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The foundations of scientific agricultur

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THE FOUNDATIONS

OF

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE
290A GSLINOL ‘YNOOd ‘ADNAIDS 4

 

T1T1TOD BHL WO ALNVd NOISMNDXY T1V¥91IDO0TORD

 

 
THE FOUNDATIONS

OF

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE

BY

SAMUEL COOKE

M.A., A.M.LC.E., F.I.C., F.G.S., COR.M.R.H.S.
PRINCIPAL AND PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY, COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, POONA

 

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1897

All rights reserved
PREPACE

Ir is hoped that the following chapters will supply a want—
which seems to be felt in the Bombay Presidency, if not
everywhere in India and the Colonies—viz. a concise manual
containing an outline of the Foundational Principles of
Scientific Agriculture.

These chapters were originally composed in the guise of a
short course of lectures addressed to a mixed class of students
—of agriculture, engineering, and forestry—at the Poona
College of Science: a duty which has devolved on the author
for a period of over fifteen years.

It can scarcely be doubted that the time has come for
giving to scientific agriculture a permanent basis, by its
inclusion in the curricula of the public schools of the country,
not only with a view to supply trained experts to fill Govern-
ment offices, but also for the benefit of the people at large.

Agriculture is, properly speaking, an art; and though, as in
the case of other industrial arts, science offers its cultivators
aid and guidance, yet it is folly to expect sudden and great
results from the establishment of Scientific Schools of Agri-
culture. Patience is even more necessary to the agriculturist
than to the painter. The present system of Agricultural

Education in Western India is sometimes sneered at because
vill Preface.

it does not rapidly turn clever, but poor, Brahmins into
thriving farmers. The critic usually forgets that capital is
necessary to successful farming, and besides, he probably
overlooks the fact that the scientific training provided in
agricultural colleges opens other doors (than that of land
cultivation) to obtaining a livelihood. So long as brains and
capital are divorced from the soil it is useless to expect much
improvement in the primitive methods of agriculture. As an
illustration of this truism, the author would point to the results,
alluded to in reports by Collector Propert, of the cotton
experiments among the rayats in Khandesh. Science could
almost have predicted these results; for it is a well-known
freak of nature that when seed selected from a highly cultivated
crop is repeatedly grown in unmanured ground, the resulting
plant degenerates into its primitive condition.

The author is in complete accord with the views of Mons.
Georges Ville, in holding that the recent introduction of
chemical manures affords the most economical means that
farmers can employ to prevent the deterioration of their lands,
and for results would point to the illustrations given in that
gentleman’s public lectures on artificial manures ; for, as both
farmer and horticulturist, he has personally tested the value
of such manures, and has frequently had the satisfaction of
winning the best prizes,! at local exhibitions, for produce
grown with their aid, tempered when indicated with humus
or farmyard dung. :

There is now, in each Presidency or province of India, a

' Vide prize lists of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Western India
(1882 ef seg.) ; also Appendix B.
Preface. ix

Director of Agriculture appointed by Government, whose chief
duty is thus defined by her Majesty’s Secretary of State :—

“To secure the more complete and systematic ascertaining
and rendering available of the statistics of vital, agricultural,
and economic facts for every part of India, in order that
Government and its officers may always be in possession of an
adequate knowledge of the actual condition of the country, its
population, and resources.”

The question of Agricultural Education thus devolves on the
University and the Educational Department: and it is, chiefly,
for the purpose of providing’ those institutions with a suitable
text-book for schools and colleges that the present brochure
has been put in type,'—and should this attempt be favourably
received, a companion volume on “ Agricultural Practice”
may be expected to follow.

The author is under obligations to Messrs. Negretti and
Zambra for the loan of electros of certain Meteorological
Instruments; and to the Rev. A. K. Nairne for permission
to adopt the botanical definitions from his “‘ Flowering Plants
of Western India ”—a most suitable volume for Indian School
Libraries.

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, POONA,
September, 1896.

1 No apology seems necessary for the introduction of chemical formulz
in such a manner as not to interrupt the progress of the general reader.
CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY I
IJ. THe ATMOSPHERE: Air and Water 9
IIIf. THE WEATHER: Sunshine—Rain—Climate . 30
IV. Tue Sort: Rock-forming Minerals - 52
V. Tue Soir: Soil-forming Rocks. 3 78
VI. Tue Sort: Soil-forming Agencies. . . . . . . . 103
VII. THE Sort: Varieties — Classification, Composition, and
Analyses: is! -%ex. seo. ae ie ocere Bock? RE ee Gk VE Gy TTS:
VIII. Tse PLant: Relation of Plant Food to the Atmosphere
and the Soil—Plant Growth and Architecture . . . 129
IX. Crops: Their Nature and Varieties . . . . a oe EGY,
X. MANURES FOR THE SOIL AND CROPS . . > ge Sp TOF
XI. THE CULTIVATOR AND HIS ART- . . 2 I9I
XII. MEASUREMENTS, ETC. . . . . ~ Or
XIII. Giossary oF TERMS . . aS 238
XIV. GYMNASIUM FOR STUDENTS . . . . ; - 251

APPENDIX A; Succession List of the Stratified Rocks of
the British Isles, with their Economic Contents . . . 259
APPENDIX B: An Interesting Agricultural Experiment. . 262

APPENDIX C: The Educational Usesof Famine . . . 265
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

THE only apology necessary for offering the present volume to
the public is that its subject-matter is one which has received
too little attention in colonial lands from capable hands—
notwithstanding that agriculture is the most ancient, the
grandest, and most healthful of all occupations.

Thus, for example, in America (U.S.) there were, in 1870,
of 123 millions of people engaged in all occupations, over six
millions engaged in agriculture; and in 1890 the number
employed in solely agricultural pursuits rose to nine millions.
The following figures show, approximately, the number of
persons engaged in agriculture and in manufactures (per 1000

of population) in different countries :—

 

 

Country. Agriculture. Manufactures.
India... oe 700 —
Japan... sis 500 _
Russia... ai 300 65
Austria ... ais 280 80
Italy... ie 190 80
Germany tos 180 120
France ... 528 175 120
Spain... ous 160 —_
America (U.S.) 150 80
Great Britain ... 75 150

 
2 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Thus showing Great Britain to be the only country whose
population is more largely engaged in manufactures than in
agriculture.

Agriculture is not a new profession in India ; its origin is
traceable back to the earliest Aryan settlers, who are believed
to have migrated across the Indus into the peninsula about the
twentieth century B.c. Until the very recent introduction of
customs duties on salt and cotton manufactures, all the revenue
of India was derived from the soil. About 70 per cent. of the
population, as we have already seen, are agriculturists. Formerly
agriculture was considered the best profession, and in proof of
this assertion a well-known Hindu proverb may be quoted—

“* Uttam Sheti,
Madhyam Bepar,
Kanisht Chakri,
Nidan Bhik,”

which, when freely translated, reads as follows : “The best of all
professions is Farming, the next is Trading, the least valuable
is Service, and Beggary amounts to nothing.”* But nowadays
it is considered a poor and also a despised profession. The
moneyed and the educated natives of India are given to other
occupations, such as Government service, shopkeeping, money-
lending, etc., and, unfortunately, have learnt to look upon
agriculture—which is the backbone of all industries, and of
prime importance to the annually increasing population of
India—as something to be avoided.

The increase in population is approximately estimated at

1 In Guzerat the proverb adds—

‘Na mile bhik to Vaidoo shik,”
z,e. ‘if beggary does not succeed, then learn doctoring ” !
Introductory. 3

three millions a year, and unless there is a corresponding increase
in the annual outturn of agricultural produce, resulting from the
improvement of agriculture, there can be no other outlet but
emigration for the overteeming population of India, as modern
scientific hygiene, railways, and the Pax Britannic have
reduced to a minimum the corrective effects of pestilence,
famine, and war.’ If the population goes on multiplying as at
present, there will be, in time to come, a fearful struggle for
existence, and man may have to devour man.” Unless, then, a
vast improvement is effected in Indian agriculture, owing to
increase of population, emigration to the British possessions in
Africa (where settlers from India already amount to 15,000
souls) would seem to be the only possible remedy for this
looming state of things. In a primitive state it was only after
man had sufficient to eat, that he followed other pursuits,
Food is the first essential of healthy life, and industries will
cease unless the country can grow food to keep pace with its
ever-growing population.

Agriculture is now practised only by those to whom it has
become an hereditary profession, and, practically, it has fallen
to the lot of a class who are devoid of capital. Rich people,
-having other means at their disposal, pay no heed to it.
Capital is hoarded by bankers rather than trust it to cultivating
ventures. The educated class are for the most part absorbed
into the services (public or private). But few if any of these
classes ever think of trying to understand the present condition

1 The tendency to multiply, in animals, is 7versely proportional to the
power of self-protection.
2 « To kill man-killers, man has lawful power,
But not the extended license to devour.”— Ovid,
4 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

of Indian agriculture, and, by comparing it with that obtaining
in other countries, adopt such means as are within their reach
for local improvement. We see most so-ca//ed enlightened men
discussing political matters which are of secondary importance
to a knowledge of improved agriculture, which is at present the
first and most urgent need of the people of India.

Thanks to the poor farmers, who in spite of oppression by
mortgagees and shylocks, have most of them stuck to their long-
continued hereditary profession (though some are now turning
their attention to other kinds of work), food stuffs are still as
cheap in India as in any other country on the face of the earth.
But we assert that such cannot continue to be so much longer,
unless a large share of the brains and capital of the country
returns to the cultivation of Mother Earth.

Educated men, thinking lightly of service, are now begin-
ning to turn their attention to arts and manufactures, and to
such we would recommend agriculture as the least over-done
of all arts, and the one to which natural science is capable of
lending most aid."

Large sums of money are invested in cotton and jute mills,
factories, and merchant-trading, with the object of amassing
wealth quickly ; but how frequently the result disappoints the
investor, either from destruction by fire or there being no
demand for their productions or from bad management, may be

1 Agriculture (from ager, ‘‘a field,” and cultura, ‘‘ cultivation ”) in its
primitive sense meant the art of cultivation of the field, afterwards
extended to the farm; but with modern developments no art is capable
of receiving more aid from science than agriculture ; hence the term,

‘* scientific agriculture,” is now applied to the correct knowledge of this art,
in its modern acceptation.
Introductory. 5

left for contemplation! The cotton mills at Bombay were
practically idle while China was engaged in war with Japan,
there being no demand for the articles produced. But we
have not often (if ever) heard of there being no market for
grain: certainly not in India, where at present about forty
millions of wandering tribes are compelled to be satisfied with
half a good meal as their daily portion.

Landowners in Europe would never think of investing
their money in ornaments and marriage ceremonies while their
crops suffered from want of manure, which is a healthy contrast
to what we know to be too prevalent in India.

Egypt possesses a more ancient grain-growing soil than
India, and though irrigation is still in a backward condition
there, we do not find that its population is stunted in growth
and emaciated in appearance from lack of sufficient nourish-
ment; but, unlike the Hindu ryot (or farmer), the Egyptian
fellah is not bound by religious rites to consider the foundation
of a family as the first law of nature; and hence he does
not multiply beyond the means of subsistence.

Newton’s law, that “action and reaction are equal and
opposite,” is not only true in the case of moving masses of
matter, but equally holds good in the transmission of new
ideas. For instance, a native of India generally keeps his
knowledge to himself, intending to benefit himself only thereby.
He is particular not to let anybody know of his discoveries lest
he might not be the gainer thereby, and so keeps the whole
world in darkness as to the nature of his new ideas, which, like
his hoards, generally die with the possessor. Such is not the
case with the people of European countries: they are known
6 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

for their philanthropy, and quickly publish their discoveries, let
others know about them through the medium of the press, and
profit themselves by the rewards they get through publicity.
In this way does the discoverer not only receive popular
laudation and personal satisfaction in reaping the reward of his
inventions, but also benefits the world at large.

The first difficulty met with in endeavouring to effect any
improvement in Indian agriculture is the absence of education
among the cultivating classes. Farmers who can neither read
nor write their mother tongue, and are too old to learn, may be
counted by myriads. Foreign ideas concerning improvements
in agriculture fall on them as a surprise. Any hints as to the
alteration of their old-fashioned methods of cultivation are
resisted with a conservatism worthy of an obstructive Home
Ruler, which can only be attributed to the lack of elementary
education.

To remedy such a state of things, it would be advisable for
local governments and municipalities to encourage the teaching
of the more obvious scientific principles applicable to agriculture
in general, in all village schools where the majority of school-
boys belong to the cultivating classes.. The teachers in these
schools should first of all be trained in such principles of the
collateral sciences} as are most readily applicable to the de-
velopment of the art of agriculture, so as to enable them to ex-
plain to their pupils in their mother tongue the guiding principles
of scientific agriculture ; to show by experiments the necessity of
plant food, and give instruction in the processes of manufacture

* Such as meteorology, physical geology, botany, agricultural chemistry,
and, possibly, veterinary science.
Introductory. 7

of manures from materials available in every village; to incul-
cate the importance; of the preservation of forests, with a view
to the amelioration of climate and the cheapening of fuel; to
impress on the minds of the people the benefits of the rotation
of crops and the selection and preservation of seed; and to
translate to them such new ideas and discoveries as are being
made known to the world by experts in enlightened agricultural
practice. Small “ primers,” composed in the language of the
district, containing an elementary statement of the maxims of
agricultural practice, might be provided for use in these schools,
and the literary teachings therein should be given more of an
agricultural aspect.

Although the proper parties to work the soil are the small
capitalists,’ still, as, under the conditions prevailing in India,
the real workers are not in command of means for the exploita-
tion of their hereditary farms, it becomes advisable, if not
absolutely necessary, that the “cultivator” should have some
resource from whence he can borrow, at fosszbde rates of interest,
sufficient money to pay for the annual cost of cultivation of his
farm ; and for this purpose, the creation of Agricultural Banks
under Government supervision would be a move in the right

direction.?

1 It is well known that money invested in land does not “ take to itself
wings and flee away.”

2 Modern farming cannot be expected to prove remunerative without
capital to invest in the undertaking,—and this the Indian ryots do not
seem to possess, neither are they able to obtain it at a reasonable rate of
interest. High-class farming in England is considered successful if it
yield a profit of from 10 to 15 per cent. How, then, can the Indian
ryot be expected to continue paying the sowcar (money-lender) from
24 to 36 per cent. interest on borrowed capital, and live besides ?
8 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Independent of the foregoing suggestions, the rearing up of
a class of technical agricultural experts—men imbued with the
importance of their subject, and having intelligent sympathy
with the cultivating classes—is a work which sadly needs the
co-operation of both Governments and the Universities.
CHAPTER II.
THE ATMOSPHERE,

Air and Water.

THE earth on which we dwell is surrounded by an envelope of
vaporous matter, which, being subject to the laws of gravitation,
assumes the somewhat spherical shape of the earth itself,
extending above its surface to a height of somewhere about
45 miles. This aerial ocean, with its floating clouds of watery
vapour, etc., is termed the atmosphere—from the Greek
atmos, “vapour,” and sphaira, **a sphere.”

This mantle of aeriform matter consists of a. mechanical
mixture of gaseous bodies, the most abundant of which are
nitrogen and oxygen. In fact, ifa portion of fresh air be well
washed in pure water and then dried, it would be found to

contain in 100 parts—

 

 

By volume. By weight.
Nitrogen ... ee oe aiid es 79°07! 76°87
Oxygen ... wial ane a sia 20°93 23°13

100°00 " 100°00

or, practically, in round numbers—
By volume. By weight.

Nitrogen as ei wis se os 79 17
Oxygen ... as a ict bs us 21 23

 

? Associated with this nitrogen a very minute proportion (less than.
I per cent.) of a newly discovered substance named argon must be
mentioned. Nitrogen thus contains its argon as oxygen does its ozone.
10 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Were the air not previously washed and dried, small pro-
portions of other gaseotis bodies would be detected in the air
by a careful analysis.

The principal of these and their relative proportions by

volume are as follows :—

Carbon dioxide ... ... About 4 parts in 10,090 of air, or 0°04 per cent.

Moisture (aqueous vapour) Variable ; usually from 1 to 1°5 per cent.

Ammonia... sige ... Variable; usually only traces, but ever present.

Nitric acid we .. Found in the rain which falls during a
thunderstorm.

Ozone... wie ... Usually present in very minute quantities in

the open country and over the sea.
Hydrogen sulphides and) Traces; the tarnishing of silver is an evidence
carbides j of their occasional presence.
Inorganic and organic
substances, as dust, or} Persistently present in very minute quantities.
ganic germs, and salts

Of these, carbon dioxide, moisture, and ammonia appear
to be essential constituents of the earth’s atmosphere.
The following table shows an average analysis of atmospheric

air, taking account ov/y of its essential constituents :—

 

By volume.
Nitrogen... ee a3 ee ae +» 78°00
Oxygen ss see ee sh ee .» 20°80
Moisture... es ses hes wes we «116
Carbon dioxide... i Stites othe vee O04
Ammonia ... ie ise Fe ves ... traces.
10000

The constancy of the composition of the atmosphere, at
different times and in different places, is probably due to a
variety of causes—such as heated currents, trade winds, the
balancing actions of animal and vegetable life upon it, but,

more than all, to the diffusive power of gases.!

: The relative diffusibility, or velocity of diffusion, of different gases is
The Atmosphere. tl

If gases did not possess the property of diffusion, the
several constituents of our atmosphere would arrange themselves
in layers in the order of their densities; the carbon dioxide
(being the most dense) would then cover “the face of the
earth,” and make animal existence thereon an impossibility, as
the breathing of carbon dioxide is poisonous to the animal
economy.

Notwithstanding the admost invariable composition of air,
it is not a chemical compound, but a mechanical mixture of
the gases above enumerated. The following facts may be
mentioned in support of this statement: The proportions of its
constituents are not aéomic. Water dissolves air, and air so
dissolved contains more oxygen in proportion to nitrogen than
undissolved atmospheric air. Its constituents are separable
by diffusion. Its density and refrangibility are the arithmetic
means of those of its component gases. Liquefied air also
possesses the properties of a mechanical mixture. The con-
stituents of the air, then, are free to be separately indented
upon by plants and animals.

The presence of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere may be
demonstrated by exposing a solution of lime-water in an open
vessel to the air. The clear solution soon becomes turbid, in
consequence of the carbon dioxide entering into combination
with the lime, thus ferming an insoluble carbonate of lime
resembling powdered chalk.

This result can be obtained more quickly by drawing a
current of air, by means of an aspirator, through lime-water,

inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities. The same
law regulates the rate of influx into a vacuum of gases through an orifice

in a thin plate.
12 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

when the clear liquid rapidly becomes milky in appearance,
owing to the formation of calcium carbonate.

The quantity of carbon dioxide in any given volume of air
is usually found by passing the air (previously dried) through
a known — of a solution of caustic potash; when all the
f air has passed through, the in-
crease of weight in the potash
solution gives the weight of
carbon dioxide present. In
normal air the quantity will be
found to vary from o'03 to
0'04 per cent. of its volume.

There is little difficulty in
demonstrating the presence of
moisture (@.e. the vapour of
water) in the atmosphere—the

inclusion of which in the analysis

 

of a specimen of air seems to
affect the apparent quantity of
oxygen by a very small frac-
tion.

A glass vessel or an india-

rubber bag containing ice will

 

quickly become coated outside

Fic. 1.—Hygrometer.*

with drops of water, like dew-
drops, from the watery vapour of the air becoming condensed
on the cold: surface; and by exposing a known weight of
calcium chloride or of hydrogen sulphate (both of which

1 For description, see Chapter III.
The Atmosphere. 13

possess great power of absorbing water) in a confined portion
of air, for a few hours, the weight of the exposed substance
will be increased, and thus the quantity of absorbed water can
be ascertained.

An instrument called the Aygromefer (Fig. 1) is now
frequently used for measuring the quantity of moisture in
the air.

The quantity of watery vapour that a given volume of air
can hold depends on its temperature. The warmer the air
the more moisture can it retain. When warm moist air is
gently cooled down, as during a cloudless summer’s night, its
aqueous vapour is deposited as liquid dew.’ The air being
originally charged with a greater quantity of moisture than it
was capable of retaining at the reduced temperature, the sur-
plus vapour condenses either as liquid dew, hoar frost, rain, or
snow—according to the quantity of vapour present, the tem-
perature corresponding to the dew-point, and the suddenness
of the chilling it receives. Fog is the result of particles of con-
densed water adhering to the dus? in the air near the surface of
the ground; and mst is due to a similar occurrence, only
higher up in the atmosphere.

The air over the surface of the sea becomes saturated
with watery vapour, and as it rises upwards under the influence
of the sun’s heat it is wafted by winds into cooler regions,
and then the surplus watery vapour is condensed into cloud
(or water-dust), and, with a further chilling, vai” will occur ;
frozen rain-drops appear as szow or hail, Hail probably

! The temperature at which dew begins to fall (or the water to drop
from the air) is called the dew-potnt,
\

14 The Foundations of .Scientific Agriculture.

results from frozen rain-drops growing by accretion as they

fall through the freezing air from great heights. An electric

 

on
wi Sn
Fic. 2.— Reminiscence of an electric dance.

dance of the drops
between two oppo-
sitely charged clouds

-. has also been pro-

posed as an explana-
tion of ¢ropical hail-
stones (Fig. 2).

The presence of
ammonia in the at-
mosphere may be de-
tected by drawing a

largé volume of air

(by means of an aspirator) through hydrochloric acid, with
which it forms ammonic chloride, which when treated with
caustic lime gives off ammonia gas (H;N), recognizable by
its odour and the white fumes it gives with a rod moistened

with dilute acid,

Ammonia always results from the decay of nitrogenized

organic matter, and, as might be expected, it occurs more

abundantly in the air of densely populated places than in that

of the open country. The quantity may be taken as varying

from 1 to 5 milligrams per 100 cubic metres of air.
The thunderstorms that usually usher in the monsoons

in India may be regarded from a beneficent point of view;

for the fork lightnings that accompany them, while passing

through the atmosphere, cause the combination of nitrogen

and oxygen along their route, and thus w7¢ric acid gets formed,
The Atmosphere. 15

which may invariably be detected in the rain falling during
or immediately after such storms.

Ammonia and nitric acid being regarded as the primary
sources of the nitrogen found in plants, it may happen that the
soil, being exhausted of these constituents, as in parts of India,
from continued cropping for hundreds of years, may become
dependent on the monsoon for the acquisition of the necessary
combined nitrogen for the season’s crop of grain. The annual
rainfall brings to the soil from 5 to ro lbs. per acre of nitrogen
in the states of combination just mentioned. Scarcity of
rainfall therefore means a diminished supply of nitrogen to
growing crops.

Dust and organic germs may be observed as “motes” in
the sunbeam; and Tyndall has shown that the blue colour of
the sky is due to the polarizing of sunlight by the particles of
dust which are always floating in the air; above the atmo-
sphere the firmament appears inky black.

The fermentations set up by organic germs from the air
in preserved provisions (jams, wines, etc.), serve to indicate
the presence of such bodies floating in the air. Certain
diseases are also propagated through the agency of pathogenic
germs (or bacteria) which frequent unwholesome atmospheric
air. When it is desired to preserve animal or vegetable food
from putrefaction, it is necessary to shut out the oxygen as
well as the germs of organisms that exist in the air. The
Lister antiseptic method applied to surgery is based.on similar
reasoning. Pasteur and his followers have.long since disproved
the old-fashioned idea of spontaneous generation of organisms
in suitable media,
16 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Such an atmosphere is necessary to the maintenance of
organic life—animal and vegetable ; its constituents (those just
enumerated) are of two kinds—

1. Those which are essential to animal life.

2. Those which are essential to plant growth.

The former class consists of oxygen and nitrogen ; the latter
of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and moisture—though, indeed,
a moist atmosphere may be said to be quite as indispensable
to the animal as it is to the vegetable kingdom. The nitrogen,
too, as will be found later on, is, in a certain sense, a store-
house for the manufacture of plant nutriment.

Oseful Purposes—We must now briefly describe the
useful purposes served by the several constituents of atmo-
spheric air. First, then, there are oxygen and nitrogen, which,
we said, are essential to animal life.

That oxygen is the constituent of air most necessary to
animal life can easily be demonstrated by inserting a small
animal, such as a rat or mouse, in a jar of air deprived of its
oxygen, when it will be found to die in a few minutes.
Animals inhale oxygen, which, meeting with the venous blood
in the lungs, combines with and rapidly oxidizes it. This
renewed, or oxygenated, blood is then sent through the body as
arterial blood; it is again returned to the lungs by the veins,
charged with an excretion of carbon dioxide, which latter gas
is finally exhaled into the atmosphere. This process goes on
continually, so that the respiration of animals forms a con-
stant source for the supply of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.!

1 This may be verified by passing exhaled air (or breathing) through

lime-water, resulting in the precipitation of the lime as carbonate, and so
giving the clear lime-water a milky appearance,
The Atmosphere. 17

Plants also inhale oxygen, but their breathing capacity is
small as compared with that of animals. .

Ozone (O;), which is a condensed, and therefore more
active, form of oxygen, is constantly being used up in oxydizing
the decaying organic emanations which escape from animals as
well as from the decaying leaves, etc., of plants. Ozone is,
consequently, only found in pure air, such as country air and
the air of the seaside; its presence may be detected by ozone
paper (starched paper moistened with potas-iodide) which is
coloured J¢avender-blue by ozone. The accumulation of leaf
mould on the surface of the ground at our hill sanitaria must
evidently reduce the ozone of the air, if not entirely consume
it. On this account the air of Panchgani is more bracing than
that of Mahableshwar.

The use of nitrogen in the atmosphere is not quite so
obvious as that of oxygen. In consequence of its inertness
and negative qualities, nitrogen is commonly regarded as a
very indifferent body. We have learned from chemistry that
nitrogen and oxygen do not readily combine with each other,
and that though they may be made to do so at a very high
temperature (and actually do combine in small quantities to
produce nitric acid during a thunderstorm), yet the heat
evolved during their combination is zasufficient to continue the
same : consequently, an atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen
cannot easily be set on fire ; it is, therefore, a safe medium in
which to “live, and move, and have our being.”

Nitrogen serves other important purposes—by increasing
the volume of the atmosphere and ad/uting its intensely active
element oxygen, thus preventing the too rapid consumption of

c
18 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

life and fuel, and providing for the movement of winds as well
as the tempering of climate by diffusing the sun’s light and
heat. An atmosphere of pure oxygen would be unendurable
by terrestrial animals. The office of argon is not yet quite
understood.

The carbon dioxide of the atmosphere supplies nutriment
to plants: under the in-
fluence of sunshine the
green leaves of plants
absorb from the moist
atmosphere carbonic
acid gas,' which is de-
composed within the leaf
cells and resolved into
G 7 pa y) carbon and oxygen (plus
: 3 5 water), the former be-

f coming fixed in the plant
yo é in woody fibre, cellulose,
starch, or other carbo-
hydrate; while the
oxygen is thrown back

is == —

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“= Be in the atmosphere, thus
tending to maintain its
Fic, 3.—Decomposition of carbon dioxide by plants, purity for the respiration
of animals. Hence the growth of trees and shrubs in our town
parks is beneficial to the surrounding air, so far as animals
are concerned.

" Carbonic acid gas results from the chemical union of the dioxide (CO,)
with water (HO) from moist air, producing H,CO, the solution of which
in water gives carbonic acid.
The Atmosphere. 19

That the green parts (chlorophylls) of plants are endowed
by sunshine with the remarkable power of decomposing the
carbon dioxide, which they obtain (combined with moisture)
from the surrounding air, may easily be demonstrated by putting
some freshly cut branches of a succulent plant (as mint or
borage) into a tray or saucer of water and covering them with
a bell-jar of water saturated with carbon dioxide (see Fig. 3).

So long as this apparatus is kept in the dark, no action will
be observed to occur; but on exposing it in the garden for
some hours to the full light of the sun, the test-tube above the
jar will be observed gradually to fill with an invisible gas
which bubbles up through the water, and which, on examination,
proves to be oxygen gas. The backs and edges of the leaves,
it will also be noticed, become coated with numerous little
bubbles of gas, presenting the appearance of leaves frosted with
droplets of dew. As water dissolves its own volume of carbon
dioxide, the jar may be taken as having been originally full of
this gas; and by careful measurements the quantity left in
solution in the water may be easily shown to have diminished
—a rooted plant would, of course, give a more continuous
supply of oxygen gas.

The importance of ventilation in the homes of men and
cattle must be strongly insisted on if healthiness is to be
expected ; for it is a well-proven fact that the accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the air we breathe is detrimental to the
animal economy, not only, by directly lessening the quantity
of oxygen in the inhaled air, but also by supplying conditions
favourable for the propagation of bacterial germs. An

atmosphere containing more ¢han 0°06 per cent., or 6 parts in:
20 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

10,000 of air, may be considered as directly injurious to man
as well as to agricultural cattle. Hence the compensative
action of plants in their natural endeavour to revivify the air
by feeding on that gas (CO,), which is so noxious to animals,
may be regarded as a beneficent ordinance of Providence.

From a sanitary point of view, likewise, mankind should be
thankful that plants prove good scavengers in the matter of
consuming the other excretions of animals. The urine excreted
by the kidneys of animals is, on exposure to the atmosphere,
converted into carbonate of ammonia, which is brought down
by rain and thus conveyed to the roots, whence by the aid of
endosmotic force it is pumped up through the stem into the
leaves to supply nourishment to the growing plant.

Thus we see that the excreta of one kingdom of nature go
to form the food of another, and ce versé. Hence the appli-
cation of farm-yard manute to increase the supply of plant food
for crops is a most natural proceeding.

Salt (chlorides of sodium, etc.) is another substance that
is not infrequently found in atmospheric air, especially in the
air of seaside places; and in some instances traces have been
observed at great distances from the sea-coast. This is not an
ordinary constituent of our present atmosphere, though probably
chlorine gas was a prominent ingredient of the earth’s atmo-
sphere in early geologic times—as indicated by the enormous
quantities of its sodium compound contained in lake, sea, and
ocean waters. These waters must have been, like all other

? By similar reasoning, we are led to believe in the existence of a larger

proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the Carboniferous
_period than exists in the atmosphere of our own times.
The Atmosphere. 21

natural waters on this earth, originally derived from the con-
densation of aqueous vapour from the surrounding atmosphere.
As sea salt in many cases proves to be a valuable stimulant
to the growth of various plants—the Indian mangoeand cocoanut
crops, for example—it may be well to note the quantities found
in the air at different times of the year and at different altitudes.’
Information on this and other points is supplied by the
following observations made by MM. Robinet and Bobierre,
which give the amounts of ammonia, nitric acid, and salt (in
grammes) found in a cubic metre of rain-water collected at

Nantes, situated about 35 miles from the sea-coast.

 

 

 

 

 

Ammonia. Nitric acid. Salt.
Month.
Elevation | Onthe | Elevation! Onthe | Elevation | On the
47 metres,| plain. |47metres.| plain. | 47 metres.| plain.
January ve | 5225 | 67398 5°790 | 3'200 | I4'IO 8°40
February w | 4°610 5°900 5°790 3°200 | I5‘IO 60'0
March... - | I'880 | 8620 7115 5°980 | 16°10 I1‘g0
April ... . | 1880 | 6°680 2°309 1813 7°30 9°20
May ... «| O°747 4°642 3°501 1°G938 50 9°40
June ... wae | 21222 3°970 | 13°218 | 10°237 | 15'0 17°40
July... vs | O°272 2°700 | 13°218 | 10°237 | 15°0 17°40
August --» | 0°257 | 2112 | 157520 | 16°0 14°80 | 19°30
September... | 1°432 5512 9°999 5°720 | I1‘20 14°80
October «| 11688 | 4°289 4°989 | 37198 | 12'0 9'0
November... | 0°593 | 4°480 6°278 | 5°574 | 22°80 | 26710
December... | 3°178 | 5°665 4°890 | 3°100 | 21°60 16°30
Mean ... | 1°997 | 5'993 7°360 | 5°682 | 14°09 | 13°80

 

 

 

 

 

 

A mere inspection of this table at once reveals the interest-
ing fact that the quantity of ammonia diminishes with elevation

" Accumulations of salt in svils renders them barren ; even less than
O'l per cent. has been known to check the growth of certain crops.
22 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

above the ground, while the proportion of nitric acid increases,
pari passu. This leads to the suspicion that free ammonia is
always oxidized to nitric acid in the soil previous to being
utilized by plants.

The atmosphere of towns, especially of manufacturing towns,
where coal is largely used, generally contains, besides soot,"
small quantities of sulphur acids (sulphurous and sulphuric) and
sulphuretted hydrogen,? which are readily washed out by
copious rainfall and converted into sulphates in the soil.

Water Supply.

As all supplies of water available for agricultural purposes
come primarily from the atmosphere, it becomes necessary to
study the relation between the vainfull and the evaporation of
any locality in which the construction of storage reservoirs for
irrigation may be contemplated. As already observed, the sun
is continually lifting up by the process of evaporation large
quantities of water-vapour from the surface of the sea and land,
forming clouds, which ultimately return their watery burden to
the earth in the form of rain. Much of the rain which falls is
again evaporated from the land surface and returned to the
atmosphere ; a portion finds its way into streams and rivers and
finally into the sea; while a third portion sinks into the soil,
supplying moisture for plant growth, and, passing downwards
through the underlying strata, feeds the underground stores of

' Soot, owing to its occlusion of ammonia and some phosphates, forms
a valuable fertilizer.

? Sulphuretted hydrogen (H,S) usually emanates from sewers and gas-
works.
The Atmosphere. 23

water, and it is from this latter portion of the rainfall that
springs and wells derive their supplies of water. The available
water in any district, hence, depends on several circumstances ;
for, when most of the fall occurs in hot weather, the loss by
evaporation is very considerable ; in some cases the evaporation
does actually exceed the rainfall—and such has happened in
famine years in Bombay—whereas, when the greater portion of
the rainfall takes place during cool, still weather, the loss by
evaporation will be comparatively slight.

Hence the period of the year (mawsim) in which rain falls
has frequently more influence in maintaining the supply of
available water, for crops, than the quantity annually recorded.
The fall of rain in the Bombay Presidency during the monsoon
of 1896 will long be remembered for its large excess over the
average; but unfortunately it nearly all came down in the
months of July and August, in sudden downpours, and much of
it escaped by surface drainage into streams and rivers, which
were unusually flooded, causing loss of life and property.
September and October followed as almost rainless months,
with the usual consequence of an unseasonable rainfall—
scarcity of grain and the probability of famine staring the
people in the face.

Unless the missing rainy period (of September and October)
be compensated for by a timely fall of rain within the cold
season, famine over a large area during the hot-weather months
of April, May, and June will most probably have to be faced.
It is, to say the least, an unpleasant outlook for both Govern-
ment and the people—and all owing to an erratic rainfall !

The lessons of the famine years of 1876-77 (and probably
24 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

of 1896-97) must lead thoughtful persons to the conclusion
that agricultural engineering, including, amongst other items,'
storage reservoirs for water and distributing canals, should
form an important subject for the future attention of capitalists,
public or private.

One inch of rain gives, practically, 100 tons of water to the
acre, but in the absence of the evaporation record no reliable
data can be collected for calculating the quantity of water
available for agricultural operations in any particular catchment
area. It is usual amongst English engineers to assume that
one-third of the rainfall is retained by the soil, and two-thirds
lost to vegetation from surface drainage and evaporation ; but
the observed climatic conditions of each locality must be taken
into account.

The local observatories would do well to add to their para-
phernalia instruments for recording the amount of evaporation.

As an illustration of the kind of agricultural engineering
most needed in countries like India, Africa, and Australia,
Lake Fife, an artificial reservoir eleven miles from Poona, may
be noticed. It is formed by throwing a masonry dam across
a mountainous valley of higher level than the surrounding
country which it commands, for irrigation purposes as well as
yielding a supply of water for the city and suburbs of Poona.

The map (Fig. 4) serves to illustrate the nature of the
project.

We may omit agricultural machinery (however useful for the cultiva-
tion and conservation of crops) from amongst the items of agricultural
engineering directly bearing on Indian agriculture, as the abundance of
cheap labour in that country will for a long time to come bar its economic
employment.
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The Atmosphere.

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Several hundred square miles of land are now brought
under intense cultivation through the agency of the water
from the distributing canals fed from this high-level lake ;
and the adjacent country is now a smiling contrast to what
it was in days of yore. Such work is well worthy of imitation
in other parts of the world, more especially in places where
droughts are known to recur.

Water possesses the power of dissolving many substances,
solid, liquid, and gaseous. The solvent power of water differs
for different bodies, and a knowledge of the degree of solubility
of bodies in water is of great value in the study of agricultural
chemistry. A pound of cold water will dissolve 2 lbs. of
sugar, or 2 ozs. of salt, or 8 grs. of lime. The solvent power
generally increases with increase of temperature ; thus boiling
water will dissolve 16 times more saltpetre than ice-cold
water; but, as an exception to this rule, iced water dissolves
twice as much lime as boiling water.

When the foreign matters dissolved in a water are present
in sufficient quantity to impart a peculiar taste or smell, the
water is called a mineral water. There are many varieties of
mineral waters : the sa/ine, as sea-water and the water of saline
springs; the a/kaline, as the waters of Vichy; the acdulous,
containing free carbonic acid; sphurous, containing sul-
phuretted hydrogen in solution, as at Harrogate ; the chalybeate,
containing salts of iron in solution ; and si¢iceous’ waters.

Waters containing calcium and magnesium salts in solution
are termed hard waters, and when such waters are used for

washing purposes they waste a quantity of the soap before

1 The geysers of Iceland and New Zealand contain silica in solution.
The Atmosphere. 27

they allow it to produce a lather (or suds)—owing to the
Stearic acid of the soap forming insoluble stearates with the
bases lime and magnesia.

Hard waters may be divided into two classes, namely,
temporarily hard and permanently hard water.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO;) and magnesium carbonate
(MgCO,), held in solution by the carbonic acid gas (CO,) dis-
solved from the air, cause what is known as éemporary hardness,
as it may be removed :by boiling. On boiling, carbonic acid
gas is driven off, and then the originally dissolved calcium
carbonate, becoming insoluble, precipitates. In this way the
Jur of kettles and scale found in boilers are deposited.

Ordinary well-waters contain smaller quantities of mineral
salts in solution than the true mineral waters. The nature of
the salts contained in well-waters depends entirely on the
nature and solubility of the constituents of the rocks in which
the wells are sunk.

Wells in large towns or in the immediate neighbourhood of
dunghills or cesspools are frequently contaminated by sewage,
which during slow oxidation is partly converted through the
agency of bacteria into nitrites and nitrates. Hence the
presence of nitrites, or an abnormal proportion of saltpetre,
in a water may be regarded as evidence of- probable sewage
contamination—though excessive vegetable débris might some-
times be the cause.

Temporary hard waters are softened on a large scale in
water reservoirs, etc., by the addition of Zmre-qwarer,’ by which

' Milk of lime is generally employed when large quantities of water
have to be dealt with.
28 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

means the newly formed lime carbonate is precipitated along
with the carbonates which were previously held in solution by
the gas (CO,) now precipitated by the added lime. This is
known as Clark’s process.

Waters are said to be permanently hard when they cannot
be softened by boiling or by the addition of lime-water; such
waters usually contain sulphates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium, etc.

The addition of sodium carbonate (Na,COs) has the effect
of precipitating the earthy (lime and magnesia) bases contained
in a hard water, while it replaces the salts of calcium and
magnesium by corresponding salts of sodium, which do not
waste soap in washing.

Very soft waters are capable of dissolving “ad hydrate,
which is formed on the surface of lead pipes and cisterns
exposed to the action of the air. Hence, lead salts being
poisonous, it is unsafe to store soft water in lead cisterns, or
to use lead pipes for its conveyance. In mining districts
compounds of copper and arsenic are sometimes found occur-
ring in the natural waters of the district.

Waters may, therefore, become so polluted as to be unfit for
drinking and cooking purposes, or even for watering plants.

The amount of solid matters (chiefly salt) contained in sea-
water is, practically speaking, very constant at considerable
distances from the land. The average quantity of solids
amounts to about 36 grams per litre of water; the relative
density of sea-water is 1°03.

The greater portion of the calcium and magnesium

carbonates and silica thrown into the sea by rivers is used up
The Atmosphere. 29

by marine animals and plants in building up their shells and
skeletons, which, when thrown by the waves on to the beaches,
are the sources of the shell lime now so frequently employed
for building and agricultural purposes.

Plants obtain all their mineral food—their as/ ingredients,
as their incombustible parts are named—from a watery solution
of the ground in which they grow; and only when their powers
of absorbing and retaining water are sufficient do lands yield
satisfactory crops. On the other hand, when such powers are
excessive the necessity arises for land drainage to allow of the
escape of the surplus water, which has not only a chilling
influence on the climate, but also a decidedly detrimental
effect on vegetation."

We need not feel surprised at the importance of water
supply, when it is remembered that most vegetables contain

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Fic. 5.—Porous rock above resting on impermeable strata below, giving rise to the
issue Of spring water at S.

from 70 to go per cent., and raw meat 75 to 80 per cent.
of water.

Spring water is but rock-stored rain-water set free, as
illustrated in Fig. 5.

1 From 40 to 60 per cent. of its water-holding capacity is considered
to be the most desirable proportion of water in a soil growing agricultural
crops in Europe. In India the evaporation from the surface is so great,
and the soil so deep, that drainage on any large scale is not attempted ;
but in swampy districts water-loving plants, like rice, are grown.
CHAPTER III.
THE WEATHER.

Sunshine—Rain—Climate.

Tue fact that the mean annual temperature of our planet is
recognized as constant (ze. averages the same one year with
another) implies that the quantity of heat annually received
from the sun is balanced by an equivalent loss of heat through
radiation into space. This conclusion, however natural it may
seem, is not really correct; for, from recent calculations and
experiments of Irish and American savants, it appears that
the loss of heat from the earth by radiation into space falls
considerably short of the amount of solar radiation she receives
in the year. Thus it has been shown that the amount of sun
heat annually received by the earth is equal in amount to the
heat required to melt a coating of ice 80 feet in thickness all
over the globe, and that the mean annual radiation of heat
from the whole earth is equivalent to the melting of a coating
of ice only 284 feet in thickness.

There is, therefore, a balance of solar radiation received,
equivalent to the melting of 514 feet of ice, to be accounted
for, as the mean temperature of the earth’s surface is not
increased.

What, then, becomes of this balance of solar radiant
The Weather. 31

energy ?—for a balance there is, even after making due
provision for the geological work done by the circulation of
water, etc.

The only possible scientific answer “ that will hold water”
is that this balance of solar energy is converted into—another
form of energy—vegetable life and, ultimately, into animal
life.

That the growth of vegetation is brought about by the
influence and at the expense of solar radiation, is perfectly
demonstrable by experiments within the domain of chemistry.
Experiment shows that the assumption of a green colour (the
formation of chlorophyll) by a germinating plant is coincident
with its decomposition of carbonic acid ; and, moreover, this
vegetative process is not brought about by such artificial means
as the application of the heat from a stove, a real absorption
of solar rays being essential to the process. Through the
absorption of solar radiations the plant decomposes carbonic
acid and water, liberates oxygen, and retains the carbon and
hydrogen (with a little oxygen) as vegetable tissue, which,
ultimately becoming the food of animals, is reoxidized, or
reconverted, into carbonic acid and water—thus returning
to vegetable food. In separating the carbon from combination
with oxygen work is done, and consequently heat disappears—
the heat of the absorbed rays.

It must not, however, be supposed that these absorbed
solar rays are annihilated; no, their energy is but latently
associated with the carbon and hydrogen molecules retained
by the plant, and it is their equivalent that is again set free

when wood is burned or when animality is sustained by the
32 The Foundations of Scientific A griculture.

consumption of vegetable food. Such is the routine by which
the circulation of the force obtained from the sun is kept up
between the vegetable and animal kingdoms—solar energy
being absorbed or accumulated by vegetables, but dissipated,
though not destroyed, by animals. The tendency, then, of a
forest leaf surface—partly from the chemical action involved in
its growth and partly from the physical action, owing to which
the leaves lose heat by radiation and transpiration—is to act
the part of a refrigerator, and thus to aid in bringing down
rain when clouds or winds saturated with moisture pass
over it.’

The monsoons owe their origin to the variation in the
amount of solar heat retained by the Indian Ocean and its
neighbouring land surfaces, Asia and Africa, depending on the
variable position of the sun in declination. ‘Thus when the
heart of Asia is highly heated by the burning sun of the northern
summer, there is an ¢vdraught of air from the cooler regions of
the south and west towards those inland places where the
temperature is high and consequently the pressure low. This
gives rise to the current of air known as the South-West
Monsoon—the one which most concerns the cultivator in
India. It is the reversal current, occurring in November and
December, that is known as the North-East Monsoon.

In relation to its guiding influence on the monsoons, the
Himalaya mountain range may be likened to an old chimney
stack, causing the éxdraughded currents of air to rise upwards,

1 Mr. Prout says, in his Essay on Meteorology, “It cannot be
doubted that rain is in some way connected with change of temperature ;
the perplexity attending the subject arises partly from the impossibility ‘in
many instances of accounting for this supposed change of temperature.”
The Weather. 33

which, after cooling by flowing over the plains of Thibet, return
as an exdraught down the same chimney and thus set up the
North-East Monsoon current, which is colder and drier, and
hence brings less rain, than the opposite current coming from
the sea-coast.

We know that the South-West Monsoon comes to us in
India as a wind more or less saturated with the vapours of the
ocean; and we also know, from the sad experience of the
recent famine years, that these vapour-currents are not always
condensed into rain in sufficient quantity to satisfy the wants of
the poor agriculturists. The question then arises, Is it possible
to interfere, on behalf of the tillers of the soil, by offering some
additional inducement to the vapour-charged currents of the
monsoon season to deposit more of their valuable burdens in
the shape of rain—a liquid well known in some countties as
the poor man’s manure?

From what we have already advanced, it may be safely
inferred that science warrants the entertainment of the opinion
that the existence of forests on a grand scale tends to promote
the precipitation of the moisture from the more or less
saturated air-currents that are constantly passing over them
during the continuance of an Indian monsoon, é.¢.—in other
words, to increase the rainfall in their neighbourhood.

In Poona, have we not been frequently tantalized by seeing
the treeless Deccan hills capped with clouds which for weeks
at times hold out fair promise of rain, but which ultimately
become dissipated from the absence of a cause sufficient to
reduce their temperature ever so slightly?’ In such cases,

1 The author has more than once, while residing at an Indian hill

D
34 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

once the rain is well started, the cooling influence of the rain
itself (coming from the higher regions) tends to keep up the
process of condensation.

What India wants is a guarantee against famine; and the
Government of the country have made an effort towards ob-
taining a fund for this purpose by means of a special tax.
‘There could be no better way of investing this famine fund than
by spending it in promoting the clothing of the waste lands and
barren hills of the Deccan with suitable forest vegetation.

But the planting of trees, especially on culturable land, has
its drawbacks. For it not only diminishes the area of cultiva-
tion, but also imports a lot of hungry and thirsty intruders, who
lose no opportunity of devouring the natural food supply of the
ordinary crops. The late Mr. Joseph Mechi (a great authority
on British agriculture) wrote on this subject as follows :—

“There is no place so cool as under a wide-spreading, well-
foliaged tree, but then you are wasting your manure on the
tree, while in the shed it is all saved for your crops. By the
way, talking of trees and small fields, let me entreat land-
owners travelling by rail to keep their eyes upon every mangel
or turnip crop and reflect on their condition and on the ruinous
loss that the trees occasion to farmers, especially in such a dry
season as the present. In the centre of these small wooded ©
fields the mangels look green and healthy, but as they approach
the sides of the fields they become beautifully less, until their
terminus is 7/7. The thirsty roots of the trees and fence

station, witnessed the effect of a cluster of green trees in causing the
condensation of a passing cloud; he has also noticed what a wonderfully
good drying-ground an unforested mountain makes for clouds.
The Weather. 35

extending from ten to fifty yards into the field have taken all the
moisture and rendered useless and unavailable all the costly
manure and cultivation, and all this for what? A neighbour of
mine threw down a tremendous fence, a real rasper ; I bought
of him two gigantic oak pollards, minus the branches, for gate-
posts ; they must have been at least two centuries old. I paid
six shillings for the two; the tops probably brought as much.
These robbers have exercised their calling for centuries, doing
a damage that in its total would be astonishing, injuring alike
landowner and tenant, for they must have tended and always
do tend to prevent that increase of rent which accompanies
progress and improvement. It is only when these horrid
fences have been removed and the reclaimed ground planted
with a new crop that one can appreciate the enormity of the
loss of area and of waste that has been so long inflicted and
endured.” As to hedgerow trees, the loss they occasion to the
English nation annually Mr. Mechi estimates at no less a sum
than £5,000,000—on the assumption that there are but two
on every acre, and that they cause an annual loss of one
shilling each.

According to Mr. Mechi’s statements, it seems that England
has little need of forest conservancy. It is different, however,
with India, where the rainfall, so essential to the welfare of its
inhabitants, is so capricious in its distribution.

Trees also prove serviceable to the farmer as a means of
obtaining from great depths valuable manurial ingredients, which
are often absent in the surface soil, owing to its having been
robbed by long-continued systems of cultivation without manure.

The growth of trees further aids in protecting the soil from being
36 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

carried away on sloping ground, as well as assisting, by their
roots: and leaves, in the storage and distribution of rainfall, in
the maintenance of springs, and, generally, in the production of
a more equable climate; and, in this respect, a forested area
has an influence on surrounding districts similar in effect to
that of an adjacent sea.

The eagerness with which the approach of the monsoon is
looked forward to by all classes in India is amusingly illustrated
by the following echoes from the daily papers of the last days
of May :—

‘*WEATHER REPORTS.
© May 30.
‘©The Port Officer in Bombay received the following telegram yester-
day from the Weather Reporter, Simla: ‘Observations of past two days
indicate very slight disturbance has passed northward over Arabian Sea,
and is now in the latitude of Kathiwar.’”

“ From a Simla Correspondent.

‘©The official monsoon forecast will be issued at the end of the week,
but I have been able to obtain the following information of the monsoon.
It has not begun, in spite of rumours to the contrary. Telegrams from the
Seychelles are positive on this point.

‘‘The premonitions of the advance of the durra darsat are daily in-
creasing in frequency in Bombay. The small shower that fell early in the
morning only made the atmosphere more close and oppressive than ever.
The bank of clouds which have been gathering during the last few days
covered a considerable part of the sky towards sunset last evening. A
cool breeze sprung up about that time, and distant rumblings of thunder
accompanied by sheet-lightning were heard. The lightning, which came
from a westerly direction, increased in frequency and lasted till past nine
o'clock, some of the flashes being very brilliant. The thunderstorm was
succeeded by a heavy fall of rain, which lasted far into the night, and did
much to freshen up vegetation.”

‘REFRESHING AND WELCOME.—A sharp shower, ‘lasting a few
minutes only, fell in Poona yesterday afternoon about half-past four, laying
the dust and generally brightening the foliage and people’s tempers. The
heat previously-had been uncomfortably great.”

’
The Weather. 37

‘PROBABLY !— The following proposal, says the Zimes of I/ndia,
which reaches us from Madras, is probably due to the abnormal heat of
the last few weeks: ‘If you would care to send a special commissioner to
discover Dr. Nansen’s whereabouts (as there seems to be some doubt as to
whether he is really on his way back or not), I beg to offer my services,

and those of another, for the purpose. I shall be ready to start at two
days’ notice.’ ”

‘The latest reports received by the Meteorological Department
reveal that it is a cyclonic disturbance over the Arabian Sea which has
been interrupting the free flow of the monsoon current on to the west
coast. As this cyclone moves northward it has permitted a portion of the
regular monsoon current to get through to the Malabar coast, where the
rainfall of the past twenty-four hours has varied between two and six
inches, accompanied with a gale from the west and a rough sea. Over
Northern India, monsoon conditions of pressure and of wind have been at
least éemporarily established, and showers of rain have been received
at several stations, accompanied with a considerable lowering of
temperature.”

The farmer has frequently as much need as the mariner to
keep an eye on the weather, and so it becomes necessary for
him to be trained to understand weather charts and meteoro-
logical reports.

Here follows a sample of an official report for May 20,
1896: it will need close study to master all its details. Perhaps
the most convincing proof that the monsoon had not begun,
up to that date, will be gained by a cursory inspection of the
wind column, where the direction and rate per hour of the
wind are given for the day above noted; for until S.W.
becomes the predominant record of direction along the coast,
it would be foolish to assert that the South-West Monsoon had
set in, notwithstanding the frequent occurrence of thunder-
storms and heavy rains, which are only accessories of the
monsoon.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

38 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.
OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT 8 A.M. ON SATURDAY, May 30, 1896.
TEMrE-
Winp. RATURE IN RAINFALL.
“¢g SHADE.
s “ i i 5 3
© g a > g
: Bl eg iseie| 2 (2. | ts
2 : - | BS 2/8) 2/45]:
y § g| ss g cae (ae ee Cea §3
| 3 .|&| 82] 83/2) 7) bs] gs
8 2 12) 52 )'2a)8| 2] ee) Ee
a a o a) wee a | 6° s
a w/e = |0)| a | a >
Delhi 29°537 Ww 5 | 114'0 | 880 | 16] .. 2°42 | —1'36
Agra... 29°527 NW | 11 | 113°5 | g2°7 | 22 on o°24 | —1°76
Cawnpore - | 29°s1r | NNW | 5 | 113°6 | goto | 25 | -- O50]
Allahabad... . 29°520 E 6 | 114°7 | 87°2 | 45] «- 089 | —1'51
Jhansi .. ee IS 6 | 115°7 | 95°7 | 16] -- 0°65 | —1°46
Jacobabad iis y 6 | r21'0 | 870 | 57 | -- I'00 —O'4r
Kurrachee : tr | 93°3 | 80°0 | 80] .. o'14 | —1°70
Jeypore y 12 | 113°3 | 85°99 | 30 | . I'lg | —0'94
Ajmere ... ate i. 5 | 109°4 | 86'5 | 26 otro | —1°82
Deesa ... oes 29°790 rr | rzz°5 | 18°9 | 61 «| =0'79
Ahmedabad ... 29'795 | SW 5 | 110°3 | 851 | 56 ae lienee
Bhuj... oo 29°776 | SW 17 | 1046 | 814 | 65 | -- o'14 | 0°56
Rajkote 29°800 | WSW | rx | 108'4 | 79°5 | 75 | 0°09 | o'12 | —0'68
Veraval 29°804 Ss 12 | 871 | 84:2 | 85] «- Meine sie
Neemuch 29°729 | WSW | 5 | roo'r | 81°6 | 56] «- o10 | —1'5g
Indore ... 29°758 |  W 9 | 109°0 | 79°t | 75 | 0°43. | O°51 | —3°25
Saugor .. 29°509 | WSW | 5] 110'9 | 8x71 | 26] .. 049 | —2°74
Jubbalpore 29°645 | WSW | 5 | 113'0 | 88'5 | 23] . 0°16 | =3°29
Hoshangabad 29°676 Ww 4 | 113'r | 864 | 50] . o0'25 | —2°53
avenues. 29°7-1 NW | 28] rro'2 | 84°6 | 53] - oe | 195
Raipur .. 29°5GT Ww m1 | 112°6 | 884 | 25] .. 0°47 | —3°17
Nagpur, 2g'6sr | NNW | 15 | rx4°2 | 88:5 | 4x | - 0°48 | —3°50
Amraoti see | 29°704 WwW 14 | 109°9 | 8472 | 46 {| -. o+ | 3°22
Akola ... s+ | 29-735 | WNW | 34 | r10°6 | 85"7 | 63 | «- 0°04 | —3°3I
Surat ...° + | 29°809 | SW -| L | 3-7 | 846] 78] . se | ~O'4E
Malegaon 29°722 | WSW | 10} 105'8 | 76": | 76 | o'19 | 0°19 | —2"'02
Bombay 29°844 | SW | 33] g14 | 83°5 | 74] «+ | 0°32 | —1°33
Poona ... os 29°850 | WSW | 33] 94°5 | 74°3| 79 | o'05 | 5°16 | +1°46
Ahmednagar 29°837 | WNW | 7 | 102"4 | 75°4 | 84 | o709 | 198] «.
Aurangabad 29°805 WwW 6 | 106°6 | 78'2 | 56 | o'04 | 0°18 oe
Sholapore 29°82 WwW 8| g9'2 | 77°4 | 62] oe 1°87 | —1°94
Rutnagiri 29°844 | -SW 8 | 924 | 82°8 | 72 2 0°73 | —1°59
Belgaum 29°837 | WNW | 18 | 88-7 | 70'7 | 70 z 3°79 | 3°23
Goa. 29860 | NW 8] g20 | 834} 7x] -- 1°96 as
Karwar 29°84r | NW 5 | 89°2 | 80°0 | 76] .. 3°19 | —2°32
Maneelore 29°858 “° C | go3 | 79°8 | 83 | 0°04 | 12°82 | +1°00
Calicut .. an 29°830 | NW | 10] ox'2| 79°°| 77 | .. g-7z | —8°18
Cochin . 29852 | NNE | M | go'8 | 78x | 85 | o'10 | 22°44 | —6°74
Bangalore 29'8s8 | WSW | 7 | go‘o | 69°3 | 77 | o'02 | 7°97 | —12°99
ee 29°749 WwW ro | 107'2 | 75°8 | 58 | o'20 | 2°09 | —2°55
Masulipatam .. 29'755 | SSE 7 | 90°7 | 72°6 | 84 | 0°58) x°52 | —8°67
Bellary ... 29°827 | W 9] 99°7 | 788] 53] .. | 859 | +3°72
Cuddapah 29°80 WwW 6 | 1rog‘2 | 8299 | 58] .. 9°25 | +1735
Madras es 29'793} SW 7 | 100’ | 83°0 | 6r | .. | 19°85) —2°83
Coimbatore 29°347 |  W 3| 9774] 75°83 | 77 | -+ | 844 | —6°84
Trichinupoly ... 29°809 | WNW | 9g | 1067 | 82'7 | 56 g'80 | —4'3r
Negapatam 29°803 | SW | 12 | 1031 | 804 | 69). 38°43 | +5'29
Colombo 29°850| SW | 10] 875 | 810] 77 | - 38°42 |—15°54
Aden ... ou. 29°749 WwW 2°] 95°3 | 82°8 | 83 r'ro | —2°24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Column “‘ Wind Rate per hour,” L stands for Light, M— Moderate, F—Fresh,

C—Calm,
Bombay local rainfall:—J. J. H. =0'00; G.

S—Strong, H—Heavy.

T.H. =0'05; St. G. H. =0'3.
The Weather. 29

1. The barometric readings are corrected to Calcutta standard, reduced
to the same temperature (32°) and also to the sea-level, and corrected to
the constant gravity at Lat. 45 deg.

2, The second column, under the head ‘‘ Wind,” gives the average
motion of the air in miles per hour during the past 24 hours, and is
obtained by dividing the total number of miles of wind registered by an
anemometer during the previous 24 hours by 24.

3. The temperatures given in the table are of the air in the shade or in
a small shed with open sides, and a thatched or straw roof. The maximum
(max.) and minimum (min.) temperatures are the highest and lowest
temperatures during the 24 hours preceding 8 a.m.

4. The humidity is given as a percentage expressing the actual amount
of moisture in the air to the amount required to saturate it,

SUMMARY OF THE TABLE,

There has been a brisk fall of pressure at Delhi, Agra, Cawnpore, and
Allahabad, a brisk rise at Ahmednagar, and a slight rise or fall elsewhere.
Readings are lowest in the Panjab and North-West Provinces, and highest
in Ceylon and along the coast from Bombay southward as far as Cochin.
Gradients are steep to slight.

Winds are very variable in direction, and the force has been strong to
light. This morning the wind velocity was 26 miles an hour at Amraoti,
22 at Akola, 20 at Secunderabad and Bhuj, 18 at Jeypcre and Deesa, and
16 at Malegaon.

The maximum temperature is in large to very large excess of the
normal in the Panjab, the Central and North-West Provinces, and at
Jacobabad, Jeypore, Indore, Akola, Secunderabad, Trichinopoly, and
Negapatam, and the minimum similarly so at Nagpur, Raipore, Jubbal-
pore, Ajmere, Jacobabad, Jhansi, Allahabad, Agra, and Delhi. The
highest temperature in the shade was 121° at Jacobabad, and the lowest 69°
at Bangalore.

Humidity has increased considerably at Aurangabad, Ahmednagar,
Malegaon, Akola, Saugor, Indore, Rajkote, Ahmedabad, and Jacobabad,
and the skies are cloudy to overcast in Gujarat, the Bombay and Madras
Presidencies, Mysore, on the Malabar coast.

Light to moderate showers have fallen at Indore, Malegaon, Secunder-
abad, and Masulipatam, and a few drops at Rajkote, Ahmednagar,
Aurangabad, Mangalore, Cochin, and Bangalore.

Pressure is abnormally very high over the greater part of the country,
and the barometric changes on the West Coast are very irregular. The
cyclonic circulation of wind on and off the West Coast has disappeared,
40 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

and conditions are now only slightly favourable for local rain in Mysore,
Gujarat, the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, and on the Malabar
coast.

Yesterday’s telegram from Seychelles states moderate to fresh south-
east Trades and fine weather with passing clouds. The pressure-difference
between Seychelles and Colombo is extremely small, while that between
Seychelles and Aden continues to be steadily great, thereby showing that
monsoon has fallen light between Seychelles and Colombo, and is steadily
blowing fresh to strong over the sea lying between Seychelles and Aden.

By the contemplation and comparison of a large number
of records such as are represented in the foregoing diurnal
weather report, the Official Meteorological Reporter to Govern-
ment is enabled to make what is called “a forecast of the

»

monsoon ;” and, were it not that the forecast for the present
season (1896) is so full of probabilities and improbabilities, it
might be a useful lesson to record here.

The fact that the sun never sets on the British Empire is
scarcely sufficient reason to account for the absence of a
‘‘sunshine recorder” at so many important stations, and
more especially in these times when the value of sunshine to
vegetation is becoming more correctly understood and more
widely appreciated (see Fig. 6, with instructions).

In time, we may expect to have a daily weather chart for
the empire. Though at present our weather stations are few
and far between, still we gain the following information from
the partial records available.

London and Esquimalt possess the cloudiest skies ; Bombay
and Grenada the brightest.

The least rainy place is Winnipeg ; the most rainy probably
Colombo or its neighbourhood.

Winnipeg has the lowest, while Colombo has the highest,
The Weather. 41

mean temperature, but the greatest daily range is claimed by
Winnipeg.

 

Fic. 6.—Sunshine recorder.’

During a period of a dozen years Adelaide recorded the

! INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA’S
SUNSHINE RECORDER.

This instrument consists of a sphere of glass 4 inches in diameter,
supported on a pedestal in a metal zodiacal frame, as shown in the
woodcut.

It must be fixed in such a position that the sun can shine on the
instrument the whole of the time it is above the horizon.

A card being inserted in the proper groove according to the season of
the year, the sun, when shining, burns away or chars the surface at the
points at which its image successively falls, and so gives a record of the
duration of bright sunshine. The card should be removed after sunset,
and a new one inserted ready for the following day.
42 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

highest sun temperature ten times, Melbourne once, and
Calcutta once—-Ceylon maintaining the highest annual mean.

In 1895 Trinidad, which is well known for its rainfall,
recorded 177° Fahr. in the sun, while Adelaide reached 180°
in 1882—temperatures sufficient, if continued, to coagulate
albumen, or boil an egg.

Bombay is also a place where heavy showers are not in-
frequent during the summer monsoon—1z inches in a day
being not uncommon. The neighbourhood of Gondi Hill, on
the Johnstone river, in Queensland, scored for a single day’s
rainfall, nearly 16 inches in April, 1894, while the London and
Poona falls were under 28 inches each for the whole year.

Some very heavy falls are reported from stations not keep-
ing a regular recording staff. Thus Mahableshwar, in the
Bombay Presidency, has sometimes experienced 400. inches
during the S.W. Monsoon, the average being about 250; while
Cherrapunji, in the Khasi Hills, not very far from Calcutta, has
reported 600 inches in a single year, averaging about 475. It is
fortunate for the lowlanders that the rice-plant flourishes in
abundance of water! In contrast to such heavy falls, Jacoba-
bad, in Sindh, may be mentioned as a place with an average of
4% inches and a minimum of less than one inch.

Climate has a remarkable influence upon the productive
powers of the soil. The period required to mature any crop
varies with the climate. The total amount of sunshine required

' While writing the above, the official report for June 24th announces a
fall at Kurrachee of 7 inches in 24 hours, being only a trifle shoat of the
annual average fall for that station, viz. 7°92. This points to the abnormal
character of the monsoon of 1896.
43

Weather.

The

 

 

 

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“AONACISAUG AVAWOG AHL AO NOISIAIC, WOVG NI TIVANIVY TVANNY GNV ATHLINOJ|W FOVUIAY
44 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

for the growth and maturing of a crop is approximately -the
same for the same kind of crop whatever be the latitude.

Thus, for example, a crop of wheat requires for its growth—

Period of | Mean temperature

growth. of growing period.
Near Poona (Deccan) ... . 115 days X 74°0° = 8510 units.
At Alsace (South France) ... 137 4, X 59°0° = 8083 ,.
Near Paris (North France) ... 160 ,, X 56°0° = 8960 ,,
Near Edinburgh (Scotland) ... 182 ,, x 47°5° = 8645 ,,

The trifling differences may be ascribed to errors of observa-
tion, interference of clouds, etc.

It will be seen from these figures that the number of thermal
units required to grow and mature a crop is approximately the
same (z.e. about 85co in the case of wheat) for all countries,
and that a less number of days is consequently required to
ripen a crop in countries where the sunshine is more powerful
than in cooler climes. The above figures also sufficiently show
that the productive power may be doubled or even trebled by
the quickening energy of powerful sunshine, and that two or
more crops in one year become possible in sunny lands, which
we know to be a fact here in India, where two corn crops and
a catch crop are frequently obtained in districts where irriga-
tion is available during dry weather.

In England the soil, by skilful cultivation and the liberal
application of manures, produces, on an average, 30 bushels
of wheat per acre, while zo bushels per acre is the average
estimate of the same crop in India. In the Nizam’s dominions,
owing to uncertainty of the rainfall, only one crop is obtained
during the course of the year, whereas, with the available

facilities for irrigation, two crops could easily be grown.
The Weather. 45

Hence we see that there is still room for improvement in
India—by making use of its grand sunshine, aided by water
and improved methods of cultivation—in the direction of in-
creased annual outturn of crops.

Sunshiny places, as already remarked, are often those in
which much rain falls; and more especially is this true of
tropical countries, for it is in such latitudes that the sun’s rays
are most active in lifting up masses of watery vapour, direct-
ing them into cloud-currents following the prevailing winds,
which ultimately, from becoming mixed up with colder currents
moving in the higher regions of the atmosphere, or through
self-expansion consequent on being moved up gorges to
mountain-tops (as instance the monsoon passing over the
western ghauts), or possibly from being spread over vast
forested plateaux, suffer sufficient reduction in temperature to
determine the deposition of rain—sometimes in torrents and
thunderstorms, though more frequently in those gentle fertiliz-
ing showers loved so much by gardener and farmer alike.

The uncertainty of the weather, especially during seed-time
and harvest, is a subject which often puzzles the most con-
scientious farmer, and at such times many references are made
to the village seer or to the “ weather-wise’’ members of the
community, for the purpose of ascertaining the probabilities of
the morrow being fine or otherwise; whereas a little skill in
the use of the barometer, the thermometer, and the hygrometer
(instruments described in books on physics) would enable the

1 There is no natural water equal to rain-water for stimulating the
growth of plants. This is not solely due to the gentle manner of distribution,
but more especially to its freedom from salts other than the fertilizing
ammonias, etc., washed down from the air while passing through it.
46 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

farmer to predict with tolerable accuracy the probable changes
of the weather. To the above-mentioned instruments may be

 

an
ee =

, =

 

Fic. 7.—Self-registering grass thermometer.
added, for a farmer’s equipment, maximum and minimum

self-registering thermometers (Sixe’s are the best), also a rain-

 

Measure.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fic. 8.—The Snowden rain-gauge and atmometer.
gauge and an atmometer, or vapour-measurer ; but the informa-

tion supplied by the latter two instruments will usually be obtain-

able with sufficient accuracy from the nearest weather station.
The Weather.

Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, the well-

known instrument makers, have invented the
most practically useful barometer for country
use. It is called “the farmer’s barometer.”
In fact it contains three of the instruments
before-mentioned in one.

Description of the Instrument.| — The
farmer’s barometer, as figured in the margin,
consists of an upright tube of mercury in-
verted in a cistern of the same fluid; this is
secured against a strong frame of wood, at
the upper end of which is fixed the scale,
divided into inches and tenths of an inch.
On either side of the barometer, or centre
tube, are two thermometers. ‘That on the left
hand has its bulb uncovered and freely ex-
posed, and indicates the temperature of the
air at the place of observation. ‘That on the
right hand has its bulb covered with a piece
of muslin, from which depend a few threads
of soft lamp-cotton ; this cotton is immersed
in the small cup situated just under the ther-
mometer, this vessel being full of water; the
water rises by capillary attraction to the
muslin-covered bulb, and keeps it in a con-
stantly moist state.

These two thermometers, which we dis-

' “Meteorological Instruments,” by Negretti and
Zambra.

Fic,

 
      

 

 

| |
i , i )

  

g.—The farmer’s

barometer.
48 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

tinguish by the names “wet bulb” and “dry bulb,” form
the hygrometer; and it is by the simultaneous reading of
these two thermometers, and noting the difference that exists
between their indications, that the humidity in the atmosphere
is determined.

The movable screw at the bottom of the cistern is for the
purpose of forcing the mercury to the top of the tube when the
instrument is being carried from place to place, and it must
always be unscrewed to its utmost limit when the barometer is
hung in its proper place. After this it should never be touched.

The manner in which the hygrometer acts is as follows:
It is a pretty well-known fact that water or wine is often cooled
by a wet cloth being tied round the bottle, and then being
placed in a current of air. The evaporation that takes place in
the progressive drying of the cloth causes the temperature to
fall considerably below that of the surrounding atmosphere, and
the contents of the bottle are thus cooled. In the same
manner, then, the covered wet-bulb thermometer will be found
invariably to read lower than the uncovered one; and the
greater the dryness of the air, the greater will be the difference
between the indication of the two thermometers ; and the more
moisture that exists in the air the more nearly they will read
alike.

The cup must be kept filled with pure water, and occasionally
cleaned out, to remove any dirt. The muslin or cotton-wick,
should also be renewed every few weeks. The hygrometer may
be had separate from the barometer, if the combined instruments
cannot be sufficiently exposed to the external air, this being
essential for the successful use of the hygrometer (Fig. 1).
The Weather. 49

This farmer’s weather-glass, then, consists of three distinct
instruments—the barometer, the thermometer, and the hygro-
meter. He has thus at command the three instrumental data
necessary for the prediction of the weather.

RULES FOR FORETELLING THE WEATHER.

A Rising Barometer.

Rapid rise indicates unsettled weather.

Gradual rise indicates settled weather.

Rise, with dry air, and increasing cold in summer, indicates
wind from northward ; and if rain is falling better weather may
be expected.

Rise, with moist air and low temperature, indicates wind
and rain from northward.

Rise, with southerly or westerly wind, indicates probably

fine weather.

A Steady Barometer,
With dry air and a seasonable temperature, indicates a

continuance of fine weather.

A Falling Barometer.

Rapid fall indicates coming stormy weather.

Rapid fall, with westerly wind, indicates stormy weather
from northward.

Fall, with a northerly wind, indicates storm with rain, and
probably hail in summer (and snow in winter).

Fall, with increased moisture in the air, and heat increasing,
indicates wind and probably rain from southward.
50 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Fall, with dry cold air, indicates cold wind, probably from
northward.
Fall, after calm and warm weather, indicates rain with

squally wind.

In India the Government meteorological observers are
authorized to supply the public with meteorological information

on payment of small fees.

WEATHER PROVERBS.

If the sun draws water in the morning, it will rain before night.

When the sun rises with dim murky clouds, with black beams and
clouds in the west, expect rain.

If the sun rises pale, there will be rain during the day.

‘A red morn; that ever yet betokened

Wreck to the seamen, tempest to the field,

Sorrow to shepherds, woe unto the birds,

Gust and foul flaws to herdsmen and to herds.”

Shakespeare.
Red skies in the evening precede fine morrows.
A red sun indicates fair weather.
A red evening indicates fair weather, but if the red ‘extends far upwards
it indicates wind or rain.

A very red sky in the east at sunset indicates wind.
If the sun sets in dark, heavy clouds, expect rain the following day.
A bright yellow sunset indicates wind ; a pale yellow, wet.
Ifthe sun sets pale, it will rain soon.

‘©The weary sun hath made a golden set,
And by the bright track of his fiery car
Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.”’
Shakespeare.

A halo around the sun indicates the approach of an early storm.

If there be a ring or halo around the sun in bad weather, expect fine
weather soon.

Haze and a purple western sky indicate fair weather.

A blur of haziness about the sun indicates coming storm.

If the sun burn more than usual, or there be a halo around the sun in
fine weather, expect rain,
The Weather. SI
When the sun in the morning breaks through the clouds, scorching, a
thunderstorm follows in the afternoon.

‘*In fiery red the sun doth rise,
Then wades through clouds to mount the skies.”’

‘*Sunshining shower won’t last half an hour ;
Sunshine and shower, rain again to-morrow.”

Pale yellow twilight, extending lofty, indicates threatening weather.

‘* As the days begin to shorten,
The heat begins to scorch them.”

Sun dogs in summer indicate coming storm.

In conclusion, we must reiterate that some practical know-
ledge of meteorology is a necessary basal brick in the edifice

of scientific agriculture.
CHAPTER IV.

THE SOIL.

Rock-forming Minerals.
THE crust of the earth is composed of rocks and minerals,
which by natural decay produce the soil on which grow the
plants that provide sustenance for animal life.
Soil is the upper layer of earth which serves for the growth
of plants. It consists of several mineral substances derived

from the disintegration and decomposition (known as weather-

 

 

 

Fic. ro,—-Rock passing upwards into soil: a, Cultivated soil ; 4, subsoil ; c, bunched
rock, or brash ; d, sheet rock.

ing) of rocks, together with more or less organic matter—the so-
called humous substances, arising from the decay of plants—
and, in the case of cultivated lands, of various organic and
inorganic substances added as manure. The layer immediately

below the cztvated soil consists, mainly, of fragments of
Rock-forming Minerals. 53

disintegrated rocks, with the remnants of deep-rooted plants,
and is called the subsoil (see Fig. 10).
From the soil plants derive all their ash ingredients, or so-

called ¢xorganic constituents, viz.—

t. Phosphorus (as P,O,).

2. Sulphur (as SO).
. Silica (as SiO,).
. Chlorine (Cl).
. Potash (K,0).
. Soda (Na,O).
. Lime (CaO).
. Magnesia (MgO).

g. Iron (FeO, Fe,O,).

All these, except soda (Na,O) and possibly silica (SiO,)

and chlorine (Cl), are essential, and, in a certain sense, cannot

ontr nun - Ww

be said to be more valuable one than the other. If one be
absent (or present only in insufficient quantity or unavailable
form) the soil becomes comparatively steré/e.

The organic constituents of soils supply carbon (as CO,)
and nitrogen and hydrogen (as NH;, HNO,).

Carbonic acid gas (CO,) assists in the disintegration of
rocks ; in solution it dissolves earthy carbonates and phosphates
and serves to decompose the feldspars, etc. The presence of this
gas in waters is known to hasten the results of rock disintegra-
tion and decomposition, the rapidity of which varies so much
that it becomes necessary to study the composition and pro-
perties of the various rocks and the effects of weathering thereon,
with a view to thoroughly understanding the nature of soils.

Minerals are natural inorganic substances—having a definite
54 The Foundations of Scientific Agriulture.

chemical composition and distinct geometric form (when occur-
ring free from restraint). This definition includes air and water.

Rocks are aggregates or mixtures of minerals—not
necessarily hard and compact; thus mud and sand are,
scientifically speaking, rocks. Rocks form the material of the
earth’s crust, on the surface of which we dwell.

Omitting the accidental, or so-called accessory, minerals,
the number of rock-forming minerals is comparatively small.
They may be included under the following two groupings :—

More frequent. Less frequent.
1. Quartz (in its varieties). 1. Zeolites.
2. EKeldspar do. 2. Olivine.
3. Mica do. 3. Chlorite.
4. Hornblende (amphibole). 4. Leucite.
5. Augite (pyroxene). 5. Nephelene.
6. Talc. 6. Garnet.
7. Calcite. 7. Tourmaline.
8. Dolomite. 8. Iron ores.
9. Gypsum. g. Carbon (coal).
Io, Magnetite. to. Sulphur, salts, etc.

Physical Properties of Minerals.

In different specimens of the same mineral, considerable
differences in physical properties and in the proportion of the
constituents, and some difference in the kinds of constituents,
may occur without interfering with the identity of the species.

The Aardness of minerals serves as an important means of
distinction. By hardness is meant the power of scratching or
resistance to being scratched.
Rock-forming Minerals. 55

Scale of Hardness (Mohs).

1, Talc. 6. Feldspar (orthoclase).
2. Gypsum. 7. Quartz.

3. Calcite (calcspar). 8. ‘Topaz.

4. Fluorspar. g. Sapphire or ruby.

5. Apatite. to. Diamond.

These are not the hardest minerals, but are chosen as
typical ones for the comparison of others.

A finger-nail will scratch 2 but not 3, and a good steel
blade will with difficulty scratch 6 but not 7.

If a substance scratches gypsum and is scratched by
calcspar, its degree of hardness would be represented by 2°5 ;
and so on, intermediate figures being used for intermediate
degrees of hardness.

Minerals are sometimes identified by the s¢rca&, which is the
colour the powder exhibits on the mineral being scratched :
thus red hematite exhibits a red and brown hematite a brown
streak,

Other physical properties which serve for the determination
and description of minerals are—sfecific gravity (relative
weight), colour, lustre, taste, odour, and their behaviour
under the influence of 4ght (refraction and polarization),
electricity, and magnetism ,; and yet more prominent than all
of these are the crystallographic characters. For a full account
of all these, standard works on mineralogy must be consulted.

But, without entering into the geometrical intricacies of

weight of substance
weight of equal volume of water

 

1 Relative density =
56 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

crystallography, a short review of the crystalline systems,
showing the relations of the axes of the dominant forms
assumed by minerals in crystallizing, will be necessary to the
proper understanding of the frequent references to crystalline
form in the literature of our subject.

The following seven groups represent all the types of
crystalline systems in which inorganic or organic matter can
possibly occur :—

Crystalline Systems,

1. The Monometric (regular, or cubic) system.

nN

The Dimetric (or square prismatic) system.

. The Trimetric (or right prismatic) system.

. The Monoclinic (or oblique prismatic) system.
. [The Diclinic System (ot known in nature).|

. The Triclinic (or doubly oblique) system.

Nn nn fp WwW

. The Hexagonal (or rhombohedral) system.

These several systems may be classified under three distinct
groups, A, B, C, showing their distinctive characters—

1. Monometric—axes of ove length.

2. Dimetric—axes of ¢wo lengths.

12 Trimetric—axes of three lengths.

4. Monoclinic—one acute angle
between axes.

. Diclinic—zwo acute angles between
axes.

. Triclinic—chree acute angles
between axes.

. Hexagonal—three axes are equal
and in same plane, and the
fourth perpendicular to plane
of those three.

A. The Metric Group i
three axes all at right angles).

B. The Clinic Group (having
three axes making one or more
acute angles).

C. The Ilexagonal (having
four axes).

—~—
“
Rock-forming Minerals. 57

Monometrit

  

‘

a
Fic. 11.— Crystalline systems: Axial arrangements,
58 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture,

When the same substance forms crystals of two different
systems, it is said to be dimorphous,' eg. carbon, sulphur,
calcium carbonate, etc. When two different substances form
crystals of the same kind, they are said to be zsomorphous
(ésos, “equal,” and morphe, “shape or form”), eg. Iceland
spar and Pearl spar, etc. JIsomorphous substances can easily

replace each other in compounds without destroying the
identity of the species.

NAMES OF FAMILIAR MINERALS OCCURRING IN THE DIFFERENT
CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS.

.

 

 

Monometric. | Dimetric. Trimetric. Monoclinic. Triclinic. | Hexagonal.
Spinelle Copper Aragonite | Orthoclase | Albite Quartz
ruby pyrites Topaz feldspar Labrado- | Calcspar
Leucite ? Tin stone Stilbite ~ Sanidine rite Apatite
Iron pyrites | Apophyl- Sulphur Gypsum | Anorthite © Coryndum
Fluorspar ate Hea Sulphate | Oligoclase | Bery]
Rock salt | Zircon spar of iron feldspar Teunaline
Galena | Rutile | andalusite| Augite | Copper
Attn Idocrase Horn- sulphate
‘ blende
Diamond Sodium
Garnet carbonate
Native gold :
Native cop-
per

 

 

 

 

 

 

The abundance or scarcity of the minerals occurring in
the crust of the earth is roughly indicated by the following
table :—

' Substances occurring in three systems are ¢vémorphous.
Rock-forming Minerals. 59

Feldspar si ale sh nee bee ... 48 per cent.

Quartz roe zal ins Let as a ”

Mica ... 2 is ibs wie sah seg. BGs

Tale’ ss. sek a ich 42 aad sea 5 rv

Lime and magnesia carbonates... se ahs I 8

Allothers... a ase ae sea ee 3 ae
100

Composition of Minerals.

An important point is the great variation in composition.
The proportion of the constituents may vary, and also some
difference in the kind of constituent may occur; eg. in two
specimens of mica one may have 5 or 6 per cent. more
alumina (Al,O;) than the other, while the other may have an
equivalently larger percentage of iron oxide.’

A difference in colour and appearance usually accompanies
such variations, yet the law obtains that minerals have a definite
chemical constitution. The variation is due to the fact that
certain elements (or compound radicals) are capable of re-
placing each other in combination in eguivalent proportions,
owing to the resulting crystalline forms being practically
identical. Thus potassium (K), sodium (Na), and lithium
(Li), it is well known, can readily replace each other without
altering the appearance of the resulting crystals—eg. the
chlorides and iodides of these metals.

The members of the following molecular groups replace
one another inter se; group 2 can also, to a certain extent,
replace group 1 :—

1 This variation is especially noticeable in the hornblende and the
garnet groups—one may have 12 per cent. of potash (K,O) and no soda
(Na,O), another may have 4 per cent. of soda (Na,O) and 64 per cent. of
potash (K,9), with some lime (CaO) associated with the usual silica.
60 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

(x) (2) (3)
K,O. MgO. Al,O3.
Na,O. CaO. Cr,03.
Li,0. BaO. Fe,O3.

SrO. Mn,O.,.
FeO. 1
MnO.

Such replacements take place very widely (but within
ascertained limits), and materially alter the ultimate composi-
tion of a mineral without altering its constitution. Thus
hornblende is essentially composed of sédicated lime (CaO) and
magnesia (MgO). Some specimens containing only these
components are white; while others containing oxide of iron
(FeO) replacing part of the magnesia (MgO) are dark green,
the prevailing colour of hornblende rocks. Other specimens
of hornblende containing considerable quantities of the p7o-
toxides—of iron (FeO) and of manganesium (MnO), replacing
lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO), are almost black in colour.
But in whatever proportion each constituent may occur, the
total quantity of oxygen (O) in the base (RO) has a constant
ratio to the total quantity of oxygen (O) in the acid (SiO,). This

is known as the oxygen ratio; for hornblende this ratio is 1 : 2.

ay ‘Acid.
SiO.
Ratio 1 oe 2 } where R may be Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, etc.

and thus the general mineralogical formula for hornblende is
RO, Si0,.

Lime, Magnesia, Ferrous and Manganous oxides, s¢//cated, constitute
hornblende—MgO, CaO, 2SiO,, or written in a condensed form (Mg, Ca)O,
SiO, (where SiO, belongs to the Ca as well as to the Mg); again
(FeO, MnO, CaO, MgO, 4SiO,), or (Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg)O, SiO,, which
is further abbreviated to RO, SiO,, and sometimes still further to R’, Si”.
Rock-forming Minerals. 61

Quartz, Stlica— Varieties.
1. Quartz occurs in hexagonally shaped crystals terminated
by six-sided pyramids. Its fracture is conchoidal or uneven ji

2°65 ‘
Sp. gr. ae It is found

colourless as well as colour-
ed; its lustre is generally
vitreous, though sometimes
resinous." There are many
varieties, é.g. purest crystal
quartz (or rock crystal),
smoky quartz, rose quartz,
amethyst, etc.

2. Chalcedony is an
amorphous form of silica
(SiO,). There are many
varieties, such as milk

quartz, flint, onyx, catseye,

 

sadonysty: -Cotnclign: (red Fic, 12.—Appearance of crystallized quartz,
and white), and agate,

which is usually an intermixture of layers of vitreous with
chalcedonic quartz. Jasper, another form of chalcedony, is
dull brown or red in colour and opaque; a variety called
bloodstone is green with red spots, resembling drops of blood.
Lydian stone (touch-stone) and horn-stone (chert) may also
be mentioned as of common occurrence.

1 With respect to lustre combined with condition of aggregation, the
various kinds of silica may be divided into four classes, viz. vitreous and
chalcedonic quartz, sand, and opai.

2 Sometimes called Bristol—or Irish—diamond.
62 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

3. Lridymite, a peculiar form of quartz occurring in six-
sided tabular prisms, is found in the Trachytic, or more modern,
rocks. Its specific gravity differs from that of ordinary quartz,
being 22 to 2°3, like glassy quartz, indicating fusion.

Opal is a hydrated variety of silica (3Si0,,H,O), but the
proportion of water varies considerably. It is less hard than
quartz, less also in specific gravity, and is generally opaque
and frequently irridescent (precious opal); wood opal occurs
where quartz, by infiltration, fills the place of decayed wood ;
silicified wood is another variety.

Silica in the crystalline form is almost insoluble in pure
water, but in the hydrated condition it exists in solution in
many mineral springs. Alkalies and alkaline salts, and so
also carbonic acid dissolved in water, greatly increases the
solubility of silica in that liquid.

Crystalline quartz is distinguished from other minerals

By its crystalline form—6-sided prismatic crystals.
hardness—cannot be scratched by a knife, but
scratches glass.
specific gravity 2°65.
striations—horizontal and parallel '—on the faces
of crystals (see Fig. 12).
fracture—conchoidal or sub-conchoidal.
infusibility in the blow-pipe flame.

Granular quartz is known as guarts-sand.

' In other forms, as topaz, the striations are longitudinal.
Rock-forming Minerals. 63

Feldspar''\— Varieties.

Feldspar— Various Forms.—The feldspars are the most
important constituents of rocks. The feldspars are essentially
compounds of silicates of alumina (Al,O,) and silicates of
potash (K,O), soda (Na,O), or lime (CaO), and rarely baryta
(BaO)—or any two or more of these silicates.

Orthoclase, or Potash Feldspar.—Hardness 6, sp. gr. 2'5,
crystalline form monoclinic; colour white, flesh to rose, and
rarely green. There are several
sub-varieties, ¢.g. sanidine (glassy
feldspar), adularia (precious feld-
spar), the so-called moonstone of
Ceylon.

Albite—Soda feldspar. — O
ratio as in orthoclase, opaque
white to semi-transparent, and
occurs in many rocks, ¢.g. granite ;

crystalline form differs from that

 

of orthoclase, being more oblique

nso Fig. 13.—Appearance of orthoclase
(triclinic). feldspar.

Anorthite, or lime feldspar (triclinic).

Oligoclase, or soda-lime feldspar (triclinic).

Labradorite, or lime-soda feldspar—has a remarkable lustre
and play of colours (érridescence).

Andesine.—Soda-lime or lime-soda feldspar is another

' Feldspar, felspar, or fieldspar, derives its name from the German

for field spar, whose decay or decomposition forms the clay of the field ;
hence the d is correct, though often omitted.
64 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

variety and the most easily attacked of the feldspars, and hence

suffers most from weathering. Labradorite ranks next in this

respect ; both are triclinic.

Orthoclase

O ratio

Per cent. composition
Albite ...

O ratio

Per cent. composition
Anorthite

O ratio

Per cent. composition
Oligoclase

O ratio

Per cent. composition
Labrador ite

O ratio

Per cent, composition
Andesine

O ratio
Per cent. composition

The Feldspars.

K,O
I
16°9
Na,O
I
118
CaO
I

201

. 3Na,0, CaO

~~

I
14

. 3CaO, Na.O

—_
I

17
Na,O, CaO

I
14°5

 

Al,O,
3
18°4
Al,O;
3
19°6
Al,O.

2
Jo

368
4Al,0.
3
24°1
4Al,0.
3
30
2Al,0,
3
25°5

6Si0,
12
64°7
6Si0,
12
63°6
2SiO,
4
4371
20SiO,
10
61'°9
12Si0,
6

53
8SiO,

8
60

Soils produced by the decay of the feldspathic rocks neces-

sarily differ much in quality. The difference depends not only

on the amount of disintegration and decomposition that have

taken place, but also on the nature of the constituent

feldspars.

Again, the feldspars pass from one into the other, and the
Rock-forming Minerals. 65

same rock often contains two or three varieties very much
commingled.

The different feldspars undergo decomposition with different
degrees of rapidity; but eventually they all lose their lustre
(after long exposure to weathering influences) and acquire an
earthy appearance, and ultimately fall to a dull whitish powder
known as clay, which becomes variously coloured owing to the
admixture of compounds of iron or organic matter or both.
During this change water is absorbed, and alkaline silicates
-(rendered soluble by the continued action of carbonic acid gas)
are removed by running water. After a length of time nearly the
whole of the alkaline constituents are washed away, and there
remains a more or less pure (hydrated alumina silicate) clay.
The purest variety of clay is formed from the potash feldspar,
and is called aolin, or china clay... The manner of the
formation of this clay is. indicated in the table below, and this
may be taken as characteristic of feldspar decay.

 

 

 

Orthoclase. Kaolin.

Kg0, AlgO3, | AlgOg, 2Si0o,
65109. 2H20.
SiO, ... ei os ie 64°7 46°4
ee AG im ee 4 39°7
20 ... 5a ales ‘i's 16°9 oo.
H,0 ... se ste sve oo " 13°9
100 100

 

Closely allied to kaolin are the coarser varieties of clay,,.
porcelain-stone, bole, agalmatolite (figure clay), lithomarge, etc..

' The first used in England was brought from China to make porcelain.
or ‘‘ China” ware. *
66 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Minerals of the Leucite! and Nepheline Groups——These in
many respects resemble the feldspars, differing chiefly in crystal-
lographic characters. They are essential ingredients in volcanic
rocks, and also occur in some metamorphosed rocks, taking the
place of feldspar. They are double silicates—of alumina (Al,O;)
and potash (K,O) or soda (Na.O), nepheline being essentially
a soda-alumina silicate, while leucite is a potash-alumina
silicate (K,O, Al,O;, 4SiO,). These minerals are easily dis-
tinguished from true feldspars by the absence of that perfect
cleavage (so common to the latter) and the readiness with
which they are attacked by acids, nepheline becoming clouded
when dipped in acid (hence its name from the Greek nephele, ‘a
cloud”) ; while both are decomposed when boiled with hydro-
chloric acid, nepheline readily gelatinizing by separation of
silicic acid, the silica of leucite separating in a powdery form.
Leucite is white (dewkos, “ white,” gives its name) to ashy-grey
in colour, which, combined with its peculiar crystalline form,
is usually sufficient for identification.

Minerals of the Hornblende and Augite Groups.—Augite
and hornblende are very similar in their

physical properties and chemical compo-

  

sition. They differ slightly in crystallo-

Fic. 14—Appearance of graphic characters. The O ratio is

the same for both, viz.—
RO : SiO,, 1: 2
R = (Ca, Mg, Fe)
1 Leucite is sometimes called whz/e garnet, from the resemblance of its

crystalline form to that of the garnet. To its peculiar crystalline form
anineralogists give the name of /eucilohedron.
Rock-forming Minerals. 67

There are many varieties of hornblende, varying in colour
from white to dark green. Asbestos is a fibrous variety of horn-
blende. In augite R is usually } Ca and 4 Mg, (Cai, Mg3)O,
SiO, ; there are also several varieties of augite (or pyroxene)
(H = 5°6, sp. gr. 3 to 3°5).

These minerals on decomposition yield clay soils, but not
so clayey as the feldspars, since they contain less alumina
(Al,Os), the first essential of clay. Green earth is a result of
their partial decomposition.

The: wzca group is widely distributed, occurring abundantly
in the upper Plutonic rocks, in the crystalline schists, and also
to some extent in volcanic rocks. They are essentially double
silicates of alumina, potash, magnesia, lithia, etc., with iron
and manganese occasionally replacing some alumina. Some
contain protoxides of iron (FeO) and manganese (MnO).
The chemical composition of the micas thus varies considerably,
though constitutionally they continue the same mineral; all
have a tendency to cleave into thin elastic (hexagonal) plates.

The principal chemical varieties are—

t. Potash mica (Muscovite)’ )

2. Lithium mica - RO, 3510, + 3A1,0,5i0¥.
3. Magnesium mica

Muscovite is colourless or has various shades of yellow or
brown, and is transparent.’ It contains 1 to 2 per cent. of water
and a small amount of fluorine.

The “Lithium mica is known as Jepidolite. In this the
lithium replaces the potassium of potash mica.

' So called from having been used in Moscow as a substitute for glass.
68 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Magnesium mica is called biotite, Its colour is usually
darker than that of potash mica, being generally brown to dark
green or black (2RO, Al,O;, 2Si0,). R is generally Mg, but
it may be replaced partly by Fe’ and Mn’. Another variety,
Lhtogopite, is pretty common ; it contains 20 to 30 per cent. of
magnesia, whilst in biotite the magnesia varies from 10 to 25
per cent. Lepidomelane is a variety of biotite in which iron
oxide takes the place of magnesia; unlike other micas, it is
non-elastic and even brittle.

Mica undergoes decomposition but slowly, owing to the
percentage of its constituent alkalies being small. It is scarcely
acted on by hydrochloric acid (HCl), but is decomposed
by boiling with sulphuric acid (H,SO,). This characteristic
may be observed in the analysis of a soil formed from granite.
Potash mica decomposes more readily than magnesia mica, and
both are ultimately converted, through weathering, into impure
clays or intermediate altered minerals.

Hydrated Magnesium Silicates, or the Tale Group.—This
includes chlorite. These are soft minerals, containing mag-
nesia, silica, and water (MgO, SiO,, H,O). Some are formed
by the decomposition of magnesia mica. They include the
minerals known as soapstone (s¢eazite) and the meerschaum so
much used for pipes. Talc resembles mica in transparency, but
is easily distinguished by its greater softness and inelasticity.
Glauconite is related to this group, being a hydrated iron-
potassium silicate, occurring in green scales or coatings on
other minerals; mixed with sand it forms the well-known
“ green sand.”

Olivine occurs in glassy blebs of a yellowish or o/ive-green
Rock- forming Minerals. 69

colour (hence the name), looking like broken bottle-glass. It
is hard enough to scratch glass, but is scratched by quartz;
Sp. gr. 3°3 to 3°5. It is a double silicate of magnesia, with iron
in more or less quantity (2MgO, FeO), SiO,, and but for
the absence of water it might be classed with the talc group.
Lime Minerals—Caleite, Dolomite, Gypsum—Under this
group may also be included flworspar and apatite. Carbonate
of lime (CaCO ) is the basis of ca/ci¢e, which, when found in
perfectly pure transparent crystals, is known as “edand spar, a
mineral well known for its peculiar property of double refrac-
tion (Fig. 15). Avragonete is
another form, crystallizing
in trimetric prisms, which
incrust boilers, etc.
Dolomite is a mixture of
the carbonates of lime and
magnesia (Ca, Mg)CO,.

The masses of limestone

 

Fic. 15.—A crystal of Iceland spar, showing
double refraction.

rocks throughout the world are composed of these two minerals,
the simple lime carbonate predominating, as in mountain lime-
stone, chalk, kunkur, etc. Crystals of calcite generally occur
in the rhombohedral form, but other forms, as dog-tooth spar
and nail-head spar, and even simulations of quartz crystals, are
known and must be studied by examination of the specimens
themselves.

Lime for mortar and colour-washing is obtained by simple
burning (or roasting) fragments of calcium carbonate (or lime-
stone) ina kiln. When sufficiently heated carbonic acid gas (CO,)

is driven off, and lime (CaO), more or less pure, depending on
70 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

the purity of the stone employed, is left behind. When freshly
burned it is called gwick! lime, and when it falls to powder it
forms what is known as s/aked lime, its thirst for water
having been slaked by absorption of moisture from the air,
CaO + H.O = CaH,O,, or Ca(HO),.

Slaked lime when mixed with sand (usually 3 sand to 1
lime) and water forms the mortar with which we build our
houses; and the hardening or “setting” of such mortar is
largely due to the slow re-absorption of carbonic acid gas (CO,)

from the air. Impure limestones containing 15 to 30 per cent.

 

Fic. 16.—Selenite, twinned crystals.

of combined silica are sometimes burnt for the purpose of
making hydraulic lime—z.e. lime which sets under water. It is
used for foundations built under water and for making cements.

Personal acquaintance with lime, sand, and mortar is necessary

? When in this condition it becomes heated when touched with water,
and hisses like a “ve coal—hence the name.
Rock-forming Minerals. 71

to every engineer or farmer who desires to be regarded as a
practical man.

Gypsum is hydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO,2H,O), occur-
ring in beautifully clear crystals of the monoclinic system as
selenite (Fig. 16). It also occurs in white and coloured masses
like marble under the name of a/adaster, and when burned like
limestone it loses its volatile constituent (water) and falls to a
powder called “plaster of Paris,” from having first been pre-
pared at the quarries of Montmartre, near Paris. The setting
of this plaster, otherwise called stucco, is due to the recombina-
tion with the water lost by burming. Gypsum is useful in
agriculture, as will be seen later on.

Fluorspar is fluoride of calcium (CaF,), occurring as
Derbyshire spar (or blue-john of the miners) in pretty purple,
green, and yellow cubes. It is used in iron-smelting furnaces as
a flux—jluo, “I flow,” hence its name—and it is the chief source
of fluorine, which is a constituent of the enamel of teeth, and
also occurs in human blood to a small extent.

Apatite—a phosphate of lime with a small proportion of
fluorine (sometimes with chlorine) 3(Ca,P,03), CaF,—is one
of the most important minerals as representing the source of
nearly all the phosphates of the soil, and therefore of the
phosphorus in the blood, bones, and brains of animals, not
even omitting those of man himself. Is it not surprising how
the origin of man’s brains can thus be traced back to the
apatite crystals of the primitive rocks ?

Magnetite is a compound of the two ordinary oxides of iron
(FeO and Fe,O,)—usually formulated Fe,O, = (FeO, FeO ) ;

it commonly occurs as a constituent of basaltic rocks, and as a
72 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

mineral it is well known under the name of Jode-stone. The
black scales which fly off iron during forging at a white heat
have the same composition. The Swedish iron is made from
this ove. The other ores of iron, as ved and é7own hematite,
are but different forms of the red oxide (Fe,O;) and its hydrate
(Fe,03,3H,O). Specular iron ore is crystallized heematite, and
clay tronston2 is a mixture of oxides and carbonate of iron with
clay, and was for a long time the only'iron ore used in
England. The Scotch d/ack-dand ore is of the same type, with
bituminous matter included.

The su/phides of iron, though they
can scarcely be called ores of that
metal, are yet of interest agricul-

turally, inasmuch as they seem to be

 

sources of the sulphates which are

Fic. 17.—Iron pyrites (twins).

found in most soils.

Zeolites! are an important family of hydrated silicates.
Somewhat like felspar in composition, but containing from
4 to 22 per cent. of water. They all swell up when heated, the
water boils off (hence the name), and they finally melt, when
strongly heated before the blow-pipe. All are decomposed by
hydrochloric acid (HCl), with the separation of gelatinous
silica (H,SiO,). The “streak” of zeolites is commonly white.
Zeolites usually occur as linings in the cavities of volcanic and
trappean rocks or in veins and fissures in these rocks, also
frequently in druses. They are generally secondury products
derived from the infiltration of water (carrying mineral matter

1 Zeo, “1 boil,” and Zithos, “a stone,” in reference to their s7/zmescence
before the blow-pipe.
Rock-forming Minerals. 73

in solution) into cavities and fissures, from whence the water
partially disappears by evaporation, leaving the hydrated
mineral matter behind. They are common in basalt and in
amygdaloidal ttap rocks. They are often so minute as not to
be detected by the naked eye, and are generally considered

accidental rather than rock-forming minerals.

 

Fic. 18.—Group of Poona zeolites. (From a photograph by the Author.)

Zeolites are interesting agriculturally, inasmuch as there is
a similar formation of hydrated double silicates in most soils,
which possess an absorptive power for bases, as well as by
their yielding fertilizing ingredients on decomposition. The
varieties commonly occurring in the amygdaloidal traps of the
Bhor and Thull Ghauts, near Poona and Nasik, are—
74 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Natrolite (soda needle-stone),
Scolecite (lime-soda needle-stone),
Apophyllite (fish-eyed stone),
Stilbite and hypostilbite.

Chabazite and heulandite are also known to occur in the
Ghauts.

Stilbite (stilbé, “ lustre”), in radiated, highly lustrous, sheaf-
like or spherical masses, is of very common occurrence in the
country around Poona: so also are scolecite (scolex, “a worm”)
—in lustrous acicular crystals, with its related feathery messolite
—and apophyllite (see Fig. 18).

The following analyses of some specimens from the
neighbourhood of Poona will be found interesting as indicating
the nature of the materials furnished by such secondary
minerals of the trap, on weathering, to the Deccan soils :—

Poona zeolites.

Suibite. Scolecite. Apophyllite.
Silica ten mate 57°50 46°00 51°80
Alumina... wl vs.  -16°40 26°00 trace
Lime... or on ...  8'00 IV75 25°00
Magnesia... ene ... trace 0°00 trace
Soda and potash ... wz 10183 o'lo 5°60
Fluorine al Be +e. O00 0"00 1‘09
Water ies sas 1.» 18°00 13°65 16°30

100'23 100°50 99°70

£n passant, we may point to the considerable proportion
of lime that such zeolites must yield to a soil on decomposing
im situ, Perhaps this may be the source of the lime of the
well-known “ kunkur” nodules of the local black soils.

Ine Garnet Group.—The garnet represents a group of

isomorphous silicates which are of common occurrence,
Rock-forming Minerals. 75

affording about a dozen varieties, all of which are included
under the formula 3RO, R,O;, 3510, (where R = Ca, Mg,
Fe", Mn"; and R, = Al”, Fe”, Cr”).! The lustre is vitreous, and
the colour varies from wine-yellow, green, and red, through dark
purple ‘to black—the transparent specimens being known as
precious garnets (carbuncle is included here). ‘Though brittle,
garnets are very hard (H = 6°5 to 7°6), and their powder is
sometimes used as a substitute for emery. They all crystallize
in the monometric or regular system—the rhombic dodecahedron
and trapezohedron being the predominant forms, with frequent
modifications.

Cinnamon-stone (abundant in Ceylon) is a cinnamon-tinted
precious garnet in which RO is lime (CaO) and R,O, is
alumina (Al,O;). Garnets are not of much agricultural value,
though the mineral frequently occurs in sufficient quantity to
form rock masses which, by weathering, yield ferric oxide, lime,
and magnesia to soils.

Tourmaline——Of the various other silicates occurring in
rocks fourmading is fairly common. It occurs in striated
prisms, and contains boric acid, fluorine, and phosphoric acid.
The colour varies from white to yellow, red, and black; and
by decomposition it yields phosphates to the soil. The black
variety is known as schor?. Tourmaline becomes electrified by

heating.

1 3CaO, Al,0,, 3Si0,; 3CaO, Fe,O3, 3SiOp.
3Mg0, Al,0,, 3SiO, ; 3MgO, Fe,O,, 3Si0,.
3FeO, Al,O,, 3510, ; 3FeO, Fe,O;, 35i0..
3Mn0, Al,O;, 35i0,; 3MnO, Fe,03;, 3Si0,.
Similarly, by substituting Cr,O,; for Al,O; another group of four
garnets may be formulated.
76 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

There are other inorganic substances in soils which have
not been included in the foregoing groups, such as the saéfs,
etc.—(1) sulphates, (2) phosphates, (3) carbonates, (4) haloid
salts, (5) nitrates, (6) oxides, including water, which is oxide of
hydrogen, and (7) carbon.

(1) Sulphates—As calcium sulphate (gypsum, already men-
tioned), sodium and potassium sulphates.

(2) Phosphates.—Apatite (already mentioned) is the most
fertilizing mineral substance in soils. This mineral is widely
distributed, though in minute quantities, in rock masses; most
of the phosphoric acid in rocks exists in this form. Nearly all
the primitive rocks contain crystals of this mineral. Even the
older granites contain apatite as an accessory mineral. Phos-
phorite is a mammelated concretionary form of this mineral,
and coprofites are modern phosphatic nodules supposed to be
formed of fossilized fishes’ dung.

(3) Carbonates.—Lime carbonate (CaCO,) is the principal
one, then comes dolomite (lime-magnesia carbonate), also soda
and potash carbonates and, less frequently, ferrous carbonate.

(4) Haloid Salts.—Such as common sea-salt (NaCl), potas-
sium chloride (KCl), calcium fluoride (CaF,), and magnesium
chloride (MgCl,), and the minerals carnallite (KCl, MgCl, +
6H,O) and kainite (mixed sulphates and chlorides (MgSO, +
KCl + 3H,0).

(5) Vitrates—Calcium, sodium, and potassium nitrates
either exist naturally in soils or are produced therein by the
process known as zitrification (of which more hereafter).

(6) Oxides and Hydroxides.—Oxides, especially oxides of

iron and less frequently of manganese. The iron oxides are
Rock-forming Minerals. 77

usually ferric or magnetic; the ferrous oxide, being unstable,
readily assumes the ferric condition... The former frequently
occurs in soils, especially those derived from the basic rocks,
such as basalt, etc. Ferric oxide is advantageous to soils, but
ferrous oxide the reverse. The hydroxides of iron, as limonite,
brown hematite, etc., also occur, but chiefly as secondary
products.

Water, as hygroscopic moisture, or as combined water in
hydrated minerals, is, of course, a large constituent of all fertile
soils—the hygroscopicity of a soil being an important measure
of relative fertility.

(7) Carbon, as coal and its varieties (also as bitumen, etc.),
not infrequently occurs in the soil—coal-dust and soot are
valuable fertilizers for certain soils weak in humous matters.
In some portions of the Central Provinces (India) the out-crops
of coal-beds are turned up under the plough, indicating the
mineral wealth beneath the soil in those parts. The diamond
is pure crystallized carbon; it has a greater specific gravity (3°5)
than any other form of carbon, and it is the hardest, most
brilliant, and most valuable of all minerals.

1 Hence the readiness of the protoxide to become an oxygen-carrier
from the air to the soil.
CHAPTER V.
THE SOIL.
Soil-forming Rocks.

Rocks are simply aggregates of minerals, and may be made up
of one mineral, ¢.g. limestone, quartzite, etc. (simple rocks), or
of many minerals (composite rocks). Both contain accessory
minerals, ¢.¢. ingredients which are subordinate to the essential
constituents. Often these accessories, or accidental minerals,
cannot be distinguished from the essential minerals by the
naked eye, owing to minuteness and dissemination, and magni-
fying lenses have then to be employed to observe them—e.g.
the grains of zeolites occurring so frequently in basalt, amygda-
loids, and the metamorphics. Sections should also be made
which can be examined by the microscope and polariscope.

The hardness, specific gravity, and other physical tests, as
streak, colour, lustre, odour, etc., are of importance as helps to
distinguish the accessory as well as the essential minerals of
rocks.

Chemical analysis frequently fails to supply the necessary
information to enable us to identify rocks ; for many rocks which

have the same ultimate composition vary in their constituent
Sotl-forming Rocks. 79

minerals, owing to the re-arrangement of their components at
the time of consolidation, as frequently happens in the different
kinds of granites, trachytes, etc. On the other hand, the same
mineral species, as we have already remarked under minerals,
may vary to a considerable extent in some one of its con-
stituents. Hence the identification of rocks has become an
important study, and for this purpose we need, in the first
instance, to classify them.

The different rocks, it must be remembered, are not true
species in the sense in which this term is employed by mineralo-
gists or by botanists ; they are only Aids of rocks, and allowance
has to be made for the gradual overlapping of the different
kinds. As an illustration we may mention the well-known
graduation of granite into gneiss and gneiss into mica-schist,

quartzite, etc.

Classification of Rocks.

Rocks may be classified either chemically or physically. A
certain class of rocks known as the igneous rocks (from ignis,
“fire”) were supposed to be the primary products of the
solidification of the earth’s crust by cooling from igneous
fusion ; whilst others were considered to be derived from them
through many modes of disintegration and reconstruction, and
are hence called secondary, or derivative rocks. These latter
may be divided into sedimentary rocks (those deposited from
sediment or precipitation) and metamorphic rocks (those
resulting from alteration of original condition).

Igneous rocks are classified into (1) volcanic, or eruptive

(ie. bursting forth on to the surface), and (2) plutonic, or
80 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

irruptive (4¢. bursting into—in relation to their penetration
through other rocks).

Volcanic rocks have been ejected from the interior of the
earth in a fluid or viscous state (and partly in the form of
ashes) and cooled down at or near the surface.

Plutonic rocks have solidified at considerable depths below
the surface, and under the combined influence of pressure and
heat (and perhaps of the water of superheated steam) they have
assumed an appearance quite different from that of those we
call volcanic rocks, which were poured out, or welled up, on
to the surface, like some of the higher traps of Western India.

Igneous rocks are, again, chemically divided into acidic and
basic rocks, according to the predominance or otherwise of
silica (which is a weak acid). They pass from one class into
the other. The rocks of the basic division usually contain a
fair proportion of phosphorus in the form of apatite, and are,
generally speaking, of more agricultural value than the acidic
series, like granite and gneiss, etc., which are well known to

yield, not unfrequently, barren soils.

I, Volcanic rocks are —
(1) Basic, as basalts, dolerites, etc.
(2) Acidic, as pumice, obsidian, trachytes, etc.

II. Plutonic rocks are—
(1) Basic, as diorites, diabase, and gabbro.

(2) Acidic, as granites, protogines, felsites, etc.

Thus we have basic and acidic rocks occurring both amongst
the volcanic and plutonic divisions—all those (roughly speak-

ing) containing 60 per cent. and upwards of silica being termed
Soil-forming Rocks. 81

acidic, and those containing less than that amount being called
basic.

Though the basic volcanic rocks are poor in silica, they are
rich in the bases lime, magnesia, and iron oxide, which are more.
valuable as soil ingredients than silica or sand. They are mainly
composed of feldspar, with augite and hornblende ; besides the
feldspar (which is usually labradorite) they contain magnetite
(or magnetic oxide of iron) and olivine, which may usually be
observed in basalt. The excess of silica in the acidic rocks is
chiefly due to the presence of free quartz, or to free quartz and
highly silicated feldspars, as orthoclase and albite, and hence
do not generally yield rich soils. Thus the Leinster granites
of Ireland are composed (according to Haughton) of—

 

Quartz ... ste vigi -fike wes -. parts 32°57 per cent.
ee es
Me Aa o> ye oe Nee
Paste (silicate of lime) ee ve we gt 4192 ys
100°00

The following table, giving the average percentage com-
position of the igneous rocks, serves to show the characteristic

differences of the basic and acidic groups :—-

 

 

Components. | Basic. | Acidic.
Silica (SiO,)... vei es 40—60 per cent. 60—8o per cent.
Aluminz (Al,O;)_... ; 10-20 ,, 8-16 ,,
Tron oxides sear ee) I-16 ,, I—I4 ,,
Lime (CaO) 66 I—Io ,, I--5 ia
Magnesia (MgO) ... we) «6 + o—4 A
Potash (K,0) i . | I-44 4 | I-6) ,,
Soda (Na,O) 83 we ISS 3 | I—6 4
Water (H,O) aie ae | o—7 , ' o—8 ne
82 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Basic.— Basalt is a compact sub-crystalline rock (black or
nearly so), and composed of labradorite feldspar, augite, and
magnetic oxide of iron, with occasional blebs of olivine. As
accessories it contains calcite and zeolites, leucite and
nepheline. In basalt the fracture is conchoidal. It is most
frequently jointed and columnar in structure, as may be seen
near Malet Spring, Matheran, on the road to the Towers of
Silence at Bombay, at
Fingal’s Cave in Scotland,
and at the Giant’s Cause-
way in Ireland.

Dolerite is a crystalline
granular compound of

nearly the same mineral

 

composition as basalt, con-

Fic. 19.— Columnar structure of basalt.

sisting of labradorite and
augite, and sometimes of nepheline and augite, with the
usual addition of magnetite, etc., and is frequently so fine
grained that its components cannot be recognized by the
naked eye, though the magnetite sometimes appears in dis-
tinct octahedrons, and often, through oxidation, is converted
into carbonates and oxides of iron. Dolerite is lighter in
colour and less compact in texture than basalt. Dolerite, in
fact, when occurring in the massive condition, constitutes a
variety of trap (see next page).

The basic plutonic rocks are those broadly known as
greenstones. They are composed of feldspar with hornblende
or augite, and frequently green chlorite. The principal rocks
in this division are—
Soil-forming Rocks. 83

(1) Diorite
(2) Diabase ¢ greenstones.
(3) Gabbro
Diorite is a granular crystalline rock, composed of feldspar
and hornblende. The feldspar is oligoclase or labradorite,
never orthcclase. A fresh fracture exhibits a dark green

colour, apparently due to hornblende. Déatase and gabbro

 

 

Fic. 20.--Columnar trap rock, Dharavi, near Bassein. (/70 a photo. by the Author.)

may be regarded as varieties of diorite in which augite and
chlorite replace hornblende. ‘They are all included under
the more general terms of greenstone and trap rock. The
chlorite, by which the greenstones are generally distinguished
from basalt, is usually a secondary product of transmutation.

Thus the great formation of trappean rock in Western India
84 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

may be regarded as a mixture of doleritic and dioritic
lavas.

The term “trap” has a very wide significance, including all
the stair-like 1 bedded lava-flows, which in India cover an area
of not less than two hundred thousand square miles, extending
from below Vingorla in the south to the confines of the
Gwalior State towards the north (in Central India), and from
the Kathiwar coast on the west to somewhat east of Nagpore
in the Central Provinces.

Columnar trap rock may be seen at Dharavi, near Bassein,
in Guzerat (Fig. 20).

Acidic.—The acidic rocks are composed mostly of feldspar
(orthoclase, sanidine, or oligoclase), with free quartz, and
frequently mica or hornblende and many accessory minerals.
The proportion of silica is usually above 60 per cent., and
frequently amounts to more than 80 per cent. The texture
is granular or porphyritic, sometimes vitreous, but seldom, if
ever, vesicular or amygdaloidal. -They occur under the two
conditions—volcanic and plutonic.

The volcanic acidic rocks consist principally of the trachytes ?
and the phonolites, or clinkstones, with their varieties.

A trachyte essentially consists of a feldspathic mass, or matrix,
in which its minerals are distinctly and separately imbedded.
Trachytes occur in lavas of active volcanoes, but phonolites
are comparatively older. The trachytes include numerous

1 Trappa, the Swedish for stair or step, gives the name to this rock
formation—though it is frequently found in columns resembling basalt, as in
the illustration (Fig. 20).

2 The name trachyte comes from the Greek ¢vachus, ‘‘ rough ;” all such
rocks presenting a rough feel when rubbed with the hand.
Sotl-forming Rocks. 85

rocks varying in texture and composition. Their usual
constituents are feldspar (either sanidine or oligoclase) with
hornblende, sometimes augite, and frequently magnetic iron and
dark-coloured mica. They generally contain about 60 to 66 per
cent. of silica. The specific gravity is 2"4 to 2°8. The varieties
are very numerous, a common form being one in which large
crystals of sanidine can be seen. Others are compact or
nearly so, but sufficiently porphyritic to feel rough to the
touch. The feldspar may occasionally be replaced by nephe-
line or leucite. To this class belong the rhyolites (pearlites),
pumice-stone, and obsidian.

Rhyolite, or quarts-trachyte, is coarsely crystalline, fine
grained, and glassy, graduating through pearlite and pitchstone
into obsidian ; it contains free quartz, and sometimes trydymite
and topaz, in its cavities. Odsidian is a volcanic glass, and
pumice is a porous or foam-like form of ejected felspar, usually
albite ; pumice may be seen capping the volcanic rocks in the
neighbourhood of Aden.

Phonolite (or clinkstone) contains rather less silica than
trachyte. It usually contains a more or less compact feldspathic
matrix of slaty, or schistose, structure, giving a clinking metallic
sound when struck with the hammer, and hence its name. It
frequently contains as accessory minerals, augite, magnetite,
olivine, mica, leucite, pyrites, zeolites, etc. ; sanidine, nephe-
line, and hornblende seem to be its essential minerals.

The plutonic acidic rocks—granites and felsites and their
varieties—constitute the main groups of acid plutonic rocks.

Granite is a granular crystalline rock composed (as its

name implies) of graivs of feldspar and quartz, frequently with
86 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

mica, talc, or hornblende. Its specific gravity is 2°5 to 2°8.
Orthoclase is always present, and often oligoclase and albite.
The feldspar is variously coloured, opaque white, rose, red, or
grey, and rarely green; the quartz is limpid, glassy, or white ;
and the mica may be white, dark coloured, or mottled. The
granites are usually red or grey, according to the colour of the
constituent feldspar. Granite usually occurs in irruptive masses,
and sometimes in the metamorphosed condition, when it
graduates into gneiss. It varies in texture from fine to

coarse, the feldspar, quartz, and mica frequently appearing

 

Fic. 21.—Granite, Fic. 22.—Porphyry.

in large crystalline masses, giving a porphyritic’ appearance
to the rock.

Gneissoid granite is a variety which, showing traces of
foliation, graduates into gneiss.

When the mica is replaced by hornblende the granite is
called syenite, from Syene in Egypt, from whence it was
obtained for building the pyramids.

1 A rock is said to be porphyritic when it consists of a matrix in which
are imbedded distinct crystals (Fig. 22).
Sotl-forming Rocks. 87

Protogine (firstborn) is a name given to an old granite
in which tale occurs instead of mica.

Pegmatite is a variety of granite consisting of feldspar and
quartz without mica; in some specimens the quartz appears
in parallel lines resembling Arabic writing, which is hence
termed graphic granite.

When black tourmaline, or schorl, replaces the mica or
the hornblende, we have schorl granite, or Zuxullianife (named
from Luxullian, in Cornwall) ; it is also found near Sambalpur
(Central Provinces).

Greisen is a Cornish name for a granular mixture of quartz
and mica.

Felsite, or Felstone, is a compact intimate mixture of ortho-
clase feldspar and quartz, variously coloured, grey, yellow, red,
or green; it is sometimes mistaken for a metamorphosed
quartzose rock, from which it may be distinguished by its
relative hardness and weathered surfaces. It sometimes re-
sembles quartz-porphyry. ‘True porphyry, however, is a rock
containing an amorphous feldspathic matrix with distinct crystals
of feldspar (not quartz) disseminated through the mass, as in
Fig. 22. Earthy porphyries are sometimes called claystones—
in Germany, thonstones.

The granites, felsites, porphyries, pitchstones, etc., have a
similar origin and are produced from the same magma, or
mineral dough; the characteristic differences are due to the
effects of different conditions of cooling on the constituent
minerals, and the same materials, if cooled at the surface of
the earth, would probably produce a trachytic lava or some

other form of volcanic acidic rock.
88 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Durocher, a French geologist, author of a most important
memoir on Comparative Petrology, maintained “ That all
igneous rocks, modern and ancient, were produced by two magmas,
which coexist below the solid crust of the globe, and occupy there
cach a definite position.”

The one may from its excess of silica be called the acid
magma, while the other is comparable to a basic salt, for its
silica does not exist in sufficient quantity to saturate its bases
-—this he called the basic magma. The difference of silica in
the two magmas.is nearly in the proportion of seven to five,
while they contain almost the same quantity of alumina. The
outer layer, or acid magma, would thus be the mother of the
granites, gneissoids, etc., and the inner or second layer, which
corresponds with the basic magma, would represent the mother
of the basalts, trap rocks, greenstones, etc.

The average composition of Durocher’s outer magma, re-
presenting the granite-like crystalline rocks, trachytes, etc., is

shown in the following table :—

Silica si ist bei wl) ae it nee FASO
Alumina ... sie wit 2076 sae ig .- 16°O
Potash... an see 38 ee st se 4S
Soda sas ier eee si a ses my 235)
Lime aie ss a eee ee ae - = «0
Magnesia ... Pa aes ae ge ss .. «10
Oxides of iron and manganese ... ae a8 ae 125
Water, fluorine, carbonic acid ... one ik eas: DED)

99°7

The average composition of the inner, or basic, magma of
Durocher is represented as follows, where the loss of 20 per
Sowl-forming Rocks... 89

cent. in silica is made up by an increased quantity of basic

constituents ;:—
Silica aes 2 “3 65 wee 8 we 515
Alumina ... nn a vier! a easy sey «6S:
Potash ae se oe ae sn a ie LO
Soda a oe wes soe oe ee we 30
Lime ee us te abs wa wait .. 80
Magnesia ... sh oe es oh - se 6°0
Oxides of iron and manganese ... de iit sao) 30
Water, fluorine, carbonic acid ... a on aap.” ATES

99°8
Thus corroborating the statement already made regarding the
fertility of soils derived from such basic rocks.

The mean specific gravity of the outer magma is 2°65, and
that of the inner magma 2°95—hence we see why the basic
is frequently spoken of as the inner, or deeper-seated, layer.
The existence of rocks of intermediate character, z.e. hybrids,
is accounted for by the intermingling of the two magmas in
various proportions, thus producing rocks of intermediate
density.

Thus Durocher’s theory assumes that the crust of the globe
once reposed on two semifluid or viscous zones composed of
two distinct layers, or magmas, resembling baths of molten
metals. This supposition gains material support from the
observed fluidity of volcanic flows, though it is probable that,
owing to secular cooling and degradation, no remnant of the
original magmas can now be found.

The secondary (or derivative) rocks may be divided into
classes according to their physical or mechanical condition, and

also according to their mineral composition ; thus we have—
go The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

; on
Te ae ene 3 the crystalline schists, gneiss,
faltere procs 5 slates, marbles, etc.
condition) &
a (1) Arenaceous (or siliceous)
II. Sedimentary, 5 rocks.
or rocks 5 | (2) Argillaceous (or clayey)
stratified & rocks.

(3) Calcareous (or limey) rocks,

And taking account of ¢heir mineral composition only, we can
easily classify the members of both of the foregoing groups as
simply sandstones, claystones (slates), and limestones, and their

intermixtures or compounds.

Metamorphosed Rocks.

Rocks. whose internal structure has undergone a partial or
complete alteration may be grouped under tv-o heads—

(1) Those in which the original internal structure is
partially recognizable, as roofing-slate, quartzite, marble, etc.

(2) Those in which the original internal structure is
obliterated, as mica-schist, hornblende-schist, talc-schist,
gneiss rock, etc.

And even these rocks, though physically classed as meta-
morphic, can all be included under the chemical classification
of sandstones, claystones, and limestones, according as they
are mainly composed of sand (silica), clay, or lime minerals.
The metamorphic (or altered) rocks, in fact, constitute a link
between the unstratified (or igneous) and the stratified (or
sedimentary) rocks. Thus granite, an igneous rock, is known
to graduate into gneiss, a metamorphic rock, which is frequently
though incorrectly spoken of as s¢ratified granite, from having
Soil-forming Rocks. gl

suffered a metamorphosis, or change of condition, through
which its component minerals (quartz, feldspar, mica) have
re-arranged themselves in somewhat parallel layers, thus giving
the rock its well-known /fuliat-d appearance (see Fig. 23).
Similar illustrations will occur to every student of stratigraphical
geology.

Even granites might, for our purpose of chemical classifica-
tion, find a place among the sandstones, or fragmental rocks :
for, after all, sand is nothing
more than rock fragments,
though, from the greater
hardness of the mineral
quartz, sand is more generally

composed of the siliceous

 

fragments, as by the time Fic, 23.—Foliated rock.

that quartz is worn down to sand the softer mineral constituents
of rocks would have arrived at the condition of an impalp-
able powder like clay or silt. This explains why the term
‘‘arenaceous,” as applied to rocks, is so frequently regarded as
synonymous with “ siliceous.”

Gneiss is a granular crystalline compound of quartz, feldspar,
and mica, with foliated texture. There are the red and grey
varieties. In red gneiss the feldspar is orthoclase, and is the
predominant constituent. The grey contains other feldspars
besides orthoclase and albite.’

The term sch/st is only a Germanic expression for shale, or

slate (schist comes from schisma, splitting), and the term is

' Accessory minerals in gneiss are chlorite, talc, micaceous iron ore,
magnetite, tourmaline, graphite, pyrites, and quartz with gold.
92 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

more directly applicable to those argillaceous shales which
exhibit a tendency to separate into thin lamine, or layers.
Among the metamorphic slates there has been developed,
through pressure, a tendency to cleavage in a direction nearly
at right angles to the original direction of lamination.

Mica-schist is a crystalline rock composed of mica and
quartz more or less foliated in texture, the mica being usually
potash mica. It also contains many accessory minerals, garnet
being its favourite.

Chlorite-schis¢t contains chlorite and quartz, and frequently
feldspar and mica ; it is usually green in colour—chloros, “ green,”
giving the name.

Tale-schist contains talc with quaztz, and sometimes
feldspar. It is usually of a pale greenish or yellow colour, and
has a greasy feel; the amorphous variety is soapstone, or
steatite.

Hornblende-scthist is composed of hornblende, with feldspar,
quartz, or mica.

Quartz-schist consists of laminated quartz, frequently with
mica.

Quartszite is a highly metamorphosed rock mainly composed
of clastic quartz—the scales, or grains, adhering together as if
they had been semi-fused. Gold is an accessory mineral.

Marble is usually a metamorphosed limestone (frequently
dolomitic) in which a crystalline or sub-crystalline condition
has been generated—as, for instance, in the saccharoidal primi-
tive limestones and serpentines, etc. The Jabalpur marble

rocks furnish a good Indian illustration.
Soil-forming Rocks. 93

Agueous Rocks.

 

Sedimentary, or Stratified, Rocks——Most of these consist of
the débris of older rocks, finely divided and deposited from
suspension in water, and some (as limestones) by chemical
precipitation from solution in water ; others being the result (as
coralline limestones) of living organisms growing in water.
They contain the mineral remains of animals and plants that
became occluded in the sandy, muddy, or limey layers of sludge
or silt which accumulated usder water, and ultimately became
indurated into beds of rock. Hence these bedded or stratified
rocks (stratum, “a bed”) are frequently designated agueous
rocks, in reference to their mode of deposition. With the
exception of those which have been deposited slowly from
solution, as rock-salt and gypsum, they are seldom crystalline.
The minerals of these sedimentary rocks are not the same as
those which predominate in the igneous rocks; so crystalline
feldspar, hornblende, mica, and talc are seldom found except in
the fragmentary condition ; they are comminuted into sand or
silt. The predominating minerals are sand (quartz), clay,
calcite, dolomite, gypsum, coal, iron ores, rock-salt, etc.

These rocks may be divided according to composition
into—

I. Sandstones.
II. Slates (claystones).
III. Limestones.

The sandstones are, generally, much coarser in texture than
either the slates or limestones; their condition, in fact, gives

evidence to their having been deposited in rough waters, that is,
94 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

in river rapids or in tidal waters. On the other hand, the slates
and the mechanically formed limestones are so fine in texture
—being made up of indurated mud or calcareous 00ze—as to
suggest deposition from less rapidly moving waters. Hence
we infer, wherever we meet with extensive strata of sandstone,
that they were deposited in shallow water or near to the coast-
line, while for strata of slate and limestones we usually infer
deep-sea conditions to have been those under which they
were deposited. An exception to this rule must be made in
reference to such limestones as are formed by chemical pre-
cipitation or by coral growths; for limestones held in solution
by carbonated water may be precipitated in either shallow or
deep waters, while the coralline limestones cannot grow in
water beyond the moderate depths—such as are suitable to
the habits of the coral-polype.

Classification of Sandstones,

Varieties.
Granular
= a Coast sandstone.
ad - Splintery

Quartz with feldspar (feldspathic sandstone).

Quartz with feldspar, mica, or tale (mica-
ceous or talcose sandstone).

Quartz with clay (argillaceous sandstone).

Quartz with clay and iron oxides (ferru-
gineous sandstone).

Quartz with lime carbonate or shells (cal-
careous sandstone).

II. ComPpounD
(quartz with other
minerals).

When the sand becomes so coarse as to form gravel, then

the resulting aggregates are termed conglomerates or breccias,
Soil-forming Rocks. 95

according as the component fragments are vounded or angular.
And so we may have another division of sandstones—sand-
stone-conglomerates and sandstone-breccias. Bone breccias are
formed of fragments of animal bones with gravel or pebbles
cemented together by lime carbonate or by silica. They occur
in cave deposits in Europe. The island of Perim in the Gulf
of Cambay and the Siwalik range of hills in India are also
noted for the occurrence of bony deposits.

Classification of Schists.
Varieties

Fissile (clay slate).

Massive (claystone).

Splintery (whet slate).

I. SIMPLE
(clay only).

Clay with mica (mica slate).
II, CompounD Clay with talc (talc slate).
(clay with { Clay with chlorite (chlorite slate).
other minerals). | Clay with hornblende (hornblende slate),
etc.

Classification of Limestones.

Varietles.
Crystalline (saccharoid limestone).
I. SIMPLE ; 2
: Compact (mountain and lake limestone).
(calcite or ak :
: Dolomitic (dolomite).
dolomite).

Oolitic (oolite and pisolite) and chalk.
Limestone with mica (micaceous lime-

stone).
[i eancgues Limestone with clay (argillaceous lime-
(limestone with stone).

other minerals). Limestone with silica, flints, and carbona-
ceous matter (chert).
Limestone with serpentine (verde antique),
etc.
96 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The limestones, like the sandstones, form conglomerates
and breccias, but the slates do not.

Sandstone Rocks {arenaceous rocks‘ —These fragmental
rocks are formed of grains, or fragments, of the older rocks,
and, for reasons already explained, quartz generally predomi-
nates. Sometimes these fragments are cemented together by
other minerals, as clay, or Lime carbonate, or ferric hydrate, or
silica, and rarely by pressure alone—the flexible sandstone of
Ulwar for instance. Fragments of mica and feldspar will
sometimes occur, and frequently calcareous shells in abun-
dance, so much so that we often meet with whole beds
of shelly sand along the seashore. There are many geological
varieties, as fine and coarse grained sandstones, gritstones,
conglomerates, gravels, and beds of blown sand, etc. Exten-
sive formations of thickly bedded sandstones occur in the
southern Maratha country (see Fig. 24). Sandstones are
usually difficult to disintegrate, and hence form valuable

building stones.

Slates and Schists.

Clays and argillaceous rocks were originally sediments of
mud, silt (z.e. clay mixed with fine quartz sand), flakes of mica,
ferric hydrates, and sometimes organic matter, which by con-
solidation under the influence of heat and pressure became
converted into claystone, then argillaceous shale, and finally
into metamorphic slate—by courtesy called clay slate. The
slates used in schools afford a good illustration of the cleavable
variety of clay slate. Cleavage (or splitting into thin plates in

a direction nearly at right angles to the original planes of
Sotl-forming Rocks.

“dougnE ayn Kg ydviSozoyg Vv 1104.7)
CHoyan rr ayn 9 7 i bel

tuvoday (Sq[eY AYO) eYqvag wYHD oy1 fo paq ayy ur syoos auoyspurs iepaqey— "ts ‘ong

 

 
98 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

bedding) is the distinguishing feature of this variety of the

argillaceous rocks (see Fig. 25).

Analysis of a School Slate.

 

Silica ae te os es ... 60°5
Alumina... se es sae aap EGY
Iron oxides ... ee si she Hen 98
Lime Bn thes ais hs wa U2
Magnesia... eu sae i me 202
Potash eae he are ae cose 5382
Soda ies cas ae oe we 22
Water a4 sa sis bss ae RD

1000

Comparison of this analysis with Durocher’s outer magma
would at once suggest to the mineralogist the probability of
clay slate being derived from granitic rocks, degraded by run-
ning waters ; and such we actually find to be the natural process
of production. Slates are almost exclusively quarried in Wales,
Cornwall, and Ireland, for roofing purposes. A.flaggy variety is
found at Malwan, near Ratnagiri, Southern Konkan; slate
also occurs at Bedami, in the Southern Marathi country.

Loams consist chiefly of clay and sand with accidental
additions. They are not so plastic as‘clay. oes is a loam
which consists of clay with some lime carbonate, and is usually
of fresh water or sub-aerial origin—generally found occurring
in small beds along river-valleys, forming valuable brick-earths.

Marl is composed of clay mixed with lime carbonate (ro
to 50 per cent.), and often contains sand, flakes of mica, oxide

of iron, or bitumen. Marls may thus become arenaceous,
Sowl-forming Rocks. 99

micaceous, ferrugineous, or bitumenous. Marl is sometimes

used by agriculturists for the sake of its lime, and for improving

Hh

\

\

the mechanical condition of soils.

:

A
~
— A <

\\ : Ty,
2 7 ee

~
- Fic. 25.—Massive slate rock. ‘The thin parallel lines represent slaty cleavage planes ;
the dark curved lines indicate the planes of stratification.

Limestone Rocks.

These are composed sometimes of pure lime carbonate or
pure dolomite, but such are exceptional. They mostly consist
of lime carbonate with clay, silica, oxides and sulphides of iron,
and other substances which often develop characteristic features.
Those which contain 23 per cent., and upwards, of magnesia
carbonate (MgCO,) are by general consent called dolomites—
although pure dolomite contains about 45 per cent. of magnesia
carbonate."

Dolomite is harder and has a higher specific gravity than
calcite (3°5), and is more often semi-crystalline or saccharoidal
in texture (like the marble rocks of Jabalpur). The solid rock
does not effervesce or only very slightly with acids, but on
powdering and heating, it is acted on by mineral acids,
and thus dolomites are readily distinguished from ordinary

limestones. The great mass of the limestones were formed from
100 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

mechanically deposited sediments ; sometimes, however, lime-
stones consist almost entirely of materials derived from
mineralized organic remains ;' and some have been precipitated
from solutions of calcareous matter derived from the older rocks ;
and yet others there are which have resulted from the growth

of organisms—the corraloid limestones, for instance.

 

Fic. 26.—Appearance of a quarry in jointed limestone. Similar quarries may
be seen at Shahabad (Deccan).

Gypsum occurs in crystalline aggregates of hydrated
sulphate of calcium (CaSO,, 2H.O), though sometimes in com-
pact and even fibrous masses of rock. The amorphous forms
are usually known under the name of alabaster, which is largely
used for statuary. Gypsum is frequently. originated by the
transmutation of pyritous limestone rocks through local
metamorphism, but is mostly found in deposits probably left
by the evaporation of sea-water; sulphate of lime being next

? Mineralized organic remains are what are usually known as fossils
(from fossis, “‘ dug.up”), Fossiliferous rocks are richer in phosphoric acid
than are the igneous rocks, though the latter are richer in potash, owing
to their excess of feldspar,
Soil-forming Rocks. 101

to salt in abundance in sea-water, and, being less soluble, would
necessarily be found in salt deposits, though gypsum deposits
may occur in places where the salt has been washed away by

rain or underground water.

Anhydrous sulphate of lime (CaSQ,) is known by the name of
anhydrite; it is harder than gypsum, and when pure is white ; but
grey and blue varieties are also known to occur. It does not
effervesce with acids even when pulverized and heated, by which
it is differentiated from dolomite.

Volcanic Ashes.

Volcanoes in the state of eruption frequently supply

materials for the formation of aqueous or sedimentary rocks—

Sy 2 WN
NO

NS \\ VN

SAY

\
Seo

oe

 

Fic. 27.—A “breached” cone.

such as volcanic bombs, scorie (cinders), lapilli (fragments of
stone), volcanic ash, and other substances which accompany
volcanic outbursts. These ashy materials, falling on the slopes,
become blown together by winds or washed down by floods

into lake or sea beds, and form stratified deposits of various
102. The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

thickness, such as volcanic conglomerates, breccias, tufas,

puzzulanas, and beds of ash, etc. The soils derived from

   

6

I
Fic. 28.—Rock section illustrating mode of

a

om

); A, B, C, later

1, Stratified aqueous rocks; 2, dole-

a, 6, Intrusive dolerite dykes (ér7uptive

occurrence of stratified and unstratified rocks.

rite ; 3, limestone ; 4, volcanic tuff; 5, lavas ; 6, sandstone, etc.

volcanic rocks (eruptive).

such rocks are well known for their
remarkable suitability to the require-
ments of olive and grape cultivation.’
The cantonment of Aden is located in
a pair of broken volcanic cones; and
the Lonar Lake near Jalna (Deccan)
is a worn crateriform ring, such as the
top of Fig. 27 (p. 101) would present
were it not breached. The water in
Lonar Lake deposits crystals of sesqui-
carbonate of soda in hot weather.

The angle which the plane of the
horizon makes with a rock bed is
called the @p of that rock, while the
direction of a level line on the sloping
surface of the rock bed gives the
direction of its extension, technically
termed the s¢rike (from the German
stretchan, “to stretch’), which is at right
angles to the direction of the dip—the
extruding, or upturned, edges forming
the outcrops of the rocky beds of sze-
cessive strata (Fig. 28). For a complete
list see Appendix A.

' The lower slopes of Vesuvius being richly
clothed with such fruits is in itself a strong
argument in favour of the efficiency of mineral
mauures.
CHAPTER VI.
THE SOIL.

Soil-forming Agencies.
Tue chief agencies tending to the formation of soil from rocks
are—

1. Changes of temperature.

2. Mechanical actions of water, ice, and air.

3. Chemical actions of water, of saline solutions, and
of atmospheric air (especially of its oxygen and
carbonic acid gas).

4. Actions of vegetable and animal life.

1. Changes of Temperature,—-The shrinkage of the earth’s
crust by cooling, besides producing the buckling of the
surface—forming hills and valleys—causes pressures and strains
often resulting in extensive fracture and crushing of rock
masses. The different mineral components of rocks, moreover,
possess different degrees of expansion and contraction by heat
and its loss (cold); crystals, too, expand and contract differ-
ently along different axes. Herein, then, we see a tendency to
rock disintegration. When water is present, this action is
much increased, for when water freezes by cold it expands
one-twelfth of its volume, and thus causes the breaking off of
rock-fragments, as well as exfoliation and crumbling of rock
104 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

surfaces, which is especially noticeable in jointed limestones
and traps, after a thaw in cold climates.

2. Mechanical action of Water, Ice, and Air.— Water in
motion exerts a wonderful influence on rock surfaces. The
results of the mechanical action of water zz motion may be
noticed in the sorting into sizes of gravels and sands of river-
beds, and of the shingles of sea-beaches. The rubbing of
moving stones and sand against rocks is another manifestation

of this process of wear and tear.

     

SS SS a

    

Fic. 29.—Soil-making action of the sea on the rocks of the coast. A
layer of hard rock (a) resting on softer material (6), The fallen material
is very coarse near the cliff at (c), finer at (@), still finer at (e).

River-beds—the bed of the Nerbudha and the cafons of
Colorado, for example—have been cut hundreds of feet deep
by the wearing and tearing action of moving water ;* and the
formation of valleys and the scarification of mountain-sides,
so well illustrated in the Himalayan slopes and the Deccan
hills, are due to the long-continued action of raindrops and
their resulting rivulets, which ultimately flow into rivers, at
whose mouths we frequently meet with deltaic accumulations
of fertile soil—denuded materials brought down from the

? The transporting power of running water is estimated to vary as the
sixth power of its velocity. Thus a current twice as rapid as another of

equal bulk would be capable of transporting a mass sixty-four times greater
than the mass moved by the other current.
Sotl-forming Agencies. 105

higher regions. Lake basins, too, are silted up by receiving
the wash from the surrounding hills, and in this way many
valuable tracts of soil have been preserved for the use of
mankind ; the Madras Presidency abounds in old lake-beds,
which, at the present day,
are utilized as fields for the
cultivation of rice. The
Mawal black soils of the
Deccan are also probably yc, 3,—Stream (4) running into a lake and

forming a delta (c), and finally an alluvial plain

due to old lake deposits. (a).

 

Occasionally soils may be formed as results of marine
denudation and subsequent upraising of the sea-bottom ; but
more generally, they result from the sub-aerial degradation
of rock surfaces. Even those which may in the long future
be rendered available by the silting up of creeks and bays (the

os

 

 
   

Fic. 31.—River-terraced soils. 1, Original land surface; 2, later surface ;
R, the present river, narrower and deeper.

Thana Creek and the Bay of Bengal, for instance) owe their
origin to sub-aerial translation of rock débris,’ through the
agency of rivers, streams, and rills.

1 According to Mr. Everest’s estimate, the total annual discharge ot
débris by the Ganges into the Bay of Bengal is 6,368,077,540 cubic feet—
which would suffice to cover a farm of more than 146 coo acres with soil
one foot deep.
106 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

lce in motion has had a still greater influence in the
production of soil in northern climes. Glaciers (g/ace, “ice”
are rivers of ice in motion: they were formed in lofty valleys
above the line of perpetual snow. The broken rocks and
boulder stones caught up in them while in transit down the
mountain slopes were ground together and against the sides and
bottom of the glacier valley to a fine powdery 4/7, often found

 

Fic. 32.—A Swiss glacier, showing moraines, boulders, etc.

spread out over the lowlands and known by the name of
boulder clay. The streams flowing from glaciers are extremely
muddy, thus showing that much land is still being planed by
their action. When a glacier ultimately melts with the summer

sun, it leaves behind a heap of worn and scratched stones and
Sowl-forming Agencies. 107

gravels, termed a moraine, and also occasional large blocks of
stone known as boulders and perched blocks.

Air itn motion creates winds, which we all know are
sometimes most effective, not only in overturning trees and
unroofing houses, but also, when they take a circular twist,
in producing the much dreaded “devils” (or sand-whirls) of
the Indian hot season. The cyclones, too, are but vastly
enlarged devils or wind-whirls with hollow centres. Winds are
capable of scattering sand and loose débris, as well as of
causing their accumulation in certain places owing to the
constancy of their direction. Thus the trade winds in the
southern seas are driving the coastal sands of Bermuda inland,
in enormous masses sufficient to destroy vegetation and to
entomb houses. The sand dunes along our coasts are due
to this cause. In many parts of India, Rajputana and Cutch,
for instance, large tracts of good soil have become irrevocably
covered with blown sand, and thus rendered infertile.

3. Chemical Action of Water and Air, etc-—The chemical
action of water may be regarded from two points of view—

(1) By its combining with some rock mineral whereby the
hydrated compound becomes more bulky and sometimes softer
than the original rock material (the compounds of iron, for
example), and (2) by its dissolving the constituents of rocks—
in both cases causing disintegration and decomposition.

All silicious materials, when finely divided, dissolve more
or less in water. Even glass will give up a portion of its
substance to water, and so in very accurate analyses allowance
has to be made for the sparing solubility of glass. Feldspar
and hornblende, etc., are also perceptibly acted on by pure
108 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

water, especially when highly heated, under which circumstances
even silica is rendered somewhat soluble; the occurrence of
quartz in stalactitic forms is proof of its solubility. When
water contains other constituents, as carbonic acid gas or saline
solutions, its action is still more effective in bringing about the
solution of rock materials. In Nature, water is never absolutely
pure, and generally its impurities increase its chemical
activity.

Water containing carbonic acid gas in solution dissolves
carbonates which are insoluble in pure water, especially lime,
magnesia, iron, and manganese carbonates. Bicarbonates (the
so-called acid carbonates) are formed in the case of lime
and magnesia [CaH,(CO;),, MgH.(CO3).], whose solutions in
water, as we have already seen, tend to the production of
chemically hard waters. Chalybeate waters are produced by
the solution of ferrous carbonate therein; and manganous
carbonate, when in solution, is supposed to be beneficial for
coffee and: cardamon cultivation.

Water containing salts iu solution has a greater solvent
action on most rock materials than plain water, and it has
therefore a tendency to disintegrate rock as well as to ach out
materials for plant food.

Ammoniacal salts in solution can increase the solvent
action of water on rocks nearly four times. Common salt has
a similar effect; hence (as observed) the greater ease with
which rocks decay along the sea-coast. Waters containing
carbonic acid gas and calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO)),] possess
an increased power for causing solution of the alkalies. Lime-

water has a still greater action in this respect. A solution of
Soil-forming A gencies. 109

ammonium sulphate (Am,SO,) has a very energetic action,
especially in seeking out potassium compounds and dissolving
three times as much as plain water alone can do. Solutions
of nitrates (as NaNO,) can dissolve twice as much potassium
compounds as plain water. Waters containing magnesia in
solution are found to be most effective in causing solution of
the alkalies, and even of aed,

Obés. The above details will probably suffice to explain why
well waters are so remarkably superior to canal waters for the
irrigation of crops—as well waters contain a much larger quantity
of saline matters held in solution, which we have just learned are
potent to dissolve dormant matters in soils. Hence the multi-
plication of wells in the Deccan is a policy to be recommended.

Action of Atmospheric Oxygen.—Atmospheric oxygen, the
great producer of chemical change in living as well as in dead
matter all over the earth, is always eager to combine with
certain mineral substances contained in rocks. Many rocks
contain protoxides of iron and manganese, etc., as in the dark- °
green or black varieties of hornblende and mica; iron pyrites
(FeS,), also, is widely distributed in rocks as an accessory
mineral; and the oxidation of such substances from long
contact with aerial oxygen materially hastens the decay of
rocks in which they are present, for the higher oxides and
their hydrates are more bulky than the lower oxides.

By slow moist oxidation iron sulphides are converted into
oxides of that metal and free sulphuric acid; and the latter
converts limestone into gypsum, dolomite into a mixture of
gypsum and Epsom salts, and rock salt into Glauber’s salt. It
also attacks talc, chlorite, and clay, with the formation of

sulphates and liberation of silica; and thus certain clays, in
110))=—- The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

the presence of alkalies, are converted into alums through the
action of the sulphuric acid produced in this way. The
sulphuretted hydrogen of mineral springs, also, becomes slowly
oxidized by the air dissolved from the atmosphere ; and, when
this takes place, sulphites and sulphates will usually be found
in such waters as a result of the chemical transformation of
sulphuretted hydrogen (H,S), through oxidation into sulphurous
(H,SO,) and sulphuric (H,SO,) acids. Organic matter in the
soils is likewise converted by a slow
oxidation, similar to eremacausis,
into carbon dioxide and water. The
atmosphere, then, does its work,
unaided, towards the production of
soil—the soil alone requiring the aid
of the cultivator to enable it to do

 

its own peculiar work, viz. the pro-
Fic. es Wes granite, near duction of crops for human food.
Thus the combined effects of
water (solid and liquid), the salts it holds in solution, the
carbonic acid gas and the free oxygen of the air, together with
changes of temperature, produce those results on rocky masses
which we usually express by the general term “ Weathering.” ?
4. Action of Vegetable and Animal Life on the Growth of Soils.
—Lithophytes (stone plants), as lichens, liverworts, and mosses,
etc., exert a corroding action on rocks by which their surfaces

are rendered friable and partially soluble in rain-water—the

' It is probably correct to include under the term “weathering” the
corroding effects of lithophyte growths on rock surfaces, as they receive
their impetus from the carbonic acid and moisture of the atmosphere.
Sotl-forming Agencies, IIL

friable portion is partly removed by showers of rain, and a
portion is consumed by the plant during its growth, another
portion being left on the rocky surface to form soil for the
development of rootlets. Thus lichens may be found growing
on granite, gneiss, basalt, trap, and limestone rocks, the latter
being their favourite. Even pure quartzose rocks are sometimes,
though less frequently, attacked by them. It is of importance
to engineers and architects, in choosing stone for public
buildings, to select such rocks as are not easily corroded by
lithophytes. ‘The marble tombstones of graveyards, if carefully
examined, will generally be found to be coated with micro-
scopic plants of this nature on the sides exposed to the weather.

In the case of marbles and limestones, the powdery sub-
stance left on the rocks is generally composed of oxalate and
carbonate of lime. Some lichens and clubmosses are also
capable of acting on the alumina silicates, forming alumina
hydrate and transforming it into alumina malate.

Thus the low forms of vegetation, by slowly attacking the
rocks, under the influence of the weather, help to break down
the mineral character of the rocks on which they grow, and
tend to the production of soil on their surfaces.

When their life-period is over, these lowly forms of plants,
by their decay, add to the amount of soil on the rock surface ;
and, after many generations, new growths become more and more
vigorous until higher kinds of vegetation appear. After some
time visible soil accumulates, mosses begin to grow, then
grasses, and afterwards herbaceous plants, and finally shrubs
and forest trees. Where the seeds came from is the puzzle !

Peat.— Another mode of formation of vegetable mould may
112 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

still be seen in operation in the formation of peat in temperate
climes. The “sphagnum” moss continues its upward growth,
throwing off shoots above and dying below, thus gradually
raising the surface and building up a mass of dead mould
below, often used for fuel under the name of fu7f. Large
tracts of land in Ireland are lost to cultivation through being
occupied by peat growth, the turf from which is utilized as fuel.
Peat occurs, in small patches, on the Neilgherry Hills in India,
and at Newera Eliya in the island of Ceylon.

The action of higher vegetation on rocks is partly mechanical
and partly chemical. The roots, getting into clefts and fissures,
as they increase in size, separate fragments, and sometimes force
rock masses asunder. Frequently walls and even houses are
overturned by the slow growth of the roots of trees. The
Indian “Wad” tree is remarkable for its power of sending
roots into apparently solid rocks. The chemical action is
due to the transmutation of some of the rock constituents
by the organic acids formed by plant-roots. The lichens form
oxalic acid, which by chemical action on the rock produces
calcium oxalate. It is said that mangels have the property of
assimilating phosphoric acid direct from the soil, and it is
quite possible that this may account for the formation of
oxalic acid in their leaves, which perhaps decompose the
insoluble phosphates naturally present in the soil in order to
feed their roots. This may explain why mangels do not seem
to derive as much benefit from phosphatic manuring as other
root crops, like turnips.

Hlumus.— By the successive decay of generations of plants,

the soil acquires organic matter. When this dead organic
Soil-forming Agencies. 113

matter decomposes, it produces humus, which thus accumu-
lates chiefly on the surface. Again, humus is formed within
the soil by the decay of the roots of old forests or crops,
eg. in the lower layers of dead leaves on the floor of a forest,
and in the turf of old meadow lands.

There are two main varieties of humus—(z) the black and
(2) the brown. Humus gradually oxidizes into humic acid,
which occurs in the soil of graveyards, and is the cause of the
decay of buried bones. With free access of air and a high
temperature, the carbon of humus suffers oxidation, and goes
off as carbon dioxide, while its hydrogen oxidizes into water.
With a limited access of air, as in peat formations, bogs, and
marshes, marsh gas (CH,) will also be produced, and probably
phosphuretted hydrogen, from which latter arises the oft-
observed “ Will-o’-the-wisp.”

Humus is a very hygroscopic substance, and tends to keep
the soil continually moist, thereby hastening the decomposition
of the minerals of the soil. Owing to the readiness with
which humus combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide,
the air of soils usually contains much more carbonic acid gas
than ordinary atmospheric air.

Atmospheric air contains four parts carbonic acid gas in
10,000 parts of air. Air from soils containing humus in varying
proportions contains from 4o to 1000 parts of carbon dioxide
in 10,000 of soil air. Air obtained from sandy soils contains
least carbon dioxide, while that from garden soils contains most.

The organic acids of the humus likewise assist in the
solution of difficultly soluble salts present in soils, as well as
hastening the decay of the dormant minerals.
114 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The effects of plants, then, as soil-producing agents, is not
only to disintegrate the rocks by their roots, but also in their
death to provide humus to the soil, thus continually increasing
its bulk as well a$ providing material for the generation of
carbon dioxide and water. Thus we see that plants, when
dead as well as when alive, tend to keep the soil in a moist
and suitable condition for cultivation.

Animals of low type, “ earth feeders ”—the common earth-
worm, for example—have had a considerable influence in the
production of the fine surface soils of cultivated lands. Worms
feed on earth containing organic matter, such as dead leaves
and grasses, etc., and after passing the earth so consumed
through their bodies, in a digested form, they cast it out in
the draft ; and such digested clay, termed “‘ worm-casts,” may
frequently be found on the surface of grass lands after a dewy
night—the worms come up at night and cast their refuse on
the surface of the soil, while in the daytime they disappear
by boring into the earth, leaving their tracts visible. Every
fisherman is familiar with the method of procuring worms, by
the aid of lanterns at night, as baits for catching fish. Worm-
casts form a very suitable tilth for crops, and in a few years
they add considerably to the depth of a soil.’

The mole is another animal that contributes to the forma-
tion of fine earthy soils—for the mole feeds on the earthworm,
and follows it in its peregrinations through the soil.

By the death of such animals the soil, which, during their
lifetime, has been pulverized and prepared for the hands of the

' According to Darwin, about ten tons of earth per acre passes through
the bedies of worms ina single year.
Soil-forming Agencies. 115

gardener and farmer, receives nutrient matter (in the form of
nitrogenous and phosphatic substances) for crops requiring a
higher class of food material than humus @/ome can supply.
And thus the soil has progressed from day to day and year to
year in its power of growing crops of a higher type, till man
at last began to multiply and replenish the earth with mouths
ravenous for more and more concentrated food. Did mankind
but live on grass, like cattle, there would even now be no
question as to the pressure of population on the land!

In a future chapter we propose to refer to the maneuvres
adopted by agriculturists for the artful management of the
soil by the application of manures—thereby accelerating the
growth and increasing the production of crops.
CHAPTER VII.
THE SOIL.

Varieties—Classification, Composition, and Analyses.

Certain Varieties of Soil—The main varieties consist of—

Soils which are sandy.

Soils which are clayey.

Soils which are limey.

Soils which are mouldy (or peaty) ; and loams.

By various natural admixtures of different varieties several
groups or classes of soils have been accumulated.

Sandy Soils—Sandy soils are loose and have little or no
tenacity, and are therefore easy to work even in wet weather.
Sandy soils, being porous, allow free percolation of water, and
in consequence may be termed hungry soils, from their inability
to retain manures.

Clayey Soils.—Clay soils, sometimes termed argillaceous,
are fine in texture, possess considerable tenacity—plasticity
being the distinctive characteristic property of clay—and are
hence difficult to cultivate. They hold much water and
become damp and cold in rainy weather, and in dry hot
weather they are liable to crack. When the proportion of
clay is large, and especially when certain salts, as carbonates

-of potash and magnesium, are present, clay soils become sticky
Classification and Analyses of Soils, etc. 117

and retentive of water. Clay gives consistency and volume
to soils and strength to hold up plants erect. In purely sandy
soils trees would be blown over by strong winds.

Limey Soils.—These soils, termed cretaceous or calcareous,
contain from 20 per cent. and upwards of lime carbonate, and
are easily worked, though not quite so easily as sandy soils.
Limestone lightens clays and makes sands more adhesive.
When the proportion of lime carbonate is small (from 5 per
cent. to 20 per cent ), the soil is usually called a marl.

Moulty or Peaty Soils —Such soils are found in temperate
climates, in localities where the sphagnum moss flourishes, and
sometimes, at moderately high altitudes, in the tropics. These
are often termed humus, or vegetable soils; ‘they are artifi-
cially produced through excessive manuring, as in the case of
garden lands—wherein the quantity of vegetable matter may
vary from 5 per cent. to 25 per cent. of the whole soil, the
latter figure increasing to 75 per cent. in the case of natural

peat soils.

Loams may be regarded as generous mixtures of sandy and clayey soils
with a small proportion of humus, or mouldy soil.

Soils according to their modes of formation or deposition
are zaturally divisible into two classes :—

1. Sedentary or indigenous soils, viz soils formed from
the decomposition of rocks 77 situ.

2. Transported soils, viz. soils whose materials have been
transported by ice, waters, or winds; these being again divisible

into—
Drift
Alluvial soils.
Colluvial
118 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

1. Sedentary soils are usually shallow, forming but a slight
covering to the rock on which they were formed; the con-
version of trap into moorum and, ultimately, of moorum into
soil serves as a good Indian illustration. In such cases the
characters of the rocks on which the soils sit afford much
information as to their agricultural value, which of course
depends largely on the nature of the minerals composing the
underlying rocks. Thus feldspathic rocks, like felsite, granite,
or gneiss, etc., will, almost invariably, produce clayey soils,
though, should they contain abundance of sand unremoved by
the action of rain-water, they may become fairly fertile—pure
clay as well as pure sand being practically infertile, though
in various mixtures they yield fair soils. Limestone rocks,
especially if they be of the as grllaceous variety, yield fertile
soils; basalts and traps yield a generous type of soil; but
sandstones and all highly quartzose rocks yield very indifferent
indigenous soils with respect to fertility.

2. Transported soils have been formed and deposited by
the action of ice, of moving water, and sometimes of winds
(sand-dunes, for example), at various distances from the places
where the rock-denudation took place; hence the underlying
rock is not necessarily related to such soils, as in the case of
those formed 77 sztz.

Drift soils consist of more or less rounded particles, the
materials being composed of boulder clay mixed with sand
and stones—in fact, glacial detritus (see glacier). The com-
ponents may be stones of various sizes, from pebbles to the
largest boulders mixed up with the finest till. The surface of
the country where these soils occur generally consists of a
Classification and Analyses of Soils, ete. 119

mingling of hills and valleys; and the stones and boulders
are much scratched from the action of ice, as already explained
—the outcropping rocks frequently presenting the appearance of

sheep lying down in'pasture, the voches moutonnées of the French.

 

Fic. 34.—Roches moutonnees and perched blocks.

Alluvial sotls consist of fine earthy particles transported by
rivulets and rivers, and are usually more or less spread out in
distinct layers (stratified) ; and the materials in these layers are
often arranged according to their sizes and specific gravities,
the lighter and finer portions being on the top, much like what
may be noticed, in the present times, when a river in flood
overflows its banks and leaves a coating of fine earth behind,
after the flood has run down. The valleys of the Nile and
Ganges supply magnificent illustrations. Smaller rivers nearer
home may also furnish the requisite illustration for a school
class. Such deposits have been formed at all periods of
geological history, and are even found spread over drift de-
posits, the soils formed from such intermixtures being termed—

Colluvial Soits.—When colluvial soils contain angular frag-
ments of the rocks from which they have in part originated, it
may be inferred that such soils were not transported from any
120 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

very great distance, and a skilled observer may often identify
their sources near at hand. The alluvial and colluvial soils are
practically found to be the best for agricultural purposes.

Some geological formations yield soils which are of high
fertility and others very poor in this respect; but the local geo-
logical conditions cannot always be relied on as a key to the
nature of the soil in different localities, owing to the different
conditions under which soils have been formed with reference to
horizontality, slope, climate, and transport. Generally speaking,
the more mixed the materials the more agriculturally valuable
is the soil. Soil formed from the decay of the rocks of two
overlapping distinct geological strata is usually more fertile
than that formed solely from the decay of either stratum ; the
line of junction of two formations on a geological map often
indicates a band of soil of greater fertility than the usual
sedentary soils of the district.

Composition Mechanically considered, the mineral con-
stituents of soils may be resolved into rock fragments (including
stones, gravel, and sand), clay, lime (and magnesia) carbonate,
vegetable mould, moisture (hygroscopic water), and_ salts.
Stones and gravel are of little immediate use as materials for
plant food, but they have a reserve value like the reserve fund
of a bank, and may be classed under the head of dormant
matter. ‘These dormant constituents can be separated by sifting
and washing in a current of water.

Omitting, then, the stones and gravel as of no immediate

concern, we may assert that culturable soils are composed of—

' The construction of so#Z maps should be included in the routine of
geological surveying.
Classification and Analyses of Soils, etc.. 21

1. Sand.
2. Clay.

. Lime (carbonate).

. Moisture.
6. Salts.

So that by various mixtures of such materials we get

3
4. Organic matter."
5

corresponding varieties of soils; and thus we have the usual
standard kinds, as recognized by Schubler, who gives eight
classes, as below, in which the clay or other prominent in-
gredient is made the basis of the terminology, the largest
ingredients being sand and clay.

1. Argillaceous soils (containing above 50 per cent. of clay).

N

. Loamy soils (containing from 30 to 50 per cent. of clay).
Sandy loams (containing from 20 to 30 percent. of clay).
Loamy sands (containing from 10 to 20 per cent. of clay).

. Sandy soils (containing under ro per cent. of clay).

AREY

Marly soils (containing more than 5 per cent. but less”
than 20 per cent. of lime).

7. Calcareous soils (containing above 20 per cent. of lime).

8. Vegetable moulds, or humus soils (containing 5 per cent.

and upwards of humus).

Each of the above classes may again be divided into sub-
varieties (or species), as poor, intermediate, or rich, according to
quality and physical condition; and also into those containing
or not containing lime—and, similarly, with regard to humus.

Farmers, however, generally adopt their own systems of
classification ; and in different counties (or districts) different

1 Usually vegetable mould, or humus.
122 Lhe Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

systems are adopted which have reference to certain local
peculiarities. The practical farmer should know the varieties
of crops that best suit his lands; and the landlord should
also be aware of the qualities of his soil in these respects,
so as to be able to assess a fair rent.

The system of classification of soils adopted by the officials
of the Indian Government, which represents the landlord, is
based on the nature of the crops customarily grown on the
lands as well as on their relative productiveness.

The Bombay Revenue Survey base their classification
principally on the depth, but also on the colour and texture,
of the soils.

The following summary of the Bombay Survey system of
classification may prove interesting to agricultural students.

Soils are divided into nine classes and three orders—

 

 

 

 

 

Orper I. | Orver II. | Orpver III.
Anna I —_
Class. sae, Uniform, fine texture, Uniform, coarse Gravelly or loose,
Hons black to dark brown texture, lighter in friable texture, colour

in colour. colour, usually red. light brown to grey.

I 16 12 cubits. we

2 14 Ik yy I i bile, os

3 12 I t ” 13 ras

4 10 I iy | Id =

5 8 2 ” | I ” = i

6 6 oo» 2 ys cubit.

7 43 to eB oo "s ”

8 3 para t ” $ ”

9 2 a == | ? ”

 

NotrE.—The depth of the soil determines the class. The colour and
adhesiveness determine the order. A greater depth than 1} cubit does
not affect, to an appreciable degree, the fertility of the land. Soils of the
third order are never found more than 1 cubit deep.

 

1 The anna valuation mentioned here is a common Indian mode of
Classification and Analyses of Sorts, etc. 123

The following conventional signs for faults! are used by
the Revenue Survey Soil Classers to indicate the nature of
deficiencies in soils classified according to the previous
table :—

°° denotes a mixture containing nodules of limestone.
Vv s» an inordinate admixture of sand.
/ », a sloping surface.
xX 3» absence of cohesion amongst the soil particles.
A +» More or less imperviousness to water.
-—~---~ ,, liability to be swept away by running water.
|__| +» excess of surface water from springs, etc.

In valuing lands for revenue purposes the following points,
in addition to the above relative system of land classification
adopted by the Indian valuers, ought to be observed prior to
fixing the absolute amount of assessment, or rent :—

1. Climate, particularly as regards sunshine, quantity of
rainfall and security against famine.

2. Distance from occupier’s village.

3. Vicinity or otherwise to good markets.

4. Means of transportation by railways or public roads, etc.

5. Whether canal water be available for irrigation, or
whether sufficient subsoil waters exist to allow of irrigation
by wells.

6. The agricultural skill of the residential cultivators.

expressing relative value (16 annas to the rupee). Crops are estimated
by a similar scale, a sixteen-anna crop being a full, or bumper, crop.

1 These comprise all the important faults of the soils hitherto met with
by the classers, who are authorized to reduce the class of a soil by one for
each such fault.
124 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Analyses.

COMPOSITION OF 4 MysoRE COFFEE SOIL (Voelcker).

715

Organic matter and combined water?

Protoxide of iron
Peroxide of iron ...
Alumina

‘ Lime
Magnesia ...
Potash
Soda
Phosphoric ada.
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Chlorine

Insoluble stitute. ane cand

1 Containing nitrogen ...
Equal to ammonia

trace.

5704

20°39
0°20
0°28
0°25
O12

0°13

0°03

o’ol
66°40

100°00

0°032
0°039

 

COMPOSITION OF WHEAT SOILS FROM THE PUNJAUB

 

 

(Voelcker).

No. I, No. II. No. III.

Organic matter and combined water ! 0°63 2°67 0°65
Oxide of iron ei ae 2°58 4°32 1°62
Alumina , 1°72 5°85 2°02
Carbonate of lime 2°06 2°57 3°33
Magnesia 1'07 1°97 1'07
Potash 0°39 0°74 O31
Soda ... ols 0°08 OI
Phosphoric acid a O'l7 0°23 orlg
Insoluble silicates and sand 90°33 81°57 90°70
100°00 100°00 100°00

' Containing nitrogen ... 0°07 0°02 trace.
Equal to ammonia ... 0°08 002 trace,

 

 

 

 
Classtfication and Analyses of Soils, etc. 125

No. I.—This soil was light-coloured, containing much fine
sand with micaceous particles.

No. II.—Free from mica, and not nearly as fine and sandy as
No. I. It is reckoned to be the best soil in Sirsa (Punjaub).

No. III.—Very like No. I., but finer and more sandy.

These soils are characterized by richness in mineral matters
and comparative poverty of nitrogenous organic matter, so that,
with moderate supplies of nitrates, wheat cultivation could be
continued for a number of years.

An air-dried black cotton soil from the Deccan gave the

following results on analysis :—

Organic matter+.and water... a .. 18°50
Oxides of iron and alumina... eis sss 20°00
Lime ae ies si 8s gs sme 6152
Magnesia .. we se Bee os te BE
Manganese @udes) a oe oun ve O79
Potash... we a kg on ve O24
Soda ane x sta a we 065
Phosphoric anid. “ih oa si ve OFS
Carbonic acid... ee ia ahi ue 2275
Sulphuric acid. 1a se tet ws OUT
Chlorine ... ae is vs O'OI
Sand and acolubile silicates an se se A751

100°00

The cotton plant was noticed to flourish in a remarkable
manner on this peculiarly rich soil. Cotton loves carbonaceous
matter with good supplies of potash and phosphoric acid.

For students and others who are familiar with chemical
symbols and manipulations, the following tables will suffice for
qualitatively testing the nature of soils; for a complete analysis
a chemist should be referred to.

' The nitrogen was not separately determined.
126 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTARY AND COMPOUND:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RADICLES.
Basic RapIcuEs. Acip Rapices.
ran | ce
Names. Symbols. orghe Names. | Symbols. Sarak
t
Simple. Sinple.
Hydrogen’ ... H I Chlorine cl 35°5
Potassium... K 39 Bromine Br 80
Sodium... ... Na 23 Iodine ... I 127
Lithium ou Ti 7 Fluorine F 19
Barium... ea Ba 137 Oxygen... oO 16
Strontium =... Sr 875 Sulphur S$ 32
Calcium a5 Ca 40 Nitrogen N 14
Magnesium... Mg 24 Boron ... B 11
Aluminium... Al 27 Phosphorus P 31
Chromium... Cr 52°5 Carbon ... Cc 12
ian tee ase is 56 Silicon ... Si 28
anganesium... n s
Zinc... we Zn a Compound.
Cobalt ... er Co 59 Cyanogen’... | (CN) = Cy 26
Nickel ... aii Ni 59 Ferrocyanogen (FeCys) 134
Cadmium Be Cd 112 Ferricyanogen (FegCyg) 268
Copper ... Pa Cu 63°5 Sulphocyanogen | (CNS) 58
Silver Ag 108 Nitric radicle| (NOs) 62
Mercury Hg 200 Chloric i foe 83°5
Lead oid or Pb 207 Todic es ' 3) 175
Bismuth ave [fae Bi 210 Sulphurous ,, (SOs) 80
Tin... aes Sn 118 Hypo-
Antimony es Sb 122 sulphurous ,, (SOs) 112
Arsenicum... As 78 Sulphuric ,, (SO4) 96
Gold .. Au 196°5 Silicic 33 (SiO4) 92
Platinum Ses -Pe 197 Fluosilicic ,, (SiF¢) 142
Carbonic ,, (COs) 60
Oxalic a (C204) 88
“ Boracic “a (BQs) 59
Compound.* Phosphoric ,, (POg) 95
(NHy) Pee a ot 116°5
i 4 rsenious ,, sOg 123
Ammonium... { = rH 18 Arsenic * (AsO4) 139

 

 

 

 

* The difference between Basic and Acid radicles is rather one of degree than
of kind. Electropositive = basic ; electro-negative = acid.

The idea of compound radicles, as is now entertained, is quite independent of the
question whether they can be actually prepared in the separate state or not. A radicle,
in modern chemical language, is simply a group of elements, which is common to a more
or less numerous series of allied compounds, and remains unaffected by the processes
whereby those compounds are transformed one into another (Watts’s Chem. Dict.)
127

Tables for Analysis of Soils, ete.

‘uotqendioaid sit asn¥d 0} pasn aq prnoys eQD%eN ‘sizes [eovrmoumure UL a[qnjos Suraq ‘eyeuoqres “BT 1”

 

 

 

 

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low] [pa] 1] [40] [sD]
ba PO fad eal a
sv Iq o> a
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qd us 3H ad ad wy "HN
3H id By uN 1D 4S eN
By ny qa uz Iv eq x
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ron [SERAMSNPSR rou axe "sates | ae porentomd |S GRND ET | £4 “Gas [ao OR GSE
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se payeytdiarg| Aq 30 fgeyy | et iS@UHN) ee peli Patel qnq ‘g2zz Aq =| ard $S%(FEN) [40 ‘StH Aq
Aq saprydjns i aoptucins wei oe ¥ q perendiaid yoxy | Aq so ‘Sépq Aq | paresdioaid JON
se payendiserg | cy parendioarg | payendiaaid 10N parendiaid iON
*£ anouyy "9 dnoUy *S anouy ‘b anousy *€ anousy *z dNOuy *r anouy

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘SIVLAW AO NOILVOIAISSVID

‘SLIVS GNV SHINVA UTHL AO SISMIVNV DAILVLITVAD FHL OL MAIA V HIIM
of Scientific Agriculture.

10nS O

The Foundat:

128

 

PI

£O*N

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(orpéuy) afqeavdas (aha 34} 0}) pue “ors
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(¥)
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(or4qng) org yA soyendpag ) *O%T
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ie SNOH IOH UF aqnqosur are} 9,
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z
(otuordos,) (oquzoonS) (91119)
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(onaoy) (oureyer) so2
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(2ru110,7) (o1ozuag) (arTexQ) *O1D
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“916: DTDs & % A of 3 %
Jo goes a ai ey ta saciinten teanau 410 ener fe Aq you donee ord Aq

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pererdroaid ION

wo payeqdioarg

parejdioaid JON

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‘SLIVS UIAHL AO SISAIVNV DZAILVLITVNO AHL OL MAIA V HLIM

‘(SAGIMGAHNV UNV) SGIOV JO NOILVOIAISSV19
 

WORKING TABLE FOR THE DETECTION AND SEPARATION OF METALS AND EARTHS IN COMPLEX MIXTURES.

Abbreviations : v = precipitate, ” = evolution of gas, J = filtrate.

The original solution to be tested separately for the precious metals.

 

Ist GRoup.—Add a little HCl, and if it produce a \) add excess. Filter.

 

Ag
Boil with H,O. Filter.

Wash.

vy

Add K,CrO,,
yellow ppt.
= Pb.

| Black

v

, Hg., Pb.

v

Wash, add NH,HO.

v y
Add HNO,,

= Hg,| white ppt.
= Ag.

2nd Group.—To the vy add H,§5 water, and if it produce discoloration,

warm gently and pass I],5 in excess.

Filter.

 

Wash with boiling H,O, digest with a little NIT,HS, and filter.

v

Hg, Bi, Pb, Cu, Cd.

Wash, boil with HNO,, and add H,SO,

and alcohol.

7]
As, Sb, Sn.

Add HCland wash the ppt. Then
add (NH,).COs, and filter.

 

 

 

 

v y

Bi, Cu, Cd.

Black = Hg. AddNH,HO. Filter.
Wash with
NH,C,H,0,,
and test ~~ Vv vy
with K,CrO,,
yellow ppt. | Bi. | Blue =Cu.
=EFb. If not blue
addNH,HS,

yellow ppt.
= Cd.
If blue add

KCy = and
HS, yellow
ppt. = Cd.

 

 

v y
Add HCI, Su, Sb.
yellow ppt.
= As. Dissolve in strong
HCl. Introduce
into a platinum
dish with a rod
of Zn, held so as
to touch the pla-
tinum above the
liquid.
Granular deposit

=n.
Black stain = Sb.

 

v

3rd and 4th Groups.—To a portion of the Y add NH,HO, NH,Cl, and NIL,HS.
the remainder of the w& to dryness and ignite. Dissolve in H,O and HNO, (boil); then add NH,Cl and NH,HO.

Fe, Cr, Al, Ca;(PO,)s.

Wash, dissolve in HCl, add Na,HPO, and
NH,C.H,0,, and boil.

 

v

Wash and boil with KHO.

 

v y
Dissolve in HCl, | Acidulate with
and to a portion | HC,H,0.,
add KCyS, red | white  gela-
colour = Fe. tinous ppt.
= Al.

 

 

vu

If green = Cr.
Add(NH,)sC204,
white ppt. =

Ca,(P0,)2-

See footnote.

If no ppt. pass on to Group § ; if a ppt. evaporate

 

wy Add NH,HS, boil and filter.

 

v sth Group, — ~ Add (NH,),CO3.

Ni, Co, Mn, Zn.
Wash. Add dilute HCl. Filter.

 

v

Ba, Sr, Ca [Mg].

— Dissolve in HC,H,0,. Add
b | w K,CrO,. Filter.
Black Add NaHO. a
= Ni. Se ae v y
v Yu Yellow Add H,SO,. Filter.
= Ba.
Mn. | Add HC,H,0,
and K,FeCyg, v I]
gelatinous
ppt. = Zn. Sr. | Add NH,HO
Test for Co and
with borax (NHy,)2C.0,,
bead. white ppt.
= Ua.

 

 

 

For confirmation tests consult the Tables given in Cooke’s ‘‘ Student’s Practical Chemistry.”

 

 

Filter.

6th Group.

i]
Add Na,HPO,.

 

aN y

Mg. Test soln. for
52 NH, by boiling
s with KHO and
% eo | smelling, etc.
BS 2 | Apply — flame
a5e test.

2.8 % | Violet = K.
a“ | Yellow = Na.
=o, | Crimson = Li.
Bes lead

so bo = | Negative result
= =
s ;

Zo face p. 128.

 
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PLANT.

feelation of Plant Food to the Atmosphere and the Soil~
Plant Growth and Architecture.

No doubt there was a time when our planet dropped off from
the solar nucleus a red-hot incandescent globe, which by
cooling down through radiation into space, gradually became
covered with a rocky surface, whose subsequent disintegration
and decay by natural causes gave us the soils of the fields
with their surrounding moist atmosphere capable of absorbing
sunshine ; in fact, everything ready for the making of a garden
with the exception of—life.

The transition of inorganic to organic matter is intimately
connected with the phenomena of life; and though modern
chemists have succeeded in building up organic compounds
from inorganic elements, yet such compounds are still composed
of dead matter. No chemist has yet succeeded in producing
a living organism from the inorganic constituents.

As the origin of life is shrouded in mystery and forms the
subject of profound speculation amongst scientists of different
schools, we will here only notice the contrasts that exist
between living and dead matter.

Bodies possessing the powers of motion, growth, and
reproduction are said to be alive. Quicksilver (mercury),

K
130 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

though it moves when it is touched by the human hand, does
not increase in size by lapse of time, neither does it beget new
supplies of the same metal. The ancients gave the appellation
guick to this metal, believing it to be afive from its peculiar
property of moving about when touched. Its motion, how-
ever, is explainable by the laws of gravity, while the motion
of living matter is spontaneous (automatic) and apparently
independent of gravitation.

Living matter can change its shape—this is called amaboid
motion; it can sometimes move about from one place to
another—this is called locomotion ; besides, it increases in bulk
(by growing)—this we call grow?h ; and lastly, it gives birth to
new individuals (resembling itself)—this is called reproduction ;
and after all these processes have been gone through, there
comes a time when the living matter can no longer take part in
these functions, and then comes death, resulting in dead matter
which, under the influence of the atmospheric gases and
certain bacterial germs present therein, usually returns to the
condition of (or becomes resolved into) lifeless inorganic
matter—carbonic acid gas, water, ash, and ammonia.

Plants, however, are endowed with the power of taking up
this inorganic matter from the atmosphere and the soil, and
converting it into organized matter, thus completing the
cycle of circulation." The formation of organic starch from
inorganic carbonic acid gas and water represents an early stage
in plant growth—

6CO, + 5H2O = C.HyO; + 60,

* The transmigration of matter is undoubtedly a chemical fact ; and,
but that chemistry was a sealed science to the ancients, we might almost
Plant Growth. 131

From’ what we have already stated in a former lecture, it
will be seen that all the constituents necessary for plant life are
found ready for use in the atmosphere and the soil.

The young plant usually begins its existence in the em-
bryo stage while still locked up in the seed. Besides embryo
plants, seeds contain a store of ready-made plant food for the
nourishment of the young plants until they get over their
infantile stage, and develop roots and leaves by the aid of
which they begin to feed upon the constituents of the soil
and atmosphere respectively— the roots foraging in the soil, the
leaves in the air. Thus the seed, like a mother, supplies
nourishment to the young plant until its independent existence
becomes possible.

Germination.—By germination is meant the process by
which the latent energy of the embryo is brought into operation
and the embryo established as a self-supporting plant.

The length of time required for germination varies with
each kind of seed as well as with the circumstances under
which it is sown.

» Heat and moisture, with free access of atmospheric air, are
necessary conditions for germination. Heat starts germination
by exciting the latent energy of the embryo. In temperate
climes temperatures of from 60° to 80° are the most suitable
for the germination of seed, and in the tropics temperatures of
from go° to 100° Fahr. Moisture serves the purpose of softening
the hard parts of the seed, and by causing the expansion of the
embryo, it enables it to burst forth from its enclosing coverings.

regard the early Hindu philosophy which announced the doctrine of the
transmigration of souls as a foreshadowment of a material reality !
132 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Air is required on account of the oxygen it contains, which
combines with the carbon of the seed and forms carbonic acid
gas, and is attended by an increase of temperature. That air
is necessary for germination is easily shown by planting seeds
deeply in the soil, in which circumstances they will not
germinate.

Seeds when sown under proper conditions take up
moisture from the soil, become soft and swell up, while
chemical changes proceed in the albumen of the seed (or, if
albumen be not present, in the cotyledons), and these changes
result in the formation of appropriate food which affords
nourishment to the embryo plant,
and being attended with evolution
of heat, the embryo enlarges and
breaks through the covering of the
seed. The radicle (or root-portion
of the embryo), moving in a down-
ward direction, becomes the “root;”
while the p/zmulz (or stem-portion),
ascending above the soil, forms the
shoot or stem and leaves of the
seedling, which, soon after its ap-
pearance above the soil, becomes
quite independent of the nourish-
ment hitherto supplied to it from

 

Fic. 35.—Illustration of growing

a or bean, with roots and el St
Fran stems cotyledons, va. the albumen or from the cotyledons

aicle, and plumuli ded. ‘
Ee eee of the seed, and is thenceforth
established as an independent individual plant (Fig. 35).
Water, to the extent of over 70 per cent., occurs in the
Plant Growth. 133

leaves and stems of most herbaceous plants. The other
constituents which go to feed the plant through the root are
taken up from solution in water, while the leaves feed on
gaseous food from the air, also dissolved in water, and taken in
through the stomata, or leaf-pores.

The essential elements of plant food are at least ten
in number—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus. Besides
these ten essential elements there are frequently found in
plants other elements, such as silicon, sodium,’ and chlorine ;
and, in rare instances, iodine, fluorine, and even copper,
silver, gold, arsenic, etc., have been found in the ashes of
plants.

Food is not taken in from the soil by the whole surface of
the root. Nourishment is absorbed by means of the hairs, or
fibrils, on the youngest rootlets, and the cells of the latest
developed parts of the root; and then only when in intimate
contact with the particles of the soil. This explains why
the process of transplanting plants is always more suc-
cessful in proportion as their rootlets are fresher and less
injured.

It is to the physical phenomena of osmosis that the cells of
the rootlets owe their power to absorb food from the soil.
There is a constant s/ow movement of water from cell to cell,
from the root towards the growing portions of the plant,
induced by osmosis and the material requirements of cell
growth; the latter, getting used up, leads to fresh’ supplies of

1 In some plants sodium seems to take the place, partially at least, of
potassium—the saét bush, the babze/, and seaweed, for example.
134 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

similar food material being induced to flow onwards in the
water-current. This explains the so-called selective power of
plant roots.

In sunlight the stomata of the leaves open and, under the
influence of heat, allow a more or less vapid evaporation of
water to take place from the leaves, which is known as
transpiration, The process of decomposition of carbon
dioxide by the chlorophyll cells under the influence of sun-
light, already mentioned, is what the Botanist calls assimila-
tion: it differs from the physiological assimilation of food
by animals.

The consumption of food by animals results in a process
of oxidation, while the assimilation of food by plants is a
process of reduction, or de-oxidation. Hence the balancing
action on the atmosphere produced by living animals and
plants.

The leaves provide for the important functions of respira-
tion, transpiration, and assimilation. The root provides for
the balance of operations of plant growth.

Omitting the lower forms of vegetation, as not coming
within the immediate cognizance of the agriculturist, it may be
said that every perfect plant consists of the following parts, viz.
root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit (including seeds): and each
of these parts is built up of numerous minute cells, or sacs,
containing a semi-fluid, glairy, vital substance (often termed the
physical basis of life), called protoplasm'—which is frequently

' Protoplasm contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with
sulphur and phosphorus in very minute proportions; it thus contains all
the organic elements of the plant. It is the germ of Jrotedd, or albumenoid,
matter.
Plant Growth. 135

associated with chlorophyll granules—each cell having .a
separate existence, and a multiplicity of such cells constituting
the whole individual plant. Thus a plant resembles a colony

 

Fic. 36.—Abutilon Ranadci, illustrating the architecture of the aerial parts of plants:
A, stem; B, leaf; C, leaf-stalk; X, stipules; E, flower; F, flower-stalk; G, H, I,
parts of flower, or seed-forming organs (stamens, pistil, etc.).

of coral zoophytes, though the plant cells are much more

differentiated—by which we mean that different cells fulfil

different functions in the architectural economy of the plant.
136 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The following definitions are taken mainly from the
“Indian Flora,” but with many omissions, additions, and
alterations.’ They will be found most convenient to students
desiring correct notions of the terms commonly employed in
structural botany. For further information on this subject,
a modern class-book, such as Longmans’ “ London Science

Class-book : Botany,” may be consulted.

DEFINITIONS.

1. “ The plant includes, in its botanical sense, every being
which has vegetable life, from the loftiest tree to the humblest
moss, and extends even further, to the mould or fungus which
attacks our provisions and the green scum which floats on our
ponds.” Putting aside these lower forms of vegetation, we
have to do only with flowering (or phanerogamous) plants,
which are divided into herbs, shrubs, and trees.

2. Herbs are those plants of which the whole or nearly the
whole dies down after flowering. Of these, azmuals are those
which spring up from seed, bloom, ripen their seed, and die
within twelve months. Biennials spring up and produce leaves
the first year, but do not produce flower or seed till the second,
and then die. erennials, springing up like the last in the
first year, produce neither flower nor fruit till the third year at
the earliest, and then live on for an uncertain period. Bien-
nials and perennials have a woody stock and root, which live

through one and several winters respectively.

' “ Flowering Plants of Western India” (Vairne).
Plant Classification. 137

3. Shrubs have a perennial woody portion, branching near
the base, which forms the greater part of the plant, from which
the flowering branches shoot out each year. Undershrubs are
smaller, and the flowering branches form a larger proportion of
the whole plant.

4. Trees, besides being larger than shrubs, have a distinct
woody trunk, scarcely branching from the base.

But zoe, that the same botanical species may be an annual
or perennial, a herbaceous perennial or an undershrub, an
undershrub or a shrub, a shrub or a tree, according to climate,
treatment, or variety.

s. Another classification of plants is into éerrestrial, aquatic,
or parasitical, according as they grow on earth—as by far the
greater part do—in water, or on other plants. piphytes are
distinguished from parasites by growing on the surface of other
plants without deriving sustenance from them.

6. Trees or shrubs are called deciduous when they get
and lose their leaves at a particular time of the year, ever-
green when they remain clothed with leaves throughout the
year.

7. The parts of plants which every one can recognize are
the root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit. But the varieties of
these, and the different parts of which they are made up, and
their forms, require a good deal of explanation.

Note,—Here should be noticed a very common error. On
asking for information about a tree or shrub, one is often told
“it has no flower,” or “it has no fruit;” the fact being that the
flower is inconspicuous, or the fruit does not appear under the
given circumstances, But every plant, except such low forms
138 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

as ferns, mosses, lichens, seaweeds, etc., has a flower of some
sort, and every plant, except those which are exclusively male
(the female plants of the same species being then found
separately), will under natural conditions produce fruit, or at
least seed; though there are many which, when removed
from their natural conditions, will not flower, and many more
which, under similar circumstances, flower, but will not
fruit.

8. I. THE Root.—Roots which consist chiefly of slender
fibres are called fidrous ; those which consist mainly of one
tapering root going straight down are called ¢ap roots: such
fleshy roots as carrots and turnips are looked on as modi-
fications of tap roots. Those which have the main root or
its branches thickened into one or more fleshy or woody
masses are called tuberous, as in the potato. Bulbs, which
are commonly looked on as roots, are really subterranean
buds growing on the lower part of the stem (sfock) of perennial
plants, and the real roots are the fibres at the bottom of
the bulb.

Roots are sometimes given off from the stems of climbers
or creepers, as in ivy, and more rarely from buds, which in
some plants are produced on the edges of the leaves; see
Bryophyllum. Aquatic plants sometimes bear vesicles or air-
bladders on their roots, just as tubers are borne on the roots
of terrestrial plants.

g. II. Tue Srem.—The stems of plants are mostly cylin-
drical (in ordinary language round), but sometimes angular or
flat. In the great majority of plants they are evec?, ie. growing
straight upwards without support. Of plants which are not
Plant Architecture. 139

erect, the stems sometimes climb by extending themselves over
the surface of trees, walls, or other supports, and sometimes
twine, by winding spirally round any object that they attach
themselves to. Creepers are those whose stems lie flat on the
ground, and put out roots at the joints. When the stems lie
flat without thus rooting they are called prostrate, and when
partially prostrate pzvcumbent, Plants which are erect, with a
tendency to climb, are sometimes called ascending, and the
same term is often applied to plants which first spread a little
horizontally and then become erect.

Those points of the stem at which branches or leaves are
given off are called modes, and the same term is applied to
similar points in the branches themselves.

10, When a plant has no proper stem, and the leaves are
therefore all radical (ze. from the root), the naked stalk which
bears the flowers, as in the primrose, the hyacinth, etc., is called
the scape.

zz. III. THe Lear.—The stalk of a leaf, when it has one,
is called the fetzo/e ; when it has none, the leaf is sessile. The
point where the leaf, whether petioled or sessile, leaves the stem
is called the axi/ of the leaf. This is, therefore, almost the
same as the node of the stem.

Sessile leaves are called stem-clasping when the base of the
leaf is closely attached to the stem, ferfo/iate when the bases of
two opposite leaves are so united that the stem seems to run
through them, as in the common honeysuckle.

12, The petiole may have appendages on it quite distinct
from the stem, as in the orange; these are called qwings. But
sometimes the lower part of the leaf, not shaped as a petiole,
140 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

runs down into the stem and forms a sort of wing on it; the
leaf is then called decurrent. When the lower part of the leaf
or the petiole expands into a sheath surrounding the stem, as
in many plants of the orders Scitaminee and Commelinacea, it is
called sheathing. When the petiole is attached, not to the base
of the leaf, but to its centre or some other part of the under-
surface, the leaf is called pe/tate, as in many species of the
order Menispermacea.

13. The continuation of the petiole running generally
through the middle of the leaf, and forming its backbone, so to
speak, is the midrib. The veins of leaves are either reticulated,
i.e. forming a network running in all directions, or parallel to
one another, and generally to the midrib. This is a distinction
of the first importance in classification. The main veins are
called nerves, and it is sometimes essential to describe leaves as
3-nerved, 5-nerved, etc. In fleshy leaves the nerves are often
scarcely clistinguishable.

14. Arrangement of Leaves with regard to the Stem.—When
most of the leaves of a plant are arranged about the root they
are called radical, those of the stem being then called cauline ;
when the leaves are in pairs all up the stem, one on each side
of it, they are opposite ; when they occur singly, taking each
side of the stem in turn, they are alternate; when each pair of
opposite leaves is at right angles to the next pair they are
decussate , when the leayes are arranged one above the other in
two opposite rows, one on each side of the stem or branch, they
are called distichous, or bifarious.! When three or more leaves

' A green branchlet, with leaves thus arranged, may sometimes be mis-
taken for a pinnate leaf.
Plant Architecture. I4I

surround the stem at one point they are called whorled, or
verticelled,

Note-—Opposite, alternate, or whorled leaves are respec-
tively characteristic of many orders, so that it is often essential
to notice the arrangement.

15. The Division of Leaves.—Leaves are either simple or
compound : sémpée, when all in one piece, even though they be
cut into Zobes or segments, as those of the vine, and of most of
the genus Aibiscus ; compound, when they are composed of two
or more pieces, looking each like a separate small leaf, as those
of gram or the wim tree: these divisions are called Laflets.
Simple leaves, which are oblong and deeply divided into
segments on each side of the midrib are pinnatifid. If the
terminal lobe of a pinnatifid leaf is much the largest it is called
lyrate ; those which are roundish and rather deeply divided
into segments towards the petiole are palmate, those divided
almost down to the petiole digitaze ,; if the lobes are narrow and
very irregular the leaf is /aciniate. Of compound leaves, those
which are composed of three separate leaflets are called /7i-
foliate ;* those with five or seven leaflets are expressed as
5Sohate or 7-folate.

16. A pinnate leaf is one composed of more than three
leaflets arranged on each side of the midrib, or common
petiole. If the number of leaflets be even, the leaf is said
to be evenly or abruptly pinnated; if uneven, unevenly or
unequally pinnated, In this case the odd leaflet is often called

the ferminal one.

11] retain this rather than the modern and more correct word ¢ri-
Solioliate.
142 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The divisions of pinnate leaves are themselves sometimes
pinnate, as in many of the Acacias. The leaf is then called
decompound, or bipinnate, or tripinnate, as the case may be; the
pinne are then the larger divisions of the leaf, the leaflets the
divisions of the pinnee.

Vote, that leaflets may have all, or nearly all, the character-
istics of simple leaves, z.c. they may be sessile or petioled,
opposite or alternate on the common petiole or midrib, and
may be very various in shape and the outline of their edges.

17. The Edges of Leaves——When the edge is even, and
without teeth or depressions of any sort, the leaf is entre ;
when it has small, sharp teeth, like a saw, it is serrade ; if the
teeth are rounded, it is crenate ; if deeply notched, dentate ; if
the edge is not toothed, but has broad and shallow depressions,
the leaf is sinuate ; if the depressions are shallower and less
marked, it is wavy, or undulate; if the leaf is fringed with hairs,
it is ciated. The above terms are also applied to petals,
sepals, bracts, etc. The term jectinated, implying that the
teeth are long and narrow, like a comb, is applied oftener to
these smaller organs than to leaves.

18. Zhe Shape of the Leaf—The number of terms used in
botany to express the different shapes of leaves is exceedingly
great, but the following will, it is thought, be sufficient in a
work of this sort.

The narrowest possible leaf, not tapering to either end, is
called Zinear, though, of course, every leaf must have some
breadth ; equally narrow, but tapering to a point, sudwlate, or
awl-shaped ; a narrow leaf, shaped like the head of a lance, is
lanceolate ; an egg-shaped leaf, 7.c. broader than lanceolate and
Plant Architecture. 143

broadest in the middle, is oval (ovate is used variously by
different authors, but may be taken as approaching oval, but
broader) ; e/liptic may be taken as something between oval and
lanceolate. When the upper end is decidedly the broadest the
leaf is obovate ; when the leaf does not broaden in the middle
it is ob/ong ; when it tapers sharply from the middle to the base
it is cuneate, or wedge-shaped ; spathulate (ladle-shaped) when
the top is broad, and the lower and narrow part long ; Aeart-
shaped, which explains itself, implies that the broad part is
nearest the petiole or stem ; cordaze is applied to a leaf of any
shape, if its base be like the broad part of a heart ; kidney-
shaped, or veniform, is roundish, broader than long, and
cordate ; falcate is curved, like the blade of a sickle. When
the lower part of the leaf is prolonged into two acute lobes,
it is called sagittate, or arrow-shaped ; when these lobes are
not acute, but rounded, and more or less ear-shaped, it is
auricled, When the two sides of a leaf are unequal, it is
called obfigue; this is often the case at the base of the leaf
only.

19. With regard to the end of the leaf, the terms used are
pointed ; acute when the point is sharp ; db/unt, or obtuse ; truncate
when the end is cut off more or less abruptly ; 7e¢wse when,
being blunt, it is also slightly indented. Leaves sometimes
end in spines, or bristles, or azzs, which are fine but stiff
hairs.

Note.—When two terms are combined, as linear-lanceolate,
oval-oblong, it is understood that the shape is something
between the two, and in such cases the leaves generally vary,
more or less, from one shape to the other.
144 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

20. The above terms apply not only to sepals, petals, bracts,
etc., but also to stipules, which are leaf-like appendages
(generally small) at the base of the petiole. Stie/s are the
stipules of leaflets.

Floral leaves are the small leaves which are often found
close to the flower, especially in spikes and racemes. They
are often scarcely distinguishable from bracts.

Note that “sub” is prefixed to adjectives of description
(sub-lanceolate, sub-acid, etc.) to modify them, and is equiva-
lent to “ more or less,” or “a little.”

21. IV. THE FLrower.—A perfect flower should have the
following parts present and capable of performing their
functions, viz. calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, The flower is
considered imperfect if any of these are absent or imperfect.
Each of these organs consists of several parts, which have their
technical names.

22. Calyx and Corolla.—tThe calyx (or cup, so called from
its usual shape) is the outer or protecting covering (or envelope),
generally green, which encloses the other parts of the flower
when in bud. The segments into which the calyx is generally
divided are called sepa/s, which are either quite distinct or more
or less united. The calyx very often falls off before the fruit
matures ; when it remains and is attached to the fruit it is
called persistent, The position of the calyx with regard to the
ovary will be mentioned under the latter organ.

23. The corolla is the inner or attractive covering or envelope,
and, being usually coloured and larger than the calyx, is that
which generally gives the flower its beauty, and is, in fact, in
common speech often called the flower. The divisions are
Plant Architecture. 145

called petals; and these may be all equal and symmetrical,
in which case the corolla is regz/ar, or unequal, in which
case it is ‘regular, For examples of extreme irregularity,
see orders Balsaminee and Orchidee. On the corolla being
all in one piece (monopetalous), or divided into several petals
(polypetalous), a good deal depends in the classification of
plants.

24. Of the monopetalous corolla, the lower part, which is
entirely united, is called the ¢wde, but this may be, and often is,
so short as to have nothing tubular in appearance. The upper
part of the corolla is then called the 4mé, and this is generally
divided into /obes or segments: in practice, these lobes, if
divided deeply, are often called, though not correctly,
petals.

A corolla is called ¢zbzdar when the whole or the greater
part of it is in the form of a tube or cylinder, as in either of
the Plumbagos ; bell-shaped (campanulate) when more or less in
the shape of a bell; salver-shaped when the lower part is
tubular and the lobes spread out horizontally, as in Vinca rosea
and the English periwinkles; fwnnel-shaped when the tube
broadens from the bottom and the lobes expand more or less
horizontally.

25. The commonest form of irregular monopetalous corolla
is two-lipped, or bilabiate, when the limb separates into two
parts, something in the way of a mouth with lips, as in the
various species of Antirrhinum and Salvia, In this case we
speak of the upper and lower Lif of the corolla, these lips being
generally lobed or toothed; .of the fa/aze, which is the part,

often raised and. not unfrequently spotted or hairy, just within
L
146 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

the lobes of the lower lip; and of the ¢hroat, which is the
entrance to the tube.

Note.—The term two-lipped is also applied to some poly-
petalous corollas, if arranged so as to give that appearance,
and also to the calyx of many plants.

A petal is said to be clawed when its lower part is suddenly
narrowed into what to some extent corresponds to the petiole
of a leaf, as in the genus Lagerstremia ; spurred when it is
produced downwards into a narrow cylinder or spws ; saccate
when expanded into a little bag or sac.

26. The arrangement of the petals in the unopened flower
(often apparent also after it is opened) is called the estivation,
and sometimes requires to be noticed. If the edges of the
different petals meet evenly, the estivation is said to be valuate ;
if the petals much overlap each other, it is z#bricated (this term
is also much used with reference to bracts); if the petals are
twisted together, it is ‘/zzsted. When four opened petals
are so shaped and arranged as to form a cross, they are called
cruciate,

27. In many flowers either the calyx or corolla is wanting ;
the single floral envelope that exists is then generally called
the perianth , its divisions are called sepals, as if it were the
calyx. In some cases (eg. orders Liliacee, Lridacea, etc.),
though there is both calyx and corolla, yet from their being
both coloured, and otherwise very much alike, the whole is
often called the perianth.

28. When there are six or more separate petals (whether
with or without calyx) they are sometimes so disposed as to
be in two or three different rows, one outside the other; they
Plant Architecture. 147

are then said to be in two or more series, or rows. This term
is applied also to sepals, bracts, etc. (see especially order
Composite). Flowers, as roses, etc., which, by cultivation or
otherwise, develop several rows of petals instead of stamens,
are called double.

29. Stamens and Pistil,—The stamens and pistil, being the
male and female organs of generation or reproduction, are
really the most important parts of the flower, and occupy the
centre of it, though they are by no means the most conspicuous
parts. The modern view is to look on the calyx and corolla
as meant mainly to protect these more important organs while
forming, and to promote reproduction by means of insects
when the stamens and pistil are mature.

A flower that has no pistil (or female organ) is called
a male flower ; one that has no stamens, @ female flower , the
great majority of flowers have both organs, and are therefore
called hermaphrodite. Sometimes the male and female flowers
are distinct, some being without pistil, others without stamens
(as in orders Menispermacee and Cucurbitacee). When the sexes
are thus distinct but on the same plant, the flowers are called
monecious ; when distinct but on different plants, diecious ;
when male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are all found
either on the same or different plants, they are called foly-
gamous.

30. Stamens, which vary from one to an indefinite number,
are always for the whole or a great part of their length inside
the corolla, but their attachment to corolla, calyx, or disk is a

1 On this subject the unscientific reader may be referred to the works
of Sir John Lubbock and Mr. Grant Allen.
148 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

matter of importance in classification. Stamens are said to be
Aypogynous when they are inserted below the ovary ; epigynous
when inserted upon the ovary; perigynous when, by being
attached to the calyx, they surround the ovary. The same
terms are sometimes applied to petals under similar cir-
cumstances,

31. The stamen consists of stalk, or f/ament,’ surmounted
by the anther, which is generally a round or oblong body.
When the filaments are absent the anthers are sessiée. The
anthers are generally divided into two cells, comparatively
seldom visible to the naked eye; these cells are sometimes
distant from one another, and are then joined by a connective
(as in Afelastoma). ‘The anthers are filled and covered with a
yellow dust, Aollen, which fertilizes the pistil. ‘The stamens
are said to be z#c/uded when more or less concealed in the
corolla tube, exserted when they protrude beyond the level of
the petals.

32. When several stamens are united either into a column
(as in Malvace) or into a tube (as in Mehacee), or more
loosely, they are called monadelphous, when in two columns
or parcels (as in many of the Leguminosae) diadelphous. When
there are four stamens in two pairs, one pair longer than the
other, they are called adidynamous, as in Labiate and other
orders; when there are six stamens, two pairs longer and one
pair shorter, as in Cruciferae, they are tetradynamous.

33- The pistiZ occupies the exact centre of the flower, and
though there is said to be never more than one, yet many

1 From /i/um, a thread, from which comes also the term j/iform, or
thread-like, applied to various very small and delicate parts of flowers.
Plant Architecture. 149

flowers, e.g. all the Ranunculaceae, have a number of carfpels
so slightly united as to appear to be so many distinct pistils,
and these separate carpels sometimes produce separate fruits,
eg. Saccopetalum. Some authors call the pistil simple when
it consists of a single carpel, compound when it consists of
more than one. In the first case the terms pistil and carpel
are synonymous.

34. The pistil when undivided consists of the ovary, the
lowest part, the s¢yZe, which corresponds to the filament in
a stamen, and the s¢igma, which corresponds to the anther.
Each carpel may be composed exactly as an undivided pistil,
and a single ovary may have more than one style, and a style
more than one stigma. In many cases the styles are wanting,
so that the stigma is sessz/e on the ovary; and very often the
stigmas are not, to the naked eye, distinguishable from the top
of the style. So also it is often difficult, for those who do
not use a microscope, to determine whether there is one
style with several branches or several distinct styles, and
whether one style has several stigmas or one stigma branched
or lobed.

35. The Alacenta is the part of the inside of the ovary to
which the ovw/es, which are the first germs of the future seeds,
are attached. In all works of scientific botany the nature of
the placenta and the position of the ovules are made much of,
but these, being mainly microscopical details, do not come
within the scope of this work.

The main parts of the perfect flower having been described,
some less important details have to be mentioned before the

fruit is considered.
150 The Foundations of Scientrfic Agriculture.

36. The stalk of the flower is called the pedicel; when a
number of flowers are aggregated the common stalk is called
the Aeduncle, each separate flower (unless sessile) having its
own pedicel. The extremity of the pedicel on which the
corolla and ovary (and sometimes the stamens) are inserted,
is called the receptacle, thalamus, or torus. It is often not
sufficiently enlarged to be readily noticed. The disk is a more
or less circular enlargement of the receptacle, and may be
entire, cut, or divided. It is always inside the calyx. When
the parts of the disk are quite separate they are often called
glands. In many of the orders of division Discifiore, the
disk is very conspicuous, but in very many plants it is either
absent or minute.

37. Bracts are leaf-like appendages to the flower, much as
stipules are to leaves; they very often resemble the sepals in
size and shape. Their most usual position is at the base of
the flower, but sometimes they are on the pedicel or the main
stem. There are sometimes larger bracts at the base of the
pedicel, and smaller ones at the base of the flower ; these latter
are then called d7acteoles. When a number of bracts are united
in a whorl they are called an zvvolucre, a number of bracteoles
similarly united an involucel (as in orders Malvacee, Umbel-
lifere, and Acanthac-@). Bracts or other parts of the flower
when from the first dry and withered looking are called
Scarious.

38. The way in which the separate flowers are arranged is
called the inflorescence of the plant. If the flowers occur one

' When a flower is solitary its stalk is often called peduncle or pedicel
indifferently,
Plant Architecture. 151

by one, they are said to be sv&fary ; if two together, ‘win, A
number of sessile flowers arranged round a stem or branch is
called a whorl (as in order Zabiate) ; collected into a round or
oval cluster, a ead ; arranged on or round one main peduncle
one above the other, a sfzke.

39. A number of stalked flowers arranged on or round a
main peduncle one above the other is a raceme ; arranged on a
branched peduncle, a panicle. A panicle is dichotomous when
each branch forks into two, and the same forking occurs again
and again ; “zchotomous when each branch forking into three.
When several branches or pedicels of the same length start
from the same point of the peduncle (radiating like the ribs
of an umbrella), the inflorescence is an wmbel (as in order
Umbellifere). The terms cyme and corymd are less definite than
the above, and are used when the inflorescence is not exactly
that of any of them, the flowers being all more or less level at
the top. The corymb is considered to be a modification of the
raceme, the cyme of the panicle. A /ascicle may perhaps be
best described as an imperfect whorl of stalked flowers. An
ament, or catkin, is the spike of imperfect flowers character-
istic of the old order Amentacee. A spadix is a fleshy spike,
containing flowers only in the lower part, and enclosed in a
large bract called a spathe ; this arrangement is characteristic
of Aroidee, and two or three allied orders.

40. When the flowers, whatever the inflorescence may be,
proceed from the axils of the leaves, they are said to be
axillary ; when occurring only at the top of the stem or
branches, derminal,

4x. Any part of a flower that quickly falls off is called
152 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

deciduous ; any part that is united to another part, as the calyx
often is to the ovary, is called adzate to it; connate is used in
much the same sense.

42. V. THE Fruir.'—The enlarged ovary is, generally
speaking, the fruit of the plant; in many cases, however, the
ovary is so altered in shape, or by the adhesion to it of the
calyx or other parts, that it can only be called the foundation
or first form of the fruit. Generally speaking, a single perfect
or female flower produces a single fruit; but where the ovary
has several distinct carpels, distinct fruits are often found. On
the other hand, where a number of flowers grow on a common
receptacle, a single fruit sometimes results, as in the pine-
apple, which is made up of the ovaries and floral envelopes of
several flowers combined, and Morinda citrifolia, the fruit of
which is composed of many drupes coalescent into a fleshy
round head like an apple.

43. Any part of the flower which remains and forms part
of the fruit (as the calyx or part of it, or the style often does),
is called persistent. Fruits are called sacculent when they are
fleshy or juicy; ¢-y when they have neither flesh, pulp, nor
juice ; dehiscent when they open naturally to let out the seeds ;
indehiscent when they do not so open. In the last case the
seeds are liberated by the rotting of the fruit, or by passing
through the birds which eat the fruit.

44. The principal dehiscent fruits are the following: The
capsule, a general name for a dry fruit; it most often splits
into valves, but sometimes breaks up irregularly, sometimes

' The limitation of the word ‘‘fruit” to eatable products is not
recognized botanically, every plant as a rule having its own fruit.
Plant Architecture. 153

opens like a lid from a box, when it is called circumsciss , the
legume, or pod, having two valves, with the seeds attached to a
placenta on one side (as in order Leguminosae) ;1 the siligue,
which opens by two longitudinal slits, forming two valves,
separating from a central frame, to which the seeds adhere
(as in order Cruciferae) ; the follicle, also two-valved, but opening
by one longitudinal slit only, and with the seeds variously
distributed (as in orders Apocynee and Asclepiadee). A solitary
follicle seldom occurs, two or more generally forming one fruit.
When a fruit is made up of two or three united one-seeded
carpels, which finally separate, these are called cocci (as in
order Euphorbiacee), A capsule, or other fruit, having two
equal rounded lobes is called didymous.

45. The principal indehiscent fruits are the Jerry, a fleshy
fruit with many seeds, as the guava; the drufe, a fleshy fruit
with one seed, as the mango and peach;? the wz, a hard and
dry shell, containing a single seed—the name achene is generally
given to the same when the fruit is small and seed-like ; the
Samara, a thin nut with an extensive wing.

46. The parts of the drupe called botanically epzcarp, meso-
carp, and endocarp, are in most cases commonly known as skin,
flesh, and stone, the latter enclosing the kernel or seed. FPericarp
is used of the whole of the fruit outside of the seed or seeds.

' Although the fruit of all leguminous plants are called legumes, there
are some genera in which it is indehiscent, and others in which it separates
into one-seeded joints (gen. Pongamiéa and Desmodium).

? Hooker does not entirely keep to this distinction between the berry
and the drupe, but sometimes calls a fruit a berry-like drupe, considering
any fruit to be a drupe if the seed or seeds are enclosed in a stone or other
covering, a berry if the seeds are not so enclosed.
154 The foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

When the endocarp consists of several distinct stones
or nuts these are called pyrenes. In some cases, as in
orders Boraginee and Labiate, these look like naked
seeds. :

47. The base of the seed, by which it is attached to the
placenta, is called the Az/m, the opposite extremity the pornt
or apex, that part which becomes the root of the new plant is
the vadicle, which in order RAizophoree (mangroves) is very
remarkably developed. The seed is sometimes more or less
covered by a skin, or avi/, which, being coloured, is often very
conspicuous.

48. In a few orders, e.g. Conifer, the seeds are not en-
closed in a fruit, but are naked; these orders are, therefore,
called gymnospermous.

49. Before finishing with the fruit, it may be said that
beginners often find it difficult to say under what designation a
particular fruit should come. The walnut is a drupe, the
eatable part being an unusually large lobed seed, the shell
being a two-valved endocarp, and the green fibrous outer cover-
ing epicarp and mesocarp, which, being united, Hooker in
this case calls exocarp. In the cocoa-nut, which is also called
a drupe, the green fibrous covering is epicarp, the hard shell
the endocarp, the eatable pulp the albumen, in which the
embryo of the seed is embedded at the base of the fruit. The
orange is a berry divided into a number of cells, the walls (or
dissepiments) of which are membranous. The banana, or
plantain, is a succulent, indehiscent, many-seeded fruit—properly
speaking, a berry. The name fome is given to the apple,
pear, etc., in which the fleshy, eatable part is the swollen
Plant Architecture, 155

peduncle,’ while the scaly cells, or core, enclosing the seeds
are the endocarp. The acorn is a nut with a leathery shell,
which the seed completely fills; the cup is not part of the
fruit, but is formed by the union of many hardened bracts or
floral leaves.

50. The following minor parts of plants require to be men-
tioned : Zendrils are either abortive petioles or peduncles, or
else the ends of branches or of midribs of leaves, which by
holding on to and coiling round any object within reach help
to support the plant. Thorns, or spines, and prickles are
produced on many parts of plants, sometimes on almost all
parts of the same plant. “ In all rocky and parched situations
plants become more spiny, the free development of foliage
being checked.”* The term armed is frequently applied to
plants which have either thorns or prickles.

51. The distinction between rough and smooth leaves or
plants is apparent to every one, but many terms have been
found necessary to describe the various sorts of hairs which
clothe the leaves and other parts, and their density. The
term glabrous is used to describe a plant, or part of it,
that is free from hairs, smooth implying freedom from
roughness of surface of every sort; zbescent implies a
slight downiness, The terms /wrrowed, wrinkled, ribbed,
warty, which describe variations from perfect smoothness,
explain themselves.

52. The surface of a leaf or other organ is g/avcous when it
is of a pale bluish-green, often with a fine bloom; glandular,

1 This is the description in Hooker’s ‘‘ Primer ;” other authors describe

the formation of the pome differently.
? Hooker.
156 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

when more or less covered with g/ands, which are small, fleshy,
watery, or oily bodies, sometimes mere dots. Viscid, viscous,
or gtutinous are the terms used when a surface is covered with
asticky or clammy exudation ; papil/e are minute protuberances,

often only visible as dots.
t

CHAPTER IX.
CROPS.
Their Nature and Varieties.

Crops are the produce of the soil, or the plants which are
gathered from the land (from carpo, “I gather”).

In Europe the agricultural seasons, in order, are winter,
spring, summer, autumn. There winter comes first, as being
the time when begins the ploughing and otherwise preparing
the land for the seed-sowing period of spring, the growing
period of summer, and the harvesting period of autumn. In
India there are practically only three seasons: the hot season,

the rainy season, and the cold season :—

Hot Season. Rainy Season. Cold Season.
March. June. November.
April. July. December.
May. August. January.

September. February.
October.

The hot season is usually chosen as the period of prepara-
tion for the crops of the two following periods—though it is a
pity to see so much labour spent on turning up a soil which
could be more easily ploughed at the termination of the harvest.

‘The two cropping seasons are known in India as the kharif
and the 7a@ji—the former the rainy season, and the latter the
cold season. The coarser kinds of crops are grown as the
kharif, or rain crop; the more delicate and valuable kinds

being rabi, or cold, season crop.
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164 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The following plants, which are cultivated chiefly for
medicinal or commercial purposes, might be advantageously
added to the list of Indian crops. The Deccan hills, which
afford excellent samples of the best European climates, might
be more largely availed of for crops of this kind.

Remarks as to habitat or usual place
Names. of cultivation.
Aconite (Aconitum jferax, A. Himalaya, from 10,000 feet upwards.
Napellus)

Aloes (Alve vulvaris, A. Indica) Grows from sea-level to 5000 feet in
dry sandy soil.

Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum) Cultivated widely in Northern India.

Arnica (4. Montana) Native of the cold parts of Europe

(in meadows).
Wormwood (Artemisia santonica) Native of the Caucasus ; not intro-
: duced to India,

Asafoetida (Narthex asafetida) Afghanistan and Persia (high alti-
tudes).

Male fern (Aspidium filix-mas) Temperate climates (Mahableshwar).

Belladonna (A¢ropa belladonna) Temperate Europe ; the Indian hills.

Bhang (Caznabis Indica), Indian Cultivated in parts of India,
hemp

Camphor (Camphora officinarum) China, Japan, and Ceylon (hills).

Caoutchouc (Ficus elastica) Peru, Burmah; this gum is also
obtained from other plants.

Capsicum (C. fastigiatum) India (commonly cultivated).

Cardamom (Amomum aromatica) India, Ceylon, Canara,

Caraway (Carum caruz) Cultivated in England ; Indian hills.

Coffee (Coffea Arabica) Arabia and Indian hills.

Ipecac (Cephelis ipecacuanha) S. America ; has been tried in India.

Chiretta (Ophelia chiretta) Temperate Himalaya.

Cinchona (C. szucctrubra, etc.) Cultivated in Southern and Northern
India (hills) ; also near Panchgani.

Cocaine (Zrythroxylon coca) Malayan Archipelago ; cultivated in
S. India.

Colchicum (C. aztumnale) S. Europe.

Hemlock (Conzum maculatum) Temperate Europe.

Coriander (Cortandrum sativum) S. Europe ; cultivated in India.
Crops.

Names.

Croton seeds (C. Zzgdinm)

Dhatura (Datura Stramonium)

Stavesacre (Delphinium Staphysa-
gria)

Digitalis (D. purpurea)

Eucalyptus (2. amygdalinus, E.
globulus)

Fennel (Fendculum dulce)

Gentian (Gextiana lutea)

Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra)

Linseed (Linum usttatissimum)

Hellebore (Hel/eborus niger)

Hops (Humulus lupulus)

Hyoscyamus (7. JViger)

Podophyllin (Podophyllum pelta-
tun)

Nux vomica (Strychnos nux vomica)

Oats (Avena sativa)

(Opium (Papaver somniferunt)

{ Poppy (Papaver Rheas)

Calabar bean (Physostigma Vene-
nosunt)

Allspice (Eugenia pimenta)

Buckthorn (Rhanus Catharticus)

Rhubarb (Rheum)

Pallas papra (Butea frondosa)

Quince (Cydonia vulgaris)

Colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis)

Yellow oleander (Cerbera Thevatia)
Wrightia Antidysenterica
Tylophora Asthmatica (native ipecac)
Indian Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus
LIndicus)
Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara)
Deccamali (Gardenia gummifera)
Peppermint (Mentha pipzrita)

165

Remarks as to habitat or usual place
of cultivation.

S. India.
S. Europe and India (wild).
S. Europe.

Great Britain and Ireland.

Native of Australia ;
climates in India.

Europe.

Switzerland (Europe).

S. Europe ; cultivated in England.

N. Europe ; Ireland for flax, fibre,
etc.

Cultivated in British Isles and S.
Europe.

Europe, Cashmere, and Australia.

S. and Mid. Europe.

North America.

temperate

Indigenous in Konkan.

N. Europe, N. India, and hills.
Cultivated in N. India.

Wild in Europe.

Africa ; not introduced to India,

W. Indies, Jamaica.

Europe.

Himalaya ; cultivated in Europe.

Konkan, and in ghauts of India.

S. Europe, British Isles.

Deccan plains, sea-shore,
district.

Gardens throughout India.

Western ghauts (common).

Dhawar Collectorate (Deccan).

Throughout W. India (in plains).

Surat

British Isles.

Deccan plains.

Cultivated in Europe, also Indian
hills.
166 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Remarks as to habitat or usual place

Names. of cultivation.

Pepper (Piper nigrum) Malabar coast, hills.
Tomato (Lycopersicum Esculentum) Native of South America; all varie-
ties attain perfection in India, both
Etc. in the plains and the hills.

As a knowledge of the best paying crops to grow in any
particular locality can be more satisfactorily learnt from
practical experience than through any book descriptions
thereof, the author has, advisedly, contented himself in the
present volume with a mere outline of the characteristics of
the more common Indian crops, with suggestions for additions
thereto. The keen observer will often be able to judge the
nature of the soil by noting the natural herbage which
flourishes thereon.

THE VISIBLE WHEAT CROP OF THE WORLD FOR 1896-7.

Quarters,1 Quarters.!
Austria-Hungary ... 21,838,000 | Algeria sis ss 2,600,000
Belgium a + 2,500,000 | Argentina... .-. 3,600,000
Bulgariaand Roumelia 6,500,000 | Australasia ... ... 2,850,000
Denmark... ae 500,000 | Canada wet .. 4,825,000
France ie se. 42,500,000 | Chili ss ... 1,500,000
Germany... _...._: 13,000,000 | Egypt i ... 1,000,000
Greece oon aa 750,000 | India ca ... 22,216,000
Holland ae is 750,000 | Mexico ae ... 1,000,000
Italy ... ene :+» 16,850,000 | Persia... ... 2,500,000
Portugal oi a 700,000 | South Africa .. 23 550,000
Roumania ... ..» 8,627,000 | Tunis . oe 750,000
Russian Sous «+ 48,555,000 Turkey i in Asia vs 5,000,000
Servia.. i «+ 1,774,000 | United States ... 56,250,000
Spain . 10,500,000 | Uruguay... sc 800,000
Baedch ‘and Norway 600,000
Switzerland ... a8 600,000
Turkey in Europe ... 5,000,000 a
United Kingdom... 7,290,000 Total outside Europe 105,441,000
Total Europe __... 188,734,000 The World ses 294,175,000

 

 

1 The quarter contains 8 bushels, or 64 gallons.
CHAPTER X.
MANURES FOR THE SOIL AND CROPS.

WHEN the whole or the larger portion of any crop is removed
from the soil in which it grew, that soil naturally suffers loss of
the materials necessary for the growth of similar crops or of
crops requiring similar kinds of plant food. Hence, to keep a
soil in good condition for the continuous growth of crops which
are sold off the land, skilful management (manceuvring) on the
part of the farmer becomes necessary for the purpose of making
good the losses consequent on annual cropping or, it may be,
for supplementing the natural deficiencies of plant food in poor
soil.

Manure (from the French maneuvrer, to work with the
hand) therefore signifies any substance applied—originally by
the hand, though now more frequently by machinery—to the
soil for the purpose of maintaining its fertility or enriching it
with matter capable of yielding nutriment to plants; and /and
ren¢ may justly be defined as the money compensation paid to
the owner for the right to annually remove from the land
a portion of its fertilizing matter in the shape of crops.

If, however, such a process be long continued, there comes
a time when the soil becomes so exhausted of the necessary
plant food as to cease to yield satisfactory crops.

Restoration of fertility may then be accomplished by a
168 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

complete system of manuring, though in good practice it would
be mistaken economy to allow a farm to become played out
from want of timely manuring ; and, indeed, all soils are bene-
fited. by the seasonable and skilful application of manures.

The chemist, basing his knowledge on the composition of
the crops and of the soils on which they are raised, is usually
(if he also possesses some practical knowledge of farming) in the
best position, from a scientific standpoint, to advise what kind of
manure would be the most suitable for any specified crop to be
raised on a known soil. But, owing to the expense of chemical
education, and the great fertility of the already occupied natural
soils, it is difficult for those not brought up to the cultivation of
land to enter the arena of competition in farm produce. The
possessor of scientific training and capital combined would,
however, have an enormous advantage (on equal terms) over
the mere tiller of the soil. Economic manuring, which aims at
the production of increased crops without deteriorating the soil,
must hence become an important study for those intending to
take up agriculture as a profession.

Manures are practically divisible into two classes : (1) natural
and (2) artificial; and these again are separable into general
manures and special manures. Farmyard manure (the rotted
dung of farm animals) is the most common example of a
general manure, for it contains all the ingredients necessary for
ordinary farm crops ; while artificial manures are usually special
manures, being made by chemists for supplying special in-
gredients to certain crops or for forcing and hastening the
growth of plants. However, owing to their greater solubility,

the effects of special manures are not very lasting.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 169

The general manures, on the contrary, not only benefit a
single growing crop, but their effects are continued to the crops
for several years—they are, in fact, more lasting in the soil.

The excessive use of special manures, largely manufactured
by chemists, to the exclusion of farmyard or the more general
manure, has, it is said, a tendency to produce ultimate exhaustion
of the soil.

Chemical manures when not of themselves sufficiently
general in nature, should be supplemented with either a good
general manure, as farmyard, or an artificially prepared manure
of a general and generous type.!. The artificial manure manu-
facturer has 7ow to exercise considerable skill in turning out
mixtures such as will produce the effects of a general and
special manure combined. And thus, though giving the willing
soil a whip with special manure, owing to his power of pro-
viding a share of the general type also, the farmer can avoid
producing conditions for exhaustion of the soil, which was very
much the case in the early days of chemical manure treatment.
With the increased applications of chemistry and geology to
agricultural practice, farming stands a good chance of being
reinstated as the first profession in the land.?

Manures, besides increasing the stock of plant food in the

soil, have frequently an important physical action—as, for

1 Artificial manures can be both general and special.

2 There is no profession which can compare with agriculture in the
variety of interesting subjects which, more or less, may be brought to bear
on its development. Physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, botany,
entomology, mensuration, surveying, and veterinary science all lend their
quota to the enlightened practitioner of this art. And the country that
encourages the development of scientific agriculture may indeed be called
‘enlizhtened in a true sense.
170 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

example, the pulverizing effect of the decaying grass and straw
of farmyard dung on a clayey soil, or the breaking up of the
natural silicates of a soil by liming or marling.

Classification of Manures.—Experience in the growth of
farm and garden produce and the chemical analyses of crops
have shown that the most desirable ingredients in a general
manure are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and magnesia
—iron and other elements of plant food being superabundant in
all fertile soils—and such ingredients occur in all general

manures.
General Manures.

Farmyard manure.

Compost (animal and plant refuse, with road scrapings, etc.).

Sewage.

Town sweepings.

Brewers’ and tanners’ refuse.

Seaweed.

Green crops.

Oil cakes.

Leaves, straw, sawdust, and peat (used chiefly for litter).

Some crops, owing to their requiring a larger proportion of
a given ingredient than what is usually present in a general
manure, will be benefited by the application of a special
manure containing the specially needed ingredient in sufficient
quantity ; hence the need for special manures to supplement
those of a more general type.

It must, however, be borne in mind that it is the constituent
which is present in the soil in JZeas¢ relative proportion that
must be added in a special manure, so as to produce the most

economic result.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 171

This principle is what Liebig called the “law of minimum.”
Here we again see the value of chemical analysis for testing a

soil as to its urgent requirements for specialized crops.

Special Manures.

Animal remains (as flesh, blood, woollen refuse,
guano.
Nitrogenous, Nitrates (soda and potash nitrates).
Ammonium salts (sulphates, chlorides, carbonates,
etc.).

; Mineral phosphates.

Bhoghate | Bone phosphates.
Phosphatic guano.
Basic cinder, etc.
Saline deposits (as kainite, etc.).

Potassic | Ashes of plants.

Residues of saline waters.

Lime, chalk, marl.

Limestones (pure and magnesian).

Sea-shells.
Shelly sand, etc.

Gypsum.

Calcareous

 

Farmyard manure is made in the homestead by conserving
the excreta of the farm animals, generally mixed with the straw,
or litter, used for bedding cattle. The solid and liquid excreta
are both gathered with the litter into heaps called dunghills, in
which the mixture is allowed to ferment and become well
rotted before being used in the fields.

Various methods are adopted for preventing the loss of

ammonia salts from the dung while being stored, as its great
172 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

fertilizing power largely depends on the presence of am-
moniacal ulmates, humates, and carbonates.

The composition will vary with the kind of animals, the
quality of the food they consume, the nature of the litter used
to absorb the liquid excreta, as well as the ages of the animals
contributing to the dunghill. Cows and pigs usually yield a
more watery class of manure than sheep or horses. Working
animals yield a dung inferior to that voided by those enjoying
leisure ; and, similarly, the sewage from well-fed townspeople
is richer in fertilizing matter than that obtained from a more
poorly fed community.

The street washings of crowded towns, if only they could be
secured for country use, would also prove to be as valuable as
liquid sewage for manure ; and likewise the liquids draining from
dunghills should be preserved for the garden or absorbed with
dry earth for farm use. The selection of a site for a pit for the
manufacture of good farmyard manure will need a certain
amount of skill in sanitary science. The box-stall system with
pit under the floor, though it cannot be recommended on
solely sanitary grounds, is now largely praised by the class of
economic farmers which, owing to the enlightened training of
modern times, is gradually replacing throughout Greater Britain
the old-fashioned rule-of-thumb cultivator of the soil.

Here in India, however, farmyard manure is a very unsatis-
factory commodity for storing, for not only does its stench
travel far and wide, but the excessive fermentation induced by
the prevailing high temperature necessarily causes very great
loss of its nitrogen through its being converted into carbonate

of ammonia, a most volatile substance, as any one who has ever
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 173

used smelling salts will admit ; and besides, the heavy rainfalls
tend to rob it of its soluble constituents. “ Better live near a
graveyard than a dunghill” is an apropos truism for this
latitude !

The Indian method of storing cattle-dung (when it is stored
at all and not burnt) without litter has much to recommend it,
for the earthy salts of the decaying litter have a tendency to
form difficultly soluble black carbonaceous compounds with the
products of the ammoniacal fermentation, thus rendering the
resulting manure less rapid in its effects. This is perhaps one
of the causes why farmyard manure “made in England” is
found to be so /asting in the soil.

There can be little doubt that animal manures, especially
the liquid portions, being capable of direct assimilation, are
more effective when applied directly to the soil than when
previously fermented with litter. Better that the fermentation
should take place within the soil itself, where the ferment
bacteria can propagate without loss to the atmosphere.

Hence the system of feeding farm animals or homestead
cattle on ploughed land is probably the best mode of applying
farmyard dung to the Indian soil,’ care being taken to provide for
its uniform distribution by penning in the animals successively
over equal areas for equal times, and finally stirring up the soil
with the plough or harrow.

The mixing of cow-dung and poudrette with irrigation
water to stimulate the growth of crops is also a highly com-

mendable process of applying manure not unknown to the

1 This method of manuring is not unknown to the Indian ryot in some
parts of the country, where wandering shepherds are invited to fold their
sheep on farms while resting for the night,
174. The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

sugar-cane growers around Poona and Cawnpore, where
unsuccessful attempts have, recently, been made to crystallize
sugar for the European markets.

With British capital pouring into India for all sorts of
purposes, let us hope that some of it may soon be diverted
into agrestic and bucolic channels, where it might not only
put an end to the embarrassments connected with home
charges, but also make fair to realize the happy vision of
Coleridge, to which Ceylon, with its smiling tea and coffee
plantations, makes the nearest approach in the East—

‘* And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills,
Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree ;

And there were forests ancient as the hills,
Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.”

The average composition of European farm animals’ excre-

ments may be taken, on the authority of Sir C. Cameron, to be
as follows :—

PER 1000 PARTS OF EACH EXCREMENT.

 

 

 

 

Cow-' Horse. Sheep. Pig.
S/2/e1/21/28 |2)2 | =
° ot ; az o ee o Zz
n 4 a 4 2 4 2 4
Water ... ... | 860 | 915 | 750 | 900 | 640 | 950 | 760 | 976
Solid matter (a) + | 140 | 85 | 250 | 100 | 360] 50] 240] 24
(a) Containing—
Nitrogen ... 36| 9 | 6 I 6 8 | 7 3
Phosphoric acid .. 3 —\}4 _ 5 —|5 1'2
Potash and soda... | 2°2 | 16 | 3°5 |] 14 3 8 65 | 2

 

 

 

 

 

? Owing to a drier climate and less succulent food, the Indian buffalo

yields a manure somewhat richer in nitrogen than that voided by the
European cow or ox.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 175

The same quantity of seed-corn grown with equal quantities
of the different excrements of the cow, horse, sheep, and pig,
gave relative results as follows :—

Cow-dung... ses ace si v 160
Horse-dung ... ait a se wee “220
Sheep-dung ... eee se we we 240
Pig-dung woe oe cits ae awa 236

Thus showing sheep-dung, which contains the largest pro-
portion of solid matter, to hold the first place among ordinary
farm animal manures; though pigeon and fowl droppings
(containing the solid and liquid excrements combined) are
much richer as nitrogenous fertilizers than the dung of farm
cattle—but as they are obtainable only in small quantities, they
are usually reserved for the culture of flowers. When avail-
able, it is good practice to mix such droppings with the ordinary
farmyard manure, thereby increasing its richness in nitrogenous
organic matter. A favourite mode of using fowl droppings is
by mulching them with water and using the water as a liquid
dressing for growing vegetables.

The Zier used in making farmyard manure—leaves, moss,
bracken-fern, straw, peat, sawdust, etc.—will usually contain
from 5 to 7 parts nitrogen, 10 to 15 potash, and 3 to 5
phosphoric acid per thousand of litter.

In the Colonies the ear only of the wheat is gathered, while
the straw is burnt on the soil where it grew, a process which
has the merit of restoring to the soil a large portion of the
fertilizing matter extracted by the crop.

For a more elaborate account of farmyard manure, special

works on agricultural chemistry and the chemistry of manures
176 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

should be consulted. The author of this outline will feel
sufficiently rewarded if what he has written on the subject has
the effect of inducing the would-be farmer or earnest student
to dig deeper into this mine of wealth.

In olden times the farmer’s cry was almost invariably for
grass first, then cattle, and after that grain crops, on the
assumption that the only manure was cattle-dung. In modern
times, however, chemists have shown that good general manures
can be manufactured without the necessity of keeping a herd
of cattle ; in fact, an artificial manure can be made so as to
supply all the needs of a general manure.

But before having recourse to artificial manures, the farmer
can now, generally, secure town sewage and street-sweepings,
muck, or compost of his own collection from the animal and
vegetable refuse of his farm, or from brewers’ and tanners’
waste, mixed with peat, earth, and road-scrapings, seaweed
and fish (if mear the sea-coast), etc.; and he can always
grow green crops, as mustard, rape, sainfoin, hemp, clover, or
lucerne, etc., or even weeds for ploughing into the soil, there
to decay and act the part of manure; oil cakes of sorts are
also abundant in the markets, both for the supply of cattle
food and as manure; and as all of these yield nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, potash (and soda), in varying proportions,
they are all classed as general manures. The most popular
of this class of manures are the oil cakes of commerce, such as
linseed cake, rape cake, cotton-seed cake, and earth-nut cake,
etc., the better qualities of such cakes being reserved as

fattening foods for cattle and sheep.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. Ly

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SOME OIL CAKES LARGELY USED
FOR FooD AND MANURE,

 

 

Linseed Rape-seed Cotton-seed
cake. cake. cake.
Water ... g sie sie 9 10 10
Albumenoid matter iets 27 30 33
Carbohydrate (starchy matter) 33 32 28
Fatty matter Kole) site II 10 9
Fibre ... ths atsis 9 10 13
Ash... sa sis ins 7 8 6

 

 

 

Thus cotton-seed cake seems to be the richest in nitro-
genous matter of these three. Of course it is the nitrogenous
albumenoid matter! that chiefly determines the value of cakes
for manurial purposes, but for feeding cattle for the market
the oils are the valuable ingredients. Large purchasers of
oil cakes would, therefore, do well to procure a chemist’s
opinion as to their market value for the different farm purposes.

The Indian oil cakes are found to be excellent general
manures for potatoes and sugar-cane. Castor cake is also
largely used in India as a manure, but earth-nut cake has a
still higher reputation for manurial purposes, being superior,
in fact, to all the other cakes in ordinary use. This cake
contains from 6 to 7 per cent. of nitrogen, while 5 per cent.
is seldom afforded by other cakes; and many of them fall
considerably below this figure in their proportion of nitrogen.

Green manuring, which means the ploughing in of growing
crops, has a very similar effect to that of cattle-dung, for which

1 The nitrate bacterium present in most soils will convert the albumi-
noids into nitrates. A process of innoculating soils with a soil solution of
bacteria germs (#z¢vagin) has recently been proposed, but with what success
remains to be proved.

N
178 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

it makes a good substitute on stockless farms; and when it is
remembered that cattle feed on green crops, what wonder that
it should be so? Seaweed is chiefly valuable for those adjacent
to sea-coasts for potatoes, asparagus, and cabbages, etc.

Owing to the peculiar system of conservancy obtainable in
India, ows sewage can only be used in the dried state—that is,
in the form of Joudrette, which is now manufactured in many
large centres like Cawnpore and Lucknow; also at Poona,
where its manufacture was first begun by Brahmins, who were
influenced by the chemical instruction they received at the
local college of science.

Advantage is taken of the deodorizing effect of the
dried earth’ (dust) and ashes obtained from town sweepings ;
it is prepared on beds of hard subsoil (or moorum), about
18’ x 15' xX 1’.. On each bed is spread a layer of ashes about
an inch in depth, over which a layer of semi-liquid night-soil is
poured to the depth of four or five inches, which is then covered
with a layer of freshly burnt ashes one inch in depth, and after
standing from one to three days, according to the weather, is
mixed up with wooden rakes ; and, after being again covered an
inch deep with ashes, it is allowed to dry for about a week,
sometimes even less, when it is removed to a neighbouring heap
or pit to lie by—it should be—for about a year, but, owing to
the excessive demand for it for sugar-cane cultivation, it is often
sold before even the stench has disappeared !

The shallow beds are used for a repetition of the process on
the removal of each charge to the store-pit.

When carefully prepared it is quite free from smell, and is
freely handled by high-caste Hindus. In England liquid night-
Manures for the Soil and Crops 179

soil is often deodorized in tanks, and the sludge precipitated by
various chemical processes,’ and then moulded into brick-shaped
blocks for sale to farmers and market gardeners. In many
places diluted liquid sewage from sewage pipes is employed for
irrigating meadows and grazing lands ; but the great obstacle to
the extension of sewage farms is the difficulty of getting sufficient
land for the purpose in the neighbourhood of large towns, as,
if the same piece of land were continually employed to use
up the sewage, its pores would become clogged with sludge, and
the deodorization of the sewage would consequently cease.

The water-carried sewage of towns is very poor in fertilizing
matters, seldom containing more than five or six ounces of
suspended solid matter per ton of liquid. If the urea could
only be economically separated from it, some hope for obtaining
a transportable manure therefrom might be indulged in. At
present the greater part of town sewage is allowed to run to
waste, polluting rivers and the foreshores of harbours, the latter
being the case at present about Bombay.

Special Manures—As already mentioned, special manures.
are conveniently classed in four large groups—nitrogenous,.
phosphatic, potassic, and calcareous. Some of them, however,.
are capable of holding places in more than one group. One,.
for example, may contain both nitrogen and potash (as potassic:
nitrate), another phosphoric acid and nitrogen (as guano), while:
a third may have abundance of lime with phosphoric acid (as-
the various preparations of bone and mineral phosphates).

1 One of these processes is known as the ‘‘ A.B.C.,” viz. the initials:
of the names of the ingredients (alum, blood, charcoal) to be added to-
cause its solids to separate as a precipitate. The charcoal deodorizes, the
blood supplies albumin, which the alum precipitates, and the precipitate in-
falling collects all the suspended matters in the sewage.
180 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

In order to do without homestead manure altogether liberal
mixtures of special manures are necessary, so as to provide all
the necessary ingredients required for the healthy growth of
plants.

Nitrogenous Manure.—The farmer will need to cultivate a
knowledge of the habits and idiosyncrasies of his crops in their
wild and cultivated conditions, especially with respect to the
influence of different manures on their growth; he will, in fact,
need to learn how to observe every phenomenon in connection
with his growing crops. He should, for instance, know what
the classical researches of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted
have demonstrated to the world at large—that a supply of
nitrogen in one form or other is absolutely necessary for the
healthy development of green plants, and for increasing the pro-
duction of chlorophyll, through the action of which on the
atmospheric gases the plant is able, under the influence of sun-
shine, to assimilate carbon for the formation of carbohydrates
(as the starches, etc.). Hence the reason for what has long
been known, that the application of farmyard dung or nitro-
genous special manures tends to the increase in luxuriance
of the foliage of plants in general, but more particularly of
the gramineze (grasses and cereals).

The growth of chlorophyll being increased by nitrogenous
manure, as a natural consequence the carbohydrates also increase,
for it is the chief office of chlorophyll to bring about the assimi-
lation of carbon from the air for the formation of starch or
other carbohydrates within the body of the plant. Farmers
should know that Lawes and Gilbert’s experiments have likewise

proved that, in addition to nitrogen, wheat, barley, millet, oats,
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 181

and in fact all corn crops, need the phosphatic, potassic, and
other matters contained in plant ashes in conjunction with
nitrogen for full development. And as homestead or farmyard
manure contains, besides its ammonias, all these necessaries
in a highly suitable condition, chemists have devoted much
time to the elaboration of mixtures of special manures to
effect the same end.

It may now be taken as proven that the nitrogenous com-
pounds’ of farmyard manure are converted into nitrates
through the oxidation which is brought about by bacteria
within the soil, and also in dunghills themselves before removal
to the fields. It was during the exigencies of a memorable
siege of Paris that the practicability of making nitre or salt-
petre (for gunpowder) from stable manure was first achieved
on a large scale in artificial nitre beds composed of layers
of earthy rubbish, lime, old mortar, ashes, and stable refuse.

By the action of the bacteria nitrous- and _nitric-acid
oxides are formed from the humus or from other nitrogenous
matters of the dung-pit.

These acid oxides, by combining with the bases (potash
and lime) present in‘the wood ashes and old mortar with which
the nitre beds are supplied, become more or less fixed as
nitrites and nitrates ; the nitrites, in the presence of oxygen
coming in from the air, are ultimately converted into nitrates
(of potash and of lime, etc.).

For the effective carrying out of this process—known as

1 It is commonly noticed that the odours of ammoniated compounds

which arise from freshly formed farmyard dunghills and from stable floors
are lost when the manure is well rotted by long storage.
182 Lhe Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

nitrification—the beds require to be kept constantly moistened
with water and to be occasionally stirred to admit air (for the
sake of its oxygen). Nitrification goes on best in warm
weather, and better in darkness than in light.

The humus in soils is acted on by the bacteria in a similar
manner, so that its nitrogen, which is converted into nitric
acid, becomes fixed as nitrates by combining with the mineral
bases present in the soil—the balance of the humus being
converted, by oxidation, into carbon dioxide and water.

Humus, therefore, in addition to enriching the interstitial
air of plants with carbonic dioxide, also serves as a source of
the nitrates which are taken up by plants through their roots.
Again, the nitrogenous matter escaping from cultivated soils
into the subsoils and drains is invariably found in the nitrated
condition, that is, in some form of nitrate, as potash, soda, or
lime nitrate, or a mixture of all three.

From such facts it is not difficult to conclude that the
nitrogen of crops is derived from the nitrates formed in soils,
and not, as was formerly supposed, from the free nitrogen
of the air.1 And now we can understand why nitrates applied

1 OF course, the nitric acid and ammonia brought down to the soil by
rain is the Zrimary source whence the earliest races of plants derived their
nitrogen. The results of recent investigations, however, show that plants
of the leguminosz family (chiefly the papillionaceze) possess tubercles on
their roots, formed as the result of a parasitical invasion of a nitrogen-
consuming organism, from which the hosts, in turn, appropriate the
nitrogen accumulated in the tubercles by their unbidden guests. The
hitherto unexplained gain of nitrogen by the leguminous crops—pulses
of sorts—over and above that known to be present in the soil is accounted
for in this way; and one of the latest ideas for enriching a soil with
nitrogen is to grow leguminous crops thereon to be ploughed in later on—
a species of green manuring, in fact.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 183

to growing crops produce the most stimulating effects of all
special manures—a result which may, further, be regarded
as confirming the correctness of the very recently acquired
knowledge in reference to the manner in which plants obtain
their supply of nitrogen.

If, then, the nitrates of potash, soda, and lime be regarded
as mineral matter—and surely they are as much so as the
mineralized organic remains known as fossils, some of which
likewise serve the purposes of special manure, as coprolites—
the efficiency of mineral manures would be completely estab-
lished, though it may often be more economical in practice to
employ organic matter, like dung and humus, to secure the
necessary nitrogen for the soil of the farm, and such practice
has also the advantage (owing to the slow oxidizing effect of
the nitrate bacterium) of supplying nitrogen in a gradual way
to growing crops, sufficient for their daily consumption ; where-
as when veady-formed nitrates are applied to the soil much
of them are wasted by passing downwards to the subsoil in
the drainage waters; and the experiments of agricultural
chemists all go to show that nitrates are, of all special manures,
the kind most liable to loss through drainage. Finely divided
soils seem to possess the power of abstracting potash, phos-
phoric acid, ammonia and lime sulphates, etc., which are
therefore not so readily washed out of the soil by heavy rains

as the nitrates are. Heavy or continuous falls of rain must

1 The cultivation of green catch crops, even of weeds on idle or fallow
lands, has a tendency to check this loss of nitrates from drainage by its
setting up the counteraction of storing nitrogen in the roots of the crops
grown, consequent on their power of sucking up water from the soil
containing nitrates, etc., in solution. :
184 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

evidently have injurious effects on grain-growing countries
like India and the Colonies, whose populations depend so
largely for protection against famine on the seasonable pre-
cipitation and equable distribution of that necessary adjunct to
successful farming—rainfall.

The usual sources of nitrogenous manures are animal and
vegetable refuse, nitrates of potash and soda (Chili saltpetre),
and ammonium sulphate.

Amongst animal refuse materials guano particularly de-
serves notice. It is composed of the dried excrement of sea-
fowl, preserved in countries like Peru, where there is little or no
rainfall to wash out its soluble nitrogenous ingredients.

Waste fish, animal bones, and blood from slaughter-houses,
also yield valuable nitrogenous manures, as do likewise the
various substances enumerated under the grouping of special
manures. Bones are an example of a fertilizer that may be
included in more than one group; the organic matter which
they contain being nitrogenous allows of their grouping
amongst the nitrogenous manures, while their larger propor-
tion being inorganic matter and composed mostly of lime and
phosphoric acid, necessitates their grouping with the phosphatic
manures.

The mystery of the quasi-organic nature of nitrogen
having been solved, we proceed to briefly notice the other
special manures as to the inorganic character, of which there
can be but little doubt.

The Phosphatic Manures are chiefly valued for the amount
of calcium phosphate they contain, mineral phosphates and
preparations of bones being the chief sources of supply of the
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 185

various artificial preparations to meet the demand for phos-
phatic manures. Crushed bones, bone-meal or bone-dust,
bone-ash, and ground (mineral) phosphate are all serviceable
for supplying the necessary phosphatic ash ingredient to grow-
ing plants; while, where a phosphatic whip is required for
hurrying on a young crop, nothing better can be used than
well-made superphosphate or a generalized phosphatic manure
such as that noticed in Appendix B (p. 262).

The farmer who wishes to be economical can easily learn to
manufacture his own superphosphate, or dissolved bones, as it
is familiarly called. It is prepared from bones or mineral
phosphate by a chemical process involving the use of the highly
corrosive acid “oil of vitriol” (consult the author's “ First
Principles of Chemistry,” 6th edition, p. 186).' | Owing to its
ready solubility superphosphate constitutes a highly valued
manure for grasses and root crops; and mixed with combinations
of nitrogenous manures, in which potash is also represented,
useful and effective general fertilizers are readily produced.
Complete information regarding the mixing of artificial manures
will be found in M. Georges Ville’s lectures on that subject.

Guano, as presented in commerce, is usually of two kinds
—the highly nitrogenous variety, which to a large extent re-
sembles farmyard manure in its action on the soil, and the highly
phosphatic variety: when the latter variety is treated with
sulphuric acid its tricalcic phosphate {Ca,(PO,)2}, naturally very
insoluble, is rendered soluble just in the same manner as the

’ The main object of these pages being to deal with the scientific
principles underlying a sound agricultural education, it is not thought
desirable to burden the reader with the technical details of artificial
manure manufacture.
186 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

phosphate of bones is done in the manufacture of superphosphate.
Guano so treated is known, in the manure trade, as dissolved
guano. The number and variety of phosphates now to be
found in the market is so great that an entire volume would
be needed to describe them all.

Potassic Manures.—Young plants are particularly benefited
by the application of potash salts. The chief sources of supply
are wood ashes and the mineral kainite (already described) ;
it comes mostly from Stassfurt, in Germany. In India the ryot
has recourse to the young leaves and saplings of the forest for
the necessary supply of potash for his seedling rice and raggi
crops, and thereby largely incurs the displeasure of the forest
officials. The Indian system of “rab” cultivation, having
become a question of popular interest, will require a brief
scientific explanation of its raison a@’étre.

In the first place, rab is a process adopted by the farmers
(Aunbis, or ryots) of India for raising the seedling plants of rice,
nagli, etc., to a size suitable for transplanting into the open
ground. This process consists chiefly in the preparation of a
seed bed in which the young plants get a good start in life—a
good start being half the battle in vegetable as well as in human
affairs. Potash is to the young plant what milk is to the child.
Lime, magnesia, silica, and phosphoric acid, etc., are required
later on in life to build up the skeleton and the seed, or brain.
Accordingly plants absorb potash salts more greedily during
infancy than at later dates, while phosphoric acid is most
abundantly stored during the period of blossoming, to provide
for the wants of the seed—lime, magnesia, silica, etc., being
intermediate in time in reference to the requirements of the plant.
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 187

The ryots have so far anticipated the teachings of science
in the matter of providing a plentiful supply of potash salts
obtained from the most fertile natural source,’ viz. the young
twigs, leaves, and branches of forest trees.

The open ground, from the repeated cropping of centuries,
does not, ordinarily, contain a sufficiency of ash ingredients to
give the young rice plant a fair start in life, hence the necessity
of the “rab” bed to help the young seedlings over their
infantile stage. Guano and superphosphate are used for a
similar purpose on turnip and mangold crops in Europe, and
have there become a necessity to successful farming. The
child that gets an insufficiency of milk in its early days runs
but a poor chance of succeeding in later years when placed out
in the open world to struggle for its independent existence, and
sO it is with the young rice plant.

The rice plant is one of the most as/y of the cereals ;? and
hence the ryots rightly maintain that, under existing conditions,
they must get ash materials for their rab beds. However, as in
the interests of forests, and we would add climate, it would be
undesirable to allow the indiscriminate lopping of branches of

? Kainite is not known in India.
2 Roughly, 100 parts of the ash of rice plants yield—

Potash ey as oo 28s 3a Pe we 185
Soda wit aN sass 26 sie ney «> FO°5
Lime and magnesia sd wis ae st sine “EBS
Iron oxide ... aii oe oe ae os sa ONG
Silica Sa se wee 53 ct atte ie As
Phosphoric acid ... si aa ous vat sua 1534
Chlorine, etc. Mee oe st ea aes seer. “OFS
Loss ra hs ne side st a se JO

Total sik he ee ... TO0'O
188 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

trees for rab purposes, it becomes a problem of considerable
difficulty to provide suitable substitutes.

The ryot (proverbially improvident) disposes of all available
produce from his farm during the dry season; even the cow-
dung cakes are deported to the large towns, where they com-
mand a ready sale as fuel; and thus, by the time the approaching
monsoon warns him that he must prepare for the coming crop,
he has no alternative but to fly to the nearest forest for the
materials to supply the ash ingredients he has been continually
exporting from his farm. He may, therefore, be compared to
a banker who spends the capital of the bank on the assump-
tion that the shareholders will continue to pay up more, as
required.

As a means of remedying this state of things, we would
suggest the provision of a properly prepared supply of an easily
transportable manure, which might be sent back by each
municipality to the districts whence it obtains the necessaries
of life. The carts that now bring in food, fuel, and fodder
usually return empty, but would generally be loaded with
valuable fertilizers did the municipalities and local committees
but act up to their lights and adopt this suggestion.

Calcareous Manures.—By the application of lime, chalk,
crushed limestones (pure or magnesian), sea-shells, or shell
sand, the soil is furnished with a material necessary for the
framework and the seed (or brain) of plants and animals; and
even though animals derive their lime chiefly from the water
they drink, yet the spring waters of each district derive their
charges of lime from the local soils or from the rocks under-

lying them ; and, similarly, the plants growing in any soil take
Manures for the Soil and Crops. 189

up, through their roots, lime (chiefly as carbonate) dissolved
in the soil-water. Magnesian limestone, owing to the impor-
tance of the magnesia as a constituent of matured seeds,
cereals, etc., is to be preferred for this purpose. Marl, also,
which is a natural compost of clay and lime, is frequently,
like lime, used to improve the mechanical texture of soils,
as well as for the enrichment of soils poor in lime.

COMPOSITION OF SOME LIMESTONES.

 

 

 

 

 

Castanate cer Sand and Gaidesict Water,
calcium. | magnesia. silica. | aluminium.; °°
Oolite... ee yey 94°6 2°5 _ raf ry
Chalk... son se 98°5 ol 1'o 04 —
Magnesian limestone 51'0 | 40°3 | 3°5 "7 3°5
1

 

The application of burnt limestone, or caustic lime, is the
most effectual way of liming a soil, and though it ultimately
becomes carbonated from the absorption of carbon dioxide
from the air, the process of absorption is slow, and while it is
going on, the lime has time for its peculiar effects on the
organic matter and on the silicates of the soil. The latter are
broken up and made to enter into new combinations; while
the acids resulting from the decomposing organic matter enter
into chemical union with the basic lime, and are so neutralized,
and thus the soil is prevented from turning sour—hence the
explanation of the so-called sweetening influence of lime
upon the soil. The vegetation of pasture lands is, often,
advantageously affected by lime dressings, for it influences the
growth of lime-loving herbage—the white clover, for instance.
190 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Lime has not only a tendency to hasten the decay of the
organic or farmyard manure, which it may happen to meet with
in the soil, but also of causing it to liberate ammonia more
readily than it does when left to decay alone, so that it tends
to the early exhaustion of the soil: and hence the explanation
of the farmers maxim that “lime enriches the father, but
impoverishes the son.”

Gypsum, or lime sulphate, supplies sulphur from its decom-
position within the soil, and, in contrast to the action of
caustic lime, it has a tendency to fix the ammonia in farmyard
manure, owing to the double decomposition that results when
lime sulphate and ammonia carbonate come together, whereby
the volatile carbonate is turned into a stable sulphate of
ammonia.

[CaSO, + Am,CO; = CaCO; + Am,SO,]
Gypsum has, also, some influence on the potash silicates
present in soils, whereby potash is liberated in a condition
readily available for plant use.
CHAPTER XI.

THE CULTIVATOR AND HIS ART.
‘* Nothing succeeds like success.”

For successful negotiation with the soil the farmer will need
to fully comprehend the nature of the various difficulties with
which the profession is surrounded—difficulties quite enough
to cause alarm even to the long-established occupier of the
land.

We are so accustomed to hear foreign competition, played-
out soils, bad weather, or even the use of artificial manures,
assigned as the sole cause of the present depression amongst
the agricultural community, that we are apt to overlook other
conditions of perhaps greater weight, such as the incidence
of—rent and taxes, the cost of labour and the luxury of the
mode of living now in vogue among the tillers of the soil, the
tendency of the poor laws to create an idle disposition amongst
the labouring classes, the inaccessibility of markets, the nature
and adaptability of particular soils to the crops intended to be
grown thereon, the unsuitability or otherwise of the existing
methods of cultivation and of harvesting with a view to the
attainment of economic results, and last, though not least, the

demonetization of silver, whereby gold bas become so highly
192 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

appreciated as to cause a ‘corresponding depreciation in the
prices of agricultural produce.

All these and probably many other causes have been con-
spiring together to bring the practice of agriculture, pure
and simple, into disrepute as a profession for the educated
classes.

Looking at the problems of agriculture from such stand-
points, it would appear that the system of education provided
for the masses is sadly at fault in most countries in the world,
but in none more so than in those where the majority of the
population are dependent on the produce of their own lands
for subsistence.

In India, where 70 per cent. of the people are cultivators
of the soil, it is a matter of notoriety that the more education
is given (gratuitously) to the people the less inclination do
they evince for agricultural pursuits. The cultivator there
may frequently be heard to say, “‘ Now that my son can read
and write English, I mean to let go the plough,” zé. give up
the tilling of the soil—a sentiment which has probably arisen
from observing how readily the early Hindu cultivators of the
English language (like the early bird that catches the worm)
have succeeded in getting remunerative employment, equally
with the scanty resident English population in their country,
overlooking the fact that the few English residents in India are
not the people of England, who would only be too glad to
resort to farming as an industry were they as certain as the
Indian cultivator is of making a living thereby.

Great Britain has been the workshop of the world for so
many years, that her people have, gradually, become absorbed
The Cultivator and his Art. 193

in manufacturing industries to the neglect of agricultural pur-
suits. But, now that foreign competition has shown its hand in
the industrial line, England cannot expect to hold the monopoly
of the trading centres of the world; and so, to meet the
exigencies of the times, more attention will, in the near future,
have to be given to the development of the art of successful
cultivation of the soil; in other words, the landowners, the
educated classes, and more especially the technically educated,
must take to the soil as an independent profession, unless they
wish to be left behind in the struggle for existence, which has
already begun in Europe (though Darwin is no more). And we
may predict that, when capital has combined with skilled labour
to place agriculture in the position of a learned profession,
the Utopian period of British history will have been reached.
The first great step in renovating the profession of agri-
culture must come from the introduction of rational systems
of national education. Governments must needs rectify their
educational codes so as to give greater encouragement to
studies tending to the enlightenment of rural populations in
regard to food production and the relation of the science of rural
economy thereto, combined with systematic demonstrations of
economical methods of applying science to agricultural practice.
The old hereditary farming class having emigrated from
England to countries where they get land from Colonial
Governments which they can call their own, and which are
not taxed for improvements, it is of vital interest to the
landowners of Great Britain to do all in their power to see
that the youth now receiving their education in the rural Board
Schools should have the chance of obtaining sound agricultural
Oo
194 Lhe houndations of Scientific Agriculture.

instruction in preference to such modern accomplishments
as the Shakesperian drama, Tennysonian poetry, music, and
calisthenics, etc., which are so much run after by the humbler
classes with the possible idea of improving their social position.
How few boys in a Board School could give information as to
the amount of necessary food stuffs (not to speak of luxuries)
which are annually imported into England! It might even
surprise some of the rural teachers to be told that a piece of
land growing corn crops can maintain eight times as many
people as the same plot of land laid down to grass for feeding
cattle for meat, and that England imports annually the follow-
ing amounts of simple food stuffs of kinds capable of being

economically produced within its own borders :—

Wheat as sai it ... 23 million qrs.
Barley “6% os san «OF 33
Oats ... a ib ee we OF 3
Peas and beans Pe a ok as
Butter is ee a ... 2% million cwt.
Cheese iia si bes cae. - BE es

—not to mention the enormous importations of live stock, raw
meat, vegetables, fruits, eggs, poultry, etc. (the figures for
which would require too much space), which are annually
increasing by leaps and bounds to the benefit of the foreign
competitor." Let us hope that India may soon endeavour to
share in the advantages of so vast a market for delicacies of
the table, such as tomatoes, plantains, and mangoes, and other
tropical fruits, all of which can now be shipped to Europe in
the refrigerated chambers of ships’ holds.

It would be bad policy to allow the cultivators of Indian

1 To the extent of more than fifty millions sterling.
The Cultivator and his Art. 195

soils to drift to other occupations, as there are no other classes
in the country who can replace them; and yet this is what
the money-lending classes in India are quietly and steadily
accomplishing. ‘The Indian peasant has many characteristics
in common with those of his Irish confrére, and none more sc
than his love for the sod (the inheritance of his forefathers) ;
and it behoves our Indian Governments to prevent his alienation
from the soil as far as practicable, to avoid a repetition of the
process which has already, so injuriously, taken place in England.

The complaint is constantly heard nowadays throughout
England that the average working farmer or labourer takes
much less interest in his work than was the habit of such
people a quarter of a century ago, and from personal experience
of both periods, the author can confirm the truth of this
opinion. Bicycling, horse-racing, regattas, etc., seem to
attract the attention of the rising generation more than the
business of their lives—such, for instance, as to learn the correct
methods of shoeing horses, or of planting young fruit trees,
whose roots are frequently doubled up by the modern orchard-
man when planting them in the cavities left after the removal
of old stumps. No wonder that English fruit has to make
way for foreign productions !

We have seen how the ancient cultivators in India (the
ryots, as they are technically called) have through a long maze
of years elaborated their vad system of growing rice and other
grain crops, which, though antagonistic to the extension of
forests, can claim the sanction of science, so far as its theoretical
principles are involved; and so, by carefully examining the

various devices adopted by the old practitioners of the arts of
196 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

gardening and farming, many customs will be discovered
which have anticipated the teachings of science, amongst which
may be appropriately noticed the “rotation of crops,” and
some modes of tillage which have been handed down, as
heirlooms, to the practical cultivators of the soil.

From the knowledge we now possess as to the composition
of various classes of soils, and of the ashes of the types of
plants usually grown as farm crops, it is easy to perceive that
if the same kind of crop be grown year after year on the same
piece of land, that soil must ultimately tend to become
exhausted of the essentials of fertility, viz. its nitrogenous
and ash-forming ingredients ; and, unless these are restored in
some way or other, the soil must ultimately become sverile,
But as, according to Liebig’s dictum, it is the presence of the
minimum of one essential constituent rather than the larger
quantity of others equally essential that determines whether a
given soil can continue growing the same crop or not, it follows
that by changing the crops grown in a particular soil, the
exhaustion of its fertility may be prevented or certainly delayed
until the cultivator can afford to supply its natural deficiency by
the application of the necessary special manures. In this
respect chemistry has rendered more service to agriculture than
any other science, chiefly through the introduction of artificial
manures, by the aid of which land culture can now be carried
on at great distances from the homestead, without waiting for
the growth and distribution of the old-fashioned farmyard dung.

Long before the introduction of artificial fertilizers, farmers
had to study the problem of how best to keep up the
fertility of their lands under cultivation, and the only possible
The Cultivator and his Art. 197

methods which experience proved to be practicable were to
change the crops (rotation of crops), or to allow a portion
of the cultivated soil to lie idle in alternate years—thus
leading up to /fallowing as a means of restoring fertility :
and this is brought about by the weathering of the dormant
mineral materials of the soil, by the decay of the roots of
weeds and of removed crops, and by the receipt of nitric acid
and ammonia with the rainfall from the atmosphere, while
the worm-casts alone would probably add from 60 to 8o lbs.
of nitrogen per acre.

Hence may be seen the raison d’étre of the ancient methods
of fallowing soils as a preparation for a wheat crop, which is
known to be a lover of nitrogen. Fallowing is still largely
practised by the Hill tribes of India, especially in places where
manure is unattainable. In a similar way other crops have
their likes or dislikes in reference to the plant food that best
agrees with them, and so by knowing the composition of the
soil with which he has to deal, the farmer may votude his
crops in complete agreement with their feeding proclivities.

Thus by knowing the ash ingredients of crops, the grower
will be able to rotate them in accordance with the exigencies of
the plant food contained in any particular soil. One year he
may grow, say, wheat, which consumes much nitrogen; next
year (while the nitrogen is being partially restored by natural
causes) he may grow a crop which is a gross potash and lime
feeder, as lucerne, clover, or peas. This could not have been
accomplished, ‘without great waste of time, but for the modern
power of chemical analysis.

The chemist can give the farmer information as to the ash
198 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

ingredients loved by the various classes of crops. Thus he can
say—that wheat loves nitrogen and phosphates, that clover loves
lime and potash, that potatoes love potash, that grasses love
phosphoric acid, and so on. And hence, though the farmer of
the future need not be quite a skilled chemist, he must needs be
able to follow the teachings of agricultural chemistry if he is
to hold his own in the competition now going on between the
producers of food and luxuries in almost all countries on the
face of the earth—a competition which, equally with the depre-
ciation of silver, has a tendency to lower prices, and therefore
to increase the value of agricultural skill to its possessor. A
complete analysis of the soil, though in itself not a panacea
for agricultural depression, can throw much light on its require-
ments in relation to the kind of natural or artificial fertilizers
necessary to remedy its defects, as well as suggesting modes of
mechanical treatment’ most likely to benefit the soil when
being brought under cultivation.

A practical farmer may make a partial analysis of a soil
without much knowledge of chemistry, by carefully weighing
the amount of the substances which fit under each of the
following divisions :—

(2) Saline matters, soluble in water.

(4) Substances, soluble in dilute acids,

(c) Substances, zvsoluble in dilute acids.

(¢) Combustible substance, or organic matter.

In addition it would be well to be able to make a guahtative

analysts* of the solution of saline matters, as a very large

’ As paring, burning, liming, warping, subsoiling, etc.
? The author's ‘‘ Tables for Qualitative Analysis” (George Bell & Sons)
supply all the necessary instructions.
’
The Cultivator and his Art. 199

percentage of soluble saline matter (salt, for instance) often
renders a soil sterile; so likewise a large excess (over 10 per
cent.) of peat or organic matter tends to the production of
sourness in soils—the remedy being a liberal application of
lime, which neutralizes the organic acids formed in the soil by

the oxidation of the peaty matter.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TYPICAL FERTILE SOILS.

 

 

 

 

Vegetable| Sandy | Clay Loamy /Calcareous
mould. soil | soil. soil. soil.
: ee |

Organic matter, etc. ... 10708 |) o'49 3°38 Il‘'24 6°34
Oxide of iron ... oa 6°30 , 3°19 8°82 4°87 bes
Alumina Seis sid 9°30 | 2°65 6°67 ot gst
Lime... ose be I‘or | 0 24 1°44 0°83 | 30°55
Magnesia was ats o'2I ; 0°70 0°92 I'o2 trace
Potash ... sia sh ; sare : { o'l2 48 | rea eG
Soda... se oo . (0°02 008 | 043 3
Phosphoric acid a o'13 | 0°07 O'51 o'24 | trace
Sulphuric acid ass orl7 | trace trace O'og | trace
Chlorine wae aye = trace _ 025 _—
Insoluble silicates. 72°70 | 92°52 | 72°83) 6619 | 2877
Carbonic acid, etc. _ _— 4°87 “= 24°00

 

 

 

Though the march of events, combined with mechanical
skill, has converted tillage-farming in most European countries
into an industry requiring machinery and capital for
successful handling, the Indian cultivator still carries on the
profession of his ancestors with implements of the most
primitive kind, which, though simple in construction, are most
effective from an economic point of view ; and it may safely be
asserted that nowhere out of India does the tiller of the soil
derive as much profit from so small an expenditure on
agricultural tools as does the Indian ryot.

A few illustrations, by way of contrast, of the tillage
200 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

implements used in England and in India for ploughing,
grubbing, harrowing, drilling, rolling and hoeing (for weeding),
etc., may not be without interest to the general reader, who
will observe that those used in India very nearly approach to
the primitive types described ages ago by Homer and Virgil.
With such implements did our ancestors earn their bread by
the sweat of their brows.

The Plough is a wedge-shaped implement, which, when
thrust into the ground, is drawn through the soil by horses
ar bullocks, and is guided by a driver, or ploughman. The
surface soil is cut into longitudinal slices, which are usually

inverted, by the action of the modern plough.

 

Fic. 37.—European plough.

The principal parts of a plough are the s¢/¢s (or handles),
a,a; the beam, b,; the sole, ¢,; the share, d; the coulter, e ;
the bridle, f; and the mould-board, g, which latter turns over
the slice cut from the land by the share and coulter, leaving a
trench, or furrow, behind the plough.

The European plough (Fig. 37), in consequence of its
producing an immediate inversion of the soil, is usually con-
sidered to have more advantageous effect than the native

Indian plough. Besides, the native plough leaves a portion
The Cultivator and his Art. 201

of the soil wxstivred, as may be seen from the accompanying

diagram, showing the cutting action of the native plough on

 

Fic. 38.—Appearance of cuts made by native Indian plough.

the soil (Fig. 38). It will be seen that about one-half of the
soil remains unstirred by a single ploughing only, hence it
becomes necessary to plough twice with the native plough
to produce the effect gained by one ploughing with a plough
of European pattern.

 

CLEL LAL LS

Fic. 39.—Appearance of ploughed land (effect of European plough).

Double mould-board ploughs are used for making drills
in land already pulverized by previous ploughing, harrowing
and rolling.

 

Fic. 40.—Double mould-board plough, used for drilling.
202 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

The subsoil plough is used for stirring the subsoil, and for
drainage purposes.

 

Fic. 41.—Subsoil plough.

The Harrow is an implement used for pulverizing and
levelling the surface of ploughed land, and also for covering

 

Fic. 42.—Spike harrow.

small seeds, and frequently for raking up weeds or for

spreading manure. It is usually compcsed of a frame of
The Cultivator and his Art. 203

timber or iron, with iron spikes or teeth. Chain harrows are
also in use.

 

 

 

 

Fic. 43.—Chain harrow.

The Roller is an implement employed in tillage of lands to
crush clods and consolidate the soil previous to, and after,

 

Fic. 44.—Roller.

sowing it with seeds; its effect is to prepare a good seed-bed
and level the surface.
A Drill, in agriculture, is a shallow trench in which grain
204. The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

or seed is deposited; it also signifies a machine for sowing
seeds in lines, or drills, like the Indian bamboo drill (Fig. 54),

which much resembles the European turnip-driller.

 

Fic. 45.—Combined hand-hoe and grubber.

The Ave is used for cutting and cleaning the soil and
freeing it from weeds. The hand-hoe and the horse-hoe are
both useful machines for cleaning and stirring the soil.

Machines are now made to do every kind of agricultural
work, including harvesting, threshing, and cleaning corn, potato
planting and raising, milking cows, hatching eggs, etc.

Having briefly described a few of the common implements
in general use by the agriculturists of Europe, we now come to
the implements used by the Indian ryot. They are, with a few
exceptions, good in themselves and serve his purpose ; but the
ever-increasing value of land, especially around large cities, will,
at last, make the educated and the enterprising class of farmers
give preference to the time- and labour-saving tools of modern
times.

THE Inpian PLoucH, att (zangar).—The so-called native
plough differs essentially from that of European type in having
no mould-board and in making V-shaped triangular furrows,
The Cultivator and fis Art. 205

leaving ridges of unploughed land between (as in Fig. 38).
The European plough, with its mould-board, inverts the furrow

slice, is able to make a rectangular furrow leaving no ridges

PRIMITIVE NATIVE INDIAN PLOUGHS.

 

Fic. 46. —Deccan plough.

   
 

 

{ i “HO o Oty, "oi.

livery,

“Me

Fic. 47.--Guzerat plough.

between, and thus, as universally acknowledged, it does at
least twice as much work as the native wangar ; but it does

not yet meet with approval among the native cultivators of

the soil, probably owing to its greater expense and the
206 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

difficulty of repairs. The native ploughs being generally
made of wood, the Indian village carpenter can manage all the

necessary repairs.

IMPROVED INDIAN PLoUGHS.

 

Fic. 48 —The ‘‘ Royal” soil-stirrer, made of angle-iron at the College of Science
: Workshops, Poona.

A plough adapted from American models, and manu-
factured at the Cawnpore Farm under the ‘guidance of the

 

Fic. 49.—The Cawnpore pu A, the beam (of wood) ; B, the breast, for turning over
the soil, (of sheet iron); C, the share (of steel) ; D, the sole (of angle iron); E, the
Sri (of iron); F, the handle (of wood); G, the wedges (for adjusting the

eight).
The Cultivator and his Art. 207

Department of Agriculture and Commerce, North-West Pro-
vinces, is known as the “ Xaisar” plough.

‘The characteristics claimed for this plough are—

(1) Cheapness—it only costs Rs. 6 at Cawnpore, and could
probably be made up by a native mistvi for Rs. 4-8
or Rs. 5.

(2) Lightness (a) in weight—it only weighs 18 seers, and
can, therefore, be easily carried on the ploughman’s
shoulder ; and (0) iz draught—it can easily be drawn
by a pair of ordinary bullocks, since its draught is
only 62 seers on the bullocks, when ploughing at a
depth of five inches in moderately light soils.

(3) Simplicity of construction —it is made of wrought-
iron and wood, so as to be easily repairable. All
the iron work, except the share, can be’ purchased
in any bazaar, consisting as it does of a piece of
angle iron (for the sole), a strip of sheet iron (for
the mould board), and an iron bar (for the standard).
The share is made of steel, and is therefore
durable. When it has worn down it can be easily
replaced by a new one, since it is attached in the
simplest manner possible, and can easily be slipped
on or off at any time. There are no screws and
nuts on the plough, and all attachments are effected
by simple rivets.

(4) Jt can easily be adjusted so as to suit soils of any

consistency or bullocks of any height.
208 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

 

Fic 50 —Improved combined plough, grubber, and hoe.

The other implements use by the Deccan ryot, and which
do not materially differ in construction from those of the
Kokan or Gujarat are—

The Fun (%@), a sort of harrow and grubber combined.

 

 

Fig. 51.—Fun (HT ), or Indian harrow and grubber (combined).

The Avidav ( FA) serves all the purposes of an iron
hoe ; besides, it cuts up weeds, breaks up clods, covers seeds,
and levels the ground like a harrow (Fig. 52).

The Xolpa ( .1@G-), a sort of hoe, differing from the real

hoe in being worked over the drills or lines of plants, as the
The Cultivator and his Art. 209

broad knife, or cutting part, has a wide gap between its two sides
(see Fig. 53).

 

 

 

 

Fic. 52.—Kdalav.

 

 

 

Fic. 53.—Kolpa.

Fics. 52, 53.-—Indian hoes, used for stirring the soil between crops and for cutting
the weeds. By removing the knife the block of wood is used as a clod-breaker,

equivalent to a roller (the driver standing thereon).

The Zifan, or Pabhar (famw, or WAT) (Fig. 54), is a drill
sowing-machine made of hollow bamboos, all meeting at
the summit in a bowl for holding the seed, which, when
set in motion, runs down to the iron points, and thence into

the soil.
210 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture,

 

Tic. 56.——An Indian ploughman, starting work.
CHAPTER XII.

MEASUREMENTS.

THE extent of surface which any figure encloses is called the

area of the surface.

The area of any surface is estimated by

the number of unit squares contained in that surface without
regard to thickness, the sides of such squares being one inch,
one foot, one yard, and one chain, etc., according to the unit

adopted. Hence the area is said to be so many square inches,

or square feet, or square yards, or square chains, etc., as the

D

case may be.

If ABCD be any rect-
angle whose side AB contains
7 linear units, and whose side
BC contains 4 linear units, the

area will contain 7 X 4 or 28

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

unit squares. A ac
TaBLe OF LinEAL Measures (English).
srs
eg | a ee
| Yards I= | U515i= | 12
Piss] as] gs’ |peane=| go
Chains. I= | 55= | 16'5= 25= | 198
fer | r= | a=] 22=| 66=| t00=] 792
Mile. I= 10= 4o= | 220= | 660=] 1,000= | 7,920
I= 8= 89= 320= |1,760= (5280= 8,000= | 63,360

 

 

 

 
212. The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

LineaL Measures (Jndian).
8 Yavs = 1 Angool (Yav = barleycorn width).
2 Angools = 1 Tasoo.
14 Tasoos = 1 H&t = 19} English Inches g.f. (19°2).
4 Hats = 1 Dund.
2000 Dunds = 1 Kos.
2 Kos = Gavuti.

4 Kos or 2 Gavutees = 1 Yojan.

4 Angools = 1 Mooth.

3 Moothees = 1 Veet (or Span).
2 Veets = 1 Hat.
5% Hats = 1 Kathi = 9°3644 feet (English), (In Guzerat

5 Hats make 1 Kathi.)
16 Annas | = 1 Chain (= 33 feet or rz yards).

The Indian Chain has 16 links of equal lengths, and each

link is called an Anna ; each Anna equals 2 feet and 3 inch.

TABLE OF SQuARE Measures (Zvglish).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sq. Inches. | Sq, Links.
62°7264 I Sq. rt. |
144 2°2956 1| Sq. Yd. |
1,296 206°611 9 I | a.
= 39,204 625 272°25 30°25 | I aa
627,264 10,000 453356 484. 16 I Rood.|
1,568,160 25,000 | 10,890 1,210 40 2°5 x| acre. | ds Se
6,272,640 | 100,000 | 43,560 4,840 = “x60 | 10 | 4 | I | ne
4,014,489,600 | 64,000,000 | 27,878,400 | 3,097,600 | 102,400 | 6,400 | 2 500 | 640 | I

 

 
Measurements. 213

Square Measures (lndion).

20 Square Kathis = 1 Pond.

20 Ponds = 1 Bigha = 10,000 Sq. Hats."
120 Bighas = 1 Chahur.
[100 Bighas = 80'525 Acres (or 804 nearly). |
256 Square Annas = 1 Guntha.

40 Gunthas = 1 Acre (English).

A Guntha

ll

(1 Indian Chain) ®.

Land is usually measured by means of a chain known as
“Gunter’s chain,” the length of which is 4 poles, or 22 yards,
or 66 feet ; it contains 100 equal links, each of which measures
73, of a yard, or 7°92 inches.

A chain of roo feet is used for traverse surveying.

RECTILINEAR SURFACES.
Ts

To find the area of a square—
Multiply the length of one of its sides by itself, and the
product will be the area.

 

 

 

 

a
Area=a@xXa=@
Note——When the area of a square
oa 8
field is given to find (1) the length of
the side of the field, and (2) the length of
the diagonal— Fic. 58.

1. Reduce the area given to a common denomination, say,

1 A Bigha may be taken as 3 of an acre g.f. (more accurately 0°59).
214 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

square inches, square feet or square yards, square chains, etc.,
and extract the square root of the result, which will be the
length of the field’s side in corresponding linear denomination.

“2, The square root of twice the area of the given square

will give the length of the diagonal (Euclid, I. 47).

Il.

To find the area of a rectangle, or right - angled

parallelogram-—
Multiply the length by the breadth, and the product will be

 

 

 

 

the area.
Area =axX6= ab
Kal NVote.—To find the dia-
zB gonal—
Extract the square root
Fic. 5.

of the sum of the squares
of the two sides (Euclid, I. 47).

III.

To find the area of a rhombus (or rhomboid)—
Multiply the length

 

x of any side by the per-
pendicular distance be-
V2 Ny tween that side and its
opposite: the product
// will be the area required.

Pie 60, ee

=bxp~,
Measurements. 215

IV.
To find the area of a triangle when its base and perpendi-
cular are given (the three cases illustrated by Figs. 61, 62, 63)—
Multiply the base by the perpendicular and take half of
the product for the area required.

Area = 3 X (a X P)

=> sap
A
A
t
|
I
l
o ‘P
& a Cc Bisse a ——
Fic, 61. Fic. 62.

 

The three sides of a triangle being given, to find its area—

From half the sum of the three sides (s) subtract each side
separately, then multiply the half-sum (s) and the three re-
mainders (s — a), (s — 4) and (s — ¢) together: the square root
of the product of these four quantities will be the required
area,
216 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Area = o/ 5(s — a)(s — d)(s — c)
a+é +e

where s=

 

 

B a c
Fic. 64.

NVote-—When the triangle is Sues, a=b=c; then—

Area = 4/32 x <x a ox fa EG

VIL
To find the area of a trapezoid—
Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the perpen-
dicular distance between them, and the product will be the area.

& oe

2
|
1
p
!
!
'
1

 

 

a2 38
Fic. 65.

ieee xp _ AG + %)
2 2

Note. ate is the mean length of the trapezoid.
Measurements. 217

VII.
To find the area of a trapezium—
Multiply the sum of the two perpendiculars let fall from
opposite corners upon the diagonal by half the length of the
diagonal.

Area = (p, +p)8 _ (A + p.)a

A¢

 

yoy?

t
P2
B

Fic. 66.

VIII.
To find the area of an irregular polygon of any number of
sides—
Divide the figure into triangles and trapeziums—in the
most convenient manner—and find the area of each figure
separately ; then the sum of these areas will be the area of the

given figure.

 

 
218 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Area = 30,2, + 30,po + 34aps + 342Ps + 20ds
= $4,(p, + po) + 44,(f + 21) + 40aps

 

 

 

 

Fic. 68.

2 2 2

Area = tap, + (A ae a2 (Po + ps)as 4 Ups; Mz OP.

+ (Os +25) + abs
2 2

IX.
To find the area of a regular polygon when the length of
its side is the only quantity given—
Multiply the square of the given side by the multiplier (or
number) opposite to the name of the proposed polygon—and
the product will be the area (see table below).

No. of Multiplier
aides: Name of polygon. or ee Pape ou

3 Equilateral triangle i ty vs 0°4330127

4 Square... ie sat ae ... [10000000

5 Pentagon ... ois ie Ses se 1°7204774

6 Hexagon ... se a oie ..  2°5980762

7 Heptagon eae wits ea we 3°6339124

8 Octagon ... wae os ie w 48284271

g Nonagon ... Be si -»  6°1818242

10 Decagon ... i aa ms w+ 7°6942088

11 Undecagon ne is es «+ -9°3656399

12 Duodecagon des ds oi ve TEIQ61524
Measurements. 219

CURVILINEAR SURFACES,

Xx,

(a) The diameter of a circle being given, to find the cir-
cumference; (4) the circumference being given, to find the
diameter.

1. (2) Multiply the diameter by 22, divide the product
by 7, and the quotient will be (approximately) the circum-
ference of the circle; (4) multiply the circumference by 7,
divide the product by 22, and the quotient will be a near
approach to the diameter.

2. Instead of the above numbers, 7 and 22, use 113 and
355 in their place, and the result will be a somewhat closer
approximation to the truth.

3. (a) Multiply the diameter by the number 3°1416 (7), and
the product will be a still nearer approach to the circumference
than the first rule gives, and will differ from the result of the
second rule by a very insignificant quantity. (4) To find the

diameter, divide circumference by the same number.

c= nd Fe

where 7 stands for 3°1416 nearly,
¢ = circumference,

d = diameter.

XI.
To find the length of an arc of a circle—
(a) When the diameter and the number of degrees in the
arc are given.
Multiply together the diameter, the number 3°1416, and
220 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

the number of degrees in the arc; divide the product by 360,
the number of degrees in the whole circumference, and the
quotient will be the length of the arc.
_ mid
360
where 7 = number of degrees subtended by the arc, and d=
diameter,
aw = 31416 = ratio of circumference to diameter.
(6) Given the chord of an arc and its height, to find the
length of the arc—.
From 8 times the chord of half the arc subtract the

 

 

 

 

 

Cc
ey
ne
eC _|
A a 8
\
Fic. 69.

chord of the whole arc, and 4 of the remainder will be the

length of the arc (nearly).
pa Soe
3
where / = length of arc,

2a = chord of the arc,
A = height (or versed sine) of the arc,
p= Vae+# = chord of half the arc.
Measurements. 221

XII.

To find the area of a circle when the radius (or half-
diameter) is given—
Multiply the square of the radius by 3°1416.

2

Or area = ae = mr
4

 

where 7 = radius,
@ = diameter.

XIII.
To find the area of a circle whose circumference is
given—
Multiply the square of the circumference by 0'07958, and
the product will be the area.
arr’ _ (ann) _ &

Area = 77 = = =
4r 47 47

 

= ae = 0'079580
where ¢ = circumference,

ry = radius.

XIV.

‘Yo find the area of a sector of a circle—
1, Multiply the radius, or half of the diameter, by half the
arc of the sector for the area; or multiply the diameter by the

arc of the sector, and a quarter of the product will be the area.
7] ee

Fic. 70.
222 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

ay ey
42

where / = length of arc of the sector,
ry = radius,
d@ = diameter.

2, As 360° is to the number of degrees in the arc of
the sector, so is the whole area of the circle to the area of the
sector.

360: 4:1 7"? area
360
where # = number of degrees in the arc of the sector.

XV.

To find the area of a segment of a circle—

1. Find the area of the sector having the same arc as the
segment. Find the area of the plane triangle formed by
the chord and the two radii from its extremities ; the difference
of these areas will be the area of the segment when it is less
than a semicircle, and their sum will be the area when it is
greater than a semicircle.

2. To two-thirds of the product of the chord and height
of the segment add the cube of the height divided by twice
the chord, and the sum will be the area of the segment
(nearly).

Mee ee
Measurements. 223

i

Area = 2¢ x A+ —

: 2c

where ¢ = chord of the segment,
A = height or rise of the segment.

NVote—When the segment is greater than a semicircle, we
may find the area of the remaining segment; subtracting this
from the area of the whole circle, the remainder will be the

area required.

XVI.
To find the area of the circular ring (or annulus) included
between two concentric circles—
Take the difference between the areas of the two circles
for the area of the ring; or multiply the sum of the radii by
their difference, and multiply the product by 3°1416 (7).

Fic. 72.
Area = 7h? — ar = 1(R? — 7)
mR + 7)(k —*)
jn(Ct- 2) = }e(C+9(C- 9)

where & and » are the greater and less radii, C and ¢ the

ll

greater and less circumferences.
224 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

XVII.
To find the area of a lune, or of the space included between
the intersecting arcs of two eccentric circles—
Find the area of the two segments whose arcs form the
lune, and their difference will be the area required.
Area of lune = ACBEA
= area of segment ACB — area of segment AEB

c

 

 

A D B
Fic. 73.
XVIII.

To find the area of a circular zone or the space included
between any two given parallel chords and their intercepted
arcs of known rise—

Find the area of that part of the zone forming the trapezoid
ABCD, to which add twice the area of the segment AED, and
the sum will be the area of the zone required (see Fig. 74).

XIX.
To find the area of a segment of a circle or any other
curvilineal figure by means of equidistant ordinates—

Having measured an odd number of cguidistant ordinates
Measurements. 225

between the extremities of the curved boundary, proceed as
follows :—

To the sum of the extreme ordinates add four times the
sum of all the even ordinates—that is, the second, fourth, sixth,
etc.—and twice the sum of all the odd ordinates: multiply the

 

 

Fic. 74.
result by the common distance between the ordinates and one
third of the product will be the area of the figure bounded by
the curve, the extreme ordinates, and the line joining the feet
of the extreme ordinates (see Fig. 75); which may be formu-
lated thus—

Y
where Y = common distance of the ordinates apart,

S =the sum of the lengths of the even ordinates,
2, 4, 6, etc.
226 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.
«=the sum of the lengths of the odd ordinates,
3) 5» 7, etc.,
E =the sum of the lengths of the end ordinates
C and B,
A = area of the figure.
This is known as Simpson’s Rule.

Ordinates.

&

C} 2) 3 41 5 7, 8 3 I

 

» FIG. 75.

When the breadth of the figure is large and its boundary

curved or crooked, as in Fig. 76 :—

 

Fic. 76.
Measurements. 227

Divide the figure into trapeziums and triangles in the most
convenient manner, taking offsets to the curved or crooked
portions of the boundary. Find the areas of the trapeziums,
triangles, and the offset portions, separately, which being added
together will give the required area of the whole figure. The
accompanying figure serves to illustrate a convenient mode of

division.

XX.

To find the contents of a survey.

The areas of single fields bounded by straight lines may be
found from the lines measured in the field by the foregoing
methods. To calculate offsets, (1) the most accurate method
is to compute them separately as rectangles and triangles.
(2) If the distances between the perpendiculars be nearly
equal, they may be taken so, if practicable. To half the sum
of the perpendiculars at the extremities of the base, add all the
rest and multiply the sum by the base, and divide the product
by the number of divisions in the base made by- these

perpendiculars (see Fig. 77).

Fic. 77-
228 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

A common method is to divide the sum of the perpendicu-
lars by the number of them for a mean perpendicular, by
which to multiply the base.

If the boundary be a curved line, the distances between the
perpendiculars equal, the area may be calculated by Simpson’s
tule, already described.

In selecting the several station points in the operations of
making a survey, the surveyor must be careful to range the
station points in such manner that the ultimate figure obtained
by joining the boundary-lines of the survey will contain as
nearly as practicable the whole field or estate whose area is to
be ascertained.

The field-book entries may be niade in three columns. In
the central column the different chain-lengths at which the
offsets are taken, and also the length of the station lines should
be entered. Offsets to the right and left of the station lines to
be entered respectively in the right and left hand columns of
the chain-lengths (see field-book illustrations). The surveyor
would do well to measure a number of tie lines, which will
enable him to check the accuracy of his work after plotting the
survey from the field-book. The work done during each day
should be plotted, if ‘possible, the same evening, as then the
details of the portion surveyed will be fresh in the mind of the
surveyor.

SPECIMENS OF FIELD-BOOKS.

The following recorded specimens of field-books will serve
to guide the young surveyor in the methods of procedure :—
 

 

 

Measurements.

 

 

  

229
(1)
Check to 38 an Line Rovcu Pior (wot drawn to scale).
from a 4
to A
1244
n 700 .
Line C
\ to Cc
852
Line B
| to B
‘ 1338
| 1000
ms 600 Fic. 78
From | a Range Last.
(2)
ROUGH PLOT (794 ¢o scale).
. to D B
520
2 288 80 £
G 120 206 °
Goto F A
to G
440
D 230 152 g
Line of C
ee | oft
-
550
B 180 410 n
m 135 130 G
Begin at A Range LZas?. £

 

 
230 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

 

 

 

 

(3)
To the Fence.
48 660
53 630 to A
40 500
25 380
50 200
62 °
From © Dgo South
To the Fence.
40 1012
42 950 toD
54 600
33 400
12 260
30 150
65 °
From Oo C go East.
To the Fence.
25 615
35 550 toc
30 400
10 240
22 I 50
45 oO
From © B go North.
To the Fence.
33 1090
45 1045 to B
56 800
49° 500
48 300
3° o
Begin | at© 4 and go | West. Bia
to C Diagonal. a x
1155 i 3
1000 oR
495 920 a8
360 520 Zam
From A go North-West.

 

The calculation of the areas of farms and estates is simply
the puttiug into practice the rules and formule described in the
previous pages in reference to the individual plots made from
the surveyor’s field-books.

Fic. 80.
Measuremenis. 331

XXI,.

To find the solidity of a sguared up (four-sided) log of
timber—

Multiply together the mean breadth, the mean depth, and
the length, ze. take half the sum of the breadths of the two

 

Fic. &1.

ends, also half the sum of their depths, and multiply the pro-
duct of these two quantities by the length: the product thus
obtained will be solidity required ; that is—

Solidity = 4(4, + 2.) x $4 +a) x ¢
= 40, + d,)(4, + a) x 7
where AB = d,

BC =,
EF =a,
FG = 4,
Ki a7

XXII.
To find the solidity of a round (unsquared) log of
timber-—

Multiply the square of quarter of the mid-girt by the
232 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.
length, and the product will be the solidity required;
-that is —

2\2
Solidity = (4c)? x Z= =") xZ

 

 

 

Fic. 82.
where 4D, the radius of the middle girt, = 7,
BC = the length = 7,

XXIII.

To find the contents of a haystack, having a circular base
and bulging out from the bottom towards the top—

   
   
   
  

aos

has i
& * * Z

Y),

        

cio

       
 

A 2 7
eee
= B3
; ay
An
Fic.'83.

Take a sufficient number of circular sections at equal

vertical distances apart commencing from the bottom, find their
Measurements. 233

areas by multiplying the square of the circumference of each
section by 0'07958 ; treat the areas as if they were equidistant
ordinates and apply Simpson’s rule. The result will be the
contents of the lower portion of the stack.

For the upper part, multiply the area of the base of the
upper part by its perpendicular height, and one-third of the
product is the contents of the upper part (being a cone).

By adding the two contents together we get the contents of
the whole stack.

Let a, be the area of the section 4,2,,

” » ” A,B,,

as ” ” » 438,
and so on: let the distances between these sections be each Y;
then the solidity of the portion

4A,B,NM is given by Me + 4S + 20)

where £ = a, + Q

=the sum of the areas of the extreme sections,
A,B, and NM.
S=Q+atat...
= the sum of the areas of the even sections, 4,/,,
AB, oss
gc=@+4a,+a...
=the sum of the areas of the odd sections, 4,2;
ABs...
The solidity of the upper portion M@MD = }a,h, where
a, is the area of the section AZM, and A is the height DZ of the
upper portion ; therefore the solidity of the haystack

=E +454 2a) + 4a,h
234 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

XXIV.

To find the solidity of a haystack having a rectangular base,

and bulging out from the bottom to the eaves, and from the
eaves to the top—

£ F
AT.
ry Wf fy 38n
Lo a

=
CET

 
 
    
   

   

 

 

     
   

     
  

 

 

SSS

 

Fic, 84.

Proceed as in the last case to find the contents of the lower
part ; the sections will in this case be nearly rectangles, instead
of circles.

Again, multiply the area of the end of the upper part by its
length ; the product will be the contents of the top. The sum
of the two results will give the solidity of the stack.

Let a, be the area of the bottom 4,4,

de - » section 4,4,
as ” ” » 438s;

and a, that of the last section 4,B,,
and let the distances between these sections be each Y; then
the solidity of the part 4,8,2,DA, is given by—

y
(2 + 4S + 20)

\
Measurements. 235

where £ =a] + a
= the sum of the areas of the extreme sections,
A,B, A,B...
S=mtat...
=the sum of the areas of the even sections,
A,B, A,B, ..
c=atat..
=the sum of the areas of the odd sections,
A,B; A;B;...
The solidity of the upper part 4,DB,FE is given by
axl,

where @ = the area of the face triangle DB,F,
and 2 = the mean length.
Therefore the solidity of the stack

Y,
=e Pas aah ae Xo

Note-—To estimate the surfaces and volumes of similar
solid figures—which are those which have the same shapz, but
not necessarily the same size—the following geometric rules
may be applied :—

(a) The surfaces of similar solids are proportional to the
squares of their corresponding edges, or of any
corresponding lines drawn on them.

(4) The volumes of similar solids are proportional to the
cubes of their corresponding edges, or of corre-
sponding lines drawn in them.

By the application of such rules, a farmer may obtain a
sufficiently accurate estimate of the contents of a farmyard of
hay (or corn) stacks of similar make, from knowing the actual
contents of one only. And by a still further extension of the
236 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

rules of symmetry, the weights of cattle are estimated for the
English markets.

The subject of cattle raising and stock breeding, though
one that opens a wide field for occupation in India, is beyond
the scope of the present volume. ‘The illustration given
below will serve to indicate the nature of this new field, and

furnish an example for imitation.

 

 

Fic. 85.—Cross-bred Aden-Gir cow (bred and reared by the Author). Milking capacity,
28 lbs. daily, yielding 5 per cent. of good yellow butter.

Average percentage-composition of the milk of well-fed

Indian cattle —

Cow (Guzeratz). BurFato (Deccanee).
(sp. gr. = 1031) (sp. gr. = 1295)
Water... oe poe 86°25 chy 82°45
Casein' ... 24: sate 3°08 Liss 4°45
Butter... ep 5 ig 4°85 sh 7°84
Sugar a ae oe 5°07 Bhs 4°24

Salts 5 ee sae 0°70 Sats 080

 

' Including albumen.
Measurements. 237

Mother’s milk (Azman) contains about 88 per cent. water,
21 per cent. casein, 3} per cent. butter, and nearly 6 per cent.
sugar of milk, with } per cent. salts.

Parents feeding their children on buffalo’s milk would do

well to note the above contrast.
CHAPTER XIII.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS,!

e

Absorbent, that which sucks up, or imbibes.

Absorption, the act of sucking up.

Absorpiive, having the power to suck up.

Accessory, accidental.

Acidic, acid ; applied to rocks containing more than sixty per cent.
of silicic acid.

Aerial, belonging to the air ; atmospheric.

A ertform, having the nature or form of air ; gaseous.

Agrestic, rustic ; relating to fields.

Agriculture, the art or science of tilling or working the land with
a view to increase and maintain its fruitfulness.

Albite, a white variety of triclinic feldspar.

Albumen, giairy white matter, resembling intimately the white of
eggs.

A lbuminoid, containing albumen.

Alluvial, deposited from river-water.

Amelioration, a making better ; an improvement.

Ameboid, resembling the amoeba; the amoeba is the Proteus
animalcule—so-called from the numerous changes of form into
which it can throw itself.

Amorphous, without regular structure or definite form.

Amygdalotd (Amygdaloidal), almond like.

Analysis, the separation of a compound into its components.

Apparatus, any complex instrument or appliance, mechanical or
chemical, used for a specific action or operation,

Apropos, opportunely ; to the purpose.

Architecture, framework or structure, building,

1 For the benefit of Indian readers,
Glossary of Terms. 239

Arenaceous, composed of grains or particles of sand.

Argillaceous, consisting of clay or clayey matter.

Argon, a recently discovered element intimately associated with
the nitrogen of the air.

Aspirator, an apparatus employed by chemists for drawing air
or a gas through a bottle or other apparatus.

Assimilation, the process by which plants or animals convert their
food into the various tissues of their own substance.

Almometer, evaporation gauge.

Atmosphere, the whole mass of air, clouds, and vapour surrounding
the earth.

Atomic, relating to atoms ; consisting of atoms.

Augite, a shining mineral similar in composition to hornblende.

Automatic, having the power of motion in itself.

Axis, one of the imaginary lines assumed in describing the position
of the planes by which a crystal is bounded and round which
the figure is symmetric on all sides.

Bacteria, very minute organisms or rod-like filaments, which occur
in organic infusions after they have been for some time exposed
to the atmosphere.

Barometer, an instrument which indicates the pressure and weight
of the atmosphere.

Basalt, a compact dark grey or black rock of volcanic origin.

Basic, acting the part of a base, possessing base in excess

rock, rock containing less than sixty per cent. of silica.

Bileb, a vesicle containing fluid ; a blister.

Boulders, the rounded or water-worn blocks of stone found
embedded in the clays and gravels of the drift formation.

Breccia, a rock composed of an agglutination of angular fragments.

Bucolic, pastoral ; relating to cattle.

 

Calcareous, containing lime.

Calcite, a crystallized variety of carbonate of lime (rhombohedral).

Capital, a stock-in-trade, consisting of money or goods.

Capitalist, a person who has a capital or stock-in-trade, which may
be employed in business. .

Carbohydrate, containing carbon combined with the elements of
water ; starchy substances, sugar, etc,
240 The Foundations of Scientifie Agriculture.

Carbonaceous, containing carbon, or charcoal.

Chalybeate, impregnated with iron salts. .

Chlorite, a soft friable mineral, allied in character to talc and mica,
consisting of the silicates of magnesia, alumina, and iron, and
so called from its greenish colour. .

Chlorophyll, the green colouring ‘matter in. plants, especially in
their leaves and stems.

Circulation, the act of moving in a circuit.

Coincident, a juncture or meeting at the same point.

Collateral, running parallel to; side by side.

Colluvial, overlapping of two kinds of soils, one being alluvial.

Colonial, pertaining to colonies abroad.

Compensative, making.amends ; making up for.

Composition, the whole of the separate ingredients forming a com-
plex substance.

Conchotdal, shell-shaped.

Confrére, brotherhood ; fellow-member of community.

Conglomerate, a rock composed of rounded water-worn pebbles
cemented together.

Conservancy, the keeping or preserving from undue or irregular use
or injury ; cleanliness of premises.

Conservatism, the practice of preserving what is established.

Constituent, an essential or component part.

Coralline, coral-like.

Cotyledon, a seed-leaf ; applied to the first leaf or leavés put forth
by a plant (Fig. 35, a, 4).

Cretaceous, composed of chalk, or chalky matter.

Crystal, a mineral bounded by symmetrical faces meeting each
other at definite angles.

Crystallize, to form crystals ; to be converted into crystals.

Crystallography, that department of: mineralogy which investigates
the relation of crystalline forms, and the origin and structure
of crystals.

Cultivate, to bestow attention, care, and labour upon, with a view
to valuable return.

Cultivation, the act of tilling and preparing the soil for crops.

Cycle, the revolution of a certain period of time which begins again
as it finishes ; a going on in a perpetual circle.

‘
Glossary of Terms. 241

Débris, rubbish ; rock waste.

Decomposition, decay ; breaking up.

Diabase, a basic, dark-coloured, semi-crystalline igneous rock,
consisting essentially of triclinic feldspar and pyroxene with
magnetic iron.

Liclinic, having two of the inter-sections between the three axes

oblique.

Diffusion, the act or state of becoming uniformly mixed up.

Dimetric, having axes of two measures, the vertical being unequal
to the lateral.

Dimorphous, assuming two different forms of crystallization.

Diorite, hornblende greenstone.

Disintegration, the breaking up of rocks by the actions of air,
moisture, and frost, or other atmospheric influences.

Dissemination, the act of spreading or scattering about.

Dissipate, to dissolve and disappear.

Dodecahedron, a regular solid having twelve equal sides.

Dolerite, a variety of greenstone, composed of feldspar and augite.

Dolomite, a limestone consisting of carbonates of lime and magnesia.

Dominant, leading, or principal.

Drift, that which is driven by wind or water and collected in beds
or heaps.

Dunes, low hills of blown sand found on the coasts, generally in
lines at right angles to the prevailing winds.

Economy, the operations of nature in regard to animals or plants ;
thrift.

Emanate, to issue or flow from something as a source.

Embryo, the first state or beginning of anything; any germ
before it assumes a mature form.

Emigration, removal to and settling in another country.

Energy, the power of doing work ; vigorous action.

En passant, cursorily ; by the way.

Eremacausis, the slow chemical change or combustion without
apparent sensible heat, caused by the action of the oxygen of
the atmosphere on moist animal or vegetable bodies, as in
the slow decay of wood.

Evolution, the gradual descent or development of forms of life
from other pre-existing ones.

R
242 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Excreta, the dung of animals, solid and liquid.

Excrete, to discharge from the body.

Exploitation, applied to the improvement of land by cultivation,
the felling of timber, the working of mines, and the opening
up of a country, or similar undertakings.

Feldsfar, an important rock-forming mineral, consisting chiefly of
silicate of alumina along with silicates of the alkalies.

Felsite, an eruptive rock composed of feldspar and quartz.

Fermentation, a working or frothing up of any substance under
the influence of warmth, air, and moisture; an internal
effervescence caused by chemical action.

Ferruginous, impregnated (or coated) with oxide of iron.

Fibrils, miniature fibres.

Function, the office or duty of any bodily organ.

Gabbro, a rock of varied character, essentially composed of feldspar
and diallage, sometimes with serpentine and mica.

Gaseous, in the form of gas.

Germinating, sprouting.

Germs, seed embryos from which plants spring ; spores of life.

Glacier, an immense field or stream of ice, formed in the region
of perpetual snow, and moving slowly down a mountain
slope or valley over an extended arca.

Gneiss, a hard, tough, crystalline, and cleavable rock, composed
mostly of quartz, feldspar, and mica, and differing from granite
in frequently presenting a foliated appearance

Gneissoid, resembling gneiss, gneiss-like.

Granite, a well-known plutonic rock, having a granular crystalline
composition and appearance, and composed of quartz, feldspar,
mica, etc., occurring in distinct grains or crystals.

Granular, consisting of grains.

Gypsum, a hydrated sulphate of lime.

Herbaceous, having the nature of herbs; applied to any portions

of a plant, more particularly the green and succulent parts.
Hereditary, that which has been derived from an ancestor.
Hexagonal, having six angles and six sides.
Glossary of Terms. 243

Hornblende, a mineral of several varieties, so called from its horn-
like lustre.

Humus, the dark brown or black mould formed by the decay of
wood or vegetable matter.

Hydrometer, an instrument for ascertaining the density or strength
of liquids.

Hygroscopic, having a desire for water ; moisture-holding.

Igneous, resulting from the action of fire (or heat).

Incandescent, glowing white from heat.

Inorganic, not endowed with the organs of life ; not produced by
vital action.

Labradorite, a variety of feldspar having a peculiar pearly lustre
and iridescent play of colours when the light falls on it in
certain directions.

Leucite, a double silicate of alumina and potash (of peculiar
crystalline form), occurring in volcanic rocks.

Limestone, a rock mainly composed of carbonate of lime, which
when burnt yields lime.

Loam, a soil consisting of clay mixed with sand and vegetable
mould.

Magma, dregs ; a mineral paste or dough-like mass.

Maneuvre, management with skill or artful design; adroit pro-
ceeding or handy work.

Marl, a natural bed of lime and clay, in variable proportions, used
for the fertilizing of land.

Maximum, the greatest quantity, number, or degree attainable in
any case.

Medium, that by which anything is conveyed.

Metamorphose, to change the form or condition of.

Mica, a mineral consisting of a silicate of alumina with magnesia,
potash, or iron, having a glassy lustre and divisible into thin
glistening plates or scales (zcare, “to shine”).

Minimum, the least quantity or degree.

Monoclinic, having three unequal axes, two of which intersect each
other at an oblique angle, and are cut by the third at right
angles ; zc. containing but one oblique angie between the axes.
244 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

Monometric, having the axes of one length.

Mortgagee, a person to whom property or estate is mor/gaged; i.e.
given as security for debt with power of redemption within
a fixed period.

Nepheline, a double silicate of alumina and soda, occurring in
small crystals in certain igneous rocks, associated with leucite.
Nutriment, digestible food.

Obsidian, glassy lava, almost undistinguishable from artificial glass,
slag.

Octahedron, a solid contained by eight equal sides, which are
equilateral triangles.

Oligoclase, a triclinic soda-lime feldspar.

Olivine, an olive-coloured, semi-transparent mineral, consisting
of an anhydrous silicate of magnesia and iron.

Oolzte, a variety of limestone, composed of small rounded Brains
resembling the roe of a fish.

Organic, produced by or relating to living organs.

Organism, a body possessing an organic structure and endowed
with living powers.

Orthoclase, potash feldspar, straight cleaving.

Pari passu, in an equal degree or proportion.

Pathogenic, producing disease; relating to the production of
disease.

Pearlite, a glassy volcanic rock cf a greyish colour and pearly
lustre.

Pegmatite, primitive granite 7005, composed essentially of lamellar
feldspar and quartz.

Phenomena, appearances of nature, the cause of which is not
immediately obvious.

Phonolite, sounding stone.

Pisolite, pea-stone (from resemblance to peas); a carbonate of
lime slightly coloured by the oxide of iron.

Pitchstone, an impure sub-species of quartz, which in lustre and
texture resembles obsidian, or pitch.

Plateaux, high level regions.
Glossary of Terms. 245

Plumule, the point of the embryo shoot of a seed which develops
in a direction contrary to the radicle, forming the first bud of
the young plant (Fig. 35, ¢).

Polariscope, an optical instrument for experimenting on, the
polarization of light. , ,

Polarization, a peculiar condition of the rays of light or heat, in
consequence of which they exhibit changed properties in
certain directions ; polarity arrangement.

Porphyry, a very hard igneous rock, partaking of the nature of
feldspathic granite.

Precipitation, the separation of a solid from a liquid ; the process
of decomposition, by which any substance is made to separate
from another and fall to the bottom.

Protogine,a kind of primitive granite or gneiss, containing the
silvery talc mineral.

Protoplasm, the elementary basis of organized tissues.

Pumice, a light feldspathic substance, frequently ejected from
volcanoes as foam.

Putrefaction, the spontaneous decomposition of organic matter.

Quartz, a form of silica or oxidized silicon.
Quartzite, laminated quartz occurring as a rock.

Radiant energy, energy given out or transmitted by radiation, as
from the sun.

Radiated, sent forth in rays or direct lines ; arranged like rays or
radii.

Radiation, the emission or diffusion of rays of light or heat from
a luminous or heated body.

Refraction, the bending of a ray of light towards the perpendicular
when it passes into a denser medium, as from air into water ;
and away from the perpendicular when it passes into a rarer
medium, as from water into air.

Refrigerator, an arrangement for cooling liquids, or for condensing
vapours into liquids.

Respiration, the act of breathing ; inhalation and exhalation.

Rhyolite, a quartzose trachyte, an igneous rock.

Rotation of crops, the growing of crops of different kinds,
246 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

following in a certain order on the same ground year after
year.

Saline, containing salts.

Sanidine, a glassy variety of orthoclase feldspar, common in certain
eruptive rocks.

Saturate,to impregnate with, till no more can be received.

Schist, any crystalline rock having a slaty structure, and hence
admitting of ready division into slabs or slates.

Schistose, having the structure of a schist.

Section, a representation of anything as it would appear if cut
through by an intersecting plane.

Sedentary, sitting upon ; motionless ; sluggish.

Sedimentary, containing matter that has subsided.

Self-registering thermometer, a thermometer that registers the
maximum or minimum or both of temperatures occurring in
the interval of time between two consecutive settings of the
instrument.

Serpentine, a mineral or rock, consisting chiefly of the hydrous
silicate of magnesia, etc., often spotted like a serpent.

Shoot, a young branch issuing from the main stock; the young
stem and first leaves of a plant.

Shylock. In Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice, a Jew is
designated “Shylock” whose avarice overreached itself; a
grinding money-lender, corresponding to the Indian sowcar.

Species, a more or less permanent group of existing things or
beings associated by common attributes or properties, deter-
mined by scientific observation ; a sub-genus.

Speculation, a train of thoughts arising in the mind from viewing
a thing in various aspects and relations. ,

Spontaneous, acting from its own impulse or energy.

Spontaneous generation, the supposed production of the lower forms
of life without visible ancestry.

Stalactite, a mineral in tubular form, like icicles.

Stomata, minute openings in the epidermis of plants between cells
of a peculiar shape, especially in the leaves.

Stratigraphy, that branch of geology which treats of the arrange-
ment and succession of strata.

Stratum, mineral matter strewn over a surface or spread out as
a layer,
Glossary of Terms. 247

Striated, marked or impressed with thread-like lines.

Sub-crystalline, imperfectly crystallized.

Syenite, a rock consisting of hornblende and orthoclase feldspar with
quartz—the hornblende replaces the mica of ordinary granite.

Talcose, composed of talc ; talc-like.

Technical, belonging to a particular art, trade, or profession.

Thermal unit,a unit of heat; the amount of heat necessary to
raise a stated quantity of water to a given temperature.

T7l/, a deposit of clay, sand, and gravel without lamination, formed
in glacier valleys by attrition of the stones occluded in melting
glaciers.

Tilth, the fine earth prepared for crops ; zz ¢i/th, in good condition
for cultivation.

Trachye, an igneous rock, usually light grey in colour, and breaking
with a rough surface, consisting chiefly of orthoclase and
feldspar, with hornblende.

Trade winds, winds which blow in a certain steady course in mid-
latitudes, and are favourable to trade.

Transition, passage from one place or stage to another.

Transmutation, change; conversion.

Transpiration, the process of passing off water, in the form of
vapour, through the pores in the skin, or epidermis.

Transplant, to remove and plant in another place.

Trapezohedron, a solid figure bounded by twenty-four equal and
similar trapeziums.

Triclinic, having three unequal axes, all intersecting at oblique angles.

Trimetric, having the axes of three measures.

Vaforous, charged with vapour.

Vegetation, the process of growing, as observed in plants, by
means of nourishment derived from the earth, air, or water.

Viscous, having a ropy or glutinous consistency ; sticky.

Volcanic, produced by or relating to volcanoes.

Zeolites, hydrous silicates of alumina, with lime, soda, potash, or
(rarely) baryta ; hydrated feldspars.
Zoophytes, plant-like animals.
248 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture,

Index to Definitions, pp. 137-156.

(Zhe numbers refer to the paragraphs.)

 

PAR.

Achene » « 45 | Cruciate .
Acute ig | Cuneate .
Adnate 41 | Cyme
Aistivation . 26
Alternate. 14 | Deciduous
Ament 39 | Decompound
Annual. . 2 | Decurrent
Anther 31 | Decussate
Apex 47 | Dehiscent
Aquatic . 5 | Dentate .
Aril . 47 | Diadelphous
Armed 50 | Dichotomous
Ascending ‘9 | Didymous
Auricled . 18 | Didynamous .
Awn. . 19 | Digitate .
Axil . 1t | Dicecious
Axillary . 4o | Disk .

Distichous
Bell-shaped . 24 | Double flower
Berry 45 | Drupe .
Biennial . 2
Bifarious 14 | Elliptic .
Bilabiate 25 | Endocarp
Bipinnate 16 | Entire.
Bract 37 | Epicarp .
Bracteole  . 37 | Epigynous
Bulb . 8 | Epiphyte

Erect .
Calyx : : 22 | Evergreen
Campanulate : 24 | Exserted
Capsule . ; 44
Carpel . ; 33 | Falcate .
Catkin . . - 39 | Fascicle .
Cauline . . 14 | Female flower
Ciliated . 5 17 | Fibrous .
Circumsciss . 44 | Filament.
Clawed 25 | Filiform. . . . ‘
Cocci 44 | Floral leaf . ih
Compound 15 | Follicle . . . :
Connate . 41 | Funnel-shaped .
Connective . 31 | Furrowed :
Cordate . 18
Corolla .. 23 | Glabrous
Corymb . 39 | Gland . .
Creeper . 9 | Glandular
Crenate . 17 | Glaucous

36,

52
Index to Definitions. 249

PAR PAR,
Glutinous . . . . . . 52] Papille .
Gymnospermous . . . . 48 | Parasitical os 3
Pectinated. «2 « «© » «© « FY
Heart-shaped . . . . . 18] Pedicel « . . . . . . 36

Herb. . + + « « 2 | Peduncle . . . . . 36
Hermaphrodite . ee ie em nds BOLI) “Peltor pv os. 4S ae ae ae ge ES
Hilum . . - «+ « + 47 | Perennial . ota aoe Ah 92
Hypogynous Se 30 | Perfoliate . ae ED

Perianths «© «= = » 27
Imbricated . ‘ « 26 | Pericarps. « + x» - 46
Included «. . . . . « 31 | Perigynous. . . . +, ~. 30
Indehiscent. . . . . . 43 | Persistent . . . . . 22,43
Inflorescence. .- - +. 38 | Petal ee x @ 23
Involucel . . . s 37 | Petiole . . . ‘ « TF
Involucre . . .. - 37 | Phanerogamous . .. . LT
Irregular . . . «© « + 23 |] Pinne . . . ap as GY LG

Pinnate. & & a = = » a6
Laciniate . - 15 | Pinnatiid . . 2. . 2. « 15
Lanceolate . i ag a BE) Bist) se ep ee oe 29, 33
Leaflet . . : - . 5] Placenta. . s&s 35
Legume. . .- * = = @@) Plant « « a ae ee
Weimb) 4: sae ae ee RAB Bde e.g ww HE
Linear . . . . . » © 18 | Pointed. . . 2. 1. . . 1Q

lip . . «© . - + + + 25) Pollen . 2... «© + 3E
Lobe. . ie ire 8 - 15 | Polygamous. . . . «. ~ 29

Lyrate . . . : - 15 | Polypetalous . . . o -2g

Pome .. . # a) at AO
Male flower. . . . - + 29 | Procumbent . . ... Q9
Mesocarp . . . - + ~- 46] Prostrate . . . . - 9
Midrib . . . - «© «+ 13 | Pubescent . . um! SSE

Monadelphous . . . .- 32 | Pyrene . « . « - + + 46
Moneecious. . . - + + 29
Monopetalous . . - - - 23} Raceme. . «. - - + + 39
Radical . . . . ee OG
Nerve . . . .- + + + 13] Radicle . . . . s + + 47
Node ... . . - + 9 | Receptacle. . . . + + 36
Nut... . . - ~ . 45 | Regular. ©. 2. - + + + 23

Reniform. ee eS OES.
Oblique. . . - . . 18 | Reticulated. . . «. + . 13
Oblong . . . « « « 18 | Retuse 2. 2 - 2 es ee 19

Obovate. . - - . . 18 | Ribbed . . «© . . + + SI
Obtuse . . - « + + + IQ
Opposite . . . - + + 4] Sac,saccate . +» + + . 25

Oval. . . . . . + « ¥8 | Gagittate . 2 2 - 1 . 18
Ovary . . . . 34 | Salver-shaped . . OR He
Ovate . . . . . + + 8 | Samara. 2. - + + 45
Ovule . . - + + + 35 | Scape - - ee oe: 10

Scarious. . . ; 39
Palate. . oo. . . « 25 | Segment . .- 2 24
Palmate. . . - + + + 15 | Sepal - . - - . 22,27

 

Panicle . - - - + + + 39] Series - - - - < -& 428)
250

PAR
Serrate . . . : - &@I7
Sessile . Il, 31, 34
Sheathing PG) cee ae
Shrub. a 2
Silique . . - 44
Simple . . . 15, 33
Sinuate . « AZ
Solitary . . 38
Spadix . a - 39
Spathe . a - 39
Spathulate ‘ . 18
Spiker ue og, we 3s . 38
Spine. a Oa - 50
Spur, spurred . . » 25
Stamens. . . . + 29, 31
Stem-clasping . IL
Stigma . 25 Be - 34
Stipel « 2 # <¢ 3 + 20
Stipule . . . + 20
Stock . ee gs . 8
Style 34
Sub-.. 20
Subulate Sha ia eo 18
Succulent . . . . . 43
Tap-root . Sh ee er oe 8
Tendril . . 2. . 1 e650
Terminal 16, 40
Terrestrial «5
Tetradynamous . >. 32

 

Thalamus
Throat
Torus.
Tree. . .
Trichotomous
Trifoliate .
Tripinnate
Truncate “
Tube.
Tuberous .
Tubular. .
‘Twin .
Twisted .
Two-lipped .

Umbel . .
Undershrub .
Undulate

Valvate .
Verticelled .
Vesicle .
Viscid, viscous

Warty .
Wavy

Whorl
Wing.
Wrinkled

The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

14,
CHAPTER XIV.

GYMNASIUM FOR STUDENTS.

Being samples of the Bombay University School Final and
other Examinations in Agriculture.

1. Show, by a comparison of the numbers engaged in agricultural
pursuits in different countries, the importance of agriculture to
India. Is agriculture a science or an art? Explain what is under-
stood by scientific agriculture, giving illustrations,

2. Explain the significance of the term c/zmate, and give some
illustrations to show its remarkable influence on the productive
powers of the soil.

3. How are rain and dew produced? Explain the circumstances
favourable to their deposition. Give an account of the natural
Cisposal of rainfall after reaching the earth. Explain also the
effects of dew on vegetation. Can a crop grow without rain or
irrigation ?

4. Give a brief statement showing the composition of the earth’s
atmosphere, and point out the relations of its several components
to vegetation.

5. Explain the terms soz/, sub-soil, underlaying, bunched, and
sheet rock. Give sketches to illustrate your explanations. What
are the components of cu/t/vated soils, and whence derived?

6. Describe the effects of “drainage” on various kinds of soil.
What constituents of plant food are most liable to waste through
drainage? Do you recommend drainage operations as beneficial
to cultivation in India? Give satisfactory reasons for your answer.

7. Explain the application and meaning of the term manure.
What are the essentials of a general and sfecial manure respec-
tively? To what components does farmyard manure mainly owe
its fertilizing power ?

8. What is Aumus ? Explain the nature of its effects on the
252 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

growth of plants. To what kind of crops does it afford most
nutrient matter? Would you recommend a soil rich in humus and
poor in mineral matters for wheat-growing or .cotton-growing, or
both ?

g. Explain the chemical changes involved in the ripening of
the plantain and the wheat grain. What is the period of highest
nutritive value for hay and lucerne? /

10. In valuing lands for revenue purposes, what points would
you observe prior to fixing the assessment ?

11. Indicate briefly the agencies at work in the production of
soils. ,

12, Name the divisions of the stratified rocks and their sub-
divisions from lithological and chronological points of view.

13. Name some of the geological sources of mineral manures.

14. Give a sketch-map of the Bombay Presidency, showing the.
distribution of trappean rocks.

15. What arrangement of strata is necéssary for the production
of surface springs? Mention any locality with which you are
acquainted where they occur.

16. Mention some of the effects of earthquakes as regards
alteration of level. Which is the most plausible hypothesis
advanced to explain volcanic action?

17. What kinds of stratified rocks are referable to volcanic:
action.

18, Explain the distinctions between the grow?h of crystals and
the growth of plants or animals.

19. Divide the components of the atmosphere into those con-
stituents necessary for plants and those essential to animal life,
and describe the particular function of each component in each
division.

20. Compare the composition of sea, river, and well waters
with reference to the salts they contain and their probable action
on the growth of plants.

21. What is the composition of dome-ash? How is it made?
What is it used for, and how is it wasted in India? Describe how
feldspar can be broken up into soil material by the action of the’
atmosphere and of water.

22. Give some account of the circumstances which enable a soil,
to imbibe and hold increased moisture. -
Gymnasium for Students. 253

23. Give a brief account of the method adopted by the Revenue
Survey Department in classifying soils.

24. How is caustic lime made from limestone? Describe the
chemical and physical effects exercised by it when applied to a
soil. ;

25. Name some of the causes of sterility in soils.

26. What conditions influence the value of farmyard manure?

27. What elements of fertility do bones contain ?

28. Bones in a raw state wiil slowly decay in the soil. Describe
several cheap methods of making them more soluble and therefore
more effective as manure.

29. From whence is nitrate of potash (saltpetre) obtained in
India? Explain the reasons why it exists where it is usually
found.

30. What is understood by the physical properties of soils, and
in what manner do those properties affect cultivation ?

31. Explain the effects of tillage on crops.

32. Explain the terms exhaustion of sotl, drainage, farmyard
manure, artificial manure, green-crop manure, guano, poudrette,
superphosphate. :

33. Describe the action of the atmosphere and of water as
pulverizing agents in producing soil material. :

34. Name the substances of manurial value which soils derive
from the atmosphere. Explain how these exist in the atmosphere
and how they are conveyed to the soil.

35. Explain the term métrification. Name the conditions
necessary to cause it. What is xdtrogen ?

36. Give some reasons why a systematic rotation of crops is
advantageous.

37. Name the conditions on which the fertility of land in India
mainly depends.

38. Describe fully how poudrette is prepared at Poona.

39. Describe the constituent and accidental minerals of gneiss.

40. Trace the history of soil formation through all its stages.

41. Distinguish between trap, basalt, syenite, granite, gneiss,
serpentine, and dolomite, and indicate, briefly, the composition of
each rock. Define rock, mineral, fossil, crust of the earth, calcite,
clay, sand, gravel, quartz, clay-slate, mica.

42. Into what classes are rocks naturally divided? To which
254 Lhe Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

class does each of the following belong?—Basalt, sandstone,
marble, gneiss, slate, quartzite, mica-schist.

43. Explain why dung voided by a mature animal is more

‘valuable than that from a growing animal.

44. Why is it desirable to apply well-fermented manures to
sandy soil and partly fermented manure to clay soil ?

45. What are glaciers, icebergs, cafions, voches moutonnées ?

46. How do you suppose the black soil of the Deccan to have
been produced ?

47. Give the characteristics which distinguish granite from
gneiss, hornblende from augite, and gypsum from chalk.

48. What are coprolites? Explain their origin and use.

49. Give the percentage composition of important manurial
ingredients in the average specimens of good (a2) farmyard dung,
(2) rich soil, (¢) bones.

50. Describe orthoclase and albite; and distinguish between
mica and talc.

51. What do you understand by a soil being exhausted? How
does this condition arise, and how may it be remedied ?

52. Explain the use of rotation, and mention any circumstances
which may occasionally make it desirable to avoid a strict rotation.

53. Explain the uses of irrigation. 5

54. Give a list of phosphatic and nitrogenous manures, mention-
ing the sources of supply of each.

55. By what physical and other characters may calcite be
distinguished from aragonite ?

56. Explain why the value of a soil is, within certain limits,
proportionate to the size of its particles.

57. What mineral substances, that are usually scarce, are
required in all fertile soils?

58. How would you distinguish we// from z// prepared farm-
yard manure?

59. By what agencies are soils formed?

60. Why is it important that the agriculture of India should be
improved ?

61. What is the aim of the cultivator in ploughing the soil ?

62. What is the difference between the soil and the sub-soil ?

63. Explain the terms Aumus, dormant matter, and active
matter, as applied in agriculture.
Gymnasium for Students. 255

64. What measures should be taken to preserve the ammonia
of manure ?

65. Name the ash constituents that are found in most cultivated
plants.

66. Explain the terms stratified, metamorphic, and igneous, as
applied to rocks.

67. Explain fully why the black soil of the Deccan is generally
fertile. What minerals does it contain ?

68. What is the nature of gneiss? Describe its structure and
varieties.

69. How would you distinguish quartz from calcite, and
dolomite from limestone ?

zo. To what kind of rocks are clayey soils especially due? and
explain the origin of slaty cleavage.

71. Give the mineral scale of “hardness.” What is the hardness
of hzematite ?

72. What is the top-soil and the sub-soil, and what are the
differences in composition between top-soil, sub-soil, and under-
lying rock?

73. How does a crop affect the soil? Compare a forest with a
grain crop in this respect.

74. Name the principal proximate and ultimate constituents of
soils.

75. How does water affect the soil? Under what circumstances
does it do (1) good, (2) harm?

76. What good purpose does organic matter serve in the soil ?
Compare castor powder with sawdust in this respect.

77. Compare leguminous and cereal crops, especially with
regard to what they remove from and what they leave in the soil.

78. What is (1) a rotation, (2) a mixed crop? What are their
advantages over permanent crops?

79. Why is manure necessary? How did farmers manage to
grow crops without it ?

80. What was Liebig’s mineral theory of manuring, and wherein
was it somewhat wrong ?

81. Describe in outline the systems of cultivation known as
rab and kumri.

82. What do you understand by the term jive dlih? How
is that condition in a soil brought about ?
256 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.

83. Describe how caustic lime can be made from limestone
rock. What effect does caustic lime exercise on soil material?
What quantity per acre would be an ordinary application?

84. What do you understand by “ green manuring”? Describe
the process, and explain how a field is benefited by green manure.

85. Explain briefly the action of the sea as a denuding agent,
and give the composition of the following minerals: Apatite,
feldspar, calcspar, fluorspar, gypsum.

86. Describe the several varieties of granite. What are its
essential constituents? Describe its weathering.

87. What important difference exists between soils consisting
of minute particles and soils consisting of particles large enough to
be seen by the naked eye?

88. Soils contain constituents, such as silica, organic matter,
iron, soda, etc. In what proportions might those ingredients occur
in a fertile soil?

89. Explain the action of nitrate of soda as a manure.

go. What kind of manure would you recommend for the general
improvement of an exhausted soil—the exhaustion having been
brought about by the continued cultivation of cereals without
manuring ?

gi. On what principles should a rotation of crops be founded ?

92. What is the effect of “ burning” on the soil? How is the
process conducted, and to what class of soils is it adapted ?°

93. How does the process of “paring” differ from that of
“ burning,” and in what cases is paring employed with advantage?

94. How do forests act in economizing and regulating the flow
of streams ?

95. How would you perform the mechanical analysis of a soil,
and of what value would the information thus obtained be?

96. Give a brief description of the various methods adopted for
classifying soils. Why do some become poor and unproductive,
and how is this to be prevented ?

97. Give the usual classification of sedimentary rocks.

98. What are the considerations which should influence you in
selecting agricultural tools? Why is nitre valuable as manure, and
how may it be prepared ?

99. Why is lime valuable as manure?

100. Explain why soil consisting of minute particles is generally
Gymnasium for Students. 257

more fertile than rougher soils. What name is given to soil of this
nature and to the opposite condition ?

Io. What are the important constituents of manure, and why
are those constituents important ?

102. Why is the soil ploughed? What crops are found on
unploughed land ?

103. State what you know regarding the formation of soils and
the difference between sedentary and transported soils, and dis-
tinguish between drift, alluvial, and colluvial varieties.

104. What purposes does the rotation of crops serve? Give
illustrations.

105. What isthe composition of atmospheric air when drawn into
the lungs, and of the breath thrown off from the lungs of an animal?

106. Upon what does the successful fermentation of the manure
heap very largely depend ?

107. What is the distinction between those portions of the soil
capable of yielding nourishment to vegetation and those which
cannot do so?

108. Give your notions as to the value of geological knowledge
to agriculturists.

109. Explain the modes of action of all the known agencies
engaged in the production of soils from rocks.

110. What kinds of rock usually yield good soils? Give the
composition of the natural varieties of clay, and indicate their modes
of production.

111. Give the physical characters and mineral composition of
the following rocks and minerals: Basalt, hornblende, trap,
quartzite, and laterite. Mention the localities in which they are to
be found in the Bombay Presidency.

112. Give precise explanations of the geological terms, a,
strike, fault, fossil, outcrop, formation, stratification, and foliation.

113. State what you know regarding the food of plants.

114. Describe botanically any three fruits you have examined.
Name the plants either in English or vernacular.

115. State what you know regarding starch and sugar in
reference to their formation by plants.

116. What is the living part of the plant, what are its character-
istics, and where is it found?

117. Seeds and fruits are provided with various means for

s
258 The Foundations of Scientific Agriculture.
aiding their dispersion. Describe any three such aids, with local
examples.

118. Describe the two great organic laws of heredity and
adaptation, and give suitable illustrations.

119. Describe, in detail, the general architecture of the plant,
and point out the distinctions between herbs, shrubs, and trees.

120. Give a succinct account of the system of classification
adopted by botanists in which plants are divided into classes,
orders, genera, spectes, and varieties, and give at least two examples
under each division.

121. Explain the modes by which plants obtain their food
material, giving a detailed list of the inorganic and organic sub-
stances which are usually recognized as plant food.

122. Explain and illustrate the functions resfzration and

sstmilation as applicable to plants.

123. What is understood by the term /ruz¢ in botany? Describe
the fruit of the potato and of the pea, giving sketches in illustration.

124. What is the great chemical distinction between an animal
and a plant? Illustrate your answer.

125. Describe the life-history of the bamboo. To what natural
order does it belong? Give a description of its seed.

126. What are aphides, raphides, saprophytes, lithophytes, and
tendrils ?

127. Explain why garden soils are so far superior to field (or
farm) soils for the cultivation of vegetables and foliage plants.

128. Give the percentage composition of the milk of well-fed
Indian cattle.

129. How may the quantity of hay in a farmyard of haystacks
be estimated ?
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APPENDIX B.

AN INTERESTING AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT.

OF the two explanations as to the meaning of the word “ dirt”
—the scientist’s, that it is ‘‘matter out of place,” and the sharp
child’s, that it is “mud with the wet squeezed out ”—the former is
about to receive a practical exemplification, as far as Bombay is
concerned, in the proposed utilization of the city sweepings for the
manufacture of artificial manure. The invention is the idea of
Professor S. Cooke, of the College of Science, Poona, who has
secured a patent for his system. I have had an opportunity of
inspecting the article, which is put up in large or small blocks as
desired. It is a grey porous substance, somewhat resembling
pumice-stone, but is much more friable ; in fact, one of its inventor’s
claims is that it can be very easily reduced to powder, and drilled
into the ground with seed at the time of sowing. Professor Cooke
has a convincing proof of the efficacy of his invention in his
garden. Five plots of ground of equal area have been planted
with the same quantity of zachnee. The first plot has been left
unmanured, with the result that the weeds have decidedly the
upper hand. Plot 2 was dressed with wood ashes, the result not
being very satisfactory. Plot 3 was fertilized by the ordinary
process of vad, two experienced hill-men coming especially to do
the work. The result of this treatment of the soil was an average
crop, such as may be seen on the ordinary Hill Farm. Plot 4 was
worked with partially burnt horse manure, the result being that
too much heat was generated, which destroyed part of the seed,
leaving what did come up very good. However, plot 5 was the
patent fertilizer drilled in with the seed, and the result is simply
astonishing. Whereas the average height of the plants on the
other beds was about fourteen inches, and the colour of the stems
Appendix B. 263

varying from light to medium green, the stems and leaves in this
plot were of the darkest and richest green and of a height of about
two feet, with magnificent heads of seed. As far as can be judged
from an experimental growth under favourable conditions, the
result is most conclusive, and there should be, if not “millions,”
at least “ thousands” in the invention. As regards the manufacture
on a large scale of this fertilizer, it is to be encouraged irrespective
of its agricultural aspect, because it furnishes a means of solving
what is becoming daily a most serious problem, namely, the
disposal of street sweepings, which in large cities, and even in
small towns in hot climates, necessitates much thought and care
to render the operation of removal harmless and unnoticeable, a
result not yet obtained in Bombay, where the Municipality have
to grapple with the serious problem of removing the enormous
quantity of nearly 4oo tons daily. Eight hundred cubic yards of
refuse are daily carted from Bombay, and the question is coming
prominently forward, ‘What are we going to do with it?” At
this moment Professor Cooke comes to the front and proposes
that a company be formed to take over the entire sweepings and
convert them into a useful and powerful agent for good. The
company, if formed, would thus stand in that rare but enviable
position of public benefactors, while at the same time having the
monopoly of a very money-making speculation. The method of
manufacture and the results of the experimental crops have been
seen by most of the principal Revenue and Forest officials, and
both the simplicity of the former operation and the results of the
latter have drawn forth the unqualified approval of the many
experienced gentlemen who have visited the scene of operations.

As a proof of the commercial success of an undertaking of this
kind, it is known that the sweepings of Manchester, Birmingham,
and other towns in England were readily disposed of at prices
varying from £4 to £6 a ton. Chemical manure is exported in
enormous quantities from Liverpool. . . . . Taking into con-
sideration the cheapness of the raw materials here, a company
should make a large profit at Rs.20 per ton; and, above all, it
would be a great blessing to Bombay to have the mass of refuse
innocently converted into a harmless inodorous compound instead
of being a source of danger and unpleasantness to every one.—
Correspondent, Times of India, Oct., 1885.
264 Appendix B.

SANITARY DEPARTMENT.
No. 3946B of 1885.

From THE SANITARY COMMISSIONER FOR THE GOVERNMENT
OF BoMBAY Zo PROFESSOR S. COOKE, M.A., etc.

Bombay, December 14, 1885.
SiR,

Referring to your letter of 12th inst., I have the honour to
state that, in my opinion, a scheme that would convert the Bombay
sweepings into artificial manure, similar to the sample you were so
good as to forward to me, would prove highly beneficial from a

Sanitary point of view.

2. I should also think that, considering the great necessity that
exists for introducing a substitute for vad so as to prevent the
destruction of forests, the manure ought to be a success in an
economical respect, in which case your name will descend to
posterity as that of a public benefactor.

1 have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
C. W. MacRury,
Sanitary Commissioner.
APPENDIX C.
THE EDUCATIONAL USES OF FAMINE.

“* Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.”

To those who admit the theory of authority, there is only one
authority higher than that of Shakespeare. And, as famine is a
form of adversity, it may not be unprofitable to inquire what sort
of jewels this toad, famine, may wear in its head

The usefulness of so-called evil things is one of many problems
which philosophers must consider, but it is not one of the most
difficult. For it is easy to see that without evil there can be no
good. Who can truly enjoy health who has never known sick-
ness? or food, who has never hungered? and of other good
things in like manner. The empiric creator who would banish
all evil things from the world might find that it was left in a
very negative and discontented condition.

Although, however, very few people will be found to deny the
truth of this statement as an abstract proposition, the efforts of
nearly all human beings are devoted to a struggle against what
are called evil things in the concrete—death, sickness, hunger.
Against them are arranged many of the forces of nature, and the
human race goes like an army gaining small successes at an
infinite cost of life. Such successes as are gained are usually
gained by a better knowledge of the conditions under which the
contest is carried on. The trouble is that in an army there are
generals and officers who control the masses, but the progress of
the human race as a whole cannot be controlled by the advanced
thinkers. It is the masses who must be educated. And how
can they be?
266 Appendix C.

It is not here proposed to discuss any general scheme for the
education of the masses, but to consider, in the light of the fore-
going remarks, the system laid down in the Famine Code for
enabling the people of this country to provide against future
famines. The reason why famines occur in India is sufficiently
well known. The ground is, in ordinary years, exceedingly fertile,
and is fertile without any very hard labour on the part of the
cultivator. The cultivator is, therefore, only rarely troubled by
anxiety as to the future. He goes on reproducing his kind in
the seldom disappointed hope that he and his offspring will be
provided for. These people might truly say of themselves, if they
knew Latin—

‘*Nos numerus sumus et fruges consumere nati,”

the English of which is, “We are a population and born to
consume food-grains.” This at least seems to be what they exist
for—to be counted at censuses and to consume food-grains.
What we call higher things, moral advancement, even material
progress, rarely exist for them. Any one who wished to criticize
the existing order of things might very well ask, What is the
use of them?

But there are years—and this seems to be one of them—in
which the produce of the soil is not sufficient to support those who
expect to find sustenance from it. And then what is to happen?
The nations of the Western world who have to deal with a less
fertile soil have decided that they must keep a certain reserve on
which they may draw in such eventualities. Those who live in
this Orient clime scarcely think of such prudence. The conse-
quence is that when the crops on which they depend fail, they
have very little to eat. They have, indeed, more than is generally
supposed in the shape of roots and fruits and aquatic plants and
the leaves of trees. Some people consider it a very terrible thing
that such things should have to be eaten. Others may think the
people, improvident as they are, very lucky to have anything at
all. It is certain, however, that these populations, if left to them-
selves, would very many of them die from too little or no nutrition.
This is the law of nature, that those who have not provided for
the future shall die of famine.

And here man steps in and says that they shall not die of
famine. And the race endeavours, by money collected all the
Appendix C. 267

world over, to keep these members of it alive. But it is not
enough to keep them alive; they must be taught or educated
how to avoid such a calamity in future. The way in which
the Government are endeavouring so to educate the people is
very interesting. Political economists teach the necessity for a
margin over a bare subsistence, and to this end they point out
how beneficial it is that the standard of comfort should be raised.
The chief benefit is that of self-control in the matter of reproduc-
tion, which has now been carried so far in France that bachelors
have been taxed to prevent the population from diminishing
From such self-control our Indian friends and fellow-subjects are
very far away.

It appears, however, that the Famine Code has been devised to
raise the standard of comfort among the people so far as their
dietary at least is concerned. Clothing, perhaps, is a less necessary
matter.

The full ration prescribed in the Code as sufficient to maintain
able-bodied labourers in health and strength is for a man—

Ib. ozs.
Flour of the common grain used in the country or cleaned
Tice ... bs 1 8
Pulse, z.¢. dal ... Oo 4
Salt o 4
Ghee or oil i o 1
Condiments and vegetables ... o 1

Oil, it is said, is to be preferred to ghee as cheaper, and the
local authorities are to determine the proportion of condiments to
vegetables. A pound, it may be said, is not a pound avoirdupois,
but half of an Indian seer, or 135 of a pound avoirdupois.

The minimum ration for labourers is-—

Ib. ozs.
Flour or cleaned rice ... Io
Pulse Oo 2
Salt o 4+
Ghee or oil o 4+
oF

Condiments and vegetables ...
When a labourer refuses to work, he is to be sent to a poor-

house and to receive 14 ozs. of the coarsest flour or rice, only
1 oz. of pulse, and 4 oz. of salt, and no condiments. Lower rates
268 Appendix C.

are provided for women and children, but these need not be
quoted for present purposes.

Any one who is acquainted with the way in which the classes
to be employed on relief works actually live, will at once see
what a superior standard is here provided. As those who were
alive in the famine of 1874 described the state of things then,
“those who had never seen rice before had it twice a day, and
those who used to eat rice had it larger and better than before.”
It may safely be said that most of the people would think them-
selves very well off if they received at this season in an ordinary
year the minimum or even the poor-house ration stated above.
In fact, it is reported that many of them now prefer to receive
such reduced rations and to sit idle than to work for the higher
rate.—Correspondent * Pioneer.”

Notwithstanding all, we feel disposed to conclude with a suit-
able epitaph to an honest labourer :—

‘* Fear no more the heat of the sun,
Nor the furious winter rages ;
Thou thy worldly task hast done,
Home art gone, and ta’en thy wages.”

 

 

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