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LIBRARY
NEW YORK STATE
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
ITHACA, N.Y.
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SF 951.U58 1907
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DATE DUE
GAYLORD PRINTEDINU.S.A
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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OF BUREAU.
SPECIAL REPORT
ON
DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
BY
Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD,
HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AND ADAMS.
«
REVISED EDITION.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1907. 2
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CONTENTS.
The examination of a sick horse, Page.
By Leonarp Pearson, B.8., V. M. D_. oo. eee ee eee ee eee eee eee 9
Methods of administering medicines,
By Cm: By MicHENER, V..8....2sassescc05 ce ceacaad tuna gecccea een 28
Diseases of the digestive organs,
By @as Bi MIGHENER, Vi8 ce oocece es oaecciueee cngeeseeesek saeees 34
Diseases of the urinary organs,
By James Law, F. R. C. V. S_22 2000 e. eeeeeeeeee 75
Diseases of the respiratory organs,
By ‘Ws He FARBAUGE,. Vi. (8.24 cnnteeendasaeoesteieesiccdacciGec oes 104
Diseases of the generative organs,
By Jams. Tay, We Re Gz Wie Si ceidesisis aie Get seeoue J ieotdeeetalses zee 142
Diseases of the nervous system, , :
By M. R. Trumpower, V. 8..-----..------------ eee eee eee e eee ee eens 190
Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics,
By M. R. Trumpower, V. 8..-....--.---------- tide se Re seeenee otek 225
Diseases of the eye,
By Jame. DAW; He oR. Os Vie Sastcsc canes cele ke eel ean gbeielss easy 251
Lameness,
By A, Lisutarp; My Di, V5 Ses ccasssswesciancineec cas cauadsewce seeds 274
Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot,
By A.A. .HorcompBn; DD. Vic8 2c.ce.cckelnced acechendedienceaneeiennte us 369
Diseases of the skin,
By Jamss Law, F. R. 0. V. 8.....------------- peace eh tetiib edits 431
Wounds and their treatment,
By Gu: B. Micrennn, Ve 8) 2 c22se5..ceeecseeceeeewes eects eee sce 459
General diseases,
By Rusu Saippen HuipeKxopmr, M. D., Vet....-...------------------ 482
Surra,
By Ca. W.anpeEci, Strives, Phis Discs c seals ome ciseeecioeceoites dee ees Seis 548
Osteoporosis or bighead,
By Joan R. Monter, V. Mi Du. .-.. coe cee conse eas seen eee eee 554
Shoeing,
By Joun W. Apams, A. B., V. M. D....-.-----2-- +2 - eee ee eee 559
ING OX: saiciw cerca eres eSaidebler coupe cccuiete uietce See dencicacesceeete ce asessme lS 583
5
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Fia.
13.
14.
16.
16.
17.
18.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
TEXT FIGURES.
. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the ‘‘regular’”’ form-....-.----
. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position......-..-
. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position -.----
. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position.
. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a
siumpy tote foOtes. <-s qsansstemens +swannete tenets samemsceke ysisen
. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward asa result of too
LO P A. LOG Se. racers disis ieetcysieS sia a spemidccceeie sidiemueis seed 6 aioe eeniniece
. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe. -.--
. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe.............-------.-----+-------
. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe..........-.-.----
. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster...-...----...------
Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and ‘‘three-
quarter” Shots ssiewssees os amesysieree dees jan ceakicewa se enen sees
. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with
a plain ‘‘ dropped crease’”’ shoe..---.---..-----------------------
Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering..........--..
Ground surface of shoe shown in fig. 18...........-.-..--.----------
Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the ‘‘ breaking over’”’
AN *STORGEE Yen sted ends bac Salcawceceestcmess ceesees edeses
Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger........-.------------
A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet.........
Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action
iMsOveteSh scsi slsa ti eaieieccas toe semBsecmmie se oats a deen s eeieyss
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578
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SPECIAL REPORT
ON
DISHASES OF THE HORSE.
THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE.
By LEONARD Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.,
Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State
Veterinarian of Pennsylvania.
In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method,
or system. Ifa definite plan of examination is followed one may feel
reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important
point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to
arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of
course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight
alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to
the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that
exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a
knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that
is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body,
and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, le at
the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember
that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ-
ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process.
The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral
depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de-
gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough-
bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy
draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the
diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance.
The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to
be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the
purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several
writers.
9
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10 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
HISTORY.
It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and
development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for.
The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag-
nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food
that the horse has, had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind
of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be
found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged
food, such as brewer’s grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi-
cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char-
acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has
been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon
full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind
legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial
paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident
symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it
is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has
been through a dealer’s stable, we have knowledge of significance in
connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is,
under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous
pneumonia.
It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is
under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises
that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are
afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common
cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature.
Another item of importance in connection with the history of the
case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he
is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive
quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is
important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica-
tion that has been employed.
ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION.
Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid
to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes
horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease.
For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck,
and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw.
This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse-
quently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse
with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat
bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The
neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face
is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a
little, and when pressed davayagaimst the saighs it springs back to its
EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 11
previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo-
laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between
the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible
to relieve the pressure that otherwise would: fall upon the throat.
In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the head and
the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito-
nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the
rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid
pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region.
The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi-
tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison-
ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet,
such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in
unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic
may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place
that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie
down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath-
ing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet
than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly
all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist-
ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is
easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there
is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflamma-
tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or
of the feet in founder, or where the muscles are stiff and beyond con-
trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained,
- because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be
unable to arise.
Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive
organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a
dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front,
or may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet
in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from
pain by lessening pressure, or tension, upon the sensitive structures.
Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe
the condition, or state, of nutrition; the conformation, so far as it may
indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the
condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent
the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to esti-
mate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available
for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition
is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softness of
the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disap-
peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominences to
stand out; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh,
we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted
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12 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food
and care. Where an animal is emaciated—that is, becomes thin—
there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing
the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to
the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived
under.
By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to
withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution
depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction
that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest,
allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that
these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing
sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins
should be short—that is, the space should be short between the last rib
and the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded,
without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat.
The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and
good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the
shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of
strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not
loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight. and their
axes are parallel; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the
forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The
cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from
side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of
the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact,
tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large.
Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to
resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the
other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest,
small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat,
small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms,
small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with
flat soles.
The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse
responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when
he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds
actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nerv-
ous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow,
sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera-
ment. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression
of the face, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of
the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to
ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general
expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a
large extent on the tenipetaamenty Microsoft®
EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 13
THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES.
The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the
animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of
the skin have been referred to above. There is no part of the body
that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the
skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of
information as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping the
coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of
the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the
mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a
result of disease or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes
become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen inost
readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril.
For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted.
Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness
occurs physiologically in painful conditions, excitement, and follow-
ing severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circula-
tion is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the
mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In
some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane.
This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity,
and occurs in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic
septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does
not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as
in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the
mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue
when the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of
carbon dioxide. This condition exists in any serious disease of the
respiratory tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure.
The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the
body. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be
increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and
irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than
normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold.
Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that
the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping
the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is
unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the
verge of collapse.
. The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse.
This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is
enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to have a soft,
healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the
skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite
different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of
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14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another,
they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as “a staring
coat.” When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi-
cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication
of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses
sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they
sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio-
logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a
restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference.
Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external
causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal
diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the
swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other
part of the body. For example, there is the well-known “ stocking,”
or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is
the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses
when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym-
phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the
skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi-
ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen
(hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor-
rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but
usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head.
Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a
local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation
beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates. the
skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating
some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de-
scribed is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac-
ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to
penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat-
ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is
more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog-
nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi-
tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is
stroked or pressed upon.
Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of
internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point
of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of
the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and,
through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation
to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the
greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little,
round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be
scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is
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EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 15
afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen-
erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of
dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt-
like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike
eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox.
THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.
The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking
the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de-
termined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation
close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or
tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse
is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the
jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside
of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the
heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly
just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The
balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should
be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are
to be studied.
The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as
follows:
Stallion... 22.5252 5 ee ee es eis, 28 to 32 beats per minute.
Geldingts222 setae se oe eee sseoe ss 33 to 38 beats per minute.
DIR oo ec da ene awe amnaeee 34 to 40 beats per minute,
Foal 2 to 3 years old___--------------- 40 to 50 beats per minute.
Foal 6 to 12 months old_____-___--__---- 45 to 60 beats per minute.
Foal 2 to 4 weeks old_---_------------ 70 to 90 beats per minute.
The pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot
weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid
in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a
slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The
pulse should be regular ; that is, the separate beats should follow each
other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal
fullness, or volume.
In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in
health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great exhaus-
tion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the central
nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administra-
tion of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is
almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and
the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these con-
ditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When
the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not
promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera-
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16 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ture or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis-
eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid.
The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where
the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter-
vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu-
lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in
chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft,
when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through
the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs
when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and
it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication
of heart weakness.
In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in
the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line
and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It exends almost
to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between
the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly
on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed
against the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of
the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers—two in the left and
two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri-
cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the
‘ lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle), and from here it is sent
with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls)
through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the
body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of
the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the
right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the
lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each
side and into the aorta are guarded by valves.
If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of
the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by
placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the
point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the
more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he
has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is
at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force.
The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in
this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of
the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to
call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard
during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some
alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making
this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles
of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of
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EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 17
the elbow, or, if the sounds are not heard distinctly, the left fore leg
may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed
against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this
manner.
The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is con-
tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the
valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the
lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after
the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus-
ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open-
ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is
longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of
disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profit-
able, in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations.
Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the
veterinary text-books.
TEMPERATURE.
The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the
fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse
to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina-
tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied
upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther-
mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-register-
ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but
larger, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal
is measured in the rectum.
The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ-
ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old, and
is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de-
cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem-
perature varies from 99.5° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to
102.5° the horse is said to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches
104° the fever is moderate; if it reaches 106° it is high, and above this
point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus
or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108° or 110°. Im the
ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106°. A tem-
perature of 107.5° and above is very dangerous and must be reduced
promptly if the horse is to be saved.
THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.
Tn examining this system of organs and their functions it is custom-
ary to begin by noting the frequency of the respiratory movements.
This point can be determined by observing the motions of the nostrils
or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the
moisture of the warm air as it comes from the lungs. The normal
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18 DISEASES OF .THE HORSE.
rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 16 per min-
ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and ts increased
by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying
upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no
physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among
these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por-
tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; com-
pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con-
irolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the
blood; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs.
Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs
when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the
amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the
lungs, as in pneumonia; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu-
matism or pleurisy; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat,
swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory
passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and
chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty
is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play.
In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his
neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils
are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs
protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the
amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the
flanks heave.
The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con-
tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from
each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream
of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in-
dication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a
bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or
secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found
where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic
catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the
breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs
where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs.
In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to
determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined
closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both
nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head.
The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com-_
posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal
catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of
mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge
is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation
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EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 19
is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or
less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates
within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The
discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres
tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia
is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account,
has been described as a prune-juice discharge. The discharge may
contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis-
charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the
respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes
from the lungs.
In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem-
ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and
that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors
are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of
glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that
disease.
Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic
glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to
find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis-
ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands
become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break
down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles.
On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the
‘proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw-
bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders._
If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the
disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen-
sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic.
The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno-
sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a
forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is
to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and
it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor,
or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if
the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis,
bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs
merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon
the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter-
mine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing
upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be
pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the
horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also
in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown
by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is
not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract.
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20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain-
ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs
are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air,
and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated
animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom-
panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist; it is dry when
these characteristics are not present—that is, when the air in passing
out passes. over surface not loaded with secretion.
In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus-
cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped
upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con-
tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character.
Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated
by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is
practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion
hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the
fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed
firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the
ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to
form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers
is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter,
which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be
accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami-
nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy.
whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in
pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy-
ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest,
the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu-
mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion
sound becomes abnormally loud and clear.
Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear
applied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the
lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly,
especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything
that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft,
rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is
heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active.
The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory
infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by
fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air
is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu-
monia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest
cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early
stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of
the beginning of pneumonia.
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EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 21
By applying the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of
the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This
is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions
near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the ante-
rior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial
murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that
the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing bron-
chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a
distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal
place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are com-
pressed by fluid in the chest cavity.
Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased condi-
tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the
air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing
secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature
and are known as mucous rales. Mucous rales are spoken of as being
large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the
quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this
sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid-
ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. They occur
in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion.
Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or
flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it
is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis.
A friction sound is heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing
together of ‘roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar
to a dry rubbing sound that is caused by rubbing the hands together
or by rubbing upon each other two dry, rough pieces of leather.
THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.
The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of
digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A
healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point
to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes.
Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being physio-
logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather
may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression,
fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical
difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or
destroyed. Sometimes there is an appetite or desire to eat abnormal
things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire
usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutter,
Thirst is diminished in a good many mild diseases unaccompanied
by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depres-
sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after pro-
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22 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec-
tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot.
Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse
to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe-
rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and
carefully looked for: Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac-
ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflammatory conditions, or
wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips; paralysis of the mus-
cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the
mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty
in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as “ quid-
ding.” Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed
and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example,
after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the
mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or
from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the
bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is
similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding
is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth
when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid-
ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of
boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall.
In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of
fluid that the horse attempts to swallow.
In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro-
cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of
taking food. WW LQ GN 99
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DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
By James Law, F. BR. C. V. &.,
Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.
[Revised in 1903 by the author. ]
.USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are
excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived
directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized
tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through
which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the
mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural
digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally,
poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal
cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the
body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the
body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs
are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when
their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly
show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective
tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this
influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can
suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the
urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal-
* ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys
during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid ex-
hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed,
whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond-
ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually
kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the
water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely
in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and
gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that
normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the
skin and produce troublesome eruptions,
PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS.
A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different
circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains
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76 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which
being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change),
favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies
that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause
irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the
urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system,
which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to
impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of
hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the
urine, which irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid
deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system,
and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce
various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes,
chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect
nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the
urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the forma-
tion of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute
fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste
products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased,
and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the
retained waste products poison the system at large.
Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward
flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that
liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood
strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken
with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone
and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to
the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty
hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vege-
tables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich -
in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake, °
cotton-seed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concen-
trated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold
rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to
further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally,
sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or
inflammation.
The right kidney, weighing 234 ounces, is shaped like a French
bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the
last two ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards,
and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib
only. Each consists of three distinct parts—(a) the external (corti-
cal), or vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate
capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the
beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface
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PEAS i IV;
a,Cortical (or vascular) portion; b, Medullary (or tabular) portion ;
uv, Peripheral portion of the latter, d,lntertor of the pelvis; aid;
Arms of the pelvis; e, Border of the crest; tIntiundibulum, g, Creter
Geo. Marx.delatter D'Arboval p 669 JULIUS BIEN & CONY
LONGITUDI Digitized By MicldsoRw° ESD NERY
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DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 77
of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward
the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medul-
lary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kid-
ney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion
of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular
reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes
pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through
a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of
the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of
the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable
reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its
presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circu-
lar muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by
looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the
neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder
the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends
from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and
in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through
a pink conical papilla. In the mare the,urethra is not more than an
inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers
closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly
in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 44 inches from its
external opening.
GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE,
These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation
caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, strad-
dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in
excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the
straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. ‘Again, it may
be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp
turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop-
ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges-
tive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy,
and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro-
duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect
any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kid-
neys even may be reached. zs
EXAMINATION OF THE URINE.
In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease.
In health the horse’s urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong
odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar-
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78 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ency, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of
carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be
looked for: (1) Color: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or
red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile
or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored
from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna,
brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse’s urine
may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and
may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reaction, as ascertained
by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has
alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt
and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or ab-
stinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4)
Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts
of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar,
blood, or bile. (5) Jn tts salts, which may crystallize out spontane-
ously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents.
Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be
drawn out in threads, but itg presence can always be tested as follows:
If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if
very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with
distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop
until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube;
if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add
strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen;
if dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu-
men is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen
in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules
(anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases
of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the
veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma-
tion of the lungs and pleure, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless
from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of
the kidneys, acute or chronic.
Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus-
pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic
and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is
touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan-
gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood
globules or clear refrangent oil globules. They may be even densely
opaque from crystals of earthy salts.
Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and
are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that
each cell shows two or three nuclei.
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DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 79
DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF
URINE).
This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a
low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a
rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit.
Causes—Its causes may be any agent—medicinal, alimentary, or
poisonous—which unduly stimulate the kidneys; the reckless admin-
istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack
horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still
imperfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a
full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond
of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not
been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi.
Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick
or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma som-
nolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and espe-
cially in rainy districts.
Symptoms.—The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and
passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge ‘being
pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a
great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So
great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of
solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far
more than the normal—a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of
the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up,
the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently,
the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy,
and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits
are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest
exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months,
or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the
cause ceases to-operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery.
Treatment.—This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty
drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from
all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed
in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to
sheath and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or
phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered
gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the
system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu-
lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products.
In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than
large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases
creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams)
properly diluted, may be resorted to.
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80 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA).
This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather
than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet
urine, it may be treated here.
Causes.—Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into
disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most
prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin-
ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in
the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the
resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in
the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective,
as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not
undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also
in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is
more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the
urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a
hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super-
abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours
only; and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal
glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and
it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by
agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver.
Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at
the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve,
which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides
over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and
irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces-
sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the
pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with
this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com-
plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the
organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by
the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from
other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami,
pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by
interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in
destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by
cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the
spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or
fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which
directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause
saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric
acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and
phlorizin.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion
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SACCHARINE DIABETES (SWEET URINE). 81
of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of
condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the
bowels, indigestion, and the presénce in the urine of a sweet princi-
ple—grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de-
tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be
detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of
the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70°
to 80° F. for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been
changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will
give indication of the amount of sugar transformed; thus a density of
1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15
grains of sugar to the fluid ounce.
Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse’s urine, and
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be
indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal-
lois’s test. vaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to
dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo-
rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is
changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis-
appears on cooling and reappears on heating.
In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and
belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted.
Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable
disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a
- run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-
aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda,
1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth
ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping,
or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas
may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be
mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, beans,
vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very
best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter-
milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic
acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often
entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism.
Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by
Doctor Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice
daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain,
bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re-
sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful
in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially
nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and
general health.
H. Doe. 795, 59-2
2
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82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA.
Cause-—As seen in the horse, bloody urine is usually the direct
result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins,
lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by
stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however,
occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub-
stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder.
Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape
of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is,
however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep,
the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse’s
blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin.
The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate
admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication
as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni-
formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder
or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding
from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules
and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro-
scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether
there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in
the bladder or urethra.
Treatment.—The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat-
ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and
then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be
avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or
urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin-
seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 8 drams,
acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of
turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water
to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still.
HEMOGLOBINURIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS).
Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form-
ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss
of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and. dark-
colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary
organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora
in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and
muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish
urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on
highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed
meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations.
The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work,
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BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. 83
even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi-
tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise
or work. The poisoning is rot present when taken from the stable, as
the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will
usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer-
cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the
sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the
gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of
nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi-
tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable
to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles.
It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses,
attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat,
and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable
than the docile gelding.
Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro-
duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani-
mals, including horses.
Symptoms.—tn the milder forms this affection may appear as a
lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud-
den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes
of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck.
The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full
ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred
paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable
suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving
flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling
body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid,
the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs
being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him-
self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but
there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The
pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of
brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark
brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules.
The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo-
rated constituents of the blood.
It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue,
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind
limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is
an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the
stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to
stand.
Prevention.—The prevention of this serious affection lies in re-
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8&4 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
stricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at
work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for
a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been con-
demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative
(one-half to 1 pound Glauber’s salts), and have graduated exercise,
beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day.
Treatment.—The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa-
tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce).
Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in-
stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of
potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The
latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys.
Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has
succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desira-
ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the
above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be
continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to
calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over
the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the
spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre-
tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re-
sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum
one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re-
peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it,
and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular
weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux
vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and
sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles.
During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and
in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along
the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he
must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side
at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he
may be helped up and even supported in a sling.
ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS.
Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, ac-
cording as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup-
purative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, ete.; but in a
work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under
acute or chronic inflammation.
Causes.—The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely
varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products
passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of
other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist-
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INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85
ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis-
ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is
another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the
escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and
tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom-
position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of
ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of
bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con-
sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the
bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or
other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp-
tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the
reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the
kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of
blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver
disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant
products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car-
ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and
injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff-
ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in
lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes
groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the
flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten-
derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony
processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed
frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes
mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the
microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by
acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the
resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen.
The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts
beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within
the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up
and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in
small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the
kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness.
Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause.
Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may
be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in
high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far
as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint
of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid-
neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be
supplemented by dram doses of Dover’s powder. Pain may be
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86 DISEASES OF. THE HORSE.
soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed
may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum
as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per-
sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin
pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in
against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a
blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens
and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and
the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been
started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of
Glauber’s salts.
During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple,
ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some
time after all active symptoms have subsided.
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.
Causes.—-Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly
associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form,
and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be-the only
prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on
blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected
with faulty conditions of the system—as indigestion, heart disease,
lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in
short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on
a simple local injury.
It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as
shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges-
tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases
rather than a disease by itself.
Symptoms.—The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and
increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine
(increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it
contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav-
ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad
cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom,
and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in
chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty
skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer-
tion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the
muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So
are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp-
toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and
casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation.
Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is
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DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87
liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else-
where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function
can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with
this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the
general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given
(phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian
root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic
acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele-
vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta-
tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute
inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus-
tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days.
In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu-
sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping
over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and
oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by
introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper
and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it
closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass
and to draw up the skin, like a sucker.
As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to
secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air.
TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS.
Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms
resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog-
nized during life.
PARASITES.
To parasites of the kidney belong the echénococcus, the larval, or
bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog;
also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder worm of an unknown
tapeworm; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the
urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro-
scopic hooklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine
and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of
roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence
can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the
entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus
equinus or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in
the kidney itself.
SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER.
This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the
bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may
be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body
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88 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these
will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the
horse, but by no means unknown in the mare.
Causes.—The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with-
out opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air
when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or
the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics,
the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence
of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in
harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination.
Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder,
hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief.
. Symptoms.—The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining
to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain
efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural
position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily,
paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks
back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts
to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum
the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient
will often shrink when it is handled.
It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is
often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because
the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced
backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder.
In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the
hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre-
quent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers
naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and
only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often
neglected until it is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has
caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that
organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in °
all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend, or loop,
at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The
impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with
the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil-
ient, overdistended bladder.
It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined
by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or
in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure
of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard,
impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the
lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median
line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part
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Geo. Marx,after D'Arboval. p 372. 371
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63
Structure of the Kidney. Diagranunatic
a, Medullary laver; b, Boundary xone,; ¢, Cortical layer, 1, Fecretors tube; 2,Open
ing on the summil of renal papilla; 3,lirst branch of bifurcation, % Second brancn
of bitiurcation; 5,Third branch of bifurcation ;, 6, Straight collecting tube; 7, June
tonal trbidle; &, Ascending portion of THentes loop, 9, Descending portion of Henle s
loop; 10, Loop of Henle. Il, Convoliuted tubule; 12, Malpighian corpuscte ;l3,Renal ar
tery; 14 Branch supplying the glomeriult, 135, Afferent vessel of the glomeriilt » 16,
Branch going directly: to the capillaries, li, Straight arterioles coming directly
from the renal artery, 18, Straight arteriole coming tron the atvterent vessel of the
glomerulus, 19, Straight artertole coming trom the capitlary placius, 20, Vascilar
loop of the pyramids, CL Efferent vessel of the glomerulus going to the capillary
plexus, 22,Capittary plecius of the glomerular part of the cortical substance ;
23,Capillary plecus of the pyramids of Ferre; <4 Cortical plextus of the kidney,
25, Venae stetlatae; 206,Vein coming trom the captllartes of the cortesc , 27, Inter
lobular veut, 28,Ven recening the verae rectie; 29, Venae rectae
Note . The shaded part of the urinary AUCs represent the part in which the
epithelium us rodded and of a granidar appearance
JULIUS BIEN 8 CO.N ¥
MICOS Digitized By Micrds0ff@K 1D N HY’
Digitized by Microsoft®
TRAN TENE Ds
Renal Glomerulus.
a, Artery of the glomerulus, b, Branch supplying the atterent
vessel of the Gglomeruliis, c, Afferent vessel of the glomeritde ;
d, Artery gowg directly to the capillary pleats of the cortical
SUOSTAILCE » C, capllary plexus ; LE Hlomerulius
Renal Glomerulus with its werentvessels and efferents .
a, Branch of renal artery; b, Afferent vessel of the
glommerilus ; C, Glomerulits ; A, Afferent vessel go-
ing into corpuscle eet Matpight
b 372 7 JULIUS BIEN & CO.
Geo. Marx,afier D Arboval . p 372 371
MICR¢ Widitized by Microsorey KIDNE
Digitized by Microsoft®
PIA Vil,
X 215)
Calculus of oxalate of line
Siraight Lorceps used
mremovtriy CUA,
Fiera casts. Sone deprived of
epithelium. lwo are deeper colored
trom the presence of urate of soda
Haines.del after Hurtrel DArboval JULIUS BIEN 8 CON
cALCcuLiDigitized byrlicrosoff® oR REMOVAL.
Digitized by Microsoft®
PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 89
of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is
usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu-
ating.
Treatment.—Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of
harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn
the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa-
thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with
dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow
whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc-
ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an
injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of
tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is
easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them.
In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press
trom before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder.
Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the
urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on
carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis
must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end
of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus
it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance
must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being
introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 34
feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical
instrument maker.
PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER.
Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has
been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way
from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and
hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and
in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all
these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of
disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken
back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and, it may be, of
the hind limbs.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when
the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs
and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is
retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be
expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of
the abdomen; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand
introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still
half full of urine. This retained urine is lable to decompose and
give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the
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90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup-
pression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction
of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy
should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course
of that duct.
Treatment.—Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de-
termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or
disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and
the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent
overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists
after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of
spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water
over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with
a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be
applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily
doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered
Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild
current of electricity daily may succeed.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER (CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS).
Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general.
It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat-
ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of
a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other
foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac-
terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the
bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained
decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and
irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating
urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex-
tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to
cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause
cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend
from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the
animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen,
looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently.
More characteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, result-
ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly floc-
culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which
persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan-
ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs
from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and
closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is
pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found
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DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 91
to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro-
duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of
the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through
the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily,
contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly
epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei
when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular
casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be
found on examination through rectum or vagina.
Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons
in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering
agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the
urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac-
uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed
out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This
must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes,
because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting
layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw
and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh
grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of
slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to
inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and
opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram,
tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great
advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli-
cation of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on
the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the
anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided,
a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and nux vomica one-half dram will
serve to restore lost tone.
IRRITABLE BLADDER.
Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad-
der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small
quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character
and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty-four
hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently
in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome
and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all
control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove
docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases
the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow-
erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares
during the period of “ heat.”
An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any
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92 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will
avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder
should be examined to see that there is ‘no stone or other cause of irri-
tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any
sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the
penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should
be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch
the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords
on its lower surface, or it may be’ prevented getting over the reins by
having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those
proving troublesome when “ in heat ” may have 4-dram doses of bro-
mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated.
Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna
extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam
copaiba (1 dram).
DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER.
These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse
I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially
troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a
narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine
and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder
with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may
be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the
finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more
satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed
by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment
is eminently unsatisfactory.
DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS.
This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of
the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged
into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage
of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is
prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of
the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine
is prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it
would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause
irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the
course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre-
quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small
caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction.
In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time,
while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently
with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen.
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DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 93
The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a
human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly
closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis-
sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little
skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying
of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible
so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine.
In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to
keep off the flies.
EVERSION OF THE BLADDER.
This can only occur’in the female. It consists in the turning of the
organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears
as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and
protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist,
or it may swell up to the size of an infant’s head. On examining its
upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side,
a short distance behind the neck. with the urine oozing from them
drop by drop.
‘This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the
bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression
during a difficult, parturition.
The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of
laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and
returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and
directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the
surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it
may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad
to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk
of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This
method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against
bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the
return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2
ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva.
(See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a
few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity
will favor retention.
INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET).
This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet
it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders.
It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the
passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel; by the irri-
tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without; by blows on
the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while
being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare
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94 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from
leucorrhea; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by
the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled
with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of
the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine,
which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi-
tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the
end of the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in
cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will
show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in
this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted will fail to com-
plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the
mare is liable to follow.
Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes 6
drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If
there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra
twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where
the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second
stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver
20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface
of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily)
may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has
appeared.
Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from
service, as should mares with leucorrhea.
STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA.
This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the
result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a
stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret-
ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane
occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of
that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine
stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful
erections. It must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe-
ters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a
day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them.
The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax
solution and well oiled before it is introduced.
URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OR GRAVEL).
These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre-
cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart
as a fine powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones,
of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ-
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STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95
ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the
healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be
thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is
important to observe the following analysis of the horse’s urine in
health:
Wailers cos 56 eee OU a Se 918. 5
WGA ot Sao 8 eet tS Se ee Sa en ae 13.4
Urie acid and urates__________________ fies ee te 1
Hippuric acids. 2.8 ee Ee tee 26. 4
Lactic acid and lactates___._______.-_-_--______ ee 1.2
Mucus and organic matter_._______.___________--_-___-_____ 22.0
Sulphates (alkaline) __.-.-____.--_________ ee 1.2
Phosphates (lime and soda) --___________________- 2
Chlorides (sodium) -—----_--_-______-___-----_--___-_____- 1.0
Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime)______________________ 16.0
1000. 0
The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine
of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore
forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded
crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this
material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some-
times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In
hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly
grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates—the prod-
ucts of the wear of tissues—the carbonates being the result of oxida-
tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore,
is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in
many cases is the most abundant constituent.
Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning
up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor-
tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed,
Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and
rabbit that, under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces,
oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid.
In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases
in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate
of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate cf lime in the
urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric
acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively,
as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tis-
sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out
in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids.
When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is
resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Weehler and Frer-
richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased
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96 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be
inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food
alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of
the body. An important element of its production is, however, the
imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is
liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis,
etc.). This is, above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed
to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food gener-
ally, potatoes, etc.).
Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the
urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon-
ate of lime—from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids)
becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag-
nesia derived from the food.
The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary
calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in
the urine in two conditions—(a) when the ration is excessive and
specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape
cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (b) when, through the morbid
destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones,
a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under
these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for-
mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained
in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off
ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag-
nesia to form a double salt—phosphate of ammonia and magnesia—
which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of
this salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much
more frequent in that of man and sheep.
These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form
ingredients in the horse’s calculi, for though iron and manganese are
usually present it is only in minute quantities.
The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion-
ably contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such
matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down
in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap-
proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider-
ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive
ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the
source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook
the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva-
tion of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension
of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of
solids is thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished
there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when
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STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97
the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi
are more common_in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those
denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly,
in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in
those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are
most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry
feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in
summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of
water by the skin.
In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis-
tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the
urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon-
ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be
again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of
the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents.
Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils,
as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire,
Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Landes,
in France; and Munich, in Bavaria.
But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions
can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an
efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and
immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a
large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu-
men, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood,
etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline
bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit-
ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess
without the formation of stone or gravel; and again ope with dilute
urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus.
Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only
show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter-
mined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but
they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres,
capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi-
fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition
is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and
bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi.
In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must
consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence
of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus
diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid-
neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma-
H. Doe. 795, 59-2——T 2
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98 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies
of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter-
mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is
now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte-
ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are
further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped
in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood.
The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the
magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from
goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro-
duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine
as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary
salts in the form of calculi.
CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI.
These have been named according to the place where they are
found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral
(urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been
otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit-
uent, carbonate of lime, owalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi.
The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth
on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the
cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of
the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations,
while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon
each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand,
have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them
the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that
fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood,
produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough
surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep
brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring
matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain.
Renal caleuli—These may consist of minute, almost microscopic,
deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but
more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The
larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the
pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded
swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline
surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white
aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been
called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough,
crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car-
bonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less
frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded,
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STONE, OR GRAVEL. 99
pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of
oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are
formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other,
and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a
loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus,
is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney.
These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and
without oxalate.
Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud-
denly, very often in connection with exhiusting work or the drawing
of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal
suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is
associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage
of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe-
cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and
pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid-
ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis
are added.
Uretral caleuli—These are so called because they are found in the
passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply
small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney
and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms
almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that
the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the
impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on
into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the
ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine
may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may
end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous
capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly
blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning.
Treatment of renal and uretral calculi—Treatment is unsatisfac-
tory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters
and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which
will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and
even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery
tuids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from
behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella-
donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of
the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the
same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be
kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by
soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also
favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to
carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool
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100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor-
tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins,
ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and
the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage
of urine with gritty particles, by stiffness of the loins and hind limbs,
and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run
at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long-
continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break-
ing down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense flvid by the
organic spongelike framework of the calculus causes it to swell and
thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con-
tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids
(muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and
cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these
methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys
develops, treat as advised under that head.
Stone in the bladder (vesical calculus, or cystic calculus). —These
may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is
rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color.
These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder
being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter.
The phosphatic calcul are smooth and white and formed of thin
concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out-
ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of
lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder
contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made
up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia.
‘This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass.
Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder
by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic
matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con-
sistency and without stratification.
Symptoms of stone in the bladder.—The symptoms of stone in the
bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough
mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane
and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled
with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times
the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain
and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic
variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether
absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incon-
tinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair
on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases
alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with
the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder
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STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101
can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most
easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not
grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to
move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is
present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation
is left.
In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced
through the short urethra.
Treatment of stone in the bladder—The treatment of stone in the
bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare
this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly
warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage
of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be feit
exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually
pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder
and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now
grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold
of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the
same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in
seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half
full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced
into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be
treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water.
The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro-
ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus
and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the
bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with
tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon
which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may
be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward
and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid
along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder.
The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being
simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back-
ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected
into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure
of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus.
The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and
from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide
it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin
at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The
skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand
pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed
with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in-
cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood
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102 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subse-
quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such
danger is to be apprehended.
If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may
be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the
forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem
bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an
obtuse angle, and having. on the same side a sliding bar moving in a
groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may bé
seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again
and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required
to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag-
ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way
must be washed out as advised below.
When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the
bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter
by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand
introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow
out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is
empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double
tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube
and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap-
parent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has
been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacu-
ation.
To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding.
(dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease,
wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must’
be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging
the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxa-
tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give
daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda.
Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the
tone of the stomach and system at large.
Urethral calculus (stone in the urethra).—This is less frequent in
horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra
in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform
appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed
there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to
pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through
the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore
are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the
chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs.
They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of
the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from
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STONE, OR GRAVEL. 103
that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them
most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and
immediately behind this.
Symptoms of urethral calculus.—The symptoms are violent strain-
ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water
in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the
swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of
a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will
strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested
higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive
knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface
of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the
neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus.
In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point
of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis-
tended tube fluctuating on pressure.
Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to
extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the
penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine-
pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a
probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated,
or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been
arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through
the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free
(protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from
its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind
the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between
the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered
tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has
been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision
must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for-
ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be
stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will
be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a
teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water.
Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or bilocular cavity) .—
These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also
applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the
blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end
of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy-
like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate,
phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic
matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the
sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and
smeared with sweet oil.
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DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
By W. H. Harpaueu, V. 8S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8., V. M. D.]
The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu-
merated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils;
the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the
sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the
pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing;
the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the
bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from
the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial
tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the
lungs.
The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the
walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure,
completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those
of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration,
and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of
respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do
with the diseases under consideration.
Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per-
ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near
the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting
the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the
opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from
the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or
fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely
separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the
nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous
compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones.
The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the
entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently
diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body.
The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with
the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same
membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the
volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its
weight.
The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the
nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than
104
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DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105
the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as
many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable
to know and study the causes.
CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given
under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or
badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and
terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are
changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract
disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to
prevent other exciting causes.
Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a
mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than
city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it
is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables
should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that
strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a
stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit
it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason
for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near
the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can
least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and
cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot
stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a
cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature
that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem-
perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease.
A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as
much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold
to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed
from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than
warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the
stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom-
ical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress
of pure air in order to make the stable warm.
Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers
allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is
a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves
gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a
horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation ;
rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat-
ment. When a horse is hot—covered with sweat—it is dangerous to
allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his
temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over
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106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often
causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro-
longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccus-
tomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should
be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When
the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or
cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent.
It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par-
ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but
they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will
often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con-
siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he
may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management.
WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS.
Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused
by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or
by getting “run into,” or by running against something. Occasion-
ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to
effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the
majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con-
servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts
should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much
time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably
interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging,
or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi-
tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir-
cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons’
silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk
thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept
clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed
away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40
parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object
on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two
halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him
rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days,
except when at work or eating.
TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS.
A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril,
under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a
horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of
a cheesy consistency.
Treatment.—If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed
out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out-
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COLD IN THE HEAD (NASAL CATARRH). 107
side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but
much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the
animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and
you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to
be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse
to quiet him; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor ;
now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the
back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the
tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the
blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large.
A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence.
Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean.
COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH.
Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom-
panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation
may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in-
side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes
of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in
young horses and in horses not acclimated.
Symptoms.—The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry,
congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish
red or red. Soon a watery discharge form the nostrils makes its
appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow
over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily
detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum
or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat
conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural.
To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper-
ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the
mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus-
tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will
have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature.
The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough
unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his
nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called “ blowing
his nose.” A few days after the attack begins the discharge from
the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous
state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse.
Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated.
Treatment.—This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or
bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become
chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be
worked for atime. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good
food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of
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108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The
benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This
is effected by holding the horse’s head over a bucketful of boiling
water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with
every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay
causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the
horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot
water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket,
but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas,
holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air.
The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day,
about fifteen or twenty minutes each time.
Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes,
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse
evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of
food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on
short rations.
If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections
(enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day,
but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild
character.
For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the
appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3
ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow-
dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a
day asa drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound
the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take
time, and do it right.
If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- -
fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment,
to be described hereafter.
If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con-
tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This
may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly
understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger-
ous diseases.
CHRONIC CATARRII (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES).
This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the
membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is
manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish
white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a
neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases
where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not
received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated.
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CHRONIC CATARRH (NASAL GLEET). 109
Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of
the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows
on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus
and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is
said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a
cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to
have caused it.” It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated
bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has
been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors
filling up the cavity.
Symptoms.—Great caution must be exercised when examining these
cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand,
horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was
nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This atfection is not contagious.
It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In
most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify
that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge
may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times
and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis-
charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under
and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul-
jar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem-
brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there.
If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders
to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion.
The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar
appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an
enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone
over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may
be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones,
or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the
horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the
food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on
the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth
of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the
sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted-
will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means
the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may
be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to
the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres-
sion where it is pressed upon with the finger.
Treatment.—The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before
treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in
poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri-
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110 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
tive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it,
should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head
favors the discharge.
The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule,
have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica-
tion are of the most value. *‘ For eight days give the following mix-
ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix
and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the
food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from
3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur
burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also
a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the
burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate
the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also
keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that
the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay
while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge
cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused
to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin
by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in
the usual way.
If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must
be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to
remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity
which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet
where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only
relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described,
this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non-
professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus
operandi.
An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection
of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining.
THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE.
This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the
breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common
cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet,
namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium,
etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only
is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding
the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is
closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will
demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction.
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TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. lil
NASAL POLYPUS.
Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion-
ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are
obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located.
They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not
manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber,
thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem,
or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber,
and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in
size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of
hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar-
ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy
snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of
blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can
be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the
affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem-
brane.
The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other
operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure
one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor
with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn
from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The
resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion,
such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils
with surgeon’s gauze.
PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS.
This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus,
the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the
tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as
before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the
back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into
the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath-
ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming
symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from
the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and
accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and
often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx
the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing.
These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the
trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal’s
mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand
back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re-
moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose.
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112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE.
This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely,
influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it
also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned,
is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose.
Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing—causing a rupture
of a small blood vessel—also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva-
riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood
escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when
the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs,
p. 186.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril
with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you
will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues,
pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over
the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to
the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor-
rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum.
Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril,
so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both
nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor-
rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of
acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water; or ergot, 1 ounce.
INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX.
As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both
respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes inte the
larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the
pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through
which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the
pharynx is a complication of other diseases—namely, influenza,
strangles, etc.—and is probably always more or less complicated with
inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent
affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with
the diseases of the digestive tract.
SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS.
The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just
back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some-
what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and
small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the
respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin-
uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords
being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little con-
sequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating
the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining
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SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 113
it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food
happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues
instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected.
This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign’substances gaining
access to the lungs. That projection called Adam’s apple in the neck
of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the
larynx.
Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis-
ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation
of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as “ sore
throat.” The chief causes are chilling and exposure.
Symptoms.—About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by
difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem-
brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to
the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel
the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of
the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In
many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and
in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however,
does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is
involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw-
bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx
induces coughing. The head is more or less “ poked out,” and has
the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose
becomes red. ppaf Hur.
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INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.
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ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS.
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DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 167
seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to
birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated
in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares.
If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy.
FRACTURED HIP BONES.
More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow-
ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. 2.)
Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are
repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging
into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the
broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con-
ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without
embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back-
bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part
of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas-
sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge
forward.
In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis
the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to
use her for work only.
If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently,
abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly
introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and fol-
lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro-
duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of
the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains
will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily.
TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS.
Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere
within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the
passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig-
ment tumors (melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most
likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina
becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro-
trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part
of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not
absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of
the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the
fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When
a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it,
but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc-
tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines.
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168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed
by the écraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu-
ally tightened until that is torn through.
HERNIA OF THE WOMB.
The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape
of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin
hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri-
cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus
can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize
the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may
start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition
arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper
abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the
aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This
failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation
brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even
after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and
abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the
oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought
into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed
to secure delivery.
TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.
This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally
seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of
the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on
its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward
(quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and
the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to
throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn-
ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck
and rendering distention and dilatation impossible.
The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin-
ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear-
ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb
will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner
surface.
The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow
may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her
head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn
toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left,
and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a
limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed
against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the
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DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169
animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep
the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends
the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the
spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward
into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be
repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my
occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo-
sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of
the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory
exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting.
The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach-
ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the
mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con-
cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the
equine subject.
When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro-
duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure 7, may be used.
Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a
stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or
other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The
cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru-
ment; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb
may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction.
During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the
twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces-
sary, by rolling the mare as described above.
EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL WALLS.
This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur
from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it.
This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so
characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous
membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as
ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the
wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram,
carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had,
if necessary, during parturition.
CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER.
The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may
prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor
pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced
through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should
be extracted with forceps. (See “ Lithotomy.”) The large papillary
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170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
tumors which I have met with in the mare’s bladder have been inva-
riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps.
Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed.
IMPACTION OF THE RECTUM WITH FECES.
In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail
and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that
the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by
reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure
upon it will impel the animal te cut short all labor pains. The
rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con-
dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or
well-soaped hand.
SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.
This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or
under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains,
though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the ne 6
the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or
two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the
womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening
is left, with rigid margins.
Treatment.—The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part
with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the
hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur-
ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac-
tion, as advised under “ Prolonged retention of the fetus.” Another
mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc
bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet loug. Carry
the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 test, insert
a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm
water.
FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB.
These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times
observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen
and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend
from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the
womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied
by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by
incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry-
otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision
into the abdomen and extract by the Cesarean operation, or simply to
cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel.
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 171
FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA.
This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and
the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re-
mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre-
sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc-
cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct
attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised
at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after
which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The
resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part
of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride
ts 1,000 parts of water.
FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB.
In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the
womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic
tisswe sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between
-av ‘vomb and fetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one commu-
nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are
prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes
after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of
septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive
and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In
such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the
foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached
with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the
fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted
with hope of success.
i. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS.
It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a
large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size
is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of
being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is
always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped
female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off-
spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show
them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the
very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives—to
induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and
to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. /
CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING.
In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around
a member of the fetus sometimes leads At8 the amputation of the
172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
‘ Jatter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at
birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as
the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb
and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however,
die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily
delivered.
WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS ) OF THE FOAL.
This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles
of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a
great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes
upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation
(fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress,
as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same
time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet)
all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when
progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In
the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the
enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing
it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating
the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior
presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed
along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punc-
tured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen-
tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward,
and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first
object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it
as above suggested.
DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES.
The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is
less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com-
pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the
foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail
to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind
legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress
ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of
the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its
soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity
and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may
be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest
and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between
the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the
diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be
easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 173
through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the
breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta-
tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed
with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the
flank or between the hind limbs. It’ should be added that moderate
dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the
liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still
engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad-
vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the
pelvis and passed out where it can expand.
GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS.
In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the
skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure
with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after
the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape
of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com-
monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured
nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had
to embryotomy.
SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA.
This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have
only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile
efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These
cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent
that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of
the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry
that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The
hair comes off any part that'may be seized, and the case is rendered
the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases.
The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving
a valuable mare that had cariied a colt in this condition for four
days.
CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES.
The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups
of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per-
sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted
and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this
part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the
head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the
right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are
contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In
neither of these cases gan tbe distonterbantehe extended and straight-
174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and
natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some-
times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to
which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back
of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this,
the next resort is embryotomy.
TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM.
Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal,
internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition.
In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel-
oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually
sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural
tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the
tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy.
MONSTROSITIES.
Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi-
tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some
part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun-
dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided
inte—
(1) Monsters with absence of parts—absence of head, limb, or
other organ.
(2) Monsters with some part abnormally small—dwarfed head,
limb, trunk, ete.
(3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts—cleft head,
trunk, limbs, etc.
(4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions—absence of
mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits; etc.
(5) Monsters through fusion of parts—one central eye, one nasal
opening, etc.
(6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts—curved
spine, face, limb, ete.
(7) Monsters through excess of formation—enormous head, super-
numerary digits, etc.
(8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs—
hermaphrodites.
(9) Double monsters—double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs,
ete.
Causes.—The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied.
Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc.,
run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form.
Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet-
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 175
rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex-
ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with
each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from
accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or
portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted.
Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each
having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one
having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav-
ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor
perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or
member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient
center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as
a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off.
In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac-
tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its
influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such
redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding
portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are
attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a
common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other
by corresponding points, naval to naval, breast to breast, back to
back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the
same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The
effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to
the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St.
Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break-
ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the
formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and
other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the
womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are
at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement,
mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi-
lar way,.acting probably through the same channels.
The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such
as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented
double ; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the
passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has
attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one fetus has become
inclosed in or attached to another, etc.
Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and
securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its
smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be
needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the
side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations
necessary to secure ang, Dre 4p, a missing member may be required.
176 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to
remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles
employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Cesarean section,
by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of
the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the
sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a
monster. (See “ Embryotomy,” p. 182.)
ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE.
Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of
both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog-
nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the
passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned
upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to
one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog-
nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run-
ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or
that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of
the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one
fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its
delivery will proceed in the natural way.
TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS.
Tusomipletsly extended. Flexor tendons short-
ened.
Fore limbs........ Crossed over the neck.
Bent back at the knee.
Bent back from the shoulder.
Bent downward on the neck.
Head and neck turned back beneath the breast.
Turned to one side.
Turned upward and backward on the back.
Anterior pres-Jtyoaq
entations.
Hind limbs .....-- Hind feet engaged in the pelvis.
Transverse......-- Back of foal to side of pelvis.
Inverted ....---.- thar of ie Hone of pelvis.
‘i ; ent on itself at the hock.
Posterior pres- Hind limbs --~-.- Bent at the hip.
entations. | Transverse..-..-.. Back of foal to side of pelvis.
Inverted ...-...-- Back of foal to floor of pelvis.
Transverse presentation of body-. Rin ese gets ieee a.
FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED.
In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the
knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the
front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to
the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the
fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The
condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against
the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim.
Relief is to be obtained_by forcible extension. A a4 ‘
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 177
noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate IX)
planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward
while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby
raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be
placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have
advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a
repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the
shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this
way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and
in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out.
This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a
ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.)
ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK,
With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the
resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers
a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand
introduced into the passage detects the head and one- fore foot, and
farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which
the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck.
If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may
-bruise and lacerate the vagina. By siezing the limb above the fetlock
it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu-
rition will proceed normally.
FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE.
The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee o.
the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig.1.) First
place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push
back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing
the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and
bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by
little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock,
and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when
parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are
bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above,
one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the
right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb.
FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER.
In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting
limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XI, fig. 4.)
By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn
forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the
H. Doe. 795. 59-2__Digitized by Microsoft® :
178 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and
seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed
back by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or
on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up
into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in
the last paragraph.
HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS.
This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can
be felt. far back between the fore limbs, or so that only. the upper
border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back
beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the
two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until
the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist-
ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted
upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes
the natural position and parturition is easy.
When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible
to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the
limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by
dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers
may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being
pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only,
and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph.
If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into
the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on
its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare
may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele-
vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the
ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be at-
tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp
hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached,
and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the
foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul-
sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins
of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the
head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer
and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be
straightened out on the neck.
All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs
(embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head.
If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to
push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind
limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and
delivery effected with the posterior presentation.
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179
HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER.
In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along
the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck
turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach.
(Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable
to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is
turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being
noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for-
ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the
head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such
displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free
use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into
the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be
reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until
the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult
cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the
aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon
this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same
way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between
the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into
position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be
resorted to as advised under the last heading.
HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK.
This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of
the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and
is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate
XIV, fig. 2.) Ifa rope can be passed around the neck it will prove
most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is
straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach.
HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS.
In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind
limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind
feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the
more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis.
(Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc-
ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet
will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push
them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing’
in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the
attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car-
rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the
repulsion thereby toads rr UnscHe of continued failure
180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off
as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see “ Embryotomy ”) ; then
nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these
while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re-
maining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation.
ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE.
The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic
passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the
pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar-
row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos-
sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the
passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard,
the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move-
ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are
turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes
natural.
BACK OF THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS.
In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi-
tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the
body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head
and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis.
Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and
head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on
her back.
In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the
foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to
make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore
limbs, after which extraction will usually bea easy.
HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK.
In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up
beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by
reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced
can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in
the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a
rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push
the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up
‘into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the
foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be
protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the
brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the
pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation,
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION: 181
some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia
and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator
fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open:
First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend
the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in
this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint
and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted.
HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP.
This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de-
scribed. (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be
passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward,
so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom-
plished, nooses are placed,on the limb farther and farther down until
the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met
with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort.
HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR
DOWNWARD.
These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and
are to be managed in the same way.
PRESENTATION OF THE BACK.
This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with
the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the
entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into
the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ox-
tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds
to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above
or below.
In any such position the object should be to push the body of the
fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring
up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage
so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This
turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother,
by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the
use of a propeller.
PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN.
This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended
across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward
the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate
XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet
i t f d into th b. AC
with nooses and then push the on fee t forwar into the wom Ss
182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
goon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the
pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into
the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it
prove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed
around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a
rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed
back.
EMBRYOTOMY.
This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk
and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop-
tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will
vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of
one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size.
Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or
both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or
to remove superfluous hincrisirous parts. Some of the simplest opera-
tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision
_ of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to
notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by
the skilled anatomist.
Amputation of the head.—This is easy when both fore limbs are
turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more
difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as
in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the
lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided
circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the
ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision
is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected
from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other
soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebra
(neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage
of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi-
cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck
may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle,
the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In
the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck
must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached,
a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial
opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed
as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have
been brought up into position.
Amputation of the hind limb.—This may be required when there
are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock
or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that
for removal of a fore Bra, but, Bes more anatomical knowledge.
DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 183
Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the
skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the
groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be
reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles
around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments
of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by
strong dragging.
Amputation of the fore limbs.—This may usually be begun on the
fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife
is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly
hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large
enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the
blade inserted-in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed
out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around
the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en-
tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of
the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin
from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side,
and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side.
Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast-
bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the
whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper
part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be
cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be
removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes
the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer
advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as
to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The
preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in
various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at
the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful
- incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a
means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In
dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all
points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles,
or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is mean-
while held tense to render the spud effective.
In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round
that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips
of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock
are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the
lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful
to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the
‘tod 4 last raph.
same as described in ihe ast Ay Morb soh®
184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so
wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very.
difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint
and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the
upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of
the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc-
tures were cut with the knife.
Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints
and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with
cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in
the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords
around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them; then remove
the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin,
draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward
beneath it.
Reuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife
separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter
draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along
with them the hind limbs.
The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these
procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means
of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with
extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage
and utilize them for traction.
Removal of the abdominal viscera.—In case the belly is unduly
large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful
to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents.
Removal of the thoracic viscera—To diminish the bulk of the chest
it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the
heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free
ends overlapping each other.
Dissection of the trunk.—In case it becomes necessary to remove
other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of
preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this
as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising
traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to
protect the vaginal walls against injuries fror: bones while such
part is passing.
FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB.
This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a
failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with
eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera-
tion. If the blood acctmulates in the flaccid womb, the condition
may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness
vier eee “Digitized by Microson® &
DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185
swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other
mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in-
troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly
clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident.
Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv-
ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of
cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides
this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still
better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the
womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the
walls generally.
EVERSION OF THE WOMB.
If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after-
pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the
organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole
inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs.
The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction
of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all
of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass.
In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent
position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc-
tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on
the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet
should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign
bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india
rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches
wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most
dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good
ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass
of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a
strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through
which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. ,
The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those
portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or
the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within
itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the
return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even
by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be
made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely
wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into
the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the
operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the
full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to
straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still
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186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial
inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which
it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as
before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual me-
chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva.
The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long.
These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate
IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is
adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried
up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound
round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper
part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends,
belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward
between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of
the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col-
lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to
the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the
mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so
that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should
be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent
straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram),
and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa-
tive or binding diet.
In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return
of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2
ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare
must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform.
RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB.
This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or
from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take
place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant
dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through
the opening and their fatal injury by the mare’s feet or otherwise, and
peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and
from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping
into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound,
but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In
the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately
sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb
must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half
ounce, or carbolic acid, 8 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in-
flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed ‘continuously with
hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium
(one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily.
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DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 187
RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA.
These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup-
ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the
bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri-
form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the
bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In
still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice
with the vulva.
Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at-
tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The
simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the
muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is
never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound
communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill
and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I
can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons.
BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA.
(See “ Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls,” p. 169.)
INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM.
These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or
after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant
infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the
inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi-
tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation
tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is
likely to occur.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring
coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing,
inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking
back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge
from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and
later. it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases.
Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character-
istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is
more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation
tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent
discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by
extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning.
Treatment.—In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal
of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout-
chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is
fitted. W water should be passed until it comes away clear. To
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188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand
may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns .
successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed,
the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu-
tion 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter,
2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice daily. Ffomentation
of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may
greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice
or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce,
may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi-
cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of
soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to.
LEUCORRHEA.
This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin-
ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb.
Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of
bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of
the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge.
Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of
iron, 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described
under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection
(carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1
quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day.
LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION.
This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre-
quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with
those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ.
DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS,
CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.
This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the
udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy
swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of
the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both
of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is
dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at
times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows
general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in
abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun-
dation for a tumor of the gland.
Treatment.—The treatment is simple so long as there is only con-
gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated
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DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189
oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with
the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When
active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be
kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam-
phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and
extract of Selladonne. A cose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar-
bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce
saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates
in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes
fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic °
acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat.
In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts
opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in-
jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a
small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer.
(Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally
and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu-
ates must be opened freely: with the knife and the cavity injected
daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard
and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part,
vaseline 6 parts.
TUMORS OF THE UDDER.
‘
As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat
of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri-
ously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell-
ings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine,
the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often
implicated and has to 32 removed, such mares can not in the future
suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred.
SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS.
By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub-
ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita-
tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome.
The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots
burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before
parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats
use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and
sulphate of zine 5 grains.
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DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
By M. R. TRUMBowER, V. S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.J
THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of
organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish
a communication between the centers and the different parts of the
body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole
may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebro-spinal
system; second, the sympathetic, or ganglionic system. Each is
possessed of its own central and peripheral organs.
In the first, the center is made up of two portions—one large and
expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elon-
gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the
canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys-
tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in
symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary
muscles, and the organs.
In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con-
nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on
each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to
the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels.
The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at
the junctions. -
Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma-
tion of nervous matter, namely, the white or medullary, and the gray
or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in
consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected
by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct
forms—nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells
constitutes a nerve ganglion.
The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to
place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end
organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act
as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also
190
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DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191
for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A
nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense
areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath—the neurilemma.
Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong: Divided nerves
do not retract. .
Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and
are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The
stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve.
Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied.
‘When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting
up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of
them; they retain their individuality from their source to their
termination.
Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory,
or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to
organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of
the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms,
as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body
in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or
depress the activity of another.
The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra-
nium, which may be divided into four parts—the medulla oblongata,
the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum—and it is cov-
ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these
membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which
lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of
the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the
canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and
loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leav-
ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro-
spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain
from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher-
ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more
vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops,
and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves.
The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord,
extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very
large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part join-
ing the cord.
The pons Varoliz is the transverse projection on the base of the
brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the
cerebrum.
‘The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity,
immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical
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192 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the
cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter
in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move-
meuts; that is, of-so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a
definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause “isturbances of the
equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence.
The ceredrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the
cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base,
and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of
the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the
cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities.
Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and
willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be
like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of
the internal and external stimuli which act upon it.
The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro-
spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone,
and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind
the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two
lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates
‘posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of
nerve trunks—cauda equine. A transverse section of the cord reveals
that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter
internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal.
The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the
membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid.
The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each
by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The
nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and
arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting
from before backward. They also receive special names, according
to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz:
1. Olfactory. 7 Facial.
2. Optic. 8. Auditory.
3. Oculo-motor. 9. Glosso-pharyngeal.
4, Pathetic. 10. Pneumogastrie.
5. Trifacial. 11. Spinal-accessory.
6. Abducens. 12. Hypoglossal.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES.
Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the
anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole
at once, Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary
inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct
mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bo f th -
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 193
nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma-
tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly
the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate
relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes
involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in-
flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam-
mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses—
the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the
brain—without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma-
tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly
called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected, it is
called meningitis; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. Since all
of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized
separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered
together.
ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEREBRITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS
MEMBRANES).
Causes.—Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme
changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over-
feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as
concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes
as sequelee to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon
the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation: from neighboring
structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc.
Symptoms.—The diseases here grouped together are accompanied
by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso-
ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point
unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate
mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating
depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased.
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac-
tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute
attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condi-
tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or
spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The
animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and
delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and
coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated,
convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where
the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be
‘the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will
be quick and hard; in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila-
tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The
H. Doe. 795, 59-2—13 2
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194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease
approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute
attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies
before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve-
ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral-
ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise
in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to
increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a
decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character
of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the
structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral-
ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic
rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be-
comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik-
ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury.
Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop-
ping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability
of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may -go
through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as
trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a
circle persistently. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels
is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re-
tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed.
Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and
consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of
temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the
head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and
does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip.
Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or
may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison-
ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by
excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal
usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does
not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or
shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and
sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one
limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some
variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the
disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic
encephalitis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without
much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If im-
provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse
order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic
effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain
sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 195
acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda-
tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space.
Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of
cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a
result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms
are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or
fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect
control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some
cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char-
acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or
abscess within the brain.
Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct-
ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually
become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing
their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated.
This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend
along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete
paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death.
Lesions.—On making post-mortem examinations of horses which
have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an
excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with
correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents
and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period
of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en-
gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the
tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened.
If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found
more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the
brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the
convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the
membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different
cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and
are found attached to the surface of the pia mater.
In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous
effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in
the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of
membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater,
and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra-
nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found em-
bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious,
causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The menin-
gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found
between the membranes covering the brain.
In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there
is a tendency ta softening and suppuration and the formation of
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196 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur-
rounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and some-
times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development
the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining
membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are
generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance
of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor.
Treatment.—In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the
membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended
and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma-
tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very
early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to
Jessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels,
the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to
contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished
in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere-
britis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan-
gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby
lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the
attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only
partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod-
ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the
main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the
animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much
as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the
initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or
stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should
apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur-
pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often
as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal
is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good
results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while
there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head
are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept
on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct
softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat
from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be
made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given
at one dose: Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered
ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops.
The.animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from
noise as possible. When the animal becomes,thirsty half an ounce of
bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six
hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the
action of the purgative. Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, in
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN.. 197
20-drop doses, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract
of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified
and the pulse regular and full.
If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the
advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early
stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec-
tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every
six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus-
tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed
in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration.
If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis), we must
place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental
treatment as special symptoms may demand. JIodide of potassium in
2-dram doses should be given three times a day and 1 dram of calo-
mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem-
branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to
which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given
every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated.
After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides
cintment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects
remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of
strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may
be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular
twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene-
fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery.
Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early
treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis-
posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed
to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat.
When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be
treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due
to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism,
toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their
removal or mitigation.
Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess-
ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by
the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the
diagnosis is largely presumptive.
CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS.
Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the
vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or
passive—active when there is an undue determination of blood or
diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the
vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins.
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198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Causes.—Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of
the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of
extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc.
Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction
which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the
heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the
blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course,
and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation.
Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject
to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is
merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree
involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con-
trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries
and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a
stroke of apoplexy.
Symptoms.—Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani-
festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly
and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger,
make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and
stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by
coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however,
the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and
giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or
to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may
be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im-
perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi-
bility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In
milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and
ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications.
Pathology.—In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are
loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme
degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual
compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post-
mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through-
out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from
inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are
confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con-
gestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case
we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain.
In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find
the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases
where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found
permanently dilated.
Treatment.—Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the
circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar,
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SUNSTROKE. 199
the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse
should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or
abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To
revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold
water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber’s
salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard
water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain
after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will
be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain.
Prevention.—Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the
collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade;
regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex-
cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy
movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness,
pure water, etc.
SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION.
The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu-
sively by exposure to the sun’s rays, as the word signifies, but by the
action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere.
Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential
factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un-
dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb
to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the
sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering,
feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun-
stroke.
Symptoms.—Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops,
drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon-
scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very
slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of
the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness.
The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F.
In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some
time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally
perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the
breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils
dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse
is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness
and -death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a
long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may
persist.
Pathology.—Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain,
often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes
this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital
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200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete
stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want
of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due
to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the
heart’s action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also
changes in the composition of the blood.
Treatment.—Under no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in
sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and
along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6
ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water
should be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or
otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down
to 108° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits
of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim-
ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become
stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred,
preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva-
lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona
bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening.
Prevention.—In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges
or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be
sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper
attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess.
During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven-
tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or
disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the
system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they
want while they are at work during hot weather.
An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to
have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting
causes. .
APOPLEXY, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE.
Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true
apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with
blood extravasation and formation of blood clot.
Causes——Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy,
the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen-
eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause
is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion.
Symptoms.—Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa-
tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath-
ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be-
comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases.
If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited,
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. - 201
sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent
and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the
brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extrava-
sated blood; hence these conditions are very variable.
In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem-
perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain
in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the
brain, or sunstroke.
Pathology.—In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous
condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of
their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol-
lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere-
brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible
pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing
local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may
recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes
place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or
softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render
the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death.
Treatment.—Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all
stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams
of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary.
Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be
harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is
extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to
diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to
subsequent attacks.
COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN.
Causes.—In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone
may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is
robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due
to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach-
noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through
compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct
cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis.
Symptoms.—Impairment of all the special senses and localized
paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the
brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be
our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the
paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of
the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert
veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering
compression.
Treatment.—Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of
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202 . DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign
bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute
diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such
as the exigencies of the case demands.
CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN.
Causes.—This is generally caused by an animal falling over back-
ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose;
by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often
cause concussion of the brain.
Symptoms.—Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness,
stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme-
diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The
animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the
spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or
stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more
severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable
time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible
to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold,
muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a
variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked
by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear,
etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im-
pairment of some organs remains.
Pathology.—Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at
least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe
to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with
their respective symptoms of functional derangement.
Treatment.—The first object in treatment will be to establish reac-
tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be
accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani-
mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil
and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases
this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more
severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and
above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness
stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given.
Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos-
sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction
may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then
have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants
should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned
as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further
treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed-
ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203
this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is
never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when
he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the
lungs in inspiration.
Prevention.— Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first
few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre-
quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their
balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus
causing brain concussion when they strike the ground.
ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN.
This is a physiological condition in sleep.
Causes.—It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when
the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with.
In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting
fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing
within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the
supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia,
ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most
frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by
a blood clot.
Symptoms.—Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently
a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or
epileptic fits occur.
Pathology.—The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood
vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub-
stance softened. ;
Treatment.—Removal of the remote cause when possible. General
tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous
excitement.
HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN.
This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or
in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of
external and internal hydrocephalus.
External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con-
sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the
brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied
by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore-
head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The
disease is incurable and usually fatal.
Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists
in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities
or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may
be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood
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204 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long-
continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre-
disposed to this condition.
The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and
from their nature this disease is sometimes known as.“ dumminess ”
or “ immobility.” A horse so afflicted is called a‘ dummy.” Among
the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem-
ory, etc. The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with
a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is
there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being
placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to
drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the
bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration
becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are
periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain.
At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so
afflicted is said to have “staggers.” The outlook for recovery is not
good.
Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri-
tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly
indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels
should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of
small regular doses of Glauber’s salts.
TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM.
Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre-
quently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of
voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more
common tumors are the following:
Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not
very uncommon.
Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a
tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying
loose within the cranium.
Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently
met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any
appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all
ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both
of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus.
Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in
the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance
are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt.
Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc-
tures of the brain.
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205
Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the
structure of the cerebellum.
Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible.
SPASMS, OR CRAMPS.
Causes.—Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain
and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the
motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any
part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate
an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be
induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by
effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid
strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the
circulatiom, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonite
spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity,
as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration,
or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary
as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines,
and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development.
Spasm of the glottis —This is manifested by a strangling respira-
tion; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme
anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the
body profusely perspiring; pulse very: rapid; soon great exhaustion
becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very
dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time.
Spasms of the intestines.—(See “ Cramp colic,” p. 58.)
Spasms of the neck of the bladder—This may be due to spinal irri-
tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre-
quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate.
Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps.——Spasmodic contraction of
the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally
occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or
road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces
irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become
very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among
horsemen as “thumps.” This condition may be distinguished from
violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of
the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the
body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each
other. (See “ Palpitation of the heart,” p. 236.)
Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb.—This is frequently
witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors—generally in
cold weather—or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is
probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps
of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex
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206 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the leg are unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but
is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however,
appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change
position. This cramp may be of short duration—a few minutes—or
_it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a
dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back-
ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after
him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form.
Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of
the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was
unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed.
Treatment of spasms.—An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro-
form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles
will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where simgle exter-
nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul-
phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest
and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of
whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring
relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo-
dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv-
ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character
demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes
relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of
the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement
caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about
immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be
used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda-
num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer-
tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may
return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it
does very quickly.
Convulsions.—Although there is no disease of the nervous system
which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the
word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often
such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place.
General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body,
with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions,
and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita-
tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is
required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self-
limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move-
ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood,
the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the
exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce
the most reliable and speedy. sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil-
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DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 207
ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy
so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned.
Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal
of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm.
CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE.
Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary
muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to
pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms
in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting
granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and
other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance.
Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud-
den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking.
This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency
to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of
the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground
the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the
ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect
one of the fore legs, cr the muscles of one side of the neck or the
upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the
hip or thigh is seen occasionally. and is termed “shivering” by
horsemen.
Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so
frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary
muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce
much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be
regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion.
Treatment.—In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec-
tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1
dram; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram; pulverized scutellaria, 1 ounce.
Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the
form of Fowler’s solution is often beneficial. If the cause is con-
nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful.
EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS.
The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions.
In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is
located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain
may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice
a year or they may be of frequent recurrence.
Symptoms.—No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit.
The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the
jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be-
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208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls
down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the
breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes
off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return
of consciousness.
Treatment.—Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm.
After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed
twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the
tonic prescribed for chorea.
PARALYSIS, OR PALSY.
Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction.
by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation’ of the
motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and
the éncomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and
sensibility are affected; the latter those in which only one or the other
is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The
latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small
portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig-
nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from
the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis.
Causes.—They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the
brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease
of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce
suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures.
Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the
parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed
a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the
various forms of palsy.
General paralysis——This can not take place without producing
immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis
of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are
involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the
brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy,
concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure
is involved in functional disturbance.
Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half, of the body.—Hemi-
plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of
the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from
extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi-
sons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or
the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma-
tory character, it is seldom complete; it may affect only one limb and
one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off
in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the
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PARALYSIS. 209
primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia
arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain,
or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened
by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most
cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well
as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in
the paralysis.
Symptoms.—tIn hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the
animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of
the lips will be relaxed; the tongue may hang out on one side of the
mouth; the tail curved around sideways; an inability to swallow food
or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as
it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be
entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes
unnaturally warm. in cases wherein the attack is not so severe the
animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have
great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal
may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is
complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare.
Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities —Pa-
ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam-
mation affecting the spinal cord. (See “ Spinal meningitis,” p. 211,
and “ Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irrigation
from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal. irritation or congestion
caused by blood poisons, etc.
Symptoms.—When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord,
from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive
in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by
agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent.
Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a
weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail.
The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is
pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages
may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-
conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and
bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and
necessitate his destruction.
Locomotor atauia, or incoordination of movement.—This is charac-
terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs.
The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out
of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or
stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind
parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it
may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are
H. Doce. 795, 59-2. 14 2
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210 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on |
the base of the brain.
Local paralysis——This is frequently met with in horses. It may
affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very
frequently overlooked in diagnosis.
Facial paralysis—This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is
due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial
muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the
brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon-
gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle.
Symptoms.—A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous
lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in
chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking.
Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring.—This condition is character-
ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro-
phied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal
nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con-
dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent
nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by
plastic exudation.
Paralysis of the rectum and tail_—This is generally the result of a
blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone
and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum
and muscles belonging thereto. This facture would not be suspected
were it not for the loss of motion of the tail.
Intestinal paralysis—Characterized by persistent constipation;
frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the
movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion,
or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the
bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition
may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud-
den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels
or paralysis.
Paralysis of the bladder.—This usually affects the neck of the blad-
der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles
away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin,
disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury
to the spinal cord, ete.
Paralysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis.—A paralysis of eyesight
may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain,
acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive
doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the
pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but. does not
respond to light.
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SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211
Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial
paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels
from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of
deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the
supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended.
Treatment for paralysis.—In all paralytic affections there may be
anesthesia, or impairm.cznt of sensibility, in addition to the loss of
motion, or there may be Ayperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in
connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for
special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where
hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve
suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from
3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is
marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to
secure the animal in such a way that he can not ‘suffer serious
injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat-
ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and
attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the
cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general
external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong
irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi-
plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the
neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths
will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of
powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a
day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then
discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a
smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide
of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em-
ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or
obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler’s solution
of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water
proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the
application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring,
facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not
too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise
if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should
be observed in all cases.
SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING
THE SPINAL CORD.
Causes——This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood
poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of
injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebra, rheumatism, etc.
Symptoms.—A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or
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212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul-
sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity
along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly
and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para-
plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes
sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the
beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead
us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions
usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the
meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two;
practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about
the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic,
and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts
of it, posterior to the seat of the disease.
Pathology.—In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same
condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum
between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent
to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time
after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord.
Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the
cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses..
Treatment.—Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine,
to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con-
trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood’s tincture
of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained.
One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas-
cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six
hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the
pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected
hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement
as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn
off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener-
ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better
some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the
treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda-
tive products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of
the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodide of potassa in
2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a
day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day
and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed.
Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened museles is advisable; the
current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or
three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of
‘the vertebrae, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be
destroyed at once.
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DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. | 213
MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD.
This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin-
gitis or ‘njuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury,
phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it.
Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may invoive
the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess,
or degeneration.
Symptoms.—The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the
muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the
bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either
retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by
complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of
the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The
paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper
circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular
eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs
form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery
takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when
all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time,
until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death.
Pathology.—The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length
of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others;
when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con-
fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened,
often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements
are degenerated.
Treatment.—Similar to that of spinal meningitis.
SPINAL CONGESTION.
This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels
of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord,
peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The
symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis
and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is
almost invariably affected also.
Cause.—Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise,
blows, and falls.
Symptoms.—The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case,
and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal
tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower-
ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the
seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter-
ference in breathing andthe action of the heart. When in the region
of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the
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214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia
may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or
muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal
congestion from spinal meningitis.
Treatment.—Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses
fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture
of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel-
iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to
recover.
SPINAL ANEMIA.
This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal
embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with
the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression,
thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be
caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of periph-
eral irritation of some nerve.
Symptoms.—Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in
extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the
weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in-
creased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con-
gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain.
Treatment.—If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re-
covers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening.
SPINAL COMPRESSION.
When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it
produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con-
traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes
complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed
part of the cord.
Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis,
disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in-
creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec-
tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite
side.
Treatment.—When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam-
matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated.
When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure
from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit.
SPINAL HEMORRHAGE.
This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in
connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The
blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity,
and large clots be formed.
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DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 215
Symptoms.—The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat
and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com-
pression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia,
accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the
paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first;
on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or
diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot.
When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi-
cates that the spinal cord is compressed.
Treatment.—In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse,
whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to
apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or
congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of
tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have
been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses
may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of
sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and
lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should
be kept perfectly quiet.
SPINAL CONCUSSION.
This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently
severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected.
It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced
by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches
may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or
spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and
some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic
effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until
the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary
effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be
treated as heretofore directed.
SPINAL TUMORS.
Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco-
mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the
meninges and the vertebra, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and
affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we
may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms
of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal.
Symptoms.—Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal
irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop-
ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain
muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis
induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the
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216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is
within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be
present.
Treatment.—General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may
be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three
times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary
benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal.
NEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE.
This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation
in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery.
The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of
the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil-
tration of serum mixed with pus.
Symptoms.—Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and
absence of swelling or increased heat of the part.
Treatment.—Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor-
phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an
inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below
the ligature.
NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE.
Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve
or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or
wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation
of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of
months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath
of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval,
running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve.
Symptoms.—Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more
especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the
tumor it causes extreme suffering.
Treatment—Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve
above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound.
INJURIES TO NERVES.
These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching,
compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend
upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may
quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or
cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other
serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some
form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessa-
rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the
principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a nart is due.
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FORAGE POISONING. 217
It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve
has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to
remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat-
ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations,
the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part,
and rest.
FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS.
This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United
States. It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri,
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it
almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de-
pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water
containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown
to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers’ grains, oats, etc.,
or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami-
nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis-
ease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and
the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy.
In England a similar disease has been called “ grass staggers,” due
to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten
while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn-
sylvania it was formerly known by the name of “ putrid sore throat ”
and “ choking distemper.” A disease similar in many respects, which
is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is
commonly known by the name of “ blind staggers,” and in many of
the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of
worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this
disease.
Symptoms.—The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic,
cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses,
namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In
the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp-
toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal
may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil-
ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of
the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. Asa rule, the tem-
perature is not elevated—indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This
is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand,
delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto-
matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become
very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head
in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him
quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in
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218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
from four to twenty-four hours from the time the first symptoms be-
come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis-
ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very
rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch-
ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be-
comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica-
tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the
tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when
we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than
normal. There is noeyidence of pain; the respirations are unchanged,
and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be some-
what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two
or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power
to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty
in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may ap-
pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing
stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to
stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of
the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten
days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is
no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress
of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol-
lows, painless and without a struggle.
In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the
limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never
entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move-
ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth
day and recovers.
In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may
be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether
absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal-
lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma
remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover.
When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually
leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis
may remain for some time, rarely persistent.
One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later
time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three
attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time.
Treatment.—In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi-
cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal-
low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to
6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia
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TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219
vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse
consciousness.
In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and
the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain
doses twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder
muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The
strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia
or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain
doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every
four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a
heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and
excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such
food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly
before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling
and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance.
Pathology.—Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more
or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and
effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the
cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened
in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action
existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely
negative, no gross lesions being visible.
Hygienic measures needful.Whenever this disease appears in a
stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They
should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained
stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food
and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable
should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat
of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of
water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are
replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im-
portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased
grain, hay, and grass.
TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW.
_ This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of
the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by
the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are
rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con-
tractions of convulsive violence.
Causes.—This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in
the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab-
sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes
the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point
©
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220 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed, and is carried by
the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is
poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous
than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote
from the oxygen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especially
dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be
traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of
tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the
introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may
come on a long time after the wound is healed—three or four months.
In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump-
tion is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, ex-
citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug-
gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the
result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares.
Symptoms.—tThe attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute
attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms
which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and
swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner
part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination
of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full
extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita-
bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The
muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are
moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws
the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail
is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become consti-
pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much
changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra-
vated until all the muscles are rigid—in a state of tonic spasm—with
a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration
breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the
spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely
set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di-
lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony
until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much
affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the
spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws
may never become entirely locked; the nervous excitability and rigid-
ity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some
stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned
over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for
owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after
the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad-
ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually
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TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 22
diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage
wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In
some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con-
fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In
such cases we have complete ¢rismus (lockjaw), and all the head
symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the
head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per-
fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling.
Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but
the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the
difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx,
and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the
distinction.
Prevention. Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it
is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of
tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder-
mic syringe. Ay
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FRACTURES. 305
weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the
necessary applications of dressings and other appliances for the pur-
pose of securing the indispensable immobility of the parts, and
usually a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients
are considerations in this connection of great weight.
Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious
point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is
the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during
treatment—certainly for a considerable period of time; perhaps per-
manently. For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just
fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar
accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extrem-
ities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately
as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it
is exceedingly difficult to treat a fracture in such a manner as to
restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of
a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not
necessarily impair their value as breeders. Other specifications under
this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be
omitted.
Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young,
growing, robust patient whose vis vitw is active is amenable to treat-
ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies
would be unable to endure; and a docile, quiet disposition will act
cooperatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by
the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer.
The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures.
The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly
as possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in
that position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provi-
sional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the
second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscar-
riage which might disturb the curative process.
In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that
the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and
his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this
must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot,
so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method
of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two
ways present themselves—he must either walk or be carried. If the
first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order
to obviate additional pain for the suffering animal and to avoid any
aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support, if
practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If
H. Dov, 795, 59-2 20 2
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306 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
he is carried, it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambu-
lance; the latter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would,
of course, be the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should
never be overlooked, a temporary dressing should first be applied.
This may be so done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the
permanent adjustment and bandaging. Without thus securing the
patient, a fracture of an inferior degree may be transformed to one of
the severest kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable
injury. We recall a case in which a fast trotting horse, after running
away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on
the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and
walked with comparative ease some 2 miles to a stable before being
geen by a surgeon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was
advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down,
and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well-
marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable
displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a
comparatively good recovery and though with a large bony deposit,
a ringbone, was able to trot among the forties.
The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or
replacement, and retention.
In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the
necessity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place
by an intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the unin-
jured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there
is no disloeation to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered
impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions alone,
or by the resistance arising from muscular contraction. This is
illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding diffi-
culty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus
together, the muscular contraction being even in these animals sufli-
ciently forcible to renew the displacement.
It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and
then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be con-
sidered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the
more superficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of
the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations
and appliances for their retention in their normal positions, hence
the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same.
The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of
each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet dif-
ferent circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the
bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction con-
sists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while
the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being
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FRACTURES. . 307
the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces.
If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in
order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of
the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been
brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treat-
ment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the
fragments are pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to
which they give-insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by
certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accom-
plished by effecting the movements of extension, counter extension,
and coaptation. Extension is accomplished by making traction upon
the lower portion of the limb. Counter extension consists in firmly
holding or confining the upper or body portion in such a manner
that it shall not be affected by the traction applied to the lower part.
In other words, the operator, grasping the limb below the fracture,
draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw
away, but simply to hold still the upper portion until the broken
ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when
the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent
by the proper dressings to perfect the reduction.
In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is
usually ‘sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of
the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly
held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone
itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired
coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular
contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the
bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode,
the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage-
ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of
both hands for the further manipulation of the case.
But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it
is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose mus-
cular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In
such a case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the
necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference
to the mode of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of
the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first
to be carefully cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad
leather strap about 18 feet long, passed under and around his body
and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point
opposite to the animal and toward his back. This will form the
mechanical means of counter extension. Another rope will then be .-
placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of frac-
ture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be
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308 ‘ DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
furnished with a block and pulleys, in order to augment the power
when necessary; and there is, in fact, always an advantage in their
use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well as of increased
power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, or, what is
better, above the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and is com-
mitted to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uniform,
and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully
watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able
to judge by the eye of any changes that may occur in the form or
length of the parts under traction, and discovering, at the moment of
its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region,
he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of
severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant
of restoration are indicated by a peculiar sound, or “ click,” as the
ends of the bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the
restorative procedure.
The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick
muscular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties,
from the fact that the finger must be substituted for the eye, and the
taxis must take the place of the sight.
It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the
interposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small
fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood, and sometimes the
extreme obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, by permit-
ting the bones to slip out of place. These are difficulties which can
not always be overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is
only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be
looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be
by a deformed callus, the union wjll leave a shortened, crooked, or
angular limb and a disabled animal.
If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accom-
plished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the
best time for it. But if it can not be attended to until inflammation
has become established and the parts have become swollen and pain-
ful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms
before attempting the operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction
which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by
subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore,
cause any loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome
by the use of sedatives and antiphlogistic remedies.
The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the prob.
lem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been
-- restored to their natural position must be kept there, without dis-
turbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it
is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and
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FRACTURES. 309
skill by the surgeon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus.
One of the most important of the conditions which are available by
the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian
in the management of those which belong to the animal tribes. This
is position. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with
the instructions of the surgeon, but with the animal sufferer there
is a continual antagonism between the parties, and the forced exten-
sion and fatiguing position which must for a considerable period be
maintained as a condition of restoration require special and effective
appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immo-
bility is scarcely possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach
a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this
reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the re-
straint of patients in very narrow stalls is much to be preferred
to the practice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom
of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary and
movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary
practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness
to submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obliga-
tory to have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which
should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolida-
tion is complete.
The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum,
bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms
a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended
into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the
locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and
Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied
directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed.
A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recom-
mended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and
burnt alum with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula
is spirits of camphor, Goulard’s extract, and albumen. Another rec-
ommendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive
solution formed with gum arabic, dextrin, flour paste, or starch.
This is advised particularly for small animals, as is also the silicate of
soda. Dextrin mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and alcohol cools
and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to plaster of
Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier
and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and
plaster of Paris form another good compound.
In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion
of oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the
surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from
chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is,
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310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
variously, pasteboard, thin wood, bark, laths, gutta percha, strips of
thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient
length not only to cover the region of the fracture, but to extend
sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more complete
than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with
cloth bandages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous mixture.
These bandages are to be carefully applied, with a perfect condition
of lightness. They are usually made to embrace the entire length of
the leg, in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the cir-
culation of the extremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing.
\They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward, and
carefully secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory
bandages are recommended, but excepting for small animals our
experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation.
These permanent dressings always need careful watching with ref-
erence to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially
during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani-
festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or
any odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a
thorough investigation should follow without delay. The removal of
the dressing should be performed with great care, and especially so if
time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability
of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any
poirts of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied
in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost
all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to
proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there
need be no haste for removal or change except under such special con-
ditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge
that solidification has become perfect, or for the comfort of the ani-
mal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb
from want of use. Owners of animals are often tempted to remove a
splint or bandage prematurely at the risk of producing a second frac-
ture in consequence of the failure of the callus properly to consolidate.
The method of applying the splints which we have described refers
to the simple variety only. In a compound case the same rules must
be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the
thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the
escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the applica-
tion of treatment.
FRACTURE OF DIFFERENT BONES.
CRANIAL BONES.
Causes.—F ractures of these bones in large animals are compara-
tively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they
occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being
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FRACTURES OF BONES IN THE HEAD. 311
usually runaways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree
or other obstruction; or it may occur in those which in pulling upon
the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward,
as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we
have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the
sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and
the incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of
the flat bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations
of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under
observation. But when the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact,
the diagnosis becomes difficult.
Symptoms.—The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied by any
special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bony plates
may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with
sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. When the
injury occurs at the base of the cranium, hemorrhage may be looked
for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual
termination is death. It may happen, however, that the symptoms
of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, resulting in
an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do
well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In frac-
tures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less pressing
than with injuries otherwise located about the head.
Treatment.—The treatment of cranial fractures is simple, though
involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. When incomplete,
hardly any interference is needed; even plain bandaging may usually
be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be com-
bated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication
must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining
of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the
depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the
trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations,
collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the brain substance
must be carefully cleansed away, and a simple bandage so applied as
to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings.
FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE.
‘In respect to their origin—usually traumatic—these injuries rank
with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety.
They may easily be overlooked and may even sometimes escape recog-
nition until the reparative process has been well established and the
discovery of the wound becomes due to the prominence caused by the
presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. When the
fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of
the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent
sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and in-
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312 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
flammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of
these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restora-
tion of the depressed bones as nearly as possible to their normal
position, and their retention in place by protecting splints, which
should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should be
observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rub-
bing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, the
manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be
washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the sinuses, and
if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out they should be removed.
If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated.
FRACTURES OF THE PREMAXILLARY BONE.
These are mentioned by continental authors. They are usually
encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and may
take place either in the width or the length of the bone.
The deformity of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this
lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the
crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing
examination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth,
abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete
the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of
gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult
application. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the
union of the bones by means of metallic sutures.
FRACTURES OF THE LOWER JAW.
A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent occurrence. It
involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and
includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forward, or
at the posterior part near the temporo-maxillary articulation, at the
coronold process.
Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powerful muscular con-
tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among
the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion
formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches
in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to
drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result
is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and
mastication of food become impossible; there is an abundant escape
of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been
wounded; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone;
and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip.
Although an animal suffering with a complete and often compound
and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious
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FRACTURES OF VERTEBRA. 313
aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and
recovery is usually only a question of time. The severity of the lesion
corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it is due, also
with the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It
is simple when at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it
affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are
involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important prin-
cipally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as
osteoporosis, or the like.
The particular seat of the injury, with its special features, will,
of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without
displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an
ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient; but when
there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accom-
plished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of
the symphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by
securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be
followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of
leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of the head being then
covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During
the entire course of treatment a special method of feeding becomes
necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation,
of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the
necessary food into his stomach, and it is accomplished by forcing
between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a
syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance until
the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of
food of a more solid consistency. The callus will usually be suffi-
ciently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet
to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the
dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication.
FRACTURES OF VERTEBRA.
These are not very common, but when they do occur the bones most
frequently injured are those of the back and loins.
Causes.—The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as
elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while
conveying heavy loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the
process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under
the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to
carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, some-
times result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the acci-
dental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy
all when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently
controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it
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314 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
is quite as likely to be caused by the violent resistance and the con-
sequent powerful muscular contraction by the frightened patient.
The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with
excessive pressure against it-from the intestinal mass, owing to the
spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and
so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint
of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without
anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body
or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior
lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of the last-named
bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concus-
sion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a
fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when
quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying
displacement.
Symptoms.—There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the
occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which
should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of
a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet; the movement
of a sharp instrument, which at first excited. his resistance, fails to
give rise to any further evidence of sensation; perhaps a general
trembling, lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold,
profuse perspiration, particularly between the hind legs, and fre-
quently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examina-
tion of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or
irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminu-
tion or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, while the
anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making
an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the
hobbles, only the fore part of the body will respond to the effort, a
degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and
fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs
will remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and
probably may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the
bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete
kind, either through the exertion of walking or by a renewed attempt
to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time-the
paralysis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has
become established, is a consummation soon reached.
To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is
always serious is to speak very mildly. It would be better, perhaps,
to say that occasionally a case may recover. Fractures of the trans-
verse processes are less serious.
Treatment.—Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases
as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question natur-
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= FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 315
ally would be: Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of
the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our
opinion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time
and to act accordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence
of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the
destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one
conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at
once unite.
If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists; that
pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present; that the animal with
a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis-
tance—it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of
placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery
and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may
be accomplished by securing immobility of the whole body as much as
possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient
in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and
covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Watch
and wait for developments.
FRACTURE OF THE RIBS.
The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the
violence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and they are therefore
either more common or more easily discovered during life at some
points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and
the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended by the
shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a number may
be involved, and there may be injuries on both sides of the chest at the
same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part of the bone,
though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequently
hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involving a por-
tion only of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. The com-
plete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and. are most com-
monly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single
bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at
different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic
region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability
of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence.
Symptoms.—In many instances fractures of these bones continue
undiscovered, especially the incomplete variety, without displace-
ment, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling,
and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the
examination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence.
Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even
when present, and they are not always present. When there is dis-
placement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and
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316 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
when such an injury exists the surgeon will, of course, become vigi-
lant, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic
trouble, and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of trau-
matic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are re-
corded. Subcutaneous emphysema is a common accompaniment of
broken ribs, and I recall the death from this cause of a patient of my
own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the
withers, under the cartilages of the shoulder, and of which the diag-
nosis was only made after the fatal ending of the case.
These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the
union is never as solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus
being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar-
throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart
gravity to the prognosis.
Treatment.—Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need
no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blis-
tering nature as a preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation
when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to
aid in the support and immobilization of the parts. At times, how-
ever, a better effect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed
firmly around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the
ribs, it is apt to render the respiration more labored.
If there is displacement, with much accompanying pain and evident
irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without: delay.
The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displace-
ment is outward or inward. In the first case the bone may be
straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of
the bone must be raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a
small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be neces-
sary. When coaptation has been effected it must be retained by the
external application of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages
around the chest.
FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE PELVIS.
These fractures will be considered under their separate denomina-
tions, as those of the sacrum and the os innominatum, or hip, which
includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the ischium.
The sacrum.—Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among
solipeds. Among:cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being
attributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and
other external hurts, but to the act of coition and violent efforts in
parturition. It is generally of the transverse kind and may be recog-
nized by the deformity which it occasions. This is due to the drop-
ping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment
of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural
and spontaneous relief which usually interposes in these cases has
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FRACTURES OF HIP BONES. 317
doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West,
and their practice and example fully establish the inutility of inter-
ference. Still, cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated,
and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the
introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as
far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon
another as a fulcrum placed under it outside. The bone, having been
thus returned, may be kept in place by the ordinary external means
in use.
The os innominatum.—Fractures of the ilium may be observed
either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone; those of the
pubes may take place at the symphysis, or in the body of the bone;
those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior ex-
ternal angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these
constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articu-
lar cavity—the acetabulum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone.
Symptoms.—Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while
others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which char-
acterizes‘a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping
and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indica-
ting the existence of the condition expressed by the term “ hipped.”
But an incomplete fracture, or one that is complete without displace-
ment, or even one with displacement, often demands the closest scru-
tiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an
animal may show but little appearance of it while walking, but upon
being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until pres-
ently he will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and perform
his traveling entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lame-
ness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the
acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and
the leg is dragged; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share
in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclu-
sion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case,
and while in some instances that will be but a report .of the common
etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and other external vio-
lence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satis-
factory solution of the whole matter.
With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of
its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of
tissues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are
no very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip
bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not
fail—it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external
and internal examination—by manipulation of the gluteal surface
and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the
hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be
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318 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
‘
sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct—a slight sensation of
grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of
muscle which covers the bone—and the sensation may not only be
felt, but to the ear of the expert may even become audible. This
external manifestation is, however, not always sufficient in itself,
and should always be associated with the rectal taxis for corrobora-
tion. It is true that this may fail to add to the evidence of fracture,
but till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepita-
tion from the surface, though a strong confirmatory point, is scarcely
sufficiently absolute to establish more than a reasonable probability
or strong suspicion in the case.
In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the ex-
ploring hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point
of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts,
both pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advan-
tage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is
the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assist-
ant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and
placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while
the surgeon himself is making explorations and studying the effect
from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the
character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By
the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will “ see ” what
is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone;
to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it
reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what loca-
tion on the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. We have fre-
quently by this method been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis,
which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination,
could only have been guessed at.
Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always
necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and
external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the
surgeon may discern the crepitation without it.
‘Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with
the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the
pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may be associ-
ated with fractures of the hip bone.
Prognosis.—The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary
considerably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of
the ilium or of the ischium, especially where there is little displace-
ment, will unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often
quite free from subsequent lameness. But if there is much displace-
ment, only a ligamentous union will take place, with much deformity
and more or less irregularity in the gait. Other fractures may be
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FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. 319
followed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when
the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has
left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which
may, with the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or
induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern
the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently
observed when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis
near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the
obturator nerve.
Treatment.—The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should,
in our estimation, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively
immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is
enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is to place
the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and
permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best meas-
ure, as we consider it, is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width
to admit him, and to apply a set of slings, snugly, but comfortably.
This will fulfill the essential conditions of recovery—rest and
immobility. Blistering applications would be injurious, though the
adhesive mixture might prove in some degree beneficial.
The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip
is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which
that was too short a time.
As we have before said, there may be cases in which the treatment
for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms
of partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to
regain his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position.
This condition is due to the interference of the callus with the func-
tions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. [
feel warranted by my experience in similar cases in cautioning owners
of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a
premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants;
they are not allirrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moder-
ate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural
process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other ele-
ments of change that may be so operating, the horse may in due time
become able to once more earn his subsistence and serve his master.
FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA.
This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due
to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superim-
posed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to
effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller
animals are the subjects.
Cause.—The causes are heavy blows or kicks and violent collisions
with unyielding objet: AE iybich are occasioned by falls are
3820 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
generally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and commi-
nuted varieties.
Symptoms.—The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are
inability to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they
are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests
upon the toe and seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by
jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for
inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear.
Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the
leg is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone,
overlapping of the fragments and displacement will be considerable.
The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious
accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery
without very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the
injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acro-
mion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, com-
plications are apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal
for life.
Treatment.—lIf there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing,
to strengthen and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of
black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in
place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treat-
ment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings.
Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impos-
sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained
by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat; and this may be advan-
tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the
parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal
and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and coy-
ered with a coating of adhesive mixture.
FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS.
These are more common in small than in large animals, and are
always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and col-
lisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and
though more usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases
extend to the upper end and into the articular head.
Symptoms.—There is ordinarily considerable displacement in con-
sequence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this,
of course, causes more or less shortening of the hmb. There will also
be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be
easy of detection. This fracture is always a serious damage to the
patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incur-
able, lifelong lameness.
Treatment.—If treatment is determined on it will consist in the
reduction of the fracture by means of extension and counter exten-
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FRACTURE OF THE FOREARM. 321
sion, and in order to accomplish this the animal must be thrown.
If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjust-
ment of the apparatus of retention, which must needs be of the most
perfect and efficient kind. And finally, this, however skillfully con-
trived and carefully adapted, will often fail to effect any good pur-
pose whatever.
FRACTURE OF THE FOREARM.
A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna,
the latter being broken dt times in its upper portion above the radio-
ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the
forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve
either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there
intimately united.
Cause.—Besides having the same etiology with most of the frac-
tures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to
kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large
numbers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that,
under these circumstances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those
which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region
almost entirely subcutaneous, while those of the complete class are
either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal,
in the long axis of the bone.
Symptoms.—This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the
appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There
is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility
below the injury; the ready detection of crepitation—in a word, the
assemblage of all the signs and symptoms which have been already
considered as associated with the history of broken bones.
The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar
arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive
soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with
a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual way. Displacement
is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the ole-
cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that
case likely to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region
there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound
and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis,
especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the
ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con-
ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to
treatment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union.
Treatment.—Considering all the various conditions involving the
nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the
bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 21
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322 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and
counter extension; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments;
the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative
mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled
with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part
of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however,
must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of
metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint
to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both
sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly con-
structed box as to preclude all possibility of motion, while yet it must
sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint
(represented in Plate X XVII) recommended by Bourgelat is designed
for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and
will prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the
preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the
entire leg. A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according
to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when sufi-
ciently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly
hardened by the application of cold water forms a complete casing
sufficiently rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner
have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after
the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily
effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after soften-
ing it by immersing the leg in a warm bath.
FRACTURE OF THE KNEE.
This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes
place is of a severe character, and always accompanied by synovitis,
with disease of the joint.
Cause—It may be caused by falling upon a hard surface, and is
usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and
when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis.
Symptoms.—As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear
weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis,
or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of
the knee, but crepitation is usually absent.
Prognosis.—Healing is hard to obtain, as one part of the knee is
drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the
lower part. The callus which forms is largely fibrous, and if the
animal is put to work too quickly this callus is apt to rupture. In
favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many
horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop
sole in the sound leg, as a result of pressure due to continuous
standing.
Treatment.—Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of
bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight
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FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR. 323
plaster of Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fet-
lock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall well provided with bed-
ding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder.
FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR.
The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of
muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with
immunity in regard to fractures.
Cause.—It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this
description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and some-
times as the result of muscular contraction; sometimes it takes place
at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; some-
times at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is
principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture may be of
any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete or incom-
plete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety
is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted and
removed.
The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the
diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepi-
tation test is readily available, even when the swelling is considerable,
and which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hem-
orrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of
the region involved.
Symptoms.—lf the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles
of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to
be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is
intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some
cases be discerned by rectal examination, with one hand resting over
the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of
the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified by
the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the
dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always
accompanied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of
the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot
being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting
it down, very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the dis-
covery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower
end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty,
though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon
the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to
turn a suspicion into a certainty.
Treatment.—The question as to treatment in fractures of this
description resolves itself into the query whether any treatment can
be suggested that will avail anything practically as a curative meas-
ure; whether, upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished
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324 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is
within the scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were success-
fully performed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any
known means at our disposal? At the best the most favorable result
that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments, with a
considerable shortening of the bone, and a helpless, limping, crippled
animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a “ thus far
and no farther.”
In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable,
and we are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the applica-
tion of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition
of undisturbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for “ treat-
ment ” as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result
as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundum artem doctor-
ing known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of
the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper
end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her “ treat-
ment” consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In
due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks
she was running in the streets, limping very slightly, and nothing
the worse for her accident.
FRACTURE OF THE PATELLA.
This, fortunately, is a rare accident and can only result from direct
violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is
accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inability
to bear weight upon the foot, and finally disease of the articulation.
Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper
part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction
being the only termination of this incurable and very painful injury.
Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis.
FRACTURES OF THE TIBIA.
‘Of all fractures these are probably more frequently encountered
than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As
with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete
or incomplete; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or
at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The
incomplete kind are more common in this bone than in any other.
Symptoms.—Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with
or without displacement. The animal is very lame,and the leg is either
dragged or held up clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle,
while the lower part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving back-
ward is impossible. There is excessive mobility below the fracture,
and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in
an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg.
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FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA, 325
While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with
any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some
facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified.
The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration:
An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside
of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very
lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days’ rest. Being
then taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but
within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing
he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the
result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and
again a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the
rule. The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is
readily discovered at the point of the injury, the part being warm,
swollen, and painful. What further proof is necessary? Is it not
evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial—a mere split in
the bony structure, which, fortunately, has been discovered before
some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of
the complete kind, possibly with complications? What other infer-
ence can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish ?
The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule. be unfavor-
able.
Treatment.—The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening,
and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordi-
nary attempts at treatment. But though this may be true in respect
to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessarily so with the
incomplete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the
slings is all that is necessary to secure consolidation. A few weeks of
this confinement will be sufficient.
With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be
successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully
applied and retained, a cure will follow.
FRACTURES OF THE HOCK.
Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded which had a fatal ter-
mination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but
never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery
have, as might have been anticipated, proved futile.
FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES.
Whether these occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in
the body or near their extremities. If in the body, as a rule the three
metacarpal or metatarsal bones are affected, and the fracture is
generally transverse and oblique. On account of the absence of soft
tissue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and
render the fracture a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all
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326 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture can only
be suspected.
Symptoms.—There is no displacement, but excessive mobility, crep-
itation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg is kept off the ground
by the flexion of the upper joint.
No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of
treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable.
We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under excep-
tional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly
nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon
bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the
intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and
ultimately caused his death.
Treatment.—The general form of treatment for these lesions will
not differ from that which has been already indicated for other frac-
tures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient;
coaptation, comparatively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situa-
tion of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages—
applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as
in fractures of the forearm—these are always indicated. We have
obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha,
composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part
of the leg as in an inflexible case.
FRACTURE OF THE FIRST PHALANX.
The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It
is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or
twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the
case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper artic-
ular surface down to the center of the bone, and generally oblique
and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swelling and tender-
ness of the region, possibly crepitation; a certain abnormal mobility;
an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a dropping
back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condi-
tion of the pastern.
The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the
probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness,
are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis.
The treatment is*that which has been recommended for all frac-
tures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been
mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the frac-
ture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less
energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our
knowledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject
the animal to treatment, the post-mortem revealing only a simple
fracture with very slight displacement.
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FRACTURES OF BONES OF THE FOOT. 327
FRACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONET).
Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often
conditions associated with them which justify the surgeon in attempt-
ing their treatment. Though crepitation is not always easy to detect,
the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry
weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest,
as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet,
with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is yet, by rea-
son of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is by its struc-
ture and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis.
Only a slight manipulation will be needed in the treatment of this
lesion. To render the immobility of the region more fixed, to support
the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced
immobility of the entire body with the slings is usually all that is re-
quired. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process,
must receive due attention subsequently. One of the severest com-
plications likely to be encountered is an immobile joint (anchylosis).
Neurectomy of the median nerve may relieve lameness after a frac-
ture of the phalanges.
FRACTURES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (08 PEDIS).
These lesions may result from a penetrating street nail, or follow
plantar or median neurectomy. In the latter instance it is caused by
the animal setting the foot down carelessly and too violently, and
partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving.
Though these fractures are not of very rare occurrence, their recog-
nition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of certainty
pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is very lame and spares
the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the
toe alone and sometimes holding it suspended in the air. The foot
is very tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon
causes much pain. During the first twenty-four hours there is no
increased pulsation in the digital and plantar arteries, but on the
second day this symptom is-apparent.
There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not
unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone
or the coronet.
No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per-
forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths
and fomentations will do the rest. It may be months before there is
any mitigation of the lameness.
An ultimate recovery depends to a great extent upon whether the
other foot can support the weight during the healing process without
causing a drop sole in the supporting foot.
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328 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BONES.
This lesion has been considered by veterinarians, erroneously, we
think, one of rare occurrence. We believe it to be more frequent
than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections
have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have often been
mistaken for specific lesions of the numerous ligaments that are
implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have
been described as a “ giving way” or “breaking down” of these
ligaments. In my post-mortem examinations I have always noted
the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from
their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also
separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of
the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance.
Cause-—From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly
be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having
any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is
due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a
theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the
spongy consistency of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one,
and the suddenness with which different feet are successively attacked,
at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the
existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly
incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor
to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation
in each of the four seasons.
Symptoms.—The general fact is reported in the history of a
majority of cases that it makes its appearance without premonition
in animals which, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are
first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest
itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case,
in illustration, will explain our theory: An animal which has been
at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently
noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait
is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, without any of
his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return
to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be
noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to
another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony structure
takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of
the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it
becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of
a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon com-
ing to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes
turned up; he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground.
The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of
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DISEASES OF JOINTS. 329
which may have remained intact or may have been more or less exten-
sively lacerated. It seldom happens that more than one toe at a
time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its
occurrence in another. Commonly two feet, either the anterior or
posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore
and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The acci-
dent, however, is quite as likely to happen while the horse is at rest
in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his
fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occuring in my own expe-
rience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease
of the fetlocks, the nature of which had not been made out, when,
apparently, improved by the treatment which he had undergone, the
patient was taken out-of the stable to be walked a short distance into
the country, but had little more than started when he was called to
a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both fore legs.
While there are no positive premonitory symptoms known of these
fractures, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come
but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always
justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been
indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short min-
cing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the
sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and
definable.
Prognosis.—These injuries can never be accounted less than seri-
ous, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our
theory of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the
lesions is truly the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and
independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility
of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible.
Treatment.—In respect to the treatment to be recommended and
instituted it can only be employed with any rational hope of benefit
during the incubation, and with the anticipatory purpose of preven-
tion. It must be suggested by a suspicion of the verities of the case,
and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and
to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastro-
phe—the elevation of the toes—resort must be had to the slings and
to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of
Paris, with a high shoe, as about the only indications which science
and nature are able to offer. When the fracture is an occurred event,
and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treat-
ment will be futile.
DISEASES OF JOINTS.
Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These
are, affections of the synovial sacs; those of the joint structures, or of
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330 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of
continuity known as dislocations or luxations.
DISEASES OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS.
Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the
result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition
of the sac without any acute inflammatory action, while the other is
characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modi-
fications, constituting synovitis.
SYNOVIAL DROPSIES.
We have already considered in a general way the presence of these
peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs where
the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity
of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous
burse, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological
history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both.
WINDGALLS.
This name is given to the dilated bursee found at the posterior part
of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition
of the burse of the joint itself, and also of the tendon which slides
behind it, and are therefore further known by the designations of
articular and tendinous windgalls, or puffs. (See also page 375.)
They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors,
of varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumfer-
ence. They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secre-
tion they contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and
the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness
under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves
under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to
interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again where they have
undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is
among their tendencies.
Cause.—Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as
severe labor or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or
jumping, or they may be among the sequels of internal disorders,
such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack.
An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect-
ing these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of
their removal, all of which might be spared, for, while they constitute
a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the
animal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily
amenable to treatment.
Treatment.—When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical
condition is not excessive, the inflammation may be checked during
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DISEASES OF JOINTS. 331
the day by continuous cold water irrigation by means of a hose or
soaking tub and at night by applying a moderately tight roller band-
age. Later absorption may be promoted by a Priessnitz bandage,”
pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if neces-
sary by a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury. This treatment
should subdue the inflammation, abort the soreness, absorb the excess
of secretion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the
windgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quickly re-
turned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them
at first.
But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement
has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the
wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a
transient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again sub-
jected to labor, and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflamma-
tion has not supervened.
But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling
there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing
certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and dis-
able the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated,
especially if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms.
Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life
has received a new lease as the result of this operation timely per-
formed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the
sac by means of punctures through and through, made with a red-hot
needle or wire, and the subsequent injection into the cavity of cer-
tain irritating and alterative compounds, designed to effect its closure
by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodine, may be
commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects
and require too much special attention and intelligent management to
be trusted to any hands other than those of an expert veterinarian.
BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIN, AND THOROUGHPIN.
The blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock
and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It
occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and has
thus been frequently confused with the latter.
The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful
tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the
product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular
@ This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in warm water or a dripping band-
age laid around the diseased part, then covered by several layers of woolen
blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or
other impervious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure is obtained by such
a bandage if water is poured upon it several times daily.
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332 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of
the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astrag-
alus). The tendinous sae lies back of the articulation itself and
extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through
which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular syno-
vial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin
being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule.
The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor
situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it
disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the
hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear
on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein
which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and it is to
the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that the term blood
spavin is applied.
The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock
in that part known as the “ hollows,” immediately behind the shank
bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the
bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The
swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called
hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside.
In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are
similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms,
pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except
that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to
involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which
will, of course, justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a
single type of disease.
We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means
employed—~rest, of course—with liniments, blisters, etc., and what
we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, early, deep, and
well-performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory
reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads
and peculiar bandages upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the
removal of the tumors has been effected by their use. But our expe-
rience with this apparatus has not been accompanied by such
favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering
representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf.
OPEN JOINTS, BROKEN KNEES, SYNOVITIS, AND ARTHRITIS.
The close relationship which exists among these several affections;
their apparently possible connection as successive developments of a
similar, 1f not an essentially identical, origin, together with the
advantage gained by avoiding frequent repetitions in the details of
symptoms, treatment, etc., are our reasons for treating under a single
head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section.
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DISEASES OF JOINTS. 333
Cause —The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes
permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is exter-
nal traumatism.
Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence,
falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures—we may add compulsory speed
in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals—cover the entire
ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now
receiving our consideration.
In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and fall-
ing on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abra-
sion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough,
mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without
exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages.
In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an
impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his
manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the kneejoint is
induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a perios-
titis of the bones of the knee; later as bony deposits, then lameness,
and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequel
of chronic inflammation of the kneejoint.
In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a
careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable
companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild-
looking, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet caus-
ing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be only after a few
days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entire joint swells,
presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is
presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as
a climax. The symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the
degrees of the hurt, but in the nature of the lesion.
Or the condition of broken knees, resulting as we have said, may
have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin—a scratch,
apparently, which disappears without a resulting scar. The injury
may, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggra-
vated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough ob-
ject, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may re-
main. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice.
Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as
a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with
the escape of the synovia; or worse, the tendons which pass in front
of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg
are swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in.
With this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be
established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes
ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in
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334 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the presence of an open joint with suppurative synovitis—that is, with
the worst among the conditions of diseased processes, because of the
liability of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the
joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to
be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular
surface—or the lesion of ulcerative arthritis, one of the gravest among
all the disorders known to the animal economy.
But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be devel-
oped otherwise than in connection with open joints; the simplest and
apparently most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient.
For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the
hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot,
he is put to work, apparently free from pain or lameness, and per-
forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following
morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiff-
ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg,
and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down
for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is
severe, and, finally, there is an oozing, at the spot where the kick
impinged, of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration.
The mischief is done; a simple, harmless, punctured wound has ex-
panded into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis.
Prognosis——From ever so brief and succinct description of this
traumatism of the articulations, the serious and important character
of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is affected, will
be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications ‘in the prog-
nosis in different cases, in accordance with the peculiarities of struc-
ture in the joint specially involved, as, for example, it is obvious that
a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single
joint, with only its plain articular surfaces, is the place of injury,
than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex
formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative
synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still
cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character
and at length subsiding, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves
the animal with a comparatively sound and useful joint. There are
cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than
the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylo-
sis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a high degree of satisfac-
tion, since it insures a permanent lameness with very little capacity
for usefulness.
Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articu-
lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and
troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during
their progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and
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DISEASES OF JOINTS. 335
realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon
their discovery and diagnosis.
Treatment.—For simple bruises, like those which appear in the
form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm
fomentations or cold water applications and compresses of astringent
mixtures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated
character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will
also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as
those of the carbolic acid order. The escape of synovia should sug-
gest the prompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and pre-
vent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant
and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in prac-
tice the “expectant” method with warm fomentations, repeatedly
applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any
is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of
all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions—that is,
in a practical sense—is to abstain from “ doing ” entirely, and yet we
are firmly convinced that noninterference in the cases we are con-
sidering is the best and wisest policy.
In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will
by degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside, and the
convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and
presently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedi-
ous process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and
normal condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly
ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the
whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating the absorption of
the exudation will be of great service. But if, on the contrary, there
is no amelioration of symptoms and the progress of the disease resists
every attempt to check it; if the discharge continues to flow, not only
without abatement, but in an increased volume, and not alone by a
single opening, but by a number of fistulous tracts which have succes-
sively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidly and
painfully sapping the suffering animal’s vitality, and a deficient vis
vite fails to cooperate with the means of cure—all rational hope of
recovery may be finally abandoned. Any further waiting for
chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelty and there
need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is
under sentence of death, and every consideration of interest and of
humanity demands an anticipation of nature’s evident intent in the
quick and easy execution of the sentence.
One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable
condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension
of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them as long as
he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint.
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336 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
DISLOCATIONS.
Dislocations and luwations are interchangeable terms, meaning the
separation and displacement of the articulating surfaces of the bones
entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely en-
countered in our large animals on account of the combination of
strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with
but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller ani-
mals are more often the sufferers.
Cause.—The accident of a luxation is less often encouritered in the
animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less sub-
ject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions,
or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in
luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the coopera-
tion of conditions—anatomical, physiological, and perhaps mechan-
ical—present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, how-
ever, can not in every case be clearly defined. Perhaps the greater
relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may con-
stitute a cause of the difference.
Among the predisposing causes in animals may be enumerated
caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical
conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive
laxity of the soft structures.
Symptoms and diagnosis —Three signs of dislocation must usually
be taken into consideration. They are: (1) An alteration in the
shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating
surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shorten-
ing or lengthening; (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint,
usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be
relied upon as essential. Luxations are not always complete; they
may be partial, that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced
but not separated. In such cases several symptoms might not be
present. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility
of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury has
been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments.
In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized
by pain, swelling, heniorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or
ruptured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are
pressed on by the displaced bones.
Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint.
The knowledge of this fact requires that we shall be able to diagnose
between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generally have
three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as
against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture;
(2) in a dislocation there is no true crepitus—that peculiar grating
sensation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of
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DISLOCATIONS. 337
fractured bones; however, it must be remembered that in a disloca-
tion two or three days old the inflammatory changes around the joint
may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3)
as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamenous and muscular tissues about
the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced, does
not recur.
Prognosis.—The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less seri-
ous than that of a fracture, though at times the indications of treat-
ment may prove to be so difficult to apply that complications may
arise of a very severe character.
Treatment.—The treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar
to that of fractures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication
in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow.
The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter exten-
sion, performed in the same manner. with the patient subdued by
anesthetics.
The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a
fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to
restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular
surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus
necessary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which
is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be
retained for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before
the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to
perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be
employed by the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing,
rotating, and indeed whatever movement may be necessary, until the
bones are forced into such relative positions that the muscular con-
traction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite
matched ends together in true coaptation—a head into a cavity, an
articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case may be. The “ setting ”
is accompanied by a peculiar snapping sound, audible and significant,
as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal symmetry.
Special dislocations—While all the articulations of the body are
liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals
which may claim a special consideration, viz:
THE SHOULDER JOINT.
We mention this displacement without intending to imply the prac-
ticability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually
unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a victim
to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it
is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as
to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It may escape
from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects
H. Doe. 795, 59-222 2
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338 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
it—outward, inward, backward, or forward—and the deformity
which results and the effects which follow will correspondingly differ.
We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may be
added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of reduction are
nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the
retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible.
The prognosis is sufficiently grave from any point of view for the
luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder.
THE HIP JOINT.
This joint partakes very much of the characteristics of the humero-
scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The head of the
thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and
the cuplike cavity, or socket, into which it fits is much deeper, form-
ing together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover,
reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite
them together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the
anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an
accident of comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded
in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its
cavity and assume various positions—inward, outward, forward, or
backward.
The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation.
When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised
of the fact by the peculiar snapping sound usually heard on such
occasions.
PSEUDO-LUXATIONS OF THE PATELLA.
This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly
articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are of suffi-
cient strength to resist the causes which usually give rise to luxations.
Yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar pathological state in the
hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the
manifestation of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This
peculiar pathological condition originates in muscular cramps, the
action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the
articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibi-
tion of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms which have sug-
gested the phrase of “ stifle out ” as a descriptive term.
Symptoms.—The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his
stall, or perhaps with one of his hind legs extended backward, and
resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move for-
ward he will either refuse or comply with a jump. with the toe of
the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a
second effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the
stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg
appears to be much longer than the other, owing to the straightened
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DISLOCATIONS. 339
position of the thigh bone, which forms almost a straight line with
the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and
the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with.
External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a
certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifie
bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper
part of the joint.
This state of things may continue for some length of time and until
treatment 1s applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate,
leaving evervthing in its normal condition, but perhaps to return
again.
Cause.—Pseudo-dislocation of the patella is likely to occur under
many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yet it may
often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary
causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes
these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slip-
ping when endeavoring to rise; sometimes to weakness in convalescing
patients; sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general de-
bility ; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use.
A straight leg, sloping croup, and the young are predisposed to this
dislocation.
Treatment.—The reduction of these displacements of the patella is
not usually attended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic
action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into
place, when the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the
time. But this is not always sufficient, and a true reduction may still
be indicated. To effect this the leg must be drawn well forward by
a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the
hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the
outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone suddenly slips
into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic
jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of
lameness. But though this may end the trouble for the time, and
the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the
entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the
loss of some proportion of tensile power which would naturally fol-
low the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might
become a habitual weakness.
Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often pro-
mote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field
will in many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled
shoe is recommended by European veterinarians. The use of stimu-
lating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, may
be resorted to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by
strengthening and toning up the parts.
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340 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS.
SPRAINS,
This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding
of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding and
supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence,
such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following
symptoms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function.
Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and
commonly fibrinous exudation difficult to remove. None of the
muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this
lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their
situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to become
their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined by a
consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely
to arise.
Treatment.—The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of
local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating lini-
ments, counterirritation by blistering, and in some cases even firing.
Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, will be of advantage by promoting
the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or
absorption may be stimulated by the careful and persevering applica-
tion of iodine in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength.
There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and ten-
dinous structures proper are affected by a strain, but, by contiguity of
parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved,
with a complication of periostitis and its sequela.
LAMENESS OF THE SHOULDER.
The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from
sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category.
For, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often
the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region,
become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory. precision and
facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is
articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm,
but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerfully
strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it.
Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacera-
tions of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or
perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. “Slip of the shoulder ”
is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions.
The identification of the particular structures involved in these
lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the ques-
tion of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of
the spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to
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SHOULDER LAMENESS. 341
the trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to
treatment, or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the
condition is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii,
or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, occurs, or,
what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the
groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces
or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent.
Causes—The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not diffi-
cult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of the
part, and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which
in fact it performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preemi-
nently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would
it materially avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which
the shoulder may be crippled. S
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INTERFERING. 373
Crookedfoot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher
than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown
outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the
toes close together. Animals with this deformity are “ pigeon-toed,”
and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock.
If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for
the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center
plane.
When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the
toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but
one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both
feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is
not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to
stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock
joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will
equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to
protect the fetlocks from interfering.
INTERFERING.
An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite
leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the
fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under
certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is
seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes
a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an
abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping,
and thickening of the injured parts. (See also page 362.)
Causes.—Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of inter-
fering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the
foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close
together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the
whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure
to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from
defective shoeing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of
labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work,
and because the chest or hips are too narrow.
Symptoms.—Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily
detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But
very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes
the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these
parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such
cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the
animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected
foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint.
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374 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Treatment.—When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty con-
formation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect.
In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the
fetlock, or ankle, boot must be used. In many instances interfering
may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter
of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change
the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away
from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot
to pass by without striking.
A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At
the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may
set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The
shoe should be reset every three or four weeks.
When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the
injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially
in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from
long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated
in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its
natural condition.
KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES.
Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the
relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones
is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with
the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the
suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center
line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it
nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern.
Causes.—Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the
great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to
the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed; and time is required,
after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them-
selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body.
‘Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow
old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu-
larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are
exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom-
paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the
toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high—a
condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the.hind feet.
Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory liga-
ment or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by
disease of the fetlock joints. (See page 347.)
Treatment.—In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there
is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter-
ference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has com-
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WINDGALL. 375
menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by
proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten-
ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high; or if the foot
is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with
thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with
calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck-
ling are to be removed; but since this can not always be done, the
time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service,
particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it
becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by
surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock
and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief.
Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in
some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures
properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling
simply appears as a sequel.
WINDGALL.
Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating
fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason
of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They
form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are
most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint,
between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the
hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut.
Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the
tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt-
hood has passed. (See also page 330.)
Causes—Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses,
where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to
sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in
trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and
in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car
horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the
ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs.
Symptoms.—The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot
is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the
ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause
no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint
the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal
is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and
walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground.
When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it
may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation
of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only
to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are
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376 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the
lime salts.
Treatment.—The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule,
require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean
up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears.
When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is te be secured
by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches
should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages,
until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed,
when a blister is to be applied.
In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief
may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the
red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended
by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only
by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced
rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted upon,
since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse.
SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.
Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as
a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters,
runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that inter-
fere, are particularly liable to this injury.
Causes.—Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis-
eases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as‘navicular disease,
contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to
sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum-
bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed
to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a
rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or strug-
gles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up
inflammation of the joint.
Symptoms.—The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the
severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply
a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground
and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells,
is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the
animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the
joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground.
Treatment.—If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few
days’ rest are sufficient to effect recovery. Where there is an intense
lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant
stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor.
When the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be
applied.
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RUPTURE OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 377
In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast
work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part,
and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint
should be kept completely at rest; and this condition is best secured
by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of
fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may
be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If
they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be
secured, the patient must be kept in slings.
In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on
from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage
is removed, a new one should be put on. ‘Che swelling, which always
remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared,
may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the
firing iron and blisters.
A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its
original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition
ef the injury.
RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT.
Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may
happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in
horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe-
cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this
injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always
in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more
liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected.
When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great,
one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one
cr both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga-
ment may rupture above the point of division.
Symptoms.—The most common injury to the suspensory ligament
is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble
is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the
affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend-
ing obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If
the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and
is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The
patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the
fetlock joint fiexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension.
When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa-
moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and
is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the
animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken
off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and
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378 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
swelling of the parts at the point of injury, will enable anyone to
make a diagnosis.
Treatment.—Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how
mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a
month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages,
firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister
should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary.
When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and
a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of
injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten
days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be
applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off,
blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness; but it is use-
less to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of
repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain.
In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good
results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament inca-
pacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work.
OVERREACH.
An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures
the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when
the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and run-
ning horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the
animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters
are most liable to the injury.
Symptoms.—The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut,
the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the
hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot—an accident
known among horsemen as “ grabbing ”—the shoe may be torn from
the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed
to overreaching are often “bad breakers,” for the reason that the
pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought
back to the trotting gait.
Treatment.—If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages
applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts
are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it
is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths
may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum,
and a roller bandage.
When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should
never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made
for the protection of the heels and quarters.
If there is a disposition to “ grab” the forward shoes, the trouble:
may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as
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CALK WOUNDS AND FROSTBITES. 379
possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the
hind shoe: When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore feet
may be shod with the “ tips” instead of the common shoe, as described
in treatment for contracted heels.
CALK WOUNDS.
Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the
coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each
other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses,
especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are
more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly
on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the
animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of
the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn,
and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive lamine, the
extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone.
Treatment.—Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro-
tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the
outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending
instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep,
and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective
dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed.
Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration
of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive lamine, etc., active
measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by
adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be
used, followed by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing
of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the
wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior
tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may
’ be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow
the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks.
FROSTBITES.
Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of
the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen
are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used
for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This
mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly
lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In
mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often
intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at
large.
Symptoms.—When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and
bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and
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380 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
swelling. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel
off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and
only an increased sensitiveness to cold remains.
In cases more severe irregular patches of skin are destroyed and
after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In
the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary
band is the part most often affected.
In many instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a
temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary
band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and
the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of
the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and
after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight
suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the
suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an
inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the
cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is
occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues
beneath and causing severe lameness for a time.
Treatment.—Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations
followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil.
When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should
be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be
treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized
oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc,
with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases
recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed
skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence,
unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is in-
volved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of .
injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulat-
ing the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the
old and new horn no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the
cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a
breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this acci-
dent happens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a
sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury.
QUITTOR.
Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein
the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that
results in the formation of a slough followed by the elimination of the
diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration.
For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four
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QUITTOR. 381
classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quittor, which is
known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coro-
net; (2) tendinous quittor; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilagi-
nous quittor.
CUTANEOUS QUITTOR.
Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub-
cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a
slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals by suppuration.
Jt is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of
the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which
accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This
pressure not only adds to the patient’s suffering but may at the same
time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood
vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often
met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two-
thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part
of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters
are undoubtedly most liable.
Causes——Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the
cause of cutaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in
the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known
_ cause. For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases
happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has
been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injuri-
ous action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose
force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country
the most mud, accompanied by freezing and thawing weather, is
seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of
quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the
mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen
in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It
may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons,
when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more
mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other sea-
sons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these
conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated
with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found
in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to
conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im-
portant factor in the production of quittor.¢
eA recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the
author’s observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to
wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water
by windmills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More
than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and
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382 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
While this disease attacks any and all classes of horses, it is the
large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs
that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in
stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large
or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances.
Symptoms.—Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days,
nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences
of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot,
and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of
the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red
or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours
the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes
much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses
to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move.
As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both,
and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it,
too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so in-
tense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness,
loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows
signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its
first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt be-
neath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the
discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead
tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an
open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and
with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of
skin, varying from 1 to 24 inches in diameter, slough away at once,
leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep,
suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal
rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely
removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and
general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess
form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper
treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks; but when two
or more tumors are developed at once, or where the formation of one
tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the su-
ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult
to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain.
October. In these fifty cases all forms of the disease and all possible compli-
cations were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks
‘of quittor are common, and the disease is so virulent that it has long been
known as the “ Leadville foot rot.” The soil being rich in mineral matters is
no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to
be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are.muddy from the
melting snow and ice.
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QUITTOR. 383
+
This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and
subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process.
Treatment.—The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit-
tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals
into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely
to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses,
must be avoided as much as possible.
Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud
are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impreg-
nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre-
ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleans-
ing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work.
Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which
the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths.
The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quit-_
tor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented
for treatment. If the case is seen early—that is, before any of the
signs of suppuration have developed—the affected foot is to be placed
under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a
further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this,
put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor.
Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with
flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold
water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of suf-
ficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bot-
tom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of
water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflamma-
tion has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected
in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced, the process should
be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or
boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by
intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free
incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into
the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band.
If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary.
The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or
longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting
and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon
gives relief to the overtension of the parts.
In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way,
so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre-
sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor
of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a
free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated,
and the foot poulticed.
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384 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open
gore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths
and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by
proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of
small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound
and held in place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches
wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied.
The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process
are many, and, as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or
tinctures.
In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1
part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few
grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve.
The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied
to the wound.
Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with
equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and
zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water; chloride of zinc, 5 grains
to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of
glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to
the ounce of water; and creolin, pure or diluted.
If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change
the remedies every few days.
If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and
glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of
camphor may do best.
When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment
made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is
all that is needed.
If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which
projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a
sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours,
after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar
caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness.
The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must
be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup-
purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every
twenty-four or forty-eight hours; if the discharge is small in quan-
tity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for
several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better,.
in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore com-
mences to skin over, the edges should be lightly touched with lunar
caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little
exercise daily; but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is
entirely healed.
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QUITTOR. 385
TENDINOUS QUITTOR.
This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only
affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten-
dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the
bones of the foot as well.
Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preced-
ing; yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at ariy
time during its course become complicated by the death of some part
of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coro-
nary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of
the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into
one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient’s life or
maim him for all time.
Causes.—Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influ-
ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not
infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I
have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young
animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones,
and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery.
Symptoms.—When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the
tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in
the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack
primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a
well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than in-
juries this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no
more in trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the
next forty-eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that
the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made
during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness;
it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the
seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as
the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel
or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is
extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms
increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing
quick; the temperature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite
is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is
carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the
disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side,
with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat,
and every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The leg soon swells
to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or
hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days
elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing
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386 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the sup-
purative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily
collecting in a mass.
Recently I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this
disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being
found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense;
yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed-
ding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of
the leg to the knee. The dieting of the hoof took place ‘two or
three haut before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu-
ration and no hemorrhage The skin from the knee to the foot was
thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter
three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All
had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate
the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was
distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the
flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The
soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by col-
lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive lamine. The
coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu-
lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had
become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between
the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely
separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti-
lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon
near its point of attachment on the coffinbone. Several small collec-
tions of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary
region; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments; in the sheath of
the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in
front, and in the coffin joint.
But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so comovlicated
as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is-slight, and after a
few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis-
charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however,
from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the
coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody
matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to
the sensitive lamin and plantar cushion, when the suffering is
intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof
from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss
of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in
the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in
the hollow of the heel; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the
flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint; although
in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the
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QUITTOR. 387
tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing
of the deeper parts follows.
Treatment.—The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed
toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to
_ prevent suppuration; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold
irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to
be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet,
the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the
swelling. Whenever openings appear from which pus escapes, they
should be carefully probed; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead
down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process
of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a
more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once; for instance,
if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of
the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble.
Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated
by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates
in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints,
and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made
with a small syringe, repeated: two or three times a day. As soon as
the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity,
stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where
the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong
solution of carbolic acid—t1 to 4—should be used at first. Or strong
_ solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper,
bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic; after
which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor
are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to
heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution
of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better
still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot.
But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of
the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where
the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imper-
fect, hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues
with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep slough-
ing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immov-
able ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place,
it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is affected,
or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc-
ess, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This
operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding
purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recovery the
patient’s suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor
much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle
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388 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous
tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and
unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in
its absence, repeated blistering with the biniodide of mercury oint-
ment may largely accomplish the same result.
SUBHORNY QUITTOR.
This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen
in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind
feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the
outside quarter, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little
consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the
coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppura-
tion, which in most cases extends.to the neighboring sensitive lamine.
Causes.—Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and
calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease.
Still cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just
as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that
subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes.
Symptoms.—At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the
patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet
close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the
wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot
and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the
most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof sepa-
rates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the
heel. From this opening, wherever it may be, a thin, watery,
offensive discharge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with
blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus.
Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of
the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon
the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus
gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive lamine until the sole
is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined.
As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the
case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally
avoided; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite
of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front,
the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved.
In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when
the slough comes away, and rapid recovery is made. If, however,
after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound
continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are
that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of
the foot. In Zundel’s opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a
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QUITTOR. 389
pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course
of development.
Treatment.—Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres-
ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with
a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and
poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough
has come away and the discharge is diminished, when dressings
recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used
until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes
from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary
band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues
beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy
parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis-
eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better
application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec-
tion to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early
returned to work.
When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone
the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present
the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound
is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichloride of
mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly
applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so
great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty-four hours;
but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from
one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe
should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made
perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band.
Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as
directed under those headings.
CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOR.
This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of
the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a
sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore
or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it
attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally
the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in
many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a
thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved and much
surgical skill.
Causes.—Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks,
burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture,
bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of carti-
laginous quittor. Besides ee sequel to the other forms of quittor,
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390 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
it sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker,
grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used
for heavy draft, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more
liable to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they are
more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease
by increasing liability to injury.
Symptoms.—When the disease commences as a primary inflamma-
tion of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swell-
ing on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this
lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is dis-
eased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest
the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lame-
ness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no
faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the
cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much
greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more
likely to become affected.
Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous
openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings
are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated
above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows
these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to
one point—the gangrenous cartilage. When cartilaginous quittor
happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured
wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of
injury on the sole.
The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and
contains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color; it is offensive to
the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage
which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small
greenish colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some
of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is followed by the
gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess,
which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof,
over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough
and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than
the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the
disease has upon the coronary band.
Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lat-
eral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar
cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone.
Treatment.—Before recovery can take place all of the dead cartilage
must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without
assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery,
and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and sim-
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THRUSH. 391
plest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong
caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its
discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favor-
able cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in
from two to three weeks. While the saturated solution of sulphate
of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichloride of mercury to 100
parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as -
favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic
soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But
no matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used
at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the vari-
ous openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the
wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum,
held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not
always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on
the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage; the
coronary band and lamine should not be injured in the operation.
If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become
healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week
the fistulous tracts are closing up, and the injections are made with
much difficulty.
If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after
this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be
concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage
must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation
can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be
described in this connection.
THRUSH.
Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy mat-
ter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable
to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than
in any other breed—a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not
to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the.
disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in
cities and towns.
Causes.—The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition
of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to
contract the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while
the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet.
Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as
may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause
is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly
soaked in the bath tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy
streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful,
excite this abnormal, condition VOL othe chrog. Contracted heels,
392 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a
constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals
which otherwise present a perfect frog.
Symptoms.—At first there is simply an increased moisture in the
cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a
considerable discharge takes place—thin, watery, and highly offen-
sive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly
destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the
patient lame and the foot feverish—cases in which the whole frog is
involved in the diseased process.
Treatment.—Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal
of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition.
As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared
away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to
which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow-
dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog
and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with
dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage.
If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily;
otherwise it may be left on two or three days. Where a constitu-
tional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc.,
a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated
daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems
too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by
good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be
protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a
sequel to other diseases, a permanent cure may not be possible.
CANKER.
Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable
parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog,.but, by setting up a
chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a
healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. Heavy cart
horses are more often affected than those of any other class.
Causes.—The essential element in the production of canker is the
parasite; consequently the disease may be called contagious. But, as
in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder
must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced.
It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation
of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply
predisposing causes.
The condition most favorable to the development of canker is
dampness—in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and
growth of the parasite; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high,
dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons.
Filthy stables and muddy saatsy ve been classed among the causes
CANKER. 393:
of canker; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than
favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ.
All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the
animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irrita-
tion and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to
induce the disease.
For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments—
thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with
white feet and legs—are especially liable to canker.
Symptoms.—Usually, ‘canker is confined to one foot; but it may
attack two, three, or all of the feet at once; or, as is more commonly
seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been
successively affected. .When the disease follows an injury which has
exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to
heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse,
thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and de-
stroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is
diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered
at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn,
which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid
secretion by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to
the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses com-
posed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense
of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury,
the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the
liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting
away of the horn of the frog and sole.
In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but
later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on
rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed
the lameness is severe.
Treatment.—Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues
to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production
of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the
parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted.
In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of strip-
ping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot
iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results.
I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely
and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less
painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the
patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after
all success depends more on the persistent application of simple
remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any
particular drug. — /
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394 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice
containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the
charcoal or a tablespoonful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves
to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of
horn are to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only
healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn
are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap
their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on
the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad,
plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the
many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be
necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all
may be tried.
The list from which a selection may be ‘tide comprises wood tar,
gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid; sulphates of iron, copper,
and dines chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic
soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric
acids.
In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour
or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding 2 ounces
of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot
is removed it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made
of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine 8 parts, to which is slowly
added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and
cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad
of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed
over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to
slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or
folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The
dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day, at first.
When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which are
now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of
oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders may prove of most
advantage, such as calomel, sulphates df iron, copper, etc. The sul-
phates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered
animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten
of the latter. When-the soft tissues are all horned over, the dress-
ings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to
prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in
condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses,
twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed.
CORNS.
A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the
soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured
and a small amount op blood PR? pes, which, by permeating the horn
CORNS. 395
in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury
is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character, and
the soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns
always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside
wall of the hoof. In many cases the lamine of the bar, of the wall,
or of both are involved at the same time.
Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized—the dry, the moist,
and the suppurative—a division based solely on the character of the
conditions which follow the primary injury.
The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for
two reasons: First, because they support a greater part of the body;
secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first
“placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion
than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the
ground.
Causes.—It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that
even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to
the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds
of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets
seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns.
Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be
named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the
bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these
parts are subject; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elas-
ticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the
heel, and render lacerations more easy; long feet, which by removing
the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary
moisture, which, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and
diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; and weak feet, or
those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency
‘to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet
with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior
wings. either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence
are easily bruised; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad
and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the dis-
placement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the
soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn.
It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predis-
posing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most
serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be
found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain
the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely
paring away the sole; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog,
which is nature’s main support to the branches of the sole and the
heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive
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396 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the
same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the
foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added
the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted
to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, extending it too far
back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to
spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light
for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to
be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole
or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until
the heels rest upon the sole and bars become a direct cause of corns.
Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones,
hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe.
Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard
roads, predispose to this disease of the feet.
Symptoms.—Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame-
ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but
a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by
no means unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so
accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all;
but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding
behind them at night, and often refuse to lie down for any lengthened
rest The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be
characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity; but
the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same
in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight,
and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the contents of the hoof
is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides
or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured
tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases,
the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender
to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences of
local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient
goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the
seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers
the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum.
If a corn is suspected the foot should be examined for increased
sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a
hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers,
with moderate pressure, will cause more or less flinching, if the dis-
ease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the
heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not
only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances
the insensible lamine of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained
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CORNS. 397
with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discolor-
ation is less marked than in dry corn and may be entirely wanting.
In these cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as
seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thick-
ness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle, it is gen-
erally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause
has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn
in that the injury is more severe; the parts affected are more or less
inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a
citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and
laminee, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy.
A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation
ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and
finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensi-
ble laminz to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between
the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most
serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of
the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone.
Treatment.—Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures
must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise
the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands.
As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible,
and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at
fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advis-
able, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the
foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very
properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make
it imperative that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objec-
tions; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it
is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are
less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them.
For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick
than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best.
In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi-
ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon.
If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker.
If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar
shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon
the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A
piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to
destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some ani-
mals to enable them to work.
Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which
serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon
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398 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but
protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation ; for
this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the
feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances, or damp
dirt floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc.,
are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too
dry and hard.
As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will
depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic
dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a
day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to
injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered
until all pressure is removed and, if the patient’s labor is required,
the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels.
Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too
long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole
and bar.
I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation
present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn is well
softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn,
lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath and poultice the foot for two
or three days. When the granulations look red, dress the wound with
oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits
of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every
two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the
wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient
returned to work.
In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that
the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the
coronary band and escapes from an openiny between the band and
hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made
astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a
day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts
may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury,
nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist
corns. When eomplications arise, the treatment must be varied to
meet the indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place
it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor;
if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must be cut away; if the coffin
bone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated
on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have
been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is
best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe
when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the
complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of
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BRUISE OF THE FROG. 399
the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall
which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete
cure.
BRUISE OF THE FROG.
When the frog is severely bruised, the injury is followed by suppu-
ration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the
plantar cushion.
Causes.—A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on
a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when
trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone
wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of
the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same
results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument
or a punctured wound by a blunt pointed instrument may also cause
suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet
with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries.
Symptoms.—Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the
bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom.
When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the
foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs.
When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground
and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its
way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined
early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening
exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels.
The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through,
a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a
ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead,
sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the
plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be in-
volved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious.
Treatment.—If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed
in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has
already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of
the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure
may be removed, and the foot poulticed. When the pus has loosened
the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is
discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one-
half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion,
and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangre-
nous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the
poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be
removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached,
the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dress-
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400 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and band-
ages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness has sub-
sided, and a thin layer of new horn has covered the exposed parts, the
foot may be shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held
in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to
slow work. Where caries of the coffin bone, ete., follow the injury,
the treatment recommended for these complications in punctured
wounds of the foot must be resorted to.
PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE FOOT.
Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are
more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than
these may be when involving the more important organs contained
within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the
injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock,
giass, wire, knives, etc.
A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed
instrumient than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is
to the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to fol-
low. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are
attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure
the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds
of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason
that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even where
the wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense
suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those
which happen to the center of the foot, and which involve, in pro-
portion to their depth, the plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis,
the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint.
Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet
than in well-made feet, and, as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor
so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy
draft than in those required to do faster work; for the former may be
useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured
wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the
reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a
nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more likely to injure
the deeper structures of the foot; in the hind foot, the injury is
generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep.
Symptoms.—A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the
frog and remain for several days without causing lameness; in fact,
in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of
the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening
where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes.
Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no
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PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF FOOT. AOL
lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of
foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be
examined for evidence of injury.
The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppura-
tion, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected
member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands
with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth.
In other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet
outstretched; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature
elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat.
When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with diffi-
culty and the wound shows no signs of healing; the whole foot is hot
and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the
synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but
later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its
clear amber color. Suppuration generally extends up the course of
the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and
finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet
is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with
blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the
abscess opens.
If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense
from the beginning; but the only certain wey to determine the exist-
ence of this complication is by the use of the probe, and unless there
is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care,
else the coffin joint may be opened.
If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in-
strument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the
joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The
ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to
the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process
of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on dif-
ferent parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may
die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the
suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint
becoming stiff (anchylosis).
When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure
the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces
of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels
rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part
of the wound to heal.
Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as seri-
ous may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof
may slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and rihgbones grow.
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402 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Finally, laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient per-
sists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death.
Treatment.—In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should
be thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products
of suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury is
not serious, recovery takes place in a few days’ time. Where the
wound is deeper, it is better to put the foot in a cold bath or under a
stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor.
If the bone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each
of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron,-may be used until the
dead bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an opera-
tion. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared
away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles
are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with
creolin or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, oakum balls, and a
roller bandage.
Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument,
like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is
driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and
should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable.
Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be
operated on and the life of the patient saved; but the most skillful
surgery 1s required and only the experienced operator should under-
take their treatment.
If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the
sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate
should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed
as directed above.
The other complications are to be treated as directed under their
proper headings.
After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more
or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases
the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery,
and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and
is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to; in many cases
with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can
relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow work or
kept for breeding purposes only.
“Prick in shoeing” is an injury which should be considered under
the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the
shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by
inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft
tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the
horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force
as to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon
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CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. 403
after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of
the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. When lameness
follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable
cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the
one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal.
Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have
been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be
pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to
be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration
have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi-
dence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed,
the horn pared out, and creolin or a weak solution of carbolic acid
injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed.
CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND.
Contracted heels, or hoof-bound, is a common disease among horses
kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much
saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of
the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It
affects the fore feet principally; but it is seen occasionally in the hind
feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind foot
first strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expan-
sion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight
is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility
of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately
gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time; but
when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other.
Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in
these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent impair-
ment of the animal’s usefulness. According to the opinion of some
of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided into two
classes—total contraction, where the whole foot is shrunken in size;
and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the
quarters backward. (Plate XXXIV, figs. 4 and 7.)
Causes.—Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to
towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not
alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and
wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another
common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing,
such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high
calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may
happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot; for instance,
it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular
disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and sus-
pensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints.
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404 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Symptoms.—In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular
shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a
straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the
coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing
heels, is much shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The
sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars
are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so
hard that it can scarcely be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly
and often ridged like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less
deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction
of the horn fibers. (Plate XX XIII, fig. 10.) When the disease is
well advanced, lameness is present, while in the earlier stages there is
only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot.
Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most
cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on
the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes
off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains
in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases,
a dry, mealy horn will be found where the sole and wall unite, ex-
tending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters.
Treatment.—First of all, the preventive measures must be consid-
ered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by
the use of damp sawdust or other bedding; by occasional poultices of
boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and greasy hoof ointments to the
sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared
from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be
mutilated with the knife, nor should galks be used on the shoe except
when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once
a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exer-
cise must be insisted on.
As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number
of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the
spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used,
would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection
to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to
make and apply. The method of treatment which I have adopted is
not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of
the patient’s services for a time is not considered a part of the ques-
tion. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water
until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for
the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little,
and the frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a “ tip,” is made by
cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the
ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at
the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper
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SAND-CRACKS. 405
and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight
small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a com-
mon foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away
the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues
beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 24 or 3
inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in
cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the
wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all
around the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment; when this is well set,
the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The
blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the
patient can be returned to work in two or three months’ time.
The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels,
which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides
of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being
relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the
disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any
inflammation which may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of
healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and nor-
mal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased
concavity of the sole, accompanied by excessive wasting of all the
internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected
and are rarely secured. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may
be effected by these measures.
‘When thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought
by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbonea,
navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the
cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is
removed.
SAND-CRACKS.
A sand-crack is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These
fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direc-
tion of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part, of the wall, but
ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe-
cracks; or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known. as
quarter-cracks. (Plate XX XIII.)
Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks
nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable
to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not
only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the
weight of the body. A sand-crack may be superficial, involving only
the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole
thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath.
The toe-crack is most likely to be complete—that is, extending from
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406 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
the coronary band to the sole—while the quarter-crack is nearly
always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin.
Sand-cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in
the injury. They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage,
inflammation of the lamine, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral
cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the
growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele.
Causes.—Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing
cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more pro-
lific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to
dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in ani-
mals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are
rough and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous
countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to
stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter-cracks than
those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and
feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks
than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-cracks
exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the
inside quarter turns under.
Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the
heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and sup-
purative corns, must be included as occasional predisposing causes of
sand-cracks.
Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet,
together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quar-
ter-cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by
heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills.
Symptoms.—The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence
of the disease; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden
from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha,
or by the long hairs of the coronet.
Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall,
involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer
surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected
from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and
follows the direction of the horny fibers; but the trouble can only be
positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until
the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in
close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but
when the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quar-
ter-crack the opposite is true; the fissure closes when the weight is
removed from the foot. As a rule, sand-cracks begin at the coronary
band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but
they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the
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SAND-CRACKS. 407
horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off,
sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind
a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end
of the toe.
In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as
well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the
fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues
from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth
protrudes from the narrow opening.
When the cracks are deep, and the motion of their edges consider-
able, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every move-
ment, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the
lameness is severe.
Ordinarily the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient
walks; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the
harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is
greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions
are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure.
Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand-
crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent
hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a
misstep.
Treatment.—In so far as preventive measures are concerned, but
little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by
the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be pro-
portioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding
it in place are to be of proper size, and not driven too near the heels;
sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses
working on slippery roads; and the evils of jumping, fast driving,
etc., are to be avoided.
When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted
which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can
only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and
simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack
together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments
necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of
veterinary instruments. (Plate XX XIII.) These instruments com-
prise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall,
one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are
closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the
fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel
wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the
crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly
cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack
may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part
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408 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be deter-
mined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested,
etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an
inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-crack if the
wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the
strain.
In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled
through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin
nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends.
horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all
applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound.
In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin
bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their
recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult
that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary.
PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS.
These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious,
and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the
animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee,
though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp-
toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it
occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com-
mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from
the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways.
At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner
discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little
attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness be-
come excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the
injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pres-
sure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance—
quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 106° F., the
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468 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and
shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie
down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb
becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain
for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignifi-
cant, is now constantly discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid—
joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the
wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling some-
what the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at dif-
ferent places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon as-
sumes the character above described.
Treatment of these wounds is most difficult, and unsatisfactory.
We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is
seen early—within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after
the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly estab-
lished the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punc-
tured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but
small moment, we should, without the least delay, apply. a strong
cantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the
_ orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is
almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways—
first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely
closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the
superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all
deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if
pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in
about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later
in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat by cooling
lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc, 10
grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum.
A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be
removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms
demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must be
to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated prob-
ing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an
open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should
carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after
removing them the probe must not again be used. The medicines
used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to
the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by
bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of
open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin-
ister a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes,
as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should. give
quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day.
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WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 469
WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS.
Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there
is an escape of synovial fluid, “ sinew water.” Where the tendons are
simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough
exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat
with the flour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint.
Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious
and often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations
(proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro-
nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we
should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually
lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress
moistened with a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. When proud
flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications
of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock
horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though
blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time
required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in
attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS.
These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size
and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so
seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them
seems unnecessary. Ifa wound has been made by a bullet a careful
examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed
through or out of the body. If it has not we must then probe for the
ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do
so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed,
and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving
rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it
is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the
body.
The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are
inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the
bullet’s exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and
ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often,
softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue.
Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone
without splintering it. Leaden bullets may split, producing two exit
wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be
struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such
‘an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gun-
shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be
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470 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
treated the same as punctured wounds, 7. ¢., stop the hemorrhage,
remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or
poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti-
septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus
accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend-
ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the
animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused
wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as
directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a
distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains
must be picked out, but as a rule this “ peppering” of the skin
amounts to but little.
POISONED WOUNDS.
These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of
bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is
often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from
the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be
closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos-
‘sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption
of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the
legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem-
perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours.
Treatment.—Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline
liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of
ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen
the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi-
sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which
is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and
death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept
alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature
should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison
from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thor-
oughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver ni-
trate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of
one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the
wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound
to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected
wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be
removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable
bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per
cent solution of zine chloride, and then apply caustics or the actual
cautery.
HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS).
Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting
harness or saddles. Whenachorsenaas hepmaresting from steady work
SITFASTS, BURNS, AND SCALDS. 471
for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a
scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and
sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt
to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and
poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin,
and thus pave the way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless
attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable
pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity.
This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep-
seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the
muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which
is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are com-
monly called “ sitfasts” and, while they occur in other places, are
most frequently found under the saddle. (See also page 448.)
Treatment.—Abrasions are best prevented by bringing the animal
gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in
order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness
should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be
cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable.
Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on
the spine, and the saddle blankets’should be clean and dry. Parts of
the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the
saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt.
The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them
‘may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites
of two eggs; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of
water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of
water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost
without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a
cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction.
If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care-
fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics.
During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if
this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the
abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing
can not occur.
BURNS AND SCALDS.
These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occur-
rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove
quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the
severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree,
where there is a simple reddening of the skin; second degree, where
there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters; third degree, where there
is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would
occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escapin
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472 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other
causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), light-
ning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric rail-
ways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the ani-
mal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of
fever—shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness,
quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which
agent is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practi-
cally of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead
one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the
shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts
where there is much movement of the tissues are grave, and, if at all
extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate
destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree,
where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue,
even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to
treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of
the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does
take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight
weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trolley wires are likely to
occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not
likely to prove serious.
Treatment.—Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the
burns are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated
with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnine,
caffein, and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treat-
ment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form
and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended.
In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflam-
mation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron
oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy,
but a modification of it known as Stahl’s liniment is perhaps better ;
this liniment is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts,
bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should
be applied freely to the scorched surface and covered with a layer
of borated gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Re-
new the application frequently. Carbolated vaseline may be used
in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the fol-
lowing solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts,
water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this
solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear,
should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain.
Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should
now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the sec-
ond and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with
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GANGRENE, OR MORTIFICATION. 473
nonpoisonous dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open
wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made
of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When slough-
ing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a
warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue
removed, and either a dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated
vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue
(proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate
in the form of a caustic pencil.
Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the
parts with a copious quantity of cold water or‘by the application of
whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or
use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a
caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar
should be the first application. Stahl’s liniment is probably the best
general application for all burns for the first week; then this should
be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings.
GANGRENE.
Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part,
and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the
body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their
blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and
septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids
and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pres-
sure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gan-
grene—dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses
from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of
some portion of the harness.
Symptoms.—tThere is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves.
In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan-
grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis-
turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes cov-
ered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch
is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the
case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves
deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic syno-
vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene
is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its
virulence.
Treatment.—The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the
influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as
excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following
decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently
turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist
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474 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and
fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough
off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize-it with a pair of
pincers and draw it away. After this treat the patch as an open
wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disin-
fected with creolin, lysol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of cam-
phor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accu-
mulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead
tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should
be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry
gangrene. .
ULCERATION.
An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin
or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a
process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than
regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer.
When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic
ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer pro-
jects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or
bloody-white liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or
leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard con-
nective tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it
is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer.
Causes.—As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are
among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight
recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors.
Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause
the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders.
Treatment.—This consists in removing at once the exciting cause.
The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu-
tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antisep-
tic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings
of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dress-
ings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water
and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best re-
moved by a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common
wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided.
ABSCESSES.
These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls,
at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold,
or chronic, abscesses.
When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or
furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the
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ABSCESSES. 475
formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is
called a carbuncle.
ACUTE ABSCESSES,
Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands,
muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two
former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and
the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands,
occurring during the existence of “ strangles,” or “ colt distemper.”
The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in
size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is
uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little
while becomes soft—fluctuating—at some portion, mostly in the
center. From this time on the abscess is said to be “ pointing,” or
“coming to a head,” which is shown by a small elevated or projecting
prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with trans-
uded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a
short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity grad-
ually fills up—heals by granulations.
Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or
injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry
the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices.
When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their
surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an
abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can
scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since
this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat-
omy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full
ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera-
tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we
must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may
be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots—
inspissated pus—but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open
by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too
soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made
into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com-
plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required
for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly
indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated.
The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating anti-
septic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per
cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per
cert permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul
and bad smelling, their cavities ‘should first be syringed with 1 part
of hydrogen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the
injection of any of the abovementioned antiseptics.
A476 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
COLD ABSCESSES.
Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings
that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the
center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often
seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil.
The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter
than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There
is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the
animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur-
rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the
extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif-
fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass
somewhat well defined. One of the characieristics of cold abscesses
is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length
of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening
in the size of the tumor; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani-
mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar
causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi-
tion, which after a few days’ rest disappears, leaving the tumor as
before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may
discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the
mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small—often not
more than a tablespoonful—and for this reason it can not, in all
cases, be detected.
Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-con-
tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow
inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a
small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially
organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference
of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble.
Treatment.—The means recommended to bring the acute abscess
“toa head ” are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful,
too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other
and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in
carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions
must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor
(to its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape.
After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce
an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of
the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well
into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine,
carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with
powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-
four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the
walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be iged b
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ABSCESSES AND FISTULAS. 477
hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and
should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the
agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is
probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the
incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess.
This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the
walls remain thickened and indurated.
It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters
in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed
by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put
to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of
the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed,
and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not
remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass.
FISTULAS.
Definition.—The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon
the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or
passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular
formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with
the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the
name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such
lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the
poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location.
The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil
equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of
a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the
foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the
face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the
mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise
from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes
noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal
fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition.
Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts,
and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas.
Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane
and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of
exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy
parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers
or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy,
and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tend-
ency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated forma-
tion of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of
gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures
and also favors its retention among them.
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478 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Causes.—Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds,
or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more com-
mon causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter
or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse
striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors,
etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have
thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or,
among saddle horses, those that are very low on the withers, the
saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often
caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows,
and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either
of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not prop-
erly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows
and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only
when the sinus becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the
parts, the matter is forced to the surface. :
Symptoms.—These, of course, will vary according to the progress
made by the fistula. Followingjan injury we may often notice sore-
ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of
the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of
irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder.
These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the
touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of
the dorsal vertebra, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging.
The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat
and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling
remains and continues to enlarge.
A fistulous ulcer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition
which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle.
At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some
danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless
handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be
recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory
swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness | | |
of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may
disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ-
ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running
ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually
develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the
enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as
upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment. 2
Treatment.—In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged
lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently
be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment.
A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered
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FISTULAS. 479
saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs
high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may
be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed
spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved
very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient.
Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water; seda-
tive washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform lini-
ment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should
this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation
of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations
and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of
pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest point.
In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple
abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as
fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues,
the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory.
Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the
necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful ex-
amination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sin-
uses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment
is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape.
Rarely’ is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to
bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not
irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the
essential and rational treatment.
If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of pur-
ulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are
found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes,
there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some
of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has
assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has
existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently
be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the
walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such
a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics
which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will
also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to re-
place that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment
of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and
rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the
canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder
and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or
oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening
after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin
over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash
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480 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
(fused) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening
and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then
be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the
caustic plug has been in place for twenty-four hours, it may be re-
moved and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has
become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest
extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the in-
troduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep
tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the ver-
tebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper
drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of
caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating
sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce
of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during
a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally
injected. Injections of Villate’s solution or alcoholic solution of cor-
rosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine
will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below,
and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom.
Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined
tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a
single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will
often produce a sloughing of the affected parts in a week or ten days,
after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding
parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping
caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested.
Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires {ime and
patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be
opened.at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications
must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent
antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached.
It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deeply or
in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes
impracticable. In other cases the bones may become attacked in some
inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases
it is often best to destroy the horse at once.
The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not
uncommon. The secondary attack in thesc cases is seldom serious.
The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with
a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every sec-
ond or third day until a cure is effected.
In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency toward the burrow-
ing of pus downward to lower structures, cr in some cases upward
toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is
always swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain.
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FISTULAS. 481
Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an
abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or
any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of
the foot should be opened at once from below so as to allow free exit
to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly
to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient
in preventing the formation of an abscess.
When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated pre-
cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body; that is, the
sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to
afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be
irimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the
wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic
wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages,
which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by exclud-
ing all dirt from the affected part.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2——31 2
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GENERAL DISEASES.
By RusH SHIPPEN HvuIDEKoPER, M. D., VET.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. 8S., V. M. D.]
ANIMAL TISSUES.
The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which
are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as simi-
lar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards
which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a
furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great
railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim-
ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their
study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which
differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or
a ligament from a fibrous band—the result of disease filling in an old
lesion and tying one organ with another—is as complicated as the
nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for
the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge
which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight.
All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele-
ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may
appear at first glance to be widely different. These are (a) amor-
phous substances, (6) fibers, and (c) cells.
(a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid
of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter
in solution; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma
which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates
the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue
or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle
end to a bone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together,
as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impreg-
nated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the pro-
toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life.
(6) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have
only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or
cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven
regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two
kinds—white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable,
and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and
very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence
of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as
482
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DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 483
a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its
strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form
until destroyed by death.
(ec) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are
masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and
frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or
food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or
into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function
but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping
of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose
connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4)
cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves.
(1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf-
folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles
surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the
structures of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely
meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient
fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the
skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu-
lates, and as the framework of all glands.
(2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the
termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach-
ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and
dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or
lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity.
(8) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers
which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in
small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con-
tractile elements.
(4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas-
cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or
cells of this tissue.
(5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter
impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness.
(6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the
body and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or
stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of
amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers.
When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as
in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it
serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue
or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing
away while new cells replace it from beneath.
(7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each
other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as
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484 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch-
board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires.
All of these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quan-
tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is
called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs,
or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large amount of blood is required ;
if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the
withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periph-
ery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to
their surface by the blood vessels.
Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina-
tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or
the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are
small delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide
into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every
element.
In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular
current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the
center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted
to the walls of the vessels and move very slowly. The supply of
blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue,
and under normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the sup-
ply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount
of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic
system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased
organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue
or organ receives its proper quantity of blood; the nutritive elements
are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which
the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achieve-
ment of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and
oxygen brought by the arterial blood, then by the veins this same
fluid passes off, less its oxygen, loaded with the waste products, which
are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those
which have undergone combustion. The above brief outline indi-
cates the process of nutrition of the tissues.
Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or
morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed.
CONGESTION.
Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of-blood in a part. Ex-
cessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the
red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in
the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe
work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little
rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a
morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is
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CONGESTION, 485
active or passive. The former’ is produced by an increased sup-
ply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the
escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased
supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented
nutrition.
ACTIVE CONGESTION,
Active congestion is caused by—
(1) Functional activity——Any organ which is constantly or exces-
‘sively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the
vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened,
lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood en-
gorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results.
Example: The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed
or severe work, in damp weather.
(2) Irritants—Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of
these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an
augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair—a
hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow.
(8) Nerve influence-—This may produce congestion either by act-
ing on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve dis-
turbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ.
(4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament.—F ull-blooded animals
are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a
lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circula-
tion in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in
larger quantities. A well-bred full-blooded horse is much more sub-
ject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out
animal.
(5) Fevers.—in fever the heart works more actively and forces the
current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it
requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures
already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find
alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which
interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a
local predisposition to congestion.
(6) Warm climate and summer heat.—Warmth of the atmosphere
relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up
their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in
the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance
of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion,
especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive
colics and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter.
(7) Previous congestion.—Whether the previous congestion of any
organ has been a continuous normal one—that is, a repeated func-
tional activity—or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it al-
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486 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ways leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed
to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy
tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from
a severe drive is apt to have another attack from even a lesser cause.
The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels,
accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effu-
sion of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues
which surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by conges-
tion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital
organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented ani-
mals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it becomes
swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective
tissues; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion ;
the part is frequently painful to the animal from pressure of the effu-
sion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with.
The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished.
Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract.
The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds.
PASSIVE CONGESTION.
Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the
current of blood from a part.
Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circu-
lation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood.
We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the
sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of
the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the
blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs
of the pelvic cavity.
Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins,
retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the
body, causing passive congestion.
The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, con-
sist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation
of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive conges-
tion we have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of
the rich combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active
congestion.
The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In
the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the exces-
sive amount of blood and are relieved; the transuded serum or fluid
of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal
condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to fu-
ture trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations
take place, and we have inflammation.
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GENERAL DISEASES. 487
INFLAMMATION.
[Synonyms: Inflammatio, Latin, from inflammare, to flame, to burn; phleg-
masia preyuabia, Greek; inflammation, French; infammazione, Italian; In-
flamacién, Spanish; Entziindwng, German.]
Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by
Doctor Agnew, the surgeon, as “a double-edged sword, cutting either
way for good or for evil.” The increased nutrition may be moderate
and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at
first; or it may produce a new growth differing in quality; or it may
be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die
from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction
of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process
of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflam-
mation is described as acute or chronic, with a vast number of inter-
mediate forms. When the phenomena are marked it is termed
sthenic; when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble
constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflamma-
lions are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a
characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin,
character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary
inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited,
as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar, in
pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or
it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive
lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which
affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflamma-
tion are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the
initial step of all inflammation.
The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflamma-
tion .of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on
the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart
pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the
lungs, the intestines, and the lamine of the feet, is more apt to have
pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold-
blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones,
spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular
skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc.
Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air
passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to
troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones.
The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or
draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory
diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an
important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group
of horses exposed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting
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488 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
cause of inflammation, the one which has just been eating will be at-
tacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just
been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflamma-
tion of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using
its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the lamine
of the feet. ;
The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some
form. This may be a pathogenic organism—a disease germ—or it
may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises,
injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions,
such as an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all
cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches
of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the
tissue.
Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as
above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which
drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively
supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which
has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have
pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been
fed is more apt to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same in-
fluence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the
intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs.
Symptoms.—The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion,
change of color, due to an increased supply of blood; swelling, from
the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding
tissues; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain,
due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may
be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In
addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more
or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin
will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe
gpavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked
fever.
The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion,
distention of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood
into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagna-
tion of the blood; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out
as well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in
themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate
from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or mul-
tiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant
in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by
the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply.
Whether the cell in an inflamed part be the white ameboid cell of
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PLAT Hi SXeVIT
LUnintlamed wing of the bat
2intlamed wing of the bat.
Haines, after Agnew JULIUS BIEN & CO.NY
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INFLAMMATION.
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PLATE. AOCXVIIL.
1- Voen=1n/lamed mesen tery Of the frog 400 diameters, reduced 1 a,a, Veniule
with red and white corpuscles, bb, Gelatinows nerve fibre ,C Capillary. ad,
Dark-bordered nerve fibre, ee, Connective tissue with connective TLSSUE
comps cles and temcoevtes scattered sparsely through tt
L
2-Inflamed mesentery or the frog, OO diameters, reduced '2; a,b,Veniutle
filled with red and white corpuscles, the red in the centre and the white
crowding along the walls, ¢,c, Capillary distended with red and white cor-
puscles, number of the white mich decreased, d,d, Connective tissie between:
vertuleand capitlary tilled with migrated leucocytes; 2,€, Connective CLS STILE
with less intiltration ; tL, Dark-bordered nerve tthre, g, Number of nucle.
we sheaths uvereased
JULIUS BIEN & Co
Haines delafter Agnew
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INFLAMMATION. 489
the blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it
multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into
two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is
slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its
ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the
changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time
to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half devel-
oped, they die, and we then have destruction. of tissue, and pus or
matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements
and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an interme-
diate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in “ proud
flesh,” large, soft splints; fungous growths, greasy heels, and thrush.
Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intes-
tines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in struc-
ture, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the
process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may
be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the
lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating
~cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily,
and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at
the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the
multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication,
and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious
quittor, or fistula.
This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the
importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and
the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the
gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or
opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet-
erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part
and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease,
and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou-
bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely
identical.
Termination of inflammation.—Like congestion, inflammation may
terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes
chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the
blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the
kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs.
The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the
blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed
cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into
active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract,
and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reas-
sumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new
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490 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part
than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or morti-
fication. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small
stages, each cell losing its vitality after the other in more or less
rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a
considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the
tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and
proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the
process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an
ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also
an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes
from an ulcerating surface and the débris of broken-down tissue is
known as pus, and the process by which this is formed is known as
suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough,
while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are
especially likely to occur when the part becomes infected with micro-
organisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus caus-
ing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic micro-
organisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in
tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) with-
out forming pus.
TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION.
The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflamma-
tion has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by
excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor
to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce
the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements
of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used
locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act
indirectly.
Local treatment consists of—
Removal of the cause, as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic
thrush; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin;
decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors,
irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if
removed, will frequently allow the part to heal at once.
Rest.—Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds an
inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated
by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by
the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye
exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further
fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities
of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles
without further treatment.
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INFLAMMATION. 491
Cold.—The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages,
douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts
the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the
vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which
inflammation produce?
Heat.—Kither dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens
the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the
surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of
blood from the inflamed organ; it also promotes the absorption of the
effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part.
Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap-
plication of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of
warm water; or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not,
will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to
inflammatory troubles in the air passages. -
Local bleeding —This treatment frequently affords immediate relief
by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which
has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a
stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary
for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood-
letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the
inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath
of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or
the leg when acutely swelled.
Counterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by
bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the
blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior
diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid
in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most com-
mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste
mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the
sides where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the
throat or inflammations at any. point demand the treatment applied in
the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the
legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are
used in a similar way.
Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the
current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis-
eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general
effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or
elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of—
Reduction of blood.—This is obtained in various ways. The dimi-
nution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on
the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the
point of inflammation; it diminishes the body temperature or fever ;
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492 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a con-
ductor of irritation in diseases.
Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a
charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must
remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend
on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full-
blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease.
Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the
blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last
remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements
from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as
rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu-
lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material
which may be acting as a poison in the blood.
Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way.
Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the
form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis-
charge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect
on the blood pressure.
Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be
accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat
production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way,
but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should
always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with
knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu-
lants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by
cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful
procedure in many diseases.
Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken
the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur-
rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they
lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used
much less than formerly.
Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the
man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and
the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter.
Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera-
tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against
the exhausting drain of the disease.
The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor
of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved
to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing
the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easy digestion de
not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges-
tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the
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FEVERS. 493
form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if
offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the
labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened
muscles of the jaws and throat.
Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special
indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the
after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute
stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they
stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten
the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory
process; they regulate the action of a weakened heart; they promote
healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes
needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition.
FEVERS.
[Synonyms: Febris, Latin; pyrewia, Greek; fiévre, French; fieber, German;
febbre, Italian; calentura, Spanish.]
The etymology of the word “ fever,” from the Latin fevere, to boil
or to burn, and of pyrexia, from the Greek word zip, fire, defines in a
* general way the meaning of the term.
Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an
elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a de-
gree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature,
which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an
acceleration of the heart’s action, a quickening of the respiration, and
an aberration.in the functional activity of the various organs of the
body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces-
sive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their
allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may
both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually
preceded by chills as an essential symptom.
Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers.
In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory
character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are
the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole
body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the
waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the
blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are
those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the
whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the
blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers
of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong,
therefore, to the class of infectious diseases.
Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last
hort time and terminate by critical phenomena; intermittent
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494 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile
symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal
condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func-
tions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which
include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic
diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers,
such as variola, ete.
Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues,
such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive
work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the
combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or
the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma-
terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products,
as in glanders or tuberculosis—the general train of symptoms are
much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in
quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action
on one or another tissue.
There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels,
which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there
was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur-'
rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of thé peripheral
temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and
an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may
be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain
from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by
the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms
or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc.
There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist-
ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which
is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of
the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a
race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than
temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem-
perature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees,
so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow
any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue
change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and
no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This
condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance
and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this
condition is lable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe
enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed.
Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phe-
nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the
species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species,
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FEVERS. : 495
by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi-
tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a
Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the
foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom.
In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms:
The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F.,
is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is mod-
erate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive.
The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther-
mometer inserted in the rectum.
This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand
placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft
between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over
the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos-
trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body,
but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and
irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy
horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased
to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or
16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever
the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total
loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast
difference among horses in this regard. With the same amount of
elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely,
while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay
throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats
or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires
only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a
bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which
may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the
hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage
of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out-
break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mu-
cous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivee
of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an
acute one; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become
of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with
distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two
or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflam-
matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which .
may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi-
tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter,
which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands
are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the
saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks
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496 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excre-
tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces
an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation.
If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material
acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma-
tory process, producing a severe diarrhea.
The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup-
pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is
passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and
deposits quantities of salts. Ata later period the diminished excre-
tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying
off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever.
While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever
are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold,
or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition
usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system.
It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity
of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode
of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the
horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is
the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet
with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin-
ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause
produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When fever is
the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma-
tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first
improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have
exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such
as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary
bronchitis, or the déath of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene).
In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there
is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried
to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar
irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the tem-
perature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy.
In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times
still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes
complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple
inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble,
and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two,
is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon
it depends the mode of treatment.
Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more
susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become compli-
cations of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In
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FEVERS. 497
fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened,
we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing
through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but
an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into
an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions be-
come still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided
deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia,
and at the termination of severe pneumonias.
Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of
the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions,
etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance.
This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation
or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; altera-
tions of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers,
or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of
heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc.
The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the im-
portant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained
by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and
extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of
air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy-
retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists
in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the
excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We
therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions
from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the
kidneys; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver
and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste
material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses
of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action
at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength ;
on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart
that will soon weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress
the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to
strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance
that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the
body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This
is obtained in some cases with advantage where the disease is but
starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood,
as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives,
such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by
setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby
lessening is volume, without having the disadvantage of impoverish-
ing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. Antipyretics given
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498 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful in many
cages,
When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one,
cither in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders,
tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign
element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called
diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to
have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies
for various diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid,
antipyrine, mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro-
matics, sulphur, and a hest of other drugs, some of which are of known
effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies,
like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice,
etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, ete., which
are household remedies, are always useful, because they act. on the
excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies,
which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected
with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the
disease.
INFLUENZA.
[Synonyms: Pinkeye, typhoid fever, epizodty, epihippie fever, hepatic fever,
bilious fever, etc.; fievre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdestaube, German;
gastro-enteritis of Vatel and d’Arboval; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel; typhus
of Delafond.]
Definition —Influenza is a. contagious and infectious specific fever
of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefac-
tion of the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital
forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important
vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and laminz
of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future
ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete
recovery 1s sometimes followed by serious sequela of the nervous and
blood-vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain condi-
tions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epi-
zootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as,
at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, ete.
The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Rusius in
1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing
great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district.
Later, in 1648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and
spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711, under the name of “ epi-
demica equorum,” it followed the tracks of the great armies all over
Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinder-
pest was: scourging the cattle of the same regions. The tio diseases
were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the
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INFLUENZA. 499.
day, allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at
the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British
Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern
counties of England, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758,
Robert Whytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of
Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century
a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of
Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present
century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for
it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in
North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe
form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from
Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and west-
ward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities,
selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially sus-
ceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and
uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an en-
zootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It as-
sumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and com-
merce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are
exposed to its contagion.
Etiology—As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses,
having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again;
but, aside from this, young horses, especially these about four or five
years of age, are much more predisposed to. be attacked, while the
older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it.
Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the
farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to:
pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected
railway cars, and the foul stoekyards and damp stables of dealers in
our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed,
fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are
much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a
few months of steady work.
Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct
cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of
influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in
old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a “stall miasm.” The at-
mosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick ani-
mals to healthy ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable
distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and
droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a
considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may
be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who
have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The
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500 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus
and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a
distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 1881, in regard to the con-
tagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found that dur-
ing a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of horses suffering
from influenza into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy,
the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular
manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation
and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments
showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it
will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures
of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen
cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack
animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable
were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too
frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold
the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to
susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year-
old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable
where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40
feet from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings,
and in six days developed the disease. On the morning when the
trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a
dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately
isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had con-
tracted the disease.
Symptoms.—After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection
a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during
which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is
visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be in-
tense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but
the latter condition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the
danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have
happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of
being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The
disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations
only of the blood, or it may become at any period complicated by
local inflammatory troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by
developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already
irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative
functions.
The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which
becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes
dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head
down, and not back on-the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has
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INFLUENZA, 501
chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the
shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty min-
utes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a
severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and
stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and
105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or
eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its
head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the
surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes
rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with ex-
cessive lachrymation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus
of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The
respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute,
and the pulse is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred,
moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of mus-
cular force; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There
is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin,
so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention
of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of
coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing,
sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible
mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as
the pinkeye, and the mouth and the natural openings become of a
deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially
noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any
other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some
outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from
the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood
is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it be-
comes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution
or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases
in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of
appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some
irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown
by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares
are apt to abort.
We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the sub-
cutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and
of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration
is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the
skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals
after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached
its maximum of 105° or 106° F. in from twenty- four to forty-eight
hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period
of from three to four days without so much variation between morn-
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502 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
ing and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other seri-
ous diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of
the disease, which is generally from six to ten days, the fever abates,
the swelling of the legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the ap-
petite returns, the strength is rapidly regamed, the mucous mem-
branes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the
commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly
to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the
large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease,
a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each twenty-
four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is
a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible
by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been
marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea.
Terminations —The termination of simple influenza may be death
by extreme fever, with failure of the heart’s action; from excessive
coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poison-
ous effects of the débris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the
toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the
lungs; or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of
the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid con-
valeseence; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course
of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose
gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic
diseases.
Complications—The complications are congestions, followed by
inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they
are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular
lamine of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding
influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the
determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year,
and in certain epizootics, we find 40 and 50 per cent or even a greater
‘percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the
intestines; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find
the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the
lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are com-
plicated by troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of
the brain, of the laminz, more rarely commence in epizootic form,
but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all
epizootics.
Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual
cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzo-
otics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as
they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find
the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted wpon
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INFLUENZA. 503
than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already ele-
vated, with the heart’s action driving the blood in increased quantity
into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their
contractility, with a congestion of all of the vascular organs already
established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the con-
gestion one step further and produce inflammation.
Complication of the intestines—When any cause acts as an irritant
to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may
produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may
be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers
to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by
a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially
any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active reme-
dies; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities,
or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations;
the swallowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause
congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal
paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly; it
looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up,
not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the sur-
face of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided con-
stipation; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a
viscous -varnish or even with false membranes. In from thirty-six
to forty hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimen-
tary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is
followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal be-
comes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing
the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of
fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes
gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher.
Tf a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the dis-
charge becomes arrested in from five to ten days.and a rapid recovery
takes place.
Complication of the lungs.—Hf at any time during the course of the
fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or jn any other
way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In
the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the
fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or
apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is
soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo-
nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from
an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course.
The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly
visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and
frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The res-
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504 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
pirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the
temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid,
and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous
poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it
never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneu-
monia.
On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed
areas; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubu-
lar murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of
pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is
peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed
portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and
are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory
symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms
of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered
more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at
first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is dis-
charge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or
hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge
may be “rusty,” due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the
blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead
of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of
the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again
occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfa-
vorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene
occurs it is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of tempera-
ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a
fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in
gangrene complicating other diseases.
Complication of the brain.—At any time during the course of the
disease congestion of the brain may occur3 at an early period if the
fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more
frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been
stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the
stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it be-
comes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose
and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens
itself. It may become more violent, and rear and plunge. If dis-
turbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright
light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but
is not definite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a
diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders
the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fas-
tened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle
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INFLUENZA. 505
at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction.
The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition
in one eye and the opposite in the other.
The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in
which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against
the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of
the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur-
rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of
the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin-
ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of
violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of
coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of
the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur
in the ungovernable attacks of violence.
Complication of the feet—The feet are the organs which are next
in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place
in the lamine (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied
animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and
assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet
alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels,
and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward,
resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as
possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the
pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the
animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a
given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized.
Pleurisy.—This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is
ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small
respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the
legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on
either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the
lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one-fourth
to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight
hours.
Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza. It is
ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature; the pulse becomes
rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become in-
distinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the
jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and
rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked,
or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure.
Peritonitis, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and
covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen-
eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis.
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506 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side
of the flanks and belly; distention of the latter, and sometimes the
formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation.
Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflamma-
tion of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses.
Diagnosis—The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued
fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma; the
rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the
mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni-
tals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis
of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are
produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza
the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden
by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it-insensible to
pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by
diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of
respiration points to a complication of the Iungs, but, as we have
seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions
are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of
the feet, or founder, complicatig influenza is frequently not shown
on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal,
which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the
hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface.
The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence
which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening
period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this
complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the
horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous
membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs
and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only
by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola,
and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous
membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may
have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe
cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have no evi-
dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the
other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctive of the eyes.
In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma,
dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of
the under surface of the belly and legs; but in pneumonia we have the
history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic
type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for sev-
eral days; while in influenza we have the history of characteristic
symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty
of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without
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INFLUENZA. 507
the’ history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of
several days’ standing, complicated by pneumonia, from a case of
severe pneumonia of five to six days’ standing, but from a prognostic
point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical.
The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have
influenza may aid in the diagnosis.
Prognosis.—Infiuenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its
numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a compara-
tively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases.
In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another
preponderate; in such imstances the rate of mortality is much
increased,
Alterations.—The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the di-
gestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of
the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyers’ patches near the
ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained,
and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a con-
gested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of
the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in
the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues.
_ Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications.
Tf the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their
intimate nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ
somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed
in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lami-
nitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflam-
mation of the brain.
Treatment.—While the appetite remains the patient should have a
moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran; or even a little
fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is
not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse
shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be
tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick
horse should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other
horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished,
allowed freely. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple plan is
to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene
may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of
essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine,
and hot water; after which the animal must be immediately dried and
blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stupor and relieve
the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially
indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or
of the brain is threatened. Quinine and salicylic acid in 1-dram
doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine
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508 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash re-
duces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby
reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is
a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the
elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber’s
salts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the
digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results.
In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis
can be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when con-
valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale
in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants; to these may be added
1-dram doses of turpentine.
In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most
frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics; diarrhea is also
relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and
drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small
doses of laudanum.
In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most
frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease
itself,
Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat...
It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory
changes have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local
bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani-
mal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the
stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one
foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in local
bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices.
During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for
some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing
the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to
overload the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent
diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose
the animal to cold.
AFTER EFFECTS OF INFLUENZA.
ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.—A previous attack of influ-
enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears
most frequently a few weeks after convalescence is established. It
occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid
convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it does in those
which have made a slower recovery.
Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively variable.
The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal’s
body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and
gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca-
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ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA, 509
tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complica-
tions may completely mask the original trouble.
In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or
several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body—on the fore-
arm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head.
The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen’s egg; not hot, little sen-
sitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the sur-
rounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they
coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and
belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the char--
acteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a
cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechia,
which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color.
Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on
the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the
frenum. If the external swelling has been on the head, the pete-
chive of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to
coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined
to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the
legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may
be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than
that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains nor-
mal; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker; the respira-
tion is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the
caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal
is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling,
apparently in perfect health.
In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer
resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin
which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which
loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some
cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots
which are suppurating. In the nasal fosse the hemorrhagic spots
have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood
to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh.
We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the
lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The ther-
mometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the
pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usu-
ally remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may
have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F.
Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way,
but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the
surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorp-
tion of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may sup-
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510 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
purate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or
where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about
the head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath-
ing. Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines.
Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may result from anasarca.
Terminations.—The simple form of the disease most frequently
terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by resolution or ab-
sorption of the effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or
without diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times ca-
pricious.
Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of
the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost
invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastasis to the intes-
tines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage.
Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a
fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again pro-
duced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the
head.
Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora-
tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia
terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms.
Alterations.—The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly
simple; the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the
fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable
portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in
consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a
sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in
the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other
like those of a hog’s head by the masses of fat. The surface of the
skin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently
there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous mem-
brane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots,
sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with
each other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish
zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines has oc-
curred, the membrane is found four or five times its normal thickness,
reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of
the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations
vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions
of asphyxia; externally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous
spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic
cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis.
Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of
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ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 511
septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered
in anasarca.
Diagnosis.—The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made
from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive,
while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy
are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease.
The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard,
and pelletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of
excessive swelling of the head in anasarea, there may occur an ex-
tensive serofibrincus exudation from the mucous membranes of the
nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fosse,
never having the appearance or typical oily character which it has
in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands
in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated charaeter which is
found in farey.
Prognosis —While anasarea is not an excessively fatal disease, the
prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a
simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten
days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks
for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis
much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia.
Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account
ef the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy.
Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis
is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual grav-
ity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject.
Treatment.—The treatment of anasarea may be as variable as are
the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations
and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied.
‘Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat
and hay tea, milk, eggs—anything which the stomach or rectum can
be coaxed to take care of—must be employed to give the nutriment,
which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues,
and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their
proper. caliber.
Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must bé used to stimulate
the emunctories, so that they shall carry off the large amount of the
products. of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions
of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses,
and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity,
and the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful.
Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants
and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves
the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diu-
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512 DISHASES OF THE HORSE.
retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount
of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea
are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in
veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in
anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave
disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sul-
phuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of
a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be
employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of
iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics; I doubt if they have
any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid,
etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash in
small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive
for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treat-
ment are diluted Lugol’s solution injected into the trachea, anti-
streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the
circulation. No one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent
to apply these remedies.
Externally —sSponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when
the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an
extreme of temperature—either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot
water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be
added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaces,
suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the
wash.
In cases of ‘excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical
relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with
the hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease so predis-
poses to. septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threat-
ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of
dyspnéa, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first
pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster
should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will
draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to
the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system
is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The
organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; the local
inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The
objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the
danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica-
tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with
little hope of a good result.
After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and there is
no predisposition to a return of the disease.
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GENERAL DISEASES. 513
STRANGLES.
[SynonyMs: Distemper, colt-ill, cartarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever,
Febris pyogenica.]
Definition.—Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule,
and ass; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving
an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of
the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with
formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and fre-
quently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both
near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the
animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was
before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the devel-
opment of deep-seated: abscesses, which may prove fatal.
Causes.—The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with
an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact
with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the
atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many
predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to
contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the
popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later
periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once,
and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an
immunity from previous attacks. At 3,4, or 5 years of age the colt,
which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far
from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is
first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be
exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses
suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to
contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway
ears to dealers’ stables, equally unclean, where it meets many oppor-
tunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for
heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities,
with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be
the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and
at last it suecumbs.
The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end
of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at
which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be ex-
cessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the
“contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases.
Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract
strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin.
Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarely affected.
Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain
analogy between it and distemper in dogs. “After exposure to infec-
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514 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
tion there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two
to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health.
Symptoms.—The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when
placed in its stable is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten-
tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat
diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well
throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is
taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the
patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow-
ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short
time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times
the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters,
or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling
of the muscles and dryness of the skin.
If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red-
dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breath-
ing may be slightly accelerated. At the end ofa couple of days a cough
is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis-
charge is at first watery; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in
color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter
and increases greatly in quantity.
At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard.
The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and
moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according
to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a
catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the wind-
pipe, or the air tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves.
According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough
will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever
caused by ordinary cold. .
Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the
jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen,
somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an
abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping
from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has
fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains
its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the func-
tion of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the
end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the,
.throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has
regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the
disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may
continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no
symptom may be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a
rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particu-
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STRANGLES. 515
lar owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malig-
nant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious
disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the
larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing,
which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of dis-
charge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the:
nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects
become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the
lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe
heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condi-
tion marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat
is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap
with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing.
This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some
time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of
the lungs (asphyxia).
The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is
not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes
inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at
the sides of the throat and even up as high asthe ears. Roaring may
occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of
the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued
lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in
the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the
arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles.
During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to
be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal
organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts.
Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head
wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the
brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous dis-
charge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum;
colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma-
tion of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the
mesentery.
Pathology.—The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of
the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in
the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands,
ind consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation
of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if
the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagu-
lated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while
suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the
body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of
blood, are found.
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516 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Treatment.—Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be-
yond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and pro-
tection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as
lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the
results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive, the
horse may receive small quantities of Glauber’s salts (handful three
times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in 1-dram
doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash,
aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm
water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna
leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the
mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough.
The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing
with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any
evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt
action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri-
tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung
complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied
to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins
great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may
bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not
be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its
strength.
SCALMA.
The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly
been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a
comparatively recent date has been so slow and so tardily accepted by
the majority of practitioners that we have been subjected to con-
stantly seeing announced and heralded as news in the daily papers the
appearance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace
and of the empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more
severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease.
There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which
has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has
not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis-
ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the
name given by Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it
in the Adams Wochenschrift, X XIX, in 1885.
Etymology.—The term “scalma ” is derived from the old German
word scalmo, scelmo, schelm, which indicates roguishness, or knavish-
ness, as great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of
the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The
term “Hetmtuckische Krankheit,” signifying malicious, treacherous,
or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I
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SCALMA. 517
am not aware of any name in English or French which has been
applied to it.
As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the
nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and
inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases,
I will not offer the term “ whooping cough ” as a name, but I will sug-
gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma
in the horse.
Definition—Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease
of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx,
which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great
irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in en-
zootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibility of
the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from compli-
cations.
Incubation.—The period of incubation is from six to seven days,
but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may
delay its appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly,
developing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously
sick one had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls
away. One attack is usually protective.
Symptoms.—The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the
acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with
the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the
fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute
both in its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the
bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the
nasal fossee.
In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from
the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to
fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short,
rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character.
The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse,
purulent, or even “ rusty,” if the bronchitis has extended to the neigh-
boring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The res-
piration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing,
or in complicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening.
The temperature rises rapidly to 102.2°, 104°, and in some cases even
to 107.5° F. The latter temperature usually, but not always, indi-
cates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature
drops in two or three days after the appearance of the cough. The
skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears
as an animal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation
may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderately reddened.
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518 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
The appetite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglu-
tition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause of spasms of
coughing, and these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts
at swallowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be
detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rales are heard, with
at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under
the complications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Through-
out the course of the disease we have still one constant and charac-
teristic symptom—nervous irritability. With temperature of 104° to
107° F., the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands
frequently with the head up, and is on the alert for the entrance of
anyone to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse
will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch
to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner
of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall.
The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough
may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem-
perature. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months,
as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influ-
enza. The termination is by resolution and recovery or by complica-
tions. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less
frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no
sign is left of the disease except the fever mark on the hoof.
Complications—The complications are excessive spasms and pleu-
risy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the
whole animal, the legs are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn
slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the
muscles tense. The cough comes out by rapidly succeeding efforts, or
with the first sound the larynx seems to close for a moment before the
rest can follow. In two cases of my own the spasm has been so great
that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the
respiration becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea
and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be
heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the at-
tack. In the case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a
moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the first I believed that he
had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a
long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the respiration became
almost normal, and the tubular murmur had disappeared. I have seen
no fatal termination from this spasm of the pneumogastric, but can
readily believe that traumatisms resulting from such attacks might
prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce
asphyxia. The fatal complication is pleurisy. This occurs when the
horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease
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SCALMA. 519
while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific, .
but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The
additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy.
Diagnosis —The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tem-
perature without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the
respirations; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with
the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature,
and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis
with but trifling discharge.
The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence
of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less con-
tinuous high temperature; from influenza by the absence of edema, of
the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles
by want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent dis-
charge and abscesses; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules
and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is
sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge;
from rheumatic pleurisy and pleurodynia by the history in these of
repeated attacks and great temporary pain; from surgical fever by
the absence of cause.
Prognosis.—The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease en-
tails only the loss of ten days’ to three weeks’ use of the animal, and
leaves the subject with no complicating sequele. In some cases I
have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in
every case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent
spasms might prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis
serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes.
Treatment.—The treatment of a stable should be at once prophy-
lactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disin-
fection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treat-
ment is simple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air with-
out drafts, frequent rubbing, and tempting food should be thorough.
The digestive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of
soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to
be stimulated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow’s milk. Anti-
spasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of
these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with tur-
pentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions
of alcohol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also
afford relief. Quinine and salicylic acid may be used during the ele-
vation of temperature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal
injections in 1-ounce doses of the following solution: Acetate of
aluminum, 1 per cent; alum, one-half to 1 per cent; bromide of
potash, 1 to 2 per cent; water, 100 per cent.
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520 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
EDEMATOUS PNEUMONIA.
[Synonyms: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic pneumonia; hospital, or sta-
ble, pneumonia ; equine pleuro-pneumonia ; influenza ; pectoralis equorum; pleuro-
pneumonia; contagiosa cquorum; brustseuche, German.]
Definition.—This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older
veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its
nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the
profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which
is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this
same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the
staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the
animal, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza,
with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of
symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be
separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its
whole course.
Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom-
panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these
organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro-
found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to
cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, inflammation of
the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal.
Etiology—While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due
to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as
important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any
influences that lessen the general vigor.
Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated
stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the
same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion,
which may be retained for over a year.
The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather
to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct
currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoft
found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible through-
out an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but
he also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not
transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the
atmosphere. SIUIP]]
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GLANDERS AND FARCY. . 633
and that the second term is applied to it when the principal mani-
festation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the
animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms,
while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external
trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist,
although they may not be evident.
Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Z'quus
(the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog,
the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diffi-
culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirely immune. It
runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal
affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms,
or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from
which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable
amount of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is sub-
ject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs,
of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous con-
nective tissue.
History —Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have
definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek
veterinarian in the army of Constantine the Great, described this dis-
ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of
its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who
lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the
name of Malleus humidus, a disease of the horse characterized by a
nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recog-
nized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers,
and recommended that all animals sick with the disease should be
separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should
be pastured in separate fields for fear the other animals should become
affected.
In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an
account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to
each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He
admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease
from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention
to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of conta-
gion. He divided glanders into two forms—one malignant and con-
tagious and the other benign—and he stated that there was always
danger of infection.
Garsault, in 1746, said that “as this disease is communicated very
easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of
horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals
infected with glanders should be destroyed.”
Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his “ Elements of
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534. , DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Hippiatary,” published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent
disease.
Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the
great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time
during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries.
Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth
century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had
spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and
immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown
in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly
diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of
the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men
protested against the contagious character of this disease, and pre-
vailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion
that several of the governments of Europe undertook a series of ex-
periments to determine the right between the contesting parties.
At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault
in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as
sound had placed among them glandered horses under various condi-
tions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the con-
tagious character of the disease.
In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris,
assisted by Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experi-
ments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being.
They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from
horses, and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by
a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of
others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the
specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loef-
fler and Schuetz in Germany.
When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of
susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on
the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find
proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it
exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of
country containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to
contract and develop the disease without having apparently been
exposed to contagion.
Causes—The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what
form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog-
nize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of
the specific virus of the disease.
In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the
works of those authors who contested the contagfous nature of the
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GLANDERS AND FARCY. 535
disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as
factors in the development of the malady.
While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal
of the genus H'guus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast
difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders.
We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the develop-
ment of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is
much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circum-
stances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are
susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con-
tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops
as a local sore.
In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form,
as is shown by the inevitable infection of stisceptible animals inocu-
lated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent
glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result ;
again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater
quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood
of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in
the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases.
The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses,
asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glan-
dered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or
work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers
which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the dis-
charge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of
the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one,
either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with food into the
digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust.
The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of
the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected
animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands,
clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the
halter, and are thus carried to other animals.
An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved
from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one
horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the
spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized.
Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we
recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may
affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that
will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis.
An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for
family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years,
during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time
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536 _ DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare,
whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a
huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork
and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which
the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute
pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old
nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years. —
In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse
was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent
veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a
skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards
it came into the hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough
and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping
and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in
its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular
light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having
been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by
a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung.
Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died.
The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous
nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase,
more than a year before.
Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and
the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common
recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its
fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals
in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several
months before. While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders
is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case
of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce
the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an
acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal
infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease
from which the virus was derived.
The animals of the genus #quus—the horse, the ass, and the mule—
are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in
these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we
do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period
of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We
find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character
of the disease; in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary tempera-
ment, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the
lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease
usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the
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GLANDERS AND FARCY. 537
chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are
apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated
into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the
latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal
is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion
of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often
followed by the trouble in the chronic’latent form.
In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional
‘disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more
frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, re-
maining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving
a perfectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to
ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of con-
tagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to
glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus
spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and de-
stroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemor-
rhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however,
glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting:
the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer
by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species
glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inocula-
tion ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected.
While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor
Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan-
dered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of
kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which
an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces,
including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod-
ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia
Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a
glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially sus-
ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven-
ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the
glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations.
The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs
a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal
tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding to-
gether of the elements until their own pressure on each other cuts off
the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the
form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we
have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli
into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot,
which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory
phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the re-
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538 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
sult of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time
the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic ves-
sels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places
and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the
latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into
action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body
and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points
of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the
circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a
horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders
that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by
the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on
the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of
farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has
its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use
of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the
disease in the respiratory tract.
The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two
forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and
our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as
acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several
different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that
all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their
essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three
classes—chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or
without farcy.
CHRONIC FARCY.
Symptoms.—tIn farcy the symptoms commence by formation of
little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe
on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as
farcy “buds” and. farcy “ buttons,” are from the size of a bullet to
the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first
elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and. in-
fringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer,
which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with
ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom
and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either
case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the
white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The
discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge
which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis,
but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The dis-
charge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its
surface and-dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive
deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by
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CHRONIC FARCY. 539
others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on
the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy
ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable time—days
or even weeks—but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in char-
acter and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface
of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granula-
tions, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned
into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals.
The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips,
the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of
the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of
the body.
We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh-
borhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated
and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to
the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable
time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy
bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a
characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out
a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves.
The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button,
the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to
these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which,
while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the
diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities,
and when the ulcers are not characteristic.
Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or
other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms
in glanders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always
be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently de-
velops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves—a
short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from
the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks,
and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few
mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one ,
of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the
cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as
high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and
renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the
swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on
removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of
the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing
which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling
is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the
edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as
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540 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
in the last the swelling is cool and not painful and the pitting on
pressure remains for sometime after the latter is withdrawn. It
is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease com-
mences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends
up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The
swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length
in a single night or within a very short period. When greasy heels
are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much
resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently fol-
lowed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface.
In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and
sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration.
The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration,
which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body.
Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition,
but sometimes occurs.
CHRONIC GLANDERS.
Symptoms.—tin chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam-
matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic
farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located.
In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot
to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the
respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nos-
trils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the
other and be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities
on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the
surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs.
The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new con-
nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the yellow spots break
and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has
a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre.
This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar
to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the
discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose,
causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the
chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers,
we may have them causing 2n acute inflammation of the Schneiderian
membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific
discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the
discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases.
The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation
of the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep
inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for
the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly
becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an
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GLANDERS. 541
almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and
nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the
inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is
not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is
not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues
found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory
troubles.
These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands
which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses;
but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel
which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated
cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands
together.
The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre,
the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules
in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount
of eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles
that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia,
‘according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we
find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the
hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough,
and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles.
On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small,
whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which
remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the
other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlarge-
ment of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they
are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute at-
tacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders
and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever,
but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and be-
comes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end.
There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any
chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it
certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal sus-
picious to the eye of-the expert veterinarian, while without the pres-
ence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based
his opinion.
ACUTE GLANDERS,.
Symptoms.—In the acute form of glanders we find the symp-
toms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glan-
ders ina more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak
of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into
chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils.
There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and
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542 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings
occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into
ulcers; we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lym-
phatics. ;
Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs,
and the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption
of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has
difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes
rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes
elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F.
With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance
and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu-
monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous
rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur-
murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu-
lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides
of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia.
Where there is doubt as to the diagnosis the mallein or the inocula-
tion test may be employed. The mallein test is made by injecting
mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture of glanders bacilli) be-
neath the skin. If the horse has glanders there results a febrile
reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If the horse does
not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most, it produces a
slight swelling only at the point of injection. The inoculation test
consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal (usually a guinea
pig) with some of the suspected discharge from the nose or a farcy
ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it contains bacilli of
glanders, the experimental animal will develop the disease. Neither
of these tests should be put into use except by a competent veteri-
narian.
The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneu-
monia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through
the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking
place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some
cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse
discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific char-
acter of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too,
the submaxillary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the
edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis.
This condition is especially apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of
glanders in a drove of mules.
Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a
depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and
anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to
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GLANDERS. 543
cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory
trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute
glanders. 3
In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually termi-
nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms
may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the
temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving
small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent
health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but
a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During
the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities
frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the
forehead and in front of the eyes on either-side of the face, and cause
abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible
symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case
of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic
glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of
the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condi-
tion they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources
of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does
not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge
does in the more acute cases.
At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de-
stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various
lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this,
we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior
_ throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found
in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflam-
mation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive altera-
tions in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of
these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause
of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose.
In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame
horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of
the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died
immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we
find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the
animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in
cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the
external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of
nodules—small, hard, indurated nodes—of new connective tissue to be
found in the lungs. When these have existed for some time we may
find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain
the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefi-
nite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the
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544 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that
is, an inflammatory process wakens up their vitality and produces a
reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering
from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but
during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the
blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days.
Treatment.—Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopceia
has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur-
roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio-
rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal
would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ani-
mal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs,
which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient
disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the exam-
iner, they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely, with the
constant possibility of a’return of acute symptoms.
It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the
infection is slight, but it will not yet do to depend upon this except-
ing under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good
care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal
affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an ap-
parent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food,
with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with
the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other
causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the
trouble again in an acute form.
In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with
glanders have been known to work for years and die from other
causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but allow-
ing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and
the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable
attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected
with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein
tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders.
In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States
in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the
prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veteri-
narian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow
indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal
is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are
thoroughly disinfected. When the attendants have attempted to
hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted
to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties.
Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but
these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which
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RABIES. 545
they should be. The disease is very prevalent in Massachusetts, in
New York City, and in some of the Western States. It has been al-
most completely eradicated from Pennsylvania and several other
States,
RABIES IN THE HORSE.
[Synonyms: Hydrophobia, madness; lyssa, Greek; rage, French; wuthkrank-
heit, German. ]
Definition.—Rabies is a contagious disease which is usually trans-
mitted by a bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the
saliva of an affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in
other ways. It is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the
nervous system, and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied
by lesions, inflammation, and degeneration in the central nervous
system. It is a disease that is most common in the dog, but is trans-
mitted to the horse, either from dogs or from any other animal
affected with it. (See also remarks on page 222.)
As a disease of the horse it is useless to enter into the etiology fur-
ther than to state that in this animal it is invariably the result of the
bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog.
Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more con-
troversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have
even doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have
claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of
ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of
cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only
believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of
a case from which the virus has been transmitted. M. Pasteur has
further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a
virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially
in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the ante-
rior part of the spinal column. M. Pasteur has further shown that
that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the
exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it
for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur-
rounded by carbonic acid; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent
at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by sub-
stances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradually
lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He
has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will
prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has
formulated his method of prophylactic treatment. This treatment
consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter
containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed
to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four
H. Doc. 795, 59-2—Digifized by Microsoft® 2
546 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
days, until the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any
unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunity.. A curious
result of the experiments of M. Pasteur is that an animal which has
first been inoculated with a virus of full strength can be protected
by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of
increasing strength.
Symptoms.—From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid
dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses
before the development of any symptoms. This time may be eight
days or it may be several months; it is usually about four weeks.
The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This
wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until
the horse rubs or bites it mto a new sore. The horse then becomes
irritable and vicious. It-is especially susceptible to moving objects;
excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis-
turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently
sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threat-
ening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal,
especially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike
and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a
moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering
from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies
there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the
animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between
the attacks of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period.
"The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour,
the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only
developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable.
In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original
wound; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings; it
will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If
the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to
the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the
majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to
itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other
bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or
internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there
is an exeessive sensibility ef the skin which, if irritated by the touch,
will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and
desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting
to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act impossible.
This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given
the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water).
In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after
being bitten on the forearm by a rabid deg, developed local irritation
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RABIES. 547
in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This
was healed by local treatment in ten days and the horse was kept
under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac-
titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three
days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed.
Diagnosis.—The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from
the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first, by the
history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other
means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part
of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, ani-
mals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopen-
ing of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor
in diagnosis.
Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor-
rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal.
Treatment.—No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All
of the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromide of pot-
ash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The
prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on
human beings, and has experimentally ‘proved efficacious in dogs, but
would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite
exceptional.
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SURRA.’
By Cu. WARDELL STILES, PH. D.,
Consulting Zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry; Zoologist, United States
Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service.
Surra is not known to occur in the United States, but it is more or
less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a
microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoma
Evanst, 20 to 30 long by 1 to 2 4 broad, which lives in the blood and
destroys the red-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very
similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly dis-
ease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas of South America.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
Surra is a wet-weather disease, occurring chiefly during or imme-
diately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations.
ANIMALS AFFECTED.
Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur
in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been trans-
mitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and
monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frogs, ete.), or fish are
known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals,
young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray
mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds
and color.
LETHALITY—DURATION.
Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal dis-
ease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a
definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually
with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some-
what; in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-five (usually
six to eight) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with
the species of animals attacked, their age, and general condition. The
average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months,
though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two
weeks.
e@¥Yor a more detailed discussion of this disease see Salmon & Stiles, 1902,
Emergency report on surra Bigitized by Microsoft® =
552 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
so pronounced that the animal falls to the ground, and, after a short
struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal
falls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain,
struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very
hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient’s strength, and for
a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again,
and this continues until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is
voracious.
Symptoms of the disease'as observed in experimentally inoculated
animals—Twenty-four hours after the subcutaneous injection of a
small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority of cases, a small
circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is noticed at the seat
of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the tumor has increased
in size and is accompanied by some edema; it presents a certain
amount of tension of the parts involved, and is generally tender on
manipulation. These conditions continue to increase, until by the
fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches in one direction by
2 or 3in the other, and raised to the extent of an inch or an inch and
a half above the surrounding tissues, or in some cases the tumor pre-
sents an almost circular form throughout. It will be also found
that, if the tumor be firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but can be hfted
up from the subcutaneous tissue. According to the nature and
amount of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly present them-
selves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded until, varying
from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at the seat of inocu-
lation will be found to have lost a certain amount of its tension and
tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema will gradually
begin to grow less, until finally, after a period of ten to fourteen days,
the only sign left of the former swelling will be slight thickening of
the skin over the point of the injection; but at the moment when the
tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat of inoculation become
suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost clinical importance
takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite of surra enters the
blood of the general circulation.
The temperature on the day of inoculation, and, in fact, for several
days afterwards, may remain normal in character, there being only a
few degrees difference between the morning and evening observations.
In other cases there may be a slight rise from the first evening, and a
gradual progressive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation
shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally
takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104° or 105.8° F. This
elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on
the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be
noticed, and in addition there will be petechie on the conjunctival
membranes, lachrymation, a slight mucous discharge from the nose,
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SURRA. 553
and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and
perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period
of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or
nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is
every appearance of its return to health; but in a few days the animal
again appears dull and half asleep; the temperature becomes elevated,
and a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the
primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is
observed.
DIAGNOSIS.
Certain symptoms (anemia, fever, petechia, ravenous appetite,
extreme emaciation, high mortality, etc.) would naturally give rise to
a suspicion of surra. The positive diagnosis should, however, be
made with a microscope. In case of suspected surra no delay in con-
firming or disproving the suspicion should be permitted.
TREATMENT.
No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous injections of
Fowler’s solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but relapses occur.
In view of the great economic importance of this disease, it would
not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic cases should they
occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals should be slaugh-
tered immediately and their carcasses promptly burned.
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OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD.
By Joun R. Moutsr, V. M. D.,
Chief of Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.
NATURE OF THE DISEASE.
Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly
and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the cal-
careous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged, soft-
ened, and porous bone. It is particularly manifest in the bones of the:
head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws, thereby
giving rise to the terms “‘bighead” and ‘‘swelled head,” which are
applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all ages,
classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all soil,
dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but
in certain regions, such.as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, India,
Hawaii, and in this country it seems to be enzootic, several cases
usually appearing in the same stable or on the same farm, and numer-
ous animals being affected in the same district. In the United States
the disease has been found in all the States bordering the Delaware
River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England States, and
in many of the Southern States, especially along the coast in regions
of low altitude. In Europe the disease appears to be quite rare, and
is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease which ‘is not
uncommon among cattle of that continent. However, the opinion
that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia can not be accepted, nor can
the infrequency of the former among European horses and the fre-
quency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on the argu-
ment which has been presented, namely, that the better care which
horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the South-
west, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been
observed by the writer among range cattle, no case of osteoporosis of
the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter
animals are given no more attention than the cattle.
The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective that
if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar line of
treatment should prove equally efficacious. However, this is not the
fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on old,
554
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OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. 559
worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating feed
lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water with a
lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the disease.
But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most hygienic
stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of bone-forming
feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the drinking water.
CAUSE.
The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although various
theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, others more
or less plausible; but none of these has been established. Thus the
idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and grazing
in pastures where the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will
cause the disease has been entirely disproved in many instances.
Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheuma-
tism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones,
terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious
has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has
been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made by inoculating
-the blood of an affected horse into normal. horses without results. A
piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt
was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the Jaw of a normal
horse, but without reproducing the disease. Pétrone believes that the
Micrococcus nitrificans causes osteomalacia in man as a result of its
producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and
when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced.
It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causa-
tive factor will be discovered for osteoporosis.
Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin due to
climatic conditions, and divides the island of Hawaii into two districts,
in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where bighead is
very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely visited by
rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals from the wet
to the dry district is followed by immediate improvement and fre-
quently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both good and bad
stables take the disease, but in the dry district no unfavorable or unhy-
gienic surroundings produce the affection. As both native and im-
ported horses are equally susceptible, there is no indication of an
acquired immunity to be observed.
Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing blood
from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has suggested that
the causative agent may only be transmitted by an intermediate host,
as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to this method of
spreading East African coast fever, although blood inoculations, as in
osteoporosis, are alwaysiqyithoutresnlt, soNee know that coast fever is
556 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
infectious, and that it can not be transmitted by blood inoculations,
but js conveyed with remarkable ease by ticks coming from diseased
cattle. That the cause has not been observed may be accounted for
by its being invisible even to the high magnification of the microscope.
On some farms and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a
number of cases following one after another. On one farm of thor-
oughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the aged
horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm in Vir-
ginia a large proportion of the horses for several years were diseased,
although the cows and sheep of this farm remained unaffected.
SYMPTOMS.
The commencement of the disease is usually unobserved by the
owner, and those symptoms which do develop are generally not well
marked or are misleading unless other cases have been noted in the
vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms remain so
vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be present
itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock become
affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the long bones
are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first observed, while
if the dorsal or lumbar vertebre are affected indications of a strain of
the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first symptom to be
noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular appetite or
other digestive disturbance, and with a tendency to stumble while in
action. Theseearliersymptoms, however, may pass unobserved, and the
appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness without any visi-
ble cause may be the first sign to attract attention. This shifting and
indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then the other, is very
suggestive, and is even more important when it is associated with a
tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the absence of a desire
to get up, or the presence of evident pain and difficulty in arising.
About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the
face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will
be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently
involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the
bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower edge of the
molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be
identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time
and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse.
Asa result mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth
become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows causes
balls of food to form which drop out of the mouth into the manger.
Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be seen, caus-
ing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about midway
between the eyes and the as ie, yin Some ases the nasal bones also
OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD, 557
become swollen and deformed, which, together with the bulging of
the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the reason for
the application of the term bighead.
Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these
alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occa-
sion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the limbs,
while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the reluc-
tance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for long
periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly, and if
urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament torn from
its bony attachments, especially in the lower bones of the leg. An
affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer to frac-
ture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise.
The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and
the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed ‘‘hidebound,”
with considerable ‘‘ tucking up” of the abdomen. The horse shows a
short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer and more
restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in founder is
assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal at this
stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several days at a
time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures are not uncommon in
consequence of attempts to arise, which complications, in addition to
emaciation, result in death.
The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extend-
ing from two or three months to two years. The termination of the
disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment
and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early stages
of the malady.
LESIONS.
As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues involved.
The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by the dimin-
ished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the increase in
the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the medullary cavity,
and the enlargement of the network of spaces in the spongy tissue, the
absorptive changes following the course of the Haversian system. In
this process of absorption there are formed within the substance of the
bone areas of erosion, indentations, or hollow spaces of irregular shape.
These spaces increase in size and become confluent, causing an appear-
ance resembling some varieties of coral. The affected bone may be
readily incised with a knife, the cut surface appearing finely porous.
This porous area is soft, pliable, and yields easily to the pressure of
the finger. It has been shown by chemical analysis that the bone of
an osteoporotic horse, when compared with that of a normal horse,
shows a reduction in the amount of fat pres acid, lime, and
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558 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
soda, but a slight increase in organic matter and silicic acid. The
bones lose their yellowish-white appearance, becoming gray and
brittle. The affected bones may ke those of any region or portion of
the body. Besides the change already noted in the bones of the face,
the ends of the long bones, such as the ribs, are involved, and may be
sectioned, though not so readily as the facial bones. The bones of the
vertebre are also frequently involved, necessitating great care in cast-
ing a horse, as the writer has seen several cases of broken backs in
casting such animals for other operations. The marrow and cancel-
lated tissue of the long bones may contain hemorrhages and soft gelat-
inous material or coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually
normal, but a catarrhal condition of the gastro-intestinal tract may be
noted as a result of the improper mastication, resulting from the
enlargement of the jaws and soreness of the teeth.
TREATMENT,
The affected animal should be immediately placed under new condi-
tions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse has been stable
fed, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or three months,
preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been contracted
while running on pasture, place the animal in the stable or corral. In
the early stages of the disease beneficial results have followed the
supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water. One peck of
lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water added from time
to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight expense. This
treatment may be supplemented by giving a tablespoonful of pow-
dered bone meal in each feed, with free access to a large piece of rock
salt, or the bone meal may be given with four tablespoonfuls of
molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing mineral salts, such
as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cotton-seed meal, may prove beneficial
in replenishing the bony substance that is being absorbed. Cotton-
seed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should be
fed carefully. The animal should not be allowed to work at all during
the active stage of the disease, nor should it be used for breeding
purposes.
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SHOEING.
By Jouwn W. Apams, A. B., V. M. D.,
Professor of Surgery and Lecturcr on Shoeing, Vetcrinury Department, University
of Pennsylvania.
Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the
feet and in irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice-
able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with
a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs.
In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can
only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of
facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of
the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the move serious conse-
quences of improper shoeing.
Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some-
thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component
parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor-
mal and to apply the proper corrective.
GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT.
The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which—the long
pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end—form a
continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the
fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or
“ shuttle,” bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the
coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The
short pastern projects about 1} inches above the hoof and extends
about an equal distance to it. (See also page 369.)
The pasterns and the coffin bone are held together by strong fibrous
cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not
to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones.
The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect, because, while
the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single
plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible.
The bones are still further bound together and supported by three
long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe,
passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone
just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this
tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof
flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the
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560 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
pasterns and are called flewors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns
and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the
upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between
the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and
attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin bone. These two ten-
dons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground,
during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory ligament in support-
ing the fetlock joint.
The foot-avis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint
through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin bone. This
imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin
bone, should always be straight—that is, never broken, either forward
or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when
observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the
long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to
the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long
pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly
at the middle of the toe.
Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffin bone
forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the
tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone (perforans
tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and
backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal
position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken for-
ward; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels
are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising
the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not
only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly
horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet-
lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The
foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward—an indication
that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too
low.
The elastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages
and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly
four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending
from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to
a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they
may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and
yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes
may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and un-
yielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough,
elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral car-
tilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a
buffer to disperse shock when the foot is set to the ground. It ex-
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ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 561
tends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon,
and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below.
Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels
to the ground before other parts of the foot—conclusive proof that
the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render
harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground.
The horn-producing membrane, or “quick,” as it is commonly
termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the “ derm,” or true
skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm (foot skin). The
pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar
cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered
by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or
hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly sup-
plied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm
ef the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of
horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm,
so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface
soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath,
lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the
corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the
hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities
possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails,
claws, ete.
The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite
it firmly to the foot.
There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when
the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic band, a narrow
ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along
the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This
band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnishlike layer of glis-
tening horn, which.forms the surface of the wall, or “ crust,” and
whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from
the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encir-
cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the
heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to be-
come lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro-
duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce
the “bars,” which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning
forward of the wall. (8) The fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in number,
parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the
lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole.
They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the
deepest layer of the wall and serve as a strong bond of union between
the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they
dovetail. (4) The Rep hate BY HRB SSSRS the entire under surface
H. Doc, 795, 59-2 2
562 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is
produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which covers the
under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog.
The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall and bars, sole and frog.
The wail is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is
on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three
layers—the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy layer.
The bars (see fig. 1c) are forward prolongations of the wall, and
are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the
wall and a bar is called the “ buttress.” Each bar lies against the
horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other,
so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates
or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and
the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the
“ bearing edge,” and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By
dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal
parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The
“heels,” strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of
the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is
usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a
hoof is always the thicker. Yn front hoofs the wall is thickest at the
toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses
it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much
less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters.
The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed,
is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, un-
even, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being
loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into
which are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the
sole into a body and two wings. _
The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall
and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross-
section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn
which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This
white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from
the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the
white line all nails should be driven.
The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion
or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies
as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the
edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow de-
pression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as
they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the
middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog,
which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should
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MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 563
rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge
of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the
under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures
assists in bearing the body weight.
With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely.
The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the
sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller
flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of
the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn struc-
tures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under
natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic,
absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard,
brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and
tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and fri-
able or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and
the harder (drier) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes
of temperature. —
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF.
A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and
the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than
when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a
foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are
continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never
at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when
the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest
descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An
expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the
coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies
between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of
the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (8) A sinking of
the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are
more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight.
The changes of form occur in the following order: When the foot
is set to the grotind the body weight is transmitted through the bones
and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navic-
ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the
short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti-
lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion.
This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to ex-
pand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting
against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands
toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and
the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and
increased by the simultaneous, Hatigning apg lateral expansion of the
564 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when
the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no expansion of the
quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compres-
sion of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pres-
sure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossi-
fied cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin-bone the horny sole
sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the
frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these
changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because
in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they
are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs,
The movement of the different structures within the foot and the
changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the
health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by
regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof.
Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing
decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some-
times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and
spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil,
albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses
continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in
shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and
apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface,
so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac-
tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we
need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason-
able work and his hoofs proper care.
GROWTH OF THE HOOF.
All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal
rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount
of blood supplied to the pododerm, or “ quick.” Abundant and reg-
ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof,
going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing
the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas-
ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into
the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality; while
lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof
hinder growth.
The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month.
Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than
shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet
to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited
conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the
ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn down
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GROWTH OF THE HOOF, 565
in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months,
and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with
tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such
defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc.
Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause
of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof—
that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined
for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of
excessive length. The long toe becomes “ dished ”—that is, concave
from the coronet to the ground—the long quarters curl forward and
inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of
the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked
foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be
allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for
but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu-
lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure
to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight
leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during
the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb.
If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown
and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from
their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved
improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we
might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, “ splay-footed,”
“ pigeon-toed,” cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses,
If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too
long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be
unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground
first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper
level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this
point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents
wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath
the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is
worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be re-
peated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will
grow more rapidly .than the low side whose pododerm is relatively
anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the
hoof, and the ultimate result will be a “ wry,” or crooked foot.
THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS.
The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs
will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to
time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the
sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the
wall. Digitized by Microsoft®
566 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every
four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge
of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts
of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof
washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided.
Hoofs that are becoming “awry” should have the wall shortened
in such a manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately
produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF.
A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and is
not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression
with pincers. The coronet is
soft and elastic at all points
and does not project beyond
the surface of the wall. The
wall (fig. 8) is straight from
coronet to ground, so that a
straightedge laid against the
wall from coronet to ground
parallel to the direction of
the horn tubes will touch at
every point. The wall should
be covered with the outer
varnishlike layer (periople)
and should show no cracks or
clefts. Every hoof shows
“ring - formation,” but the
rings should not be strongly
Fic. 1.—Ground surface of aright fore hoof of the regu” marked and should always
lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toc; a-b, the side walls? pun parallel to the coronary
b-d, the quarters; ¢, c, the bars; d, d, the buttresses’ ; at
¢, lateral cleft of the frog; f, body of the sole; g, g’, 9’ band. Strongly marked ring-
leafy layer (white linc) of the toe and bars; h, body formation over the entire wall
othe fg: bancnea te toe EE omy MUS Ss am evidence of a weak hoof
but when limited to a part
of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs
of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole
(fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog
well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the
spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars
straight from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the
buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches
of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents
reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog,
thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The
lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure,
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOOF, 567.
VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS.
As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an
equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little
study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of
every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two
pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side;
and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in
front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch
as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that
is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards
the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological
shoeing.
FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE.
Whether a horse’s feet be observed from in front or from behind,
their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the
regular position (fig. 2), the
base-wide or toe-wide position
(fig. 3), or the base-narrow po-
sition (fig. 4).
By the direction of the im-
aginary line passing through
the long axes of the two pas-
terns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we deter-
mine whether or not the hoof ©
and pasterns stand in proper ==
mutual relation. Fie. 2.—Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular
standing position.
In the regular standing posi-
tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in
the base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and out-
ward, and in the base-narrow
position (fig. 4) it runs ob-
liquely downward and inward.
Viewing the foot in profile,
we distinguish the regular po-
sition (fig. 5b) and designate
all forward deviations as acute-
_angled (long toe and low heel,
fig. 5a), and all deviations
backward from the regular
F 1G. 3.—Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide (steep toe and high heel, fig.
Scone P ORE: Be) as steep-toed, or stumpy.
When the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the
foot-axis should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall
at the toe should havetiséisemé slifitrosoft®
568 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
A front hoof of the regular standing position.—The outer wall is a
little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower
porder of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle—that
is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls
near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole
bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of
45° to 50° and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The
toe points straight ahead,
4 AY i wad and when the horse is mov-
| ing forward in a straight
line the hoofs are picked
up and carried forward in
a line parallel to the mid-
dle line of the body, and
are set down flat. Coming
straight toward the ob-
server the hoofs seem to
Fie. 4.—Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow yjse and fall perpendicu-
standing position.
larly.
A hoof of the base-wide position is always awry. The outer wall is
more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter
more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than
the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof.
In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the
ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried forward and inward
Fic. 5.—a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing
the most desirable degree of obliquity (45°); ¢, side view of a stumpy, or ‘‘upright,” fore foot;
obliquity above 50°. Ina, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length of the shoe and
the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes.
close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the
ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. Horses that
are toe-wide (“splay-footed "—toes turned outward) show all these
peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked
degree and are therefore more prone to “ interfere ” when in motion.
A hoof of the base-narrow position is awry, but not to so marked a
degree as the papers ee Z Ay Wiese Avail is usually a little more
EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 569
slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the
outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer
quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight
falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof
breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some
distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the
ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus
moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight
called “ paddling.” A base-narrow horse whose toes point straight
ahead frequently “interferes,” while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed)
animal seldom does.
A regular hoof (fig. 5b), viewed from one side, has a straight foot-
axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°. The weight
falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of
the quarters.
An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has a straight foot-axis inclined at
an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The weight falls more largely
in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in
contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in
the regular hoof.
In the upright, or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5c) the foot-axis is straight
and more than 55° steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to
heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of
the heels than in the regular hoof.
Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely
upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the
ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the
quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly
“cupped” sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and
fine-grained, tough horn.
Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different directions of their
pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the
toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is
two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave,
the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than in front
hoofs.
EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING.
The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi-
tion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the
form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu-
tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves
the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the
ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent
shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected.
The animal must, ther&fortscherabservedopeth at rest and in motion.
570 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the
long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward
and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base-nar-
row foot)? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an im-
aginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the
ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But
if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as
it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that
either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner
wall is too short (low). On the contrary, if the center line of the long
pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at
the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the
outer wall too short.
The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three
paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the
size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal,
Fic. 6.—a, Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a
toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot-
axis is denoted by « dotted line; b, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a
straight foot-axis of desirable slant; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken
forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to be removed
in order to straighten the foot-axis is shown by a dotted line.
and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight—that is, does
the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the
hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. 6c)? In which case
the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually,
that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short.
If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot-
axis is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quar-
ters are too low (short). In figures 6a and 6c the dotted lines passing
from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be
removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 60.
Note also the length of the shoe.
Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the
outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality
of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and
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EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 571
distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower
border of the wall? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full an the inside
that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on
crooked ? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short, or so wide
at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the
hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are
the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the
expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too large?
driven too “fine” or too high? These are questions which the
observer should put to himself.
Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable
evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground
since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable “ pointers” in lev-
eling the hoof., Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the
ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof
is set flat to the ground, the “ grounding wear ” of a shoe should be
uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due
to scouring at the moment of “ breaking over.” Everything which
tends to lengthen the stride tends also to-make the “ grounding wear ”
more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which
shorten the stride—as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork,
or disease—bring the grounding wear nearer the toe.
An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the
grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels.
If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than
the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle
line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater
weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more
often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been
too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short
(toolow). “ One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an
unnatural course of the wall are often found together.” How much
an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars!
The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace,
from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the “ breaking
over,” the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the
ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always
move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there
is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two
hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few
steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us
the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base-
wide, or base-narrow form. ;
No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work
till he has made the precited observations.
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572 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE,
After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch-
cutter (“buffer ”) and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is
critically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then
drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially de-
tached horn. The farrier has now to “ dress” the overgrown hoof to
receive the new shoe; in other words, he has to form a base of support
so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface
shall be set flat upon the ground. “He must not rob the hoof nor
leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury. If he has
made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the
wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already
knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and
has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be re-
moved to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight.
A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp
nippers, and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con-
cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the
point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of ex-
foliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full
thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of
the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the “ bearing surface of
the hoof.” The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared on the
side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the
wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as
not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. “ Corns,” or
bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass
of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be
touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to
form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously
by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is
dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying
moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than
to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below
the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain
shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses.
The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp
to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the
foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make
sure that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction
of the long pastern.
THE SHOE.
The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because
it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the
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THE SHOR. 573
foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground.
Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in
preserving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider
the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of
hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be con-
sidered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, bor-
ders, “ fullering,” nail holes, and clips.
; fe orm.—Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it
1s intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; but for every
hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the
shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and
hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily
distinguishable.
Width.—All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of
-the branches. The average width should be about double the thick-
ness of the wall at the toe.
Thickness.——The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last
about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases.
Length.—This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in
profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has long overhanging heels,
and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in
the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the
shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double
the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5d
and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness
of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project
more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover
the entire “ bearing surface ” of the wall.
Surfaces.—The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as
the “upper,” or “ hoof surface,” of the shoe. That part of the hoof
surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the “ bearing
surface” of the shoe. The “bearing surface” should be perfectly
horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full
thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of
the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly
flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (“rolling-motion ”
shoe, fig. 5 a, b,c). The surface between the bearing surface and the
inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent
pressure too far inward upon the sole. This “ concaving,” or “ seat-
ing,” should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more
concave. As a rule, strongly “cupped” soles require no concaving
(hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs).
' Borders.—The entire outer border should be beveled under the
foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to
interfering. Digitized by Microsoft®
574 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Fullering.—This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It
should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean,
and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe
lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the ground surface
somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping.
Nail holes.—The shoe must be so “ punched ” that the nail holes will
fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore
half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind
shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are
sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long
calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four
on the outside may do.
Clips.—These are half-circu-
lar ears drawn up from the
outer edge of the shoe either at.
the toe or opposite the side wall.
The height of a clip should
equal the thickness of the shoe,
though they should be even
higher on hind shoes and when a
leather sole is interposed _be-
tween shoe and hoof. Clips se-
cure the shoe against shifting.
A side clip should always be
drawn up on that branch of the
shoe that first meets the ground
in locomotion.
SPECIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE
CIIIEF CLASSES OF SHOES.
Fig. 7.—Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with (1) A shoe for a regular hoof
a plain ‘' fullered”” shoe. Note the distribution (figs. 7 and 8) fits when its
of the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and
the closeness of the ends of the shoe to the Outer border follows the wall
branches of the frog. closely in the region of the nail
holes and from the last nail to the end of the branch gradually pro-
jects beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an inch and
extends back of the buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of
the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail holes
directly over the white line, and its branches far enough from the
branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches
of the shoe must be of equal length.
In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of
the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of
irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the
hoof, but also to the Pusstion BY jbhe-pasterns and the consequent
THE SHOE. 575
es of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight
a ata of support of the foot must be widened, and where’
aoa He at falls -(opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup-
V De narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of
weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of
support.
(2) A shoe for a base-wide hoof should be fitted full on the inner
side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner
side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are
placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward
toward the toe.
(8) A shoe for a base-narrow hoof should be just the reverse of the
preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the
inner.
(4) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the branches,
because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot.
The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe
up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a).
Fie, 8.—Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring
fovmation running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of
the shoe, and the under-bevel at the toe and heel.
(5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, and
for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where
the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward.
In many cases, especially in draft horses where the hoofs stand
very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand
out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer
branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that
an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet
the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand,
must be fitted as “close” as possible. The principal thought should
be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side.
Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular
f giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme
PORE E Noe: igitized by Microsoft®
576 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the
shoe “full” at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the
quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be
pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated
by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch-
ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line.
HOT FITTING.
Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust
a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we say, “ air-tight.” Though
the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con-
sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of
the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow
heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too
thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But a shoe at
a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long
enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn
that should be lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and
to the ultimate benefit of the animal.
The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They
should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the
shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the
wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and
strong clinch, rather than a narrow one, which would be formed near
the point of the nail, and, furthermore, has the strongest possible
hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right
angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high.
Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches.
THE BAR SHOE.
The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give
the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and
development when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It
gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to re-
heve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced
inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the
average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but
lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole
with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight
of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof.
THE RUBBER PAD.
Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes,
and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the
hard and slippery pavements P cl Be gities are in use in differ-
RUBBER PADS FOR SHOES. 577
ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron
shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred
Fic. 9.—An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and posi-
tion of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to
interfere with the expansion of the quarters.
rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap,
durable, easily applied, and effective.
Fig. 10.—A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer heel calks cut at right
angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be
perpendicular.
In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads
are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite effi-
cient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements,
H. Doc. 795, 59-237 2
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578
though not so effective on ice.
the best of many rubber pads.
DISEASES OF
Fig. 11.—Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a
rubber pad and “‘ three-quarter” shoe, (Ground
surface.) .
great benefit. The belief, unsup-
ported by evidence, that rubber
pads “ draw the feet ” keeps many
from using them. A human foot
encased in a rubber boot may even-
tually be blistered by the sweat
poured upon ‘the surface of the
skin and held there by the imper-
vious rubber till decomposition
takes place with the formation of
irritating fatty acids; but there is
no basis for an analogy in the hoof
of a horse.
THE HORSE.
Figure 11 is an illustration of one of
The rubber is stitched and cemented
-to a leather sole and is secured by
the nails of a three-quarter shoe.
Such a pad will usually last as
long as two shoes. They may be
used continuously, not only with-
out injury to the hoof, but to its
Fic. 12.—A narrow right fore hoof of the base-
wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a
plain ‘‘dropped-crease”’ shoe to prevent the toe-
cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the
inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which
was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof
along the striking section. Note the inward
bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped
crease, the distribution of the nails, the long
‘‘full” inner branch, and the short ‘‘close’’
outer branch.
Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with
“interfering ” and “ forging,” are given herewith.
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SPECIAL SHOES. 579
Fic. 13.—Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has
no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position
of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the
inner branch.
Fig. 14.—Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch
has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters
of the hoof are equidistant from the ground.
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580 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
Fic. 15.—Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the “ breaking over” (quicken
the action) in a “forger.” Note the short shoe, heel calks inclined forward, and the
rolled toe.
Trig. 16.—Side view ofa short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to
prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the
short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When
such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set
farther forward.
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SPECIAL SHOES. 581
Fic. 17.—A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are
ree too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly
placed. ,
Fic. 18.—Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore
feet. The profile of the shoe shows a “roll” at the toe and “‘swelled’’ heels. The
weight is well placed, but ‘“‘ rolling”? the toe and raising the heel’s lower action. The
shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe.
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Digitized by Microsoft®
INDEX.
Abdomen— Page.
dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment...........-.------- 172
dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment............---- 71
limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment.......- 159
sheath, and penis, swelling, cause and treatment...........-.---------- 149
Abnormal presentations at birth........220.222----cee ee ee eee eee cece eens 176-181
Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment .............-------- 161
Abscess— ; ;
and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat-
MOD jy dhe ue otae aya iSaated nes Swe dewivaen Gh beens weer ace eae ees 249
in lung and suppuration, symptoms.............-..------22ee-e eee eee 135
Abscesses— 3
acute, description and treatment .............-.-------- eee ee eee eee eee 475
cold, description and treatment ................-----2---- 22-2 eee ee eee. 476
dSseriptiOnuccssadAsveticn ¥ suet suieces teem eased scsi eee ese el 474
in. throat; treatmenit.ceks sccierenie o's cawweducue cedlemeccee chee ee aeed 46
Acariasis, or mange, note ..........--- 222222222 eee ee eee ee eee 450
ACOIT, PATASILCS: Of CY 6% Wass ccc ac. cate rewdara ew aoas bbndaiice cee samsenmdcewecde 273
Achorion schénleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description...............-.-- 450
Adams, John W., chapter on ‘‘Shoeing” ........-.--...0--2----------0-- 559-581
Air embolism, or air in veins, note .........-2.----2--- 2-2 ee eee eee eee eee 247
Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre-
vention, and treatment x1 ..str soci ae eeialse sto sdleace tent oh caieceoaselekes sae 82
Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment.... 210, 272
Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment -.......-.---.------------------ 159
Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc_-.-. 508, 510
Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system ........-.-..---.----- 190
Anemia—
spinal, symptoms and treatment....-.--.-..-..----------------- 22 ee eee 214
of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment ..........---..--- 203
Aneurism— ;
description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment ........-.-..--------- 242
one form caused by Strongylus vulgaris ...-..--------------------------- 243
Anidian monsters, or moles, description.......----------------------------- 158
Animal parasites, description of kinds -........----.--------------- ------- 450
Ankle—
and fetlock, skin, note.......-.-.------+----ee ee eee e eee ee eee eee ee 371
fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe ...-.---------- 369, 430
Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment .......----- 374
Anthrax, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment -..-...-.----------- 529-532
Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat-
MENE 2 we ene wee eee eee ewe ene eee eee cette ete ene e ere ce eens 200
Arteries—
description.....----.----------- 2-2 ee eee eee ee cree centre cere te eee 227
diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology,
and treatment........---------------- eee ee eee 240
583
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584 INDEX.
Page.
Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, or endarteritis, description, symptoms, and
teAUMENE 25:5 52000 Gen sesecintis vsceeettessssieeadceyreresins Seeteaeeeees 240
Artery—
constriction, description scccscccescescecsxeesceds s neceessccees avicine ses 244
rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment........-.--.---.-------- 242
Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cause and treatment. --.- 332
Ascaris equorum, intestinal worm, note.......-...--.--- +2222 22-2 eee eee eee 60
Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment ..--... 71,172
Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment -..... 137
Atheroma of veins and arteries, description ...........-.------------------- 242
Autumn mange, description and treatment.........-.--.----.--------+----- 452
Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms,
prevention, and treatment... 02. oc. seoee cc sens ssc ehh ce ee secesa ceases 82
Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms,
prevention, and treatment -.-.--..---- 22-2 +2 eee ee ee ee eee eee ee 82
Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering. ....-.....-....----- 28
Bat Sh0e, Uses = -.ys 2 ssscc ctr he eeeiaaareeeeseaccessad emenwaseeetinada exw’ 569
Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment .....--.--..-.-------.--------+- 454
Beetsias Teed oot aie vvisienjsiguee te ccnnawieseese L oicicie en etolvinig siiaiciaia eee eeeiticiy's 41
Bighead (osteoporosis )—
chapter by John: Ry Mohler ss. ciiie scee nesses Meeemeseewaccicroebietcie 554-558
symptoms, lesions, and treatment .......----..--.--------+----- geacwe 556
Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment......-.-.-----.------ 74
Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and
treatmenticn. oss 52 sscewesdemee oes ss scseewoess isielele 2 Side denalaineieistesiectele eels 103
Birth, abnormal presentations at .......----.------------------ eee eee eee 176-181
Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment .......-...-- 449
Bladder—
calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting.......--..-.-------.-----.------ 169
diseased growths, syrnptoms and treatment ......---..----.------------ 92
eversion, description and treatment-_--..----.-------2----- eee ee ee een ee 93
inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment.......-.. 90
irritable, cause and. treatment... 2.2.2.2. -2sscctasseseeses co dsmewesses 91
neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment..--......--..- 87, 205
paralysis, description and cause ........---.---------------- eee eee eee 210
paralysis, symptoms and treatment .-..-... 22.22.2222 22+ +2 eee eee eee eee 89
stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and
TRATMENE occiedtss Biceeetene sees. aheus sek eeseeess nae besseenes 100
WOTMSOL KIGHEY oo. esjnccaamces ace cameaness awed owes asses seeceent ess 87
Bleeding—
alter castration, treatment: csccccccieseuececcacees oa cee coe Sseee eet 149
from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment ..-......-. 136
from nose, causes and treatment...-...----------2 22. eee eee eee 112
or flooding from womb, treatment.......----.------------ 2-22 e eee eens 184
skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treatment... 441
Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment...............- 437
Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment ...-....---.------------------- 57
Blood—
circulation of heart, description -.........-...---------------2-----2-0- 226
clotscin walle of vagina. ...c22c ace sacasanncease di cceees ences numeiwicds. 187
medicines administered into veins ........-..---.----------- ee eee ee eee 33
of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment -...---.-.---...-.-22-22-- 145
spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment....... -- 381
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INDEX. 585
Blood vessels— Page.
and heart, diseases, remarks ...._... 2222-220 es eee ee eee e eee eee eee eee 228
heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower....-.--- 225-250
physiology and anatomy..........2. 2.222.022 0 eee eee ee ee ee ee 225°
Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment..................2-.------ 82
Blowing, high, description.............22.2222 22022222 v eee ee eee ee eee eee 119
Bluebottle (Lucilia ewsur), note 2.222220 222 eee eee eee eee 453
Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment....... 331
Boil of eyelid, description and treatment.........2..2222022-002-2222 cece ee 259
Boils—
or Dermatitis granulosa.....-2.-. 2222222222 eee eee 442
or furuncles, description and treatment....-......-.-.--.-..----------- 439
Bone—
hip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and
EPEALINCHG sis GEN Marcher orerascrvarctaaavanets S:a'd nial aNen pra wichita tba ue eerie 317
premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment.............-.------- 312
spavin. (See Spavin.)
Bones—
cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment...........---- 325
cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment.........-..-..----- 310
diseases, description........-..-------. 2-0-2 -- ee ee eee eee eee eee cee 284
dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment..........-.. 33
of face, fractures, description, and treatment.-......-------------------- 311
of fetlock and foot, description...........-2..2-2-2-2.-22--0-2-2-0222---- 369
Of hip, fractures; Causes! = o..5-05052 5 secd teckeusueesssscece cesses ees come 167
one system of locomotion .........--2.- 2222-220 e ee eee eee eee eee 275, 277
sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment......-..- 328
Bothy, trédtment 22.¢. csi cecennt ss asececesenonaeeeeed d= thal sbeiececades 61
Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment..-...- 56
Brain—
and membranes, inflammation, description ..........-..------------- 192, 193
and nervous system, anatomy and physiology..--... eee ee ee 190
anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment......-.--..------- 203
compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment .....-..--.--------+----- 201
concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention ...........-.-. 202
congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and
prevention: . .2-2<2s.ce2sseesee--+-++6 Sg Sbe Saas manera oe dees 197
description, 2: 2 .ceee cee Ve steeecue ese caesebink ose e sae eee Lets 191
dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment -..........- 203
Bran, value as feed ......----------- +--+ 222-222 e eee nee ee tees 40
Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat-
eS WMS hhc ccce a cee eS Seek eixte sere ee See ee eee Sb Sie: Seis SSN ho eee eee gs 332
Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment....... 137
Bronchitis—
and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment.......-- 129
chronic, description and treatment ..-.-.------------------++-++----+-- 119
Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia, description...--.----------+++--++2++22+--e +--+ 135
Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment... 129
Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment....------------------------ 399
Bruises, description and treatment ....--------------++-------20 creer rrr eres 464
Burns and scalds, treatment....-...-------------- 2-2-2 reer errr eres 455, 471
Caleuli—
biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment..-..----------------+--- 74
or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment. -....-----.- 55
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586 INDEX.
Calculi—Continued. _ Page.
or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment ........---.------.----- 54
renal, description, symptoms, and treatment.............-------------+ 98
uretral, description and treatment .....-....-....---------------------- 99
WH ALY, ClassifiGatiOn:..cw2cccewmee ns eaatiaedced sc maneearleaeecmsicamrem: 98
Urinary; stone, OF Bravel oes cece se euciwseenseee bests soestseeereeey 94, 97
Calculus—
in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treat-
TOMO G exh nde pets ee re emery! ciate et eee 103
or stone, and tumior in bladders... 0222 :