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Through- out the course of the disease we have still one constant and charac- teristic symptom—nervous irritability. With temperature of 104° to 107° F., the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands frequently with the head up, and is on the alert for the entrance of anyone to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall. The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem- perature. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months, as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influ- enza. The termination is by resolution and recovery or by complica- tions. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no sign is left of the disease except the fever mark on the hoof. Complications—The complications are excessive spasms and pleu- risy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the whole animal, the legs are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the muscles tense. The cough comes out by rapidly succeeding efforts, or with the first sound the larynx seems to close for a moment before the rest can follow. In two cases of my own the spasm has been so great that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the respiration becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the at- tack. In the case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the first I believed that he had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the respiration became almost normal, and the tubular murmur had disappeared. I have seen no fatal termination from this spasm of the pneumogastric, but can readily believe that traumatisms resulting from such attacks might prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce asphyxia. The fatal complication is pleurisy. This occurs when the horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease Digitized by Microsoft® SCALMA. 519 while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific, . but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy. Diagnosis —The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tem- perature without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the respirations; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature, and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis with but trifling discharge. The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less con- tinuous high temperature; from influenza by the absence of edema, of the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles by want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent dis- charge and abscesses; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge; from rheumatic pleurisy and pleurodynia by the history in these of repeated attacks and great temporary pain; from surgical fever by the absence of cause. Prognosis.—The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease en- tails only the loss of ten days’ to three weeks’ use of the animal, and leaves the subject with no complicating sequele. In some cases I have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in every case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent spasms might prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes. Treatment.—The treatment of a stable should be at once prophy- lactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disin- fection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treat- ment is simple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air with- out drafts, frequent rubbing, and tempting food should be thorough. The digestive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to be stimulated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow’s milk. Anti- spasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with tur- pentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions of alcohol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also afford relief. Quinine and salicylic acid may be used during the ele- vation of temperature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal injections in 1-ounce doses of the following solution: Acetate of aluminum, 1 per cent; alum, one-half to 1 per cent; bromide of potash, 1 to 2 per cent; water, 100 per cent. Digitized by Microsoft® 520 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. EDEMATOUS PNEUMONIA. [Synonyms: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic pneumonia; hospital, or sta- ble, pneumonia ; equine pleuro-pneumonia ; influenza ; pectoralis equorum; pleuro- pneumonia; contagiosa cquorum; brustseuche, German.] Definition.—This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the animal, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its whole course. Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom- panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro- found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, inflammation of the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal. Etiology—While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any influences that lessen the general vigor. Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion, which may be retained for over a year. The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoft found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible through- out an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but he also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the atmosphere. SIUIP]] Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® ANOO W NBIC SNTNC peste a Taw) eed! SAIAALYD IVI PLUIMOYUS FPIS TYOIL UDVES JOSIUJO JIDY AOVAS Oc] ‘SUHANWTYD Jop‘seutey Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® GLANDERS AND FARCY. . 633 and that the second term is applied to it when the principal mani- festation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms, while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist, although they may not be evident. Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Z'quus (the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog, the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diffi- culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirely immune. It runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms, or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable amount of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is sub- ject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous con- nective tissue. History —Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek veterinarian in the army of Constantine the Great, described this dis- ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the name of Malleus humidus, a disease of the horse characterized by a nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recog- nized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, and recommended that all animals sick with the disease should be separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should be pastured in separate fields for fear the other animals should become affected. In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of conta- gion. He divided glanders into two forms—one malignant and con- tagious and the other benign—and he stated that there was always danger of infection. Garsault, in 1746, said that “as this disease is communicated very easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals infected with glanders should be destroyed.” Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his “ Elements of Digitized by Microsoft® 534. , DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Hippiatary,” published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent disease. Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries. Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men protested against the contagious character of this disease, and pre- vailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion that several of the governments of Europe undertook a series of ex- periments to determine the right between the contesting parties. At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound had placed among them glandered horses under various condi- tions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the con- tagious character of the disease. In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, assisted by Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experi- ments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from horses, and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loef- fler and Schuetz in Germany. When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of country containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to contract and develop the disease without having apparently been exposed to contagion. Causes—The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog- nize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of the specific virus of the disease. In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the works of those authors who contested the contagfous nature of the Digitized by Microsoft® GLANDERS AND FARCY. 535 disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as factors in the development of the malady. While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of the genus H'guus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders. We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the develop- ment of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circum- stances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con- tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops as a local sore. In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, as is shown by the inevitable infection of stisceptible animals inocu- lated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result ; again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glan- dered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the dis- charge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with food into the digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust. The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the halter, and are thus carried to other animals. An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized. Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years, during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time Digitized by Microsoft® 536 _ DISEASES OF THE HORSE. to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years. — In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards it came into the hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died. The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase, more than a year before. Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several months before. While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease from which the virus was derived. The animals of the genus #quus—the horse, the ass, and the mule— are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character of the disease; in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary tempera- ment, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the Digitized by Microsoft® GLANDERS AND FARCY. 537 chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often followed by the trouble in the chronic’latent form. In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional ‘disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, re- maining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving a perfectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of con- tagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and de- stroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemor- rhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting: the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inocula- tion ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected. While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan- dered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod- ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially sus- ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven- ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations. The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding to- gether of the elements until their own pressure on each other cuts off the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot, which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the re- ‘ Digitized by Microsoft® ~ 538 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. sult of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic ves- sels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the disease in the respiratory tract. The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three classes—chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or without farcy. CHRONIC FARCY. Symptoms.—tIn farcy the symptoms commence by formation of little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as farcy “buds” and. farcy “ buttons,” are from the size of a bullet to the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and. in- fringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The dis- charge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and-dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by Digitized by Microsoft® CHRONIC FARCY. 539 others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable time—days or even weeks—but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in char- acter and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granula- tions, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of the body. We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh- borhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves. The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button, the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers are not characteristic. Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glanders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently de- velops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves—a short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one , of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as Digitized by Microsoft® 540 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. in the last the swelling is cool and not painful and the pitting on pressure remains for sometime after the latter is withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease com- mences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length in a single night or within a very short period. When greasy heels are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently fol- lowed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface. In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration, which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, but sometimes occurs. CHRONIC GLANDERS. Symptoms.—tin chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam- matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located. In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nos- trils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the other and be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new con- nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the yellow spots break and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers, we may have them causing 2n acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases. The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an Digitized by Microsoft® GLANDERS. 541 almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory troubles. These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses; but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together. The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre, the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount of eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, ‘according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles. On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlarge- ment of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute at- tacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and be- comes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal sus- picious to the eye of-the expert veterinarian, while without the pres- ence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based his opinion. ACUTE GLANDERS,. Symptoms.—In the acute form of glanders we find the symp- toms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glan- ders ina more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and Digitized by Microsoft® 542 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lym- phatics. ; Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, and the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F. With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu- monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur- murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu- lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. Where there is doubt as to the diagnosis the mallein or the inocula- tion test may be employed. The mallein test is made by injecting mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture of glanders bacilli) be- neath the skin. If the horse has glanders there results a febrile reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If the horse does not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most, it produces a slight swelling only at the point of injection. The inoculation test consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal (usually a guinea pig) with some of the suspected discharge from the nose or a farcy ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it contains bacilli of glanders, the experimental animal will develop the disease. Neither of these tests should be put into use except by a competent veteri- narian. The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneu- monia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific char- acter of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, the submaxillary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis. This condition is especially apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of glanders in a drove of mules. Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to Digitized by Microsoft® GLANDERS. 543 cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute glanders. 3 In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually termi- nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the forehead and in front of the eyes on either-side of the face, and cause abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condi- tion they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in the more acute cases. At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de- stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior _ throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflam- mation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive altera- tions in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of nodules—small, hard, indurated nodes—of new connective tissue to be found in the lungs. When these have existed for some time we may find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefi- nite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the Digitized by Microsoft® 544 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that is, an inflammatory process wakens up their vitality and produces a reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days. Treatment.—Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopceia has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur- roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio- rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ani- mal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs, which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the exam- iner, they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely, with the constant possibility of a’return of acute symptoms. It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the infection is slight, but it will not yet do to depend upon this except- ing under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an ap- parent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food, with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again in an acute form. In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with glanders have been known to work for years and die from other causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but allow- ing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders. In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veteri- narian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are thoroughly disinfected. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which Digitized by Microsoft® RABIES. 545 they should be. The disease is very prevalent in Massachusetts, in New York City, and in some of the Western States. It has been al- most completely eradicated from Pennsylvania and several other States, RABIES IN THE HORSE. [Synonyms: Hydrophobia, madness; lyssa, Greek; rage, French; wuthkrank- heit, German. ] Definition.—Rabies is a contagious disease which is usually trans- mitted by a bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways. It is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the nervous system, and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied by lesions, inflammation, and degeneration in the central nervous system. It is a disease that is most common in the dog, but is trans- mitted to the horse, either from dogs or from any other animal affected with it. (See also remarks on page 222.) As a disease of the horse it is useless to enter into the etiology fur- ther than to state that in this animal it is invariably the result of the bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog. Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more con- troversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have even doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of a case from which the virus has been transmitted. M. Pasteur has further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the ante- rior part of the spinal column. M. Pasteur has further shown that that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur- rounded by carbonic acid; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by sub- stances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradually lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has formulated his method of prophylactic treatment. This treatment consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four H. Doc. 795, 59-2—Digifized by Microsoft® 2 546 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. days, until the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunity.. A curious result of the experiments of M. Pasteur is that an animal which has first been inoculated with a virus of full strength can be protected by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of increasing strength. Symptoms.—From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses before the development of any symptoms. This time may be eight days or it may be several months; it is usually about four weeks. The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until the horse rubs or bites it mto a new sore. The horse then becomes irritable and vicious. It-is especially susceptible to moving objects; excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis- turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threat- ening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal, especially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between the attacks of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period. "The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour, the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable. In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original wound; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings; it will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there is an exeessive sensibility ef the skin which, if irritated by the touch, will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act impossible. This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after being bitten on the forearm by a rabid deg, developed local irritation Digitized by Microsoft® RABIES. 547 in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This was healed by local treatment in ten days and the horse was kept under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac- titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. Diagnosis.—The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first, by the history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, ani- mals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopen- ing of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor in diagnosis. Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor- rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal. Treatment.—No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All of the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromide of pot- ash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on human beings, and has experimentally ‘proved efficacious in dogs, but would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite exceptional. Digitized by Microsoft® SURRA.’ By Cu. WARDELL STILES, PH. D., Consulting Zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry; Zoologist, United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. Surra is not known to occur in the United States, but it is more or less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoma Evanst, 20 to 30 long by 1 to 2 4 broad, which lives in the blood and destroys the red-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly dis- ease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas of South America. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. Surra is a wet-weather disease, occurring chiefly during or imme- diately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations. ANIMALS AFFECTED. Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been trans- mitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frogs, ete.), or fish are known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals, young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds and color. LETHALITY—DURATION. Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal dis- ease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some- what; in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-five (usually six to eight) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with the species of animals attacked, their age, and general condition. The average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months, though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two weeks. e@¥Yor a more detailed discussion of this disease see Salmon & Stiles, 1902, Emergency report on surra Bigitized by Microsoft® = 552 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. so pronounced that the animal falls to the ground, and, after a short struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal falls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain, struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient’s strength, and for a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again, and this continues until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is voracious. Symptoms of the disease'as observed in experimentally inoculated animals—Twenty-four hours after the subcutaneous injection of a small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority of cases, a small circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is noticed at the seat of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the tumor has increased in size and is accompanied by some edema; it presents a certain amount of tension of the parts involved, and is generally tender on manipulation. These conditions continue to increase, until by the fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches in one direction by 2 or 3in the other, and raised to the extent of an inch or an inch and a half above the surrounding tissues, or in some cases the tumor pre- sents an almost circular form throughout. It will be also found that, if the tumor be firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but can be hfted up from the subcutaneous tissue. According to the nature and amount of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly present them- selves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded until, varying from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at the seat of inocu- lation will be found to have lost a certain amount of its tension and tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema will gradually begin to grow less, until finally, after a period of ten to fourteen days, the only sign left of the former swelling will be slight thickening of the skin over the point of the injection; but at the moment when the tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat of inoculation become suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost clinical importance takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite of surra enters the blood of the general circulation. The temperature on the day of inoculation, and, in fact, for several days afterwards, may remain normal in character, there being only a few degrees difference between the morning and evening observations. In other cases there may be a slight rise from the first evening, and a gradual progressive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104° or 105.8° F. This elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be noticed, and in addition there will be petechie on the conjunctival membranes, lachrymation, a slight mucous discharge from the nose, Digitized by Microsoft® SURRA. 553 and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is every appearance of its return to health; but in a few days the animal again appears dull and half asleep; the temperature becomes elevated, and a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is observed. DIAGNOSIS. Certain symptoms (anemia, fever, petechia, ravenous appetite, extreme emaciation, high mortality, etc.) would naturally give rise to a suspicion of surra. The positive diagnosis should, however, be made with a microscope. In case of suspected surra no delay in con- firming or disproving the suspicion should be permitted. TREATMENT. No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous injections of Fowler’s solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but relapses occur. In view of the great economic importance of this disease, it would not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic cases should they occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals should be slaugh- tered immediately and their carcasses promptly burned. Digitized by Microsoft® OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. By Joun R. Moutsr, V. M. D., Chief of Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. NATURE OF THE DISEASE. Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the cal- careous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged, soft- ened, and porous bone. It is particularly manifest in the bones of the: head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws, thereby giving rise to the terms “‘bighead” and ‘‘swelled head,” which are applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all ages, classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all soil, dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but in certain regions, such.as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, India, Hawaii, and in this country it seems to be enzootic, several cases usually appearing in the same stable or on the same farm, and numer- ous animals being affected in the same district. In the United States the disease has been found in all the States bordering the Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England States, and in many of the Southern States, especially along the coast in regions of low altitude. In Europe the disease appears to be quite rare, and is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease which ‘is not uncommon among cattle of that continent. However, the opinion that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia can not be accepted, nor can the infrequency of the former among European horses and the fre- quency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on the argu- ment which has been presented, namely, that the better care which horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the South- west, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been observed by the writer among range cattle, no case of osteoporosis of the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter animals are given no more attention than the cattle. The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective that if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar line of treatment should prove equally efficacious. However, this is not the fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on old, 554 Digitized by Microsoft® OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. 559 worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating feed lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water with a lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the disease. But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most hygienic stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of bone-forming feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the drinking water. CAUSE. The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although various theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, others more or less plausible; but none of these has been established. Thus the idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and grazing in pastures where the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will cause the disease has been entirely disproved in many instances. Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheuma- tism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones, terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made by inoculating -the blood of an affected horse into normal. horses without results. A piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the Jaw of a normal horse, but without reproducing the disease. Pétrone believes that the Micrococcus nitrificans causes osteomalacia in man as a result of its producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced. It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causa- tive factor will be discovered for osteoporosis. Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin due to climatic conditions, and divides the island of Hawaii into two districts, in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where bighead is very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely visited by rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals from the wet to the dry district is followed by immediate improvement and fre- quently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both good and bad stables take the disease, but in the dry district no unfavorable or unhy- gienic surroundings produce the affection. As both native and im- ported horses are equally susceptible, there is no indication of an acquired immunity to be observed. Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing blood from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has suggested that the causative agent may only be transmitted by an intermediate host, as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to this method of spreading East African coast fever, although blood inoculations, as in osteoporosis, are alwaysiqyithoutresnlt, soNee know that coast fever is 556 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. infectious, and that it can not be transmitted by blood inoculations, but js conveyed with remarkable ease by ticks coming from diseased cattle. That the cause has not been observed may be accounted for by its being invisible even to the high magnification of the microscope. On some farms and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a number of cases following one after another. On one farm of thor- oughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the aged horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm in Vir- ginia a large proportion of the horses for several years were diseased, although the cows and sheep of this farm remained unaffected. SYMPTOMS. The commencement of the disease is usually unobserved by the owner, and those symptoms which do develop are generally not well marked or are misleading unless other cases have been noted in the vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms remain so vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be present itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock become affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the long bones are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first observed, while if the dorsal or lumbar vertebre are affected indications of a strain of the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first symptom to be noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular appetite or other digestive disturbance, and with a tendency to stumble while in action. Theseearliersymptoms, however, may pass unobserved, and the appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness without any visi- ble cause may be the first sign to attract attention. This shifting and indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then the other, is very suggestive, and is even more important when it is associated with a tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the absence of a desire to get up, or the presence of evident pain and difficulty in arising. About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower edge of the molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse. Asa result mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows causes balls of food to form which drop out of the mouth into the manger. Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be seen, caus- ing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about midway between the eyes and the as ie, yin Some ases the nasal bones also OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD, 557 become swollen and deformed, which, together with the bulging of the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the reason for the application of the term bighead. Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occa- sion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the limbs, while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the reluc- tance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for long periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly, and if urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament torn from its bony attachments, especially in the lower bones of the leg. An affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer to frac- ture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise. The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed ‘‘hidebound,” with considerable ‘‘ tucking up” of the abdomen. The horse shows a short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer and more restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal at this stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several days at a time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures are not uncommon in consequence of attempts to arise, which complications, in addition to emaciation, result in death. The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extend- ing from two or three months to two years. The termination of the disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early stages of the malady. LESIONS. As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues involved. The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by the dimin- ished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the increase in the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the medullary cavity, and the enlargement of the network of spaces in the spongy tissue, the absorptive changes following the course of the Haversian system. In this process of absorption there are formed within the substance of the bone areas of erosion, indentations, or hollow spaces of irregular shape. These spaces increase in size and become confluent, causing an appear- ance resembling some varieties of coral. The affected bone may be readily incised with a knife, the cut surface appearing finely porous. This porous area is soft, pliable, and yields easily to the pressure of the finger. It has been shown by chemical analysis that the bone of an osteoporotic horse, when compared with that of a normal horse, shows a reduction in the amount of fat pres acid, lime, and Digitized by Microsoft é 558 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. soda, but a slight increase in organic matter and silicic acid. The bones lose their yellowish-white appearance, becoming gray and brittle. The affected bones may ke those of any region or portion of the body. Besides the change already noted in the bones of the face, the ends of the long bones, such as the ribs, are involved, and may be sectioned, though not so readily as the facial bones. The bones of the vertebre are also frequently involved, necessitating great care in cast- ing a horse, as the writer has seen several cases of broken backs in casting such animals for other operations. The marrow and cancel- lated tissue of the long bones may contain hemorrhages and soft gelat- inous material or coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually normal, but a catarrhal condition of the gastro-intestinal tract may be noted as a result of the improper mastication, resulting from the enlargement of the jaws and soreness of the teeth. TREATMENT, The affected animal should be immediately placed under new condi- tions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse has been stable fed, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or three months, preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been contracted while running on pasture, place the animal in the stable or corral. In the early stages of the disease beneficial results have followed the supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water. One peck of lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water added from time to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight expense. This treatment may be supplemented by giving a tablespoonful of pow- dered bone meal in each feed, with free access to a large piece of rock salt, or the bone meal may be given with four tablespoonfuls of molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cotton-seed meal, may prove beneficial in replenishing the bony substance that is being absorbed. Cotton- seed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should be fed carefully. The animal should not be allowed to work at all during the active stage of the disease, nor should it be used for breeding purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® SHOEING. By Jouwn W. Apams, A. B., V. M. D., Professor of Surgery and Lecturcr on Shoeing, Vetcrinury Department, University of Pennsylvania. Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the feet and in irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice- able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs. In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the move serious conse- quences of improper shoeing. Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some- thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor- mal and to apply the proper corrective. GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which—the long pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end—form a continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or “ shuttle,” bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The short pastern projects about 1} inches above the hoof and extends about an equal distance to it. (See also page 369.) The pasterns and the coffin bone are held together by strong fibrous cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones. The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect, because, while the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible. The bones are still further bound together and supported by three long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe, passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the Digitized by Microsoft® one 560 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pasterns and are called flewors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin bone. These two ten- dons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground, during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory ligament in support- ing the fetlock joint. The foot-avis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin bone. This imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin bone, should always be straight—that is, never broken, either forward or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly at the middle of the toe. Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffin bone forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone (perforans tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken for- ward; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet- lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward—an indication that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too low. The elastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and un- yielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral car- tilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a buffer to disperse shock when the foot is set to the ground. It ex- Digitized by Microsoft® ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 561 tends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground before other parts of the foot—conclusive proof that the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground. The horn-producing membrane, or “quick,” as it is commonly termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the “ derm,” or true skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm (foot skin). The pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly sup- plied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm ef the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm, so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath, lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, claws, ete. The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite it firmly to the foot. There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic band, a narrow ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnishlike layer of glis- tening horn, which.forms the surface of the wall, or “ crust,” and whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encir- cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to be- come lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro- duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce the “bars,” which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning forward of the wall. (8) The fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in number, parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole. They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the deepest layer of the wall and serve as a strong bond of union between the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they dovetail. (4) The Rep hate BY HRB SSSRS the entire under surface H. Doc, 795, 59-2 2 562 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which covers the under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog. The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall and bars, sole and frog. The wail is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three layers—the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy layer. The bars (see fig. 1c) are forward prolongations of the wall, and are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the wall and a bar is called the “ buttress.” Each bar lies against the horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the “ bearing edge,” and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The “heels,” strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a hoof is always the thicker. Yn front hoofs the wall is thickest at the toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters. The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed, is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, un- even, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into which are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the sole into a body and two wings. _ The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross- section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the white line all nails should be driven. The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow de- pression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should Digitized by Microsoft® MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 563 rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures assists in bearing the body weight. With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely. The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn struc- tures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic, absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard, brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and fri- able or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and the harder (drier) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes of temperature. — THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (8) A sinking of the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. The changes of form occur in the following order: When the foot is set to the grotind the body weight is transmitted through the bones and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navic- ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti- lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion. This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to ex- pand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and increased by the simultaneous, Hatigning apg lateral expansion of the 564 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no expansion of the quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compres- sion of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pres- sure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossi- fied cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin-bone the horny sole sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs, The movement of the different structures within the foot and the changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof. Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some- times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil, albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface, so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac- tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason- able work and his hoofs proper care. GROWTH OF THE HOOF. All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm, or “ quick.” Abundant and reg- ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas- ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality; while lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn down ’ Dibitized By Microson® or rroe GROWTH OF THE HOOF, 565 in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months, and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof— that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of excessive length. The long toe becomes “ dished ”—that is, concave from the coronet to the ground—the long quarters curl forward and inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu- lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb. If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, “ splay-footed,” “ pigeon-toed,” cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses, If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be re- peated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will grow more rapidly .than the low side whose pododerm is relatively anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the hoof, and the ultimate result will be a “ wry,” or crooked foot. THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS. The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the wall. Digitized by Microsoft® 566 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided. Hoofs that are becoming “awry” should have the wall shortened in such a manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF. A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression with pincers. The coronet is soft and elastic at all points and does not project beyond the surface of the wall. The wall (fig. 8) is straight from coronet to ground, so that a straightedge laid against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the horn tubes will touch at every point. The wall should be covered with the outer varnishlike layer (periople) and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows “ring - formation,” but the rings should not be strongly Fic. 1.—Ground surface of aright fore hoof of the regu” marked and should always lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toc; a-b, the side walls? pun parallel to the coronary b-d, the quarters; ¢, c, the bars; d, d, the buttresses’ ; at ¢, lateral cleft of the frog; f, body of the sole; g, g’, 9’ band. Strongly marked ring- leafy layer (white linc) of the toe and bars; h, body formation over the entire wall othe fg: bancnea te toe EE omy MUS Ss am evidence of a weak hoof but when limited to a part of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole (fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure, Digitized by Microsoft® CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOOF, 567. VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS. As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side; and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological shoeing. FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE. Whether a horse’s feet be observed from in front or from behind, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the regular position (fig. 2), the base-wide or toe-wide position (fig. 3), or the base-narrow po- sition (fig. 4). By the direction of the im- aginary line passing through the long axes of the two pas- terns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we deter- mine whether or not the hoof © and pasterns stand in proper == mutual relation. Fie. 2.—Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position. In the regular standing posi- tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in the base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and out- ward, and in the base-narrow position (fig. 4) it runs ob- liquely downward and inward. Viewing the foot in profile, we distinguish the regular po- sition (fig. 5b) and designate all forward deviations as acute- _angled (long toe and low heel, fig. 5a), and all deviations backward from the regular F 1G. 3.—Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide (steep toe and high heel, fig. Scone P ORE: Be) as steep-toed, or stumpy. When the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the foot-axis should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall at the toe should havetiséisemé slifitrosoft® 568 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. A front hoof of the regular standing position.—The outer wall is a little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower porder of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle—that is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of 45° to 50° and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The toe points straight ahead, 4 AY i wad and when the horse is mov- | ing forward in a straight line the hoofs are picked up and carried forward in a line parallel to the mid- dle line of the body, and are set down flat. Coming straight toward the ob- server the hoofs seem to Fie. 4.—Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow yjse and fall perpendicu- standing position. larly. A hoof of the base-wide position is always awry. The outer wall is more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof. In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried forward and inward Fic. 5.—a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing the most desirable degree of obliquity (45°); ¢, side view of a stumpy, or ‘‘upright,” fore foot; obliquity above 50°. Ina, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length of the shoe and the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes. close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. Horses that are toe-wide (“splay-footed "—toes turned outward) show all these peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked degree and are therefore more prone to “ interfere ” when in motion. A hoof of the base-narrow position is awry, but not to so marked a degree as the papers ee Z Ay Wiese Avail is usually a little more EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 569 slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight called “ paddling.” A base-narrow horse whose toes point straight ahead frequently “interferes,” while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed) animal seldom does. A regular hoof (fig. 5b), viewed from one side, has a straight foot- axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°. The weight falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of the quarters. An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has a straight foot-axis inclined at an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The weight falls more largely in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof. In the upright, or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5c) the foot-axis is straight and more than 55° steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof. Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly “cupped” sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and fine-grained, tough horn. Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different directions of their pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave, the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than in front hoofs. EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING. The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi- tion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu- tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected. The animal must, ther&fortscherabservedopeth at rest and in motion. 570 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base-nar- row foot)? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an im- aginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner wall is too short (low). On the contrary, if the center line of the long pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the outer wall too short. The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal, Fic. 6.—a, Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot- axis is denoted by « dotted line; b, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a straight foot-axis of desirable slant; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to be removed in order to straighten the foot-axis is shown by a dotted line. and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight—that is, does the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. 6c)? In which case the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually, that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short. If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot- axis is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quar- ters are too low (short). In figures 6a and 6c the dotted lines passing from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 60. Note also the length of the shoe. Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and Digitized by Microsoft® a EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 571 distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower border of the wall? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full an the inside that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on crooked ? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short, or so wide at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too large? driven too “fine” or too high? These are questions which the observer should put to himself. Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable “ pointers” in lev- eling the hoof., Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof is set flat to the ground, the “ grounding wear ” of a shoe should be uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due to scouring at the moment of “ breaking over.” Everything which tends to lengthen the stride tends also to-make the “ grounding wear ” more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which shorten the stride—as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork, or disease—bring the grounding wear nearer the toe. An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels. If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short (toolow). “ One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together.” How much an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars! The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace, from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the “ breaking over,” the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base- wide, or base-narrow form. ; No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work till he has made the precited observations. Digitized by Microsoft® 572 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE, After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch- cutter (“buffer ”) and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is critically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially de- tached horn. The farrier has now to “ dress” the overgrown hoof to receive the new shoe; in other words, he has to form a base of support so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface shall be set flat upon the ground. “He must not rob the hoof nor leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury. If he has made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be re- moved to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight. A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp nippers, and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con- cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of ex- foliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the “ bearing surface of the hoof.” The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared on the side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. “ Corns,” or bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses. The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make sure that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction of the long pastern. THE SHOE. The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the Digitized by Microsoft® THE SHOR. 573 foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground. Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be con- sidered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, bor- ders, “ fullering,” nail holes, and clips. ; fe orm.—Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it 1s intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; but for every hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily distinguishable. Width.—All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of -the branches. The average width should be about double the thick- ness of the wall at the toe. Thickness.——The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases. Length.—This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has long overhanging heels, and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5d and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover the entire “ bearing surface ” of the wall. Surfaces.—The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as the “upper,” or “ hoof surface,” of the shoe. That part of the hoof surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the “ bearing surface” of the shoe. The “bearing surface” should be perfectly horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (“rolling-motion ” shoe, fig. 5 a, b,c). The surface between the bearing surface and the inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent pressure too far inward upon the sole. This “ concaving,” or “ seat- ing,” should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more concave. As a rule, strongly “cupped” soles require no concaving (hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs). ' Borders.—The entire outer border should be beveled under the foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to interfering. Digitized by Microsoft® 574 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Fullering.—This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean, and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the ground surface somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping. Nail holes.—The shoe must be so “ punched ” that the nail holes will fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four on the outside may do. Clips.—These are half-circu- lar ears drawn up from the outer edge of the shoe either at. the toe or opposite the side wall. The height of a clip should equal the thickness of the shoe, though they should be even higher on hind shoes and when a leather sole is interposed _be- tween shoe and hoof. Clips se- cure the shoe against shifting. A side clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe that first meets the ground in locomotion. SPECIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE CIIIEF CLASSES OF SHOES. Fig. 7.—Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with (1) A shoe for a regular hoof a plain ‘' fullered”” shoe. Note the distribution (figs. 7 and 8) fits when its of the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and the closeness of the ends of the shoe to the Outer border follows the wall branches of the frog. closely in the region of the nail holes and from the last nail to the end of the branch gradually pro- jects beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an inch and extends back of the buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail holes directly over the white line, and its branches far enough from the branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches of the shoe must be of equal length. In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the hoof, but also to the Pusstion BY jbhe-pasterns and the consequent THE SHOE. 575 es of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight a ata of support of the foot must be widened, and where’ aoa He at falls -(opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup- V De narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of support. (2) A shoe for a base-wide hoof should be fitted full on the inner side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward toward the toe. (8) A shoe for a base-narrow hoof should be just the reverse of the preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the inner. (4) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the branches, because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot. The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a). Fie, 8.—Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring fovmation running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of the shoe, and the under-bevel at the toe and heel. (5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, and for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward. In many cases, especially in draft horses where the hoofs stand very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand, must be fitted as “close” as possible. The principal thought should be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side. Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular f giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme PORE E Noe: igitized by Microsoft® 576 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the shoe “full” at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch- ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line. HOT FITTING. Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we say, “ air-tight.” Though the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con- sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But a shoe at a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn that should be lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and to the ultimate benefit of the animal. The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and strong clinch, rather than a narrow one, which would be formed near the point of the nail, and, furthermore, has the strongest possible hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high. Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches. THE BAR SHOE. The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and development when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to re- heve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof. THE RUBBER PAD. Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes, and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the hard and slippery pavements P cl Be gities are in use in differ- RUBBER PADS FOR SHOES. 577 ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred Fic. 9.—An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and posi- tion of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to interfere with the expansion of the quarters. rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap, durable, easily applied, and effective. Fig. 10.—A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer heel calks cut at right angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be perpendicular. In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite effi- cient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements, H. Doc. 795, 59-237 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 578 though not so effective on ice. the best of many rubber pads. DISEASES OF Fig. 11.—Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and “‘ three-quarter” shoe, (Ground surface.) . great benefit. The belief, unsup- ported by evidence, that rubber pads “ draw the feet ” keeps many from using them. A human foot encased in a rubber boot may even- tually be blistered by the sweat poured upon ‘the surface of the skin and held there by the imper- vious rubber till decomposition takes place with the formation of irritating fatty acids; but there is no basis for an analogy in the hoof of a horse. THE HORSE. Figure 11 is an illustration of one of The rubber is stitched and cemented -to a leather sole and is secured by the nails of a three-quarter shoe. Such a pad will usually last as long as two shoes. They may be used continuously, not only with- out injury to the hoof, but to its Fic. 12.—A narrow right fore hoof of the base- wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a plain ‘‘dropped-crease”’ shoe to prevent the toe- cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof along the striking section. Note the inward bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped crease, the distribution of the nails, the long ‘‘full” inner branch, and the short ‘‘close’’ outer branch. Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with “interfering ” and “ forging,” are given herewith. Digitized by Microsoft® SPECIAL SHOES. 579 Fic. 13.—Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the inner branch. Fig. 14.—Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters of the hoof are equidistant from the ground. Digitized by Microsoft® 580 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Fic. 15.—Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the “ breaking over” (quicken the action) in a “forger.” Note the short shoe, heel calks inclined forward, and the rolled toe. Trig. 16.—Side view ofa short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set farther forward. Digitized by Microsoft® SPECIAL SHOES. 581 Fic. 17.—A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are ree too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly placed. , Fic. 18.—Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet. The profile of the shoe shows a “roll” at the toe and “‘swelled’’ heels. The weight is well placed, but ‘“‘ rolling”? the toe and raising the heel’s lower action. The shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX. Abdomen— Page. dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment...........-.------- 172 dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment............---- 71 limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment.......- 159 sheath, and penis, swelling, cause and treatment...........-.---------- 149 Abnormal presentations at birth........220.222----cee ee ee eee eee cece eens 176-181 Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment .............-------- 161 Abscess— ; ; and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- MOD jy dhe ue otae aya iSaated nes Swe dewivaen Gh beens weer ace eae ees 249 in lung and suppuration, symptoms.............-..------22ee-e eee eee 135 Abscesses— 3 acute, description and treatment .............-.-------- eee ee eee eee eee 475 cold, description and treatment ................-----2---- 22-2 eee ee eee. 476 dSseriptiOnuccssadAsveticn ¥ suet suieces teem eased scsi eee ese el 474 in. throat; treatmenit.ceks sccierenie o's cawweducue cedlemeccee chee ee aeed 46 Acariasis, or mange, note ..........--- 222222222 eee ee eee ee eee 450 ACOIT, PATASILCS: Of CY 6% Wass ccc ac. cate rewdara ew aoas bbndaiice cee samsenmdcewecde 273 Achorion schénleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description...............-.-- 450 Adams, John W., chapter on ‘‘Shoeing” ........-.--...0--2----------0-- 559-581 Air embolism, or air in veins, note .........-2.----2--- 2-2 ee eee eee eee eee 247 Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre- vention, and treatment x1 ..str soci ae eeialse sto sdleace tent oh caieceoaselekes sae 82 Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment.... 210, 272 Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment -.......-.---.------------------ 159 Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc_-.-. 508, 510 Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system ........-.-..---.----- 190 Anemia— spinal, symptoms and treatment....-.--.-..-..----------------- 22 ee eee 214 of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment ..........---..--- 203 Aneurism— ; description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment ........-.-..--------- 242 one form caused by Strongylus vulgaris ...-..--------------------------- 243 Anidian monsters, or moles, description.......----------------------------- 158 Animal parasites, description of kinds -........----.--------------- ------- 450 Ankle— and fetlock, skin, note.......-.-.------+----ee ee eee e eee ee eee eee ee 371 fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe ...-.---------- 369, 430 Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment .......----- 374 Anthrax, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment -..-...-.----------- 529-532 Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat- MENE 2 we ene wee eee eee ewe ene eee eee cette ete ene e ere ce eens 200 Arteries— description.....----.----------- 2-2 ee eee eee ee cree centre cere te eee 227 diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment........---------------- eee ee eee 240 583 Digitized by Microsoft® 584 INDEX. Page. Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, or endarteritis, description, symptoms, and teAUMENE 25:5 52000 Gen sesecintis vsceeettessssieeadceyreresins Seeteaeeeees 240 Artery— constriction, description scccscccescescecsxeesceds s neceessccees avicine ses 244 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment........-.--.---.-------- 242 Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cause and treatment. --.- 332 Ascaris equorum, intestinal worm, note.......-...--.--- +2222 22-2 eee eee eee 60 Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment ..--... 71,172 Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment -..... 137 Atheroma of veins and arteries, description ...........-.------------------- 242 Autumn mange, description and treatment.........-.--.----.--------+----- 452 Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment... 02. oc. seoee cc sens ssc ehh ce ee secesa ceases 82 Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment -.-.--..---- 22-2 +2 eee ee ee ee eee eee ee 82 Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering. ....-.....-....----- 28 Bat Sh0e, Uses = -.ys 2 ssscc ctr he eeeiaaareeeeseaccessad emenwaseeetinada exw’ 569 Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment .....--.--..-.-------.--------+- 454 Beetsias Teed oot aie vvisienjsiguee te ccnnawieseese L oicicie en etolvinig siiaiciaia eee eeeiticiy's 41 Bighead (osteoporosis )— chapter by John: Ry Mohler ss. ciiie scee nesses Meeemeseewaccicroebietcie 554-558 symptoms, lesions, and treatment .......----..--.--------+----- geacwe 556 Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment......-.-.-----.------ 74 Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and treatmenticn. oss 52 sscewesdemee oes ss scseewoess isielele 2 Side denalaineieistesiectele eels 103 Birth, abnormal presentations at .......----.------------------ eee eee eee 176-181 Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment .......-...-- 449 Bladder— calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting.......--..-.-------.-----.------ 169 diseased growths, syrnptoms and treatment ......---..----.------------ 92 eversion, description and treatment-_--..----.-------2----- eee ee ee een ee 93 inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment.......-.. 90 irritable, cause and. treatment... 2.2.2.2. -2sscctasseseeses co dsmewesses 91 neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment..--......--..- 87, 205 paralysis, description and cause ........---.---------------- eee eee eee 210 paralysis, symptoms and treatment .-..-... 22.22.2222 22+ +2 eee eee eee eee 89 stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and TRATMENE occiedtss Biceeetene sees. aheus sek eeseeess nae besseenes 100 WOTMSOL KIGHEY oo. esjnccaamces ace cameaness awed owes asses seeceent ess 87 Bleeding— alter castration, treatment: csccccccieseuececcacees oa cee coe Sseee eet 149 from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment ..-......-. 136 from nose, causes and treatment...-...----------2 22. eee eee eee 112 or flooding from womb, treatment.......----.------------ 2-22 e eee eens 184 skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treatment... 441 Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment...............- 437 Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment ...-....---.------------------- 57 Blood— circulation of heart, description -.........-...---------------2-----2-0- 226 clotscin walle of vagina. ...c22c ace sacasanncease di cceees ences numeiwicds. 187 medicines administered into veins ........-..---.----------- ee eee ee eee 33 of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment -...---.-.---...-.-22-22-- 145 spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment....... -- 381 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX. 585 Blood vessels— Page. and heart, diseases, remarks ...._... 2222-220 es eee ee eee e eee eee eee eee 228 heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower....-.--- 225-250 physiology and anatomy..........2. 2.222.022 0 eee eee ee ee ee ee 225° Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment..................2-.------ 82 Blowing, high, description.............22.2222 22022222 v eee ee eee ee eee eee 119 Bluebottle (Lucilia ewsur), note 2.222220 222 eee eee eee eee 453 Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment....... 331 Boil of eyelid, description and treatment.........2..2222022-002-2222 cece ee 259 Boils— or Dermatitis granulosa.....-2.-. 2222222222 eee eee 442 or furuncles, description and treatment....-......-.-.--.-..----------- 439 Bone— hip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and EPEALINCHG sis GEN Marcher orerascrvarctaaavanets S:a'd nial aNen pra wichita tba ue eerie 317 premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment.............-.------- 312 spavin. (See Spavin.) Bones— cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment...........---- 325 cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment.........-..-..----- 310 diseases, description........-..-------. 2-0-2 -- ee ee eee eee eee eee cee 284 dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment..........-.. 33 of face, fractures, description, and treatment.-......-------------------- 311 of fetlock and foot, description...........-2..2-2-2-2.-22--0-2-2-0222---- 369 Of hip, fractures; Causes! = o..5-05052 5 secd teckeusueesssscece cesses ees come 167 one system of locomotion .........--2.- 2222-220 e ee eee eee eee eee 275, 277 sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment......-..- 328 Bothy, trédtment 22.¢. csi cecennt ss asececesenonaeeeeed d= thal sbeiececades 61 Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment..-...- 56 Brain— and membranes, inflammation, description ..........-..------------- 192, 193 and nervous system, anatomy and physiology..--... eee ee ee 190 anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment......-.--..------- 203 compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment .....-..--.--------+----- 201 concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention ...........-.-. 202 congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention: . .2-2<2s.ce2sseesee--+-++6 Sg Sbe Saas manera oe dees 197 description, 2: 2 .ceee cee Ve steeecue ese caesebink ose e sae eee Lets 191 dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment -..........- 203 Bran, value as feed ......----------- +--+ 222-222 e eee nee ee tees 40 Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat- eS WMS hhc ccce a cee eS Seek eixte sere ee See ee eee Sb Sie: Seis SSN ho eee eee gs 332 Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment....... 137 Bronchitis— and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment.......-- 129 chronic, description and treatment ..-.-.------------------++-++----+-- 119 Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia, description...--.----------+++--++2++22+--e +--+ 135 Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment... 129 Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment....------------------------ 399 Bruises, description and treatment ....--------------++-------20 creer rrr eres 464 Burns and scalds, treatment....-...-------------- 2-2-2 reer errr eres 455, 471 Caleuli— biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment..-..----------------+--- 74 or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment. -....-----.- 55 Digitized by Microsoft® 586 INDEX. Calculi—Continued. _ Page. or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment ........---.------.----- 54 renal, description, symptoms, and treatment.............-------------+ 98 uretral, description and treatment .....-....-....---------------------- 99 WH ALY, ClassifiGatiOn:..cw2cccewmee ns eaatiaedced sc maneearleaeecmsicamrem: 98 Urinary; stone, OF Bravel oes cece se euciwseenseee bests soestseeereeey 94, 97 Calculus— in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treat- TOMO G exh nde pets ee re emery! ciate et eee 103 or stone, and tumior in bladders... 0222 :